Crabb's English synonymes

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LIBRARY Efi:

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CW-li

SMC DIEGO

Xossible, you should be succeeded by one even more wicked." The exaggeration conveyed by these expressions has given rise to their abuse in vulgar discourse, where they are

also revoke it, if he see reason so to do. Any one who can bind himself or others, by any deed or instru- often employed indifferently to serve ment, may annul or render this null the humor of the speaker. ABOMINATE. See Abhor. and void, provided it be done for a ABORIGINAL. See First. reasonable cause, and in the proper ABORTION. See F.\ilure. manner. As cancelling serves to blot ABOVE, Over, Upon, Beyond. out or obUterate what has been written, it may be applied to what is blotted When an object is (dtove another, it out of the memoir. It is a voluntary exceeds it in height; when it is over resignation of right or demand which another, it extends along its superior surface; when it is wpon another, it one person has upon another. ABOMINABLE, Detestable, Exe- comes in contact with its superior surcrable. The primitive idea of these face; when it is beyond another, it hea terms, agreeable to their derivation (for at a greater distance. Trees frequentwhich see abominate, malediction, ly grow above a wall, and sometimes the and detest), is that of badness in the branches hang over the wail, or rest highest degree conveying by themselves upon it, but they seldom stretch much the strongest signification, and excluding beyond it. ;

ABRIDGE

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(

In the figurative sense, the first is ted for young persons to commit to mostly employed to convey the idea memory on commencing the study of There is perhaps not a of superiority; the second, of authority; any science. the third, of immediate influence; and better epitome than that of the Univerthe fourth, of extent. Every one should sal History by Bossuet, nor a better be above falsehood, but particularly digest than that of the laws made by those who are set over others, who may order of Justinian. Systematic writers have an influence on their minds be- give occasional summaries of what they have been treating upon. It is necesyond all calculation. ABRIDGE, Abbreviate, Curtail, sary to make abstracts of deeds or judiContract. Abridge, in French abreger, cial proceedings. Epitome and abstract Latin abbreviare, is comj>ounded of the are taken for other objects, which conintensive syllabh ab and breviare, from tain within a small compass the essence brevis, short, signifying to make short. of a thing. Abridge and abbreviate, by derivation, ABROAD. See Out. have therefore exactly the same meanABROGATE. See Abolish. ing, though they are used in different ABRUPT, Rugged, Rough. Abconnections. We abbreviate a word; we rupt, in Latin abruptus, participle of abridge a book. Curtail, in French abrumpere, to break off, signifies the court, short, and iaiUer, to cut, sig- state of being broken off. Rugged nifies to diminish in length by cut- is a Scandinavian word signifying ting. Contract, in Latin contractus, par- hairy, hence unshaven, rough. Rough, ticiple of contraho, is compounded of from Anglo-Saxon ruh, hairy, rough, con and traho, signifying to draw close had the same meaning and developtogether. ment. These words mark different degrees By abridging, in the figurative as well as the Uteral sense, the quantity is di- of unevenness. What is abrupt has minished; by curtailing, the measure greater cavities and protuberances than or number is reduced; by contracting, what is rugged; what is rugged has the compass is reduced. Privileges greater irregularities than what is are abridged, pleasiu-es curtailed, and rou^h. In the natural sense abrupt is powers contracted. It is ungenerous to opposed to what is unbroken, rugged abridge the hberty of any one, or cur- to what is even, and rough to what is tail him of his advantages, while he smooth. A precipice is abrupt, a path makes no improper use of them; is rugged, a plank is rough. The abruptotherwise it is advisable, in order to ness of a body is generally occasioned contract his means of doing mischief. by a violent concussion and separaSee also Deprive. tion of its parts; ruggedness arises from Abridgment, Compendium, Epitome, natural, but less violent, causes; roughDigest, Summary, Abstract. The first ness is mostly a natural property, alfour terms are apphed to a distinct though sometimes produced by fricwork, the two latter to parts of a work. tion. An abridgment is the reduction of In the figurative or extended applia work into a smaller compass. A com- cation, the distinction is equally clear. pendium is a general and concise view Words and manners are abrupt when of any science, as geography or astrono- they are sudden and unconnected; the my. An epitome is a compressed view temper is rugged which is exposed to of all the substantial parts of a thing, frequent ebullitions of angry humor; or, in other words, the whole of any actions are rou^h when performed with matter brought into a smaU compass. violence and incaution. An abrupt beA digest is any materials digested in havior is the consequence of an agiorder. A summary comprehends the tated mind; a rugged disposition is heads and subdivisions of a work. An inherent in the character; a rou{)h deabstract includes a brief but compre- portment arises from an undiscipUned hensive view of any particular proceed- state of feeUng. An habitual steadiing. Abridgments often surpass the ness and coolness of reflection is best originals in values when they are made fitted to prevent or correct any abruptwith judgment. Compendiums are fit- ness of manner; a cultivation of the

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ABSOLUTE Christian temper cannot fail of smoothing down all ruggedness of humor; an intercourse with polished society wiU inevitably refine down all roughness of behavior.

See also Sudden.

ABSCOND, Steal Away, Secrete One's Self. Abscond, in Latin abscondo, is compounded of abs and condo, signifying to hide from the view, which is the original meaning of the other words; to abscond is to remove one's self for

the sake of not being discovered

by those with whom we are acquainted. To steal away is to get away so

11

present. Abstract may in poetry be used in the sense of abstracted. Absent and abstracted denote an exclusion of present objects; diverted and distracted, a misappUed attention to present objects, or to such objects as do not demand attention. An absent man never has his body and mind in the same place; the abstracted man is lost in thinking; a man who is easily diverted seeks to take an interest in every passing object; a distracted man is unable to think properly of anything: it may be good to be sometimes diverted. It is bad at any time to be distracted, particularly when it arises from passion.

as to elude observation. To secrete one's self is to get into a place of secrecy without being perceived. Dishonest ABSOLUTE, Despotic, Arbitrary, men abscond, thieves steal away when Tyrannical. Absolute, in Latin ab-

they dread detection, and fugitives

Those who

soluttu^,

participle of absolvo, signifies

absolved or set at hberty from all rewin have frequent occasion to steal straint as it regards persons; unconaway, and stiU more frequent occasion ditional, unhmited, as it regards things. to secrete themselves. Despotic, from despot, in Greek SeaTroTtig, ABSENT, Abstracted, Abstract, a master or lord (the same root appears Diverted, Distracted. Absent, in in the word potent), imphes being like French absent, Latin absens, comes a lord, imcontrolled. Arbitrary, in from ab, from, and sum, to be, signify- French arbitraire, from the Latin aring away or at a distance from all ob- bitror, act as an umpire, decide, imphes Abstracted, or abstract, in French indep)endence of judgment and will. jects. abstrait, Latin abstracivs, participle of Tyrannical signifies being hke a tyrant. abstraho, or abs, from, and traho, to Absolute power is indef)endent of and draw, signifies drawn or separated superior to all other power: an absolute from all objects. Diverted, in French monarch is uncontrolled not only by divert'^, Latin diverto, compoimded of men, but things; he is above all law dis, asunder, and vertere, to turn, signi- except what emanates from himself. fies turned aside from the object that is When this absolute povror is assigned Distracted, of course, imphes to any one according to the constitu§resent. rawn asunder by different objects. tion of a government, it is despotic. A want of proper attention is im- Despotic power is therefore something plied in all these terms, but in different less than absoluie power; a prince is d^rees and under different circum- absolute of himself; he is despotic by In the early stances. Absence of mind is either a the consent of others. state or a habit; a man may be ages of society monarchs were absolute, occasionally absent. Or a man may and among the Eastern nations they contract an habitual absence, either still retain the absolute form of 'governfrom profound study, or from any ment, though much limited by estabother less commendable cause. Ab- lished usage. In the more civilized straction denotes a state, and, for the stages of society the power of despots most part, a temporary state. has been considerably restricted by The term absent simply implies not prescribed laws, in so much that de*present with one's mind, not observant potism is now classed among the regular of present objects, but it does not neces- forms of goverament. Absolute is a term of a general apvsarily imply thinking of anything; a man man be absent who is thinking of phcation in the sense of cAsolved or freed from all control or Umit; in this nothing. Abstra^Ued, on the other hand, de- sense God is said to be absolute. Somenotes deep thought of something not times it is appUed either to the powa secrete themselves.

cS>scond

ABSOLUTION

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or to the exercise of power, as absoliUe rule or dominion; despotic is likewise applied to the exercise of the power as well as the power itself, as despotic sway; arbitrary and tyrannical are used only in this last appUcation: the latter is always taken in a bad sense, the former sometimes in an indifferent sense. With arbitrariness is associated the idea of caprice and selfishness. With tyranny is associated the idea of oppression and injustice. Among the Greeks the word Tvpavvog, a tyrant, impUed no more than what we now understand by despot, or, more

acquitted or

properly, one who gained the supreme power in a republic; but from the natural abuse of such power, it has ac-

estate.

itself

charge,

and

pronounced quit of every cleared from every impu-

tation.

ABSORB, Swallow Engross, Imbibe.

Up,

Ingulf,

Absorb, French ab-

Latin absorbeo, is compounded of ab and sorbeo, to sup up, in distinction from swallow up the former denoting a gradual consumption; the latter, a sudden envelopment of the whole object. The excessive heat of the sun absorbs all the nutritious fluids of bodies, sorber,

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animal and vegetable. The gamingtable is a vortex in which the principle of every man is swallowed up with his Ingulf,

compounded

of in

and

gulf, signifies to be enclosed in a great gulf, which is a strong figurative repre-

quired the sigmification now attached sentation for being swallowed up. As it to it, namely, of exercising power to apphes to grand and sublime objects, the injury of another. If absolute pow- it is used only in the higher style. er come into the hands of any one man Engross, which is compounded of or body of men, it is fair to expect that the French words en gros, whole, sigit will be used arbitrarily. In despotic nifies to purchase wholesale, so as to governments the tyrannical proceed- swallow up the profits of others. In ings of the subordinate officers are the moral apphcation therefore it is often more intolerable than those of very analogous to absorb. The mind the prince. is absorbed in the contemplation of any ABSOLUTION. See Forgive. subject when aU its powers are so ABSOLVE, Acquit. Absolve, in bent upon it as not to admit distracLatin absolvo, is compounded of ab, tion. The mind is engrossed by any from, and solvere, to loose, signifying to subject when the thoughts of it force loose from that with which one is themselves upon its contemplation to bound. Acquit, in French acquilter, is the exclusion of others which should compounded of the intensive syllable engage the attention. a^ or ad, and qiiit, quitter, from Latin Absorb conveys the idea not only of quietus, quiet, signifying to make easy taking from something, but also of takby the removal of a charge. ing to itseK; engross conveys the idea These terms imply the setting free of taking to itself, to the exclusion of from guilt or its consequences. Absolv- others; a certain subject absorbs the ing may sometimes be appUed to of- faculties, and, metaphorically, the roots fences against the laws of man, but of plants absorb moisture; a person enmore frequently to offences against grosses the conversation so that others God; acquitting applies solely to of- cannot take part in it. fences against man. The conscience is Absorb, and imbibe, from in and bibo, released by absolution; the body, goods, to drink, both imply the taking in by or reputation are set free by an ac- a gradual process; but the former inquitted. cludes the idea of being taken in so See also Forgive. as to be lost, the latter that of being Absolve, Acquit, Clear. Absolve in taken in so as to form a part of that So in the imthis case, as distinguished from the by which it is received. former article, is extended to all mat- proper appUcation, an idea absorbs the ters affecting the conscience generally. mind, and the mind imbibes the idea. Acquit and clear, in the sense of makSee also Monopolize. ing clear or free from, are' appUed to ABSORBABLE. See Assimilable. ABSTAIN, Forbear, Refrain. everything which may call for blame, or the imputation of what is not right. Abstain, in French abstenir, Latin abperson may be absolved from his oath. siineo, is compounded of ab or abs, from.

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A

ABSTRACT and tenere, to keep, signifying to keep Forbear is one's self from a thing. compounded of the prepxasition for, or from, and the verb to bear or carry, signifying to carry or take one's self from a thing. Refrain, in French refrener, Latin refrceno, is

compovmded

of

13

from which we abstain; fast is abstinence, namely, an abstaining from food. The general term is Ukewise used in the particular sense, to imply a partial abstinence from particular food; but fast signifies an abstinence from food altogether. ject

a species of

Abstinent respects everything that back, and frcenum, a bridle, signifying to keep back as it were by a bridle, acts on the senses, and in a limited sense apphes particularly to soUd food. to bridle in. AU these terms imply the omission Sober, from the Latin sobritis, comto do anything, but vary in the circum- poimded of so or se, expressing separastances and in the motives for the tion (cf. se in separation) and ebrius, omission. To abstain is the general drunk, impUes an abstinence from exterm, to forbear and refrain are partic- cessive drinking. Abstemious, from Abstaining the Latin ahstemius, compoimded of ular modes of abstaining. is an act that may require no self-denial, abs and tenietum, wine, implies the abnor oppose any incUnation; forbearing staining from wine or strong hquor in and refraining both imply a certain general. Temperate, in Latin temperadegree of opposition to the will or tiis, participle of tempero, to moderate inclination, the latter much more than or regulate, imphes a well-regulated the former. We abstain from doing abstinence in all manner of sensual indifferent things from motives of con- indulgence. The first of the last four terms is venience, as -to abstain from speaking upon a particular subject, or we ab- generic, the rest specific. We may be stain from important matters from a abstinent without being sober, sober sense of duty, as "to abstain from the without being abstemious, and aU toappearance of evil." forbear from gether without being temperate. An prudence or duty to do that which we abstinent man does not eat or drink as have motives for doing; as we for- much as he could enjoy; a sober man bear to do an injury though in retiuTi may drink much without being affectfor an injur>'. We refrain, from the ed; an abstemiov^

words or otherwise; that of address is to direct one's words to the individual, which may either be personally or by writing. Accosting is an act of familiarity not warranted by anything but an intimate acquaintance, or for purposes of business; saluting is an act of courtesy between friends which cannot be dispensed with; addressing is a nia,trter of convenience or discretion. Greet, Anglo-Saxon gretan, to visit or address, impUes a verbal and friendly salute between equals, conveying a good and kind wish. Hail, from heal and health, denotes a wish for the health and long life of the person ad-

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;

;

We

;

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ACCOUNTABLE

a description does not so much ments. In some cases, where great reembrace occurrences as local circum- sults may flow from trifling causes, the stances, properties, and characteristics; greatest precision becomes requisite; we may, however, be too precise when' it is either correct or otherwise. ACCOUNTABLE, See Answer- we dwell on vuiimportant particulars or adhere too tenaciously to forms and able. ACCUMULATE. See Absorb; Ac- modes, but we never can be too ci^cu/quire; Collect; Gain; Gather; rate or exact; hence the epithet precise is Heap. sometimes taken for affectedly exact. ACCURATE, Exact, Precise. Ac- A man may be precise in his dress who curate, in French accurate, Latin accura- is not remarkable either for accuracy or

tious;

tus, participle of accuro, compounded of exactness in his general conduct. A the intensive ad and curare, to take time or a period is said to be exact, an care of, signifies done with great care. hour, a moment, or instant, precise; an Exact, in French exacte, Latin exactus, expression accurate; the meaning of a

participle of exigere, to finish or complete, denotes the quaUty of completeness, the absence of defect. Precise, in French precis, Latin prcedsus, participle of praeciAere, to cut by rule after the manner of carpenters, signifies the quaUty of doing by rule. Accurate refers to the care bestowed

word

precise.

ACCUSATION. See Complaint. ACCUSE, Charge, Impeach, Ar-

Accuse, in Latin accuro, comof ad and causa, a cause or trial, signifies to bring to trial. Charge, hke cargo, is derived from Low Latin carrico, to load a car (Latin carrv^). upon any matter to make it what it Impeach, in French empecher, to hinder ought to be; exact and precise simply or disturb, compounded of in and denote the quahty of the thing, the pes, the foot, signifies to entangle the former implying completeness, the lat- feet in anything. Arraign, Old French ter nicety as to the manner of executing aranier, areisnicr, from Latin ad and anything. From this difference in their ratio, reason, meant to reason against, meaning arises a difference in their ap- to bring a formal charge against anplication; a painting, on examination other. or on observation, is more properly The idea of asserting something to said to be accurate; a model, figure, or the prejudice of another is common to measure, to be exact; a line, a rule, or these terms; but accuse is said of acts, charge of moral quaUties constituting a form, to be precise. These epithets rise in sense upon each the character: we accuse a person of other, eooact signifying more than accu- murder; we charge him with dishonAccuse is properly a formal acrate, and precise a greater degree of mi- esty. nuteness than either. With this distinc- tion; cJmrge is an informal action: tion they may be applied to the same or criminals' are accused, and their accusasimilar objects: a description or view tion is proved in a court of judicature to may be accurate and exact, but in the be true or false; any person may be former case it is only just as far as it charged, and the charge may be either goes, in the latter it is fuller of partic- substantiated or refuted in the judgment of a third person. ulars and details. Impeach and arraign are both species In denoting moral quaUties or habits, accuracy may be appUed to whatever of accusing; the former in application men attempt to do; exactness to mat- to statesmen and state concerns, the ters of economy, prudence, and duty; latter in regard to the general conduct precision, in regard to manners, modes, or principles; with this difference, that and forms. Accuracy is indispensable he who impeaches only asserts the guilt, in either business or science, but partic- but does not determine it; but those ularly in commercial and legal transac- who arraign also take upon themselves tions; exactness is requisite in the pay- to decide: statesmen are impeached for ment of debts and the observance of misdemeanors in the administration of kings arraign governors all obhgations. Some men may be very government: accurate in their particular fine who are of provinces and subordinate princes, not very exact in fulfilling their engage- and in this manner kings are sometimes

raign.

pounded

ACQUAINTANCE

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arraigned before mock tribunals: our fess mostly in such matters as are crimSaviour was arraigned before Pilate; inal or in a high degree culpable. and creatures in the madness of pre- person acknowledges that he was present, or ovms that he assisted another, sumption arraign their Creator. Accuse, Censure. Accuse, see above. he confesses a theft, or confesses his Censure, in French censure, in Latin guilt, or a sinner confesses his sins. To censura, is derived from censor, a Ro- acknowledge and own, when appUed to man magistrate who took cognizance culpable matters, may either have reof the morals and manners of the citi- spect to particular transactions or genzens, as also of the domestic arrange- eral characteristics, as to acknowledge or ments of the city. It signifies not only own the fact, to cu:knowledge or oum the office of censor, but, in an extended one's weakness, fallibility, incapacity, sense, the act of blaming or punish- etc. to confess is mostly said of particing offenders against morahty, which ular transactions, as to confess the formed a prominent feature in his crime laid to one's charge. To acknowl-

A

—

;

edge,

office.

To accuse is only to assert that which prejudicial to another; to censure is to take the fault for granted. We cu>cuse only to make known the offence, to p?ovoke inquiry; we censure in order to inflict a punishment. An accusation may be false or true; a censure mild or severe. It is extremely wrong to accuse another without sufficient grounds; but still worse to censure him without the most substantial grounds. Every one is at hberty to accuse another of offences which he knows him for a certainty to have committed; but none can censure who are not authorized by their age or is

station.

ACHIEVE.

See Accomplish. See Deed.

ACHIEVEMENT. ACKNOWLEDGE,

fess, Avow. The first compounded of a and

Own,

Ovm

is

of these terms,

a famiUar

figure, sig-

nifying to take to one's self, to make one's own; it is a common substitute for confess. Confess, in French confesser, Latin confessus, participle of confiteor, comp>ounded of con, together, and fateor, I speak, signifies to impart to any one. Avow, in French avouer, Latin advoveo, signifies to vow or protest to anyone. These words all denote the making known to others what relates to one's self, or that in which one has taken a part; ackyioivledge is used in this general sense in a diversity of applications; the other terms are partially employed, and with various modifications their meaning. Acknowledge and own are employed either in matters of indifference or those which are blameworthy; con-

m

may

be

by words or actions, or tacitly without any outward expression; confessing, on the other hand, being mostly called for in consequence of an interrogatory or the necessities of the

party, must always be by express words. To acknowledge and oum also signify to admit that a thing belongs to one, but the former denotes only a general relationship, the latter a special owner-

with this distinction we may speak of acknowledging or owning a son; but we may Ukewise acknowledge many things which we cannot properly own, as to acknowledge a woman as one's wife, or any particular person as a ship;

prince, or

any particular

state as inde-

Con- pendent.

knowledge, imEUes to bring to knowledge, to make

nown.

being a voluntary act,

either

To

acknowledge, own, and confess are used in the sense of expressing one's mind or what passes in one's mind, in which appUcation they are comparable with avow. In this case to acknmoledge is most properly appUed to matters of opinion, own to matters of feehng, although they may in many such cases be indifferently employed. To acknowledge is to declare in a general manner one's assent to anything; to confess is to declare in a solemn manner one's assent to matters of faith; to avow is to declare the motives or reasons of one's actions, particularly such as might with more propriety be concealed; as to acknowledge the justness of a remark, to confess the faith, to avow one's motives, contempt, scorn, etc. See also Recognize. ACME. See Zenith. ACQUAINT. See Inform. ACQUAINTANCE. Familiarity, all

ACQUIESCE

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Acquaintance, from acquaint, is derived from the Old 'French acointer (Latin ad and cognitus, from

Intimacy.

and intimacy of a steady and thorough

the verb cognosco which is cognate with the English know and has the same meaning); it signifies being known to another. Familiarity comes from familiar, in Latin familiaris andfamilia (from famulus, a servant), signifying known as one of the household. Intimacy, from Latin intimus, innermost, signifies known to the innermost recesses of the heart. These terms mark different degrees of closeness in the social intercourse; acquxiintance expressing less than familiarity, and that less than intimacy. Acquaintance springs from occasional

In our intercourse with the world we become daily acquxiinted with fresh subjects to engage our attention. Some men have by extraordinary diligence a,cquired a considerable familiarity with more than one language and science; but few, if any, can boast of having possessed an intimate acquaintance with all the particulars of even one language or science. When we can translate the authors of any foreign language, we may claim an acquaintance with it; when we can speak or write it freely, we may be said to be familiar with it; but an intimate acquaintance comprehends a thorough critical intimacy with aU the niceties and subtleresearch.

intercourse; familiarity is produced by a daily intercourse, which wears off aU constraint and banishes all ceremony;

ties of its structure.

intimacy arises not merely from frequent intercourse, but unreserved commxmication. An acquxiintance wiU be occasionally a guest; but one that is on terms of familiarity has easy access to our table; and an iniimaie Ukewise lays claim to a share, at least, of our confidence. An acquxiintance with a person affords but Httle opportimity for knowing his character; familiarity puts us in the way of seeing his foibles, rather than his virtues; but intimacy enables us to appreciate his worth. A simple acquxiintance is the most desirable footing on which to stand with

Earn.

persons, however deserving. If it have not the pleasures of familiarity or all

intimacy,

being

"Too

can claim the privilege of

it

exempted

from their pains. ranch, familiarity," according to

the old proverb, "breeds contempt."

The unhcensed freedom which commonly attends familiarity affords but too ample scope for the indulgence of the selfish and unamiable passions. Intimacies begun in love often end in hatred, as ill-chosen friends commonly become the bitterest enemies. A man

may have

a thousand acquaintances, whom he should make his

and not one intimate.

ACQUIESCE. See Agree. ACQUIRE, Obtain, Gain, Win, Acquire, Old French acquerir,

is compounded of ad, to, quxerere, to seek, signifying to seek

Latin acquiro,

and

or get for one's

self.

Obtain, in French

obtenir, Latin obtineo, is compoimded of ob, near, and tenere, to hold, signifying

to lay hold or secure within one's reach. Gain comes from French gagne, from a Teutonic root signifying a pasture, hence something to be desired among shepherd-people, hence success, profit.

Win comes from Anglo-Saxon

vnnnan,

to fight or struggle, hence to succeed in a struggle. Earn comes from AngloSaxon eamian, aUied to German ernte, a harvest. The idea of getting is common to these terms, but the circumstances of the action vary. acquire by our own efforts; we obtain by the efforts of others as weU as ourselves; we gain or win by striving; we earn by labor. Talents and industry are requisite for acquiring; what we acquire comes gradually to us in consequence of the regular exercise of our abilities; in this manner, knowledge, honor, and reputation are acquired. Things are 06tained by aU means, honest or dishonest whatever comes into our possession agreeable to our wishes is obtained; favors and requests are always obtained. Fortime assists in both gaining and winning; but particularly in the latter

We

;

These terms may be applied to things as well as persons, in which case they bear a similar analogy. An acquxiintance with a subject is opposed to entire case; a subsistence, a superiority, a ignorance upon it; familiarity with it is victory, or battle, is gained; a game or tne consequence of frequent repetition; a prize in the lottery is won. A good

ACT constitution and full employment are all that is necessary for earning a livelihood. Fortunes are acquired after a course of years; they are obtained by inheritance, or gained in trade. What is acquired is soUd, and pro-

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the exertions employed; acquisition the benefit or gain accruing.

rather

To learn a language is an acquirement; to gain a class or a degree, an acquisition. The acquirements of literature far exceed in value the acquisitions of duces lasting benefit; what is ob- fortune. ACQUIT. See Absolve. tained may often be injurious to one's ACRIMONY, Tartness, Asperhealth, one's interest, or one's morals: what is gained or vxm is often only a ity, Harshness. These epithets are partial advantage, and transitory in figuratively employed to denote sharpits nature; it is gained or won only to ness of feeling corresponding to the be lost; what is earned serves some- quaUty in natural bodies. Acrimony, times only to supply the necessity in Latin acrimonia, from acer, sharp, of the moment; it is hardly got and is the characteristic of garlic, musquickly spent. Scholars acquire learn- tard, and pepper, that is, a biting Tartness, from tart, Angloing, obtain rewards, gain applause, sharpness. and vrin prizes, which are often Saxon teart, sharp, from teran, tear, is associated with the idea of tearing as hardly earned by the loss of health. Acquire, Attain. To acquire is a bitter is associated with that of biting. progressive and permanent action. Asperity is derived from the Latin

—

To

Latin attingo, compounded asper, a word of uncertain etymology signifying rough. Harshness is the substantive corresponding to harsh, a Scandinavian word signifying rank, unpleasant to the taste, and denotes especially the sharp, rough taste of unripe fruit. one's possession; what is attained A quick sense produces acrimony; it is the point arrived at. We acquire is too frequent among disputants, who a language; we attain to a certain embitter each other's feelings. An degree of perfection. By abilities acute sensibility, coupled with quickand perseverance we may acquire a ness of intellect, produces tartness; it is considerable fluency in speaking sev- too frequent among females. Acrieral languages; but we can scarcely mony is a transient feehng that discovexpect to aUain to the perfection ers itself by the words; tartness is an of a native in any foreign language. habitual irritability that mingles itself Ordinary powers coupled with dili- with the tone ana looks. An acrimogence will enable a person to acquire nious reply frequently gives rise to whatever is useful; but we cannot much ill-will; a tart reply is often attain to superiority without extraor- treated with indifference, as indicative dinary talents and determined per- of the natural temper, rather than of severance. Acquirements are always any vmfriendly feehng. serviceable; attainments always credAsperity and harshness respect one's itable. conduct to inferiors; the latter exAcquirement, Acquisition. Two ab- presses a strong degree of the former. stract nouns, from the same verb, de- Asperity is opposed to mildness and fornoting the thing acquired. Acquire- bearance; harshness to kindness. A ment implies the thing acquired for reproof is conveyed with asperity, when and by ourselves; acquisition, that the words and looks convey strong diswhich is acquired for the benefit of pleasure; a treatment is harsh when it one's self or another. People can wounds the feelings and does violence expect to make but slender acquire- to the affections. Mistresses somements without a considerable share of times chide their servants with asperity; industry; and without them they parents sometimes deal harshly with will be no acquisition to the com- their children. munity to which they have attached ACT, Do, Make. Act. in Latin themselves. Acquirement respects tictu^, participle of ago, Greek oyw, drive attain, in

ad and tango, touch, signifies to touch the goal, to reach the end, and represents a perfect and finished action. We always go on acquiring; but we stop when we have attained. What is acquired is something got into of

—

ACT

24

or impel, signifies literally to move or put in motion. Do, in German Ihun, like the Greek riOiifii, signifies to put or put in order, to bring to pass. Make, Anglo-Saxon macian, corresponds to German machen, and is allied to match. All these terms imply to exert a

a given form and manner: act, the general term, conveys this general idea without any further qualification; the other terms convey this idea with modifications. We always act when we do, but we do not always do when we act. To act is applied either to persons or things, as a spring or a lock acts; to do applies in this sense to persons only. To act is also mostly intransitive or reflective, as to act well or ill in this or that manner; to do is always transitive, as to do right or wrong, to do one's duty. One may either acl a part or do one's part, which are essentially different things; to act a part is either really or fictitiously to a4:t in any part; but to do our part is to do that which is allotted to us as our part or duty. To do and to make, in regard to persons, are both used in the sense of voluntarily exerting a power to bring a thing to pass; but do applies to the ordinary business of life or what is done by a given rule, as to do a work, to do justice; make applies to that which is done by a particular contrivancejor for a particular purpose, as to make a pen or a table, etc. What is done once may have been done before, and may be done again; but what is made is at once brought into existence, and, if it be made again, it can only be by imitation. To do and to make, as apphed to things, signify to cause; but the former is used only in the expressions to do good or harm, the latter is ordinarily used, to make room, to make a thing

power which

in

is

easy, etc. Act, Work, Operate. To act is to exert a simple power, or by simple means, as a wire acts. Work, Anglo-Saxon wyrcan, like the German wirken, etc., is to exert complex powers, or exert power by a gradual process. machine vxjrks, but each of its parts is said to act; so beer works, and bread works; acting may be accompanied with no particular effect or change in the body

—

A

that

a^ts,

undergoes a change and also produces changes, as medicine, which works in the system.

work

Sometimes

act as well as

taken in the sense of exerting a power upon other bodies and producing changes, as the sun acts on the plants. To work and operate both imply to act, or exert a power in order to bring about some end or purpose; but operate is applied to matters of a general nature in science or morals, as a measure operates, or words may operate on the mind, or reasons may operate on the understanding. To work is mostly applied to famiUar matters and particular objects, as the hand works, the head works, the brain works; operate is al-. is

ways intransitive. As nouns, action implies

either the act of acting or the thing done; work, the act or state of working, or what results from the work, as to go to work or be at work, the work of one's hands; operation, either to the act of operating, as the operation of thought or the operation of vegetation, or the mode of operating, as the operations of time are various. 4 See also Deal. Act, Action, Deed. The words act,

—

though derived from the preceding verbs, have an obvious distinction in their meaning. Act, in French acte, Latin actum, denotes the thing done. Action, in French action, Latin actio, signifies doing. Act ia 9, single exercise of power, as an act of the will or an act of the mind, the act of walking, speaking, and the like; action, a continued exercise of power, or a state of exercising power, as to be in action, as opposed to rest; the action of walking is agreeable in fine weather. When these words are taken in the sense of the thing done, they admit of a action,

and

deed,

similar distinction. An act is the single thing done, or what is done by a single effort, as that is your act or his act; an action may consist of more acts than one, or embrace the causes and consequences of the action, as a bold action, to judge of actions, etc.

Hence it is that the term act is more proper than action where it is so defined as to imply what is single and simple, as an act of authority, an act of government, an act of folly, and the like; but but that which loorks mostly otherwise the word action is to be pre-

ACTIVE

25

where the moral conduct or times gives great force to the words question. We may- that are uttered; gestures often supply is in enumerate particular acts of a man's the place of language between people of ferred

character

as illustrjitive of certain traits in his character, or certain circumstances in his hfe; but to speak at large of his actions would be to describe his char.. acter. Act and deed are both employed for what is done; but act refers to the life,

power exerted, and deed to the work

Actions characterize as vulgar or well-bred; gestures mark the temper of the mind. There are many actions which it is the object of education to prevent fronji growing into habits; savages express the vehement passions of the mind by vehement gestures on every occasion, even different nations.

a

man

amusements.

An

p)erformed; as a voluntary or involunact, a good or bad deed. Act is mostly employed either in an abstract or familiar appUcation; deed is

in their

for whatever men do in the business of Ufe, particularly in those things which are extraordinary. Acts are either pubUc or private, of individuals or of bodies, as ads of government, acts of Parhament; deeds are always private, or what is done by men

largely in gesticulation to mark his devotion; a buffoon who attempts to imitate the gestures of another will use gesticulation; and the monkey who apes the actions of human beings does so by means of gesticulations. Posture and attitude both imply a mode of placing the body, but the posture is either natural or assumed; the attitude is always assumed or represented: natural postures are those in which the body places itself for its own conveniences, as sitting, standing, or

tary

employed

individually. Acts are in their proper sense informal; but deeds may sometimes be formal instruments: when you speak of a thing as a man's act and deed, this is not tautology; it is his act as far as he and no one else acts in it, it is his deed as far

as or

that which accomplished.

it is

is

Action,

is

done completely

Gesture, Gestictdation, PostAction, see derivation group of words; also Battle. Gesture, Low Latin gestura, Latin gestus, participle of gero, carry, signifies the manner of carrying one's body. Gesticulation, in Latin gesticu-

—

ure, Attitude. in preceding

latio,

many

comes from

gesticuior, to

make

Posture, in French posture, Latin positura, a position, comes from positus, participle of pono, signifying the manner of placing one's self. Attitude, in French attitude, Italian attitudine, is a doublet of aptitude, signifying a propriety in the disposition of one's body. All these terms are applied to the state of the body; the three former indicating a state of motion, the two latter a state of rest. Action respects the movements of the body in general; gesture is an action indicative of some particular state of mind; gesticulation IS a species of artificial gesture. Raising the arm is an action; bowing is a gest-

gestures.

Actions ures indecent.

ure.

is

extravagant

termed a

gesticur-

a sycophant, who wishes to cringe into favor with the great, deals lation;

lying postures.

A

posture,

when assumed, may be

distorted or ridiculous, to suit the humor of the party, as mountebanks put themselves into ridiculous postures; or they may be artfully contrived to improve the carriage of the body, as the postures of a dancing-master; and, in graver matters, a person may put himself in a posture of defence. An attitude is assumed in order to display some grace of the body, or some affection or purpose of the mind, as to stand in a graceful attitude, to represent any one in the attitude of prayer. These terms may be apphed to things personified, with precisely the same distinction. They may also be apphed figuratively to other objects besides the body, as an army assumes a menacing attitude, a critical posture of affairs. Aciion is the effect; Action, Agency. agency the cause. Action is inherent in the subject; agency is something ex-

—

terior; it is, in fact, putting a thing into action: in this manner the whole world is in action through the agency of

the Divine Being. ACTIVE, Diligent, Industrious, be ungraceful; gestActive, from suitable action some- Assiduous, Laborious.

may

A

or unnatural gesture

>^

ACTIVE

26

scure origin, possibly Celtic. Agile, in Latin agiXis, comes from the same verb as active, signifying a fitness, a readiness to act or move. Nimble comes from Anglo-Saxon niman (German nehimphes an attachment to an object, and men), to take, implying a capacity "to consequent attention to it. Industri- take hold," to "catch on," as we say ous, in French industrievx, Latin indtis- to-day. Compare the name Nym, in trius, from indu, for in, and struere, Henry V signifying thief. Activity respects one's transactions; to build, make, or do, signifies an inward or thorough inclination to be briskness one's sports: men are a^^iive engaged in some serious work. As- in carrying on business; children are siduous, in Latin assiduus, is com- brisk in their play. Agility refers to the poundea of ad and siduus, from sedere, fight and easy carriage of the body in to sit, signifying to sit close to a thing. springing; nimbleness to its quick and Laborious, in French lahorieux, Latin gliding movements in rimning. ropelaboriosus, from labor, signifies the in- dancer is agile; a female moves nimbly. Activity results from ardor of mind; clination to labor. We are active if we are only ready briskness from vivacity of feehng: agilto exert our powers, whether to any ity is produced by corporeal vigor and end or not; we are diligent when we habitual strong exertion; nimbleness are active for some specific end; we results from an habitual efifort to move are industrious when no time is left Ughtly. imemployed in some serious pursuit; See also Kinetic. Active, Busy, Officious. Active, same we are assiduous if we do not leave a thing imtil it is finished; we are as in the preceding groups. Busy, when bodily or signifies laborious the mental Anglo-Saxon bysig, to be acpowers are regularly employed in some tively engaged in some work. Officious, man may active in Latin hard labors be French officieux, offidosus, from without being diligent, since he may offidum, duty or service, signifies a employ himself in what is of no im- propensity to perform some service or portance; but he can scarcely be dili- office. gerU without being active, since diliActive respects the habit or disposigence supposes some degree of ac- tion of the mind; busy and offi/kous, tivity in one's application to a useful either the disposition of the mind, or object. A man may be di%e7i/ without the employment of the moment: the being industrious, for he may diligently former regards every species of employemploy himself about a particular fa- ment; the latter only particular kinds vorite object without employing him- of employment. An active person is self constantly in the same way and he ever ready to be employed; a person is may be industrious without being dili- busy when he is actually employed in gent, since diligence implies a free exer- any object; he is offixnous when he is cise of the mental as well as corporeal employed for others. Active is always powers; but industry apphes princi- taken in a good, or at least an indifferpally to manual labor. Activity and ent sense; it is opposed to lazy: busy, diligence are, therefore, commonly the as it respects occupation, is mostly in a property of lively or strong minds, but good sense; it is opposed to being at industry may be associated with mod- leisure; as it respects disposition, it is erate talents. A man may be diligent always in a bad sense; offi/yious is selwithout being assiduous; but he can- dom taken in a good sense; it imphes not be assiduous without being diligent, being busy without discretion. To an for assiduity is a sort of persevering dil- active disposition nothing is more irkigence. A man may be industrious some than inaction; but it is not conwithout being laborious, but not vice cerned to inquire into the utihty of the versa; for laboriousness is a severer action. It is better for a person to be kind of industry. busy than quite unemployed; but a Active, Brisk, Agile, Nimble. Active, busy person wiU employ himself about see preceding group. Brisk is of ob- the concerns of others when he has

the verb to act, implies a propensity to act, to be doing something without regard to the nature of the object. Diligent, in French diligent, Latin diligens, participle of diligo, to choose or Uke,

,

A

—

A

;

—

ACUTE

27

feigned.

What is actual has proof of its existence within itself, and may be exposed to the eye; what is real may be satisfactorily proved to exist; and what is positive precludes the necessity of a proof. Actual is opposed to the supposititious, conceived or reported; real to the feigned, imaginary; positive to the uncertain, doubtful. Whatever is the condition of a thing for the time being is the actuxd condition; sorrows are real which flow from a substantial

Agent is, in the general sense, an active or acting being, one possessing and exerting the faculty of action, as a free agent, a moral agent. The agent is properly opposed to the patient in the physical world. Agent is also taken generally for whatever puts in motion. Actor, Player, Performer. The actor and player both perform on a stage; but the former is said in relation to the part that is acted, the latter to the profession that is followed. may be actors occasionally, without being players professionally, but we may be players without deserving the name of

cause; proofs are positive which leave the mind in no uncertainty. The actual state of a nation is not to be ascertained by individual instances of poverty, or the reverse; there are but few, if any, real objects of compassion among common beggars; many posilive facts have been related of the deception which they have practised. By an actual survey of human hfe, we are alone enabled to form just opinions of mankind; it is but too frequent for men to disguise their real sentiments, although it is not always possible to obtain positive evidence of their insin-

none

of his

own

sufficiently

important

to engage his attention; an officious person is as unfortunate as he is troublesome; when he strives to serve he has the misfortune to annoy.

ACTOR,

Agent.

These terms vary

according to the different senses of the

from which they are drawn. used for one who either acts a part, or who represents the actions and characters of others, whether real or verb

Actor

is

—

We

actors.

Those who personate charac-

ters for their amusement are actors, but not players; those who do the same for a livelihood are players as well as actors; hence we speak of a company of players, not actors. So, likewise, in the figurative sense, whoever acts a part real or fictitious, that is, on the stage of hfe, or the stage of a theatre, is an actor; but

cerity.

See also Objective. Impel, Induce. Actuate, from the Latin fLdum, an action, impMes to call into action. Impel, in Latin impello, is compounded of in, toward, and pellere, to drive, signifjdng

ACTUATE,

to drive toward an object. Iniu,ce, in Latin induco, is compounded of in, in, he only is a player who performs the and dxuxre, to lead, signifying to lead fictitious part; hence the former is into an object. taken in a bad or good sense, according One is actuated by motives, impelled to circumstances. by passions, and induced by reason or The player is always taken in a less inclination. Whatever actuates is the favorable sense, from the artificiahty result of reflection; it is a steady and which attaches to his profession. fixed principle: whatever impels is moPerformer signifies, in its most gen- mentary and vehement, and often preeral sense, one that performs any act or cludes reflection: whatever induces is part; but in a limited sense, one who not vehement, though often momenperforms a part in a pubUc exhibition, tary. One seldom repents of the thing whether as a singer, actor, dancer, or to which one is actuated; as the prinotherwise. ciple, whether good or bad, is not liable ACTUAL, Real, Positive. Act- to change: but we may frequently be ual, in French actuel, Latin cuUualis, impelled to measures which cause serifrom actio, a deed, signifies belonging to ous repentance: the thing to which we the thing done. Real, in French reel, are induced is seldom of suff.cient imLatin realis, from res, signifies belong- portance to call for repentance. ing to the thing as it is. Positive, in ACUTE, Keen, Shrewd, Sharp. French positif, I^atin positivxis, from Acute, in French aigu, Latin acuius, pono, place or fix, signines the state or associated with acus, a needle, signifies quality of being fixed, estabUshed. the quality of sharpness and pointed-

ACUTENESS

28

ness peculiar to a needle. Keen in from, the Greek, K(vying atmosphere of a personality created by appearance, manner, etc. Manner, Old French maniere, allied to the verb manier, to handle, from Latin manus, hand, signifies the way of handling something, hence a way of doing. Air hes in the whole person manner is confined to the action or the movement of a single hmb. A man has the air of a common person; it discovers it-

—

;

47

vation or simplicity of character: a manner is rude, rustic, or awkward, for

want

of culture,

good

society,

and good

example. We assume an air, and affect a manner. See also Appearance. Air, Mien, Look. Air (see above). Mien is a word of unknown origin, pos-

—

sibly Celtic,

adopted into EngUsh from

the French. Look signifies properly a mode of looking or appearing (for derivation see Look). The exterior of a person is comprehended in the sense of all these words. Air depends not only on the countenance, but the stature, carriage, and action mien respects the whole outward appearance, not excepting the dress: look depends altogether on the face and Air marks any settled its changes. state of the mind: mien denotes any state of the outward circumstances: look any individual movement of the mind. We may judge by a person's air that he has a confident and fearless mind; we may judge by his sorrowful mien that he has substantial cause for sorrow; and by sorrowful looks that he has some partial or temporary cause for sorrow. We talk of doing an3^hing with a particular air; of having a mien; oi giving a look. An innocent man will answer his accusers with an air of composure; a person's whole :

mien sometimes bespeaks his wretched condition; a look is sometimes given to one who acts in concert by way of intimation.

AIRCRAFT, Aeroplane, Balloon, Biplane, Dirigible, Flying-machine, Gyroplane, Helicopter, Hydroplane, Monoplane, Multiplane, OrNITHOPTER, TaUBE, TrIPLANE, ZeP-

manners. An air strikes PELIN. glance, whether the person Aircraft is a compoimd of French be in motion or at rest; the manner can air, Greek ai}p, from a root signifjring only be seen when the person is in ac- to blow, meaning the lower atmosphere, tion; it develops itseli on closer ob- and craft, a nautical term for vessel. servation. Some people have an air The European war which began in about them which displeases; but their 1914 gave a new impetus to the designmanners afterward win upon those who ing and construction of aircraft as an have a further intercourse with them. offensive weapon. From the mechanAn air is indicative of a state of mind; ism originally built for pleasure or sciit niay result either from a natural or entific research there was speedily dehabitual mode of thinking: a manner is veloped a varietv of apparatus that in indicative of the education; it is pro- operation startled and shocked the duced by external circumstances. An world, especially those aeroplanes and air is noble or simple, it marks an ele- the ZeppeUns tnat were constructed to

self in all his

at the

first

ALACRITY

48

drop bombs on an enemy's territory imagination, which commonly magniand to carry rifled cannon with which fies objects. Alarm therefore makes us to fight similar hostile craft. run to our defence, and terror disarms An aeroplane is a heavier-than-air us. Fright is a less vivid emotion than flying-machine with one or more planes either, as it arises from the simple apIt is more peror sustaining surfaces; a balloon is a pearance of danger. lighter - than - air construction, elon- sonal than either alarm or terror; for gated or spherical in shape, made of we may be alarmed or terrified for silk or other fabric, and inflated with others, but we are mostly frightened gas; a biplane is an aeroplane with two for ourselves. Consternation is stronger sustaining surfaces; a dirigible is a than either terror or affright; it springs balloon made to travel in any direction from the view of some very serious evil, by means of a propeller operated by a and commonly affects many. Alarm motor; a flying-machine is the com- affects the feehngs, terror the undermon but indefinite name of any form standing, and fright the senses; conof aircraft; a gyroplane is a machine sternation seizes the whole mind and combining the features of an aero- benumbs the faculties. Cries alarm; a tumult plane and a hehcopter; a helicopter is a horrid spectacles terrify; machine that derives its ascending frightens; a sudden calamity fills with power from a fan wheel; a hydroplane consternation. One is filled with alarm, is an aeroplane with a body that seized with terror, overwhelmed with enables it to ahght on or rise from a fright or consternation. We are alarmed water surface; a monoplane is a ma- for what we apprehend we are terrified chine with a single sustaining surface; by what we imagine; we are frightened a multiplane is a machine with two or by what we see; consternation may be more sustaining surfaces; an omi- produced by what we learn. thopter is a machine with movable or ALERTNESS, Alacrity. Alertness, flapping planes; a Tavbe is a German from ales, a wing, designates corporeal bomb-dropping aeroplane; a triplane activity or readiness for action. Alacis an aeroplane with three sustaining rity, from acer, sharp, brisk, designates surfaces; a Zeppelin is a German mental activity. We proceed with ;

and passenger-carrying apparatus constructed on the balloon principle, and used in the European war as a raiding bomb-dropper. ALACRITY. See Alertness. ALARM, Terror, Fright, Consternation. Alarm is probably derived through French from the ItaUan all' arme, to arms, Latin ad ilia arma, or Low Latin ad illas artnas, to the arms. Terror, in Latin terror, comes from terreo, to cause to tremble. Fright, dirigible

when the body is in its full we proceed with alacrity when mind is in full pursuit of an object.

alertness

vigor;

the

ALIEN.

See Stranger.

ALIENATE. See Transfer; Wean. ALIENATION. See Abstraction. ALIKE. See Equal. ALL, Whole. AU is a Germanic word

signifying

everything.

Whole,

Anglo-Saxon hal, aUied to German heil, and Greek koXoq, excellent, beautiful, and the Enghsh words hale, health, Anglo-Saxon fyrhto, allied to German wholesome, etc., signified to be sound, fiirchten, is a widely distributed Ger- well, without fault or blemish, hence manic word from a root signifying fear. complete, entire. Consternation,

from

consterno,

ground,

in Latin, constematus, strew, scatter on the

expresses tion of terror and

the mixed emoamazement which

confounds.

Alarm springs from any sudden signal that announces the approach of danger. Terror springs from any event or phenomenon that may serve as a prognostic of some catastrophe. It supposes a less distinct view of danger than alarm, and, affords room to the

All respects a number of individuals; whole respects a single body with its components: we have not all, if we have not the whole number; we have not the whole, if we have not aU the parts of which it is composed. It is not within the limits of human capacity to take more than a partial survey of all the interesting objects which the whole globe contains. When apphed to spiritual objects in a general sense, all is preferred to whole; but

ALLIANCE when the object is specific, whole is preferable: thus we say, all hope was lost; but, our whole hope rested in this. All, Every, Each. All is collective; every single or individual; each, disAll and every are universal tributive. in their signification; each is restrictive the former are used in speaking of great numbers; the latter is appHcable to small numbers. All men are not bom with the same talent, either in degree or kind; but every man has a talent pecuhar to himself; a parent divides his property among his children, and gives to each his due share.

—

49

terest griefs by affording us the brightest prospects of future bliss. See also Quell.

ALLEGE. See Adduce. ALLEGORY. See Figure; Parable.

ALLEVIATE,

Relieve. For the of alleviate see Allay. from the Latin relevo, is compounded of re and leva, lift up, signiderivation

Relieve,

fying to take

A

pain

away

or remove.

is alleviated

by making

it less

burdensome; a necessity is relieved by supplying what is wanted. Alleviate respects our internal feeUngs only; ALLAY, Soothe, Appease, Miti- relieve, our external circumstances. gate, Assuage. To allay, Middle That alleviates which affords ease and Enghsh aleggen, is properly no more comfort; that relieves which removes than a French doublet of the word alle- the pain. It is no alleviation of sorrow viate, derived from Latin ad and levis, to a feehng mind to reflect that others hght; hence it means to Ughten a bur- undergo the same suffering; a change Soothe, from Anglo-Saxon soth, of position is a considerable relief to den. true, which appears in the phrases "in an invahd, wearied with confinement. sooth," "forsooth," etc., means to assent Condolence and sympathy tend greatly to something as being true, hence to to alleviate the sufferings of our fellowhumor. Appease, in French apaiser, creatures; it is an essential part of the is compounded of ad and pax, peace, Christian's duty to relieve the wants signifying to quiet. Mitigate, from of his indigent neighbor. mitis, meek, gentle, signifies to make See also Abate. gentle or easy to bear. Assuage, from ALLIANCE, League, ConfederOld French a (Latin ad) and suavis, acy. Alliance, in French alliance, from sweet, pleasant, cognate with the Eng- the Latin alligo, to tie to (compare hsh sweet (compare the adjective ligament), signifies the state of being suave), means hterally to sweeten. League, in French ligue, comes tied. All these terms indicate a lessening from the same verb, ligo, bind. Conof something painful. In a physical federacy or confederation, in Latin con^ sense an irritating p?in is allayed; a federatio, from con and fcedus, an agreewounded part is soothed by affording ment, signifies a joining together imder ease and comfort. Extreme heat or a certain pledge. thirst is allayed; extreme hunger is AJl these terms agree in expressing appeased; a punishment or sentence is the union between two or more persons mitigated. or bodies, but they differ in the nature In a moral sense one allays what is of the union and the motive for enterfervid and vehement; one soothes what ing into it. Alliance is the most genis distressed or irritated; one appeases eral term, the other two are rather what is tumultuous and boisterous; one particular terms; an alliance may be mitigates the pains of others, or what is entered into either on pubUc grounds rigorous and severe; one assuages grief as between states, or on private grounds or afflictions. Nothing is so calculated as between families or individuals; a to allay the fervor of a distempered league or confederacy is entered into imagination as prayer and rehgious upon pubhc grounds or for common inmeditation: rehgion has everything in terests, as a league between nations or it which can soothe a woimded con- states, and a confederacy between science by presenting it with the hope smaller powers or between individuals. of pardon, that can appease the angry Alliances are formed for the mutual passions by giving us a sense of our conveniences of parties, as between own sinfulness and need of God's states to promote commerce; leagues pardon, and that can assuage the bit- and confederacies are entered into most-

ALL-KNOWING

50

ly for purposes of self-defence or

com-

mon safety against the attacks of a common enemy; but a league is mostly a solemn act between two or more and for general purposes of and may, therefore, be both defensive and offensive; a confederacy is mostly the temporary act of several

states safety;

uniting in a season of actual danger to a common adversary. Alliance, as regards persons, is always taken in a good sense, and as between families or individuals is mostly matrimonial. League and confederacy are frequently taken in a bad sense; we may speak of a wicked league or an unnatural leagu£ between persons of opposite characters for their own private purposes, or a league between beasts for savage purposes; there may be a confederacy between persons to resist a lawful demand or to forward resist

any

evil design. Alliance, Affinity. above). Affinity, in

— Alliance Latin

from ad and finis, a border, a contiguity of borders.

An

(see

affinitas,

signifies

a union artificially formed between persons; an affinity is a relation which flows from that act as far as the alliance is matrimonial; the affinity is properly that which results from it; when an alliance is formed between persons of different sexes, this necessarily creates an affinity between alliance

is

The

idea of setting apart or selecting to these terms; but allot is used only for things, appoint and destine for persons or things. space of ground is allotted for cultivation, a person is appointed as steward or governor; a youth is destined for a particular profession. Allotments and appointments are made for immediate purposes, destinations for a future purpose; time may be either allotted, appointed, or destined; but allot respects indefinite portions of time, as to allot a portion of one's time to rehgious meditations; appoint respects any particularly defined portion of time, as to appoint an hour of meeting; destine implies a future time purposely fixed, as the destined hour arrived. space may be allotted, because space may be divided into portions; a particular place is appointed for a particular immediate object, or it is destined by some previous determination; as a person appoints the place where a house shall be built; he destines a house for a particular puris

common

A

A

pose.

See also Distribute.

ALLOW, (see

Grant, Bestow. Allow Abate; Admit). Grant, Old

French graunter or creanter, to assure, from Latin stem credent, from credere, to trust, is allied on the one hand to the word guarantee, on the other to such words as credible, credulous, credence,

Bestow is compounded of the preetc. respects things, alliance ia used fix he and the Anglo-Saxon stow, a figuratively in the same sense to de- place, from the root sta, whence stand note their union by an artificial tie; as is also derived, and which is closely an alliance between church and state; aUied to the EngUsh verb stow. Hence affinity in this case implies a relation to bestow signifies to dispose according between things by reason of their to one's wishes and convenience. That is allowed which may be exagreement or resemblance to each other; as an affinity of sounds or an pected, if not directly required; that 18 granted which is desired, if not diaffinity of languages. ALL-KNOWING. See Omniscient. rectly asked for; that is bestowed which ALLOT, Appoint, Destine. Allot is wanted as a niatter of necessity. is a hybrid word compounded of the What is allowed is a gift sometimes Latin ad and the EngHsh word lot, stipulated as to time and quantity, a p>ortion. Appoint, in French ap- but frequently depends upon the will pointer, from ad and pungo, participle of the giver; what is granted is somepunctus, signifies to point out or set out times perfectly gratuitous on the part in a particular manner for a particular of the giver, but, when granted, is not purpose. Destine, in French destiner, always to be taken back; what is beLatin destino, compounded of de ana stowed is occasional, altogether dependa verb from the root sta, to stand, sig- ing on circumstances and disposition Many of nifies to place apart for a particular of both giver and receiver. object. the poor are allowed a small sum weekly the relatives of the two parties.

As

ALLUDE

51

from the parish. It is as improper to grant a person more than he asks, as it is to ask a person for more than he can grant. Alms are very ill bestowed which only serve to encourage beggary grant comprehends in and idleness.

are estimated by days, weeks, or months, as well as years. An cdlowance may be made by, with, and to persons of all ranks; a stipend and salary are assignable only to persons of respectabihty; loages are given to

something more important than an allowance, and passes between persons in a higher station; what is bestowed A father is of less value than either. allows his son a yearly sum for his casual expenses, or a master allows his servant a maintenance; kings grant I>ensions to their officers; governments grant subsidies to one another; reUef

laborers, hire to servants,

A

it

on the indigent. In a figurative application, things are allowed either out of courtesy or complaisance; they are granted by way of favor or indulgence; they are bestowed either from necessity or urgent reasons: merit is allowed; a request is granted; attention or applause is bestowed. See also Admit; Consent. Allowance, Stipend, Salary, Wages, Hire, Pay. All these terms denote a stated sum paid according to certain stipulations. Allowance, from allow (see Admit), signifies the thing allowed. Stipend, in Latin stipendium, from stips, a piece of money, signifies money paid. Salary, in French salaire, Latin solariis

bzslowed

—

um, comes from

sal,

salt,

and meant

salt-money, money for salt. (Compare the word pin-money for a similar

method

of designation.) Wages, Old French gage. Low Latin vadium, signifies something paid for labor. Hire expresses the sum for which one is hired, and pay the sum that is to be

paid.

An

allowance is gratuitous; it ceases at the pleasure of the donor; aU the rest are the requital for some supposed service; they cease with the engagement made between the parties. A stipend is more fixed and permanent than a salary; and that than wages, hire, or pay; a stipend depends upon the fulfilling of an engagement, rather than on the will of an individual; a salary is a matter of contract between the giver and receiver, and may be increased or diminished at will. An allowance may be given in any form, or at any stated times; a stipend ana salary are paid yearly, or at even portions of a year; wages, hire, and pay

pay to soldiers or such as are employea under government.

ALL-SEEING.

ALLUDE,

See Ominiscient.

Refer, Hint, Suggest.

Allude, in Latin alludo, is compounded of ad and ludo, sport. It means to say anything in a cursory manner. Refer, in Latin refero, signifies to bring back that is, to bring back a person's recollection to any subject by mentioning it. Hint, a verb formed from the noun hint, which is a contraction of the participle of a verb hinten, hinted, is aUied to the words hit, hurt, etc., and originally meant taken, touched. To hint is to touch upon something. Su^ gest, in Latin su^gestus, participle of suggero, is compounded of sub ana gero, bring under or near, and signifies to bring forward in an indirect or casual

—

manner.

To

allude is not so direct as to refer, more clear and positive thaa either hint or suggest. allude to a circumstance by introducing it into one's discourse; we hint at a person's intentions by darkly insinuating what may possibly happen; we suggest an idea by some poetical expressions relative to it. There are frequent allusions in the Bible to the customs and manIt is necessary to ners of the East. refer to certain passages of a work when

but

it is

We

we do not expressly copy them. It is sometimes better to be entirely silent upon a subject than to hint at what cannot be fully explained. Many improvements have owed their origin to some ideas casually

suggested in the course of conversation. Allude and refer are always said with regard to things that have fK)sitively happened, and mostly such as are in-

and suggest have mostly a personal relation to things that are precarious. The whole drift of a discoiu^e is sometimes unintelligible for different; hint

want

of

knowing what

many

is

alluded to;

persons and incidents are referred to with their proper names and dates. It is the part oi the slan-

although

52

ALLURE

derer to hint at things discreditable to is full of temptations. Those who have another when he does not dare to any evil project to execute will omit no speak openly; and to suggest doubts enticement in order to seduce the yoimg of his veracity when he cannot posi- and inexperienced from their duty. The practice of decoying children or tively charge him with falsehood. ignorant people into places of confineSee also Glance. ALLURE, Tempt, Seduce, Entice, ment was formerly more frequent than Decoy. Allure, from the Old French at present. Allure does not imply such a powerd leurre, a word of possibly Germanic origin, signifying bait, meant to draw ful influence as tempt; what allures to a bait. Tempt, in French tenter, draws by gentle means; it hes in the Latin tento, a frequentative of the verb nature of the thing that affects: what tendere, to stretch, meant to draw out tempts acts by direct and continued one's will, hence to try the strength efforts; it presents motives to the Seduce, in French mind in order to produce decision; it of, hence to test. Entice seduire, Latin seduco, is compounded of tries the power of resistance. se, apart, and duco, lead, signifying to supposes such a decisive influence on lead any one aside. Entice comes from the mind as produces a determination Old French entider, based on titio, a to act; in which respect it differs from Decoy, from de and Old the two former terms. Allure and firebrand. French coi, earlier coit, from Latin tempt produce actions on the mind, not quietus, quiet, still, meant to render necessarily followed by any result; for (Compare the adjective we may be allured or tempted to do a still or tame. But it is also influenced by thing, without' necessarily doing the coy.) provincial Enghsh coy, fr6m Latin thing; but we cannot be enticed unless cavea (whence Enghsh cage), a trap we are led to take some step. Seduce and decoy have reference to the outfor catching wild ducks. We are allured by the appearances of ward action, as well as the inward things; we are tempted by the words of movements of the mind which give persons as well as the appearances of rise to them; they indicate a drawing things; we are enticed by persuasions; aside of the person as well as the mind; we are seduced or decoyed by the in- it is a misleading by false representafluence and false arts of others. To tion. Prospects are alluring, offers allure and tempt are used either in a are tempting, words are enticing, charms good or bad sense: entice sometimes in are seductive. an indifferent, but mostly in a bad See also Attract; Tweedlb. sense; seduce and decoy are always in a ALL-WISE. See Omniscient. bad sense. The weather may allure us ALLY, Confederate. Although out-of-doors: the love of pleasures may derived from the preceding terms (see allure us into indulgences that after- Alliance), these are used only in ward cause repentance. We are some- part of their acceptations. An is times tempted upon very fair grounds one who forms an alliance in the poto undertake what turns out unfortu- htical sense; a confederate is one who nately in the end: our passions are our forms confederacies in general, but bitterest enemies; the devil uses them more particularly when such conas instruments to tempt us to sin. federacies are unauthorized. WilUam When the wicked entice us to do evil, Tell had some few particular friends we should turn a deaf ear to their flat- who were his confederates; but we tering representations: those who know should use the word with more prowhat is right, and are determined to priety in its worst sense, for an aspractise it, will not suffer themselves sociate in a rebellious faction, as in to be enticed into any irregularities. speaking of any bandit and his con^ Young men are frequently seduced by federates. the company they keep. Children are ALMANAC. See Calendar. decoyed away by the evil-minded, who ALONE, Solitary, Lonely. Alone, wish to get them into their possession. in Middle Enghsh often written as two The country has its allurements for the words, al one, signifies altogether one, contemplative mind; the metropolis or single; that is, by one's self. Soli-

a%

AMBASSADOR tary, in' French solitaire, Latin solitarius, from solus, alone, signifies the

man must

53

be always virtuous, that whether in adversity or prosperity; quality of being alone. Lonely is a and at all times virtuous, that is, in aerivative of lone, which is a contrac- his going out and coming in, his Alone marks the state rising up and his lying down, by day tion of all one. of a person; solitary the quality of a and by night; he will then be ever person or thing; lonely has more mel- happy, that is, in this life and the ancholy connotations than solitary, and life to come. may be used to indicate the state of See also Aye. mind of one dwelling alone. A person AMASS. See Heap. AMAZE. See Wonder. walks alone, or takes a solitary walk in AMBASSADOR, Envoy, Plenia lonely place. Whoever hkes to be much alone is of a solitary turn wher- potentiary, Deputy. Ambassador is ever we can be most and oftenest alone, derived through French from Low that is a solitary or lonely place people Latin ambactiis^ by way of Itahan. who are forced to dwell alone may be Ambactus is derived from an" Old Gauloften lonely. ish (Celtic) root meaning servant, which ALSO, Likewise, Too. Also, com- also appears in the Anglo-Saxon pounded of all and so, signifies UteraMy '"otnbiht a servant. Envoy, Old French all in the same manner. Likevnse, envoyer, to send, from Latin iride, and compounded of like and toise, or man- via, way, meant one sent on a mission. ner, signifies in hke manner. Plenipotentiary, Too, a (Compare Voyage.) variation of the numeral two, signifies from the Latin plenus and patens, sigwhat may be added or joined to an- nifies one invested with full powers. Deputy (for etymology see depute other thing from its similarity. These adverbial expressions obvious- under Assign) meant one deputed, one ly convey the same idea of including or assigned to a particular mission. Ambassadors, envoys, and plenipoclassing certain objects together upon a supposed ground of affinity. Also is tentiaries speak and act in the name of a more general term, and has a more their sovereigns, with this difference, comprehensive meaning, as it imphes that the first is invested with the higha sameness in the whole; likevnse is est authority, acting in all cases as more specific and hmited in its accepta- the representative; the second appears tion; too is still more hmited than only as a simple authorized minister either, and refers only to a single ob- acting for another, but not always rep"He also was among the num- resenting him: the third is a species i'ect. >er," may convey the idea of totality of envoy used by courts only on the both as respects the person and the occasion of concluding peace or making event; "he writes likewise a very fine treaties: deputies are not deputed by hand, conveys the idea of similar sovereigns, although they may be dethey have no perfection in his writing as in other puted to sovereigns; qualifications; "he said so, too," sig- power to act or speak but in the name nifies he said bo in addition to the of some subordinate community or The functions of the others; "he said it likewise," would particular body. imply that he said the same thing or first three belong to the minister, those in the same manner. of the latter to the agent. ALTER. See Change. An ambassador is a resident in a ALTERCATION. See Differ- country during a state of peace; he ence. must maintain the dignity of his court ALTERNATE. See Successive. by a suitable degree of splendor: an ALTISCOPE. See Periscope. envoy may be a resident, but he is more ALWAYS, At all Times, Ever. commonly employed on particular ocAlways, compounded of all and ways, casions; address in negotiating forms is the same as, under all circumstances, is an essential in his chaxacter: a plenithrough all the ways of life, that is, potentiary is not so much connected uninterruptedly. At all times means with the court immediately as with without distinction of time. Ever im- persons in the same capacity with himphes for a perpetuity, without end. A self; he requires to have integrity, is,

;

;

'

'

,

'

AMBIGUOUS

54

Amend, emend, and correct, are all af)phed to works of the understanding, with this distinction, that amend signifies to remove faults or defects generally, either by adding, taking away, or altering, as to amend a law, to amend a passage in a book; this is the work of the author, or some one acting for AMBIGUOUS, Equivocal. Am- him: to emend is to remove particular higuouji, in Latin ambiguv^, from am- faults in any hterary work by the higo, compounded of ambo, both, and alteration of letters or single words; agere, to act, signifies acting both ways this is the work of the critic to correct or having two meanings. Equivocal, in is to remove gross faults, as to correct French equivoque, Latin equivocus, the press. Amend and correct may be appUed to composed of cequus and vox, signifies a word to be appUed equally to two or moral objects with a similar distinction. Mend is employed in respect to any more different objects. An ambigjiity arises from a too gen- works in the sense of putting that right eral form of expression, which leaves which either is or has become faulty. the sense of the author indeterminate; It is a term in ordinary use, but may an equivocation lies in the power of be employed in the higher style. To improve is said either of persons particular terms used, which admit of a double interpretation, or an appUca- or things which are made better; as tion to two different things: the am- to improve the mind, morals, etc.: to biguity leaves us in entire incertitude better is mostly apphed to the outward as to what is meant; the equivocation condition on familiar occasions. AMENDS. See Compensation; misleads us in the use of a term in the Restoration. sense which we do not suspect. AMIABLE, Lovely, Beloved. The ambiguity may be unintentional, arising from the nature both of the Amiable, in Latin amabilis, from amare words and the things; or it may be to love, signifies fit to be loved. Lovely, employed to withhold information re- compounded of love and ly, or like, specting our views; the equivocation is signifies like that which we love, fit always intentional, and may be em- to produce love. Beloved signifies penetration, loyalty, and coolness, deputy has little or no patriotism. responsibility, and still less intercourse with those to whom he is deputed; he needs no more talent than is sufficient to maintain the respectability of his own character and that of the body to which he belongs.

A

:

ployed for purposes of fraud. The histories of heathen nations are full of

having or receiving love.

The two first express the fitness of confusion and ambiguity; the heathen an object to awaken the sentiment of oracles are mostly veiled by some love the former by spiritual quahties, equivocation; of this we have a re- the latter by personal attractions. One markable instance in the oracle of the is amiable from the quahties of the Persian mule, by which Croesus was heart. misled. So also it is said of things personified. AMENABLE. See Answerable. One has a lovely person, or is lovely in AMEND, Correct, Emend, Im- one's person. It may be applied to prove, Mend, Better. Amend and the attractions of other objects besides emend, in Latin emendo, from menda, those of the person. Beloved denotes the state of being the fault of a transcriber, signifies to remove faults generally. Mend, which loved, or being the object of love, which is a contraction of amend, is similar may arise from being amiable or lovely, in sense, but different in appUcation. or from other causes. Both persons Correct, from cum and regere, to regu- and things may be beloved. AMICABLE, Friendly. Amicable, late, signifies to set right in a particular manner. Improve, from probus, good, from amicus, a friend, signifies able or signifies to make good, as better signifies fit for a friend. Friendly signifies like to make better. a friend. The word amicus likewise To amend, emend, correct, and mend comes from amo, to love, and friend imply the removing of an evil; im- from Anglo-Saxon freogan, to love. prove and better, the increase of good. Amicable and friendly, therefore, both :

AMORTIZEMENT

55

While the afiSiction is in an acute stage the victim is unable to recall his or her name, place of residence, occupaition, or present intentions. Properly speaking, the word has no genuine synonym. Bewilderment and indifference. We make an amicahle forgetfulness are general words which accommodation, and a friendly visit. may be used to describe the state of It is a happy thing when people who mind of one afflicted by amnesia. AMOROUS, Loving, Fond. Amorhave been at variance can amicably adjust all their disputes. Nothing ous, from arnor, and the ending, ous, adds more to the charms of society which designates abundance, signifies than a friendly correspondence. Ami- full of love. Loving signifies the act of cable is always said of persons who have loving, that is, continually loving. Fond been in connection with each other; (for derivation see under affectionate) friendly may be applied to those who signifies an extreme or foolish attachare perfect strangers. Neighbors must ment. These epithets are all used to mark always endeavor to live amicably with each other. Travelers should always the excess or distortion of a tender endeavor to keep up a friendly inter- sentiment. Amorous is taken in a course with the inhabitants wherever criminal sense, loving and fond in a contemptuous sense; an indiscriminate they come. The abstract terms of the preceding and dishonorable attachment to the qualities admit of no variation but in fair sex characterizes the amorous man; the signification of friendship, which an overweening and childish attachmarks an individual feeling only. To ment to any object marks the loving hve amicably, or in amity with all men, and fond person. Loving is less dismen may be is a point of Christian duty, but we honorable than fond: cannot live in friendship with aU men, loving; children and brutes may be since friendship must be confined to a fond. Those who have not a wellfew: so nations may be in amity, though regulated affection for each other will not on terms of friendship with each be loving by fits and starts; children denote the tender sentiment of goodwill which all men ought to bear one to another; but amicable rather impUes a negative sentiment, a freedom from discordance; and friendly a positive feeling of regard, the absence of

other.

AMMUNITION, Munitions. These

and animals who have no control over their appetites will be apt to be fond

words have been somewhat modified in of those who indulge them. An amorapphcation since the beginning of the ous temper should be suppressed; a European war. Ammunition was orig- loving temper should be regulated; a inally merely an army corruption of fond temper should be checked. munition, from Latin munitio (from When taken generally, loving and munire, to fortify with a wall) During fond may be used in a good or indifferthe war, however, the word munitions, ent sense. AMORTIZEMENT, Amortization. used in the plural, has been widely used to designate all the materials for The term amortizement, in French shooting employed in warfare; am- amortissement, is derived from amortize, munition has merely kept its meaning in French amortir, to extinguish, from of material with which to load a gun Latin mortis, death, meaning in a genwhich it had before the war, and in eral sense to make dead or render popular speech has been largely sup- useless. planted by the more general word While amortization specifically means munitions. the right of aUenating lands in mortAMNESIA, Bewilderment, For- main, the term has of late come into GETFULNESS. Amnesia comes from vogue as synonymous with amortizethe Greek afivtjaia, and impUes the loss ment, especially in European countries of memory for words. The victim is burdened with debt. apt to be an apparently aimless wanThus we read that certain revenues, derer on the streets, and on being or parts thereof, of a country have accosted appears to be in a high state been assigned to the amortization or of bevnlderment, anxiety, perplexity. amortizement of the national debt, .

AMPLE

56

meaning a -payment on account, or the the mind aside from an object. Entertain, in French erUretenir, compounded of entre, Latin inter, and tenir, Latin

extinction (payment in full), liquidation (partial or full payment), reduction (partial payment), or redemption (fuU payment) of outstanding obligations.

AMPLE, Ample

'

Spacious,

Capacious.

in French ample, Latin amSpacious, in French plus, large, full. spacievj;, from Latin spatium, allied to Greek ffirdeiv, to draw out, English span aU from a root spa, to spread or draw out. Capacious, in Latin capax, from capio, to hold, signifies the quality of being able to hold. is

—

These epithets convey the analogous ideas of extent in quantity and extent in space. Ample is figuratively emis extended in hterally used for whatever is extended in space; capacious is literally and figuratively employed to express extension in both quantity and space. Stores are ample,

ployed for whatever quantity; spacious

is

mind

fixed

and tumultuous: whatever erUertains acts on the senses and awakens the understanding; it must be rational, and is mostly social. The bare act of ample; walking and changing place may

room

is ample, an allowance is a room, a house, or a garden is spacious; a vessel or hollow of any kind is capacious; the soul, the mind, and the heart are capacious. Ample is opposed to

scanty, spacious to narrow, capacious to small. What is ample suffices and imposes no constraint: satisfies; it what is spacious is free and open; it does not confine: what is capacious readily receives and contains; it is liberal and generous. Although sciences, arts, philosophy, and languages afford to the mass ©f mankind ample scope for the exercise of their mental powers without recurring to mysterious or fanciful researches, yet this world is hardly spacious enough for the range of the intellectual faculties: the capacious minds of some are no less capable of containing than they are disposed for receiving whatever spiritual good is offered them.

See also Plentiful.

AMUSE,

to keep, signifies to keep the on a thing. We amuse or entertain by engaging the attention on some present occupation, we divert by drawing the attention from a present object; all this proceeds by means of that pleasure which the object produces, which in the first case is less vivid than in the second, and in the second case is less durable than in the third. Whatever amuses serves to kill time, to lull the faculties and banish reflection; it may be solitary, sedentary, and hfeless; whatever diverts causes mirth and provokes laughter; it will be active, hvely, tenere,

Divert, Entertain.

To

amuse;

the tricks of animals divert; conversation entertains. We sit down to a card-table to be amused; we go to a comedy or pantomime to be diverted; we go to a tragedy to be entertained. Children are amused with looking at pictures; ignorant people are diverted with shows; intelligent people are entertained with reading. The dullest and most vacant minds may be amused; the most volatile are diverted; the most reflective are entertained; the Emperor Domitian amused himself with killing flies; the Emperor Nero diverted himself with appearing before his subjects in the characters of the gladiator and charioteer; Socrates entertained himself by discoursing on the day of his execution with his friends on the immortality of the soul. Amuse, Beguile. As amuse denotes the occupation of the mind, so beguile, compounded of the English prefix be and Old Frencli guile (English wile), (for the derivation of which see that key- word), signifying to overreach with guile, expresses an effect or consequence of

—

amuse, to cause to muse or wonder at, is derived from French d and muser (EngUsh verb muse), Itahan musare, to gape idly about, from muso, a snout, a amusement. When amuse and beguile "The image is that of a dog express any species of deception, the face. snuffling idly about, and musing which former indicates what is effected by way to take" (Skeat). Cf. muzzle. persons, and the latter that which is Divert, in French divertir, Latin di- effected by things. The first is a fraud is verto, is comp>ounded of dis, apart, and upon the understanding; the second vertere, to turn aside, signifying to turn a fraud upon the memory and con-

ANECDOTE

57

We

sciousness. are anmsed by a false leisure hour; it may be alternately a story; our misfortunes are beguiled by diversion, a sport, or a simple amusethe charms of fine music or fine scenery. ment, as circumstances require. See Malediction. To suffer one's self to be armised is an See Excomact of weakness; to be beguiled is a relief municate. and a privilege. Credulous people are ANCESTORS. easily amused by any idle tale, and See Forefathers.

ANATHEMA. ANATHEMATIZE.

ANCIENT. See Old. ANCIENTLY. See Formerly. ANECDOTE, Story. An anecdote

thus prevented from penetrating the designs of the artful; weary travelers beguile the tedium of the journey by

has but httle incident and no plot; Amusement, Entertainment, Diversion, a story (which, hke Latin historia, EngSport, Recreation, Pastime. Amuse- hsh history, is derived from Greek ment signifies here that which serves to lOTopla, which originally referred to amuse. Entertainment, that which something learned by inquiry, being a serves to entertain. Diversion, that derivative from a verb signifying to which serves to divert. Sport, that know) may have many incidents and which serves to give sport. Recreation, an important catastrophe annexed to that which serves to recreate, from re- it anecdotes are related of individuals, creatus, participle of recreo, or re and some of which are of a trifling nature, creo, means to create or make ahve and others characteristic; stories are again, and was originally used of a generally told to young people of recovery from illness. Pastime is that ghosts and visions, which are calcuwhich serves to pass time. lated to act on their fears. An anecThe first four of these terms are dote is pleasing and pretty; a story is either apphed to objects which specif- frightful or melancholy; an anecdote ically serve the purposes of pleasure, always consists of some matter of fact; or to such objects as may accidentally a story is sometimes founded on that serve these purposes; the last two which is real. Anecdotes are related of terms are emploj'ed only in the latter sorne distinguished persons, displaying sense. The distinction between the their characters or the circumstances first three terms is very similar in this of their hves: stories from hfe, however as in the preceding case. Amusement striking and wonderful, will seldom imis a general term, which comprehends press so powerfully as those which are httle more than the common idea of drawn from the world of spirits: anecpleasure, whether small or great; en- dotes serve to amuse men, stories to tertainment is a species of amusement amuse children. which is always more or less of an inAnecdotes, Memoirs, Chror^icles, Antellectual nature; diversions and sports nals. Anecdote, Greek avsKSoroc, meant are a species of amusements more adapt- hterally xmpubhshed, not given out, ed to the young and the active, par- from lie (ex) and SiSiofii, give. Meticularly the latter: the theatre or the moirs, in French memoires, from the concert is an amusement; fairs and word memory, signifies what serves to public exhibitions are diversions; games help the memory. Chronicle, in French of racing or cricket, hunting, shooting, chronique, from the Greek xP°^os, time, and the like, are sports. signifies an account of the times. Recreation and pastime are terms of Annals, from the French annates, from relative import: the former is of use the Latin annus, signifies a detail of for those who labor; the latter for what passes in the year. those who are idle. A recreation must All these terms mark a species of narlively conversation.

—

:

—

partake more or less of the nature of rative, more or less connected, that an amusement, but it is an occupation may serve as materials for a regular which owes its pleasure to the relaxa- history. Anecdotes consist of personal tion of the mind from severe exertion: or detached circumstances of a pubUc in this manner gardening may be a or private nature, involving one subject recreation to one who studies; com- or more. Anecdotes may be either pany is recreation to a man of business: moral or political, literary or biothe pastime is the amusement of the graphical; they may serve as character-

ANGER

58

individual, or of any particular nation or age. Memoirs may include anecdotes, as far as they are connected with the leading subject on which they treat: memoirs are rather connected than complete; they are a partial narrative respecting an individual, comprehending matter of a public or private nature; they serve as memorials of what ought not to be forgotten, and lay the foundation either for a history or a life. Chronicles and annals are altogether of a pubUc nature; and approach the nearest to regular and genuine history. Chronicles register the events as they pass; annals digest them into order, as they occur in the course of successive years. Chronicles are minute as to the exact point of time; annals only preistics of

any

serve a general order within the period of a year. Chronicles detail the events of small as well as large communities, as of particular districts and cities; annals detail only the events of nations. Chronicles include domestic incidents, or such things as concern individuals; the word annals, in its proper sense, relates only to such things as affect the great body of the pubhc, but it is frequently employed in an improper sense. Chronicles may be confined to simple matter of fact; annals may enter into the causes and consequences of events.

ANGER,

Resentment,

Wrath,

Anger comes from Latin angere, Greek ayxdv, to

Ire, Indignation.

the

strangle, Icelandic angr, grief, sorrow, Danish anger, compunction, etc., from which our words anxious, anxiety, etc., are also derived, and refers to the physical sensations accompanying anger or grief. Resentment, in French ressentiment, from resentir, is compounded of re and sentir, signifying to feel again, over and over, or for a continuance.

An

impatient agitation against any acts contrary to our inclinations or opinions is the characteristic of all these terms. Resentment is less vivid than anger, and anger than wrath, ire, or indignation. Anger is a sudden sentiment of displeasure; resentment is a continued anger; vrrath is a heightened sentiment of anger, which is poetically expressed by the word ire. Anger may be either a selfish or a disinterested passion, it may be provoked by injuries done to ourselves, or injustice done to others: in this latter sense of strong displeasure God is angry with sinners, and good men may to a certain degree be angry with those under their control who act improperly. Resentment is a brooding sentiment altogether arising from a sense of personal injury; it is associated with a disUke of the offender, as much as the offence, and is diminished only by the infliction of pain in return; in its rise, progress, and effects, it is alike opposed to the Christian spirit. Wrath and ire are the sentiment of a superior toward an inferior, and when provoked by personal injuries discovers itself by haughtiness and a vindictive temper: as a senti-

one

who

ment

of displeasure, tvrath is unjustifiable between man and man; but the lorath of Grod may be provoked by the persevering impenitence of sinners; the ire of a heathen god, according to the gross views of pagans, was but the ivrath of man associated with greater power: it was altogether unconnected with moral displeasure. Indignation is a sentiment awakened by the unworthy and atrocious conduct of others;" as it is exempt from personality, it is not irreconcilable with the temper of a Christian a warmth of constitution sometimes gives rise to sallies of anger; but depravity of heart breeds resentment; imbending pride is a great source of wrath; but indignation may flow from a high sense of honor :

Anglo-Saxon ivrath, EngUsh and ire, Latin ira, are less obviously metaphorical than the and virtue. preceding, the original roots in both See also Displeasure. cases having, apparently, the meaning Anger, Choler. Rage, Fury. Anger of the present words. Indignation, in (see above). Cooler, in French colere, French indignation, in Latin indignatio, Latin cholera, Greek x'^^^P'^i comes from indignor, to think or feel un- from x^^^, bile, of which the EngUsh worthy, marks the strong feehng which word gall is a cognate, because the overbase conduct or unworthy treatment flowing of bile was supposed to be the awakens in the mind. physical accompaniment of anger. Wrath,

toroth,

angry,

—

ANIMAL Rage, in French rage, from Latin rabies, madness, and rahio, to rave like a madman, signifies madness, hence the loss in extreme anger. of self-control Compare the use of mad for angry among children. Fury, derived through French from Latin furia, is from a root

59

his angry sentiment spends angry words. See also Splenetic. ANGUISH. See Distress; Pain. ANIMADVERSION, Criticism, Stricture. Animadversion, in Latin animadversio, from animadvertere, that signifying to rage, which refers especial- is vertere animum ad, signifies to turn ly to violent physical expression of the mind to a thing. Criticism, in anger, because one is carried or hur- French critique, Latin criticus, Greek KpiTiKoq, from Kpivuv, to separate, hence ried away by the emotion of fury. These words have a progressive force to judge, signifies especially judgment Choler expresses foimded on analysis. Stricture, Latin in their significance. something more sudden and virulent strictura, comes from the verb stringere, than anger; rage is a vehement ebulh- to draw tight, to urge, and signifies in tion of anger; and fury is an excess of Latin the exertion of pressure, oppresAnger may be so stifled as not sion, etc. (Compare strict, stringent.) rage. Animadversion includes censure and to discover itself by any outward

in return;

itself in

symptoms;

choler is discoverable by the paleness of the visage; rage breaks forth into extravagant expressions and violent distortions; fury takes away the use of the understanding. Anger

reproof; criticism implies scrutiny and judgment, whether for or against; and stricture comprehends a partial investigation mingled with censure. animadvert on a person's opinions by coninfirmity human incident to tradicting or correcting them; we critiis an nature; it ought, however, to be sup- cise a person's works by minutely and on all occasions: choler is pressed a rationally exposing their imperfections malady too physical to be always cor- and beauties; we pass strictures on rected by reflection: rage and fury are pubhc measures by descanting on them distempers of the soul, which nothing cursorily and censuring them partially. but religion and the grace of God can Animadversions are too personal to be cure. impartial, consequently they are selANGLE. See Corner. dom just; they are mostly resorted to Passionate, Hasty. An- by those who want to build up one gry signifies either having anger, or system on the ruins of another: critiprone to anger. Passionate signifies cism is one of the most important and prone to passion. Hasty signifies prone honorable departments of hterature; to excess of haste from intemperate a critic ought justly to weigh the merits feeling. and demerits of authors, but of the Angry denotes either a particular two his office is rather to blame than state or a habit of the mind; passionate to praise; much less injury wiU accrue expresses a habit of the mind hastiness to the cause of hterature from the An severity than from the laxity of critiis mostly a temporary feehng. angry man is in a state of anger; a cism; strictures are mostly the vehicles -passionate man is habituaUy prone to of party spleen; like most ephemeral be passionate. The angry has less that productions, they are too superficial is vehement and impetuous in it than to be entitled to serious notice. See also Censure. the passionate; the hasty has someANIMAL, Brute, Beast.| Animal, thing less vehement, but more sudden

We

ANGRY,

;

in it than either. The angry man is not always easilv provoked, nor ready to retahate; but he often retains his anger until the cause is removed: the passionate man is quickly roused, eager to repay the offence, and speedily appeased by the infliction of pain of which he afterward probably repents: the ha^ty man is very soon offended, but not ready to offend

and abrupt

Latin animal, from anima^ life, which is derived from a root signifying to breathe, indicates a hving thing i. e., one that breathes. Brute, Latin brutus, heavy, dull, was originally used as an adjective withbeast, "a brute beast," and hence developed into a substanBeast, French bite, from Latin tive. bestia, signified the lower animals, as distinguished from man.

ANIMATE

60

Animal is the generic, brute and beast The animal is are the specific terms. the thing that lives and moves. If animal be considered as thinking, willing, reflecting, and acting, it is confined in its signification to the human species; if it be regarded as Hmited in all the functions which mark intelligence and wiU, if it be divested of speech and reason, it belongs to the bride; if animal be considered, moret over, as to its appetites, independent of reason, of its destination, and consequent dependence on its mental powers, Man and it descends to the beast. To man an imhrvie are opposed. mortal soul is assigned; but we are not authorized by Scripture to extend the brides. "The dignity to this brides that perish " is the ordinary mode of distinguishing that part of the animal creation from the superior order of terrestrial beings who are destined to exist in a futiu-e world. Animal, when appMed to man individually, is a term of reproach; the epithets brute and beast are still stronger terms of reproach, the perversion of the rational faculty being at all times more shocking and disgraceful than the absejice of it by nature. ANIMATE, INSPIRE, Enliven, Exhilarate. Animate, in Latin animatus, from animus, the mind, and anima, the soul or vital principle,

Cheer,

signifies life,

and

in the proper sense to give in the moral sense to give

tions on the mind or body. To be animated in its physical sense is simply to receive the first spark of animal hfe in however small a degree; for there are animated beings in the world possessing the vital power in an infinite variety of degrees and forms: to be animated in the moral sense is to receive the

smallest

portion of the sentient or thinking faculty, which is equally varied in thinking beings; the term animation, therefore, taken absolutely, never conveys the idea of receiving any strong degree of either physical or moral feeling. To inspire, on the contrary, expresses the communication of a strong moral sentiment or passion; hence, to animate with courage is a less forcible expression than to inspire with courage: we hkewise speak of inspiring with emulation or a thirst for knowledge; not of animating with emulation or a thirst for knowledge. To enliven respects the mind; cheer relates to the heart; exhilarate regards the spirits, both animal and mental; they all denote an action on the frame by the communication of pleasurable emotions: the mind is enlivened by contemplating the scenes of nature; the imagination is enlivened by reading poetry the benevolent heart is cheered by witnessing the happiness of others; the spirits are exhilarated by the convivialities of social hfe: conversation enlivens society; the conversation of a kind and considerate friend cheers the drooping spirits in the moments of trouble; unexpected good news is apt to exhilarate the spirits. Cheer; Encourage; See also ;

The connection between the idea of breathing and that of hfe found in animate (see derivation of animal above) is more obvious in the word inspire, from in and spirare, breathe into. Hearten. Animation, Ldfe, Vivacity, Spirit. Enliven means literally to put hfe into. Cheer, Old French chere, is derived Animation and life do not differ either from Low Latin cara, a face, Greek in sense or apphcation, but the latter Kopa, the head (compare cerebrum, the is more in famihar use. They express brain, cerebral, etc.) The original either the particular or general state meaning is seen in the phrase "be of of the mind. Vivacity and spirit exgood cheer," Mterally put "a good /ace press only the habitual nature and on the matter." It began to signify state of the feehngs. especially a glad face, and thence deA person of no animation is divested veloped the verb to gladden, cheer. of the distinguishing characteristic of Exhilarate, in Latin exhilaratus, par- his nature, which is mind; a person of spirit.

—

ticiple of exhilaro, from hilaris, Greek iXapog, joyful, signifies to make glad.

vivacity is a dull companion; a person of no spirit is unfit to associate Animate and inspire imply the com- with others. A person with animation munication of the vital or mental spark; takes an interest in everything: a enliven, cheer, and exhilarate signify ac- vivacious man catches at everything

no

ANSWER that is pleasant and interesting: a spirited man enters into plans, makes great exertions, and disregards diffispeaker may address his culties.

warian,

61

compoimded

of

and

(corre-

sponding to Latin ante, Greek avri) and swerian, to swear, means to swear in response to something, to take one's A audience with more or less animation, oath concerning the other side of according to the disposition in which the question. Reply comes from the he finds it: a man of a vivacious tem- French repliquer, Latin replico, unfold, all his signifying to unfold or enlarge upon words and actions: a man of spirit by way of explanation. Rejoin is coipsuits his measures to the exigency of pounded of re and jungere, to join, sigRenifying to join or add in return. his circumstances. ANIMOSITY. See Enmity. sponse, in Latin responsus, participle of respondeo, compounded of re and ANNALS. See Anecdotes. ANNEX. See Affix. spondeo, promise (compare sponsor), ANNOTATION. See Remark. signifies to promise in return, to give ANNOUNCE, Proclaim, Publish. sanction to in return. Under all these terms is included the Announce, in Latin annuncio, is compounded of an or ad and nuncio, to tell idea of using words in return for other to any one in a particular manner. words, or returning r. sound for a sound. Proclaim, in Latin proclamo, is com- An answer is given to a question; a pounded oi pro and clamo, to cry before, reply is made to an assertion; a reor cry aloud. Publish, in Latin publico, joinder is made to a reply; a response from publicus and populiis, signifies to is made in accordance with the words make public or known to the people at of another. We answer either for the purpose of affirmation, information, or large. The characteristic sense of these contradiction; we always reply or rewords is the making of a thing known join, in order to explain or confute; to numbers of individuals: a thing is responses are made by way of assent announced in a formal manner to many or confirmation. It is impolite not to or few; it is proclaimed to a neigh- answer when we are addressed; arguborhood, and published to the world. ments are maintained by the alternate We announce an event that is expected replies and rejoinders of two parties; and just at hand; we proclaim an but such arguments seldom tend to the event that requires to be known by pleasure and improvement of society:

per diffuses his vivacity into

the parties interested; we publish is supposed hkely to interest all who know it. AnnouncemerUs are made verbally, or by some well-known signal; proclamations are made verbally and accompanied by some appointed signal; publications are ordinarily made through the press, or by oral communication from one individual to another. The arrival of a distinguished person is announced by the ringing of the bells; the proclamation of peace by a herald is accompanied with certain ceremonies calculated to excite notice; the publication of news is the office of the journalist. See also Advertise. ANNOY. See Hectok; Inconvenience; Worry. ANNUL. See Aboush.

the responses in the Liturgy are pecuharly calculated to keep ahve the attention of those who take part in the devotion. An answer may be either spoken or written, or dehvered in any manner; reply and rejoinder are used in personal discourse only; a response may be said or sung, or delivered in a formal man-

all

what

ANSWER,

ner.

Animals as well as men may give make responses, though not

answers or

replies or rejoinders.

Answerable, Responsible, Accountable^ Answerable, from answer, signifies ready or able to answer for. Responsible, from respondeo, to answer, has a similar meaning in its original Accountable, from account, sigsense. nifies able or ready to give an account. Amenable, from the French amener, to lead, signifies hable to be led or

AmenabU.

—

Reply, Rejoinder, Re- bound. Between answerable and Anglo-Saxon andsI

sponse.

Answer,

I

responsible

ANTAGONIST

62

is a close alliance in the sense, but some difference in the application. A person is answerable generally in respect to what he undertakes to pay or take charge of; he is answerable for

there

his own debts, or for the debts of others to which he has made himself hable; he may also be answerable for things left in his charge responsible is appUed to higher matters of trust or duty; as an officer is responsible for the conduct of the men who are under him; so to hold a responsible position under government; and in an extended sense to be morally responsible that is, responsible to society as a moral agent. :

—

Answerable ana responsible convey the idea of a pledge given for the performance of some act, or the fulfilmerit of some engagement, a breach of which subjects the defaulter to loss, punishment, or disgrace: accountable implies simply giving an account or explanation of one's proceedings. The two former have respect to the obhgations only: the accountability results from the relation of the parties; a person is accountable to his employer for the manner in which he has conducted any business intrusted to him; a child is accountable to his parents for all his actions while he is under their

and we are all accountable to the Great Judge of all. To be amenable is to be accountable as far as laws and regulations bind a person; ona is amenable to the laws of society, or he is amenable to the rules of the house in which he is only an inmate. control;

See also Correspondent. ANTAGONIST. See Enemy.

ANTECEDENT, Preceding, Foregoing, Previous, Anterior, Prior, Former. Antecedent, in Latin antecedens that is, ante and cedens, going before. Preceding, in Latin precedens, going before. Foregoing, hterally going before. Previous is in Latin prcevius, that is, prce and via, in the way before. Anterior, the comparative of the Latin in ante, before. Prior, in Latin prior, comparative of primus, first. Former, English comparative of first. in the

—

and

position, with this peculiar circumstance, that it denotes the relation of influence, dependence, and connection estabhshed between two objects: thus, in logic the premises are called the antecedent, and the conclusion the consequent; in theology or politics, the antecedent is any decree or resolution which influences another decree or action; in mathematics it is that term

from which any induction can be drawn to another; in grammar, the antecedent is that which requires a particular regimen from its subsequent. Antecedent and preceding both denote priority of time, or the order of events: but the former in a more vague and indeterminate manner than the latter.

A

preceding event is that which happens immediately before the one of which we are speaking; whereas antecedent may have events of circum-

stances intervening. An antecedent proposition may be separated from its consequent by other propositions; but a preceding proposition is closely followed by another. In this sense antecedent is opposed to posterior; preceding to succeeding. Preceding respects simply the succession of tir eo and things; but previous denotes the succession of actions and events, with the collateral idea of their connection with an influence upon each other: we speak of the preceding day, or the preceding chapter, merely as the day or chapter that goes before; but when we sp:ak of a previous engagement or a previous inquiry, it

supposes an engagement preparatory to something that is to follow: previous is opposed to subsequent: foregoing is employed to mark the order of things narrated or stated; as when we speak of the foregoing statement, the foregoing objections, or the foregoing cal-

culation, etc.: foregoing is opposed to following. Anterior, prior, and former have all a relative sense, and are used for things that are more before than others: anterior is a technical term to denote forwardness in place or time, but more Antecedent, preceding, foregoing, pre- commonly the former, as in anatomy; vious are employed for what goes or the anterior or fore part of the skull, in happens before anterior, prior, former, contradistinction to the posterior part; for what is or exists before. Ante- so hkewise the anterior or fore front cedent marks priority of order, place. of a building, in opposition to the back :

APOLOGIZE front: jrrior is used in the sense of previous when speaking comparatively of two or more things when it imphes anticipation; a prior claim invaUdates the one that is set up; a prior engagement prevents the forming of any

do away by speaking. Defend, in French difenare, is compounded of de and fendo, signifying to keep or ward off. Justify, in French justifier, to

Latin tus

em- or

other tnat is proposed: former is ployed either with regard to times, as former times, in contradistinction to later periods, or with regard to propositions, when the former or first thing mentioned is opposed to the latter or last mentioned.

ANTHRAX, Malignant pustule. Splenic fever. Carbuncle. Anthrax, Greek dvOpa^, a carbuncle or coal (compare anthracite), is the name for a disease attacking animals, and characterized by the appearance of maligrMnt The various synoboils, or carburides. nymes refer to the characteristics of the disease, but do not differ in application. Splenic fever refers to the enlargement of the spleen, caused by the disease. Malignant pustule refers especially to the inflammation and breaking of the Carbuncle in itself does not inboils. dicate the disease as it is now known; it is the early name apphed to boils in the skin. The disease was long beheved to affect the lower animals only, but late in 1915 several persons in the United

63

ju^tifico, is

compounded

of Jus-

facto, signifying to do justice, Exculpate, in Latin to put right.

and

excidpatus, participle of exculpo, compounded of ex and culpa, signifies to Excuse, in French get out of a fault. excuser, Latin excuso, compounded of ex and causa, signifies to get out of any charge, cau^a being a legal term, found in the phrases "to plead one's cause," "make out a case," etc. Plead, in French plaider, is derived from placere, to please, like the words plea, please, placate, etc.

There is always some imperfection supposed or real which gives rise to an apology; with regard to persons it presupposes a consciousness of impropriety, if not of guilt; we apologize for an error by acknowledging ourselves guilty of it: a defence presupposes a consciousness of innocence more or less; we defend ourselves against a charge by proving its fallacy: a justification is founded on the conviction not only of entire innocence, but of strict propriety; we justify our conduct against any imputation by proving that it

was blameless; exculpation rests on by it, some with the conviction of innocence with refatal results. The Department of gard to the fact we exculpate ourselves Agriculture placed at the disposal of from all blame by proving that we took the attending physicians a remedy it no part in the transaction: excuse and had been using with marked success plea are not grounded on any idea of among cattle, and in one case this innocence; they are rather appeals for proved effective, while in others the favor resting on some collateral circumstance which serves to extenuate: appUcation was too late. ANTICIPATE. See Prevent. a plea is frequently an idle or unfounded

States were attacked

:

ANTIPATHY. See Aversion. ANTIQUE. See Old. ANXIETY. See Care; Distress; Worry.

ANY.

See Some.

APARTMENTS. See Lodgings. APATHY. See Indifference. APE.

See Imitate. See Opening. APEX. See Zenith. APHORISM. See Anxious. APOLOGIZE, Defend, Justify, Exculpate, Excuse. Plead. Apoloand gize, from the Greek diroXoyia,

APERTURE.

a frivolous attempt to lessen displeasure; we excuse ourselves for a neglect by alleging indisposition; we plead for forgiveness by solicitation and entreaty. An apology mostly respects the conduct of individuals with regard to each other as equals; it is a voluntary act, springing out of a regard to decorum To or the good opinion of others.

excuse,

avoid misunderstandings it is necessary to apologize for any omission that wears the appearance of neglect. A defence respects matters of higher importance: diroXoyto^iat, compounded of airo, from the violations of laws or pubhc morals, or away, and X«yw, speak, signifies judicial questions decided in a court

^

64

APOPHTHEGM

or matters of opinion which are offered to the decision of the pubhc; no one defends himself but he whose conduct or opinions are called in question. A justification is apphcable to all moral cases in common life, whether of a serious natm-e or otherwise: it is the act of individuals toward each other according to their different stations: no

APOSTATE. See Recreant. APPALL. See Dismay. APPAREL, Attire, Array. Ap-

parel comes from Old French apareiller, from Latin ad, to, and Medieval Latin pariculus, from par, equal, meaning to put together things that are alike, to arrange, hence to arrange the dress. Attire comes from Old French atirier, one can demand a jiistifixxUion from from ad, to, and Old French tire or another without a sufficient authority, tiere, a row (compare our word tier), and no one will attempt to justify him- possibly of Teutonic origin; it means self to another whose authority he to place in rows, hence to arrange. does not acknowledge: men justify Array comes from Latin ad and Teuthemselves either on principles of hon- tonic rede, ready; and meant at first or or from the less creditable motive to get ready. These terms are all apphcable to of concealing their imperfections from the observation and censure of others. dress or exterior decoration. Apparel An exculpation is the act of an inferior; is the dress of every one; attire is the it respects the violations of duty tow- dress of the great; array is the dress ard the superior; it is dictated by of particular persons on particular necessity, and seldom the offspring of occasions: it is the first ebject of every any higher motive than the desire to man to provide himself with apparel screen one's self from punishment: suitable to his station; but the desire exculpation regards offences only of of shining forth in gaudy aitire is the commission; excuse is employed for property of httle minds: in festivals those of omission as well as com- and solemn occasions it may be proper mission: we excuse ourselves oftener for those who are to be conspicuous to for what we have not done than for set themselves out with a comely array. what we have done: it is the act of Apparel and attire respect the quahty persons in all stations, and arises from and fashion of the thing; but array has

various motives, dishonorable or otherwise: a person may often have substantial reasons to excuse himself from doing a thing or for not having done it; an excuse may Ukewise sometimes be the refuge of idleness and selfishness. To plead is properly a judicial act, and extended in its sense to the ordinary concerns of life; it is mostly employed for the benefit of others rather than ourselves. Excuse and plea, which are mostly employed in an unfavorable sense, are to apology, defence, and exculpation as the means to an end: an apology is lame when, instead of an honest confession of an unintentional error, an

regard to the disposition of the things with their neatness and decorum: ap-

attempt is made at justification; a is poor when it does not contain siifficient to invahdate the charge; a justification is nugatory when it appUes to conduct altogether wrong; aja excuse or a plea is frivolous or idle which

be seen.

idle

defence

may be costly or mean; aitire be gay or shabby; but array will never be otherwise than neat or parel

may

comely.

APPARENT, Visible, Clear, Plain, Obvious, Evident, Manifest. Apparent, in Latin apparens, participle of appareo, to appear, signifies the quahty of appearing. Visible, in Latin from visus, participle of video, to see, signifies capable of being seen. Clear is in French dair, German, Swedish, etc., klar, Latin darus. Plain, in Latin planus, even, signifies what is so smooth and unencumbered that it can visibilis,

Obvious in Latin obvius, compoimded of 06 and via, signifies the quahty of lying in one's way or before one's eyes. Evident, in French evident, Latin evidens, means something clearly seen or known, from e or ex, oid, and

turns upon some falsehood, misrepre- video, see. The intensive force of e sentation, or irrelevant point. in this case is similar to that of the or Apothegm. "See prepositions or adverb in Enghsh of phrases hke "see one's way out Axiom.

APOPHTHEGM

'

APPEASE "to see through" something, etc. Manifest, in French manifeste, Latin manifesliis, compwunded of manus, the hand, and festus, possibly from fendo. to strike, signifies the quality of being so near that it can be laid hold of by the hand. These words agree in expressingvarious degrees in the capabiUty of seeing; but visible is the only one used purely in a physical sense; apparent, clear, plain, and obvious are used physically and morally; evident and manifest solely in a moral acceptation. That which is simply an object of sight is visible; that which presents itself to our view difficulty,

in any form, real or otherwise, is apparent; the stars themselves are visible to us; but their size is apparent. Visible is applied to that which merely admits of being seen; apparent and

the other terms denote not only what to be seen, but what is easily to be seen: they are all applied as epithets to objects of mental discernment; what is apparent strikes the view; what is clear is to be seen in all its parts and is

in its prop>er colors:

it is

opposed to

that which is obscure; what is plain is seen by a plain understanding: it requires no deep reflection or severe study; it is opposed to what is intricate: what is obviotis presents itself readily to the mind of every one; it is seen at the first glance, and is opposed to that which is abstruse: what is evident is seen forcibly, and leaves no hesitation on the mind; it is opposed to that which is dubious; manifest is a greater degree of the evident; it strikes on the imderstanding and forces conviction; it is opposed to that which is dark. A thing is apparent upon the face of it: a case is clear; it is decided on immediately: a truth is plain; it is involved in no perplexity; it is not multifarious in its bearings: a falsehood is plain; it admits of no question: a reason is obvious; it flows out of the nature of the case: a proof is evident; it requires no discussion, there is nothing it that clashes or contradicts; the guilt or innocence of a person is evident when everything serves to strengthen the conclusion: a contradiction or absurdity is manifest which is felt by aU as soon as .'t is perceived. APPARITION. See Vision. 5

m

APPEAR.

65 See Look; See; Seem;

Transpire.

APPEARANCE, AiR, Aspect. Appearance signifies the thing that appears or the manner of appearing. Air (see Air). Aspect, in Latin aspec-

from aspicio, from ad (to) and specere, look, cognate with EngUsh spy, signifies the thing that is looked upon tus,

or seen.

Appearance is the generic, the rest are specific terms. The whol 2 external form, figure, or colors, whatever is visible to the eye, is its appearance; air is a particular appearance of any object as far as it is indicative of its quahty or conditicm; an air of wretchedness or poverty: aspect is the partial appearance of a body as it presents one of its sides to view; a gloomy or cheerful aspect. It is not safe to judge of either persons or things altogether by appearances; the appearance and reality are often at variance: the appearance of the sun is that of a moving body, but astronomers assert that it has no motion round the earth: there are particular towns, habitations, or

rooms which have always an

air of

comfort, or the contrary: this is a sort of appearance the most to be relied on: poUticians of a certain stamp are always busy in judging for the future from the aspect of affairs; but their predictions, hke those of astrologers who judge from the aspect of the heavens, frequently turn out to the discredit of the prophet. See also Air; Show. APPEASE, Calm, Pacify, Quiet, For derivation of appease see Still. Allay. Calm comes from Late Latin cauma, the heat of the sun, Greek Kavfia, modified by Latin calere, to grow hot, and signified rest during the day. Pacify, in Latin pacifico, compounded 01 pax and facia, signifies to make peaceable Quie t in French quiet, Latin quietus, from quies, rest, signifies to put to rest. Still, from Anglo-Saxon stiUan, to remain in a stall, is aUied with the German stellen, to place, and signifies to stop all movement, to place .

,

at rest.

To appease is to remove great agitation; to calm is to bring into a tranquil The wind is appeased, the sea state. With regard to persons, it is is calmed.

APPELLATION

66

necessary to appease those who are in transports of passion, and to calm those who are in trouble, anxiety, or apprehension. Appease respects matters of force or violence, calm those of inquietude and distress: one is appeased by a submissive behavior, and calmed by the removal of danger. Pacify corresponds to appease, and quiet to calm; in sense they are the same, but in apphcation they differ; appease and calm are used only in reference to objects of importance; pacify and quiet to those of a more familiar nature: the

uneasy humors of a child are pacified or its groundless fears are quieted. Still is a loftier expression than any of the former terms; serving mostly for the grave or poetic style: it is an onomatopseia for restraining or putting to silence that which is noisy and boisterous. See also Allay;

Mollify.

APPELLATION. See Name. APPLAUD. See Praise. APPLAUSE, Acclamation. Ajh

ing with any one at a given time and place; a king appoints his ministers. To order is the act of one invested with partial authority: a customer orders a

commodity from his tradesman: a master gives his orders to his servant. To prescribe is the act of one who is superior by virtue of his knowledge a :

physician prescribes for his patient. To ordain is an act emanating from the highest authority: kings and coimcils ordain;, but their ordinances must be conformable to what is ordained by the Divine Being. Appointments are made for the convenience of individuals or communities; but they may be altered or annulled at the pleasure of the contracting parties. Orders are dictated by the superior only, but they presuppose a discretionary obligation on the part of the individual to whom they are given. Prescriptions are binding on none but such as voluntarily admit their authority; but ordinances leave no choice to those on whom they are imposed to accept or reject them: the ordinances of man are not less binding than those of God, so long as they do not expressly contradict the divine

plause, from the Latin applaudo, signiUterally, to clap or stamp the feet to a thing. Acclamation, from acclamo, signifies a crying out to a thing. law.

fies,

These terms express a pubhc demonstration; the former by means of a noise with the hands or feet; the latter by means of shouts and cries: the former being employed as a testimony of approbation; the latter as a sanction, or an indication of respect. An actor looks for applause; a speaker looks for acclamation. What a man does calls forth applause, but the p)erson himself is mostly received with

Appointments are' kept, orders executed or obeyed, prescriptions followed, ordinances submitted to. It is a point of pohteness or honor, if not of direct moral obligation, to keep the appointments which we have made. Interest will lead men to execute the orders which they receive in the course of business: duty obhges them to obey the orders of their superiors. It is a nice matter to prescribe to another acclamxitions. At the hustings popular without hurting his pride; this prinspeeches meet with applause, and ciple leads men often to regard the favorite members are greeted with loud counsels of their best friends as preacclamations. scriptions; with children it is an unAPPLICATION. See Attend. questionable duty to follow the preAPPLY. See Added; Address. scriptions of those whose age, station, APPOINT, Order, Prescribe, Or- or experience authorizes them to predain. Appoint (see Allot). Order, scribe. God has ordained all things for in French ordre, Latin ordino, to ar- our good; it rests with ourselves to range, dispose, ordo, order, signifies to submit to His ordinances and be happy. place in regular position. Prescribe, in See also Constitute. Latin prescribo, compounded of prce, APPORTION. See Distribute. before, and scnbere, to write, sigiufies APPRAISE, Appreciate, Estito draw a line for a person. Ordain mate, Esteem. Appraise and appreis a variation of order. ciate, both from appretio and appreti* To appoint is either the act of an atus, participle of apprecio, compoimded equal or superior: we appoint a meet- of ad and pretium, a price, signify to set

APPREHEND

67

a price or value on a thing. Estimate flection and combination: we may comes from estimattts, participle of conceive properly or improperly. estimo, to value. To esteem is a variaThat of which we can have no sensible impression is not to be apprehended, tion of estimate. Appraise and appreciate are used in that which is above the reach of our precisely the same sense for setting a thought is not to be conceived. To apprehend and to conceive are apvalue on anything according to relative circumstanees; but the one is used in plied only to reality, to suppose and the proper, and the other in the figura- imagine are appUed to things which tive sense: a sworn appraiser appraises may exist only in the imagination; but goods according to the condition of the the former being drawn from that articles and their salable property; the which is real may be probable or imcharacters of men are appreciated by probable according to circumstances; others when their good and bad quah- the latter being the peculiar act of the ties are justly put in a balance. imagination, more commonly exists in To estimate a thing is to get the sum the imagination only. of its value by calculation; to esteem These terms are all employed to deanything is to judge its actual and in- note one's opinion or belief in regard to trinsic value. Estimate is used either ordinary matters with a like distinction. in a proper or a figiirative acceptation; Apprehend expresses the weakest kind esteem only in a moral sense: the ex- of behef, the having the least idea of pense of an imdertaking, losses by fire, the presence of a thing. gains by trade, are estimated at a cerA man is said to conceive that on tain sum; the estimate may be too high which he forms a direct opinion. or too low: the moral worth of men is What one supposes may admit of often estimated above or below the a doubt; it is frequently only conjectreaUty, according to the particular bias ural. of the estimator; but there are individWhat one imagines may be altouals of such an imquestionable worth gether improbable or impossible, and that they need only to be known in that which cannot be imagined may order to be esteemed. be too improbable to admit of being APPRECIATE. See Appraise. believed. APPREHEND, Conceive, Sup- Apprehend, Fear, Dread. Apprepose, Imagine. To apprehend, from hend signifies to have an idea of danger the Latin ad and prehervdo, I lay hold in one's mind, without necessarily imof, signifies to take. Conceive, from the plying any sentiment of fear. Fear, Latin con and capio, to take together Angl(>Saxon faer, a sudden peril or that is, to put together in the mind. danger, referred originally to the peril Suppose, from the Latin suppono, to of travelling, and is allied to faran, put one thing in the place of another. modern /are, meaning to travel. Dread, Imagine, from imago, to have an Anglo-Saxon drcedan, to be afraid, eximage or figure of anything in the presses the highest degree of fear. mind. What is jwssible may be apprehended; To apprehend is simply to take an we may apprehend a change in the idea into the mind; thus we may ap- weather, or that an accident will take prehend any object that we hear or place by the way. What is probable see: to conceive is to form an idea in may be feared; we may fear the conthe mind, as to conceive the idea of sequences of a person's resentment. doing anything, to conceive a design. Not only the evil which is nigh, but Apprehending is the first effort of the that which is exceeding great, prothinking faculty: conceiwin^ is the act duces dread. Apprehend is said only of things. of a more matured understanding; the former belongs to children as well as Fear and dread are also applied to pergrowTi persons, the latter more properly sons with the Uke distinction: fear is •to grown persons. Apprehending is a salutary sentiment; it is the sentiperformed by the help of the senses; ment of a child toward a parent or we may be quick or dull of aj)prehen- instructor: dread, as toward a fellowsion. Conceiving is performeu by re- creature, is produced by harshness and

—

\

APPREHENSION

68

oppression, but in regard to our Maker is produced by the consciousness of guilt.

form a junction.

An

equivocation ap-

proaches to a lie. Minds approximate by long intercourse.

APPROBATION.

APPREHENSION.

See Wobry. APPRISE. See Inform. APPRISED. See Aware.

Consent.

APPROACH,

gate, Assume, Ascribe.

Access, Admittance.

Approach, Old French aprochier, from Latin prope, near, signifies near to that is, coming near to. Access, in Latin accessus, from ac or ad, and cedere, to go, is, prop>erly, going to. Admittance (see Admit). Approach signifies the coming near or toward an object, and consequently is an unfinished act, but access and ad-

APPROPRIATE,

See

Usurp,

Assent;

Arro-

Appropriate,

French approprier, compounded of ad and propriatus, participle of propriare, an old verb, and proprius, proper or own (compare proper), signifies to make one's own. Usurp, in French v,surper, Latin usurpo, from ilsu rapere, in

to seize for one's own use, signifies to use of as one's own. Arrogate, in Latin arrogatus, participle of arrogo, signifies to ask or claim for one's self. Assume, in French assumer, Latin assumo, comp>ounded of as or ad and sutno, to take, signifies to take to one's self. Ascribe, in Latin ascribo, compounded of ad and scribo, write, signifies here to write down to one's own

make

mittance are finished acts; access is the coming to that is, as close to an object as is needful; and admittance is the coming into any place or into the presence or society of any person. Approach expresses simply the act of drawing near, but access and admittance comprehend, in their signification, the account. The idea of taking something to one's liberty and power of coming to or into: an appr'oach may be quick or slow, an self by an act of one's own is common To appropriate is access easy or difiicult, an admittance to all these terms. to take to one's self with or without free or exclusive. Approach may sometimes be taken right; to usurp is to take to one's self for a road or way of approach, which by violence or in violation of right. brings it nearer in sense to the other Appropriating is applied in its proper terms, as the approaches to a bridge or sense to goods in possession; v,surping is properly appHed to p>ower, titles, a town. Access is used only in its prop)er sense rights. Individuals appropriate whatfor the act of persons approach and ad- ever comes to their hands which they mittance are employed figuratively, as use as their own; they usurp power the approach of winter, age, etc., or the when they exercise the functions of govapproach to immortality, in the sense ernment without a legitimate sanction. of coming near to it in simiUtude, the These words may be applied in the admittance of immoral thoughts into the same sense to moral or spiritual objects. Arrogate, assume, and ascribe denote mind. Approach, Approximate. Approach the taking to one's self, but do not, hke (see preceding use). Approximate, coxn- appropriate and usurp, imply taking pound of ap and proximus, to come from another. Arrogate is a more vionearest or next, signifies either to draw lent action than assume, and assume near or bring near. To approach is than ascribe. Arrogate and assume are intransitive only; a person approaches employed either in the proper or figuraan object. To approximate is both tive sense, ascribe only in the figurative transitive and intransitive; a person sense. arrogate distinctions, honapproximates two objects to each other. ors, titles; we assume names, rights, To approach denotes simply the mov- and privileges. In the moral sense we ing of an object toward another, but to arrogate pre-eminence, assume imporapproximate denotes the gradual mov- tance, ascribe merit. To arrogate is a ing of two objects toward each other: species of moral usurpation; it is always that which approaches may come into accompained with haughtiness and immediate conjunction; but bodies contempt for others: that is arrogated may approximate for some time before to one's self to which one has not the tbey form a junction, or may never smallest title: an arrogant temper is

—

;

—

We

ARCHITECT

69

one of the most odious features in the something else. Decide is derived from human character; it is a compound of de and OBdere, to cut, and means to cut To assume is a off, hence to end. Determine comes folly and insolence. its from Latin de and terminare, from terspecies of moral appropriation; objects are of a less serious nature than minus, hmit, and meant to decide the those of arrogating, and it does less vio- hmits of something. Mediate, from lence to moral propriety: we may as- Latin medium, middle, meant to act as sume in trifles, we arrogate only in im- a go-between. Settle meant to cause portant matters. To ascribe is oftener to rest, from Anglo-Saxon setl, seat an act of vanity than of injustice: (compare the noun settle, a seat). It many men may be entitled to the merit received the sjjecial sense of to eswhich they ascribe to themselves; tabhsh peace between two combatbut by this very act they lessen the ants, from an association with the merit of their best actions. Anglo-Saxon sceht, the end of a suit, Arrogating as an action, or arrogance allied to the verb sacan, to contend, as a disposition, is always taken in a which appears in forsake. Of these bad sense: the former is always dic- terms mediate and arbitrate refer estated by the most preposterous pride; pecially to the difficulties that arise the latter is associated with every un- between states or between other orworthy quality. Assumption as an ganized groups of individuals. To action varies in its character according mediate involves an action prior to to circumstances; it may be either arbitration, for it is based upon a good, bad, or indifferent: it is justi- tender of the "good offices" of a neufiable in certain exigencies to assume tral nation to others in a dispute or a command where there is no one else war. In case it is accepted the medi^ able to direct; it is often a matter ating nation may become the arbitrator of indifference what name a person or the dispute may be submitted to assumes who does so only in conform- another form of arbitration that is, ity to the will of another; but it is 'final decision concerning the justice of always bad to assume a name as a the case by an impartial court. For mask to impose upon others. As a an. analysis of the difference between disposition assumption is always bad, decide and determine see the article on but stiU not to the same degree as decide. Decide and determine refer

—

arrogance. An arrogant man renders himself intolerable to society: an assuming man makes himself offensive: arrogance is the characteristic of men; assumption is {jecuhar to youths: an arrogant man can be humbled only by

to purely intellectual operations. One may decide or determine the rights of a case without proceeding to adjust the difficulties or to settle the disturbAdjust and settle imply active ance. participation. Adjust and settle differ silent contempt; an assuming youth mainly in the connotations suggested must be checked by the voice of au- by their derivations. We adjust matters thority. where the trouble is due to a lack of

See also culiar.

Monopouze; Nab; Pe- mutual understanding between two con-

APPROVE. See Ratify. APPROXIMATE. See Approach. APT.

See Fit; Ready. APTITUDE. See Knack. ARBITER. See Judge. ARBITRARY. See Absolute. ARBITRATE, Adjust, Decide, Determine, Mediate, Settle. Arbitrate

fficting parties.

We settle a disturbance

where conflicting claims cannot be adjusted

by

superior force or authority.

ARBITRATOR.

See Judge; Paci-

fist.

ARCHITECT, Builder. from architecture, in Latin from architectura, Greek compounded

Architect, architectusy ap\iTkKTii>v.

the chief, ana (for derivation see Judge) means to r«xv»?, art or contrivance, signifies the decide as an outsider, an impartial chief of contrivers. Builder, from the judge. Adjust (not derived from jus- verb to build, denotes the person contice, but from ad and juxta. next to) cerned in buildings, who causes the of dpyoQ,

originally to put side by side, to structure of houses, either by his money put something into a proper relation to or his personal service.

meant

ARCHIVE

70

An

architect is

an

artist,

clear.

Dispute,

in

PYench

dispuier,

Latin dispute, compounded of dis and p^Uo, signifies to think differently; in an extended sense, to assert a different Debate, in French debattre, compounded of the intensive syllable de and battre, to beat or fight, signifies to contend for and against. To argv£ is to defend one's self; to dispute, to oppose another; to debate, to dispute in a formal manner. To argu£ on a subject is to explain the reasons or proofs in support of an assertion; to argue with a person is to defend a position against him: to dispute a thing is to advance objections against a position; to dispute with a person is to start objections against his positions, to attempt to refute them: a debate is

opinion.

a disputation held by many.

signifies to make good to appear good. These terms in general convey the idea of evidence, but with gradations: argu£ denotes the smallest, and prove the highest degree. To argu£ is to serve as an indication amounting to probability; to evince denotes an indication so clear as to remove doubt; to prove marks an evidence so positive as to produce conviction. It argues a want of candor in any man to conceal circumstances in his statement which are in any wise calculated to affect the subject in question the tenor of a person's conversation may evince the refinement of his mind and the purity of his taste: when we see men sacrificing their peace of mind and even their integrity of character to ambition it proves to us how important it is even in early life to check this natural and in some measure laudable, but still insinuating and dangerous, passion. Argument, Reason, Proof. Argument, from argu£, signifies either the thing that argues, or that which is brought forward in arguing. Reason, in

employed probus, good,

only to form the plans for large buildings; a builder is a simple tradesman, or even workman, who builds common dweUing-houses. ARCHIVE. See Record. ARDENT. See Hot; Sanguine. ARDOR. See Fervor; Zeal. ARDUOUS. See Hard. ARGUE, Dispute, Debate. Argue comes from Latin arguere, to make

To

argu^

does not necessarily suppose a conviction on the part of the arguer that what he defends is true, nor a real difference of opinion in his opponent; for some men have such an itching propensity for an argument that they will attempt to prove what nobody denies: to dispute always supposes an opposition to some person, but not a sincere opposi-

or to

make

:

—

French raison, Latin ratio, from ratus, participle of reor, think, signifies the faculty of mind which draws conclusions. Proof, like prove, is derived ultimately from Latin probus, good, excellent, and means that which tests and reveals the excellence of something. An argument serves for defence; a reason for justification; a proof for conviction. Arguments are adduced in support of a hypothesis or proposition; reasons are assigned in matters of behef and practice; proofs are collected

tion to the thing; for we may dispute that which we do not deny, for the to ascertain a fact. sake of holding a dispute with one who Arguments are either strong or weak: is of different sentiments: to debate reasons soUd or futile; proofs clear ana presupposes a multitude of clashing or positive, or vague and indefinite. We opposing opinions. Men of many confute an argument, overpower a reawords argue for the sake of talking: son, and invahdate a proof. Whoever men of ready tongues dispute for the wished to defend Christianity will be sake of victory: in parliament men in no want of arguments; the beHever often debate for the sake of opposing the need never be at a loss to give a reason ruhng party, or from any other motive for the hope that is in him; out throughthan the love of truth. out the whole of Divine Revelation Argue, Evince, Prove. Argue (see there is no circumstance that is above). Evince, in Latin evinco, com- substantiated with such irrefragable pounded of vinco, to prove, or make out, proofs as the resurrection of our and e, forth, signifies to bring to fight, Saviour. to make to appear clear. Prove, in ARISE, or Rise, Mount, Ascend, French prouvsr, in Latin probo, from Climb, Scale. Arise or rise, derived

—

ARISE

71

flow, means to means specifically flow out. to move in an upward direction. AsThe idea of one object coming out of cend is derived from ad, to, and scandere, another is expressed by all these terms,

from a root signifying to move, found out, and tnanare, to in river, rivulet, etc.,

to climb, from a root found in scandal (originally a stumbling-block), and means to climb to something. Climb means to ascend by grasping, and is derived from a Germanic root signifying to grasp, found in clip, cleave, clamber, etc. Scale is derived from Latin scala (from the same root found in ascend), that by which one ascends, and means to rise by a ladder. The idea of going upward is common to all these terms; arise is used only in the sense of simply getting up, but rise is employed to express a continued motion upward: a person arises from his seat or his bed; a bird rises in the air; the silver of the barometer rises; the first three of these terms convey a gradation in their sense; to arise or rise denotes a motion to a less elevated height than to mx)unt, and to mount that which is less elevated than ascend;

a person rises from his seat, mounts a and ascends a mountain. Arise and rise are intransitive only; the rest are likewise transitive: we rise from a point, we mount and ascend to a point, or we mount and ascend something: an air-balloon rises when it first leaves the groimd; it mounts higher and higher until it is o,ut of sight; but if it ascends too high it endangers the life of the aerial adventurer. Climb and scale express a species of rising: to climb is to rise step by step by clinging to a certain body; to scale is to rise by an escalade, or species of ladder, employed in mounting the walls of fortified towns: trees and mountains are hill,

but they

circumstances of out of a body and rises into existence is said to arise, as the mist which arises out of the sea: what comes forth as an effect, or comes forth in a particular manner, is said to proceed; thus the fight proceeds from a certain quarter of the heavens, or from a certain part of a house: what comes out from a small apertm-e is said to issue; thus perspiration issues through the pores of the skin; water issues sometimes from the sides of rocks; what comes out in a sudden or quick manner, or comes from differ in the

the action.

What comes up

some remote

soiu-ce, is said to spririg;

thus blood springs from an artery which is pricked; water springs up out of the earth what comes out in quantities or in a stream is said to flow; thus blood fl/)ws from a wound: to emanate is a species of flx)wirig by a natural operation, when bodies send forth, or seem to send forth, particles of their own composition from themselves; thus fight emanates from the sun. This distinction in the signification of these terms is kept up in their moral acceptation, where the idea of one thing originating from another is common to them aU; but in this case arise is a general term, which simply implies the coming into existence; proceed conveys also the idea of a progressive movement into existence. Every object, therefore, may be said to arise out of whatever produces it; but it proceeds from it only when it is gradually produced: evils are continu^y aristrw^ :

climbed; walls are scaled. Arise or Rise, Proceed, Issue, Spring,

m human society for which there is no

Flow, Emanate. To arise (see above). Proceed, in Latin procedo, that is, pro and cecfere, to go, signifies to go forth. Issu£ is French issue, participle of issir (from ex, out of, and ire, to go. Spring, in German springen, signifies to leap forth. Flow, Anglo-Saxon flovxm, is derived from a Germanic root allied to the Latin pluit, it rains, and the Greek irXweiv, to float. It has no connection with the Latin fiuere, to flow. Emanate, in Latin emanatus, participle of eiTiano, from ex.

orders

—

remedy: in compficated disnot always possible to sayprecisely from what the complaint of the patient proceeds. Issue is seldom used but in application to sensible objects: yet we may say, in conformity to the original meaning, that words issxie from the mouth: the idea of the specific

it is

is kept up in moral appUcation of the term spring, when we say that actions spring from a generous or corrupt principle: the idea of a quantity and a stream is preserved in the moral use of the terms

distant soiu-ce or origin

the

ARMISTICE

72

flow and emanate; but the former may be said of that which is not inherent in the body; the latter respects that only which forms a component part of the body: God is the spring whence all authority all our blessings flow; emanates from God, who is the supreme source of all things; theologians, when speaking of God, say that the Son emanates from the Father, and the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, and that grace fl^ws upon us incessantly from the inexhaustible treasures of Divine mercy.

ARRIVE.

See Come.

ARROGANCE, Presumption.

Ar-

rogance, in French arrogance, Latin arrogantia, signifies the disposition to arrogate (see Appropriate). Presumption,

from presume, Latin praesumo,

compounded of prce, before, and sumere, itself compounded from svb and emere, to buy, and meaning to put or take,

the disposition to put one's self forward. Arrogance is the act of the great; presumption that of the Uttle: the arrogant man takes upon himself to be ARMISTICE. See Truce. above others; the presumptv^v^ man ARMS, Weapons. Arms, from the strives to be on a level with those who Latin arma, hterally fittings, equip- are above him. Arrogance is comments, from the root signifying to join monly coupled with haughtiness; preor lashion found in art, arm (a part of sumption with meanness: men arrothe human body), etc., is now properly gantly demand as a right the homage used for instruments of offence, and which has perhaps before been volunnever otherwise except by a poetic tarily granted; the creature presumptuhcense of arms for armor; but weapon, ously arraigns the conduct of the Creafrom a widespread Germanic root, may tor, and murmurs against the disbe used either for an instrument of pensations of His providence. offence or defence. See also Assumption; Haughtiness. We say fire-arms, ARROGATE. See Appropriate. but not fire-weapons; and weapons ofART, Cunning, Deceit. Art, in fensive or defensive, not arms offensive or defensive. Arms, likewise, agree- Latin ars, from a root ar, to join (see ably to its origin, is employed for that arms), allied to Greek apnog, fit, only which is purposely made to be an exact, signifies Hterally the "putting instrument of offence; weapon, accord- of two and two together." Cunning is ing to its extended and indefinite appli- derived from Anglo-Saxon cunnan, to cation, is employed for whatever may know, and therefore corresponds exactbe accidentally used for this purpose: ly to the colloquial adjective knowing, guns and swords are always arms; in such phrases as "a knowing look," stones, brick-bats, and pitchforks, and also the tongue or words, may be occasionally weapons. Host. An army is an organized body of armed men; a host,

ARMY,

from

hostis,

an enemy,

is

properly a

of hostile men. An army is a limited body; a /ios< may be unhmited, and is therefore generally conside. xi a very large body. The word army applies only to that which has been formed by the rules of art for purposes of war: host has been extended in its apphcation not only to bodies, whether of men or angels, that were assembled for purposes of offence, but also in the figurative sense to whatever rises up to

body

signifies

"a knowing

child,"

etc.

Deceit,

in

Latin deceptum, participle of decipio, or de and capio, signifies to take by surprise or unawares. Art imphes a disposition of the mind to use circumvention or artificial means to attain an end: cunning marks the disposition to practise disguise in the prosecution of a plan: deceit leads to the practice of dissimulation and gross falsehood, for the sake of gratifying a desire. Art is the property of a hvely mind; cunning, of a thoughtful and knowing mind; deceit, of an ignorant, low, and weak mind. Art is practised often in self-defence; as a practice,

it is even sometimes justialthough not as a disposition: cunning has always self in view; the ARRAIGN. See Accuse. cunning man seeks his gratification ARRANGE. See Class; Dispose. without regard to others; deceit is often ARRAY. See Apparel. practised to the express injury of an-

assail.

therefore, fiable,

ARTIFICE

73*

man

adopts base declares that this is incorrect. The Animals prac- Latin conditio is derived from con and tise art when opposed to their superiors a root found in dicere, to speak, meanin strength; but they are not artful, as ing to point out. Term is derived they have not that versatihty of power from Latin terminus, Greek Tepfia, from which they can habitually exercise to the root meaning to cross over. their own advantage hke human beings; These words agree in their applicaanimals may be cunning, inasmuch as tion to matters of compact, or underthey can by contrivance and conceal- standing between man and man. Artiment seek to obtain the object of their cle and condition are used in both numdesire, but no animal is deceitful except bers: terms only in the plural in this man; the wickedest and stupidest of sense: the former may be used for men have the power and the will of any point individually; the latter for deceiving and practising falsehood upon all the points collectively: article is others which is unknown to the employed for all matters which are other:

the deceitfvl

means

for base ends.

brutes. drawn out in specific articles or points; See also Business. as the articles of an indenture, of a Artful, Artificial, Fictitunis. Artful, capitulation, or an agreement. Concompounded of art and full, marks the dition respects any point that is adquality of being full of art. Artificial, mitted as a ground of obhgation or in Latin artifictalis, from ars and facio, engagement: it is used for the general to do, signifies done with art. Fictitious, transactions of men, in which they in Latin fictitius, from fingere to feign reciprocally bind themselves to return (compare article on feign), signifies the certain equivalents. The word terms quality of being feigned. is employed in regard to mercantile Artful respects what is done with art transactions; as the terms of any baror design; artificial what is done by gain, the terms of any agreement, the the exercise of workmanship; fictitious terms on which anything is bought or what is made out of the mind. Artful sold. Articles are mostly voluntary; and artificial are used either for natural they are admitted by mutual agreeor moral objects; fictitious always for ment: conditions are frequently comthose that are moral: artful is opposite pulsory, sometimes hard; they are to what is artless, artificial to what is submitted to from pohcy or necessity; natural, fictitious to what is real: the terms are dictated by interest or equity; ringlets of a lady's hair are disposed they are fair or unfair according to in an artful manner; the hair itself the temper of the parties; they are may be artificial; a tale is artful which submitted or agreed to. is told in a way to gain credit; manARTICULATE. See Utter. ners are artificial which do not seem ARTIFICE, Trick, Finesse, Stratto suit the person adopting them; a agem. Artifice, from French artifice,

—

story

is fictitious

artificer, and artem an art, signifies the performance of an art. Trick is derived from Dutch and originally meant a clever contrivance. Finesse, a word directly imported from France, with all the meaning attached to it which is

which has no foimda- Latin

tion whatever in truth and is the invention of the narrator. Children sometimes tell their stories so artfully as to impose on the most penetrating and experienced. Those who have no character of their own are induced to take an artificial character in order to put themselves on a level with their associates. Beggars deal in fictitious tales of distress in order to excite compassion. See also Scheming.

artifex,

an

facio, to execute

characteristic

means properly

of the nation itself, fineness; the word fin

French is derived from Latin finitus, meaning well finished. Stratagem, in French stratagbme, from the Greek arpariiyTifta and arpdrTtyeu), tO lead an ARTICLE, Condition, Term. Ar- army, signifies by distinction to head ticle, in French article, Latin articiUus, them in carrying on any scheme. a joint or a part of a member. CondiAll these terms denote the exercise of tion is usually believed to be derived an art calculated to mislead others. from the Latin condere, to build. Skeat Artifice is the generic term, the rest are in

74

ARTIFICES,

the former has likewise a paruse and acceptation distinct from the others; it expresses a ready display of art for the purpose of extricating one's self from a difficulty, or securing to one's self an advantage. Trick includes in it more of design to gain something for one's self, or to act secretly to the inconvenience of others: it is rather a cheat on the senses than the understanding. Finesse is a species of artifice in which art and cunning are combined in the management of a cause: it is a mixture of invention, falsehood, and concealment. Stratagem is a display of art in plotting and contriving, a disguised mode of obtaining an end. Females who are not specific:

ticular

machine, a device, signifies one who works with machines. The artist ranks higher than the artisan, the former requires intellectual refinement, the latter nothing but to

know the common

practice of art. The musician, painter, and sculptor are artists; the carpenter, the sign-painter, and the blacksmith are artisans. The artificer is an intermediate term between the artist and the artisan; manufacturers are artificers; and, in an ex-

who makes a thing by his contrivance is an artificer. The mechanic is that species of artisan who works at arts purely mechanical, in distinction from those which contribute to the completion and embeUishment of guarded by fixed principles of virtue any objects; on this ground a shoeand uprightness are apt to practise maker is a mechanic, but a common Men painter is a simple artisan. artifices upon their husbands. ARTLESS. See Naive. without honor, or an honorable means of hving, are apt to practise various AS. See Both. tricks to impose upon others to their ASCEND. See Arise. own advantage: every trade, thereASCENDANCY. See Influence. fore, is said to have its tricks; and proASCETIC, Austere, Rigid, Stern. fessions are not entirely clear from this from stigma, which has been brought upon Ascetic in French a^cetigue, them by unworthy members. Diplo- dffKHv, to work, exercise, appUed, matic persons have most frequent re- hterally, to the practice of an art, Mihtary operations hence to an athlete, and, by exten•course to finesse. are sometimes considerably forwarded sion, to the discipline practised by an fcy weU-concerted and well-timed strat- athlete. In the schools of the stoics, agems to siu-prise the enemy. the term that imphed this disciphne An artifix:e may be perfectly innocent practised by the wrestlers was emwhen it serves to afford a friend an ployed to designate the practice of unexpected pleasure. A trick is child- mastering the desires and passions or ish which only serves to deceive or of severe virtue, and in this sense it amuse children. Stratagems are allow- passed into the language of the early able not in war only; the writer of a Christians: on this basis the modem novel or a play may sometimes adopt meaning of a person unduly rigid or a successful stratagem to cause the aiistere was derived. Austere is derived from Latin aureader a surprise. Finesse is never justifiable; it carries with it too much sterus, harsh, sour, tart, from Greek dry, of concealment and disingenuousness avcrrnpoQ, making the tongue to be practised but for selfish and un- harsh, bitter. It signifies a manner, a temperament, and does not so disworthy purposes. tinctly imply the mastering of the ARTIFICER. See Artist. ARTIFICIAL. See Artful; The- physical appetites as does the word ascetic. Similarly stem, from Angloatrical, Saxon styme, of harsh mind, refers to ARTISAN. See Artist. ARTIST, Artisan, Artificer, Me- a kind of temper. Austerity suggests chanic. Artist is the practicer of the both the habits of fife indicated in fine arts (for derivation see Art) ; arti^ asceticism and the kind of nature sugsan the practicer of the vulgar arts. gested by sternness. A man may be Artificer comes from ars and facio, one stem and, at the same time, be the who does or makes according to art. opposite of ascetic. Rigid, from Latin Mechanic, from Greek fiTjxaviKr], a rigidus (whence rigorous is also derived tended sense, any one

,

ASK

75

comes from the ASEPTIC, Germless, Non-putrebe stiff or straight. It fying. Aseptic, a comjjound of the refers both to the property of physical Greek wrrjirToc (from a privative and things and, figuratively, to a certain trriTrriKoc, putrefying) and the Enghsh habit of mind or of life. Stem refers suffix ic, signifies that which is not to a kind of emotional temperament; liable to putrefaction, or that which is rigid suggests an intellectual habit, an germless or free from septic matter, unbending mind, whence certain char- or any substance that produces or proacteristics of temper and habits of motes putrefaction; in the substantive form, asepsis, the absence of toxinous living might develop. ASCRIBE, Impute, Attribute. To or pathogenic bacteria which poison From the original Greek ascribe signifies here generally to write the blood. or set down in one's own mind to a per- term we have septicaemia, an acute disease resembling pyaemia in its general son (see Appropriate) that is, to assign anything in one's estimate as characteristics, supposed to be caused by the introduction into the blood of the possession or the property of another, as to ascribe honor or power. putrid matter from the surface of a wound or and puto, ulcer, the putrefaction now To impute, from im or in think, is to form an estimate of a being known, through the antiseptic of researches Pasteur and Lister, to person; as to impute a thing to a person's folly. To attribute, from ad and be a fermentative change due to the presence of assign thing certain micro-organisms tribuo, bestow, is to a as in a cause; as to attribute the loss of a the blood. Antiseptic surgery violence of the storm. is the vessel to the operation of What is ascribed and imputed is most- introducing antiseptic solutions into wound whence personal either honor a the poisonous of a nature, to matter ly or dishonor; ascribe more frequently has been carried into the blood, or for the former, impute for the latter. where the wound has not been promptIn the doxology of the church ritual, ly treated by antisepsis, or the exall honor, might, majesty, dominion, clusion of microbes or bacteria from

by way Latin

of French),

rigere, to

—

and power are ascribed to the three persons in the Holy Trinity; men of right minds cannot bear the slightest imputation on their honor, nor virtuous women the shghtest imputation on

wounds and open sores, ASK, Beg, Request. Ask, in AngloSaxon ascian, is derived fr®m a Germanic root signifying to wish. Beg is derived, by a somewhat comphcated

their chastity.

process,

Ascribe may, however, sometimes be employed in an unfavorable sense, and impute in a favorable sense. We may ascribe imperfection as well as perfection, and impute good as weU as bad "motives. To ascribe may also denote to assign a cause, which brings it nearer in sense to attribute; but the former always refers to some characteristic of the f)erson, and the latter, although apphed to personal qualities, conveys no personal reflection.

To ascribe is alwavs to assign to some individual person; but to attribute may either refer to no persons, or to none Milton ascribes the first individually. useof artillery to the devil: the Letters of Junius have been ascribed successively to many as the author; the death of many persons may be attributed to intemperance.

from a frequentative of bid, and meant to bid often, to ask again and again. Request, in Latin requisitus, participle of requiro, is compounded of re and quoerere, to seek or look after, with indications of desire to possess. The expression of a wish to some one to have something is the common idea comprehended in these terms. As this is the simple signification of ask, it is the

generic term; cific;

we ask

the other two are spein begging

and

requesting,

but not tdce versa. Asking is pecuhar to no rank or station* in consequence of our mutual dependence on each other, it is requisite for every man to ask something of another: the master asks of the servant, the servant asks of the master; the parent asks of the child, the child asks of the parent. Begging marks a degree of dependence which is pecuhar to inferiors in station; we ask for matters of indifference; we beg

ASK

76

*hat which we think is of importance: A child asks a favor of his parent; a poor man begs the assistance of one who is able to afford it: that is asked for which is easily granted; that is begged which is with difficulty obtained. To a^k, therefore, requires no effort, but to beg is to ask with importunity: those who by merely asking find themselves unable to obtain what they wish, As ask will have recourse to begging. sometimes imphes a demand, and beg a vehemence of desire or strong degree of necessity, politeness has adopted another phrase, which conveys neither the imperiousness of the one nor the urgency of the other; this is the word

(from manus, hand), and hence to ask for that which has been intrusted. Ask, in the sense of beg, is confined to

the expression of wishes on the part of the asker, without involving any obligation on the part of the person asked; all granted in this case is voluntary, or comphed with as a favor; but ask for, in the sense here taken, is involuntary, and springs from the forms and distinctions of society. Ask is here, as before, generic or specific; claim and demand are specific: in its specific sense it conveys a less peremptory sense than either claim or demand. To ask for denotes simply the expressed wish to have what is considered as due; to claim, is to assert a right or to make it known; to demand is to insist on having, without the Uberty of a refusal. Asking respects obligation in general, great or small; claim respects obhgations of importance. Asking for supposes a right not questionable; claim supposes a right hitherto unacknowledged; demand supposes either a disputed right or the absence of all

Asking carries with it an air of superiority; begging that of submission; requesting has the air of independence and equality. Asking borders too nearly on an infringement of begging imposes a personal Uberty; constraint by making an appeal to the feelings; requests leave the hberty of granting or refusing unencumbered. It is the character of impertinent people to ask without considering the cir- right, and the simple determination to cumstances and situation of the person have: a tradesman asks for what is asked; they seem ready to take with- owed to him as circumstances may reout permission that which is asked, if quire; a person claims the property he it be not granted: selfish and greedy has lost people are sometimes pleased people beg with importunity, and in a to make demands the legaUty of which tone that admits of no refusal; men cannot be proved. What is lent must of good breeding tender their requests be asked for when it is wanted; whatwith moderation and discretion; they ever has been lost and is found must be request nothing but what they are cer- recovered by a claim; whatever a selftain can be conveniently comphed ish person wants he strives to obtain with. by a demand, whether just or unjust. Ask is altogether excluded from poAsk, Inquire, Question, Interrogate. lite hfe, although beg is not. may Ask (see above). Inquire, Latin inbeg a person's acceptance of anything; quiro, compounded of in and qvxEro, we may beg him to favor or honor us signifies to search after. Question, in with his company; but we can never French questionner, signifies to put a talk of asking a person's acceptance, question, from the Latin qucestio and or asking him to do us an honor. Beg qvxBTo, to seek or search, to look into. in such cases indicates a condescen- Interrogate, Latin interrogatu^, partision which is sometimes not unbecom- ciple of interrogo, compounded of inter ing, but on ordinary occasions request and rogo, signifies to ask. is with more propriety substituted in perform all these actions in order its place. to get information: but we ask for genAsk, or Ask For, Claim, Demand. eral purposes of convenience; we inAsk (see above) Claim, in Old French quire from motives of curiosity; we daimer, Latin clamo, to cry after, sig- question and interrogate from motives of To ask respects simply nifies to express an imperious wish for. discretion. Demand, in French demander, is de- one thing; to inquire resp)ect8 one or rived from Old French de and mander, many subjects; to question and inlerrcH >to order from the hands of another gate is to ask repeatedly, and in the request.

;

—

We

We

—

.

ASSAILANT fatter case more authoritatively than Indifferent people ask in the former. of each other whatever they wish to know: learners inquire the reasons of things which are new to them: masters question their servants, or parents their children, when they wish to ascertain the real state of any case: magistrates interrogate criminals when they are brought before them. It is very uncivil not to answer whatever is asked even by the meanest person: it is proper to satisfy every inquiry, so as to remove doubt: questions are sometimes so impertinent that they cannot with propriety be answered: interrogations from unauthorized persons are Uttle better than insults.

ASKEW.

See

Slander,

Calumniate.

Asperse,

in

Latin aspersv^, participle of aspergere, to sprinkle, allied to English sprinkle, signifies in a moral sense to stain with Detract, in Latin detractus, parspots. ticiple of detraho, compounded of de and traho, to draw from, signifies to take from another that which is his

due, or which he desires to retain; particularly to take from the merit of an action. Defame, in Latin defamo, compounded of the privative de and fama, from root fari, to speak, meaning reputation that which others say about us signifies to deprive of reputation. Slander, Middle English sclandre, is a doublet of scandal (see Discredit), derived from Greek through Latin and French. Calumniate is derived from Latin calumnia, from caluere, to deceive. All these terms denote an effort made to injure the character or estimation by some representation. Asperse and detract mark an indirect representation; defame, slander, and calumniate, a posiTo asperse is to fix a tive assertion. moral stain on a character; to detract is to lessen its merits and excellences.

— —

my

and insinuate anything against the purity of his principles or the rectitude of his conduct, I asperse him: if he be a charitable man, and I ascribe his charities to a selfish motive, or otherwise take away from the merit of his conduct, I am guilty of detraction; if I pubhsh anything openly that injures his reputation, I am a defamer; if I communicate to others the reports that are in circulation to his disadvantage, I am a slanderer; if I fabricate anything myself and spread it abroad, I am a calumniator.

ASPHYXIA,

Wry.

ASPECT. See Appearance. ASPERITY, See Acrimony. ASPERSE, Detract, Defame,

77

his absence; to ccUumniate is to communicate secretly, or otherwise, false circumstances to the injury of another. If I speak slightingly of neighbor,

Syncope,

Suffoca-

Asphyxia, in French asphyxie, is from Latin asphyxia, Greek aaipvKia the latter a compoimd of d, without, and a(j)vKtQ, the pulse, signifies, literally, a pulseless condition, the temporary or permanent cessation of the motions or throbbings of the heart, as in hanging, drowning, and suffocation, due to an interruption of the passage of the blood in the body which keeps it from its connection with the tion.

atmosphere by respiration, and so prevents a sufficiently free exchange of carbonic acid for oxygen. In its mild form we have syncope, from mry and KOTTTitv, to cut. This is a fainting brought on by a sudden fright, illness, or a more than ordinarily disturbing spectacle. In its most severe or fatal form it becomes suffocation, the effect of a stoppage of respiration. The usual treatment of asphyxia has recently been supplemented, with

marked

success, by the invention of the pulmotor, an apparatus designed to resuscitate victims of poisoning by gases and noxious fumes, electric shocks, suspended animation from any cause, drowning, attempted suicide, collapse in narcosis, and other mishaps, by forcing oxygen into the lun^. Many of the large gas comAspersions always imply something pames now keep pulmotors on hand to bad, real or supposed; detractions are send out in cases of accidental or inalways founded on some supposed good tentional asphjTciation by illuminating in the object that is detracted; to defame gas. ASPIRE. See Aim. is openly to advance some serious ASSAIL. See Attack. charge against the character; to slanASSAILANT. See Aggressor. der is to expose the faults of another in

ASSASSINATE

78

ASSASSINATE. See Kill. ASSAULT. See Attack. ASSAY. See Test.

assembled, therefore, whenever they are convened or convoked, but not vice

Assembling is mostly by the wish of one; convening by that of several: a crowd is assembled by an inAssemble is derived through French dividual in the streets; a meeting is from Low Latin assimulare, from ad, convened at the desire of a certain numto, and ^mul, together, from a root ber of persons: people are assembled which also appears in similar, sam£, either on public or private business; Muster comes from Latin mon- they are always convened on a pubhc etc. A king assembles his parhastrari, to show, and means specifically occasion. a review of troops. Collect is derived ment; a particular individual assemfrom Latin con, together, and legere, bles his friends; the inhabitants of a to gather, from the root which also district are convened. There is nothing imperative on the part of those that appears in college, colleague, etc. Assemble is said of persons only; miis- assemble or convene, and nothing bindTo ing on those assembled or convened; one ter and collect of persons or things. assemble is to bring together by a call or assembles or convenes by invitation or invitation; to muster is to bring to- request; one attends to the notice or gether by an act of authority, or a par- not, at pleasure. Convoke, on the ticular effort, into one point of view at other hand, is an act of authority; it one time and from one quarter; to is the call of one who has the authority collect is to bring together at different to give the call; it is heeded by those times and from different quarters: who feel themselves bound to attend. Assembly, Assemblage, Group, Colthe parliament is assembled; soldiers are mustered every day in order to as- lection. Assembly, assernblage, are colcertain their numbers; an army is lective terms derived from the verb asGroup comes through French collected in preparation for war; a king semble. assembles his council in order to con- from Italian groppo, which among sult with them on public measures; a painters signifies an assemblage of figgeneral musters his forces before he un- ures in one place. Collection expresses dertakes an expedition, and collects the act of collecting, or the body collected. Assembly respects persons only; asmore troops if he finds himself too semblage, things only; group and colweak. Collect is used for everything which lection, persons or things: an assembly can be brought together in numbers; is any number either brought together mtister is used figuratively for bringing or coming together of themselves; an versa.

ASSEMBLAGE. See Assembly. ASSEMBLE, Mustek, Collect.

—

assemblage is any number of things standing together; a group is come coins, curiosities, and the hke are col- together by accident or put together lected; a person's resources, his strength, by design; a collection is mostly put or gencourage, resolution, etc., are mustered; brought together by design. some persons have a pleasure in collect- eral alarm will cause an assembly to ing all the pieces of antiquity which disperse; an agreeable assemblage of faU in their way; on a trying occasion rural objects, whether in nature or in it is necessary to muster all the forti- representation, constitutes a landscape: tude of which we are master. a painting will sometimes consist only Assemble, Convene, Convoke. Assem- of a group of figures; but if they be ble (see above). Convene, in Latin con- well chosen it wiU sometimes produce venio, signifies to come or bring to- a wonderful effect: a collection of evilgether. Convoke, in Latin convoco, minded persons ought to be immedisignifies to call together. ately dispersed by the authority of the The idea of collecting many persons magistrate. In a large assembly you into one place, for a specific purpose, is may sometimes observe a singular ascommon to all these terms. Assemble semblage of characters, countenances, conveys this sense without any addi- and figures: when people come totion; convene and convoke include Uke- gether in great numbers on any occawise some collateral idea: people are sion, they will often form themselves together,

whatever

for an immediate purpose, in one's possession: books,

is

A

—

ASSENT into distinct groups; the collection of scarce books and curious editions has become a passion, which is ridiculed under the title of BibUomania. Assembly, Company, Meeting, Congregation, Parliament, Diet, Congress, Convention, Synod, Convocation, Coun-

—

An assembly (see Assembly) is simply the assernbling together of any cil.

number

of persons: this idea is comall the rest of these terms, which differ in the object, mode, and other collateral circumstances of the Company, a body hnked toaction.

mon

to

gether (see Accompany), is an assembly for purposes of amusement. Meeting, z body met together, is an assembly for general pm-poses of business. Congregation, a body flocked or gathered together, from the Latin grex, a flock, is an assembly brought together from congeniaUty of sentiment and community of purpose. Parliament is derived through French parler, and a sufBx from Latin parabola, Greek irapa^oXri, a speech in which two things are

compared. (Compare parable.) Diet, from Greek Siatra, a mode of life, has the same etymology as the word diet applied to

mode of life in reThe pecuhar sense in

the

spect to food. which it is here used is due to a confusion of it in the popular mind with the Latin dies, day, especially a day set apart for pubUc business; and so it came to mean an assembly which conducted public business. Congress, from the Latin congredior, to march

tion is

by

all

79 always public. Meetings are held who have any common concern

to arrange; congregations consist of those who piu^ue the same objects particularly in matters of religion, although extended in its application to other matters: all these different kinds of assemblies are formed by individuals in their private capacity; the other terms designate assemblies that come together for national purposes, with the exception of the word convention, which may be either domestic or poUtical. parliament and diet are popular assem-

A

blies under a monarchical form of government; congress and convention are assemblies under a repubhcan government of the first description is the parliament of England, the diets of Prussia and Finland assembled by the :

reigning prince to deUberate on the affairs of the nation. Of the latter description is the congress of the IJnited States of America and the national convention of France; but there is this difference observable between a congress and a convention, that the former consists of deputies or delegates from higher authorities that is, from independent governments already estabUshed; but a convention is a self-constituted assembly, which has no power but what it assumes to itself. synod ar.d convocation are in rehgious matters what a diet and convention are in civil matters: the former exists only under an episcopal form of government;, the latter may exist imder any form of church disciphne, even where the, authority lies in the whole body of the ministry. A council is more important than all other species of assembly; it consists of persons invested with the highest authority, who, in their consultations, do not so much transact ordinary concerns as arrange the forms and fashions of things. Religious councils used to determine matters of faith and disciphne; poUtical councils frame laws and determine the fate of empires.

—

A

a body, is an assembly coming together in a formal manner from distant parts for special purposes. Convention, from the Latin convenio, come together, is an assembly coming together in an informal and promiscuous manner from a neighboring quarter. Synod, in Greek 0VV060C, compounded of miv and 066c, signifies Uterally going the same road, and has been employed to signify an assernbly for consultation on matters of religion. Convocation is an assembly convoked for an especial purpose. Council is an assembly for consultation either ASSENT, Consent, Approbation, on civil or on ecclesiastical affairs. Concurrence. Assent, in Latin asAn assembly is, in its restricted sense, sentio, is compounded of as or ad and pubUc, and imder certain regulations; sentio, to think, signifying to bring company is private, and confined to one's mind or judgment to a thing. a friends and acquaintances; a meeting Consent (see Accede). Approbation, in is either public or private; a congrega- Latin approbatio, is compounded of ad in

ASSERT

80

probo, to prove, signifying to make who have the power of preventing; it a thing out good. Concurrence (see is opposed to refusal: approbation is Agree). given by equals or superiors, or those Assent respects matters of judgment; who have the power to withhold it; consent respects matters of conduct. it is opposed to disapprobation: conWe assent to what we admit to be currence is given by equals; it is optrue; we consent to what we allow to posed to opposition or rejection. be done. Assent may be given to ASSERT, Maintain, Vindicate. anything, whether positively proposed Assert (see Affirm). Maintain, in by another or not, but consent supposes French maintenir, from the Latin that what is consented to is proposed by manVrS and teneo, signifies to hold by

and

some other person.

—

Some men

give the hand that is, closely and firmly. which Vindicate, in Latin vindicatv^, partithey do not f uUy understand, and their ciple of vindico (vin, a root signifying to hasty consent to measures which are wish, to claim, allied to venerate, Venus, very injudicious. It is the part of the etc., and dicere), signifies to express a true believer not merely to assent to the wish or claim for ourselves or others. Christian doctrines, but to make them To CLssert is to declare a thing as our the rule of his life: those who consent own; to maintain is to abide by what to a bad action are partakers in the we have so declared; to vindicate is to gmlt of it. stand up for that which concerns ourAssent and consent may sometimes be selves or others. We assert anything both applied to matters of judgment or to be true; we maintain it by adducing abstract propositions, but in that case proofs, facts, or arguments; we vindiassent is the act of an individual, con- cate our own conduct or that of ansent is the act of many individuals: one other when it is called in question. assents to that which is offered to his We assert boldly or impudently; we notice; some things are admitted by maintain steadily or obstinately; we the common consent of mankind. vindicate resolutely or insolently. A Approbation is a species of assent, right or claim is asserted which is concurrence of consent. To approve avowed to belong to any one; it is is not merely to assent to a thing as maintained when attempts are made to right, but to determine upon it posi- prove its justice or regain its postively to be so; the word assent is ap>- session; the cause of the asserter or plied therefore most properly to specu- maintainer is vindicated by another. lative matters, or matters of inference Innocence is asserted by a positive their hasty assent to propositions

it is maintained by repeated assertions and the support of testimony; it is vindicated through the

or deduction; approbation to practical matters or matters of conduct, as to give one's assent to a proposition in EucUd, to express one's approbation of a particular measure. Concurrence is properly the consent of many: consent may pass between two individuals, namely, the party proposing and the party to whom the thing is proposed; but concurrence is always given by numbers: consent may be given by a party who has no personal interest in the thing consented to; concurrence is given by those who have a common interest in the thing proposed consent therefore passes between persons individually, concurrence between communities or between men

declaration;

collectively.

own.

:

given by equals or inferiors; it is opposed to contradiction or denial: consent is given by superiors, or those Assent

is

interference of another. The most guilty persons do not hesitate to assert their innocence with the hope of inspiring credit; and some will persist in maintaining it even after their guilt has been pronounced; but the really innocent man wiU never want a friend to vindicate him when his honor or his Assertions reputation is at stake. which are made hastily and inconmaintained siderately are seldom long without exposing a person to ridicule; those who attempt to vindicate a bad cause expose themselves to as much reproach as if the cause were their

ASSESSMENT. ASSEVERATE. ASSIDUOUS.

See Tax. See Affirm. See Active.

ASSOCIATE

81

Distrib- or some thing with others A subst ance may be readily absorbable (from ab and ASSIGNEE, Administrator. As- sorbere, to sup up, Greek poUiv) by ansignee, in French assigne, from the other when the first will De so conformLatin assigno (ad, to, and signum, seal), able to the second that both become one signifies one to whom something is substance, and each of the two sepaformally given over, either in trust or rately is convertible into a single subfor his own use and enjoyment. An stance as if individually homogeneous. assignee in deed is one appointed by a Persons of hke temperament and person; an assignee in law is one ap- taste are assimilable in association with pointed by a court or other competent others of like quahties; citizens are authority; an assignee in hankrwptcy is made conformable to the law by penalone to whom a bankrupt's estate is ties for being otherwise; sound securiassigned and in whom it is vested for ties are readily convertible into cash the benefit of his creditors. when desired; certain kinds of food The last is the most familiar apph- and drink are assimilable, or capable of cation of the term. In his capacity being united or mixed in the stomach as an administrator of another per- without causing distress. son's property (from Latin ad and minHence, in all of these terms we have istrare, to serve, administer signifying the sense of a complete and agreeable pubhc service appUed in this case to a union of separate things in a single specific function) an assignee, after ac- body, because each constituent in itcepting the trust, is not at hberty to self possesses the quahties of the others. ASSIST. See Help. assign the property back again to the It is his duty to act as a ASSISTANT. See Accommodator; assignor.

ASSIGN.

See Adduce;

.

ute.

faithful trustee for all concerned. He to take immediate possession of all the property and effects and valuable interests of every kind of the insolvent,

ciate, in

and demand and take any necessary

associo, is derived

Coadjutor.

ASSISTING. See Auxiliary. ASSOCIATE, Companion. Asso-

is

^teps to collect all outstanding debts. If he sells property of the insolvent he cannot buy it himself. Acting in the discharge of the ordinary duties of an Administrator, an assignee is personally hable only for want of ordinary skUl and care. See administer imder Minister for further definition of the function of administrator in general. ASSIMILABLE, Absorb able. Conformable, Convertible. Assimilable, in French the same form, from assimilate, derived from ad and similis, to make hke, signifies that which is capable of being made like another thing, or changeid into its own substance. As an adjective^ it implies that which may be made in some particulars to resemble another thing; and as a substantive, that which is capable of being so changed. In the sense of mixing together, or merging, either of persons or substances, we have the main act of bringing some one or some thing into conformity or agreement with other persons or things, of converting, changing, or incorporating some one

Latin assodatus, participle of

from ad and socius, a companion, hterally a follower (aUied Companion, from to sequor, I follow).

company

(for derivation see

Accom-

pany), signifies one that bears company. Associates are habitually together: companions are only occasionally in company. As our habits are formed from our associates, we ought to be particular in our choice of them: as our companions contribute much to our enjoyments, we ought to choose such as are suitable to ourselves. Many men may be admitted as companions who would not altogether be fit

as associates.

An associate may take part with us in business, and share with us in the labor: a companion takes part with ua in some concern, and shares with us in the pleasure or the pain. Association, Society, Company, Partnership. All these terms denote a, union of several persons into one body. Association is general, the rest are

some

—

Whenever we habitually or frequently meet together for some common object, it is an association. Asso-

specific.

ASSUAGE

82

dations are therefore political, religious, men: a combination is often private,, commercial, and literary. A society and includes only a particular descripis an association for some specific pur- tion of persons. Associations are formed pose, moral or religious, civil or politi- for some general purpose; combinacal. A company is an association of tions are frequently formed for parmany for the purpose of trade. A ticular purposes which respect the in-partnership is an association of a few terest of the few to the injury of many. Associations are formed by for the same object Whenever association is used in dis- good citizens; combinations by distinction from the others, it denotes contented mechanics, or low persons in that which is partial in its object and general. When used for things, association is a temporary in its duration. It is founded on imity of sentiment as well as natm-al action; combination an arbiimity of object; but it is mostly un- trary action. Things associate of themorganized, and kept together only by selves, but combinations are formed the spirit which gives rise to it. A either by design or accident. Nothing society requires nothing but unity of will associate but what harmonizes; object which is permanent in its nat- things the most opposite in their ure; it is well organized, and com- natiu-e may be combined together. monly set on foot to promote the associate persons with places, or events cause of humanity, literature, or re- with names; discordant properties are ligion. No coimtry can boast such combined in the same body. With the numerous and excellent societies, wheth- name of one's birthplace are associated er of a charitable, a rehgious, or a ht- pleasurable recollections; virtue and erary description, as England. Com- vice are so combined in the same charpanies are brought together for the acter as to form a contrast. The piupose of interest, and are dissolved association of ideas is a remarkable when that object ceases to exist: their phenomenon of the human mind, but duration depends on the contingencies it can never be admitted as solving any oU profit and loss. The South Sea difficulty respecting the structure and Company, which was foimded on an composition of the soul; the combinaidle speculation, was formed for the tion of letters forms syllables, and ruin of many, and dispersed almost as that of syllables forms words. soon as it was formed. Partnerships ASSUAGE. See Allay. are altogether of an individual and ASSUME. See Affect; Approprivate natiu-e. As they are without priate. organization and system, they are ASSUMPTION, Presumption, Armore precarious than any other asso- rogance. Assumption, the act of asciation. PresumpTheir duration depends not suming (see Appropriate) only on the chances of trade, but the tion, from presume, in Latin prcesumo, compatibihty of individuals to co- from prce, before, and sumo, to take, operate in a close point of union. They signifies to take beforehand, to take are often begim rashly and end for granted. Arrogance (see Approruinously. priate). Association, Combination. AssociaAssumption is a person's taking upon tion (see the preceding). Combination, himself to act a part which does not from the Latin combino, or con and belong to him. Presumption is the binus, signifies tying two into one. taking a place which does not belong An association is something less to him. Assumption has to do with binding than a combination; associa- one's general conduct; presumption retions are formed for purposes of con- lates to matters of right and precevenience; combinations are formed to dence. A person may be guilty of serve either the interests or passions assumption by giving commands when of men. The word association is there- he ought to receive them, or by speakfore always taken in a good or an in- ing when he ought to be silent: he is different sense; combination in an in- giulty of presumption in taking a seat different or baa sense. An association which is not fit for him. Assumption

We

.

—

is

pubhc;

it

embraces

all

classes of

arises

from self-conceit and

self-suf-

ASTRONOMY

83

from self-im- acter. The man of assurance never Assumption and presump- loses himself imder any circumstances, tion both denote a taking to one's self however trying; he is calm and easy merely, arrogance claiming from others. when another is abashed and conA person is guilty of assumption and founded: the man who has confidence presumption for his own gratification will generally have it in cases that waronly, without any direct intentional rant him to trust to himself. A har offence to others; but a man cannot utters falsehoods with an air of assurbe arrogant, be guilty of arrogance, ance, in order the more effectually to without direct offence to others. The gain behef conscious innocence enables arrogant man exacts deference and a person to speak with confidence when homage from others; his demands are interrogated. Assurance shows itself ficiency,

-presumption

portance.

;

as extravagant as his mode of making them is offensive. Children are apt to be assuming, low people to be presuming; persons among the higher orders, inflated with pride and Dad passions, are apt to be arrogant.

ASSURANCE,

Confidence.

As-

in the behavior, confidence in the conduct. Young people are apt to assert

everything with a tone of assurance;

no man should imdertake anything without a confidence in himself. Assurance, Impudence. Assurance Impudence hterally im(see above). plies shamelessness, from in, a negative prefix, and pudere, to feel shame. They are so closely allied, to each other

—

surance implies either the act of making another sure (see Affirm), or of being sure one's self. Confidence impUes simply the act of the mind in that assurance is distinguished from confiding, which is equivalent to a impudence more in the manner than feeling. the spirit; for impudence has a grossAssurance, as an action, is to con- ness attached to it which does not befidence as the means to the end. We long to assurance. Vulgar people are give a person an assurance in order to impudent, because they have assurance inspire him with confidence. Assur- to break through all the forms of soance and confidence, as a sentiment in ciety; but those who are more cultiourselves, may respect either that vated wiU have their assurance conwhich is external of us, or that which trolled by its decencies and refinebelongs to ourselves; in the first case ments. they are both taken in an indifferent ASSURE. See Affirm. sense: but the feeling of assurance is ASTERN. See Abaft. much stronger than that of confidence, ASTONISH. See Wonder. and apphes to objects that interest ASTRONOMY, Astrology. Asthe feehngs; whereas confidence ap- tronomy is compounded of the Greek plies only to such objects as exercise dffrpov, cognate with English star, and the understanding: thus we have an voftog, law, and signifies the laws of assurance of a hfe to come; an assur- the stars, or a knowledge of their laws. ance of a blessed immortality: we have Astrology, from aSrpov and y6\os, signifies a reasoning on the stars. a confidence in a person's integrity. The astronomer studies the course As respects ourselves exclusively, assurance is employed to designate either and movement of the stars; the asan occasional feeling or a habit of the trologer reasons on their influence. The mind; confidence, an occasional feeling former observes the state of the heavmostly; assurance, therefore, in this ens, marks the order of time, the sense, may be used indifferently, but eclipses, and the revolutions which arise in general it has a bad acceptation: out of the established laws of motion confidence has an indifferent or a good in the immense universe: the latter predicts events, draws horoscopes, and sense. Assurance is a self-possession of the announces all the vicissitudes of rain mind, arising from the conviction that and snow, heat and cold, etc. The all in ourselves is right; confidence is astronomer calculates and seldom errs, that self-possession only in particular as his calculations are built on fixed the cases, and grounded on the reliance rules and actual observations; we have in our abilities or our char- astrologer deals in conjectures, and his

84

ASYLUM

imagination often deceives him. The astronomer explains what he knows, and merits the esteem of the learned; the astrologer hazards what he thinks, and seeks to please.

derived from the past participle of minuere, to make small, whence minor, diminish, etc., are also derived. Small is a Teutonic word meaning in most Germanic languages what it means in ASYLUM, Refuge, Shelter, Re- English. Of these terms atomic is the most treat. Asylum, in Latin asylum, in Greek der; taking root in the heart, it assumes the shape of mahgnity; a perverse temper is really wicked; it likes or frailty of

:

by the rule of contradiction to Untowardness hes in another's will. the principles; it rtins counter to the wishes and counsels of another. An dislikes

awkward temper

is

connected with

self-

suflBciency; it shelters itself imder the sanction of what is apparently reasonable; it requires management and indulgence in dealing with it. Crossness

Proverb, in French proverbe, to say. Latin proverbium, compounded of pro, pubhcly, and verbum, a saying, signifies a common saying. Byword signifies a word by-the-by, or by-the-way, in the course of conversation. Saw comes from Anglo-Saxon sagu, a saying, from the verb to say in its older form.j given sentiment conveyed in a specific sentence, or form of expression, ia the common idea included in the signification of these terms. The axiom is a truth of the first value; a self-evident proposition which is the basis of other truths. maxim is a truth of the first moral importance for all practical purposes. An aphorism is a truth set apart for its pointedness and excellence. Apothegm is, in respect to the ancients, what saying is in regard to the

A

A

moderns; it is a pointed sentiment pronounced by an individual and adopted

by others. Adage and proverb are vuland frowardness are pecuhar to children; gar sayings, the former among the an-

indiscriminate indulgence of the rising cients, the latter among the moderns. will engenders those diseases of the The byword is a casual saying originatmind which, if fostered too long in ing in some local circumstance. The the breast, become incorrigible by any- saw, which is a barbarous corruption thing but a powerful sense of rehgion. of saying, is the saying formerly current Perversity is, however, but too com- among the ignorant. monly the result of a vicious habit, Axioms are in science what maxims which embitters the happiness of all are in morals; self-evidence is an eswho have the misfortune of coming sential characteristic in both; the axiom in coUision with it. Untowardness is presents itself in so simple and undealso another fruit of these evil tem- niable a form to the xmderstanding as pers. froward child becomes an un- to exclude doubt and the necessity for toward youth, who turns a deaf ear to reasoning. The maxim, though not so all the admonitions of an afflicted definite in its expression as the axiom, is parent. at the same time equally parallel to the See Bent. mind of man, and of such general ap>AXIOM, Maxim, Aphorism, Apoph- pUcation that it is acknowledged by all thegm (old form; modern Apothegm), moral agents who are susceptible of Saying, Adage, Proverb, Byword, moral truth; it comes home to the Saw. Axiom, in French axiome, Latin common sense of all mankind. " Things

A

AWRY.

axioma, comes from the Greek a^twTra, worth, signifying the thing valued. Maxim, in French maxima, in Latin maxima for maxima sentiarum, the most important opinion. Aphorism,

from

Greek

derience for purposes of gain constitutes a buMness: when learning or particular skill is required, it is a profession; and when there is a peculiar exercise of

dent fortune has no occasion to pursue art, it is an art; every shopkeeper and business, but as a rational agent he retail dealer carries on a trade; brokers, will not be contented to be without an manufacturers, bankers, and others occupation. carry on buMness; clergymen, medical Employment, engagement, and avoca- or military men foUow a profession; tion leave the object undefined. An musicians and painters follow an art. Bu^ness, Office, Duiy. Bu^ness (see employment may be a mere diversion Duly of the thought and a wasting of the above). Offi^ (see Benefit). hours in some idle pursuit; a child signifies what is due or owing one, may have its employment, which may based on French du, Latin debitum, be its play in distinction from its bu^- participle of debere, to owe. ness: an engagement may have no highBusiness is that which engages the er object than that of pleasure; the time, talents, and interest of a man; idlest people have often the most en- it is what a man proposes to himself: gagements; the gratification of curiosity office is that which a man is called upon and the love of social pleasiu-e supply to do for another; it is consequently them wth an abundance of engage- prescribed by others: duty is that which ments. Avocations have seldom a di- duty prescribes: one follows btisiness, rect trifling object, although it may fills or discharges an offi^x, and persometimes be of a subordinate nature, forms or discharges a duly. As busiand generally irrelevant: numerous ness is the concern of the individual, avocations are not desirable; every man and duty is his duty, these terms propshould have a fixed pursuit, as the erly apply to private matters as the

—

business of his life, to which the principal part of his time should be devoted: avocations, therefore, of a serious nature are apt to divide the time and attention to a hurtful degree. A person who is busy has much to attend to, and attends to it closely: a person who is occupied has a full share of business without any pressure; he is opposed to one who is idle: a person who is employed has the present mo-

fife: offi/:e, on the other hand, being that which is done for the benefit or by the direction of others, is properly apphed to pubUc matters. But the terms may be so qualified that the former may be apphed to pubhe, and the latter to private matters. Business and office are frequently apphed to that part which a man ia called to perform; in which sense busi-

business or duties of

BUY

135

gested. As an adverb, it inlphes only; as a proposition, technically, a term of separation or exclusion, it signifies excepting; as an interjection it expresses surprise or dissent; as a substantive, a hindrance or impediment, also the outer room of a house of two orm a service for another, as the office or more apartments where the inner of a prime minister, the office of a friend; room is entered from the other. In that is his office. Duty in this apphca- logic, bui is the connecting word which tion expresses a stronger obhgation introduces the minor term of a syllothan either of the other terms; where gism; in mathematics, it denotes what the service is enjoined by law, or com- is assumed or proved. manded by the person, that is a duty, as As a coniunction but is a synonyme of the clerical duties, the duiy of a soldier. yet. Yet denotes a stronger degree of See also Affair. opposition than but. As a preposition BUSTLE, Tumult, Uproar. Bustle but is a synonyme of except. There is is a Scandinavian word, a frequentative little difference in meaning between-the of the Norwegian bu^ta, to be violent, two prepositions. Except is somewhat and related to Icelandic btistla, to clearer and more emphatic, and may be splash about like a fish, and to English used to introduce not merely a noun boast, boisterous, etc. Tumult, Latin but a noun clause. tumiiltus, is derived from Latin tumere, See Carnage. to swell, surge up, whence tumor is also BUTT. See Mark. derived. Uproar is derived from BUY, Purchase, Bargain, CheapDutch op, up, and roeren, to excite, en. Buy is derived from Anglo-Saxon stir, move, and signified originally a bycgan, to buy. Purchase comes from stirring up: but its meaning has been Old French pour (Latin pro) and chacer, influenced by its similarity to EngUsh to chase, and signifies to hunt for roar. Bargain is derived from Late eagerly. Bustle has most of hurry in it ; tumult Latin barcaniare, to change about, to most of disorder and coniusion; uproar chaffer; its remoter origin is unknown. most of noise: the hurried movements Cheapen, from Anglo-Saxon ceap, price, of one, or many, cause a bustle; the meant to price, and then to seek to disorderly struggles of many constitute obtain for a small price. a tumult; the loud elevation of many Buy and purchase have a strong reopposing voices produces an uproar. semblance to each other, both in sense Bustle is frequently not the effect of and application; but the latter is a design, but the natural consequence term of more refinement than the of many persons coming together; former: buy may always be substituted tumuU commonly arises from a general for purchase without impropriety; but effervescence in the minds of a multi- purchase would be sometimes ridicutude; uproar is the consequence either lous in the familiar application of buy: of general anger or mirth. crowded the necessaries of life are bought; street will always be in a bustle; con- luxxiries are purchased. The charactertested elections are always accompanied istic idea of buying is that of expending with a great tumult; drinking-parties money according to a certain rule make a considerable uproar, in the in- and for a particular purpose; that of dulgence of their intemperate mirth. purchasing is the procurmg the thing BUSY. See Active. by any means; some things, therefore,

and office come still nearer to the term dtUy; what belongs to a person to do or see done, that is projjerly his business: a person is bound, either by the nature of his engagements or by private and personal engagements or f)rivate and personal motives, to perness

BUTCHERY.

A

BUT, Except.

As a conjunction may more properly be

but implies something more to supply, unless, yet, nevertheless, than, ana otherwise than, and is used where a second sentence or clause is in opposition to the one preceding it, to arrest an inference which the first sentence or clause would otherwise have sug-

said to be puras to purchase friends, ease, and the hke. Buying implies simply the exchange of one's money for a commodity; bargaining and cheapening have likewise respect to the price: to bargain is to make a specific agreement as to the

chased

than

bought,

136

BYGONE

is not only to lower come lost to sight and, in a sense, to but to deal in such memory. From this we have the familthings as are cheap: trade is supported iar phrase let bygones be bygones, implyby buyers; bargainers and cheapeners ing let the past be forgotten, doubtless are not acceptable customers: mean from the old form, bygones suld be bypeople are prone to bargaining, poor ganes, the past should not be brought people are obliged to cheapen. up against one. As an adjective bygone BYGONE, Past. Bygone, a com- does not reaUy differ in meaning from poimd of the Enghsh by, near, from, past. But past is a prosaic word; it after, and gone, departed, moved, as an merely indicates a fact or a condition. adjective implies gone by, passed or Bygone has a pensive, poetic, slightly past, and as a substantive, things that archaic quality. have disappeared, passed away, beBYWORD. See Axiom.

price; to cheapen the price asked,

CALCULATE

CABAL. CAJOLE.

See CoMBmATioN, See Coax. CALAMITOUS. See Infelicttous. CALAMITY, Disaster, Misfortune, Mischance, Mishap. Calamity comes from Latin calamitas, misfortultimate origin is unknown. in French disastre, is compoundea of the privative des or dis and astre, in Latin astrum, a star, signify-

une;

its

Disaster,

ing what comes from the adverse influence rf the stars. Misfortune, mischanQe, and mishap naturally express

what comes amiss by fortime or chance. The idea of a painful event is com-

mon

to

all

these terms, but they differ

A

in the degree of impatience. calamity \a a, great disaster or misfortune; a misfortune, a great mischance or mishap:

whatever is attended with destruction is a calamity; whatever is accompanied with a loss of property, or the deprivation of health, is a misfortune; whatever diminishes the beauty or utihty of objects is a mischance or mishap: the devastation of a country by hurricanes or earthquakes, and the desolation of its inhabitants by famine or plague, are great calamities; the overturning of a carriage, and the fracture of a liinb, are losses in trade are misfortunes; the spoiling of a book is, to a greater or less extent, a mischance or mishap. calamity seldom arises from the direct agency of man; the elements, or the natural course of things, are disasters;

A

137

misfortunes of comparatively 80 trivial a nature that it would not be worth while to inquire into their cause or to dwell upon their consequences. A calamity is dreadful, a disaster melancholy, a misfortune grievous or heavy, a mischance or mishap shght or trivial.

CALCULATE, Reckon, Compute, Count.

Calctdate, in Latin calcidatus, participle of calcido, comes from calculus, Greek KoXti, a pebble; because the Greeks gave their votes, and the Romans made out their accounts, by httle stones; hence it denotes the action itself of reckoning. Reckon is derived from Anglo-Saxon gerecnian, to explain, from reccan to rule, order, direct, ana refers to an orderly process of thought to the directing and ordering of one's thoughts or plans. Compute, in French

—

computer, Latin computo, compoimded of com and puio, signifies to put together in one's mind. Count, in French compter, is but a contraction of computer. These words indicate the means by which we arrive at a certain result in regard to quantity. To calculate is the generic term; the rest denote modes of calculating.- to calculate denotes an^ numerical operation in general, but is particularly applicable to the abstract science of figures; the astronomer calculates the motions of the heavenly bodies; the mathematician makes algebraic calculations: to reckon is to enumerate and set down things in detail; reckoning is apphcable to the ordinary business of fife: tradesmen keep their accounts by reckoning; children learn to reckon by various simple processes. Calctdation is therefore the science, reckoning the practical art of enumerat-

mostly concerned in producing this source of misery to men; the rest may be ascribed to chance, as distinguished from design: disasters mostly arise from some specific known cause, either the carelessness of persons or the unfitness of things for their use; as they ing. generally serve to derange some preTo compute is to come at the result concerted scheme or undertaking, they by calculation; it is a sort of numerical seem as if they were produced by some estimate drawn from different sources: secret influence: mis/or^wne is frequent- historians and chronologists compute

no specific cause; it is the times of particular events bv comthe bad fortune of an individual; a fink paring them with those of other Known in the chain of his destiny; an evil in- events. An almanac is made by caldependent of himself, as distinguished cukUion, computation, and reckoning. from a fault mischance and mishap are The rising and setting of the heavenly ly assignable to

:

CALENDAR

138

bodies are calculated; from given as- terest was due on the first of the tronomical tables is computed the mo- month, which was termed the Calendce.

ment on which any

celestial

phenom- Almanac

is

a word of unknown origin

may

return; and by reckoning which appears in Latin in the thirteenth are determined the days on which century, and shortly after that in most hohdays, or other periodical events, of the Romance languages. It may be fall. derived from an Arabic root signifying To count is as much as to take ac- to reckon. Ephemeris, in Greek eft/iicount of, and when used as a mode of epic, from tin and nfiipa, the day, imcalculation it signifies the same as to plies that which happens by the day. These terms denote a date-book, but reckon one by one; as to count one by the calendar is a book which registers one, to count the hours or minutes. These words are all employed in ap- events under every month the almanac phcation to moral objects, to denote is a book which registers times, or the the estimate which the mind takes of divisions of the year: and an ephemeris To calculate is to look to fut- is a book which registers the planetary tilings. lu-e events and their probable conse- movements every day. An almanac quences; we calculate on a gain, on an may be a calendar and an ephemeris undertaking, or any enterprise: to may be both an almanac and a calendar; compute is to look to that which is past but every almanac is not a calendar, nor and what results from any past event, every calendar an almanac. The Garas to compute a loss, or the amount of dener's Calendar is not an almanac, any mischief done: to reckon is either to and the sheet almanacs are seldom look at that which is present, and to calendars: hkewise the Nautical Ephemset an estimate upon it; as to reckon a eris may serve as an almanac, althing cheap; or to look to that which though not as a calendar. CALL, Cry, Exclaim. CaM is a is future as something desirable, as to reckon on a promised pleasure. To word of Scandinavian origin, and sigcount is to look on the thing that is nifies simply the raising of the voice. present, and to set a value upon it ac- Cry, French crier, Itahan gridare, is cording to circumstances, as to count derived from Latin quiritare, to shriek spirit of calcu- or lament, originally signifying to ima thing for nothing. lation arises from the cupidity engen- plore the aid of the Quirites, or Roman dered by trade; it narrows the mind to citizens. Exclaim is derived from the the mere prospect of accumulation and Latin ex and clamare, to cry out; both self-interest. Compulations are inac- denote a raising the voice louder than curate that are not founded upon exact a simple call. Call is used on all ordiniunerical calculations. Inconsiderate nary occasions in order to draw a perpeople are apt to reckon on things that son to a spot, or for any other purpose, are very imcertain, and then lay up to when one wishes to be heard; to cry is themselves a store of disappointments. to call loudly on particular occasions: Those who have experienced the in- a call draws attention; a cry awakens stabiUty of human affairs will never alarm. calculate on an hour's enjoyment beTo cry is for general purposes of conyond the moment of existence. It is venience, as the cry of the hunter, or difficult to compute the loss which an the cries of persons to or among numarmy sustains upon being defeated, bers; to exclaim is an expression of especially if it be obliged to make a some particular feeling.

enon

:

A

long retreat. Those who know the See also Alarm; Name. human heart will never reckon on the Call, Invite, Bid, Summon.—CaU, in assistance of professed friends in the its abstract and original sense, signifies hour of adversity. Men often count simply to give an expression of the their hves as nothong in the prosecution voice. Bid is derived from Angloof a favorite scheme. Saxon beodan, to command. Invite CALENDAR, Almanac, Ephem- comes from Latin invitus, unwiUing, the ERis. Calendar, Latin calendarium, was unwilling person being one who must originally an account book kept by be especially requested or invited to money-changers, so called because in- do something. Summon is derived

CALM

139

from Latin submoneo, from svb and distinction in sense. Things personimonere, to warn, and signifies to give fied may be said to call, summon, bid, special notice. The idea of signifying one's wish to another to do anything is included in In the act of calling, all these terms.

any sounds may be used; we may caU by simply raising the voice; inviting

invite.

Things personified may also be said to be called, invited, bidden, or sumn moned.

CALLING. CALLOUS.

See Vocation. See Hard.

we CALM, Composed, Collected. by looks or signs as well as Calm (see Appease). Composed, from by words, by writing as well as by the verb compose, marks the state of

may may

be a direct or indirect act;

invite

speaking.

To

bid

and summon require the ex-

press use of words; the former is always directly addressed to the person, the latter may be conveyed by an indirect channel. As the action of calling requires no articulate sounds, it may be properly apphed to animals; as sheep call their

being composed; and collected, frorn^ collect, the state of being collected. These terms agree in expressing a state; but calm respects the state of the feelings, composed the state of the thoughts and feehngs, and collected the state of the thoughts more particularly.

Calmness

is

peculiarly requisite in sea-

sons of distress, and amidst scenes of young. horror: composure, in moments of trial, So likewise to inanimate objects disorder, and tumult: collectedness, in when made to sound by way of signal moments of danger. Calmness is the or for the purpose of calling. companion of fortitude; no one whose So hkewise invite may be said not spirits are easily disturbed can have only of unconscious, but spiritual strength to bear misfortune: comagents. posure is an attendant upon clearCalling is the act of persons of all ness of understanding; no one can exranks, superiors, inferiors, or equals; it press himself with perspicuity whose may therefore be either a command, a thoughts are any way deranged: coldemand, or a simple request. Parents lectedness is requisite for a determined and children, masters and servants, call promptitude of action; no one can be to each other as the occasion requires. expected to act promptly who cannot Bidding is always the act of a su- think fijcedly. It would argue a want perior by way of command or entreaty. of all feeling to be calm on some ocInviting is an act of courtesy or kind- casions, when the best affections of our ness between equals. nature are put to a severe trial. ComTo summ^m is an act of authority, posedness of mind associated with the as to summon witnesses. detection of guilt evinces a hardened When these words are employed in conscience and an insensibility to the sense of causing any one to come shame. Collectedness of mind has conto a place, call and summon are most tributed in no small degree to the presnearly aUied, as are also bid and invite. ervation of some persons' lives in In this case to call is an act of discre- moments of the most imminent peril. tion on ordinary occasions, and perSee also Abate; Peace; Quell; formed in an ordinaiy manner; as to Unruffled. caU a meeting, to call together, to call Calm, Placid, Serene. Calm (see home: to summon is a formal act, and above). Placid, in Latin placidus, from more or less imperative according to vlaceo, please, signifies the state of the occasion; as to summon a jury. Being pleasedj or free from uneasiness. Bidding and inviting, though acts of Serene is derived from Latin serenus, kindn^, are distingiiished as before bright, clear. according to the condition of the perCalm and serene are applied to the son; bid is properly the act of a su- elements; placid only to the mind. perior, and invite of an equal, or one Calmness respects only the state of the entitled to the courtesies of life. winds, serenity that of the air and These terms may all be used in the heavens; the weather is calm when it is figurative apphcation with a similar free from agitation: it is serene when

—

140

CALUMNIATE

from noise and vapor. Calm respects the total absence of all perturbation; -placid, the ease and contentment of the mind; serene, clearness and composure of the mind. As in the natural world a particular agitation of the wind is succeeded by a calniy so in the mind of man, when an unusual effervescence has been produced, it commonly subsides into a calm; placidity and serenity have more that is even and regular in them; they are positively what they are. Calm is a temporary state of the feehngs; placid and serene are habits of the mind. speak of a calm state, but a placid and serene temper. Placidity is more of a natural gift; serenity is acquired: people with not very ardent desires or warmth of feeling will evince placidity; they are pleased with all that passes inwardly or outwardly: nothing contributes so much to serenity of mind as a pervading sense of God's good providence, which checks all impatience, softens down every asperity of humor, and gives a steady current to the feelings. free

We

CALUMNIATE. CAMOUFLAGE,

See Asperse. Disguise, Mask. Camouflage is a bit of trench slang which bids fair to become a naturaUzed English word. It is said to have been originally applied to the actor's make-up, and is derived through French camoufler, to disguise, from Latin caput, head, and Low Latin

CAN, May. Can, in the Northern languages konnen, etc., is derived, most probably, from kennen, to know, from the natural intimacy which subsists between knowledge and power. May is in German nwgen, to desire or wish, its present meaning having developed from the connections between wishing and compljang with a wish. Can denotes possibility, may Uberty and probability: he who has sound limbs can walk; but he may not walk in places which are prohibited.

CANCEL. See Abolish; CANDID, Open, Sincere.

Blot.

Candid, Latin candidu^, from candere, to shine, signifies to be pure as truth itself. Open, Anglo-Saxon ofen, is possibly alhed to up, and may have signified, the lifting up of the tent door. Sincere comes from Latin sincerus, pure, unaffected.

Candor

arises

from a conscious purity

of intentions; openness, from a warmth of feeling and love of communication; sincerity, from a love of truth. Candor obliges us to acknowledge

even that which

may make

against

disinterested: openness impels us to utter whatever passes in the mind; it is unguarded: sincerity

ourselves;

it is

prevents us from speaking what we do not think; it is positive. A candid man will have no reserve when openness is necessary; an open man cannot maintain a reserve at any

It referred to the time; muffulare, to muffle. a sincere man will maintain covering of the head or disguising of a reserve only as far as it is conthe features in such a way as to es- sistent with truth. Candor wins much cape recognition. It is now applied to upon those who come in connecthe art of concealing or disguising guns, tion with it; it removes misundertrenches, etc., in such a way that they standings and obviates differences; appear to the enemy to be innocuous the want of it occasions suspicion features of the natural scenery. and discontent. Openness gains as In meaning camouflage does not really many enemies as friends; it requires differ from disguise; in most instances to be well regulated not to be offendisguise may be substituted for it. sive; there is no mind so pure and But it is a much fresher and more disciplined that all the thoughts and picturesque term, and carries with it feelings which it gives birth to may a definite suggestion of the romance or ought to be made public. Sincerity and adventure of warfare. Mask is a is an indispensable virtue; the want word which also has the fimdamental of it is always mischievous, frequently meaning of disguise, and suggests an fatal. image similar to that originally implied See also Frank. by camouflage. But it has not the CANONIZATION. See Beatificavividness and timeliness of the new tion.

word

CAPABLE.

See Able.

CARBUNCLE CAPACIOUS. See Able; Ample. CAPACITY, Capaciousness. Cerly employea in in logic an unconditional statement, the higher style of writmg, and in ref- one which does not depend upon a erence to higher subjects: when throw hypothesis or any modifying qualificais used in respect to any but familiar tion. Hence the word has Been exsubjects, it is taken figuratively; as tended to mean in general an unqualito throw a veil over a matter, to throw fied or positive statement. These two

upon a

adjectives, though synonymous here, they have different original meanings. Unpreserve the same distinction; throwing qualified comes from Latin qualis, how requires a greater effort or more vio- much, and means not questioning or lence than casting, as to cast away prej- indicating how much not modified udices, to throw off habits, etc. in accordance with any possible standTo hurl is a violent species of throw- ard of measurement. Positive, from ing, employed only on extraordinary positu^, the past participle of ponere, occasions. Sometimes it denotes the means placed, ready to stand, unvehemence of the agent: but still movable. oftener the magnitude of the object or CAUCUS, Private MEETiNa. In this the extremity of the occasion. The case caucus represents a species of the giants, who made war against heaven, genus indicated in the words private are feigned to have been hurled by the meeting. Caucus is a purely American thunderbolts of Jupiter down to the term, possibly of Ajnerican Indian earth. origin, from the Algonkin katch-kavMisu, Cast, Turn, Description. It has, strictly speaking, Cast, from a counsellor. verb the to cast (see above), signifies no real synonymes. The term applies that which is cast, and here, by an ex- chiefly to political gatherings, or prilight

subject.

When apphed to similar objects,

—

—

CAU3E

146

vate meetings of representatives of a world there party, faction, or interest, called to consider a situation and to plan a pro-

gramme

for action.

A caucus by different political parties generally held prior to an election, at which candidates for office are selected and arrangements perfected Members for the ensuing campaign. of the Congress, of State legislatures, of mimicipal bodies, and even of smaller organizations, meet in caucus prior to the opening sessions, or when deemed necessary, at any time during a session. Members who are entitled to attend a caverns and, from dissatisfaction or other cause fail to do so, are said to holt the caucus that is, they won't be boimd to any action on which the caucus has decided. is

is

not a necessary connec-

tion between reasons and their results, or motives and their actions; the state of the agent's mind is not always such as to be acted upon according to the nature of things ^ every adequate rea-

son will not be followed by its natm-al conclusion, for every man wiU not beheve who has reasons to believe, nor yield to the reasons that would lead to a right belief; and every motive will not be accompanied with its corresponding action, for every man will not act who has a motive for acting, nor act in the manner in which his motives ought to dictate. Cause, Occasion, Create. To cause, from the substantive cause, naturally Occasion, signifies to be the cause of. from the noim occasion, signifies to be CAUSE, Reason, Motive. Cause the occasion of. Create is, in Latin, is supposed to signify originally the creatus, participle of creare, to make. same as case; it means, however, now, What is caused seems to follow natuby distinction, the case or thing hap- rally; what is occasioned follows inpening before another as its cause. cidentally; or what occasions may be what is Reason, in French raison, Latin ratio, incidental, but necessary: from ratus, participle of reor, to think, created receives its existence arbitrarily. signifies the thing thought, estimated, A woimd causes pain; accidents occaor valued in the mind. Motive, in sion delay; busybodies create mischief. French motif, from the Latin motus, The misfortunes of children cause great participle of movere, to move, signifies affliction to their parents; business occasions a person's late attendance at the thing that brings into action. Cause respects the order and con- a place; disputes and misunderstandnection of things; reason, the move- ings create animosity and ill-will. The ments and operations of the mind; cause of a person's misfortune may motives, the movements of the mind and often be traced to his own misconduct: body. Cause is properly the generic the improper behavior of one person term; reason and motive are specific: may occasion another to ask for an exevery reason or motive is a cause, but planation: jealousies are created in the every cause is not a reason or motive. minds of relatives by an imnecessary Cause is said of all inanimate objects; reserve and distance. reason and motive, of rational agents: CAUTION. See Admonish; Cawhatever happens in the world hap- veat. pens from some cause mediate or imCAUTIOUS, Wary, Circumspect. mediate; the primary or first cause of For cauiious see CAREFtrL. Wary, all is God whatever opinions men hold, Anglo-Saxon wcer, is allied to ward, they ought to be able to assign a sub- guard, etc., and to the Greek 6pda>, I stantial reason for them; and for what- see. Circumspect, from circumspicio, ever they do, they ought to have a look about, signifies literally looking suflScient motive. on all sides. The idea of using great As the cause gives birth to the effect, care for the preventing of evil is com80 does the reason give birth to the mon to these terms, but they vary in conclusion, and the motive gives birth the degree and object of the care. to the action. Between cause and ef- Cauiious expresses less than wary: we fect there is a necessary connection: must be cautious on aU occasions where whatever in the natural world is ca- there is danger, but we must be wary pable of giving birth to another thing where there is great danger. A trades18 an adequate cause; but in the moral man must be cautious in his dealings

—

:

—

CELEBRATE with

men, but he must be wary tive

147 expresses

the opposite of to deal with designing continue. To cease is neuter; to leave off and Cautious and wary are used in refer- discontinue are active: we cease from ence to practical matters, or the com- doing a thing; we leave off or disconmon matters of business, where the tinue a thing. Cease is used either for senses or bodily powers are more exer- particular actions or general habits: cised than the mind circumspect is used leave off more usually and properly for in reference to matters of theory or particular actions; discontinue for gencontemplation, when the mind is prin- eral habits. restless, sjwiled child cipally employed. traveler must be never ceases crying until it has obcautious in passing along a road that tained what it wants; it is a mark of is not familiar to him; he must be impatience not to cease lamenting when laborer leaves off his wary in passing over sUppery and dan- one is in pain. gerous places. man must be circum- work at any given hour. dehcate spect when he transacts business of person discontinues his visits when they particular importance and delicacy. are foimd not to be agreeable. It Hence it is that cautious and wary may should be our first endeavor to cease be said of the brute creation; circum- to do evil. It is never good to leave off spect only of rational beings. working while there is anything to do CAVEAT, Caution, Warning. and time to do it in. The discontinuCaveat, in Latin the same form, im- ing a good practice without adequate plying let him beware, from cavere, to grounds evinces great instabihty of beware, signifies, in law, a judicial character. CEDE. See Give Up. warning or caution, an intimation to CELEBRATE, Commemorate. Celestay proceedings, an intimation or notice by a party interested in an ap- brate, in Latin celebraius, participle of proaching procedure to the proper celebrare, from celeber, populous, signiofficer, to prevent the latter from tak- fies to gather a big assembly for some ing any action without an intimation festive purpose. Commemorate, in or notice being given to the said party Latin commemoratus, particijjle of cointo enable him to appear and object. memoro, compounded of com or cum caveat is commonly filed with the and memoro, to keep in mind, signifies proper officer against the probating of to keep in the memory of a number. a will by an interested party to enable Commemorate is a species of celebrathim to contest it or file objections ing; we always commemorate when we against its probate. Until the caveat is celebrate, but not vice versa. Everything withdrawn by the person who filed it^ is celebrated which is distinguished by the probating process is halted. any marks of attention, without regard Hence caveat represents a species of to the time of the event, whether presthe genus indicated in caution (from the ent or past; but nothing is commemosame Latin verb, caveo), and warning rated but what has been past. mar(allied to wary). Of these two words riage or a birthday is celebrated; the anwarning is a stronger word than caution. niversary of any national event is comcaution others against something memaraied. Celebrating is not Umited which may prove annoying or incon- to any species of events or circumvenient; we warn them against some- stances; whatever interests any numthing really dangerous. ber of persons is celebrated: commemoratall

dis,

when he has

men.

:

A

A

A

A

A

A

A

We

CAVIL.

See Censure.

CAVITY. See Opening. CEASE, Leave Off, DiscoNTiNxrE. Cease, in French cesser, Latin cessare, a frequentative of cedere, to yield, signifies to give up or put an end to. Leave, from Anglo-Saxon leaf, permission^ is derived from the same root found m the adjective lief, dear or pleasing.

Discontinue, with the priva-

ing

is

confined to whatever

is

thought

of sufficient importance to be borne in mind, whether of a public or private nature. The election of a favorite member is celebrated by those who have contributed to his success: a remarkable preservation, whether national or individual, sometimes demands some signal act of commemoration. Celebrating is a festive as well as so-

CELEBRATED

148

it may be sometimes serious, mostly mingled with more or commemoratless of gayety and mirth ing is a solemn act; it may be sometimes festive and social, but it is always mingled with what is serious, and may be altogether solitary; it is suited

cial act;

Examiner

but

ine see Discuss)

it is

:

(for the derivation of is

exam-

a stronger word

inspector. Examine means to inspect with particular care, with the intention of passing a judgment. Similarly critic is a milder and more general term than censor (from Latin censere, to rate). To censor is not merely to

than

to the occasion, and calculated to revive in the mind suitable impressions judge,

what

The birthday

of our sovereign is always celebrated by his people with such marks of honor and

of

is just.

congratulation as are due from subjects to a prince: the providential escape of our nation from destruction by

the Gunp)owder Plot is annually commemorated by a public act of devotion, as also by popular demonstrations of joy.

The Jews

celebrate their feast of

but to abolish that which proves to be contrary to the censor's judgment. These terms differ also in their apphcations. Censor is applied particularly to the examining and judging of literary material letters and cables in time of war, books, newspapers, etc. and of artistic pubhe productions. A rigorous censorship of mail, etc., was maintained in all belligerent countries during the European war. The term inspector is apphed to various pubUc officials whose duty it is to detect any violation of the laws health - inspectors, milk-wspec-

—

—

the Passover: as Christians, we commemorate the sufferings and death of our Saviour by partaking of the Lord's Supper. tors, customs-inspectors, The etc. CELEBRATED. See Famous. terms critic and examiner are less freCELERITY. See Quickness. CELESTIAL, Heavenly. Celestial quently used to refer to public officials. CENSURE, Animadvert, Critiand heavenly derive their difference in signification from their different origin cise. Censwre (see Accuse). Animadthey both Uterally imply belonging vert and criticise (see Animadversion). To censure expresses less than to to heaven; but the former, from the Latin caelum, signifies belonging to the animadvert or criticise; one may always heaven of heathens; the latter, which censure when one animadverts or critihas its origin among behevers in the cises. To censure and animadvert are true God, has acquired a superior both personal, the one direct, the other sense, in regard to heaven as the habita- indirect criticism is directed to things, Censuring tion of the Almighty. This distinction and not to persons only. is pretty faithfully observed in their consists in finding some fault, real or application: celestial is apphed mostly supposed: it refers mostly to the conin the natural sense of the heavens; duct of individuals. Animadvert conheavenly is employed more commonly in sists in suggesting some error or ima spiritual sense. Hence we speak of propriety; it refers mostly to matters the celestial globe as distinguished from of opinion and dispute; criticism conthe terrestrial; of the celestial bodies; sists in minutely examining the inof Olympus, as the celestial abode of trinsic characteristics and appreciating Jupiter; of the celestial deities. the merits of each individually or the But, on the other hand, of the heav- whole collectively; it refers to matters enly habitation, of heavenly joys or of science and learning. To censure bhss, of heavenly spirits, and the like. requires no more than simple assertion See also Ethereal. its justice or propriety often rests on CEMETERY. See Necropolis. the authority of the individual: aniCENSOR, Critic, Examiner. In- madversions require to be accompanied spector. These terms all signify an with reasons; those who animadvert on official whose duty it is to see docu- the proceedings or opinions of others ments, publications, pubUc perform- must state some grounds for their obances, etc., and to pass judgment jections. Criticism is altogether arguup)on them. But examiner and in- mentative and illustrative; it takes spector emphasize the act of seeing; nothing for granted, it analyzes and csnsor and critic that of judging. decomposes, it compares and combines.

—

;

CESSATION

149

assertions. same word, in French sHr, German the censurer is the easiest sicker, Latin securus; this is comand least honorable of the three; it pounded of se (sine), apart, and cura, may be assumed by ignorance and im- care, signifying without care, requiring it

asserts

The

and supports the

office of

pertinence,

it

may

be performed for no care.

the purpose of indulging an angry or imperious temper. The task of animadverting is delicate; it may be resorted to for the indulgence of an overweening self-conceit. The office of a critic is both arduous and honorable; it cannot be filled by any one incompetent for the charge without exposing his arrogance and folly to merited con-

Certain and sure have regard to a person's convictions; secure to his interests or condition: one is certain from actual knowledge or from a behef in others; one is sure from a reUance upon others; one is secure when free from danger. can be certain of nothing future but death; we may be sure that God

We

will fulfil His promises in His own way; we may be secure against any loss or tempt. mischief if we use proper precautions. See also Blame; Lash. In respect to things the distinction Censure (see Censure, Carp, Cavil. Carp, a Scandinavian word, is similar: facts, principles, and rules above). appears in Middle Enghsh with the are certain which are certainly known meaning of to talk (in Icelandic it and admitted: rules, methods, guides, meant to boast). The present sinister etc., are sure which guard against error sense is apparently due to a confusion and may be depended upon; a place with Latin carpere, to pluck. Cavil, in may be secure which serves to secure or French caviller, Latin caviUor, from preserve with certainty from mischief cavilla, a taunt, and caw^, hollow, sig- or danger. See also Infallible; Tangible. nifies to be imsound or imsubstantial in speech. CERTAINLY. See Aye. To censure respects positive errors; CESSATION, Stop, Intermission, to carp and cavil have regard to what Cessation, from the verb to cease, marks is trivial or imaginary: the former is the condition of leaving off. Stop, from employed for errors in persons; the to stop, marks that of being stopped or latter for supposed defects in things. prevented from going on. Rest, from Censures are frequently necessary from to rest, marks the state of being quiet; those who have the authority to use and intermission, from intermit, marks

—

a good father

them;

children

when

will censure his their conduct is censur-

Carping and cavilling are resorted to only to indulge ill-nature or selfconceit: whoever owes another a grudge will be most disposed to carp at all he does, in order to lessen him in the esteem of others: those who contend more for victory than truth will be apt to cavil when they are at a loss for fair argument: party poUticians carp at the measures of administration; infidels ccurU at the evidences of Christianity, because they are determined to disbelieve.

able.

CEREMONIAL. See Formal. CEREMONIOUS. See Formal; THEATRIC.'i.L.

CEREMONY.

See

Etiquette;

Form.

CERTAIN,

Sure, Secure. CerFrench certain, Latin certus, comes from cemere, to discriminate. Sure and secure are variations of the tain,

in

that of ceasing occasionally. To cease respects the course of things; whatever does not go on has ceased; things cease of themselves: stop respects some external action or influence; nothing stops but what is supposed to be stopped or hindered by another: rest is a species of cessation that regards labor or exertion; whatever does not move or exert itself is at rest: intermission is a species of cessation only for a time or at certain interv'als. That which ceases or stops is supposed to be at an end; rest or intermission supposes a renewal. cessation of hostilities is at all times desirable; to put a stop to evil practices is sometimes the most difficult and dangerous of all undertakings: rest after fatigue is indispensable, for labor without intermission exhausts the frame. The rain ceases, a person or a ball stops running, the laborer rests from his toil, a fever is intermittent.

A

CHAFE

150

is nothing in the world which does not cease to exist at one point or another: death stops every one sooner or later in his career: whoever is vexed with the cares of getting riches will find no rest for his mind or body; he will labor without intermission oftentimes only to heap troubles on him-

There

self.

CHAFE. See Rub. CHAGRIN. See Vexation. CHAIN, Fetter, Band, Shackle.

Shackle, whether as a substantive or a verb, retains the idea of impeding the progress of a person, silken bands.

not in his body only, but also in his mind and in his moral conduct; thus a man who commences life with a bor-

rowed capital

is shackled in his commercial concerns by the interest he has to pay and the obligations he has to

discharge.

CHALLENGE. See Brave. CHAMPION. See Combatant. CHANCE, Fortune, Fate. Chance

Chain, in French chaine, Latin catena, that which takes or holds.

(see Accident) is here considered as a the cause of what falls out. Fortune, shackle for the foot, and is aUied to in French fortune, Latin fortuna, comes the word foot, feet. Band, from bind, from /ors, chance, aUied to ferre, to bear ^fortune being that which is brought signifies that which binds. Shackle, Aflglo-Saxon sceactd, bond, fetter, was to one, borne in upon the sufferer. originally a loose band which shook Fate, in Latin fatum, from fatum, parwhen the captive moved, shackle being ticiple of fari, to speak or decree, signifies that which is decreed, or the from the same root as shake. All these terms designate the instru- power of decreeing. These terms have served at all times ment by which animals or men are confined. Chain is general and indefinite; as cloaks for human ignorance; and all the rest are species of chains: but before mankind was favored by the there are many chains which do not light of Divine Revelation they had an come under the other names; a chain imaginary importance which has now vanished. Believers in Diis indefinite as to its make; it is made happily generally of iron rings, but of differ- vine Providence no longer conceive the ent sizes and shapes: fetters are larger; events of the world as left to themthey consist of many stout chains: selves, or as under the control of any hands are in general anything which unintelligent or unconscious agent, but confines the body or the Umbs; they ascribe the whole to an overruling may be either chains or even cords: mind, which, though invisible to the shackle is that species of chain which bodily eye, is clearly to be traced by goes on the legs to confine them; male- the intellectual eye wherever we turn In conformity, however, to factors of the worst order have fetters ourselves. on different parts of their bodies, and the preconceived notions attached to shackles on their legs. these words, we now employ them in These terms may all be used figiira- regard to the agency of secondary The substantive chain is ap- causes. But how far a Christian may tively. phed generally to whatever confines use them, without disparagement to like a chain, and the verb to chain sig- the majesty of the Divine Being, it is nifies to confine as with a chain: thus not so much my business to inquire as the mind is chained to rules, according to define their ordinary acceptation. to the opinions of the freethinkers, In this ordinary sense chance is the when men adhere strictly to rule and generic, fortune and fate are sp)ecifie order: the noun fetter is seldom used terms: dkance applies to all things, perexcept in the proper sense, but the sonal or otherwise; fortune a,nd fate are verb to fetter signifies to control or mostly said of that which is personal. prevent the proper exercise of the Chance neither forms, orders, nor demind, as to be fettered by systems. signs; neither knowledge nor intention Band, in the figurative sense, is applied, is attributed to it; its events are unparticularly in p>oetry, to everything certain and variable: fortune forms which is supposed to serve the purpose plans and designs, but without choice; of a band; thus love is said to have its we attribute to it an intention without signifies Fetter,

Anglo-Saxon

fetor,

meant

—

CHANGE discernment; it is said to be blind: Jale forms plans and chains of causes; intention, knowledge, and power are attributed to it; its views are fixed, person goes as its results decisive. (Quince directs him when he has no express object to determine his choice one way or other; his fortune favors him if without any expectation he gets the thing he wishes; his fate wiUs it if he reaches the desired point contrary Men's success to what he intended. in their imdertakings depends oftener on chance than on their abihty; we are ever ready to ascribe to ourselves what we owe to our good fortune; it is the faie of some men to fail in everything they undertake. When speaking of trivial matters this language is unques-

A

tionably innocent, and any objection to its use must spring from an overscrupulous conscience. If I suflTer my horse to direct me in the road I take to London, I may fairly attribute it to chance if I take the right instead of the

ability of success

151

where a

man

does not

unite industry with integrity. Chance cannot be calculated up>on; it is apt to produce disappointment; probability justifies hope; it is sanctioned by experience. Chance, Hazard. Chance (see above). Hazard comes from Spanish azar, an unlucky throw at dice, possibly allied to Arabian cd zahr, but the ultimate origin is doubtful. Both these terms are employed to mark the course of future events, which is not discernible by the human eye. With the Deity there is neither chance nor hazard; His plans are the result of omniscience: but the designs and actions of men are all dependent on chance or hazard. Chance may be favorable or unfavorable, more commonly the former: hazard is always imfavorable; it is properly a species of chance. There is a chance either of gaining or losing; there is a hazard of losing. In most speculations the chance of succeeding scarcely outweighs the

—

and if in consequence I meet with an agreeable companion by the hazard of losing. way, I shall not hesitate to call it my CHANGE, Alter, Vary. Change, good fortune; and if, in spite of any in French changer, is probably derived previous intention to the contrary, I from the Middle Latin carrMo, exshould be led to take the same road change, signifying to take one thing repeatedly, and as often meet with an for another. Alter from the Latin agreeable companion, I shall immedi- alter, another, signifies to make a thing ately sa^ that it is my fate to meet with otherwise. Vary, in Latin vario, make an agreeable companion whenever I go various, from variu^, doubtful. to London. We change a thing by putting anSee also Happen. other in its place; we alter a thing by Chance, Probability. Chance (see making it different from what it was Probability, in French prob- before; we vary it by altering it in difabove). abilite, Latin probabilitas, from prob- ferent manners and at different times. abUis and probare, to prove, signifies the We change our clothes whenever we quaUty of being able to be proved or put on others: the tailor alters clothes made good. which are found not to fit; and he These terms are both employed in varies the fashion of making them whenforming an estimate of future events; ever he makes new. A man changes but the chance is either for or against, his habits, alters his conduct, and varies the probability is always for a thing. his manner of speaking and thinking, Chance is but a degree of probability; according to circumstances. A thing there may in this latter case be a chance is changed without altering its kind; it where there is no probability. A chance is altered without destroying its identiaffords a p>ossibility; many chances are ty; and it is varied without destroying requisite to constitute a probability. the similarity. We change our habWhat has been once may, under simi- itation, but it still remains a habitalar circumstances, be again; for that tion; we alter our house, but it still rethere is a chance; what has fallen to mains the same house; we vary the one man may fall to another; so far he manner of painting and decoration, but has a chance in his favor; but in all the it may strongly resemble the manner chances of life there will be no prob- in which it has been before executed. left;

,

^

—

CHANGE

152

firmness in the character. A good king at his death exchanges a temporal for compounded of e or ex and changer, sig- an eternal crown. The mercenary nifjong to change in the place of an- trader barters his conscience for paltry other. Barter is supposed to come from pelf. Men of dogmatical tempers subthe French barater, to cheat or begmle, stitute assertion for proof, and abuse for the ultimate origin of which is doubt- argument. Change, Variation, Vicissitude. Substitute, in French substitut, ful. Latin stibstitutus, from sub, instead of, Chg,nge and variation (see preceding). and sUiiuere, to place, signifies to place Vicissitude, in French vicissitude, Latin vidssUudo, from vicissim, by turns, sigone thing in the room of another. The idea of putting one person or nifies changing alternately. thing in the place of another is comChange is, both to vicissitude and mon to all these terms, which varies variation, as the genus to the species. in the maimer and the object. Charige Every variation or vicissitude is a is the generic, the rest are specific change, but every change is not a variaterms: whatever is exchanged, bartered, tion or vicissitude. Change consists or substituted is changed, but not vice simply in ceasing to be the same: versa. To change in respect to persons variation consists in being different at is to take one for another, without re- different times; vicissitude, in being gard to whether they are alike or dif- alternately or reciprocally different ferent, as a king changes his ministers; and the same. All created things are to exchange is to take one person in liable to change; old things pass away, return for another who is in like con- all things become new: the himaors of dition, as prisoners are exchanged in men, like the elements, are exposed to time of war. perpetual variations: human affairs, In respect to things, to change is to like the seasons, are subject to frequent Changes in societies or take anything new or fresh, whether vicissitudes. alike or different. Clothes may be famihes are seldom attended with any changed, or books may be changed, or good effect. Variations in the state of things may be changed for others quite the atmosphere are indicated by the Vicissidifferent; to exchange is to take one barometer or thermometer. thing for another, that is, either of the tudes of a painful nature are less dansame kind or equivalent in value, as to gerous than those which elevate men exchange one commodity for another, to an unusual state of grandeur. By one house, or one piece of land, for the former they are brought to a sense another. To change may often be the of themselves, by the latter they are result of caprice, but to exchange is carried beyond themselves. always an act either of discretion or Changeable, Mutable, Variable, Innecessity. Changeable, constant, Fickle, Versatile. To barter is a species of exchanging, ready to change. Mutable, from the namely, the giving of any commodity Latin mutare, to change, is the same as for others of the same or a different changeable. Variable means hable to kind; it is confined properly to what vary. Inconstant, compounded of the passes by way of commerce, as, in privative in and constant, in Latin condeahng with savages, to barter toys or stans, from con and stare, to stand toknives for provisions. gether or remain the same, signifies not To substitute is to put one person in remaining the same for any long conthe place of another for the purpose of tinuance. Fickle, Anglo-Saxon ficol, is doing any service or fiUing any office, as allied to foecne, deceitful, and facen, Versatile, in Latin versatilis, to substitute one for another who has fraud. from verto, to turn, signifies easy to be been drawn for the militia. In the moral application these terms turned. Changeable is said of persons or bear the same analogy to each other, with this difference, that the word bar- things; mutable is said of things only: person human beings are changeable, human ter is taken in a bad sense. changes his opinions; but a proneness affairs are mutable. Changeable respects the sentiments to such changes evinces a want of

Exchange, —Change, preceding). Change

Barter, Substitute.

(see

Exchange

is

—

—

A

\

CHARM and opinions of the mind; variable, the state of the feelings; inconstant, the affections; fickle, the inchnations and attachments; versatile, the apphcation A changeable person of the talents. rejects what he has once embraced in order to take up something new; a variable person likes and dislikes alternately the same thing; an inconstant person Ukes nothing long; a fiMe person Ukes many things successively or at the same time; a versatile person has a talent for whatever he Ukes. Changeableness arises from a want of fixed principles; variableness, from a predominance of humor; inconstancy, from a selfish and unieeling temper; fickleness, from a Ughtness of mind; versatility, from a flexibiUty of mind. Men are the most changeable emdinconstant; women are the most variable and fickle: the former offend from an indifference for objects in general or a diminished attachment for any object in particular; the latter from an excessive warmth of feeling that is easily biassed and ready to seize new objects. People who are changeable in their views and plans are particularly imfit for the government of a state; those who are variable in their humors are unsuitable as masters; people of an inconstant character ought to be shunned as lovers; those of a fickle disposition ought not to be chosen as

153

CHARACTER, Letter. Character comes from the Greek x".'>««^^P» signifying an impression or mark, from xapdaativ, to imprint or stamp.

Letter

derived from Latin littera, a letter. Character is to letter as the genus to the species: every letter is a character; but every character is not a letter. Character is any written or printed mark that serves to designate some-

is

thing;

a

which

is

letter is

a species of character

the constituent part of a word. Shorthand and hieroglyphics consist of characters, but not of letters. Character is employed figuratively, but letter is not, A grateful person has the favors which are conferred upon him written in indeUble characters upon his heart. Character,

—

Reputation. From the natural sense of a stamp or mark. Character (see above) is figuratively employed for the moral mark which distinguishes one man from another. Reputation, from the French reputer, Latin reputare, to think, signifies what is thought of a i>er8on. Character lies in the man; it is the

mark

of what he is; it shows itself on occasions: reputation depends upon others; it is what they think of him. character is given particularly: a reputation is formed generally. Individuals give a character of another from personal knowledge: public opinion constitutes the reputation. Charall

A

acter has always some foundation; it Changeable, variable, inconstant, and is a positive description of something: fickle, as appUed to persons, are taken reputation has more of conjecture in it; It is possible in the bad sense; but versatility is a its source is hearsay. natural gift which may be employed for a man to have a fair reputation who has not in reaUty a good character, advantageously. although men of really good character CHANNEL, See Trench. CHAPERON, Attendant, Guide. are not Ukely to have a bad reputation. CHARACTERIZE. See Name. Of these terms attendant is the general CHARGE. See Accuse; Attack; word guide and chaperon indicate particular kinds of attendants. For the Care; Cost; Office. meaning and derivation of attendant Enchant, Fascinate, Ensee Accompany. A chaperon, French rapture, Captivate. Charm (see Atchaperon, Italian capperone, the wearer traction). Enchant, Yrerxch. enchanter, of a hooded cape, signifies a woman is derived from Latin in, in, and canwho accompanies a young girl in pub- tare, to sing, whence iruuintcUion is also lic places to guide her, and protect her derived. It signified to sing to anfrom annoyance. The term guide is other until the music entered in/o the appUed to attendants whose function hearer, as it were, and had some it is to point out the way to others magical or hypnotic effect upon his such as mountain-^tdes, guides in soul. Fascinate is derived from Latin large museums or pubUc gaUeries, etc. Enrapture, comfascinum, a speU.

friends.

:

Charm,

164

CHARMED

of en and rapture, signifies to applied to the same objects, rise in put into a rapture; and rapture, from their sense; to enchant expresses a the Latin rapio, to seize or carry away, stronger effect than to charm, and to signifies the state of being carried enrapture than to enchant. Music away; whence to enrapture signifies to ordinarily charms, delightful music put into that state. Captivate, in charms a delicate ear: the finest music Latin captivatv^, participle of captivo, only is calculated to enrapture, or the from capere, to take, signifies to take, finest ears to be enraptured.

pounded

were, prisoner. expresses a less powerful effect than to enchant; a charm is simply a magical verse used by magicians and sorcerers: incantation or enchantment is the use not only of verses, but of any mysterious ceremonies, to produce a given effect. To charm and enchant in this sense denotes an operation by means of words or motions; to fascinate denotes an operation by means of the eyes or tongue: the two former are less powerful acts than the latter: the superstitious have always had recourse to charms or enchantments, for the piu-pose of allaying the passions of love or hatred; the Greeks believed that the malignant influence passed hy fascination from the eyes or tongues of envious persons, which infected the ambient air, and through that mediimi penetrated and corrupted the bodies of animals and other things. Charms and enchantments are performed by persons; fascinations are performed by animals: the former have always some supposed good in view; the latter have always a mischievous tendency: there are persons who pretend to charm away the toothache, or other pains of the body: some serpents are said to have a fascinating power in their eyes by as

it

To charm

which they can kill the animals on which they have fixed them. To charm, enchant, and fascinate are taken in the improper sense to denote moral as well as natural operations; enrapture and captivate have a moral application only, in reference to those things which act more on the imagination or the moral feeUngs than on the senses. To charm in this case is to act as a charm; to enchant, to act by enchantment; and to fascinate, to act by the power of fascination; all which, as in the former case, denote a secret or involimtary influence. To enrapt-

ure and captivate, on the other hand,

denote a direct but irresistible influence. To charm, enchant, and enrapture, when

Beauty or fine scenery may in the same manner charm, enchant, or enrapture, according to the circumstances of the case. To fascinate and captivate are, according to their original import, oftener used in a bad sense than a good one: we may sometimes speak indifferently of fascinating manners or a captivating address; but for the most part what fascinates and captivates acts on the passions to the injury of the imder-

a bad woman may have more power to fascinate than a modest woman, and flowery language may captivate when plain speech would not standing:

be heeded. See also Grace; Pleasitre. CHARMED. See SPELLBOU^rD. CHARMING. See Delightful. CHARMS. See Attractigns. CHASE. See Hunt. CHASM. See Breach. CHASTEN, Chastise. Chasten, chastise, both come through the French chdtier, from the Latin castigare, to

make

pure.

Chasten has most regard to the end, chastise to the means; the former is an act of the Deity, the latter a human action: God chastens His faithful people, to cleanse them from their transgressions; parents chastise their children, to prevent the repetition of faults: afflictions are the means which God adopts for chastening those whom He wishes to make more obedient to his will; stripes are the means by which offenders are chastised.

CHASTITY, Continence.

Chasti-

French chastite, Latin castitas, comes from castus, pure, and the HeContinence, in brew kedish, sacred. French continence, Latin continentia, from continens and contineo, signifies the ty,

in

act of keeping one's self within bounds. These two terms are equally employed in relation to the pleasures of sense both are virtues, but sufficiently distinct in their characteristics. :

CHECK

15-5

Chastity prescribes rules for the in- spects the thing wrongfully got, and dulgence of these pleasures; continence may therefore be applied to persons,

altogether interdicts their use. Chastity animals, or things which may suffer from fraud: as to defraud the state, the revenue, or animals of their food. Tricking properly passes only between men in their dealings with one another.

extends its views to whatever may bear the smallest relation to the object which it proposes to regulate; it controls the thoughts, words, looks, attitudes, food, dress, company, and, in short, the whole mode of hving: continence simply confines itself to the privation of the pleasures themselves; it is possible, therefore, to be chaste without being continent, and continent without being chaste. Chastity is suited to all times, ages, and conditions; continence belongs only to a state of celibacy; the Christian religion enjoins chastity as a positive duty on all its followers; the Romish religion enjoins continence on its clerical See also Virtuous.

members.

CHATTELS. See Goods. CHATTER. See Babble; Jabber. CHEAPEN. See Buy. CHEAT, Defraud, Trick. Cheat comes from escheat, Middle English Old French eschete, rent, that which falls to the landlord, from ex, out, and cadere, to fall. As Skeat eschete.

says, the lords of the manor or the escheaters "were often cheats in our sense, hence the verb." Defraud, from de and fraud, is either to practise fraud or get from a person by fraud. Trick, Norman French trigue, is prob-

ably influenced by Dutch trik, a puU, a stroke, a touch; the development of meaning is a little uncertain. These terms convey the idea of practising deception, but in different ways. One cheats by direct and gross falsehood or artifice; one defravds by a settled plan or contrivance; one tricks by a sudden invention. Cheating and tricking are resorted to in the common dealings of men; both may be equally low in their ends, but not equally base in their means. Tricking requires Ingenuity, which is not wanted in the practice of cheating. Defrauding apElies to the more serious concerns of fe, and for the most part involves a breach of confidence, as to defraud one's creditors.

Cheating has respect to the delusion practised on the person, and may therefore be applied to whatever produces the delusion. Defrauding re-

See also Juggle.

CHECK,

Curb, C9NTROL. All these

terms express a species of restraining. Check and curb derive their meaning

from natural objects. To check, in French chece (from the Persian word for king found in shah, king), in reference to the movement in the game of cheas by which the king is prevented moving, implies generally to impede the course. Curb, from Latin curvare, to bend, refers to the binding of the horse's neck by pulling on the bit. To check is properly applied to bodies in motion, but curb may be appMed to those which are at rest or in motion: a horse with a tender mouth is easily checked with a touch of the bridle; a young horse requires to be curbed. To check and to curb have also a moral apphcation; to control, contracted from counter-roll, or to keep one roll or account against another, has only a moral application. To check is, as before, an act of much less restraint than to curb. Every feeling, however good, may sometimes require to be checked; the passions, or will, require to be curbed. To check is appUed to individual acts, frequently to the act or circumstance of the moment, as to check the forwardness of youth; to curb and control, to the general conduct; the former in respect to bodies of men as well as individuals; the latter in respect to individuals, as to curb a people by laws, to control youth until they are enabled to act for themselves. The act of checking is applied to one's self; a person may check himself when he is going to speak: to curb and control are properly apphed to the acts of others. Check, Chide, Reprimand, Reprove, Rebuke. Check (see above). Chide is a word peculiar to English. It is not found in any other language. Reprimand is derived from the gerundive of

—

156

CHEER

—

Latin reprimere, to repress, and so inCheck, Stop. Check, as before, sigdicates something that ought to be nifies to impede the course of a body repressed, hence the attempt to repress in motion, that is, to cause it to Re- move slowly; to stop (see Cessation) it by an expression of opinion. prove, in French reprouver, Latin re- is to cause it not to move at all: the probo, is compounded of the privative growth of a plant is checked when it syllable re and probo, signifying to find does not grow so fast as usual; its the contrary of good, that is, to find growth is stopped when it ceases altobad, to blame. Rebuke is derived from gether to grow: the water of a river Old French bitsche, a log, and meant is stopped by a dam; the rapidity of its course is checked by the intervention of originally to lop, to cut back. The idea of expressing one's disap- rocks and sands. These words admit of a similar disprobation of a person's conduct is common to all these terms. A person tinction when applied to the conduct is checked that he may not continue to or condition of men and things: if an do what is offensive; he is chidden for evil be checked, it is diminished in exwhat he has done, that he may not tent; if it be stopped, it is altogether repeat it: impertinent and forward put an end to; so a person may be people require to be checked, that they checked in his career, or stopped in his may not become intolerable; thought- career, with the like distinction. CHEER, Encourage, Comfort. less people are chidden when they give hm"tful proofs of their carelessness. Cheer (see Animate). Encourage, comPeople are checked by actions and looks pounded of en and courage, signifies to as well as words; they are chidden by inspire with courage. Comfort is comwords only: a timid person is easily pounded of com or cum, and fortis, checked: the want even of due encour- strong, signifying to invigorate or will serve to damp his resolution: the young are perpetually falling into irregularities which require to be chidden. To chide marks a stronger degree of displeasure than reprimand, and reprimand than reprove or rebuke; a person may chide or reprimand in anger, he reproves and rebukes with coolness: great offences call forth chidings; omissions or mistakes occasion or require a reprimand: irregularities of conduct give rise to reproof; and improprieties of behavior demand rebuke.

agement

Chiding and reprimanding are employed for offences against the individual, and in cases where the greatest

strengthen.

To cheer regards the spirits; to encourage, the resolution: the sad require to be cheered; the timid to be encouraged. Mirthful company is suited to cheer those who labor imder any depression; the prospect of success encourages those who have any object to obtain. To cheer and comfort have both regard to the spirits, but the latter differs in degree and manner: to cheer expresses more than to comfort, the forrner signifying to produce a lively sentiment, the latter to lessen or remove a painful one: we are cheered in the moments of despondency, whether from real or imaginary causes; we are comforted in the hour of distress. Cheering may be effected either by the direct effort of others or by any-

disparity exists in the station of the a child is chidden by his parent; a servant is reprimanded by his master. Reproving and rebuking have less to do with the relation or station of the thing passing outward or inward; a parties than with the nature of the discourse or voice cheers, a prospect or offence: wisdom, age, and experience, a reflection cheers: comforting is often or a spiritual mission, give authority to properly effected by external objects, reprove or rebuke those whose conduct whether personal or otherwise. Cheerhas violated any law, human or divine: ing is purely a mental operation, but the prophet Nathan reproved King comforting may act on the body as well David for his heinous offences against as on the mind. his Maker; our Saviour rebuked Peter See also Animate; Hearten. for his presimiptuous mode of speech. Cheerful, Merry, Sprightly, Gay. See also Snub. Cheerful signifies full of cheer, or of parties;

—

CHIEF

157

CHICANERY, Pettifoggery. Chiwhich cheers. Merry, Anglo that Saxon myrge, meant originally "lasting canery and pettifoggery are both words a short time," fragile, evanescent; of obscure origin meaning the abuse of hence that which makes the time pass legal forms trickery, sophistry, and

—

Sprightly should be spelled

quickly.

from sprite, Old French esprit, spirit (Latin spiritus), or the spirit. signifies full of life, animated. It Sprightly is contracted from spiritedly. spritely,

a

Gay

is

from Old High German wahi,

fine, beautiful.

Cheerful

marks an unruffled flow

of

subterfuge in conducting a case. Pettifoggery comes from pettifogger, a legal practitioner of inferior status who gets up or conducts petty cases. Apart from this suggestion of particular attorneys of rascaUy practices in the development of the word pettifoggery, instead of the general habit of quibbling and caviUing in law-courts suggested in chicanery, there is really no difference between the words, and they can be used interchangeably. Chicane was ap)pUed long ago to the game of pall-mall, then to a dispute arising in that game, and latterly to sharp practice, especial-

with mirth there is more of tumult and noise; with sprightliness there buoyancy; gayety compreis more hends mirth and indulgence. A cheera merry person ful person smiles; laughs; a sprightly person dances; a gay person takes his pleasure. The cheerful countenance is permanently ly in law-suits. CHIDE. See Check. so; it marks the contentment of the CHIEF, Principal, Main. Chief, heart and its freedom from pain: the merry face will often look sad; a in French chef, from the Latin caput, trifle will turn mirth into sorrow: the the head, signifies belonging to the spirits;

sprightliness

of

youth

is

often

suc-

uppermost part.

Principal, in French

ceeded by the Hstlessness of bodily in- principal, Latin principalis, comes from firmity or the gloom of despondency: princeps, a chief or prince, signifying gayety is as transitory as the pleasures belonging to a prince. Main, from the upon which it subsists; it is often fol- Scandinavian, Icelandic Tnegn, strong, lowed by sullenness and discontent. signifies to a great degree. Cheerfulness is a habitual state of the Chief respects order and rank; prinmind; mirth is an occasional elevation cipal has regard to importance and reof the spirits; sprightliness lies in the spectability; main, to degree or quantemperature and flow of the blood; tity. We speak of a chief clerk; a gayety depends altogether on external commander in chief; the chief person in circumstances. Religion is the best a city; but the principal people in promoter of cheerfulness; it makes its a city; the principal circumstances in possessor pleased with himself and all a narrative, and the main object. The around him; company and wine are chief cities, as mentioned by geogbut too often the only promoters of raphers, are those which are classed in mirth; youth and health will naturally the first rank; the principal cities genbe attended with sprightliness; a suc- erally include those which are the most cession of pleasures, an exemption from considerable for wealth and population; care, and the banishment of thought these, however, are not always techniwill keep gayety ahve. cally comprehended under the name of Sprightliness and mirth are seldom chief cities: the main end of men's employed but in the proper sense as exertions is the acquirement of wealth. respects persons; but cheerful and gay See also Cardinal. are extended to different objects which Chieftain, Head. Chief, Leader, affect the senses or the mind: cheerful Chief and chieftain signify him who is objects are such as cheer the spirits; chief. Leader, from to lead, and head, gay objects please or delight the from the head, sufficiently designate senses; as a cheerful prospect, a cheer- their own signification. ful room, gay attire, a gay scene, gay Chief respects precedency in civil colors, etc. matters; leader regards the direction See also Glad; Optimistic; San- of enterprises: chieftain is a species of guine. leader; and head is the superior in genCHERISH. See Foster; Nourish. eral concerns. Among savages the

—

CHIEFLY

158

is allied to Latin gustare^ acting or di- to taste, Greek ytoofiai, I taste. Prefer^ Factions in French 'preferer, Latin -prcefero, comrecting in particular cases. and parties in a state, like savage pounded of prce and ferre, to take betribes, must have their leaders, to whom fore, signifies to take one thing rather they are blindly devoted and by whom than another. To choose is to prefer as the genua they are instigated to every desperate proceeding. Robbers have their chief- to the species: we always choose in tains, who plan and direct everything, -preferring, but we do not always prefer having an unlimited power over the in choosing. To choose is to take one band. The heads of famihes were, in thing from among others; to prefer the primitive ages, the chiefs, who in is to take one thing before or rather We sometimes choose conjunction regulated the affairs of than another. state. Chiefs have a permanent power, from the bare necessity of choosing; which may descend by inheritance, to but we never prefer without making a branches of the same famihes: leaders positive and voluntary choice. and chieftains have a deputed power When we choose from a specific mowith which they are invested as the tive, the. acts of choosing and preferring time and occasion require: heads have differ in ithe nature of the motive. The a natural power springing out of the former is absolute, the latter relative. nature of their birth, raiik, talents, and We choose a thing for what it is, or situation; it is not hereditary, but what we esteem it to be of itself; we successive. Chiefs ought to have su- prefer a thing for what it has, or what periority of birth combined with talents we suppose it has, superior to another. for ruling; leaders and chieftains require Utihty or convenience are grounds for a bold and enterprising spirit; heads choosing; comparative merit occasions should have talents for directing. the preference: we choose something See also Supreme. that is good, and are contented with it CHIEFLY. See Especially. until we see something better which CHILDISH. Infantine. Childish we prefer. calculate and pause in is in the manner of an infant. choosing; we decide in preferring; the What children do is frequently sim- judgment determines in making the ple or foohsh; what infants do is com- choice; the will or the affections demonly pretty and engaging; therefore termine in giving the preference. We childish is taken in the bad, and infan- choose things from an estimate of their tine in the good sense. Childish man- merits or their fitness for the purpose ners are very offensive in those who proposed; we prefer them from their have ceased, according to their years, accordance with our tastes, habits, and to be children; the infantine actions pursuits. Books are chosen by those of some children evince a simphcity of who wish to read; romances and works character. of fiction are preferred by general readCHILL, Cold. Chill and cold are ers; learned works by the scholar. but variations of the same word, in One who wants instruction chooses a German kalt, etc. master, but he will mostly prefer a Chill expresses less than cold; that teacher whom he knows to a perfect cold. is to say, it expresses a degree of stranger. Our choice is good or bad The weather is often chilly in summer, according to our knowledge; our prefspeak of erence is just or unjust according as it but it is cold in winter. taking the chUl off water when the is sanctioned by reason or otherwise. cold is in part removed; and of a chill Our choice may oe directed by our own running through the frame when the experience or that of others; our cold begins to penetrate the frame that preference must be guided by our own is in a state of warmth. make our choice; we give feehngs. CHIMERICAL. See Utopiak. our preference: the first is the settled CHOICE. See Option. purpose of the mind, it fixes on the obCHOKE. See Suffocate. ject; the latter is the inchning of the will, it yields to the object. CHOLER. See Anger. Choosing must be employed in all CHOOSE, Prefer. Choose, Anglo-

(Mef of every within his

tribe is

own

a despotic prince Saxon cedsan,

district,

We

We

We

CIRCLE the important concerns of life; preis admissible in subordinate matters only. There is but one thing that is right, and that ought to be chosen when it is discovered there are many indifferent things that may suit our tastes and inclinations; these we are at Uberty to prefer. But to prefer what we ought not to choose is to make our reason bend to our will. The path of Hfe should be chosen; but the path to be taken in a walk may be preferred. It is advisable for a youth in the choice of a profession to consult what he prefers, as he has the greatest chance of succeeding when he can combine his pleasure with his duty. A friend should be chosen: a companion may wife should be chosen; be preferred. but unfortunately lovers are most apt to give a preference in a matter where a good or bad choice may determine one's happiness or misery for life. wise prince is careful in the choice of his ministers; but a weak prince has

ferring

:

A

A

mostly favorites

whom

he

—

prefers.

Choose, Pick, Select. To choose is here, as in the foregoing article, a general and indefinite term, signifying to take one out of two or more. To pick In Middle English is allied to peck. pikken, to pick, and pekken, to peck, are equivalent words. They are derived from pic, a sharp point, and signify to take anything up with a beak or a pointed thing; hence to take things one by one. Select, in Latin selectiis, from seligo, or se, apart, and lego, to gather, signifies properly to set may choose whatever comes apart. in our way without regard to the number of the objects to be chosen from, but we pick or select out of a niunber only; as to pick or select books from a library: we may pick one or many out of a number, but we mostly select a

We

159

—

Elect. Choose (see above). Latin electus, participle of eligo,

Choose, Elect, in

compoimded of e and lego, signifying to gather or take out from. Both these terms are employed in regard to persons appointed to an office; the former in a general, the latter in a particular sense. Choosing is the act either of one man or of many; election is always that of a number; it is performed by the concurrence of many voices. prince chooses his ministers; the constituents elect members of parhament. person is chosen to serve the office of sheriff; he is elected by the corporation to be mayor. Choosing is an act of authority; it binds the person chosen: election is a voluntary act; the elected has the power of refusal. People are obhged to serve in some offices when they are chosen, although they would gladly be exempt. The circumstances of being elected is an honor after which they eagerly aspire, is

A

A

and for the attainment of wluch they risk their property and use the most strenuous exertions.

To

elect

may

sometimes be extended

in its application to persons or things for general purposes, which brings it nearer to the word choose; but election in this case signifies the choosing one

out of two or more specific objects; as where one has several friends and makes his election of one to be his constant companion, or a person makes his election where he has several alternatives set before him. CHRONICLES. See Anecdotes. CHURCH, See Temple. CIPHER. See Zero.

CIRCLE, Sphere, Orb, Globe.

comes from Latin circtUus, a diminutive of circus, a ring. Sphere is number. Choosing is not always an derived from Latin sphcera, a transact of particular design or discrimina- literation of Greek vBaipa, a ball. tion; but to pick and select signify to Orb is derived from Latin orbis, a choose with care, the latter with still round disk or ring. Globe comes from greater care than the former. What is Latin globus, a ball. picked and selected is always the best of Rotundity of figure is the common its kind; but the former is commonly idea expressed by these termsj but the something of a physical nature, the lat- circle is that figure which is repreter of a moral or intellectual description. sented on a plane superficies; the others Soldiers are sometimes picked to form a are figures represented by sohds. We particular regiment; pieces are selected draw a circle by means of compasses; in prose or verse for general purposes. the sphere is a round body, conceived Circle

CIRCUIT

160

to be formed according to the rules of specific sense; tour is seldom employed geometry by the circumvolution of a but in regard to traveJUng; round circle round about its diameter; hence may be taken figiu-atively, as when the whole frame of the world is de- we speak of going one's round of

nominated a sphere. An orb is any body which describes a circle; hence the heavenly bodies are termed orbs: a globe is any soUd body the surface of which is in every part equidistant from the centre; of this description is the terrestrial globe.

A circle may be applied in the improper sense to any round figure which IS formed or supposed to be formed by simple rocircumscribing a space; tundity constitutes a circle: in this manner a circle may be formed by real objects, as persons, or by moral obTo the idea of jects, as pleasures. circle is annexed that of extent around, in the signification of a sphere, as a sphere of activity, whether applied in the philosophical sense to natural bodies or in the moral sense to men. Hollowness, as well as rotundity, belongs to an orb; hence we speak of the orb of a wheel. Of a globe, solidity is the peculiar characteristic; hence any ball, Uke the ball of the earth, may be represented as a globe.

CIRCUIT, Tour, Round. Circuit, in French circuit, Latin circuitvs, participle of circumeo, signifies either the act of going roimd or the extent gone. derived from Latin tomum Greek TopvoQ, a lathe. Round comes from Latin rotundu^, indicating the motion of a wheel, from rota, wheel. A circuit is made for a specific end of a serious kind; a tour is always made for pleasure; a round, like a circuit, is employed in matters of business, but of a more famihar and ordinary kind.

Tour

is

(ace),

A

judge goes his circuit at particular periods of time: gentlemen, in times of peace, consider it as an essential part of their education to make what 18 termed the grand tour: tradesmen have certain rounds, which they take on certain days. We speak of making the circuit of a place; of taking a tour in a given country; and going a particular round. A circuit is wide or narrow; a tour and a round are great or httle. A a tour circuit is prescribed as to extent is optional; a round is prescribed or otherwise. ;

Circuit

is

seldom used but

in

pleasm-e.

CIRCULATE. See CIRCUMSCRIBE, cumscribe,

from

Spread.

Inclose. Cirthe Latin circum,

about, and scribere, to write, marks simply the surrounding with a line. Inclose, from the Latin inclusus, participle of includo, based on in and claudere, to shut, marks a species of confinement. The extent of any place is drawn out to the eye by a circumscription; its extent is hmited to a given point by an inclosure. A garden is circumscribed by any ditch, Hne, or posts that serve as its boundaries; it is inclosed by wall or fence. An inclosure may serve to circumscribe; but that which circumscribes is frequently imaginary, and wiU not serve to inclose. See also Bound. CIRCUMSPECT. See Cautigus.

CIRCUMSTANCE, Circumstance,

in

Situation. Latin circumstantia,

from circum and sto, signifies what stands about a thing, or belongs to it as its accident. Situation, in French sitvntion, comes from the Latin situs, a place. Circumstance is to sittuition as a part to a whole: many circumstances constitute a situation: a situation is an aggregate of circumstances. A person said to be in circumstances of af" fluence who has an abundance of everything essential for his comfort; he is in an easy situation when nothing exists to create uneasiness. Circumstance respects that which externally affects us; situation is employed both for the outward circumstances and the inward feelings. The success of any undertaking depends greatly on the circumstances under which it is begun; the

is

particular sittuition of a person's mind will give a cast to his words or actions. Circumstances are critical, a sittuition

dangerous. Circumstance, Incident, Fact. Circumstance is, as before, a general term. Incident, in Latin incidens, participle of incido, or in and cadere, to fall, signifying what falls upon or to another a thing, and fact, in Latin foetus, partiis

—

CITE to do, signifying the thing done, are species of circumstances. Incidenl is what happens; foLct is what is done; circumstance is not only what happens and is done, but whatever To everyis or belongs to a thing. thing are annexed circumstances, either of time, place, age, color, or other colciple of facere,

161

and

incidents without any fact, related is either fictitious or not positively known to have happened: it is necessary for a novel or play to contain much incident, but not facts, in order to render it interesting; history should contain nothing stances

when what

is

but facts, as authenticity is its chief which changes its merit. nature. Everything that moves and Circumstantial, Particular, Minute. operates is exposed to incidents; ef- Circumstantial, from circumstance, sigfects are produced, results follow, and nifies consisting of circumstances. Parchanges are brought about; these are ticular comes from Latin particula, a incidents: whatever moves and op- double diminutive of partem (ace), erates does, and what it produces is part; hence a very httle part. Minuie, done or is the fact: when the artificer in French minute, Latin minviv^, parperforms any work of art, it depends ticiple of minuere, to diminish, signifies not only on his skill, but on the excel- diminished or reduced to a very small lence of his tools, the time he employs, point. the particular frame of his mind, the Circumstantial expresses less than place where he works, with a variety particular, and that less than minute. of other circumstances, whether he wiU A circumstantial account contains all succeed in producing anything master- leading events; a particular account ly. Newspapers abound with the vari- includes every event and movement, ous incidents which occur in the animal however trivial; a minute account or the vegetable world, some of which omits nothing as to person, time, place, are surprising and singular; they hke- figure, form, and every other trivial wise contain a number of facts which circumstance connected with the events. serve to present a melancholy picture A narrative may be circumstantial, parof human depravity. ticular, or minute; an inquiry, inCircumstance is as often employed vestigation, or description may be with regard to the operations or prop- minuie. An event or occurrence may erties of things, in which case it is most be particular, a circumstance or paranalogous to incident and fact; it may ticular may be minute. then be employed for the whole affair, CITE, Quote. Cite is derived from or any part of it whatever that can be Latin citare, a frequentative of ciere, to distinctly considered. Incidents and arouse (compare excite, incite, etc.). facts eitner are circumstances or have As applied to persons it means to circumstances belonging to them. A arouse, to summon; it was figuratively remarkably abimdant crop in any par- apphed to things in a similar sense. ticular part of a field is for the agri- To cite a passage in a book or an inculturist a singular circumstance or in- stance in history meant to summon it Quate is derived from cident; this may be rendered more sm-- to bear witness. prising if associated with imusual Latin quotare, to mark off into chapsteriUty in other parts of the same ters or verses for reference, from field. A robbery may either be a fact quotus, how much (compare quota); or a circumstance; its atrocity may be from the significance to mark off it aggravated by the murder of the in- came to mean the repeating of the jured parties, the savageness of the per- words marked off. petrators, and a variety of circumTo cite is employed for persons or stances. Circumstance comprehends in things; to quote for things only: auits signification whatever may be thors are cited, passages from their said or thought of anything; incident works are quoted: we cite only by aucarries with it the idea of whatever thority; we quote for general purposes may befall or be said to befall any- of convenience. Historians ought to thing; fact includes in it nothing but cite their authority in order to strengthwhat really is or is done. A narrative, en their evidence and inspire concontroversiahsts must ouote therefore, may contain many circum- fidence; lateral appendages,

11

—

CIVIL

162

objectionable passages in those there are times when every man ought works which they wish to confute: it to be civil to his neighbor: politeness is prudent to cite no one whose au- is rather a voluntary devotion of our-

the

thority is questionable; it is super- selves to others: fluous to quote anything that can be orders civility is easily perused in the original.

—

Cite, Summon. The idea of calhng a person authoritatively to appear is common to these terms. Cite is used in a general sense, summon in a particular and technical sense: a person may be cited to appear before his superior; he is summoned to appear before a

coiul: the station of the individual gives authority to the act of citing; the law itself gives authority to that of summoning. When cite is used in a it is mostly employed for witnesses, and summon for every occasion: a person is cited to give evidence; he is summoned to answer a charge. Cite is seldomer used in the legal sense than in that of calHng by name, in which general acceptation it is employed with regard to authors, as specified in the preceding article, and in some few other connections: the legal is the ordinary sense of summon; it may, however, be extended in its apphcation to a mihtary summons of a fortified town, or to any call for which there may be occasion; as when we speak of the summons which is given to attend the death-bed of a friend; or, figuratively, death is said

legal sense,

summon mortals from this world. CIVIL, Polite. Civil, in French civil, Latin civilis, from civis, a citizen, si^ifies belonging to or becoming a to

citizen. Polite, in French poli, Latin politus, participle of polire, to polish, signifies properly polished.

These two epithets are employed to

among

the inferior indispensable; an uncivil person in a subordinate station is an obnoxious member of society: among the higher orders politeness is often a substitute; and, where the form and spirit are combined, it supersedes the necessity of civility: politeness is the sweetener of human society; it gives a charm to everything that is said and done. Civility is contented with pleasing when the occasion offers: politeness seeks the opportunity to please; it prevents the necessity of asking by anticipating the wishes; it is full of dehcate attentions, and is an active benevolence in the minor concerns of life. Civil is therefore most properly appHed to what passes from and to persons of inferior condition; as the peasantry are very civil. Or it may be applied to the ordinary transactions of life without distinction of rank. Polite is applied to those who are in a condition to have good-breeding. Civility is rather a negative than a positive quahty, implying the absence of rudeness. Politeness requires positive and pecuhar properties of the head and heart, natural and acquired. To be civil, therefore, is the least that any one can be to another if he do not wish to offend; but politeness, where it is real, is as strong an indication of kindness in the outward behavior as the occasion calls for.

The term

civil

may

be apphed figua characteris-

ratively, but politeness is tic of real persons only.

See also Temporal. Civil, Obliging, Complaisant. Civil is more general than obliging, which signifies ready to obhge. One is always civil when one is obliging, but not always obliging when one is civil. condition, or country; all have an op- Civil apphes to words or manner as portunity with equal propriety of being well as to the action; obliging, to the civil, but not so with politeness; that action only. As civil is indefinite in requires a certain degree of equahty, its meaning, so it is indiscriminate in at least the equahty of education; it its apphcation; obliging, on the othei* would be contradictory for masters hand, is confined to what passes be~ and servants, rich and poor, learned tween particular persons or under parand unlearned, to be polite to one ticular circumstances. Strangers may another. Civility is a Christian duty; be civil, and persons may frequently

denote different modes of acting in

social intercourse polite expresses more than civil; it is possible to be civil without being polite: politeness supposes civility and something in addition. Civility is confined to no rank, age, :

—

CLASS

163-

who from their situation may All these terms are employed to exone press the act of inclosing another in exi>ected to be otherwise; friend is obliging to another. one's arms: cla^p marks this action Citdl and obliging both imply a de- when it is performed with the warmth sire to do a kmdness; but complai- of true affection; hug is a ludicrous sant, which is a variation of com- sort of clasping, which is the conseplacent, from complaceo, to be highly quence of ignorance or extravagant pleased, signifies the desire of receiv- feeling; embrace is simply a mode of ing pleasure, which is a refined mode ordinary salutation: a parent will clasp of doing a kindness. his long-lost child in his arms on their Civility, Ijdng very much in the man- re-meeting; a peasant in the excess of ner, may be put on, and complaisance, his raptures would throw his body, as implying a concern to please by being well as his arms, over the object of pleased, may be bad if it lead one to his joy, and stine with hugging him consult the humors of others to the whom he meant to embrace; in the sacrifice of duty or propriety. Continental parts of Europe embracing CIVILITY. See Benefit. between males, as well as females, is CIVILIZATION. See Cultivation. universal on meeting after a long CLAIM. See Ask; Pretension; absence, or on taking leave for a Right. length of time; embraces are sometimes See Noise. given in England between near relaSee Loud. tives, but in no other case. be be

civil

CLAMOR. CLAMOROUS. CLANDESTINE,

destine,

in

from clam,

Secret. ClanClasp and embrace may be appUed to Latin clandestinus, comes other objects besides persons in the

secretly. Secret, in French secretus, participle of

same

secemere, to separate, signifies remote from observation. Clandestine expresses more than secret. To do a thing clandestinely is to elude observation;, to do a thing secretly is to do it without the knowledge of any one: what is clandestine is unallowed, which is not necessarily the case with what is secret. With the clandestine must be a mixture of art; with secrecy caution and management are requisite: a clandestine marriage is effected by a studied plan to escape notice; a secret marriage is

Class

secret,

Latin

conducted by communication

sense.

CLASS, Order, Rank, is

derived from Latin

Degree. classis,

a

Order, faction, a division, a fleet. Latin ordo, is allied to Latin ordiri, to Rank, Old begin, from oriri, to rise. French reng, comes from Old High German hrinc, a ring of men. Degree, in French degre, comes from the Latin gradus, a stop. Class is more general than order; deClass gree is more specific than rank. and order are said of the persons wha are distinguished; rank and degree of the distinction itself: men belong toa certain cUiss or order; they hold the forbearance of all a certain rank; they are of a certain

conspirators

have

among the Romans all the degree: citizens were distinctly divided into clan- classes according to their property; destinely conveys away his master's but in the modern constitution of soproperty from his premises; a thief ciety classes are distinguished from secretly takes a purse from the pocket one another on general, moral, or civil of a bystander. grounds; there are reputable or dis;

many clandestine proceedings and secret meetings:

an unfaithful servant

CLASP, Hug, Embrace. Clasp is reputable classes; the laboring doss, a word confined to EngUsh. It first the class of merchants, mechanics, etc.; appears in the fourteenth century; it order has a more particular significameans to fasten bv two interlocking tion; it is founded upon some positive HtLg may be a Scandinavian civil privilege or distinction: the genrelated to Icelandic hugga, to eral orders are divided into higher, lowsoothe; hugna, to please. Embrace, in er, and middle, arising from the unequal French enArasser, is compounded of distribution of wealth and f>ower; thearticular orders are those of the noen and bras, arm, Latin brachia, arms, E iUty, of the clergy, of freemasonry,, signifying to take or lock in one's arms. parts.

word

CLASSIC

164

To arrange is a more complex proceeding than simply to range; a

and the like: rank distinguishes one individual from another; it is peculiarly applied to the nobihty and the gentry, although every man in the community holds a certain rank in relation to those who are above or below him: degree, like rank, is applicable to the individual, but only in particular cases; literary and scientific degrees are conferred upon superior merit in different departments of science; there are likewise degrees in the same rank, whence we sjjeak of men of high and low degree. Class,

Arrange,

Range.

—To

able.

merchant or tradesman arranges his affairs when they are got into confusion, but a shopkeeper ranges his goods in such maimer as best to set them out to view.

These words are applied figuratively in the

same

sense.

CLASSIC.

CLEAN, and

cleanly

claene,

See Academic.

Pure. Clean come from Anglo-Saxon CleaI'JLY,

pure, bright, which in

German

developed the special sense of httle German klein. Pure, in French pur, Latin purus. Clean expresses a freedom from dirt or soil; cleanly the disposition or habit of being clean. A person who keeps himself clean is cleanly; a cleanly servant takes care to keep other things clean. Clean is employed either in the proper or the figurative sense; pure, mostly in the moral sense: the hands should be dean; the heart should be pure; it is the first requisite of good writing that it should be clean; it is of the first importance for the morals of youth to be kept pure. CLEANSE, See Sawctify. CLEAR, Lucid, Bright, Vivid. Lucid, in Latin Clear, see Absolve.

class,

from the noun class, signifies to put Arrange and range both in a class. come from the Old French rangier, from reng. Old High German hrinc, a ring, a row arrange being formed by the addition of Latin ad (to) to the French verb. The general qualities and attributes

of things are to be considered in classing; their fitness to stand by each other must be considered in arranging; their capacity for forming a line is the only thing to be attended to in ranging. Classification serves the purposes either of public policy or science; arranging is a matter of convenience to the individual himself; ranging is a matter of convenience for others: men lucidu^, from lucere, to shine, and lux, are classed into different bodies accord- light, signifies having light.' Bright, ing to some certain standard of prop- see Brightness. Viind, Latin vividus, erty, power, education, occupation, from vivere, to hve, signifies being in a etc.; furnitm-e is arranged in a room state of life. according as it answers in color, shade, These epithets mark a gradation in convenience of situation, etc.; men are their sense; the idea of fight is comranged in order whenever they make a mon to them, but clear expresses less procession. All these words require than lucid, lucid than bright, and bright more or less exercise of the intellectual less than vivid; a mere freedom from faculty, but classing is a more abstract stain or dulness constitutes the clearand comprehensive act than either ar- ness; the return of light, and conseranging or ranging. All objects, ex- quent removal of darkness, constitutes ternal or internal, may admit of classi- lucidity; brightness supposes a certain fication, according to their similitudes strength of light ; vividness a freshness and differences; but arranging and combined with the strength, and even ranging are particular acts employed a degree of brilliancy: a sky is clear in regard to familiar objects, and the that is divested of clouds: the atmosorder in which they ought to be placed. phere is lucid in the day, but not in Ideas are classed by the logician into the night; the sun shines bright when simple and complex, abstract and con- it is unobstructed by anything in the crete; an individual arranges his own atmosphere; lightning sometimes preideas in his mind words are classed by sents a vivid redness, and sometimes a the grammarian into different parts of vivid paleness: the light of the stars speech: words are arranged by the may be clear, and sometimes bright, writer in a sentence, so as to be suit- but never vivid; the fight of the sun is :

'

CLEMENCY rather bright than dear or vivid; the hght of the moon is either clear, bright, or vivid. These epithets may with equal propriety be apphed to color as well as to light: a clear color is unmixed with any other; a bright color has something striking and strong in it; a vivid color something hvely and fresh in it. In their moral apphcation they preserve a similar distinction: a conscience is said to be clear when it is free from every stain or spot; a de-

ranged understanding may have lucid intervals; a bright intellect throws light on everything around it; a vivid imagination glows with every image that nature presents. See also Apparent; Diaphanotjs;

Euphonious; Fair. Clearly, clearly of

Distinctly.

—That

is

seen

which one has a dear view independent of anything else; that is seen distinctly which is seen so as to distinguish it from other objects. We see the moon clearly whenever it shines, but we cannot see the spots in the moon distinctly without the help of glasses. What we see distinctly must be seen clearly, but a thing may be seen clearly without being seen distinctly. A want of light, or the intervention of other objects, prevents us from seeing clearly; distance, or a defect in the sight, prevents us from seeing distinctly. Old men often see clearly, but not distinctly; they perceive large or luminous objects at a distance, but they cannot distinguish such small objects as the characters of a book without the help of convex glasses; short-sighted persons, on the contrary, see near objects distinctly, but they have no clear vision of distant ones, unless they are viewed

through concave Clearness,

glasses.

—

Perspicuity. Clearness, from clear, is here used figuratively to mark the degree of light by which one sees things distinctly. Perspicuity, in French perspicuity, Latin perspicuitas, from perspicuus and perspicere, to look through, signifies the quality of being able to be seen through. These epithets denote qualities equally requisite to render a discourse intelligible, but each has its peculiar character. Clearness respects our ideas and springs from the distinction of the

165

things themselves that are discussed: perspicuity respects the mode of expressing the ideas, and springs from the good qualities of style. It requires a dear head to be able to see a subject in all its bearings and relations; to distinguish all the niceties and shades of difference between things that bear a strong resemblance, and to separate it from all irrelevant objects that intermingle themselves with it. But whatever may be our clearness of conception, it is requisite, if we would communicate our conceptions to others, that we should observe a purity in our mode of diction, that we should be particular in the choice of our terms, careful in the disposition of them, and accurate in the construction of our sentences; that is perspicuity which, as it is the first, so, according to Quintilian, it is the most important part of composition. Clearness of intellect is a natural perspicuity is an acquired art: gift; although intimately connected with each other, yet it is possible to have clearness without perspicuity, and perppicuity without clearness. People of quick capacities will have clear ideas on the subjects that offer themselves to their notice, but for want of education they may often use improper or ambiguous phrases; or by errors of construction render their phraseology the reverse of perspicuous: on the other hand, it is in the power of some to express themselves perspicuously on subjects far above their comprehension, from a certain facility which they acquire of catching up suitable modes of expression. The study of the classics and mathematics is most fitted for the improvement of clearness; the study of grammar, and the observance of good models, will serve most effectually for the acquirement of perspicuity.

CLEAVE. See Stick. CLEFT. See Jagged.

CLEMENCY,

Lenity,

Mercy.

in Latin dementia, signify*ing mildness. Lenity is in Latin lenilas,

Clemency

is

Mercy is derived Irom lenis, soft. Latin merceg, pay, which has developed

from

into words of curiously diverse meanmerchant, mercenary, French ings In this connection merci, thanks, etc.

—

CLERGYMAN

166

that which brings a reward heaven, and is influenced by the Latin misericordia, pitiful of heart. All these terms agree in denoting the disposition or act of forbearing to inflict pain by the exercise of power. Clemency and lenity are employed only

it signifies

in

acquired a special significance because of the Christian emphasis upon humility. The Pope called himself the "servant of the servants of Jesus It

Christ."

The word clergyman apples to such as are regularly bred according to the toward offenders; mercy toward aU forms of the national refigion, and apwho are in trouble, whether from their plies to none else. In this sense we own fault or any other cause. Clem- speak of the English, the French, and ency lies in the disposition; lenity and Scotch clergy without distinction. mercy, in the act; the former as re- parson is a species of clergyman who 8i>ects superiors in general, the latter ranks the highest in the three orders in regard to those who are invested of inferior clergy, that is, parson, vicar, with civil power: a monarch displays and cm-ate; the parson being a technihis clemency by showing mercy; a cal term for the rector, or he who holds master shows lenity by not inflicting the living: in its technical sense it has pimishment where it is deserved. now acquired a definite use, but in Clemency is arbitrary on the part of the general conversation it is become alThe word clergydispenser, flowing from his will, inde- most a nickname. Eendent of the object on whom it is man is always substituted for parson estowed: lenity and mercy are dis- in polite society. When priest recretionary, they always have regard spects the Christian reUgion it is a to the object and the nature of the species of clergyman, that is, one who offence or misfortunes; lenity, there- is ordained to officiate at the altar fore, often serves the purposes of dis- in distinction from the deacon, who is ciphne, and mercy those of justice, by only an assistant to the priest. But the forgiveness instead of punishment; but term priest has likewise an extended clemency sometimes defeats its end by meaning in reference to such as hold forbearing to pimish where it is need- the sacerdotal character in any form ful. nuld master, who shows clem- of refigion, as the priests of the Jews, or ency to a faithless servant by not those of the Greeks, Romans, Indians, bringing him to justice, often throws and the like. minister is one who a worthless wretch upon the pubUc to actually or habitually officiates. Clergycommit more atrocious depredations. men are therefore not always strictly well-timed lenity sometimes recalls ministers, nor are all ministers clergyan offender to himself, and brings him men. If a clergyman delegates his funcback to good order. Upon this prin- tions altogether he is not a minister; ciple the English constitution has wise- nor is he who presides over a dissenting ly left in the hands of the monarch the congregation a clergyman. In the discretionary power of showing mercy former case, however, it would be inin aU cases that do not demand the vidious to deprive the clergyman of the utmost rigor of the law. name of minister of the Gecific.

or periods are reached, and when danattacks of sickness may be

gerous

167

expected. The most critical period of all, according to beUef, and known as the grand climacteric, is within the 63d year, that is 7x9, of a man's Lfe, when his constitution is said to decline rapidly, involving him in critical illness till the year has passed and old age begins. Critical (see Critical) and dangerous (see Danger) are less limited in their application. Dangerous is a stronger word than critical. Critical suggests the possibih'ty of misfortune; dangerous the probability.

CLIMB, See Arise. CLOAK, Mask, Blind, Veil.

These

are figurative terms, expressive of different modes of intentionally keeping something from the view of others. They are borrowed from those famihar objects which serve similar purposes in

common

life.

Cloak and mask express

figuratively and properly more than blind or veil. The two former keep the whole object out of sight; the two latter only partially intercept the view. In this figurative sense they are all employed for a bad purpose. The doak, the mask, and the hlivd serve to deceive others; the veil serves to deceive one's self. The whole or any part of a character may be concealed by a blind; a part, though not the whole, may be concealed by a mask. blind is not only employed to conceal the character, but

A

the conduct or proceedings. We carry a doak and a mask about with us; but a blind is something external. The doak, as the external garment, is the most convenient of all coverings for entirely keeping concealed what we do not wish to be seen; a good outward deportment serves as a doak to conceal a bad character. A mask hides only the face; a mask, therefore, serves to conceal only as much as words and looks can effect. A blind is intended to shut out the light and prevent observation; whatever, therefore, conceals the real truth, and prevents suspicion by a false exterior, is a blind. veil prevents a person from seeing as weU as being seen whatever, therefore, obscures the mental sight acts as a veil to the mind's eye. Religion is unfortunately the object which may serve to doak the worst of purposes and the worst of characters: its importance in

A

;

CLOG

168

the eyes of all men makes it the most effectual passport to their countenance and sanction; and its external observances render it the most convenient mode of presenting a false profession to the eyes of the world: those, therefore, who set an undue value on the ceremonial part of rehgion do but encourage this most heinous of all sins, by suffering themselves to be imposed upon by a cloak of rehgious hypocrisy. False friends always wear a mask; they cover a malignant heart under the

and endearments of friendship. traders mostly make use of some blind to facilitate the carrying on their nefarious practices. Am»ng the various arts resorted to in the metropolis by the needy and profligate, none is so bad as that which is made to be a blind for the practice of debauchery. Prejudice and passion are the ordinary veils which obscure the judgment and prevent it from distinguishing the smiles Illicit

truth.

CLOG, Load, Encumber.

Clog in English means the wooden sole of a shoe; hence a hindrance. For the derivation of load see Freight. Encumber is from French encombrer, Latin in and Late Latin combrus, an

Middle

obstacle.

Clog is figuratively employed for whatever impedes the motion or action of a thing, drawn from the familiar object which is used to impede the motion of animals: load is used for whatever occasions an excess of weight or materials. A wheel is clogged, or a machine is clogged; a fire may be loaded with coals, or a picture with coloring. The stomach and memory may be either clogged or loaded: in the former case by the introduction of improper food, and in the second case by the introduction of an improper quantity. A memory that is clogged becomes confused, and confounds one thing with another; that which is loaded loses the impression of one object by the introduction of another. Clog and encumber have the common signification of interrupting or troubling

by means

of

with mould, or any improper substance, their growth is almest stopped; weeds and noxious plants are encumbrances in the ground where flowers should grow.

CLOISTER, Convent, Monastery. Cloister,

Latin claustrum, means

literal-

ly an enclosure, and signifies a certain close place in a convent, or an enclosure of houses for canons, or, in general, a religious house. Convent, from the Latin conventv^, a meeting, and convenire, to come together, signifies a religious assembly. Monastery, in

French monastere, signifies a habitation for monks, from the Greek fiovoc, alone.

The proper idea of cloister is that of seclusion; the proper idea of convent is that of community; the proper idea of a monastery is that of solitude. One is shut up in a cloister, put into a convent, and retires to a monastery. Whoever wishes to take an absolute leave of the world shuts himself up in a cloister; whoever wishes to attach himself to a community that has renounced all commerce with the world goes into a convent; whoever wishes to shun all huintercoiu*se retires to a monastery. In the cloister our liberty is sacrificed; in the convent our worldly habits are renounced, and, those of a regular rehgious community being adopted, we submit to the yoke of established orders: in a monastery we impose a sort of voluntary exile upon ourselves; we five with the view of living only to

man

In the ancient and true monasthe members divided their time between contemplation and labor; but as population increased and towns multiphed monasteries were, properly speaking, succeeded by convents. In ordinary discourse cloister is employed in an absolute and indefinite manner: we speak of the cloister to designate a monastic state; as entering a cloister;

God.

teries

burying one's self in a cloister; penances and mortifications are practised in a cloister. It is not the same thing when we speak of the cloister of the Benedictines

and

of their monastery;

or the

something irrelevant. Whatever is cloister of the Capuchins and their clogged has scarcely the liberty of mov- convent. ing at all; whatever is encumbered CLOSE, CoMPAC?r. Close is from moves and acts, but with difficulty. the French clos, and Latin clau^us, the When the roots of plants are clogged participle of claudere, to shut. Compact

COADJUTOR is

derived from Latin compactus, cum,

and pangere, to

together,

and

signifies fitted, close,

fasten, to

fit,

form.

Proximity is expressed by both these terms; the former in a general and the latter in a restricted sense. Two bodies may be close to each other, but a body is compact with regard to itself. Contact is not essential to constitute closeness; but a perfect adhesion of all the parts of a body is essential to produce compactness. Lines are dose to each other that are separated but by a small space; things are rolled together in a compact form that are brought within the smallest possible space.

Near,

Close,

Near

above).

is

—

(see Nigh. Close the comparative of

169

There is, hewever, a further distinction between these two words: to close properly denotes the bringing anything close, and may, therefore, be applied to anv opening or cavity which may thus be filled up or covered over for a permanency; as to dose a wound, to dose the entrance to any place; but shuUing implies merely an occasional stoppage of an entrance by that which is movable: whatever is shui may be opened in this sense; not only a door, a book, or a box may be shut, but also the ears may be shui. In familiar language it is usual to speak of closing a scene, for putting an end to it; but in poetry the term shut may without impropriety be used in the same sense. See also Blockade. Close, Conclude, Finish.

nigh.

—To

close is

than near: to bring toward an end; to condude, houses stand close to each other which from con and daudere, to shut, i. e., are almost joined; men stand close to shut together, signifies to bring when they touch each other; objects actually to an end; finish, in Latin are near which are within sight; per- fi,nio and finis, an end, signifies also sons are near each other when they can Uterally to bring to an end. The idea converse together. Near and nigh, of putting an end to a thing is common which are but variations of each other to these terms, but they differ in the To close in etymology, admit of httle or no circumstances of t*he action. Close

is

more

definite

in their use; the former, however, is the most general. People hve near each other who are in the same street; they live close to each other when their houses are adjoining. Close near is is annexed as an adjective; employed only as an adverb or preposition. We speak of dose ranks or close fines; but not near ranks or near difference

lines.

See also End; Sequel. Close,

Shut.—Close

(see above). Shut,

the most indefinite of the three. close at any point by simply ceasing to have any more to do with

is

We may

but we condude in a definite anc?" positive manner. Want of time may compel us to dose a letter before we have said all we wish to say; a letter is commonly concluded with expressions of kindness or courtesy. Whatevet admits of being discontinued is properly said to be closed; as to close a pro-

it;

cession, entertainment,

and the

like.

Whatever is brought to the last or the Anglo-Saxon scyttan^ meant originally to fasten a door with a bolt, and is desired point is properly said to be conallied to shoot. We still say " shoot the eluded; as to condude a speech, a narrative, a business, and the like. bolt" (Skeat). To close signifies simply to put dose To conclude is to bring to an end together; shut to stop or prevent ad- by determination; to finish is to bring mittance; closing is therefore a partial to an end by completion: what is shuUing, and shutting a complete dos- settled by arrangement and deliberaing; as to close a door or window is to tion is properly conduded; what is put it partially to, as distinguished begun on a certain plan is said to be from shutting it, i. e., shutting it dose. finished. CLOWN. See Countryman. The eyes are shui by closing the eyeCLOY. See Satisfy. lids, and the mouth is shui oy closing CLUE. See Key. the lips; and by the figure of metonvmy CLUMSY. See Awkward. to close may therefore often be substiCLUTCH. See Nab. tuted for shut: as to dose the eyes, to dose the mouth, particularly in poetry. COADJUTOR, Assistant. Coadju-

COALESCE

170

of von and adjvior, a been to make a cokes of, from cokes, a a fellow-laborer. As- simpleton, a dupe. Wheedle may be sistant signifies properly one that assists derived from Anglo-Saxon woedlian, to beg, originally to be poor, from wcedl, or takes a part. A coadjutor is more noble than an poverty. Cajole meant formerly to assistant: the latter is mostly in a sub- chatter like a jay. It may be of imitaordinate station, but the former is an tive origin. Faum is derived from equal; the latter performs menial of- Anglo-Saxon fahnian, to rejoice, from fices in the minor concerns of life, and foegen, fain, glad, ana means to rejoice a subordinate part at all times; the servilely, hence to cringe. The idea of using mean arts to turn former labors conjointly in some concern of common interest and great im- people to one's selfish piu-poses is comportance. An assistant is engaged for a mon to all these terms: coax has somecompensation; a coadjutor is a volun- thing childish in it; wheedle and cajole tary fellow-laborer. In every public that which is knavish ;/aicn that which concern where the purposes of charity is servile. The act of coaxing consists or reUgion are to be promoted coadju- of vu-gent entreaty and whining suptors often effect more than the original pUcation; the act of wheedling consists promoters: in the medical and scho- of smooth and winning entreaty; tor,

compounded

helper, signifies

lastic professions assistants are indis-

pensable to relieve the pressure of business. Coadjuiors ought to be zealous and unanimous; assistants ought to be assiduous and faithful. COALESCE. See Add. COALITION. See Union. COARSE, Rough, Ritde. Coarse was formerly course, and developed as an adjective from the phrase in course, to denote anything of ordinary char-

cajoling consists mostlj' of trickery and stratagem, disguised imder a soft ad-

dress and insinuating manners; the act of fawning consists of supphcant grimace and antics, such as characterize the httle animal from which it derives its name: children coax their parents in order to obtain their wishes; the greedy and covetous wheedle those

any easy temper; knaves cajole the and unsuspecting; parasites acter. Rou^h comes from Anglo-Saxon fawn upon those who have the power Tuh, rough, hairy. Rude is derived to contribute to their gratifications: from Latin rudis, raw, rough. coaxing is mostly resorted to by inThese epithets are equally appKed to feriors toward those on whom they what is not polished by art. In the are dependent; wheedling and cajoling proper sense coarse refers to the com- are low practices confined to the baser position and materials of bodies, as sort of men with one another; fawning, coarse bread, coarse meat, coarse cloth; though not less mean and disgraceful rough respects the surface of bodies, as rough wood and rou^h skin; rude respects the make or fashion of things, as a rude bark, a rude utensil. Coarse is opposed to fine, rough to smooth, rude to polished. In the figurative application they are distinguished in a similar manner: coarse language is used by persons of naturallv coarse feeUng; rough language, by those whose tempers are

of

simple

than the above-mentioned

vices,

is

commonly

practised only in the higher walks, where men of base character, though not mean education, come in connection with the great.

COERCE,

Restrain.

Coerce,

in

Latin coerceo, that is, con and crceo, from area, a chest, signifies to drive into conformity, with the under meaning of enclosing. Restrain is a variation of restrict (see Bind). either naturally or occasionally rough; Coercion is a species of restraint: rude language, by those who are igno- we always restrain or intend to restrain rant of any better. when we coerce; but we do not always See also Gross. coerce when we restrain; coercion alCOAX, Wheedle, Cajole, Fawn. ways comprehends the idea of force; Coax is a comparatively recent word restraint, that of simply keeping under of uncertain origin. Dr. Johnson. or back: coercion is always an external 1755-73, describes it as "a low word." application; restraint either external or The original meaning seems to have internal: a person is coerced by others

COLOR only; he may be restrained by himself as well as others. Coercion acts by a direct appUcation: it opposes force to resistance: restraint acts indirectly to the prevention of an act: the law restrains all men in their actions more or less; it coerces those who attempt to violate it; the unruly will is coerced; the improper will is restrained. Coercion is exercised; restraint is imposed: punishment, threats, or any actual fear, exercise of authority, coerces; shame, or a remonstrance from others, restrains.

COEVAL, Contemporary.

Coeval,

from the Latin oevum, an age,

signifies

same age. Contemporary, from tempus, signifies of the same time. An age is a specifically long space of time; a time is indefinite; hence the application of the terms to things in the first case and to persons in the second: the dispersion of mankind and the confusion of languages were coeval with the building of the tower of Babel; Addison was contemporary with Swift and Pope. COGENT, Forcible, Strong. Cogent, from the Latin cogere, to comp)el; and forcible, from the verb to force (see Compel), have equally the sense of acting by force. Strong is here figuratively employed for that species of strength which is connected with the mind (for derivation see Strong). Cogency applies to reasons individually considered; force and strength, to moaes of reasoning or expression: cogent reasons impel to decisive conduct; strong conviction is produced by forcible reasoning conveyed in strong language: changes of any kind are so seldom attended with benefit to society that a legislator will be cautious not to adopt them without the most cogent reasons; the imf>ortant truths of Christianity cannot be presented from the pulpit too forcibly to the of the

of men. Accuracy and strength seldom associated in the same mind; those who accustom themselves to strong language are not very scrupulous about the correctness of their

lega,

171

compounded

signifies

united

in

of ligare, to bind,

the

same work.

Partner, from Latin partem (ace), part, whence our word part is derived, signifies one having a part or share. Colleague is more noble than partner: men in the highest offices are colleagues;

tradesmen, mechanics, and subordinate persons are partners: every Roman consul had a colleague; every workmerty of another thing; to accordant with all one hears and sees commit is to give over for the purpose on a subject; a person's conduct is not Death consigns always consistent with his station. Conof taking charge of. many to an untimely grave; a writer sonant is opposed to dissonant; accordant, to discordant; consistent, to commits his thoughts to the press. Consign may thus be used in the inconsistent. Consonance is not so sense of assign, and commit in the sense positive a thing as either accordance or consistency, which respects real events, of trusting at all hazards. CONSISTENT. See Compatible; circumstances, and actions. Consonance may serve to prove the truth of a Consonant. CONSOLE, Solace, Comfort. Con- thing, but dissonance does not prove its sole and solace are derived from the falsehood imtil it amounts to direct same source, in French consoler, Latin discordance or inconsistency. There is consolari, to comfort. Comfort (see a dissonance in the accounts given by the four Evangehsts of our Saviour, Comfort). Console and solace denote the reliev- which serves to prove the absence of ing of pain; comfort marks the com- aU collusion and imposture, since there is neither discordance nor inconsistency munication of positive pleasure. console others with words; we console in what thev have related or omitted.

A

We

DistinCONSPICUOUS. See guished; Prominent. CONSPIRACY. See Combination. CONSTANCY, Stabiuty, SteadiWe they meet with afflictions; we solace ness, Firmness. Constancy, in French ourselves when we meet with disas- Constance, Latin constantia, from conters; we comfort those who stand in need stans and consto, compounded of con

or solace ourselves with reflections; we comfort by words or deeds. Console is used on more important occasions than solace. console our friends when

The greatest consolation and stare, to stand by or close to a which we can enjoy on the death of thing, signifies the quahty of adhering our friends is derived from the hope to the thing that has been once chosen. that they have exchanged a state of Stability, in French stabilite, Latin staimperfection and sorrow for one that bilitas, from stabilis and stare, to stand. of comfort.

CONSTANT

200 stand.

the quality of being able to Steadiness, the quality of being

steady,

is

signifies

Constitute, in Latin constitidus, participle of constituto, that is, con, toderived from Anglo-Saxon gether, and statue, place, signifies here stede, a place, foimd in words like home- to put or place for a specific purstead, instead, etc. Steady signifies pose. .4 ppoin/. (see Appoint). Depute, standing in one place. Firm comes in French depuier, Latin deputo, comfrom Latin firrnus, unmoved. poimded of de, from, and puiare, to Constancy respects the affections; esteem or assign, signifies to assign a stability, the opinions; steadiness, the certain office to a person. action or the motives of action; firmThe act of choosing some person or ness, the purpose or resolution. Con- persons for an office is comprehended stancy prevents from changing, and under aU these terms: constitvie is a furnishes the mind with resources more solemn act than appoint, and this against weariness or disgust of the than depute: to constitute is the act of same object; it preserves and supports a body; to appoint and depute, either an attachment imder every change of of a body or an individual: a comcircumstances; stability prevents from munity constitutes any one their leader; varying; it bears up the mind against a monarch appoints his ministers; an the movements of levity or curiosity, assembly deputes some of its members. which a diversity of objects might To constitute imphes the act of making produce; steadiness prevents from de- as well as choosing; the oflSce as well viating; it enables the mind to bear as the person is new: in appointing, the up against the influence of humor, person, but not the office, is new. A which temperament or outward cir- person may be constituted arbiter or cumstances might produce; it fixes on judge as circumstances may require; one course, and keeps to it: firmness a successor is appointed, but not conprevents from yielding; it gives the stituted. mind strength against all the attacks Whoever is constituted is invested to which it may be exposed; it makes with supreme authority derived from a resistance, and comes off triimaphant. the highest sources of power; whoever Constancy among lovers and friends is is appointed derives his authority from the favorite theme of poets; the word the authority of others, and has conhas, however, afforded but few origi- sequently but hmited power: no indinals from which they could copy their vidual can appoint another with aupictures: they have mostly described thority equal to his own: whoever is what is desirable rather than what is deputed has private and not pubhc real. Stability of character is essential authority; his office is partial, often for those who are to command, for how confined to the particular transaction can they govern others who cannot of an individual, or a body of indigovern their own thoughts? Steadi- viduals. According to the Romish reness of deportment is a great recom- ligion, the Pope is constituted supreme mendation to those who have to obey: head of the Christian Church throughhow can any one perform his part well out the whole world; governors are who suffers himself to be perpetually appointed to distant provinces; perinterrupted? Firmness of character is sons are deputed to present petitions indispensable in the support of prin- or make representations to governciples: there are many occasions in ment. which this part of a man's character is See also Form. likely to be put to a severe test. ConCONSTITUTION- See Frame. stancy is opposed to fickleness; stability, CONSTRAIN. See Compel. to changeableness; steadiness, to flightiCONSTRAINT, Compulsion. Conness; firmness, to pUancy. straint, from constrain, Latin constringo, CONSTANT. Continued; compounded of con, together, and See Durable; Unswerving. stringere, to draw tight, signifies the CONSTERNATION. See Alarm. act of straining or tying together. CONSTITUENT. See Element- Compulsion signifies the act of comary. peUing. (See Compel.) CONSTITUTE, Appoint, Depute. There is much of binding in con-

CX)NTACT of violenee in compulsion: constraint prevents from acting agreeably to the wUl; compulsion forces to act contrary to the will: a soldier in the ranks moves with much constraint, straint;

201

and received in consulUidoubts, difficulties, and objections are started and removed in de-

tion are given tions;

liberations.

We communicate and hear

when we consult; we pause and hesitate and is often subject to much compul- when we deliberate: those who have sion to make him move as is desired. to co-operate must frequently consult Constraint may arise from outward cir- together; those who have serious meascimastances; compulsion is always pro- ures to decide upon must coolly delibduced by some active agent: the forms erate. of civil society lay a proper constraint upon the behavior of men, so as to render them agreeable to one another; the arm of the civU power must ever

be ready to compel those who will not submit without compulsion: in the

moments

of relaxation, the actions of children should be as free from constraint as possible; those who know and wish to do what is right will always be ready to discharge their duty without compulsion. Constraint, Restraint. Constraint (see above). Restraint (see Coerce). Constraint respects the movements of the body only; restraint, those of the mind and the outward actions: when they both refer to the outward actions, we say a person's behavior is constrained; his feelings are restrained: he is constrained to act or not to act, or to act in a certain manner; he is restrained from acting at all, or he may be restrained from feehng: the conduct is constrained by certain prescribed rules, by discipline and order; it is restrained by particular motives: whoever learns a mechanical exercise is constrained to move his body in a certain direction; the fear of detection often restrains persons from the comm'ission of vices more than any sense of their enormity.

—

CONSTRUCT. See Build. CONSULT, Deliberate. ConsuU,

CONSUME. See Destroy. CONSUMMATION, Completion.

Consummation, Latin consummatio, comof con, together, and summa, the top, the sum, from supmus (superlative of words whose comparative is super, above), signifying the very top, means the summing or winding up of the whole the putting a final period

pounded

—

to any concern. Completion signifies either the act of completing or the state of being completed (see Com-

plete).

The arrival at a conclusion is comprehended in both these terms, but they differ principally in application; wishes are consummated; plans are completed: we often flatter ourselves that the completion of all our plans will be the consummation of all our wishes, and thus expose ourselves to grievous

disappointments

As epithets, consummate and complete admit of a similar distinction. Consummate is said of that which rises absolutely to the highest possible degree, as consummate wisdom, or consummate feh city: complete is said of that which is so relatively; a thing may be complete which fully answers the purpose.

CONSUMPTION. See CONTACT, Touch.

Decay. Contact,

in

Latin contactu^, participle of contingo, in French consulter, Latin consulto, is compounded of con and tangere, to a frequentative of consulo, signifying to touch together, is distinguished from counsel together (see Advice). The the simple word touch (derived through root of consvio is uncertain; it may French toucher from a Teutonic root be aUied to sedere, to sit. Deliberate, aUied with Anglo-Saxon teon, to pull in French deliberer, Latin delibero, or draw, and Latin ducere, to lead), not compounded of de and libra, a balance, so much in sense as in grammatical signifies to weigh as in a balance. construction; the former expressing a Consultations always require two per- state, and referring to two bodies sons at least; deliberations may be car- actually in that state; the latter, on ried on either with a man's self or with the other hand, implying the abstract numbers: an individual may consult act of touching: we speak of things with one or many; assemblies com- coining or being in contact, but not of monly deliberate: advice and informa- the contact instead of the touch of a

CONTAGIOJT

202

thing: the poison which comes from the poison-tree is so powerful in its nature that it is not necessary to come in contact with it in order to feel its baneful influence; some insects are armed with stings so inconceivably sharp that the smallest touch possible is sufficient to produce a puncture in the flesh.

CONTAGION,

Infection.

Both

these terms imply the power of communicating something bad, but contagion, from the Latin con, and tag, from tango, to come in contact, pro-

ceeds from a simple touch; and infection, from the Latin inficio, or in, in, and facere, to make, proceeds by receiving something inwardly or having it infused. We consider contagion as to the manner of spreading from one body to another; we consider infection as to the act of its working itself into the system. Whatever acts by contagion acts immediately by direct pergonal contact; whatever acts by infec-

4wn

acts gradually

and

indirectly, or

through the medium of a third body, as clothes, or the air when infected. The word contagion is, therefore, properly applied only to particular 'dfeeases,

but infection

may be apphed

to every disease which is communicable from one subject to another. Whatever, therefore, is contagious ia

applies to that wMeh capable of being caught, and ought not, therefore, to be touched; the epidemical, to that which is already caught or circulated, and requires, therefore, to be stopped; the pestilentiaty to that which may breed an evU, and is, therefore, to be removed: diseases are contagious or epidemical; the air or breath is pestilential. They may aU be appUed morally or figm-atively in the same sense. We endeavor to shun a contagious disorder, that it may not come near us; we endeavor to piu"ify a pestilential air, that it may not be inhaled to our injury; we endeavor to provide against epidemical disorders, that they may not spread any farther. Vicious example is contagious; certain follies or vices of fashion are epidemical in almost every age; the breath of infidelity is

The caniagums

is

pestilential.

CONTAIN, Hold. Contain (see Comprise). Hold is derived from Anglo-Saxon healdan, which apjiears in some form in most of the Teutonic languages with the significance that it now has in EngUsh. These terms agree in sense, but differ in application; the former is by comparison noble, the latter is ignoble in its use: hold is employed only for

the material contents of hoUow bodies; contain is employed for moral or spiritual contents: in familiar discourse a cask is said to hold, but in more polished language it is said to contain a certain number of gallons. A coach holds or contains a given number of persons; a communication which takes place by room holds a given quantity of furnithe gradual process of being infected ture; a house or city contains its inhabitants. with anything. CONTAMINATE, Defile, PolSo, in the moral application, whatever is outward acts by contagion, as to lute, Taint, Corrupt. Contaminate shun the contagion of bad example or has the same derivation as contagion; bad manners. Whatever acts inwardly it comes from Latin contaminare, from acts by infection, as to shun the infec- the prefix con, together, and the root tag, touch. Defile is compounded of tion of bad principles. and Anglo-Saxon Contagious, Epidemical, Pestilential. Latin de, from, Contagious signifies having or caus- fylan, to make foul, from fui. Modern ing contagion. Epidemical, in Latin English foul. Pollute is derived from epidemicus (Greek iirlSr)fioQ, that is, Latin pol, allied to Old Latin por, liri and SrinoQ, among the people), sig- toward, and lu£re, to wash, allied to Pestilential, lave, and meant originally to wash nifies universally spread. from the Latin pestis, the plague, sig- over, hke a flooded river. Taint, in nifies having the plague, or a similar French teint, participle of teindre, in Latin tingere, to dye or stain. Corrupt, disorder.

also infectious, but not vice versa. So, in application to other things besides diseases, contagion is employed to denote that species of communication which is effected by a direct action on the senses. Infection is employed to denote the

—

CONTEMN in Latin corruptns,

participle of cor-

203

despising so strong as those of scorning

rumpo, compounded of con, together, and disdaining, the latter of which exand rumpere, to break, signifies to break presses the strongest sentiment of all. Persons are contemned for their moral to pieces. Contaminate is not so strong an ex- quahties; they are despised on account pression as defile or pollute; but it is of their outward circumstances, their stronger than taint: these terms are characters, or their endowments. Suused in the sense of injuring purity: periors may be contemned; inferiors corrupt has the idea of destroying it. only, or those who degrade themselves, Whatever is impure contaminates; are despised. Contempt, as applied to what is gross and vile in the natural persons, is not incompatible with a sense defiles, and in the moral sense Christian temper when justly provoked pollvies; what is contagious or in- by their character; but despising is disand what is cor- tinctly forbidden and seldom warfectious corrupts; rupted may taint other things. Im- ranted. Yet it is not so much our proper conversation or reading con- business to contemn others as to conlaminates the mind of youth; lewdness temn that which is contemptible; but we and obscenity defile the body and pol- are not equally at liberty to despise the lute the mind; loose company corrupts person, or anything belonging to the the morals; the coming in contact with person, of another. Whatever springs a corrupted body is sufficient to give a from the free-will of another may be a taint. If young people be admitted subject of contempt, but the casualties to a promiscuous intercourse with so- of fortune or the gifts of Providence, ciety, they must unavoidably witness which are alike independent of perobjects that are calculated to contami- sonal merit, should never expose a pernate their thoughts, if not their in- son to be despised. We may, however, clinations. They are thrown in the contemn a person for his impotent way of seeing the lips of females defiled malice, or despise him for his meanness. Persons are not scorned or disdained, with the grossest indecencies, and hearing or seeing things which cannot but they may be treated with scorn or be heard or seen without polluting the disdain; they are both improp)er exsoul: it cannot be surprising if after pressions of contempt or despite: scorn this their principles are found to be marks the sentiment of a little, vain corrupted before they have reached the mind: disdain of a haughty and perverted one. A beautiful woman looks age of maturity. CONTEMN, Despise, Scorn, Dis- with scorn on her whom she despises dain. Contemn comes from Latin for the want of this natural gift. The contemnere, compounded of con, in- wealthy man treats with disdain him tensive prefix, and temnere, to despise. whom he despises for his poverty. In speaking of thing;s independently Despise, in Latin despicio, compounded of de, from, and specere, to look, sig- of others, or as immediately connected nifies to look down upon, which is a with ourselves, all these terms may be strong mark of contempt. Scorn, from sometimes employed in a good or an Old French escomer, meant originally indifferent sense. When we contemn a to deprive of horns (Latin ex, from, mean action, and scorn to conceal by and comu, horn), hence to humiliate or falsehood what we are called upon to dishonor. It has been influenced by acknowledge, we act the part of the the Old High German scernon, to de- gentleman as well as the Christian; Disdain is compounded of dis, but it is inconsistent with our infirm ride.

and Old French degnier, and dependent condition that we from Latin dignare, to think worthy; should feel inclined to despise anything accordingly it means to think un- that falls in our way; much less are worthy. we at liberty to disdain to do anyThe above elycidations sufficiently thing which our station requires; we evince the feeling toward others which ought to think nothing unworthy of But us, nothing degrading to us, but that gives birth to all these actions. the feehng of contempt is not quite so which is inconsistent with the will of strong as that of despising, nor that of God: there are, however, too many privative,

204

CONTEMPLATE

who aflFect to despise small favors as ous. These terms are very frequently, not reaching their fancied deserts, and though very erroneously, confounded others who disdain to receive any favors in common discourse. Contemptible is at all, from mistaken notions about de- apphed to the thing deserving contempt; contemptuous, to that which is expendence and obhgation. CONTEMPLATE, Meditate, pressive of contempt. Persons, or what Muse. Contemplate, from Latin con- is done by persons, may be either conA productemplari, was used at first of the ob- temptible or contemptuous. servations and meditations of the tion is contemptible; a sneer or look is augurs, and was derived from templum, contemptuous. Contemptible, Despicable, Pitiful. English temple, the consecrated place open to the sky, where the augurs Contemptible is not so strong as desmade their observations. Meditate, in picable or pitiful. A person may be Latin meditatiis, participle of meditor, contemptible for his vanity or weakness; from Greek fiidofiai, I attend to, meant but he is despicable for his servility and to devote the thoughts to something. baseness of character; he is pitiful for For the derivation of miise see Amuse. his want of manliness and becoming Different species of reflection are spirit. A he is at all times contempmarked by these terms. We contem- tible; it is despicable when it is told plate what is present or before our eyes; for purposes of gain or private interest; we meditate on what is past or absent. it is pitiful when accompanied with The heavens and all the works of the indications of unmanly fear. It is Creator are objects of contemplation; contemptible to take credit to one's self the ways of Providence are fit subjects for the good action one had not perOne muses on events formed; it is despicable to charge anfor meditation. or circumstances which have been just other with the faults which we ourpassing. selves have committed; it is pitiful to We may contemplate and meditate for offend others, and then attempt to the future, but never 7nuse. In this screen ourselves from their resentment case the two former terms' have the under any shelter which offers. It is sense of contriving or purposing: what contemptible for a man in a superior it is contemplated to be done is thought of station to borrow of his inferiors; more indistinctly than when it is is despicable in him to forfeit his word; meditated to be done: many things are it is pitiful in him to attempt to conbad in contemplation which are never ceal anything by artifice. seriously meditated upon: between conContemptuous, Scornful, Disdainful. templating and meditating there is These epithets rise in sense by a oftener a greater distance than between regular gradation. Contemptuous is meditating and executing. general, and apphed to whatever can Meditating is a permanent and seri- express contempt: scornful and disous action; musing is partial and un- dainful are particular; they apply only important: meditation is a rehgious to outward marks: one is contemptuous duty, it cannot be neglected without who is scornful or disdainful, but not injury to a person's spiritual improve- vice versa. Words, actions, and looks ment; musing is a temporary employ- are contemptuous: looks, sneers, and ment of the mind on the ordinary con- gestures are scornful and disdainful. cerns of life, as they happen to excite Contemptuous expressions are always an interest for the time. Contempla- unjustifiable; whatever may be the tive and musing, as epithets, have a contempt which a person's conduct destrong analogy to each other. Con- serves, it is unbecoming in another to templative is a habit of the mind; mur- give him any indications of the sentiing is a particular state of the mind. ment he feels. Scornful and disdainful A person may have a contemplative smiles are resorted to by the weakest turn, or be in a musing mood. or the worst of mankind. CONTEMPORANEOUS. See Syn- CONTEND, Contest, Dispute. CHKONOUS. Contend, from tendo, stretch, and conCONTEMPORARY. See Coeval. tra, against, signifies to strive against.

—

—

CONTEMPTIBLE.

Contemptu-

Contest,

from

con, against,

and

testor,

CONTENTMENT from

testis, a witness, signifying to call to witness against; and disptUe, from dis and puto, signifying to think diversely, are modes of contending. To contend is simply to exert a force against a force; to contest is to struggle together for an object. To contend and contest may be both appUed to that which is claimed and striven for; but contending is the act of the individual without reference to others, where success depends upon personal efforts or prowess, as when one contends at games. To contest is to set up rival pretensions to be determined by the suffrage of others, as to contest an election, to contest a

prize.

Opinions may likewise be both contended and contested, with this distinction, that to contend is to maintain any opinion; to contest is to maintain different opinions: the person is said to contend and the thing to be contested.

To

dispute, according to its original

205

that which is honorable, there is no personal animosity. for

where

See also Bicker; Strive. CONTENTION. See Dissension; Strt w^ CONTENTMENT, Satispactign. in French contentement, content, in Latin contentus, participle of contenere, to contain or hold, signifies the keeping one's self to a

Contentment,

from

Latin satisenough, and facere, to do, signifies the making or having enough. Contentment Ues in ourselves: satisfaction is derived from external objects. One is contented when one wishes for no more: one is satisfied when one has obtained all one wishes. The contented man has always enough; the satisfied man has only enough for the time being. The contented man will not be dissatisfied; but he who looks for satisfaction will never be contented. Contentment is the absence of pain; Consatisfaction is positive pleasure. tentment is accompanied with the enthing.

factio,

Satisfaction,

compounded

in

of satis,

meaning, applies to opinions only, and is distinguished from contend in this, joyment of what one has; satisfaction that the latter signifies to maintain is often quickly followed with the alloy one's own opinion, and the former to of wanting more. A contented man call in question the opinion of another. can never be miserable; a satisfied man In respect to matters of personal in- can scarcely be long happy. Contentterest, contend and dispvte are em- ment is a permanent and habitual state ployed with a like distinction, the of mind; it is the restriction of all former to denote striving for something our thoughts, views, and desires within desired by one's self, the latter to call the compass of present possession and in question something relating to enjoyment: satisfaction is a partial others, as to contend for a victory, to and turbulent state of the feelings, dispute a person's right; and when the which awakens rather than deadens idea of striving for a thing in dispute desire. Contentment is suited to our is to be expressed, this word may be present condition; it accommodates employed indifferently with contend for, itself to the vicissitudes of human as to dispute or contend for a prize. life; satisfaction belongs to no created Contention, contest, and dispute, as being; one satisfied desire engenders nouns, admit of a further distinction. another that demands satisfaction. Contention is always of a personal Contentment is within the reach of the nature, whether as regards interests or poor man, to whom it is a continual opinions, and is always accompanied feast; but satisfaction has never been procured by wealth, however enormous, with more or less ill feeling. Contests may be as personal as con- or ambition, however boundless ana We should therefore look tentions, but the objects in a contest successfid. being higher, and the contesting parties for the contented man where there are coming less into direct collision, there the fewest means of being satisfied. Our duty bids us be contented; our deis less ill feeling produced. As differences of opinion have a ten- sires ask to be satisfied: but our duty dency to create ill feehng, disputes are is associated with our happiness; our rarely conducted without acrimony; desires are the sources of our misery. When taken in a partial application but sometimes there may be disputes '

CONTEST

206

—

Continual, Continued. to particular objects, there are cases Continual in which we ought not to be contented, and continued both mark length of and where we may with propriety look duration, but the former admits of a for permanent satisfaction. We cannot certain degree of interruption, which be contented to do less than oiu- duty the latter does not. What is continual requires; we may justly be satisfied may have frequent pauses; what is with the consciousness of having done continued ceases only to terminate. our duty. Rains are continual which are frequentCONTEST. See Conflict; Con- ly repeated; so noises in a tumultuous tend. street ase continual: the bass in music is CONTIGUOUS. See Adjacent. said to be continued; the mirth of a

CONTINENCE. See Chastity. CONTINGENCY. See Accident. CONTINGENT. See Accidental; Provisional.

CONTINUAL,

Perpetual,

Con-

stant. Continual, in French continuel, Latin continuus, from continere, to hold or keep together, signifies keeping together without intermission. Perpettuxl, in French perpetiiel, Latin per-

from perpeto, compounded of meaning thoroughly, and petere, to

petvxilis,

per,

seek, to seek thoroughly, signifies going on everywhere and at all times. Constant (see Constancy). What is continual admits of no interruption: what is perpetual admits of no termination. There may be an end to that which is continual, and there may be intervals in that which is perpetual. Rains are continual in the tropical cKmates at certain seasons:

complaints

among the lower

orders are perpetual, but they are frequently without foundation. There is a continual passing and repassing in the streets of the metropohs during the day; the world and ail that it contains are subject to perpetual change. Constant, like continual, admits of no interruption, and it also admits of no change; what is continual may not always continue in the same state, but what is constant remains in the same state: continual is therefore applied to that which is expected to cease, and constant to that which ought to last. nervous person may fancy he hears continual noises. It will be the constant endeavor of a peaceable man to live peaceably. Continual may sometimes have a moral appU cation; as when we say, contentment is a continual feast; to have a continual enjoyment in anything: constant is properly applied to

A

moral objects.

drunken party

is

one continue noise.

Continual interruptions abate the vigor of appHcation and create disgust: in countries situated near the poles, there is one continued darkness for the space of five or six months, during which time the inhabitants are obliged to leave the place. Continual respects the duration of actions only; continued is hkewise appUed to the extent or course of things: rumors are continual; talking, walking, running, and the like, are continual; but a fine, a series, a scene, or a stream of water

is

continued.

Continuation, Duration. —Continuance, Continuance, from the intransitive

verb to continue, denotes the state of continuing or being carried on further. Continuation, from the transitive verb continue, denotes the act of continuing or carrying on further. The continuance is said of that which itself continues; the continuation, of that which is continued by some other agency: as the continuance of the rain; the continuation of a history, work, line, etc. As the species is said to be continued, the word continuation is most properly apphed in this case. Continuance and duration are both employed for the time of continuing; things may be of long continuance or of long duration; but continuance is used only with regard to the action; duration with regard to the thing and its existence. Whatever is occasionally done, and soon to be ended, is not for a continuance; whatever is made, and soon destroyed, is not of long duration: there are many excellent institutions in England which promise to be of no less co7itinuance than utihty. Duration is with us a relative term; things are of long or short duration by comparison the duration of the world, and all sublunary objects, is nothing in regard to eternity. :

CONTINUAL Continuation, Continuity.

—Continua-

tion signifies either the act of continuing, as to undertake the continuation

or continuing of a history; or the thing continued; as to reaid the con^ tinuation of a history ^that is, the history continued. Continuity denotes the quality of bodies holding together without interruption; there are bodies of so little continuity that they will crumble to pieces on the slightest touch. Continue, Remain, Stay. Continue (see Continxtal). Remain, in Latin remaneo, is compounded of re, behind, and manere, to stay, and signifies to stay behind. Stay is derived through

—

—

French from Middle Dutch stade, which to English stead, in steadfast, steady, etc., signifying place; it means to remain in one place.

is allied

The

idea of keeping to an object is to these terms. To continue is associated with a state of action; to remain, with a state of rest: we are said to continue to speak, walk, or do anything, to continite in action or motion; to remain stationary, or in a

common

position. So likewise in application to the outward condition or the state of mind,

continue denotes that which is active and positive; remain, that which is quiescent and tranquil; to continue in a course or in a belief; to continue steadfast: to remain in doubt. The same distinction exists between these words when things are the subjects: a war continues; a stone remains in the place where it is put. Continue is frequently taken absolutely for continuing in action; re-

207

—

ProseciUe. Continue (see above). Persevere, in French pers4v^er, Latin perseverare, compounded of per, through,

and

severus, strict

and

steiady, signifies

to be steady throughout or to the end. Persist, in French persister, Latin persisto, is compounded of per, through, and sistere, to put, and corresponds to the

modem

phrase "to put it through." Pursue and prosecute, in French poursuivre, come from the Latin prosequor

and

its participle prosecvius, signifying to follow after or keep on with. The idea of not setting aside is common to these terms, which is the sense of continue without any qualification; the other terms, which are all sp>ecies of continuing, include likewise some collateral idea which distinguishes them from the first, as well as from one another. Continue is comparable with persevere and persist in the neuter sense, with pursue and prosecute in the active sense. To continue is simply to do as one has done hitherto; to persevere is to continue without wishing to change or from a positive desire to attain an object; to persist is to continue from a determination or will not to cease. The act of continuing, therefore, specifies no characteristic of the agent; that of persevering or persisting marks a direct temper of mind; the

former is always used in a good sense, the latter in an indifferent or bad sense. We continue from habit or casualty; we persevere from reflection and the exer-

judgment; we persist from It is not the most exalted virtue to continue in a good course merely because we have been in the habit of so doing: what is done from habit merely, without any fixed principle, is always exposed to change from cise of oiu"

attachment.

main, from the particle re, has a relative signification to something else: the sickness or the rain continues; I the influence of passion or evil counsel; will use my utmost endeavors as long there is real virtue in the act of peras health remains. severance, without which many of our Continue and remain are used in re- best intentions would remain unfulof spect place; stay is used in that of filled and our best plans would be deconnection only. Continue is indefinite feated: those who do not persevere can in its application and signification; as do no essential good; and those who to contintie in town or in the country: do persevere often effect what has apto remain is an involuntary act; as a p)eared to be impracticable; of this soldier remains at his post, or a person truth the discoverer of America is a remmns in prison: stay is a voluntary- remarkable proof, who, in spite of act; as to stay at a friend's or with every mortification, rebuff, and disappointment, persevered in calling the ata friend. Continue, Persevere, Persist, Pursue, tention of monarchs to his project,

i

CONTINUITY

208 until

he at length obtained the assistance requisite for effecting the discovery of a new world. The Romans have not observed this

pecuhar object: continue, therefore, expresses less than pursue, and this less than prosecute: the history of England has been continued down to the present

between perseverare and perthey say, "In errore perseverare:'^ Cicero. "Ad ultimum persever"In eadem impudenti^ are:" LiVY. persistere:" Livy. "In proposito persisiere:" Cicero. Probably in imitation of them, examples are to be foimd in English writers of the use of persevere in the bad sense, and of persist in the good sense; but the distinction is now

period

distinction

sistere; for

invariably observed.

Persevere

is

em-

ployed only in matters of some moment, in things of sufficient importance to demand a steady purpose of the mind; persist may be employed in that which is trifling, if not bad: a learner perseveres in his studies, in order to arrive at the necessary degree of improvement; a child persists in making a request until he has obtained the object of his desire: there is always wisdom in perseverance, even though unsuccessful; there is mostly folly, caprice, or obstinacy in persistence: how different the man who perseveres in the cultivation of his talents from him who only persists in maintaining

falsehoods or supporting errors! Continue, when compared with persevere or persist, is always coupled with modes of action: but in comparison with pursue or prosecute, it is always followed by some object: we continue to do, persevere or persist in doing something: but we continue, pursue, or prosecute some object which we wish to bring to perfection by additional labor. Continue is equally indefinite as in the former case; pursue and prosecute both comprehend collateral ideas respecting the disposition of the agent and the nature of the object: to continue is to go on with a thing as it has been begun; to pursue and prosecute is to continue by some prescribed rule, or in some particular manner: a work is continued; a plan, measure, or line of conduct is pursued; an undertaking or a design is prosecuted: we may continue the work of another in order to

by different writers; Smollett has pursued the same plan as Hume in the continuation of his history; Captain Cook prosecuted his work of discovery in three several voyages. To continue is itself altogether an indifferent action; to pursue and prosecute are commendable actions; the latter still more than the former: it is a mark of great instabihty not to continue anything that we begin; it betrays a great want of prudence and discernment not to pursue some plan on every occasion which requires method; it is the characteristic of a persevering mind to prosecute whatever it has deemed worthy to enter upon.

CONTINUITY,

See CoNTiNtTA-

TION.

CONTRABAND,

Forbidden, Pro^

HiBiTED. Contraband is derived through Spanish and ItaUan from Latin contra, against, and Italian bando, Late Latin

bannum, a word of Teutonic origin found in abandon, ban, etc. It means UteraUy a ban against something, and refers to a special kind of forbidding or prohibitirig. McCuUoch, in the "Commercial Dictionary," gives the following succinct definition of the perplexing phrase contraband of

war:

"When two

nations are engaged in there be any foreign article or articles necessary for the defence or subsistence of either of them, and

war,

if

without which

it

would be

difficult

to carry on the contest, the other may legitimately exert every means in its power to prevent its opponent being supphed with such article or for

it

articles."

Such goods are called contraband of war. After forbidding the importation of such goods by a legal proclamation, a nation may use every means to prohibit the enemy from obtaining the contraband articles. For a fmlher definition of the difference between forbid

and prohibit see Ban and Forbid. CONTRACT. See Abridge; Agreesupply a deficiency: we may pursue a plan that emanates either from our- ment. CONTRACTED, Confined, Narselves or another; we prosecute our own work only in order to obtain some row. These words agree in denoting

CONTRIVE a limited space; but contracted, from signifying together, contraho, draw drawn into a smaller compass than it might otherwise be in, and confined (see Bound), signifying brought within

209

may therefore both be used in reference to disputations. We may deny the truth of a position by contradicting the assertions that are advanced in its support.

Contradiction and denial are comunusually small bounds, are said of that which is made or becomes so by monly performed by words only; opNarrow comes from position, by any kind of action or mode circimnstances. Anglo-Saxon nearu, closely drawn. A of expression. We may therefore limb is said to be contracted which is sometimes oppose by contradiction, aldrawn up by disease; a situation is though not properly by denial; conconfined which has not the necessary tradicting and opposing being both or usual degree of open space; a road volimtary acts, denying frequently a matter of necessity or for self-deor a room is narrow. These terms are figuratively applied fence. CONTRARY. See Adverse; Heteto moral objects with the same distinction: the mind is contracted by rogeneous. CONTRAST. See Comparison. education or habit; a person's views CONTRIBUTE. See Conduce; are confined by reason of his ignorance; people have for the most part a tem- Minister. CONTRIBUTION. See Tax. per narrow by nature. CONTRITION. See Repentance. CONTRADICT, Deny, Oppose. CONTRIVE, Devise, Invent. ConContradict, from the Latin contra, against, and dictum, speech, signifies a trive in Old French controver, comspeech against a speech. Deny is de- poimded of Latin con, together, and rived from Latin de and negare, to say a stressed stem of Old French trover, to "no," from the negative particle ne, find, signifies to fiind out by putting and signifies to say "no." Oppose together. Devise, compounded of de comes from Latin ob, in the way of, and Latin visus, seen, signifies to show and French poser (see Compose), and or present to the mina. Invent, in Latin signifies to place in the way of. inventus, participle of invenire, comTo contradict, as the origin of the poundeu of in, in, and venire, to come, word sufficiently denotes, is to set up signifies to come or bring into the mind. one assertion against another, but it Contriving requires less exercise of does not necessarily imply an inten- the thoughts than devising: we contrive

The contradiction may lie tional act. in the force of the terms, whence logicians call those propositions coniradictory which in all their terms are directly opposed to each other: as, "AU men are liars"; "No men are person may contradict himself, liars. " or two witnesses may contradict each

A

other

who have had no co&munica-

tion.

To deny is to assert the falsehood of another's assertion, and is therefore a direct and personal act; as to deny any one's statement. Contradictions may be given at the pleasure or for the convenience of the parties; denials are made in support either of truth or falsehood, in matters of fact or matters of opinion.

on familiar and common occasions: we devise in seasons of difficulty ana A contrivance is simple and obtrial. vious to a plain imderstanding:

a de-

complex and far-fetched; it requires a ready conception and a

vice

is

degree of art. Contrivances serve to supply a deficiency or increase a convemence; devices are employed to extricate from danger, to remove an evil, or forward a scheme: the history of Robinson Crusoe derives considerable interest from the relation of the various contrivances by which he provided himself with the first articles of necessity and comfort; the history of robbers and adventurers is full of the various devices by which they endeavor to carry on their projects of plunder or eludie the vigilance of their pur-

One contradicts in direct terms by asserting something contrary; one denies suers. To contrive and devise do not express by advancing arguments or suggesting doubts or difficulties. These terms so much as to invent: we contrive and

CONTRIVING

210

small matters; we invent in Contriving those of greater moment. and devising respect the manner of doing things; inventing comprehends the action and the thing itself; the former are but the new fashioning of things that already exist; the latter is, as it were, the creation of something new: to contrive and devise are intentional actions, the result of a specific effort; invention naturally arises from the exertion of an inherent power: we require thought and combination to contrive or devise; ingenuity is the faculty which is exerted in inventing. A device is often employed for bad and fraudulent pm-poses; contrivances mostly serve the innocent purposes of hfe; inventions are mostly good, unless they are stories invented, which are detrise in

always false. See also Concert. CONTRIVING, See Scheming. CONTROL. See Check. CONTROVERT, Dispute. Controvert, compounded of the Latin contra, against, and vertere, to turn, signifies to turn against another in discourse, or direct one's self against another. Dispute (see Argue). To controvert has regard to speculative points; to dispute respects matters of fact: there is more of opposition in controversy; more of doubt in disputing: a sophist controverts; a sceptic disputes: the plainest and sublimest truths of the Gospel have been all controverted in their turn by the self-sufficient inquirer: the authenticity of the Bible itself has been disputed by some few individuals the existence of a God by still fewer. Controversy is worse than an unprofitable task; instead of eliciting truth, it does but expose the failings of the parties engaged: disputing is not so personal, and consequently not so objectionable: we never controvert any point without seriously and decidedly intending to oppose the notions of another; we may sometimes dispute a point for the sake of friendly argument or the desire of information theologians and politicians are the greatest controversialists: it is the business of men in general to dispute whatever ought not to be taken for granted. :

CONTUMACIOUS. nate.

See

CONTUMACY,

Rebellion.

Con-

tumacy, from the Latin contumax, com-

poimded

of contra, against, and tumere, to swell, signifies the swelMng one's self up by way of resistance. Rebellion, in Latin rebellio, compounded of re, in return, and helium, war, signifies carrying on war against those to whom we owe, and have before paid, a lawful subjection. Resistance to lawful authority is the common idea included in the signification of both these terms, but contumacy does not express so much as rebellion: the contumacious resist only occasionally; the rebel resists systematically: the contumacious stand only on certain points, and oppose the individual; the rebel sets himself up against the authority itself: the contumacious thwart and contradict, they never resort to open violence: the rebel acts only by main force; contumacy shelters itself imder the plea of equity and justice; rebellion sets all law and order at defiance.

CONTUMELY. See Reproach. CONVENE. See Assembij:. CONVENIENT, Suitable. Cotovenient (see Commodious). (see Conformable).

Suitable

Convenient regards the circumstances of the individual; suitable respects the estabhshed opinions of mankind, and is closely connected with moral propriety nothing is convenient which does not favor one's purpose: nothing is suitable which does not suit the person, place, and thing: whoever has anything to ask of another must take a convenient opportunity in order to insure success; his address on such an occasion would be very unsuitable if he affected to claim as a right what he ought to sohcit as a favor. CONVENT. See Cloister.

CONVENTION, Agreement, Compact, Treaty. Convention, in French the same form, from Latin con, together, and venire, to come, in the diplomatic sense in which it is here

used

signifies

literally

an agreement

as distinguished from an assembly of a political character. In international disputes or warfare it has frequently been the custom for the disputants Obsti- to seek a peaceable solution of the trouble between them, the first step

CONVERT

211

being a meeting of mutual delegates to and written as if spoken any number ascertain what demands and conces- of persons may take part in a conversation, but a dialogue always refers to sions are likely to be made. This meeting may formulate terms, the two persons who are expressly enwhich are usually of a tentative char- gaged: a conversation may be desultory; acter, and afterward plenipotentiaries a dialogue is formal, in which there will are appointed to negotiate a formal always be reply and rejoinder: a conagreement, compact, and sometimes a versation may be carried on by any treaty itself. The final engagement signs besides words, which are adbecomes effective only on its ratification dressed personally to the individual by each disputant. The plenipoten- present; a dialogue must always contiaries, instructed on general lines by sist of express words a prince holds fretheir respective governments, give and quent conversations with his ministers take, and their agreement is almost on affairs of state; Cicero wrote diaalways accepted as binding by their logues on the nature of the gods, and many later writers have adopted the governments. See also AssEirBLY. dialogue form as a vehicle for conveying CONVERSABLE. See Facetious. their sentiments: a conference is a speCONVERSANT, Familiar. Con- cies of conversation; a colloquy is a versant, from con, together, and versari, species of dialogue: a conversation is into dwell, signifies dweUing together, definite as to the subject or the parties hence famihar with, consequently be- engaged in it a conference is confined to Familiar, from particular subjects and descriptions of coming acquainted. the Latin familiaris, to be of the same persons: a conversation is mostly ocfamily, signifies the closest connection. casional: a conference is always speAn acquaintance' with things is im- cifically appointed: a conversation is plied in both these terms, but the latter mostly on indifferent matters; a con:

:

:

expresses something more particular than the former. A person is conversant in matters that come frequently before his notice; he is familiar with such as form the daily routine of his business: one who is not a professed lawyer may be conversant with the questions of law which occur on ordinary occasions; but one who is skilled in his profession will be familiar with all cases which may possibly be employed in support of a cause: it is advisable to be conversant with the ways of the world; but to be familiar with the greater part of them would not redound to one's credit or advantage. Conversation, Dialogue, Conference, Colloquy. Conversation denotes the act of holding converse (see Communion). Dialogue, in French dialogue, Latin dialogus, Greek haXoyoQ, compounded of Sia and Xoyoc, signifies a speech between two. Conference, from the Latin con, together, and ferre, to bring, signifies consulting together on subjects. Colloquy, in Latin colloquium, from con, together, and loquor, speak, signifies the art of talking together. A conversation is always something actually held between two or more persons; a dialogue is mostly fictitious,

—

ference is mostly

on national or public

we have a conversation as friends; we have a conference as ministers of state. The dialogue naturally limits the number to two; the colloquy concerns:

is

indefinite as to

number: there

may

be dialogues, therefore, which are not colloquies; but every colloquy may be denominated a dialogue. Communion; CONVERSE See Speak. CONVERT, Peoselyte. Convert, from the Lectin converto, signifies changed to something in conformity with the views of another. Proselyte, from the Greek Trpoc, to, and yXvOov, second aorist of tpxofiai, I come, signifies come over to the side of another. Convert is more extensive in its sense and application than vroselyte: convert in its fuU Sense includes every change of opinion, without respect to the subject; proselyte, in its original application, denoted changes only from one religious belief to another: there are many converts to particular doctrines of Christianity, ana proselytes from the

Pagan, Jewish, or Mohammedan to the Christian faith; but the word proselyte has since acquired an application

which distinguishes

it

from

convert.

CONVERTIBLE

212

Conversion is a more volxintary act others; he may be convinced that the than proselytism; it emanates entirely opinion which he has held is heretical. from the mind of the agent, indepen- So a person may be convicted who is dently of foreign influence; it extends involuntarily convinced of his error, but not merely to the abstract or specula- he is convinced if he is made sensible tive opinions of the individual, but to of his error without any force on his the whole current of his feelings and own mind. One is convicted only of spring of his actions: it is the conver- that which is false or bad, but one is sion of the heart and soul. Proselytism, convinced of that which is true as well The noun conis an outward act, which need not ex- as that which is false. tend beyond the conformity of one's viction is used in both the senses of words and actions to a certain rule: convict and convince. convert is therefore always taken in a What convinces binds; what pergood sense; it bears on the face of it suades attracts. We are convinced by the stamp of sincerity: proselyte is a arguments; it is the understanding term of more ambiguous meaning; the which determines we are persuaded by proselyte is often the creature and tool entreaties and personal influence; it is there may be many the imagination or wiU which decides. of a party: proselytes where there are no converts. Our conviction respects solely matters The conversion of a sinner is the work of belief or faith; our persuasion reof God's grace, either by His special spects matters of belief or practice: we :

interpo.sition or by the ordinary influence of His Holy Word on the heart partisans are always anxious to make proselytes to their own party.

CONVERTIBLE. See Assimilate. CONVEY. See Beah; Waft. CONVICT, Detect. Convict, from the Latin convictus, participle of conI make manifest, signifies to Detect, from the guilt clear. Latin delectus, participle of detego, compounded of the privative de and tegere, to cover, signifies to uncover or lay vince,

make

open

guilt.

A person is convicted by means of evidence; he is detected by means of ocular demonstration. One is convicted of having been the perpetrator of some evil deed; one is detected in the very Whatact of committing the deed. ever serves to prove the guilt of another is said to convict, whether the conviction be by others or by one's self: a man may be convicted in his own mind, as well as in the opinion of others, before a public tribunal or by private individuals; detection is confined to the act of the individual, which is laid open to others. See also Criminal. Convict, Convince, Persuade. To convict is to satisfy a person of another's guilt or error. To convince is to satisfy the person himself of the truth or falsehood of a thing. A person may be convicted of heresy, if it be provea to the satisfaction of

—

are convinced that a thing is true or we are persuaded that it is either right or wrong, advantageous or the person wiU have half contrary. effected a thing who is convinced that it is in his power to effect it; he will be easily persuaded to do that which favors his own interests. Conviction respects our most important duties; persuasion is applied to matters of indifference, or of temporary personal interest. The first step to true repentance is a thorough conviction of the enormity of sin. The cure of people's maladies is sometimes promoted to a surprising degree by their persuasion of the efficacy of the remedy. As conviction is the effect of substantial evidence, it is solid and permanent in its nature; it cannot be so easily changed and deceived: persuasion, depending on our feelings, is influenced by external objects, and exposed to various changes; it may vary both in the degree and in the object. Conviction answers in our minds to positive certainty; persuasion answers to probabiUty. ought to be convinced of the propriety of avoiding everything false;

A

We

interfere with the good order of society; we may be persuaded of the truth of a person's narrative or not, according to the representation made to us; we may be persuaded to pursue any study or lay it aside.

which can

CONVINCING. CONVIVIAL,

See Conclusive. Social. Convivial, in

COPY

J13

Latin conviviaUs, from con, together, indifference on the most important vivere, to live, signifies being enter- subjects. tained together. Social, from socius, See also Dispassionate. a companion, signifies pertaining to COPIOUS. See Plentiful. company. COPIOUSLY. See Largely. COPY, Transcribe. Copy is deThe prominent idea in convivial is that of sensual indulgelice; the promi- rived from the Latin copia, abundance, nent idea in social is that of enjoyment and signifies to create an abundance of from an intercourse with society. Con- some article by duphcating it or copyTranscribe, in Latin transcribo, vivial is a species of the social, it is the ing. social in matters of festivity. What that is, trans, over, and scribere, to is convivial is social, but what is social write, signifies hteraUy to write over is something more; the former is ex- from something else, to make to pass celled by the latter as much as the body over in writing from one paper or subis excelled by the mind. We speak of stance to the other. convivial meetings, convivial enjoyTo copy respects the matter; to ments, or the convivial board; but transcribe respects simply the act of social intercourse, social pleasure, social writing. What is copied must be taken amusements, and the hke. immediately from the original, with CONVOCATION. See Assemble. which it must exactly correspond; what CONVOKE. See Assemble. is transcribed may be taken from the COOL, Cold, Frigid. In the nat- copy, but not necessarily in an entire ural sense, cool is simply the absence of state. Things are copied for the sake warmth; cold and frigid are positively of getting the contents; they are often contrary to warmth; the former in transcribed for the sake of clearness and regard to objects in general, the latter fair writing. A copier should be very to moral objects in the figurative sense exact; a transcriber should be a good the analogy is strictly preserved. Cool writer. Lawyers copy deeds, and have is used as it respects the passions and them afterward frequently transcribed the affections; cold only with regard as occasion requires. to the affections; frigid only in regard See also Suitable. to the inclinations. With regard to Copy, Model, Pattern, Specimen. the passions, cool designates a freedom Copy, from the verb to copy, marks from agitation, which is a desirable either the thing from which we copy or quahty. Coolness in a time of danger, the thing copied. Model, in French and coolness in an argument, are alike modkle, Latin modulus, a little mode or conamendable. As cool and cold respect measure, signifies the thing that serves the affections, the cool is opposed to as a measure or that is made after a the friendly, the cold to the warm- measure. Pattern, which is a variation hearted, the frigid to the animated; the of patron, from the Latin patrontcs, former is but a degree of the latter. A whence Enghsh patron is derived, sigreception is said to be cool, an embrace nifies the thing that directs. Specito be cold, a sentiment frigid. Coolness men, in Latin specimen, from specere, to is an enemy to social enjoyments; cold- behold, signifies what is looked at for ness is an enemy to affection; fri^ridity the purpose of forming one's judgment destroys aJl force of character. Cool- by it. ness is engendered by circumstances; it A copy and a model imply either that supposes the previous existence of which is copied or taken from somewarmth; coldness hes often in the tem- thing, as when we speak of a copy in perament, or is engendered by habit; distinction from an original, and of it is always something vicious; frigidity making a model of anythmg. is occasional, and is always a defect. Or they imply that from which anyTrifling differences produce coolness thing is copied or taken, as to follow a sometimes between the best friends: copy, to choose a model. trade sometimas engenders a cold, calThe term copy is apphed to that culating temper in some minds: those which is delineated, as writings or who are remarkable for apathy will fHctures, which must be taken faithoften express themselves with frigid ully and literally; the model, to that

and

:

—

COQUETTE

214 which

may

more

stone,

and which serves

a word which formerly was much more commonly employed than at present now it survives mainly in the verb to jilt, to break one's engagement.

be represented in wood or as a guide. In application to other objects, a copy may be either that which is made or done in imitation, or it may be that

which

heartless

and

less innocent.

Jilt

is

;

The

older distinction between coquette jilt is expressed by Crabb as follows: Coquetry is contented with employing Mttle arts to excite notice; jilting extends to the violation of truth and honor, in order to awaken a pasregards solely the outward form or sion which it afterward disappoints. color of anything that is made or Vanity is the mainspring by which manufactured, as the pattern of a car- coquettes and jiUs are impelled to acbut the former indulges her pet; a person fixes on having a thing tion; according to a certain pattern; the propensity mostly at her own exspecimen is any portion of a material pense only, while the latter does no which serves to show the quahty of less injury to the peace of others that of which it forms a part, as the than she does to her own reputation. specimen of a printed work; the value The coquette makes a traffic of her own of things is estimated by the specimen. charms by seeking a multitude of adIn the moral application pattern re- mirers; the jilt sports with the sacred spects the whole conduct or behavior passion of love, and barters it for the which may deserve imitation; specimen gratification of any selfish propensity. only the detached parts by which a Coquetry is a fault which should be judgment may be formed of the whole: guarded against by every female as a the female who devotes her whole time snare to her own happiness; jilting is and attention to the management of a vice which cannot be practised withher family and the education of her out some depravity of the heart. offspring is a pattern to those of her CORDIAL. See Hearty. sex who depute the whole concern to CORNER, Angle. Comer comes others. person gives but an unfort- from Latin comu, signifying a horn or unate specimen of his boasted sincerity projection. Angle, in Latin angulus, who is foimd guilty of an evasion. comes in aU probability from dyKvXog, COQUETTE, Flirt, Jilt. Coquette the elbow. Comer properly implies the outer exis in French the feminine form of coquet, a Uttle cock, and signified a treme point of any solid body; angle, on proud and strutting little creature, the contrary, the inner extremity prohence a woman who seeks admiration duced by the meeting of two right lines and attention. Flirt is an imitative or plane surfaces. When speaking, word which originally meant to jerk therefore, of sohd bodies, comer and lightly away, hence to tease, mock, angle may be both employed; but in gibe. Jilt IS a diminutive of Jill, a regard to simple right fines, or plane contracted from Latin surfaces, the word angle only is apfirl's name, uHana, and frequently found in old plicable; in the former case a comer is

imitated.

A

model is that which may be used as a guide or rule. Pattern and specimen serve, hke the model, to guide or regulate, but differ in the nature of the objects; the pattern

and

A

—

rhymes and proverbs "Every Jack must have his Jill," "Jack and Jill went up the hiU," etc. Of these words the more recent term, flirt, has partly replaced the older words, coquette and jilt. Flirt is a more vulgar term than coquette. There is something of a fine

produced by the meeting of the different parts of a body, whether inwardly or outwardly; but an angle is produced by the meeting of two bodies; is

inwardly one house has

many

comers;

two houses, or two walls at least, are requisite to make an angle. CORPORAL, Corporeal, Bodily. Corporal, corporeal, and bodily, as their origin bespeaks, have all relation to the same object, the body; but the two former are employed to signify

lady in the coquette. The flirt uses the natural arts of an ordinary girl; the coquette is the product of a refined and sophisticated society. The coquette has more daintiness and apparently more reserve than the flirt, but she may be relating or appertaining to the body.

CORRECT the latter to denote containing or forming part of the body. Hence we saj corporal punishment, bodily vigor or strength, corporeal substances; the Godhead bodily, the corporeal frame, Corporal is only embodily exertion. ployed for the animal frame in its proper sense; corporeal is used for animal substance in an extended sense; hence we speak of corporal sufferance and corporeal agents. Corporeal is distinguished from spiritual; bodily from mental. It is impossible to represent spiritual beings any other way than imder a corporeal form; bodily pains, however severe, are frequently over-

powered by mental pleasures.

—

Corporeal, Material. Corporeal is properly a species of material; whatever is corporeal is material, but not vice versd. Corporeal respects animated bodies; material is used for everything which can act on the senses, animate or inanimate. The world contains cor-

poreal beings, substances.

and

consists of maierial

See also Tangible. Corpident, Stout, Liisty.

from corpus, the body,

—Corpvlent,

signifies

signifies strength

and

and

rectus

make To

simply to should be. an act of necessity or

facio,

right or as correct is

signifies

it

discretion; to rectify, an act of discretion only. What is corrected is substantially faulty; what is rectified may

be faulty by accident or from inadvertence. corrected;

To

Faults in the execution are mistakes are rectified.

reform,

from

re,

again,

and

for-

mare, to form, signifies to form again, or put into a new form; it expresses, therefore, more than moves that which is

correct,

which

re-

faulty in a thing

without altering the thing itself. Cormay produce only a partial change, but what is reformed assumes a new form and becomes a new thing. rection

They are employed also in respect to public matters with a like distinction: abuses are corrected, the state is reformed. Correct, Accurate. Correct is equivalent to corrected, or set to rights. Ac-

—

curate, from Latin ad, to, and cura, care, signifies done with care, or by the application of care. Correct applies to that which is done according

man prescribes to himself or are prescribed for him; accurate, to that which is done by application of the mind or attention to an object: the result in both cases will

having to rules which either a

fulness of body. Stout, Anglo-Saxon stolt, is allied to German stolz, proud, and possibly to Latin stultus, foolhardy; it

215

self-assertion

resulting from a large physical frame; hence, in some cases, the large physique itself. Ltisty, in Grerman, etc., Itcstig, merry, cheerful, implies here a vigorous state of body. Corpident respects the fleshy state of the body; stout respects also the state of the muscles and bones: corptdence is therefore an incidental property; stoutness is a natural property: corpulence may come upon us accordmg to circumstances; stoutness is the natural make of the body which is born with us. Corpulence and lustiness are both occasioned by the state of the health;

—

be nearly the same namely, that the thing will be as it ought or is intended to be, but there is a shade of difference in the meaning and apphcation. What

done by the exercise of the judgment said to be correct, as a correct style, a correct writer, a correct way of thinking; what is done by the effort of the is

is

individual is more properly accurate, as accurate observations, an accurate survey, and the like. When appUed to the same objects, correct is negative, it is opposed to incorrect or faulty; accurate is positive, it is opposed to inaccurate or loose: it is sufficient to be free from fault to

but the former may arise from disease, the latter is always the consequence of be correct; it must contain every migood health: corpulence consists of an nute particular to be accurate: informaundue proportion of fat; lustiness con- tion IS correct which contains nothing sists of a due and full proportion of all but facts; it is accurate when it conthe soUds in the body. tains all the details of dates, persons, CORRECT, Rectify, Reform. Cor- and circumstances given accurately. rect (see Amend) is more definite in its Correction, Discipline, Punishment. meaning, and more general in its ap- As correction and discipline have complication, than rectify, which, from monly required punishment to render

—

CORRECTNESS

216

them eflBcacious, custom has affixed to them a strong resemblance in their appUcation, although they are distinguished from each other by obvious

marks

of difference.

idea in correction

is

In the moral apphcation, actions are said not to correspond ^\ith professions; the success of an undertaking does not answer the expectations; particular

The prominent measures do not suit the purpose of making right individuals. It iU corresponds with a

that of

what has been wrong. In discipline, profession of friendship to refuse asfrom the Latin disciplina and discere, to sistance to a friend in the time of need learn, the leading idea is that of in- wild schemes undertaken without structing or regulating. In punish- thought will never answer the expectament, from the Latin punio, and the tions of the projectors; it never suits Greek voivi}, penalty, the leading idea the purpose of the selfish and greedy is that of inflicting pain as a penalty for to contribute to the rehef of the neceswrong-doing.

We remove

sitous.

evil by correction; we prevent it by discipline. Correction extends no further than to the correcting of particular faults; but discipline serves to train, guide, and instruct

an

CORROBORATE.

See Confirm;

Ratify.

CORRUPT. See Attaint; Contaminate; Debauch; Rot. CORRUPTION, See Depravity. generally. Earth, Universe, COSMOS, When correction and discipline are World. These words all indicate the taken in the sense of punishment, they world in which we five, but they differ mean punishment correction

and

for the purpose of discipline: punishment,

considerably in their apphcation and Cosmos, from Greek connotations.

on the other hand, means the infhction KOfffiog, order, ornament, was so called of pain as the consequence of any by Pythagoras or his disciples from its particular conduct. Correction and dis- "perfect order and arrangement." Coscipline are personal acts, and mostly mos corresponds very nearly to uniacts of authority. A parent inflicts verse (from Latin unu^, and vertere, correction, a master exercises discipline: meaning turned into one, combined punishment may either be inflicted into a whole), with the additional sugby persons or result from things: the gestion of harmonious system. Uniwant of proper discipline may be pun- verse refers to the whole infinite extent ished by insubordination. of hfe and form; cosmos to the whole CORRECTNESS. See Justness. orderly scheme of things as they are. World and earth are Anglo-Saxon CORRESPOND. See Tally. CORRESPONDENT, Answer- terms. World, from wer, man, and eld, able, Suitable. Correspondent, from age, meant originally a lifetime, a Latin cum, together, and respondere, course of life, and age; and referred to to answer, signifies to answer in unison the whole of the present creation, or in uniformity. Answerable and which was thought of as having been suitable, from answer and suit, mark brought into existence at a particular the quaUty or capacity of answering time, and doomed to extinction at some or suiting. Correspondent supposes a future time. It is a more extensive greater agreement than answerable, and word than earth, but less extensive answerable requires a greater agree- than universe or cosmos. Earth, Angloment than suitable. Things that cor- Saxon eorth, signifies the ground under respond must be alike in size, shape, our feet as distinguished from the and now refers to the color, and in every minute particular; heavens above those that answer must be fitted for particular globe on which we live. COST, Expense, Price, Charge. the same purpose; those that suit must have nothing disproportionate or dis- Cost is derived through Old French coscordant. In the artificial dispositions of ter, from Latin con, together, and stare, furniture, or all matters of art and orna- to stand, and signified, hterally, to supment, it is of considerable importance port, and, in an extended sense, what to have some things made to correspond, is given for support. Expense is comso that they be placed in suitable direc- pounded of ex and Latin pensu^, par-

—

tions to answer to each other.

—

ticiple of pendere, to

weigh, signifying

COUNTENANCE the thing paid or given out. Price, from the Latin pretium, price, signifies the thing given for what is' bought. Charge, from Latin carricare, to load a car, signifies the thing laid on as a burden in return for something received. The cost is what a thing costs, or what is to be laid out for it; the expense is that which a jjerson actually lays out; the price is that which a thing may fetch or which it may be worth; the charge is that which a person or thing As a cost commonly is charged with. comprehends an expense, the terms are on various occasions used indifferently for each other: we speak of counting the cost or counting the expense of doing anything; at a great cost or at a great expense: on the other hand, of doing a thing to one's cost, of growing wise The cost at other people's expense. and the price have respect to the thing and its supposed value; the expense and the charge depend on the option of the persons. The cost of a thing must precede the price, and the expense must succeed the charge: we can

never set a price on anything until ascertained what it has cost us; nor can we know or defray the expense imtii the charge be made. There may, however, frequently be a price

we have

where there is no cost, and vice versd: there may also be an expense where there is no charge; but there cannot be a charge without an expense: what costs nothing sometimes fetches a high price, and other things cannot obtain a price equal to the first cost. Expenses vary with modes of hving and men's desires; whoever wants much, or wants that which is not easily obtained, will have many expenses to defray; when the charges are exorbitant, the expenses must necessarily bear a proportion. Between the epithets costly and expensive there is the same distinction. Whatever is costly is natiu^ally expenbut not vice versd. Articles of furniture, of luxiuy, or indulgence are costly, either from their variety or their intrinsic value; everything is expensive which is attended with much expense, whether of httle or great value. Jewels are costly; travelling is expensive. The costly treasiu"es of the East are imported into Europe for the gratification of sive,

those

who cannot be contented with

217

the produce of their native soil: those who indulge themselves in such expensive pleasures often lay up in store for themselves much sorrow and repentance in the time to come. In the moral acceptation, the attainment of an object is said to cost much pains; a thing is persisted in at the expense of health, of honor, or of hfe. The sacrifice of a man's quiet is the price which he must pay for the gratification of his ambition. COSTLY. See Valuable. / COUNCIL. See Assemble. COUNSEL. See Advice. COUNT. See Calculate; Reckon.

COUNTENANCE,

Sanction, SupCountenance comes from Latin con, together, and tenere, to hold toport.

gether, to control, referring to the personal demeanor, hence to the face. To countenance means to keep in countenance. Sanction, in French sanction, Latin sanctio, from sanctum, sacred, signifies to ratify a decree or ordinance; in an extended sense, to make anything binding. Support, in French supporter, Latin supporto, compounded of suh and porto, to bear, signifies to bear from underneath, to bear up. Persons are countenanced; things are sanctioned; persons or things are supported: persons are countenanced their proceedings by the apparent approbation of others; measures are sanctioned by the consent or approbation of others who have due authority; measures or persons are supported by

m

every means which

may

forward the

There is most of encourageobject. ment in countenancing; it consists of some outward demonstration of regard or good-will toward the person: there is most of authority in sanctioning; it is the lending of a name, an authority, or an influence, in order to strengthen and confirm the thing: there is most of assistance and co-operation in sup' port; it is the employment of means to an end. Superiors only can countenance or sanction; persons in all conditions may support: those who omntenance evil-doers give a sanction to their evil deeds; those who support either an individual or a cause ought to be satisfied that they are entitled to support.

See also Face.

COUNTERFEIT

218

COUNTERFEIT.

See

Imitate; belonging to the country,

is

the general

term applicable to all inhabiting the COUNTERPOISE, Balance, Poise, country, in distinction from a townsPeasant, from Weigh. These terms all indicate man. Old French methods of weighing. Counterpoise is pais (French pays), the country, signified originally contra, against, and the derived from Latin inhabitant of a pensare, to weigh, and signifies to pagu^ (Latin) village—^jc^ms being the word whence against another. Poise pagan ipeigh one thing is also derived. is derived from pensare, also; it signi- Peasant is employed in the same sense fies to weigh, and refers especially to for any countryman among the inhabithe adjusting of one part of a balance tants of the Continent, and is in conto the other. Balance comes through sequence used in poetry or the grave Italian from hUanx, Latin, from his, style for a countryman. Swain, in double, and lanx, a dish or platter, and Anglo-Saxon swan, signified literally a refers to a pair of scales with two swineherd, but it has acquired, from plates suspended from a cross-bar. its use in poetry, the higher significaWeigh, Anglo-Saxon wegan, to carry tion of a shepherd, or husbandman. or bear, meant at first to move in Hind is derived from Anglo-Saxon hina, any direction; then to lift up, then a domestic, and hiwen, a family; comto lift up two things, balancing one pare the relation of Latin famulus, seragainst the other. Hence these words vant, to the word family. It signified have practically the same mean- a servant in the household. Rustic, ing, but differ in the vividness with from rws, the country, signifies one which they suggest the actual per- born and bred in the country. Clown formance of weighing balance and is a Scandinavian word meaning a counterpoise being more suggestive in clumsy, boorish fellow, allied to clump. All these terms are employed as this respect than poise and weigh. The substantives corresponding to epithets tp persons, and principally to these words have figurative meanings such as five in the country: the terms which differ somewhat more vividly. countryman and peasant are taken in Poise and balance are both applied to an indifferent sense, and may comprea kind of self-control, which enables hend persons of different descriptions; designate nothing more than its possessor to remain quiet and rea- they sonable, and uninfluenced either by habitual residence in the country: the outward events or violent emotion. other terms are employed for the lower Spurious.

Poise, in this sense, is a general attribute; balance is applied to specific cases in which poise has been displayed. We say that a lady has poise, meaning that she is almost uniformly unriiffled and self-controlled that she resembles a pair of scales in which the weight on one side exactly corresponds to the weight on the other. We say that a

—

man

kept his balance, when

we mean

that in a particular instance he did not let himself be absolutely controlled by only one feehng or one consideration. of

meaning

Weight has a figurative another sort; it corre-

sponds to heaviness, and signifies that which weighs heavily. A man of weight is a man who can bring much force or influence to bear upon a situation. COUNTRY. See Land. COUNTRYMAN, Peasant, Swain, Hind, Rustic, Clown. Countryman, that is, a man of the country, or one

orders of countrymen, but with collateral ideas favorable or unfavorable annexed to them: swain, hind, both convey the idea of innocence in a humble station, and are therefore al-

ways employed

in poetry in a good the rustic and clown both convey the idea of that uncouth rudeness and ignorance which is in reality foimd among the lowest orders of countrymen. COUPLE, Pair, Brace. Couple comes from Latin con, together, and Old Latin apere, to join, preserved in aptu^, Enghsh apt. It signifies things joined together; and as two things are with most convenience bound together, it has by custom been confined

sense:

to this number. Pair, in French paire, Latin par, equal, signifies things that are equal, which can with propriety be said only of two things with regard to each other. Brace, from the French bras, arm, signifies things locked to-

COURSE

219

gether after the maimer of the folded arms, which on that account are confined to the number of two. From the above illustration of these terms, it is clear that the number of two, which is included in all of them, is, with regard to the first, entirely arbitrary; that with regard to the second it arises from the nature of the junction; and with regard to the third it arises altogether from the nature of the objects; couples and braces are made by coupling and bracing; pairs are either so of themselves or are made so by others: couples and braces always require a junction in order to make them complete; pairs require similarity only to make them what they are: couples are joined by a foreign tie; even the being in company is sufficient to make a couple; braces are produced by a close junction, or what is supposed to be so, which requires them to go together. Couple is applied to objects generally. Pair is apphed to things that natural-

Courage respects action, fortitude respects passion: a man has courage to meet danger, and fortitude to endure pain. Courage is that power of the mind which bears up against the evil that is in prosp>ect; fortitude is that power which endures the pain that is felt: the man of courage goes with the same coolness to the mouth of the cannon as the man of fortitude imdergoes the amputation of a limb. Horatius Codes displayed his courage in defending a bridge against the whole army of the Etruscans: Caius Mutius displayed no less fortitude when he thrust his hand into the fire in the presence of King Porsena, and awed him as much by his language as his action. Courage seems to oe more of a manly virtue; fortitude is more distinguishable as a feminine virtue: the former is at least most adapted to the male sex who are called upon to act, and the latter to the females, who are obhged to endure: a man without courage would be as ill prepared to discharge his duty in his intercourse with the ly go in pairs. Brace is applied to particular things, world as a woman without fortitude either themselves joined together or would be to support herself imder the serving to join others together; as birds compHcated trials of body and mind that are shot and are usually linked with which she is hable to be astogether are termed a brace; whence in sailed. Resohdion is a minor species of courpoetry the term is applied to animals or other objects in a close state of age, or it is courage in the minor concourage comprehends junction. cerns of hfe: Couple is apphed to persons of differ- under it a spirit to advance; resolution ent sex who are bound to each other by simply marks the will not to recede: the ties of affection or by the marriage we require courage to bear down all the obstacles which oppose themselves to tie. Pair is also apphed to persons simi- us; we require resolution not to yield larly situated, but refers more to the to the first difficulties that offer. COURSE, Race, Passage. Course, moral tie from similarity of feeling: whence the newly married couple is in from currere, to nm, signifies either the ordinary discoiu"se called the happy act of running or the space run over.

Race comes from Scandinavian ras, a apphed to persons in no running, and signifies the sanae act. other connection, and brace never ex- Passage, Latin passus, a step, signifies pair.

Pair

is

cept in the burlesque style.

either the act of stepping, or the space

COURAGE,

Fortitude, Resolu- passed over. Course and race as acts imply the act tion. Courage (see Bravery). Fortitude, in French fortitude, Latin forti- of walking or running; passage, the a«t tudo, is the abstract noun from fortis, of passing or going generally: as swift strong. Resolution, from Latin re, in the course, to win the race, to be lost again, and solvere, to loose, signifies to in the passage. The course in this case divide something into its component may be the act of one alone; the race is parts; hence to decide; and marks the always the act of one in competition act of resolving, or the state of resolved.

being with others. In the sense of the space gone over,

220

COURT

course is to be compared with passage in the proper apphcation, and with race The course is the in the improper. direction taken or chosen by any object, and apphes to persons or things personified; as a person pursues a

relation to things, as belonging to a court; but courteous has always respect to persons: we may speak of a courtly style, or courtly grandeur; but we always speak of courteous behavior, courteous language, and the like.

COVENANT. See Agreement. COVER, Hide. Cover, in French Passage is the way either through or over an object, and apphes only to in- couvrir, Italian coprire, Latin cooperio, course.

compounded

animate objects.

is

Course, in the moral apphcation, signifies the direction taken in the business of hfe; as to pursue a right or wrong

operio,

course.

to

of con, intensive, and conceal, and signifies to

conceal thoroughly. Hide (see Conceal). Cover is to hide as the means to the end: we commonly hide by covering;

The race is that course of life which a person is supposed to run with but we may easily cover without hiding, The others toward a certain object. It is as also hide without covering. ruhng idea in the word cover is that of used mostly in the spiritual sense. throwing or putting something over a See also Route; Series; Way. COURT. See Homage; Tribunal. body in the word hide is that of keepCOURTEOUS, Complaisant, ing carefully to one's self, from the Courtly. Courteous, from court, de- observation of others. In most civil:

notes properly belonging to a court, ized countries it is common to cover and, by a natural extension of the sense, the head: in the Eastern countries Cotnplaisant (see females commonly wear veils to hide suitable to a court. the face. Complaisance). Cover sometimes, particularly in the Courteous in one respect comprehends in it more than complaisant; it moral application, signifies to conceal; includes the manner as well as the but in that case it denotes the manner action; it is, properly speaking, pol- of conceahng, namely, by overspreadished complaisance: on the other hand, ing; but hide denotes either the intencomplaisance includes more of the dis- tion or desire to conceal or the coijposition in it than courteou^sness; it ceahng what ought not to be seen. Cover propCover, Shelter, Screen. has less of the polish, but more of the reahty of kindness. Courteousness dis- erly denotes what serves as a cover, plays itself in the address and man- in the hteral sense of the verb from derived is (see above). ners; complaisance, in direct good of- which it fices: courteousness is practised be- Shelter comes from Anglo-Saxon scildtween strangers; complaisance, among truma, hterally shield-troop, a band of men with shields set to guard a place; friends. Bee also Affable; Well-bred. hence any protection. Screen is deCourtly, though derived from the rived through French from Teutonic same word as courteous, is in some de- schranne, a railing or a grate. gree opposed to it in point of sense; it Cover is hterally apphed to many denotes a likeness to a court, but not a particular things which are employed likeness which is favorable: courtly is in covering; but in the general sense to courteous as the form to the reahty; which makes it analogous to the other the courtly consists of the exterior terms it includes the idea of concealing: only, the latter of the exterior combined shelter comprehends that of protecting with the spirit; the former, therefore, from some immediate or impending seems to convey the idea of insincerity evil: screen includes that of warding when contrasted with the latter, which off some trouble. A cover always supmust necessarily suppose the contrary poses something which can extend over a courtly demeanor, or a courtier-like the whole surface of a body; a shelter demeanor, may be suitable on certain or a screen may merely interpose to a occasions; but a courteous demeanor is sufficient extent to serve the intended always desirable. purpose. Mihtary operations are someCourtly may hkewise be employed in times carried on under cover of the

—

CREDIT

221

night; a bay is a convenient shelter for posed to covetousness, is sometimes asvessels against the violence of the sociated with avarice. winds; a chair may be used as a screen See Recreant. to prevent the violent action of the COWER. See Quail. heat or the external air. CRACK. See Break. In the moral sense, a fair reputation CRAFTY. See Cunning. is sometimes made the cover for the CRAVE. See Beg; Yearn. commission of gross irregularities in CREATE. See Cause; Make. When a person feels himself secret. CREDIT, Favor, Influence. unable to withstand the attacks of his Credit, from the Latin creditus, parenemies, he seeks a shelter imder the ticiple of credere, to beUeve or trust, sanction and authority of a great name. marks the state of being believed or Bad men sometimes use wealth and trusted. Favor, from the Latin favere, power to screen them from the punish- to befriend or please, marks an agreement which is due to their ofiFences. able or pleasant state of feeling toward COVERING. See Tegument. an object. Influence, in French irir-

COWARD.

COVET. See Desire. fluence, Latin influentia, from in, in, COVETOUSNESS, Cupidity, and fluere, to flow, marks the state or AvAEiCE.

Covetotisness,

from

covet,

and power of acting upon any object so as

Latin cupere, to desire, signifies having to direct or move it. a desire. Cupidity is a more immediate These terms mark the state we stand derivative from the Latin, signifying in with regard to others as flowing out the same thing. Avarice (see Ava- of their sentiments toward ourselves: ricious). credit arises out of esteem :/ai;or, out of All these terms are employed to ex- good-will or affection; influence, out press

an

iUicit desire after objects of

of either credit or favor, or external cir-

appUed cumstances: credit depends altogether to property in general, or to whatever on personal merit, real or supposed: is valuable; cupidity and avarice, only favor may depend on the caprice of to money or possessions. A child may him who bestows it. The credU which display its covetousness in regard to we have with others is marked by the playthings which fall in its way; a their confidence in our judgment; by man shows his cupidity in regard to their disposition to submit to our dethe gains that fall in his way; we cisions; by their rehance on our veshould, therefore, be careful to check racity or assent to our opinions: the a covetous disposition in early life, lest favor we have with others is marked by it show itself in the more hateful char- their readiness to comply with our acter of cupidity in advanced years. wishes, their subserviency to our views, Covetousness is the natm-al disposition attachment to our society: men or gratification;

but covetousness

is

for having or getting; acquired disposition.

cupidity is the As the love of appropriation is an innate characteristic in man, that of accumulatiag or wanting to accumulate, which con-

show itseK, in some persons, among the first indications of character: where the prospect stitutes covetousness, will

of amassing great wealth is set before a man, as in the case of a governor of a distant province, it will evince great virtue in him if his cupidity be not excited. The covetous man seeks to add to what he has; the avaricious man only strives to retain what he has: the covetous man sacrifices others to indulge himself; the avaricurus man will sometimes sacrifice himself to indulge others; for generosity, which is op-

talent are

ambitious to gain

credit

with

their sovereigns by the superiority of their counsel: weak men or men of

ordinary powers are contented with being the favorites of princes and enjoying their patronage and protection. Credit redounds to the honor of the individual, and stimulates him to noble exertions; it is beneficial in its results to all mankind, individually or collectively: favor redounds to the

personal advantage, the selfish gratification of the individual; it is apt to inflame pride and provoke jealousy. Credit and favor are the gifts of others; influence is a possession which we derive from circumstances: there will always be influence where there is credit or favor, but it may exist inde-

CREED

222 pendently of either:

we have

credit

for ourselves; we exert influence over others: credit and favor serve one's own purposes; influence is employed in directing others: weak people easily give their credit, or bestow their favor, by which an influence is gained over them to bend them to the will of others; the influence itself may

and favor

be good or bad, according to the views of the person by whom it is exerted. See also Belief; Name.

CREED. See Faith. CREMATION, Incineration.

Cremation, in Latin crematio through crematus from cremare, to bum, and incineration, in Low Latin incineratio from incinerare, to reduce to ashes, both refer to the method of disposing of

the dead by burning, instead of earth Cremation is the more comburial. mon term in the United States. CREW. See Band. CRIME, Vice, Sin. Crime, in Latin crimen, Greek Kpivtiv, to judge, signifies a sentence, or punishment; and also the cause of the sentence or punishment, in which latter sense it is here taken. Vice, in Latin vilium, a blemish, signifies that which destroys the perfection of something. Sin,

—

Crime, Misdemeanor. Crime (see above). Misdemeanor signifies Hterally

a wrong demeanor. The former of these terms is to the latter as the genus to the species: a misdemeanor is in the technical sense a minor crime. Housebreaking is under aU circumstances a crime; but shopHfting or pilfering amounts only to a misdemeanor. Corporal punishments are most commonly annexed to crimes; pecuniary punishments frequently to misdemeanors. In the vulgar use of these terms, misdemeanor is moreover distingiiished from crime by not always signifying a violation of public law, but only of private morals; in which sense the former term impUes what is done against the state, and the latter that which offends individuals or small communities. Criminal, Guilty. Criminal, from

—

crime, signifies belonging or relating to a crime. Guilty, from guilt (in AngloSaxon gylt, a trespass and a fine for trespass, possibly allied to geldan, to pay, whence our word yield is derived),

having guilt. Criminal respects the character of the offence; guilty respects the fact of committing the offence. The criminalAnglo-Saxon synn, is allied to one form ity of a person is estimated by all the of the verb to he (Latin sum, sunt, etc.). circumstances of his conduct which "Language regards the guilty man as present themselves to observation; his the man who it was" (Curttds). guilt requires to be proved by evidence. A crime is a social offence; a vice is The criminality is not a matter of ina personal ofifence: every action which quiry, but of judgment; the guilt is does injury to others, either individual- often doubtful, if not positively conThe higher the rank of a perly or collectively, is a crime; that cealed. which does injury to oiU"selves is a vice. son the greater his criminality if he Crime consists in a violation of human does not observe an upright and irrelaws; vice, in a violation of the moral proachable conduct: where a number law; sin, in a violation of the divine of individuals are concerned in any law: sin, therefore, comprehends both unlawful proceeding, the difficulty of crime ana vice; but there are many sins attaching the guilt to the real offender which are not crimes nor vices: crimes is greatly increased. are tried before a human court, and Criminal may be apphed as an epipum'shed agreeably to the sentence of thet either to the person or that which the judge; vices and sins are brought is personal: guilty is properly applied before the tribimal of the conscience; only to the person a person, or his acthe former are punished in this world, tions, looks, thought, intentions, may the latter will be punished in the be criminal: the person himself is guilty world to come, by the sentence of of whatever he actually commits. the Almighty: treason is one of the What is criminal is against good morals: most atrocious crimes; drimkenness but a person may be guilty of trivial one of the most dreadful vices; rehgious errors in indifferent matters. hypocrisy one of the most heinous Criminal, Culprit, Malefactor, Felon, sins. Convict. All these terms are employed signifies

:

—

CRITICAL for a public offender; but the first conveys no more than this general idea;

223

CRINGE. CRISIS.

See Knuckle. See Conjuncture.

CRITERION, Standard. Criterion, while the others comprehend some accessory idea in their signification. in Greek icpirr)piov, from icpivEiv, to Criminal is a general term, and the judge, signifies the mark or rule by rest are properly species of criminals. which one may judge. Standard sigmcomes from Anglo-French cul Latin ctdpa, fault) and prest, ready to prove it, signifying that the clerk of the crcwn was ready to prove the indictment. Malefactor, compoimded of the Latin terms male and factor, sig-

fied originally

nifies an evil-doer that is, one who does evil, in distinction from him who does good. Felon is derived from Late Latin felonem (accusative), a traitor, alhed to fell, meaning cruel, dire. Convict, in Latin convictus, participle of convinco, to convince or prove, signifies one proved or foimd guilty. When we wish to speak in general of those who by offences against the laws or regulations of society have exposed themselves to punishment, we denominate them criminals: when we consider them as already brought before a

the ideals of the people whom it represented, and the action expected of

Culprit (for

—

we call them culprits: when we consider them in regard to the moral

tribunal,

tiupitude of their character, as the promoters of evil rather than of goodj we entitle

them

malefactors:

when we

consider them as offending by the grosser violations of the law, they are termed felons: when we consider them as already under the sentence of the law, we denominate them convicts. The punishments inflicted on criminals vary according to the nature of their crimes and the spirit of the laws by which they are judged: a guilty conscience will give a man the air of a culprit in the presence of those who have no authority to be either his accusers or judges; it gratified the mahce of the Jews to cause our blessed Saviour to be crucified between two malefactors: it is an imiwrtant regulation in the internal economy of a prison to have felons kept distinct from one another, particularly if their crimes are of an atrocious nature: it has not unfrequently happened that, when the sentence of the law has placed convicts in the lowest state of degradation, their characters have xmdergone so entire a reformation as to enable them to attain a higher pitch of elevation than they had ever enjoyed before.

an ensign, a flag fixed on a large standing-pole, and is derived from extendere, to extend, though influenced by the verb stand. The pole bearing the flag came to faidicate a standard of measurement, symbolizing

them.

The criterion is employed only in matters of judgment; the standard is used in the oroinary concerns of life. The former serves for determining the characters and quahties of things; the latter for defining quantity and measure. The language and manners of a person are the best criterion for forming an estimate of his station and education. In order to produce a uniformity in the mercantile transactions of mankind one with another, it is the custom of governments to fix a certain standard for the regulation of coins, weights, and measures. The word standard may likewise be used figuratively in the same sense. The Bible is a standard of excellence, both in morals and religion, which cannot be too closely followed. It is impossible to have the same standard in the arts and sciences, because all our performances fall short of perfection and will admit of improvement. See also Shibboleth; Test. CRITICAL, Crucial, Important, Vital. These words all suggest a state of imcertainty, or something necessary to decide the welfare or success of a person or a project. Critical, from the Greek Kpivuv, to judge, and crucial, from Latin crux, a cross, referring to the cross placed at the fork in a road to point the way, have a similar meaning.

A critical moment is a moment in

which the decision hangs in the balance. A crucial instance is the instance on which the decision def>ends. The use of crucial is partly influenced by its relation to crux, which also suggests an

—

instrument oi torture so that the word has a certain intensity of meaning that It has also a critical docs not have.

CRITICISE

224

limited and specific application. marks of tenderness or kindness which Important, from in, in, and portare, to are to be expected from one human bring, is a more general word. It sig- being to another; he is barbarous if he nifies, literally, "bringing in" much, find amusement in inflicting pain; he having weighty results; it does not is brutal or savage according to the cirsuggest the mating of a decision. Vital cumstances of aggravation which ac(from vita, life) means essential to the company the act of torturing. life of something. See also Hard-hearted; Heart-

more

See also Censor; Climacteric. less. CRITICISE. See Censure. CRUSH. See Break; Overwhelm; CRITICISM. See Animadversion. Quell. CROOKED. See Awkward; Bent; CRUTCH. See Staff.

Wry. CROSS.

CRY, Weep. See

Awkward;

Cap-

tious; Querulous. CROTCHET. See Vagary. CROWD, See Multitude. CRUCIAL. See Critical.

an

.

CRUEL, Inhuman, Barbarous, Brutal, Savage. Cruel, from the Latin crudelis and crudus, raw, rough, or imtutored; inhuman, compounded of the privative in and human, signifying not human; barbarous, from the Greek

—

fidpjidpoQ, foreigner, in imitation of

the

An outward

indica--

tion of pain is expressed by both these terms, but cry (see Call) comprehends

audible

expression

accompanied

with tears or otherwise. Weep, AngloSaxon wepan, signified originally to make an outcry; it now refers to the silent shedding of tears. Cryirig arises from an impatience in suffering corporeal pains; children and weak people commonly cry: weeping is occasioned by mental grief; the wisest and best of men will not disdain sometimes to weep. Crying is as selfish as it is weak; it serves to relieve the pain of the in-

sound of a strange language "bar, bar" aU these mark a degree of bad feeling which is imcontrolled by culture dividual to the aimoyance of the hearer;

—

or refinement. Brutal, signifying like the brute (see Animal), and savage, from Old French salvage, from Latin silva, woods, signifying a dweller in the woods these mark a still stronger degree of this bad passion. Cruel is the most familiar and the least powerful epithet of all these terms; it designates the ordinary propensity which, if not overpowered by a better principle, will invariably show itself by the desire of inflicting positive pain on others, or abridging their comfort: inhuman and barbarous are higher degrees of cruelty; brutal and savage rise so much in degree above the rest as almost to partake of another nature.

—

A

child gives early

symptoms

of his

natural cruelty by his ill-treatment of animals; but we do not speak of his inhumanity, because this is a term confined to men, and more properly to their treatment of their own species, although extended in its sense to their treatment of the brutes: barbarity is but

too common among children and persons of riper years. A person is cruel who neglects the creature he should protect and take care of: he is inhuman if he withhold from him the common

weeping, when called forth by others' sorrows, is an infirmity which no man could wish to be without: as an expression of generous sympathy, it affords essential rehef to the sufferer. Cry, Scream, Shriek. To cry indicates the utterance of an articulate or an inarticulate sound. Scream is a Scandinavian word meaning to cr]/ aloud. Shriek is an imitative word, like screech, which tries to represent by Crying its sound a certain kind of cry. is an ordinary mode of loud utterance resorted to on common occasions; one cries in order to be heard: screaming is

—

an intemperate mode of crying, resorted to from an impatient desire to be heard or from a vehemence of feeling. People scream to deaf people from the mistaken idea of making themselves heard; whereas a distinct articulation win always be more efficacious. It is frequently necessary to cry when we cannot render ourselves audible by any other means; but it is never necessary nor proper to scream. Shriek may be compared with cry and scream as expressions of pain; in this case to shriek is more than to cry, and less than to scream. They both signify to crif

CUNNING

225

with a violent eflfort. We may cry viously to this particular exertion of the from the shghtest pain or inconven- powers. ience; but one shrieks or screams only on Civilization is the first stage of cul^ occasions of great agony, either corchild cries when poreal or mental. it has hurt its finger; it shrieks in the moment of terror at the sight of a frightful object, or screams imtil some one comes to its assistance.

A

See also Wail. CUFF. See Knock.

CULPABLE,

Faulty.

Culpable, in

Latin culpabilis, comes from culpa, a fault or blame, signifying worthy of blame, fit to be blamed. Faulty, from favit, is ultimately derived from Latin fallere,

to deceive.

We are culpable from the commission

refinement is the last; we savages by divesting them of their rudeness and giving them a knowledge of such arts as are requisite for civil society; we cultivate people in general by caUing forth their powers into action and independent exertion; we refine them by the introduction of the liberal arts. The introduction of Christianity has been the best means of civilizing the rudest nations. The cultivation of the mind in serious pursuits tends to refine the sentiments without debilitating the character; but the cultivation of the liberal arts tivation; civilize

of one fault; we are faulty from the number of faults: culpable is a relative term; faulty is absolute: we are culpa-

may

ble with regard to a superior whose intentions we have not fulfilled; we are faulty whenever we commit any faults. master pronounces his servant as culpable for not having attended to his commands; an indifferent person pronounces another as faulty whose faults have come under his notice. It is possible, therefore, to be faulty without

manhness.

A

be pursued to a vicious extent, so as to introduce an excessive refinernerU of feehng that is incompatible with real

—

Cultivation, Tillage, Husbandry. Cultivation has a much more comprehensive meaning than either tillage or husbandry. Tillage comes from AngloSaxon tilian, to labor, from til, beneficial, and signifies to make land useful. It is a mode of cultivation that

extends no further than the preparation of the ground for the reception of the seed; cultivation includes the whole process by which the produce of the earth is brought to maturity. We may ilization, Refinement. Cultivation till without cultivating; but we cannot is derived from Latin cultu^, from colere, cultivate, as far as respects the soil, to till, and denotes the act of cultivat- without tillage. Husbandry (see Husing, or state of being cultivated. Cult- band) is more extensive in its meaning ure, from cultu^, signifies the state only than tillage, but not so extensive as Tillage respects the act of being cultivated. Civilization signi- cultivation. fies the act of civilizing, or state of being only of tilling the ground; husbandry civilized, from civis, a citizen, one who is employed for the ofl5ce of cultivating A cultivator is lives with others on comfortable terms for domestic purposes. in a city or state. Refinement denotes a general term, defined only by the the act of refining, or the state of being object that is cultivated, as the cultivator of the grape or the ohve; a tiller is a refined. Cultivation is with more propriety laborer in the soil that performs the applied to the thing that grows; cult- office for another: a husbandman is a ure to that in which it grows. The humble species of cultivator who himcultivation of flowers will not repay the self performs the whole office of cultivatlabor unless the soU be prepared by ing the ground for domestic purposes. CULTURE. See Cultivation. proper culture. In the same manner, CUNNING, Crafty, Subtle, Sly, when speaking figuratively, we say the cultivation of any art or science the Wily. Cwnntn^ (sccArt). Crafty ^g-

being culpable, but not vice versd. CULPRIT. See Criminal. CULTIVATED. See Well-bred. CULTIVATION, Culture, Civ-

:

from Anglo-Saxon

cultivation of one's taste or inclination

nifies

having

may

be said to contribute to one's own

crceft,

German

skill

or the perfection of the thing it- energy, but the mind requires culture pre- mind; hence, in a stiU

self;

15

crajft,

kraft, meaning power or hence, specifically, power of

more

specific

CUPIDITY

226 sense,

a

particular

kind

(Compare the development from Anglo-Saxon

cene,

of of

skiU. keen,

German kuhn,

in French subtil, and Latin svbtilis, thin, from sub and tela, a thread drawn to be fine; hence in the figiu-ative senise in which it is here taken, fine or acute in thought. Sly is a Scandinavian word originally meanbold.)

Subtle,

ing handy, dexterous, possibly allied to slay. Wily, full of wiles, may be derived from Anglo-Saxon wiglian, to practise sorcery. All these epithets agree in expressing an aptitude to employ peculiar and secret means to the attainment of an end; they differ principally in the secrecy of the means or the degree of circiun-

vention that is employed. The cunning man shows his dexterity simply in concealing; this requires little more than reservedness and taciturnity: the crafty man goes further; he shapes his words and actions so as to luU suspicion; hence it is that a child may be cunning, but an old man will be crafty: a subtle man has more acuteness of invention than either, and all his schemes are hidden by a veil that is impenetrable to common observation: the cunning man looks only to the concealment of an immediate object; the crafty and subtle man has a remote object to conceal: thus men are cunning in their ordinary concerns; poUticians are crafty or subtle: but the former are more so as to the end, and the latter as to the means. A man is cunning and crafty by deeds; he is

To cure is employed for what is out of order; to heal, for that which is broken: diseases are cured, wounds are healed; the former is a complex, the latter is a simple process. Whatever requires to be cured is wrong in the system; it requires many and various apphcations internally and externally: whatever requires to be healed is occasioned externally by violence, and requires external apphcations. In a state of refinement men have the greatnumber of est disorders to be cured; in a savage state there is more occasion healing for the art. Cure is used as properly in the moral natural as the sense; heal in the moral sense is altogether figurative. The disorders of the mind are cured with greater difficulty than those of the body.

The breaches which have been

made

in the affections of relatives tow-

ard each other can be healed by nothing but a Christian spirit of forbearance

and

forgiveness. remedy, in the sense of applying remedies, has a moral apphcation, in

To

it accords most with cure. Evils are either cured or remedied, but the former are of a much more serious nature than the latter. The evils in society require to be cured; an omission, a deficiency, or a mischief requires to be remedied. When bad habits become inveterate, they are put out of the reach of cure. It is an exercise for the ingenuity of man to attempt to remedy the various troubles and inconveniences which are daily occm-ring. subtle mostly by means of words alone, Cure, Remedy. Cure denotes either or words and actions combined. Sly- the act of curing or the thing that ness is a vulgar kind of cunning; the cures. Remedy is mostly employed for sly man goes cautiously and silently the thing that remedies. In the former to work. Wiliness is a species of cun- sense the remedy is to the cure as the ning or craft, appUcable only to cases means to the end; a cure is performed of attack or defence. by the application of a remedy. That See also Art. is incurable for which no remedy can CUPIDITY. See Covetottsness. be found; but a cure is sometimes perCURB. See Check. formed without the apphcation of any CURE, Heal, Remedy. Cure, in specific remedy. The cure is complete Latin euro, signifies to take care of, when the evil is entirely removed; the that is, by distinction, to take care of remedy is sure which by proper apphcathat which requires particular care, in tion never fails of effecting the cure. order to remove an evil. Heal signi- The cure of disordws depends upon the fies to make whole that which is un- skill of the physician and the state of sound. Remedy, in Latin remedium, the patient; the efficacy of remedies is compounded of re and medere, to heal. depends upon their suitable choice and apphcation: but a cure may be deThe particle re is here an intensive.

which

—

CURSORY a remedy made of no

227

species of eager curiosity. A curious variety of circumstances inde- person takes unallowed means of learneither. ing that which he ought not to wish A cure is sometimes employed for the to know; an inquisitive person puts thing that cures, which brings it nearer many impertinent and troublesome in sense to the word remedy, the former questions: a prying temper is unceasbeing applied to great matters, the ing in its endeavors to get acquainted latter to small. Quacks always hold with the secrets of others. Curiosity forth their nostrums as infallible cures, is a fault most frequent among fenot for one, but for every sort of dis- males; inquisitiveness is most general order; experience has, however, fatally among children; a prying temper beproved that the remedy in most cases longs only to people of low character. IS worse than the disease. A well-disciplined mind checks the first CURING. See Sanitary. risings of idle curiosity: children should CURIOUS, Inquisitive, Prying. be taught early to suppress an inquisiCurious, in French curieux, Latin curi- tive temp>er, which may so easily be08US, from cura, care, signifying full come burdensome to others: those who of care. Inquisitive, in Latin inquist- are of a prying temper are insensible tv^, from inquirere, to inquire or search to everything but the desire of unveilinto, signifies a disposition to in- ing what lies hidden; such a disposivestigate thoroughly. Prying, from tion is often engendered by the unTpry, IS derived from Old French 'prier, hcensed indulgence of curiosity in early to pillage, from Late Latin predare, to life, which becomes a sort of passion prey upon, hence to search out prey, in riper years. or simply to search out. CURRENT. See Stream. The disposition to interest one's self CURSE. See Ban; Malediction; in matters not of immediate concern Swear. is the idea common to all these terms. CURSORY, Hasty, Slight, DesCuriosity is directed to all objects that ultory. Cursory, from the Latin can gratify the inclination, taste, or curro, signifies run over or done in understanding; inquisitiveness, to such running. Hasty signifies done in haste, things only as satisfy the understand- from Ajaglo-Saxon tmst, violence. Slight ing. The curious person interests him- meant originally even or flat; then self in all the works of nature and art; plain, smooth, simple, trivial. Desulhe is curious to try effects and examine tory, from desilo, to leap, signifies causes: the inquisitive person endeavors leaped over. to add to his store of knowledge. Cursory _ inchides both hasty and Curiosity employs every means which slight; it includes hasty inasmuch as falls in its way in order to procure it expresses a quick motion; it includes gratification; the curious man uses his slight inasmuch as it conveys the idea own powers or those of others to serve of a partial action: a view may be his purpose: inquisitiveness is indulged either cursory or hasty, as the former is only by means of verbal inquiry; the taken by design, the latter from careinquisitive person collects all from lessness: a view may be either cursory others. traveller is curious who or slight; but the former is not so imexamines everything for himself; he perfect as the latter: an author will is inquisitive when he minutely ques- take a cursory view of those points tions others. Inquisitiveness is there- which are not necessarily connected fore to curiosity as a means to an end; with his subject; an author who takes whoever is curious will naturally be a hasty view of a subject will mislead inquisitive, but he who is inquisitive may by his errors; he who takes a slight be so either from curiosity or from other view will disapix)int by the shallowmotives. ness of his information. Between curCurious and inquisitive may both be sory and desultory there is the same difused in a bad sense; prying is never ference as between running and leaping: used otherwise than in a bad sense. we run in a line, but we leap from one Inquisitive, as in the former case, is a part to another; so remarks that are mode of curiosity, and prying is a cursory have still more or less connecfeated, or

by a

pendent of

A

avail,

CURTAIL

228

but remarks t'nat are desultory are without any coherence. CURTAIL. See Abridge. CURVED. See Bent. CUSTODY. See Keeping. CUSTOM, Habit. Custom, in French coMume, from Latin consuetudinem, based on Latin consuetum, participle of consu£scere, to accustom. Habit, in French habit, Latin hahitudo, from habere, to have, marks the state of having or holding. Custom is a frequent repetition of the same act; habit, the effect of such repetition: the custom of rising early in the morning is conducive to the health, and may in a short time become such a habit as to render it no less agreeable than it is useful. Custom supposes an act of the will; habit implies an involuntary movement: custom is followed; a habit is acquired. tion,

est progress; mnnners are most distinguishable in a civiUzed state of society. Customs are in their nature as unchangeable as fashions are variable; manners depend on cultivation and collateral circumstances; customs die away or are abohshed; fashions pass away and new ones take their place; manners are altered either for the better or the worse.

Practice, TTpaKTiKT),

in

from

Latin

practica,

Greek

irpdffativ,

to do, signifies actual doing or the thing done, that is, by distinction, the regularly doing, or the thing regularly done, in which sense it is most analogous to custom; but the former simply conveys the idea of actual performance; the latter includes also the accessory idea of repetition at stated periods: a practice may be defined as frequent or unfrequent, regular or irregular; but a custom does Custom is applicable to bodies of not require to be quahfied by any men; habit is confined to the individual; such epithets: it may be the practice every nation has ctistoms peculiar to it- of a person to do acts of charity, self; and every individual has habits as the occasion requires; but, when pecuUar to his age, station, and circum- he uniformly does a particular act stances. of charity at any given period of the Customary and habitual, the epithets year, it is properly denominated his derived from these words admit of a cvstom. similar distinction: the customary acBoth practice and custom are general tion is that which is repeated after or particular, but the former is absothe manner of a custom; the habitual lute, the latter relative: a practice may

action is that which force of habit.

done by the be adopted by a number of persons without reference to one another; but See also Tax; Usage. a custom is always followed either by Custom, Fashion, Manner, Practice. imitation or prescription: the practice Customs, fashions, and manners are all of gaming has always been followed by employed for communities of men; cus- the vicious part of society; but it is tom respects established and general to be hoped for the honor of man modes of action: fashion, in French that it will never become a custom. fagon, from factio, a making or doing, CUT. See Nip; Trench. regards partial and transitory modes of CUTTING. See Trenchant. making or doing things: manner, in the CYCLE, Bicycle, Tricycle, HyUmited sense in which it is here taken, drocycle. Motorcycle, Tandem, Sosignifies the manner or mode of men's ciable. Cycle, from the Greek kvkXoq, living or behaving in their social inter- a circle, in the sense of a vehicle, is a course. shortened term for a variety of conCustom is authoritative; it stands in structions, outgrowths of the old the place of law and regulates the con- French velocipede and dandy-horse of duct of men in the most important con- two and three wheels. cerns of life: fashion is arbitrary and The bicycle and tricycle, as their capricious, it decides in matters of names denote, are supplied with two trifling import: manners are rational; and three wheels respectively; the they are the expressions of moral feel- hydrocycle is an adaptation for use on ings. Customs have most force in a a water surface; the motorcycle is a simple state of society; fashions rule bicycle propelled by an electric motor most where luxury has made the great- or other contrivance instead of by is

—

CYNICAL pedals on the front wheel, a form of a cycle much used by the police; tandem has two wheels farther separated than the ordinary bicycle, with seats for two persons, one in the rear of the driver; and the sociable is one of several names apphed to a tricycle

229

having a more or less fancy rear seat for a second person, a form also used for light delivery vehicles.

Bike is a new slang term given by both professional and amateur wheel-

men

to their machines. See Misanthropical.

CYNICAL.

DABBLE

230

D DABBLE, Dip, Splash. Dabble from a dainty: those who indulge exactly agrees in form and sense with themselves freely in dainties and deliDutch dabbelen. Dip comes from cacies scarcely know what it is to eat Anglo-Saxon dyppan. Splash is formed with an appetite; but those who are by adding s, French es, Latin ex, to temperate in their use of the enjoyplash (from a Teutonic root meaning ments of life will be enabled to derive Dip pleasure from ordinary food. to strike) for added emphasis. DALLY, Toy. Dally comes from means to immerse in water and then to withdraw the immersed object Old French dalier, to converse, to pass quickly indicating a hght, decided, one's time in light social converse. comparatively noiseless action. Splash Toy is derived from Dutch tuig, tools, means to dip in such a way as to fling utensils. toy is a device to give the water about and make considerable amusement, a plaything for chilch-en, noise. Dabble means to keep dipping especially. To toy is to treat as a lightly, making each time a httle plaything as a matter of no consesplash. It indicates a purposeless ac- quence; to amuse one's self as with a tion; dip indicates an action not lack- game. Dally and toy have substaning in purpose, but in continuity and tially- the same meaning, indicating endurance. frivolous or playful self-indulgence. DAILY, Diurnal. Daily, from day Such difference as there is is that and like, signifies after the manner or suggested by their derivation dally in the time of the day, day being de- emphasizing a certain lightness and rived from a Teutonic root signifying frivolousness, toy a more positive playBoth words are to bum, day being the bright, hot time, ing with something. as opposed to night. Diurnal, from used to refer to amorous caresses with dies, day, signifies belonging to the day. the sUght difference in meaning above Daily is the colloquial term which is suggested. Dally means also to delay, apphcable to whatever passes in the to put off by trifling, and toy a purday-time; diurnal is the scientific term, poseless handling, as when we say which applies to what passes within or "He toyed with his watch-chain." belongs to the astronomical day: the DAMAGE. See Injury; Loss; physician makes daily visits to his Scathe. patients; the earth is said by astronoDAMPNESS. See Moisture. mers to have a diurnal motion on its DAMSEL. See Virgin. DANGER, own axis. Peril, Hazard. DanDAINTY, Delicacy. These terms, ger, Old French dongier, from Late which are in vogue among epicures, Latin dominum, power, from Late have some shades of difference not al- Latin domnus, lord one who has abtogether undeserving of notice. Dainty, solute authority. Peril is derived through French from Latin dignitatem, from Latin periculum, from the verb worthy, is applied to that which is periri, to try, Greek rrupa, an attempt. of worth or value of course only to Hazard (see Chance). such things as have a superior value The idea of chance or uncertainty is in the estimation of epicures, and common to all these terms; but the consequently conveys a more posi- two former may sometimes be foreseen tive meaning than delicacy; inasmuch and calculated upon; the latter is pureas a dainty may be that which is ex- ly contingent. Dangers are far and tremely delicate, a delicacy is some- near, ordinary and extraordinary: they times a species of dainty; but there meet us if we do not go in search of are many delicacies which are altogether them; perils are always distant and suited to the most delicate appetite extraordinary: we must go out of our that are neither costly nor rare, two course to expose ourselves to them; in quahties which are almost inseparable the quiet walk of life, as in the most

—

A

—

—

—

DARK

231

busy and tumultuous, it is the lot of man to be siurounded by danger; the mariner, and the traveller who goes in search of unknown countries, put themselves in the way of undergoing perils both by sea and land. Danger and 'peril are applied to p)osi-

obscure is not to be seen distinctly or without an effort. Darkness may be used either in a natural or moral sense; obscurity only in the latter; in which case the former conveys a more unfavorable idea: darkness serves to cover that which ought tive evils; hazard respects the possi- not to be hidden; obscurity intercepts bilities of good as well as of evil. When our view of that which we would wish we are involved in danger we are in a to see: the former is the consequence situation to lose what we wish to re- of design; the latter of neglect or accitain; when we run the hazard of a dent: the letter sent by the conspirator in the gunpowder plot to his battle we may either win or lose. The same distinction exists between friend was dark; all passages in ancient the epithets that are derived from these writers which allude to circumstances terms. no longer known must necessarily be It is dangerous for a youth to act obscure; a comer may be said to be without the advice of his friends; it is dark or obscure, but the former is used perilous for a traveler to explore the hterally and the latter figuratively; wilds of Africa; it is hazardous for a the owl is obliged from the weakness merchant to speculate in time of war: of its visual organs to seek the darkest experiments in matters of poUcy or corners in the daytime; men of disgovernment are always dangerous; a torted minds often seek obscure comers journey through deserts that are in- only from disappointed ambition. fested with beasts of prey is perilous; Dim expresses a degree of darkness, a mihtary expedition conducted with but it is employed more in relation to inadequate means is hazardous. the person seemg than to the object See Climacteric. seen. The eyes are said to grow dim, DARE. See Brave. or the sight dim. The light is said to be DARING, Bold. Daring signifies dim by which things are but dimly seen. Mysterious denotes a species of the having the spirit to dare. Bold (see Audacity). dark, in relation to the actions of men; These terms may both be taken in a where a veil is intentionally thrown bad sense, but daring much oftener over any object so as to render it as than bold; in either case daring ex- incomprehensible as that which is Dark is an epithet taken alpresses much more than bold: he who sacred. is daring provokes resistance and courts ways in the bad sense, but mysterious danger; but the bold man is contented is always in an indifferent sense. to overcome the resistance that is of- are told in the Sacred Writings that fered to him: a man may be bold in the men love darkness rather than hght, use of words only, he must be daring in because their deeds are evil. Whatactions he is bold in the defence of truth ever, therefore, is dark in the ways of men is naturally presumed to be evil; he is daring in mihtary enterprise. but things may be mysterious in the See also Stalwart. Obscure, Dim, Mysteri- events of human life without the exous. Dark, Anglo-Saxon deorc, is con- press intention of an individual to nected with Old High German tarchan- render them so. The sp)eeches of an jan, to hide. Obscure comes from Latin assassin and conspirator will be dark; obscurus, from 06, over, and scurus, any intricate affair, which involves the covered. Dim comes from Anglo- characters and conduct of men may Saxon dim, and is allied to Swedish be mysterious. The same distinction dimma, a fog or haze. exists between these terms when apDarkness expresses more than ob- pUed to the ways of Providence, which scurity; the former denotes the total are said to be sometimes dark, inasprivation of hght; the latter only the much as they present a cloudy aspect; diminution of hght. Dark is opposed and mostly mysterious, inasmuch as to hght; obscure to bright; what is they are past finding out.

DANGEROUS.

We

:

DARK,

dark

is

altogether hidden;

what

is

See ^so Opaque.

DART

232

DART. See Shoot. DASH. See Sally. DASTARD. See RECREA>rT. DATE. See Time. DAUB. See Smear.

than either quantity or portion, as a deal of heat, a deal of rain, a deal of frost, a deal of noise, and the hke; but it is admissible only in the famihar

DAUNT. See Dismay; Overawe. DAY OF REST. See Sabbath.

Portion is employed only for part of that which is detached from the whole;

DAZZLING. See Gorgeous. DEAD. See Lifeless.

qvxintity sometimes for a number of wholes.

DEADLY, Mortal,

Fatal.

style.

may

be employed

We may speak

Deadly of a large or a small quantity of books; a large or a small quantity of plants or herbs; but a large or small portion of food, a large or small portion of color. In an exDeal, Act, Behave, Trade. tended sense, deal relates to a business

or dead-like signifies like death itself Mortal, in Latin morin its effects. talis, signifies belonging to death. Fatal, in Latin fatalis, signifies according to fate. Deadly is applied to what is productive of death; mortal to what terminates in or is liable to death; fatal appUes not only to death, but everything which may be of great mischief. A poison is deadly; a wound or a wounded part is mortal; a step in walking, or a step in one's conduct, may be fatal. Things only are deadly; creatures are mortal. Hatred is deadly;

—

transaction, and also implies to behave well or iU, to act or practise, and one's conduct or behavior toward others. In business concerns a deal may be an

ordinary buying and selling of a commodity, more generally a bargain re-

sulting from dickering between interested parties, a trade or exchange of one commodity for another, or a transaction more or less discreditable to whatever has life is mxyrtal. There may those engaged in it. be remedies sometimes to counteract As apphed to persons, we have pohtthat which is deadly; but that which ical deals, the trading of supposed or and that actual influence for votes, the disis mortal is past all cure; which is fatal cannot be retrieved. position of a pubhc measure accordDEAL, Quantity, Portion. Deal, ing to the wishes of certain interested Anglo-Saxon dcel, a part, and German parties, as opposed to the authors and then, from doelen, theilen, etc., to di- promoters of the measure, the sidevide, signifies literally the thing di- tracking, pigeonholing, or defeat of a vided or taken off. Qtuintity, in Latin legislative biU as payment for services quantitas, comes from qvxintus, signi- rendered in other directions, and the fying how much. Portion comes from hke. say deal gently with the errLatin portio, allied to parare, to pre- ing, meaning to ax:t kindly toward pare, signifying a part prepared. them; that was an unfriendly deal, a Deal always denotes something great, questionable, unfortunate, or indisand cannot be coupled with any epi- creet transaction; to deal with, to trade thet that does not express much: with or be a customer of another: to qtuintity is a term of relative import; it deal by, to treat weU or iU; to deal out, either marks indefinitely the how much to distribute or give in small quantities, or so much of a thing, or may be defined doles; to deal the cards, to give each by some epithet to express much or player the proper number; and a great httle: portion is of itself altogether deal, meaning very much, a large indefinite, and admits of being qualified quantity. by any epithet to express much or DEALING. See Trade. httle: deal is a term confined to familiar See Scarcity. use, and sometimes substituted for Departure, Decease, quantity, and sometimes for portion. It Demise, Passing Over. Death signiis common to speak of a deal or a fies the act of dying. Departure signiquantity of paper, a great deal or a great fies the act of departing. Decease, from quantity of money; hkewise of a great the Latin de, away, and cedere, to go, deal or a great portion of pleasm-e, a signifies the act of going away. Degreat deal or a great portion of wealth: mise, from demittere, to lay down, sigand in some cases d£al is more usual nifies literally resigning possession.

We

DEARTH. DEATH,

DEBILITY Death is a general or a particular term; it marks, in the abstract sense, the extinction of hfe, and is apphcable to men or animals, to one or many. Departure, decease, and demise are particular expressions suited only to the condition of human beings. We speak of death in reference to what happens before or at the time; we speak of the death of men generally, or of the death of individuals; we speak of the circumstances of death, its causes and effects.

Departure is a Christian term which carries with it an idea of a passage from one Ufe to another. Death of itself has always something terrific in it; but the Gospel has divested it of its terrors: the hour of departure, therefore, for a Christian, is often the haj)piest period of his mortal existence. Decease presents only the idea of leaving life to the survivors. It is either a technical term in law for death or it is used in common discourse for the falling off from the number of the hving. Property is in perpetual occupancy; at the decease of one possessor it passes into the hands of another. Demise signifies properly a putting off, and in this acceptation the putting off of mortahty; it is therefore appropriately used for princes, to denote that they at the same time put off or resign an earthly crown. As an epithet, dead is used collectively; departed is used with a noun only; deceased, generally without a noun, to denote one or more, according to the connection. There is a respect due to the dead which cannot be violated without offence to the living. It is a pleasant reflection to conceive of departed spirits as taking an interest in the concerns of those whom they have left. AU the marks on the body of the deceased indicated that he had met with his death by some violence. Passing over is the term used by Christian Scientists for dying. DEBAR. See Deprive. DEBASE. See Abase.

DEBATE,

Deliberate.

These

terms equally mark the acts of pausing or withholding the decision, whether apphcable to one or many. To debate (see Argue) supposes always a contrariety of opinion;

to deliberate (see

Consult) supposes simply the weigh-

233

ing or estimating the value of the opinion that is offered. Where many persons have the hberty of offering their opiaions, it is natural to expect that there will be debating; when any subject offers that is complicated and questionable, it calls for mature deliberation. It is lamentable when passion gets such an ascendancy in the mind of any one as to make him debate which course of conduct he shall pursue between virtue and vice; the want of deliberation, whether in private or

pubhc transactions,

is

a more

fruitful

source of mischief than almost

any

other.

DEBAUCH, These words

Seduce,

Pollute.

indicate the act of enticing or corrupting, or both. Debau^h comes from French debaucher, to mar, seduce, mislead, probably of all

Teutonic origin. Seduce comes from Latin se, apart, and dvxxre, to lead,

and means to lead astray, to entice into

reprehensible

action.

Pollute

comes from Old Latin por or pol, toward, and luere, to wash, referring to the overflowing of a river; hence it came to mean to defile as the wash-

—

ing over of the turbid flood destroys the cleanness and beauty of the shores. Debauch is the strongest of these three words and the most specific in its apphcation. It includes the idea of seducing or leading astray and of pol^ luting, and connotes unrestrained senDebauch has always sual indulgence. a moral application; pollute may have either a moral or physical application. Seduce suggests trickery and persuasion in attaining an unhallowed end; debauch suggests violence and

moral ruin.

DEBILITATE. See Weaken. DEBILITY, Infirmity, Imbecilitt. Debility comes from Latin debilis, weak. Infirmity, in Latin infirmitas, from in^ firmus, or in, privative, and firmus, strong, signifies the absence of strength. Imbecility comes from Latin imbecUius,

weak.

AU these terms denote a species of weakness, but the former two, particularly the first, respect that which is Debility is either physical or mental. constitutional or otherwise; imbecility is always constitutional; infirmity is accidental, and results from sickness

DEBT

234

or a decay of the frame. Debility may be either general or local; infirmity is always local; imbecility always general. Debility prevents the active performance of the ordinary fmictions of natxire; it is a deficiency in the muscular power of the body: infirmity is a partial want of power which interferes with, but does not necessarily destroy, the activity: imbecility Ues in the whole frame, and renders it almost entirely Young people are frepowerless. quently troubled with debilities in their ankles or legs, of which they are never cured. Old age is most exposed to but there is no age at infirmities; which hmnan beings are exempt from infirmity of some kmd or another. The imbecility natural to youth, both in

body and mind, would make them

will-

ing to rest on the strength of their elders if they were not too often misled by a mischievous confidence in their own strength. DEBT, Due. Debt and dm, in French dii, are both derived from the Latin debere, to owe. Debt is used only as a substantive; dti£ either as a substantive or an adjective. As a substantive, debt is commonly appUed to that which is owing from the person spoken of; due is always applied to that which is owing to the person: to pay one's debts, and receive one's dite. So in the moral application to pay the debt of nature, that is, what is due or owing to nature; to give every man his due.

DECAY,

Decline, Consumption.

Decay, in French dechoir, from the Latin decado, signifies hteraUy to fall off or away. Decline, from the Latin declino, or de, away, and clino, a root meaning to lean, signifies to turn away or lean aside. The direction expressed by both these actions is very it is a downward movement, but decay expresses more than decline.

similar;

What

By decay things lose decay. their perfection, their greatness, and their consistency; by decline they lose their strength, their vigor, and their lustre; by consumption they lose their existence. Decay brings to ruin; decline leads to an end or expiration.

rapid

There are some things to which decay and some things to which decline is pecuhar, and other things to which both decay and decline i^elong. The corruption to which material substances are particularly exposed is termed decay: the close of fife, when health and strength begin to fall away, is termed the decline: the decay of states in the moral world takes place

is peculiar,

by the same

process as the decay of fabrics in the natural world ; the decline of empires, from their state of elevation and splendor, is a natural figure drawn from the decline of the setting Sim. Consumption is seldom applied to anything but animal bodies except figuratively. See also Degenerate;

Perish.

DECEASE. See Death. DECEIT, Deception. Deceit

A

is fallen or gone; what toward a fall, or is going; when apphed, therefore, to the same objects, a decline is properly the commencement of a decay. The health may experience a decline at any period of Ufe from a variety of causes, but it to be deceitful, and a thmg naturally experiences a decay in old See also Sophistry. is

decayed

declines leads

age.

and

deception are both associated with the verb deceive, from, decipere, to take away, and both imply the act of deceiving; with this difference, that the deceit is practised froetry and romance; an exploit is properly a single act, and refers to the efforts of the individual performing it an achievement may involve many acts and circumstances; in the execution it refers us to the point gained, as also to the An exploit difficulties of gaining it. marks only personal bravery in action: an achievement denotes elevation of character in every respect, grandeur of design, promptitude in execution, and valor in action. An exploit may be executed by the design and at the will of another; a common soldier or

in plain prose;

much what

the Latin dedudus, participle of de-

taking from, but the former

sively

these

is

;

words imply a taking off from some- an army may perform exploits. An thing, but the deduction is made at the achievement is designed and executed discretion

of

the

person

deducting;

by the

achiever:

Hercules

is

distin-

, '

DEEM

240

guished for his achievements; and in the same manner we speak of the achievements of knights-errant or of great commanders. Feat approaches nearest to exploit in signification; the former marks skill, and the latter resolution. The feats of chivalry displayed in jousts and tournaments were in former times as much esteemed as warlike exploits. Exploit and feat are often used in derision, to mark the absence of skill or bravery in the actions of individuals. The soldier who affects to be foremost in situations where there is no danger cannot be more properly derided than by terming his action an exploit; he who prides himself on the display of skill in the performance of a paltry trick may be laughed at for having performed a feat. The same words may also be applied in an indifferent sense to famihar objects, as the exploits of a freebooter, or feats of horsemanship. See also Act. DEEM. See Think.

DEFACE,

Deform.

Disfigure,

any violence is done to the face or any outward part of the body; it is disfigured by the loss of a limb; it is deformed if made contrary to the perfect form of the person or thing to be represented. Inanimate objects are mostly defaced or disfigured, but seldom deformed; animate objects are either disfigured or deformed, but seldomer de-

A

person may disfigure himself faced. by his dress; he is deformed by the hand of nature.

DEFAME. DEFEAT,

See Asperse. Foil, Disappoint, Frus-

trate. Z)e/ea/ (see Beat). Foil comes from Late Latin fullare, to full cloth, It originally a method of cleaning. meant to trample on, then to defeat by less obvious physical action. Frustrate, in Latin frustratus, from frustra, vain, signifies to make vain. Disappoint, from the privative dis and the verb appoint, signifies literally to do away with what has been appointed. Defeat and foil are both applied to matters of enterprise; but that may be defeated which is only planned, and that is foiled which is in the act of oeing

Deface, disfigure, and deform signify executed. What is rejected is defeated: hterally to spoil the face, figure, and what is aimed at or purposed is frusform. Deface expresses more than trated: what is calculated on is disapeither deform or disfigure. To deface pointed. The best concerted schemes sometimes be easily defeated: is an act of destruction; it is the actual may destruction of that which has before where art is employed against simexisted: to disfigure is either an act of plicity, the latter may be easily foiled: destruction or an erroneous execution, when we aim at what is above our which takes away the figure to d'^form reach, we must be frustrated in our enis altogether an imperfect execution, deavors: when our expectations are exwhich renders the form what it should travagant, it seems t6 follow, of course, not be. thing is defaced by design; that they will be disappointed. Design it is disfigured either by design or acci- or accident may tend to defeat, design dent; it is deformed either by an error only to foil, accident only to frustrate or by the nature of the thing. Persons or disappoint. The superior force of only deface; persons or things disfigure; the enemy, or a combination of unthings are most commonly deformed of toward events which are above the themselves. That may be defaced, the control of the commander, will serve face or external surface of which may to defeat the best concerted plans of the be injured or destroyed; that may be best generals: men of upright minds disfigured or deformed, the figure or can seldom foil the deep-laid schemes form of which is imperfect or may be of knaves: when we see the perverrendered imperfect. fine painting sity of men is Uable to frustrate the or piece of writing is defaced which is kind intentions of others in their betorn or besmeared with dirt: a fine half, it is wiser to leave them to their building is disfigured by any want of folly: the cross accidents of human fife S3anmetry in its parts: a building is are a fruitful source of disappointment deformed that is made contrary to all to those who suffer themselves to be form. statue may be defaced, dis- affected by them. figured, and deformed: it is defaced when See also Baffle. :

A

A

A

DEFEND DEFECT.

See Blemish;

Imper- which

241

wanted to make a thing com-

is

fection.

plete is deficient. It is a defect in the Defection, eye when it is so constructed that from the Latin de, negative, and facere, things are not seen at their proper disto do, signifies literally an undoing. tances; there is a deficiency in a tradesRevolt comes from French re and the man's accounts when one side falls verb volvere, to roU, meaning to roll short of the other. That which is defective is most likely to be permanent: back, to overturn, to turn against. Defection is a general, revolt a specific but a deficiency may be only occasional term, that is, it denotes a species of and easily rectified.

DEFECTION,

defection.

Revolt.

Defection

is

applicable

to

DEFEND,

Protect,

Vindicate.

any person or thing to which we are Defend (see Apologize). Protect, in bound by any obhgation; revolt is ap- Latin protectum, participle of protegeref plicable only to the government to compounded of pro, before, and tegere, which one is bound. There may be to cover, signifies to put anything bea defection from reUgion, or any cause fore a person as a covering. Vindicate that is held sacred: a revolt is only (see Assert). Defend is a general term; it defines against a monarch or the supreme nothing with regard to the degree and authority. Defection does not designate the of the action; it may be quietly or otherwise: a revolt is an act of violence, and always attended with violence. The defection may be the act of one; a revolt is properly the general may be guilty act of many. of a defection who leaves the party to which he has hitherto adhered; a nation or a community may commit an act of revolt by shaking off the authority under which they have hved. defection, being mostly the act of an individual, or one part of a community against the whole, is mostly a culpable act; but a revolt may be a justifiable measure when one nation revolts against another, imder whose power it has been brought by force of arms: the Roman people were guilty of a

mode made

A

manner

of the action: protect

is

a par-

and positive term, expressing an action of some considerable imticular

Persons may defend others without distinction of rank or station: none but superiors or persons having power can protect others. Defence is an occasional action; protection is a permanent action. A person may be portance.

defended in any particular case of actual danger or difficulty; he is protected from what may happen as well as what does happen. Defence respects the A evil that threatens; protection involves the supply of necessities and the affording comforts. Defence requires some active exertion either of body or mind; protection may consist only of the extension of power in behalf of any particular indefection when they left the senate and dividual. defence is successful or retired to Mount Aventine; the Ger- unsuccessful; a protection, weak or mans frequently attempted to recover strong. A soldier defends his country; their hberty by revolting against the a counsellor defends his chent; a prince

A

Romans.

protects his suDJects.

DEFECTIVE,

Deficient. In a figurative and extended sense Defective expresses the quality or property of things may either defend or protect having a defect (see Blemish) deficient with a similar distinction: a coat deis employed with regard to the thing fends us from the inclemencies of the itself that is wanting. A book may weather; houses are a protection not be defective in consequence of some only against the changes of the seasons, leaves being deficient; a child may de but al»o against the violence of men. To vindicate is a species of defence defective because of some mental deficiency. A deficiency is therefore often only in the moral sense of the word. what constitutes a defect. Many things, Acts of importance are defended: those however, may be defective without hav- of trifling import are commonly vining any deficiency, and vice versd. dicated. Cicero defended Milo against Whatever is misshapen, and fails either the charge of muraer, in which he was in beauty or utiUty, is defective; that impUcat^ by the death of Clodius; a ;

DEFER

242 child or

a servant

when any blame

vindicates himself

attached to him. Defence is employed either in matters of opinion or conduct; vindicate only in matters of conduct. Some opinions are too absurd to be openly defended; he who vindicates the conduct of another should be fully satisfied of the innocence of the person whom he defends. See also Espouse; Garnish; Guard. is

and the

defensive to the offensive. It is the height of folly to attempt to defend that which is indefensible; it is sometimes prudent to act on the defensive when we are not in a condition to commence the offensive. DEFER. See Delay. DEFERENCE. See Complai-

sance.

DEFICIENT. See Defective; Fail. DEFILE. See Contaminate. DEFINITE, Positive. Definite, in

—

Defendant, Defender. The defendant defends himself; the defender defends another. We are defendants when any charge is brought against us which we wish to refute: we are defenders when we undertake to rebut or refute the charge brought against any person or thing. Defender, Advocate, Pleader. ^A defender exerts himself in favor of one who wants support: an advocate, from the Latin ad, to, and vocare, to call, signifies one who is called to speak in favor of another; he exerts himself in favor of any cause that offers: a 'pleader, from -plea or excuse, signifies him who pleads in behalf of one who is accused or in distress. defender attempts to keep off a threatened injury by rebutting the attack of another: an advocate states that which is to the advantage of the person or thing advocated; a pleader throws in pleas and extenuations; he blends entreaty with argument. Oppressed or accused persons and disputed opinions require defenders; that which falls in with the humors of men will always have advocates; the unfortunate and the guilty require pleaders. An official, known as the public defender, has been appointed recently in a number of cities in the United States, to defend in courts persons unable to pay lawyers' fees. The term pleader is used sometimes like that of defender, in the general sense. Valeria and Volumnia, the mother and wife of Coriolanus, were Eowerful and successful pleaders in bealf of the Roman repubhc. Defensible, Defensive. Defensible is employed for the thing that is to be defended; defensive, for the thing that defends. An opinion or a line of conduct is defensible; a weapon or a military operation is defensive. The defensible is opposed to the indefensible;

—

A

—

Latin definitum, participle of

compounded that which limit.

and finis, bounded by a

of de is

definire, signifies

fine

or

in Latin positivus, to place, signifies that

Positive,

from ponere, which is placed or

fixed.

Definite signifies that which is defined, or has the limits drawn or marked out; positive that which is placed or fixed in a particular manner: definite is said of things as they pre-

sent themselves or are presented to the mind, as a definite idea, a definite proposal; positive is said of a person's temper of mind; a person is positive as to his opinions, or an assurance is positive which serves to make one positive. In respect to a man's self, his views ought to be definite to prevent him from being misled, but he ought not to be positive in matters that admit of doubt. In respect to others, the more definite the instructions which are given the less danger there is of mistake; the more positive the information communicated the greater the

rehance which

is

placed upon

it.

DEFINITION, Explanation.

A

a species of explanation. The former is used scientifically, the latter on ordinary occasions; the former is confined to words, the latter is employed for words or things. definition is properly

A

definition is correct or precise;

an

general or ample. The a word defines or limits the extent of its signification; it is the rule for the scholar in the use of any word: the explanation of a word may include both definition and illustration: the former admits of no more words than will include the leading features in the meaning of any term; the latter admits of an unlimited scope for diffuseness on the part of the ex-

explanation

definition of

plainer.

is

DELAY DEFLECT, Bend, Diverge, Swerve.

the Latin term; bend, the Anglo-Saxon word. Bend, hendan, Anglo-Saxon allied to hand, bind, etc., means to curve as a bow is curved when the string is fastened. Deflect, from de, from, and fl^ctere^ to bend, means to bend from the straight course, especially to turn to one side. Diverge, from Latin dis, apart, and vergere, to bend, is the intransitive corresponding to the transitive deflect. We deflect another's course; we diverge from that which we have marked out for oiuselves. Bend is a more general word than deflect or diverge. It indicates the physical act of bending, and suggests any kind of departure from the condition of straightness. Deflect suggests a turning from a straight line contrary to all apparent intention or purpose. Swerve, Anglo-Saxon sweorfan, suggests a very sudden turning, a jerky Deflect

is

248

fundamental

article in

the Christian

faith.

DEJECTION, Depression, Melancholy. Dejection, from dejicere, to cast down, and depression, from devrimere, to press or sink down, have both regard to the state of the animal spirits. Melancholy, from the Greek black bile, originally referred to the state of the humors in general, or of the particular humor called the bile. Dejection and depression are occasion/itXayxoXta,

al,

and depend on outward circum-

stances; melancholy is permanent, and hes in the constitution. Depression is but a degree of dejection: shght circumstances may occasion a depression; distressing events occasion a dejection: the death of a near and dear relative may be expected to produce dejection in persons of the greatest equanimity; Uvely tempers are most liable to «W5and impremeditated movement, em- pressions; melancholy is a disease which phasizing the idea of action contrary nothing but clear views of religion can to apparent pm-pose, barely suggested possibly correct. in deflect. All these words may be DELAY, Defer, Postpone, Proiised either with the physical or with crastinate, Prolong, Protract, Retard. Delay, compounded of de and a moral appUcation. See Deface. lay, signifies to lay or keep back. Defer, See Wry. compounded of de and ferre, to brmg, See Cheat. signifies to put off. Postpone, comDEFY. See Brave. pounded of post and the Latin ponere, Deteriorate. to place, signifies to' place behind or Degenerate signifies to fall from race after. Procrastinate, from pro, for, and or kind, to lose ancestral quality, eras, to-morrow, signifies to put off from Latin degenerare, compounded until to-morrow. Prolong signifies to of de, from, and the stem of gemis, lengthen out the time, and protract to Deteriorate comes from Latin draw out the time. Retard, from re, race. deteriorare, to grow worse, from the intensive, and tardum, slow, to make comparative of an obsolete adjective a thing go slowly. connected with de, down. Both these To delay is simply not to commence words mean to grow worse, but de- action; to defer and postpone are to fix generate adds to the idea contained in its commencement at a more distant deteriorate a definite indication that period: we may delay a thing for days, the deterioration is a departure from nourSj and minutes; we defer or postthe standard of the individual's race pone it for months or weeks. Delays or natural endowment. It is there- mostly arise from the fault of the perfore more specific in its impUcations. son delaying; they are seldom reasonDis- able or advantageous: deferring and See Abase; postponing are discretionary acts, which parage; Humble. are justified by the circumstances; DEGREE. See Class. DEITY, Divinity. Deity, from deus, indolent people are most prone to a god, signifies a divine person. Divin- delay; when a plan is not maturely ity, from divinus, signifies the divine digested, it is prudent to defer its exeessence or jx)wer; the deities of the cution xmtil everything is in an entire heathens had httle of divinity in state of preparation. Procrastination them; the divinity of our Saviour is a is a culpaole delay arising solely from

DEFORM. DEFORMED. DEFRAUD.

DEGENERATE,

DEGRADE.

DELEGATE

244

the fault of the procrastinator: it is lightful is apphed either to material or the part of a dilatory man to pro- spiritual objects; charming, mostly to crastinate that which it is both his in- objects of sense. When they both deterest and duty to perform. note the pleasure of the sense, delightWe delay the execution of a thing; we ful is not so strong an expression aa prolong or protract the continuation of charming: but the latter rises to a

a thing; we retard the termination of a thing: we may rfeZay answering a letter, prolong a contest, protract a lawsuit, and retard a publication. Delay, Laches, Moratorium. Laches and moratorium are two special apphcations of the idea of delay. They are not synonymous with each other at all, but they are connected through the general idea expressed in the

—

key -word.

Laches

is

degree that carries the senses away Of music we should rather captive. say that it was charming than delightful, as it acts on the senses in so powerful a manner; on the other hand, we should with more propriety speak of a delightful employment to relieve distress, or a delightful spectacle to see a family hving together in love and har-

mony.

DELINEATE,

a legal term

(from Latin laxus, loose), signifying inexcusable delay in meeting the terms of a contract, or taking up and paying a promissory note. Moratorium, on the other hand, signifies a delay panted by a government, corporation, or other large body to persons to delay making payment of their obhgations beyond the time of their maturity.

DELEGATE, Depute; Delegate, Deputy. Delegate, in Latin delegatus, from delegare, signifies to send on a mis-

in

Latin

Sketch.

delineatiis,

Delineate, participle of de-

lineare, from de, down, and linea, line, means hteraUy to put down fines on Dutch and Itafian paper. Sketch,

a first rough draft, comes from Latin schedium, a thing made hastily, schizzo,

from Greek axiSioc, hastily. Both these terms are properly employed in the art of drawing, and figuratively apphed to moral subjects to express a species of descriptions: a delineation expresses something more than a sketch; the former conveying not merely the general outlines or more prominent features, but also as much of the details as would serve to form a whole; the latter, however, seldom contains more than some broaa touches by which an imperfect idea of the sub-

comes from depuiare, to assign a business to. To delegate is apphed to the power or office which is given; depute to the person employed. Parents delegate their office to the instructor; persons are deputed to act for delineation, thereothers. ject is conveyed. As nouns, delegate and deputy are ap- fore, may be characterized as accurate, phed only to persons. The delegate is and a sketch as hasty or imperfect: an the person commissioned, who is bound attentive observer who has passed to act according to his commission; the some years in a country may be endepviy is the person depuied, who acts abled to give an accurate delineaiion in the place of another, but may act of the laws, customs, manners, and according to his own discretion or character of its inhabitants; a traveller otherwise, as circumstances require. who merely passes through can give delegate is mostly chosen in pubhc only a hasty sketch from what passes matters and on particular occasions: before his eyes. as delegates sent from a besieged town DELINQUENT. See Offender. to the camp of the besiegers; deputies DELIVER, Rescue, Save. Deliver, are those who are deputed to act in French delivrer, from the Latin de, officially and regularly for others, as and liberare, from liber, free, signifies deputies sent to any pubhc assembly. to make free. Rescue comes from Late DELIBERATE. Consent; Latin rescuiere, from re, again, and See Debate; Thoughtful. Save signifies hteralexcutere, to drive. DELICACY. See Dainty. ly to make safe, from Latin salvu^, sion; depute

A

A

DELICATE. See Fine. DELIGHT. See Pleasure. DELIGHTFUL, Charming.

safe.

The De- any

idea of taking or keeping from common to these terms; but

evil is

DEMOLISH

245

to deliver and rescue signify most prop- seek, signifies to seek for or to seek to erly to take, and save to keep from evil. get back. To deliver is a general term, not definWe demand that which is owing and ing either the mode or object of the ought to be given; we require that action. One may be delivered from any which we wish and expect to have evil, whether great or small, and in any done. A demand is more positive than manner: to rescue is to deliver from a a requisition; the former prop>erly adgreat impending danger or immediate mits of no question; the latter is Uable evil; as to rescue from the hands of rob- to be both questioned and refused: the bers or from the jaws of a wild beast. creditor makes a demand on the debtor; One is delivered mostly by some ac- the master requires a certain portion may tive effort; but we be saved either of duty from his servant: it is unjust by active or passive means. A person to demand of a person what he has no delivered from the hands of an enemy right to give; it is unreasonable to reis by force or stratagem: he saves his life quire of him what it is not in his power by flying. to do. A thing is commonly demanded See also Fill; Give Up. in express words; it is required by imDeliverance, Delivery. Both words phcation a person demands admittance are drawn from the same verb (see when it is not voluntarily granted; he above) to express its different senses requires respectful deportment from ^of taking from or giving to: the former those who are subordinate to him. denotes the taking something from In the figurative appUcation the same one's self; the latter implies giving sense is preserved: things of urgency something to another. To wish for a and moment demand immediate attendeliverance from that which is hurtful tion; difficult matters require a steady or painful is to a certain extent jus- attention. tifiable: the careful delivery of propSee also Ask. DEMEANOR. See Behavioe. erty into the hands of the owner will be the first object of concern with a DEMISE. See Death. faithful agent. DEMOLISH, Raze, Dismantle, See also Salvation. Destroy. The throwing down what DELUDE. See Deceive. has been built up is the common idea DELUGE. See Overflow. included in all these terms. Demolish, DELUSION, Illusion. Both these from the Latin demolior, and mole&, a words, being derived from the Latin mass or structure, signifies to decomludere, to play, are applied to such pound what has been fabricated into matters as act upon the imagination; a mass. Raze, like erase (see Blot), but delude, by the force of the preposi- signifies the making smooth or even tion de, signifies to carry away from the with the ground. Dismantle, in French right line, to cause to deviate into dimanteler, signifies to deprive a thing error; while illude, from the preposition of its mantle or guard. Destroy, from the Latin destruo, compounded of the il, im, in or upon, signifies simply to act on the imagination. The former privative de and struo, to build, sigis therefore taken in a bad sense, but nifies properly to pull down. A fabric ia'demolished h^ scattering the latter in an indifferent sense. A deranged person falls into different all its component parts; it is mostly an kinds of delusions: as when he fancies unlicensed act of caprice; it is razed himself poor while he is very rich, or by way of punishment, as a mark of that every one who comes in his way public vengeance; a fortress is disis looking at him, or having evil de- mantled from motives of prudence, in signs against him, and the like; but order to render it defenceless; places there may be optical iUuMons, when are destroyed by various means and an object is made to appear brighter from various motives, that they may not exist any longer. Individuals may or larger than it really is. See also Fallacy; Hallucination. demolish; public authority causes an Require. Demand (see edifice to he razed with the ground; a Ask). Require, in Latin requiro, com- general orders towers to be dismantled pounded of re, again, and qucerere, to and fortifications to be destroyed.

—

DEMAND,

:

DEMON

246

DEMON. See Devil. DEMONSTRATE. See Prove. DEMONSTRATIVE. See Categorical.

DEMUR,

Hesitate, Pause. DeFrench demeurer, Latin demorari, signifies to keep back. Hesimur, tate,

in

in Latin hcesitatum, participle of

It is not proper to ask that which cannot be granted without hesitation; and it is not the part of an amiable disposition to make a hesitation in complying with a reasonable request. There are but few things which we either attempt to do or recommend to others that are not liable to some kind

a frequentative from haereo, sig- of an objection. remain a long time A demur stops the adjustment of any back. Paiise, in Latin pausa, from the plan or the determination of any quesGreek Traww, cease, signifies to make a tion. hoRsito,

nifies to stick or

stand.

A doubt interrupts the progress of the

The

mind in coming to a state of satisfaction

idea of stopping is common to these terms, to which signification is added some distinct collateral idea for each: we demur from doubt or difficulty; we hesitate from an undecided state of mind; we pause from circvmastances. Demurring is a matter of prudence, it is always grounded on some reason; hesitating is rather a matter of feeling and is oftener faulty than otherwise: when a proposition appears to be unjust, we demur in supptorting it, on the ground of its injustice; when a request of a dubious nature is made to us, we hesitate in complying with it prudent people are most apt to demur; but people of a wavering temper are apt to hesitate: demurring may be often unnecessary,

and

certainty.

The

last two words are both applied to abstract questions, or such as are of general interest. Hesitation and objection are more individual and private in their nature. Hesitation hes mostly in the state of the will; objection is rather the offspring of the understanding. hesitation interferes with the action; an objection affects the measure or the mode of action.

A

DENOMINATION. DENOTE, Signify.

See Name. Denote,

in

Latin denoto or noto, from notum, participle of nosco, signifies to cause to know. Signify, from the Latin signum, a sign, a,nd facere, to make, is to become or be made a sign or guide for the unbut it is seldom injurious; hesitating is derstanding. mostly injurious when it is not necesDenote is employed with regard to sary. Demurring and hesitating are things and their characters; signify, both employed as acts of the mind; with regard to the thoughts or movepau^ng is an external action: we ments. A letter or character may be demur and hesitate in determining; we made to denote any number, as words pause in speaking or doing anything. are made to signify the intentions and Demur, Doubt, Hesitation, Objection. wishes of the person. Among the anDemur (see above). Doubt, in Latin cient Egyptians hieroglyphics were very dubito, from dux), two, and itu^, past much employed to denote certain moral participle of ire, to go, signifies to go qualities; in many cases looks or actwo ways. Hesitation ^(see above). tions will signify more than words. DeObjection, from objicio, or ob, in the vices and emblems of different descripway, and jacere, to throw, to throw in tions, drawn either from fabulous histhe way, signifies what is thrown in tory or the natural world, are Kkewise the way so as to stop our progress. now employed to denote particular cirDemurs often occur in matters of cumstances or quahties: the cornudehberation; doubt in regard to mat- copia dendtes plenty; the beehive deters of fact; hesitation in matters of notes industry; the dove denotes meekordinary conduct; and objections in ness, and the lamb gentleness: he who matters of common consideration. Ar- wiU not take the trouble to signify his tabanes made many demurs to the pro- wishes otherwise than by nods or signs posed invasion of Greece by Xerxes. must expect to be frequently misunDoubts have been suggested respect- derstood. ing the veracity of Herodotus as a hisDENOUNCE. See Ban; Excom:

—

torian.

municate; Proscribe.

DEPONENT DENSE.

247

ternal circumstances; reliance is a state of the feehngs with regard to in Latin others. depend upon God for all de, from, and negare, to say no, from that we have or shall have; we rely ne, not, signifies to cay no to a thing. upon the word of man for that which may Reftise, in Latin refusics, from re and he has promised to perform. fundere, to poiu* or cast, signifies to depend up>on a person's coming from a variety of causes; but we rely upon it throw off from one. To deny respects matters of fact or only in reference to his avowed inknowledge; to refuse, matters of wish tention. DEPICT. See Paint. deny what immediately or request. DEPLORE, Lament. relates to ourselves; we refuse what relates to another. dmy as to the comes from Latin deplorare, from de, past; we refuse as to the future: we intensive, and plorare, to weep. Lament, deny om* participation in that which has see Bewail. Deplore is a much stronger expresbeen; we refuse our participation in that which may be: to deny must al- sion than lament; the former caUs forth ways be expressly verbal; a refusal tears from the bitterness of the heart; may sometimes be signified by actions the latter excites a cry from the warmth Deploring indicates dedenial of feehng. or looks as well as words. affects our veracity; a refusal affects spair; to lament marks only pain or Among the poor we have our good-natiu*e. distress. But to deny signifies in this case sim- deplorable instances of pnjverty, ignoply to withhold; and refuse signifies to rance, vice, and wretchedness comcast off from one, which is a more posi- bined; among the higher classes we have tive act: to deny one's self a pleasiu-e is often lamenthble instances of extravafield of simply to abstain from it; but to refuse' gance and consequent ruin. one s food is to cast it from one with a battle or a city overthrown by an earthpositive indisposition. What is denied quake is a spectacle truly deplorable: it may be denied by circumstances or by is lamentable to see beggars putting on Providence; and it may be denied to all the disguises of wretchedness in orone, many, or all; but what is refused der to obtain by deceit what they might The condiis refused by and to particular individ- earn by honest industry. tion of a dying man suffering under the uals. agonies of an awakened conscience is See also Contradict; Disavow. deplorable; the situation of the relative DEPART. See Go. or friend' who witnesses the agony, See Bygone. See Death; Exit. without being able to afford consolaReliance. De- tion to the sufferer, is truly lamentable. pendence, from depend, from Latin de, See also Wail. Evidence, Witness. from, and pendere, to hang, signifies, literally, to rest one's weight by hang- Deponent, from deponere, to lay down or ing from that which is held. Rely, set forth, signifies he who declares or compounded of re and lie, signifies like- substantiates anything. The evidence, wise to rest one's weight by lying or from evident, is that which makes evident; and the witness, from the Anglohanging back from the object held. Dependence is the general term; reli- Saxon witan, to know, signifies he who ance is a species of dependence: we de- makes known. All these words are properly appUed pend either on persons or things; we rely on persons only: dependence serves to judicial proceedings, where the defor that which is immediate or remote; ponent deposes generally to facts either in causes or otherwise: the evidence conreliance serves for the future only. depend upon a person for that which we sists either of persons or things, which are obliged to receive or led to expect are brought before the court for the from him: we rely upon a person for purpose of making a doubtful matter that which he has given us reason to clear; the witness is always a person expect from him. Dependence is an who bears witness to any fact for or outward condition or the state of ex- against another.

See Thick.

DENTICULATED. See DENY, Refuse. Deny,

Jagged.

We

We

We

Deplore

We

A

A

DEPARTED, DEPARTURE. DEPENDENCE,

DEPONENT,

We

DEPORTMENT

248

Evidence is applied to moral objects, pravitas and pravus, crooked or not in the proper sense, and witness in the straight, marks the quahty of being figurative application. crooked. Depravation, in Latin deDEPORTMENT. See Behavior. pravatio, signifies a making crooked, or DEPOSE. See Swear. not as it should be. Corruption, in DEPOSIT, Pledge, Security. De- Latin corruptio, corrumpo, from rumposit is a general term, from the Latin pere, to break, marks the disunion and depositus, participle of deponere, signi- decomposition of the parts of anything. fying to lay down, or put into the hands All these terms are appMed to obof another. Pledge comes through jects which are contrary to the order French from Old Low German plegan, of Providence, but the term depravity to promise. Security, the substantive characterizes the thing as it is; the corresponding to secure, comes from terms depravation and corruption desigLatin se, privative, and cura, care, nate the making or causing it to be so; signifying free from care. depravity, therefore, excludes the idea The term deposit has most regard to of any cause; depravation always carries the confidence we place in another; us to the cause- or external agency: pledge has most regard to the security hence we may speak of depravity as we give for ourselves; security is a natural, but we speak of depravation as species of pledge. deposit is always the result of circumstance: there is a voluntarily placed in the hands of an depramty in man which nothing but indifferent person; a pledge and se- the grace of God can correct; the incurity are required from the parties troduction of obscenity on the stage who are interested. A person may tends greatly to the depravation of make a deposit for purposes of charity morals; bad company tends to the coror convenience; he gives a pledge or ruption of a yoimg man's morals. security for a temporary accommodaDepravity or depravation implies tion or the reUef of a necessity. Money crookedness or a distortion from the is deposited in the hands of a friend in regular course; corruption impMes a order to execute a commission: a pledge dissolution, as it were, in the compois given as an equivalent for that nent parts of bodies. Cicero says (2 De which has been received: a security is Finihv^) that depravity is apphcable given by way of security for the per- only to the mind and heart; but we formance of some agreement. A de- say a depraved taste, and depraved posit must consist of something mov- humors in regard to the body. A deable, as money, papers, or jewels, praved taste loathes common food, and which can be deposited or placed in the longs for that which is imnatural and hands of another. It may sometimes hurtful. Corruption is the natm-al procserve as a pledge or security where it ess by which material substances are is intepded to bind the party depositing disorganized. In the figurative apn to anything. pledge may, properly pUcation of these terms they preserve speaking, be anything which serves to the same signification. Depravity is pledge or bind a person by motives of characterized by being directly opinterest, affection, or honor; it may posed to order and an established sysconsist of anything which is given to tem of things; corruption marks the another for that purpose. A security vitiation or spoiling of things, and the is whatever makes a person secure ferment that leads to destruction. Deagainst a loss, and in the ordinary ac- pravity turns things out of their ordiceptation consists of any instrument or nary course; corruption destroys their written document which legally binds essential quahties. Depravity is a via person. In this sense, the person cious state of things, in which all is who binds himself for another becomes deranged and perverted: corruption is

A

A

a

a vicious state of things, in which aU These words are all applied in this is suUied and polluted. That which is sense to moral objects. depraved loses its proper manner of See also Garner. acting and existing; that which is corDEPRAVITY, Depravation, Cor- rupted loses its virtue and essence. EUPTioN. Depravity, from the Latin That is a depraved state of morals in security.

DEPRIVE which the gross vices axe openly practised in defiance of all decorum: that is a corrupt state of society in which vice has secretly insinuated itself into all the principles and habits of men, and concealed its deformity under the fair semblance of virtue and honor. The manners of savages are most hkely to be depraved; those of civihzed nations to be corrupt, when luxiu-y and refinement are risen to an excessive pitch. Cannibal nations present us with the

249

excused, if not justified, by the laws of war or the hostile situation of parties to each other. The borderers on the confines of England and Scotland used to conmait depredations on each other. Robbery is in direct violation of every law, it is committed only by those who set all laws at defiance. Depredations may be committed in any manner short of direct violence; those who commit depredations do so mostly in the absence of those on whom they are committed robberies are commonly committed on the persons, and mostly accompanied with violence. Depredation taken absolutely refers us to that which the depredator gains or gets to himself bv the act robbery refers us to that which the person loses who is robbed: the one goes away loaded with his plunder, the other goes away stripped of that which is most valuable to lum. In the extended appUcation of these words this distinction is kept up: birds commit depredations on cornfields, bees rob flowers of their honey.

picture of human depravity; the Roman nation, during the time of the emperors, affords us an example of almost universal corruption. From the above observations it is clear that depravity is best apphed to those objects to which common usage has annexed the epithets of right, regular, fine, etc.; and corruption, to those which may be characterized by the epithets of sound, pure, innocent, or good. Hence we prefer to say depravity of mind and corruption of heart; depravity of principle and corruption of DEPRESSED. See sentiment or feeling: a, depraved character; a corrupt example; a corrupt acal. ;

influence.

In reference to the arts or belles-lettres we say either depravity or corruption of taste, because taste has its rules, hable to be disordered, is or is not conformable to natural order, is regular or irregular; and, on the other hand, it may be so intermingled with sentiments and feelings foreign to its own native purity as to give it justly the title of corrupt. The last thing worthy of notice respecting the two words depravity and corruption is that the former is used for man in his moral capacity, but the latter for man in a pohtical capacity: hence we speak of human deparvity, but the corruption of government. DEPRECIATE. See Disparage. is

DEPREDATION,

Robbery.

Dep-

redation, in Latin deproedatio, from prceda, a prey, conveys the idea of taking by way of prey. Rob is aUied to Anglo-Saxon reaf, the root found in bereave, and robe, i. e., that stripped from the slain; it signified to strip, despoil, take away. Both these words

denote the taking what belongs to another, but differ in the circumstances of the action. Depredation is not so lawless an act as robbery; it may be

Hypochondri-

DEPRESSION. See Dejection. DEPRIVATION. See Spoliation. DEPRIVE, Debar, Abridge. Defrom de, from, and Latin privus, one's own, signifies to make not one's own what one has or expects to have. Debar, from de and bar, signifies to prevent by means of a bar. Abridge prive,

(see

Abridge).

Deprive conveys the idea of either taking away that which one has or withholding that which one may have; debar conveys the idea only of withholding; abridge conveys that also of taking away. Depriving is a coercive measure; debar and abridge are merely acts of authority. We are deprived of that which is of the first necessity; we are debarred of privileges, enjoyments, opportunities, etc.; we are abridged of comforts, pleasures, conveniences, etc. Criminals are deprived of their hberty; their friends are in extraordinary cases debarred the privilege of seeing them; thus men are often abridged of their comforts in consequence of their own faults. Deprivations and debarring sometimes arise from things as well as persons; abridging is always the voluntary act of conscious agents. ReUgioa

250

DEPTH

men to be resigned under the severest deprivations; it is painful to be debarred the society of those we love, or to abridge others of any advantage which they have been in the habit of enjoying. When used as reflective verbs they preserve the same analogy in their sig-

everything but particular subjects. Insane persons are sometimes entirely restored. Lunatics have their lucid intervals, and maniacs their intervals of

anything.

designated

teaches

Derangement may sometimes be applied to the temporary confusion of a disturbed mind which is not in fuU possession of all its faculties: madnification. An extravagant person de- ness may sometimes be the result of prives himself of the power of doing violently inflamed passions: and mania good. A person may debar himself of may be apphed to any vehement atany pleasure from particular motives tachment which takes possession of the of prudence. A miser abridges himself mind. DERIDE, Mock, Ridicule, Rally, of every enjoyment in order to gratify Banter. Deride and ridicule are both his ruling passion. derived from Latin ridere, to smile at. See also Bereave. DEPTH, Profundity. Depth comes Mock comes from Late Latin mvccare, from Anglo-Saxon deop, and contains to blow the nose (compare mucus), the same root as that found in dip, indicating a scoffing, coarse gesture. dive, etc. Profundity, from profound, Rally is alhed to rail, perhaps; its real in Latin profundus, compounded of pro, origin is unknown. The origin of banter far, and fundus, the bottom, signifies is also obscure. remoteness from the lower surface of Strong expressions of contempt are repose.

by

all

these terms.

Deri-

These terms do not differ merely in sion and mockery evince themselves by their derivation; but depth is indefinite the outward actions in general; ridiin its signification; and profundity is a cule consists more in words than acpositive and considerable degree of tions; rallying and bantering almost Moreover, the word depth is ap- entirely in words. Deride is not so depth. plied to objects in general; profundity strong a term as mock, but much is confined in its application to moral stronger than ridicule. There is always objects: thus we speak of the depth of a mixture of hostility in derision and the sea, or the depth of a person's learn- mockery, but ridicule is frequently uning, but his profundity of thought. accompanied with any personal feeMng Constitution; of displeasure. Derision is often deep, DEPUTE. See

Delegate.

not loud;

it discovers itself in sup>pressed laughter, contemptuous sneers or gesticulations, and cutting exInsanity, Lu- pressions: mockery is mostly noisy and nacy, Madness, Mania. Derangement, outrageous; it breaks forth in insulting from the verb to derange, implies the buffoonery and is sometimes accomfirst stage of disordered intellect. In- panied with personal violence: the sanity, or unsoundness, from in, nega- former consists of real but contemptutive, and Latin sanus, whole, impUes ous laughter; the latter often of afpositive disease, which is more or less fected laughter and grimace. Derision permanent. Lunacy is a violent sort of and mockery are always personal; ridiinsanity, which was supposed to be influ- cule may be directed to things as well enced by the moon, and is derived from as persons. Derision and mockery are Cf. Shake- a direct attack on the individual, the Latin luna, the moon. speare's "moon -struck calf. "Mad- latter stiU more so than the former; ness, aUied to Anglo-Saxon gemcedan, to ridicule is as often used in writing as drive mad, from a root meaning severe- in personal intercourse. Rally and banter, like derision and ly injured, and mania, Latin mania, Greek fiavia, mental excitement, al- mockery, are altogether personal acts, in lied to fievoc, mind, both imply in- which application they are very analosanity in its most furious and con- gous to ridicule. Ridicule is the most firmed stage. Deranged persons may general term of the three; we often sometimes be perfectly sensible about rally and banter by ridiculing. There

DEPUTY. See Ambassador. DERANGE. See Disorder.

DERANGEMENT,

DESERT

251

more exposure in ridiculing, reproof DESERT, Merit, Worth. Desert, in rallying, and provocation in banter- from deserve, in Latin deservio, signifies ing. A person may be ridiculed on ac- to do service or to be serviceable. is

count of his eccentricities; he is rallied Merit, in Latin meritus, participle of for his defects; he is bantered for acci- mereor, comes from the Greek /itpoc, a dental circumstances: the former two share, because he who merits anything actions are often justified by some has a right to share in it. Worth, in substantial reason; the last is an ac- German werth, seems to come from a tion as puerile as it is unjust, it is root found in Latin vereri, to respect. Desert is taken for that which is good a contemptible species of mockery. Self-conceit and extravagant follies are or bad; vfierit for that which is good oftentimes best corrected by good- only. We deserve praise or blame: we natured ridicule; a man may deserve merit a reward. Desert consists in the sometimes to be rallied for his want of action, work, or service performed; resolution; those who are of an ill- merit has regard to the character of the natured turn of mind will banter others agent or the nature of the action. A for their misfortunes, or their personal person does not deserve a recompense defects, rather than not say something until he has performed some service; he does not merit approbation if he have to their annoyance. DERIVE, Trace, Deduce. Derive, not done his part well. Deserve is a from the Latin de and rivus, a river, term of ordinary import; merU applies the signifies to draw, after the manner of to objects of greater moment: Trace, Middle former includes matters of p>ersonal and water, from a source. French tracer, is drawn ultimately from physical gratification; the latter those Latin tracttis, the past participle of altogether of an intellectual nature. trahere, to draw or drag; and origi- Criminals cannot always be punished nally signified the mark left by drawing according to their deserts; a noble mind something across the smface, or the is not contented with barely obtaining, Deduce, in it seeks to merit what it obtains. act of making such a mark. The idea of value, which is prominent Latin de, from, and ducere, to lead, in the signification of the term merit, signifies to bring from.

The idea of drawing one thing from renders it closely allied to that of worth. another is included in aU the actions Merit is that on which mankind set a designated by these terms. The act of value; it is sought for on account of deriving is immediate and direct; that the honor or advantages it brings: of tracing a gradual process; that of deducting a ratiocinative process. discover causes and sources by derivation; we discover the course, progress, and commencement of things by tracing; we discover the groimds and reasons of things by deduction. A person derives his name from a given source; he traces his family up to a given period; principles or powers are deduced from circumstances or observations. The Trojans derived the name of their city from Tros, a king of Phrygia; they traced the line of their kings up to Dardanus.

We

worth

is

that which

able;

it

must be sought

is

absolutely valufor

on

its

own

account.

From these words are derived the epithets deserved and merited, in relation to what we receive from others; and and worthy, meritorious, deserving, worth, in regard to what we possess in ourselves: a treatment is deserved or undeserved; reproofs are merited or unmerited: the harsh treatment of a master is easier to be borne when it is undeserved than when it is deserved; the reproaches of a friend are very severe when unmerited. A laborer is deserving on account of See Disparage. his industry; an artist is meritorious on DESCRIBE. See Relate. account of his professional abilities; a DESCRIPTION. See AccotiNT; citizen is worthy on account of his beCast. nevolence and uprightness. The first DESCRY. See Find. person deserves to be well paid and enDESECRATING. See Sacrile- couraged; the second merits the applause which is bestowed on him; the gious.

DEROGATE.

DESIGN

252

worthy of confidence and esteem a resolute temper is not to be diverted men. Between worthy and from his purpose by trifling objects: we worth there is this difference, that the may be disappointed in our intentions former is said of intrinsic and moral by a variety of unforeseen but unconquahties, the latter of extrinsic ones: trollable events. Purpose is always apa worthy man possesses that which calls phed to some proximate or definite for the esteem of others; but a man is object; intend, to that which is indefiworth the property which he can call his nite or remote. Mean, which is a term own: so in like manner a subject may altogether of colloquial use, differs but be worthy the attention of a writer, or httle from intend, except that it is used a thing may not be worth the while to for matters requiring but httle thought; consider. to mean is simply to have in the mind, to intend is to stretch with the mind to See also Abandon; Solitary. DESIGN, Purpose, Intend, Mean. a thing. Design and purpose are taken someDesign, from the Latin de, down, and signare, to make a sign, signifies to times in the abstract sense; intend and mark out as with a pen or pencil. mean, always in connection with the Purpose, Hke propose, comes through agent who intends or means: we see a French from the Latin pro and pan- design in the whole creation which leads sare, signifying to set before one's us to reflect on the wisdom and goodmind as an object of pursuit. Intend, ness of the Creator; whenever we see in Latin in, to, and tendere, to stretch, anything done, we are led to inquire the signifies the bending of the mind toward purpose for which it is done; or are dean object. Mean, in Anglo-Saxon sirous of knowing the intention of the nioenen, German meinen, is probably gerson in so doing: things are said to connected with the word mind, sige done with a design, in opposition nifying to have in the mind. to that which happens by chance; they Design and purpose are terms of are said to be done for a purpose in higher import than intend and mean, reference to the immediate purpose which are in familiar use; the latter which is expected to result from them. still more so than the former. A design Design, when not expressly qualified embraces many objects; a purpose con- by a contrary epithet, is used in a bad sists of only one: the former supposes sense in connection with a particular something studied and methodical, it agent; purpose, intention, and meaning, requires reflection; the latter supposes taken absolutely, have an indifferent something fixed and determinate, it sense: a designing person is full of requires resolution. A design is attain- latent and interested designs; there is able; a purpose is steady. We speak of nothing so good that it may not be the design as it regards the thing con- made to serve the purposes of those who ceived; we speak of the purpose as it are bad; the intentions of a man must regards the temper of the person. Men always he taken into the account when of a sanguine or aspiring character are we are forming an estimate of Ms acapt to form designs which cannot be tions: ignorant people frequently mean carried into execution; whoever wishes much better than they do. Design, Plan, Scheme, Project. Deto keep true to his purpose must not sign (see preceding). Plan, in French listen to many counsellors. A purpose is the thing proposed or set plan, comes from Latin planum, smooth before the mind; an intention is the or even, signifying a drawing on a flat thing to which the mind bends or in- surface, a preliminary drawing of someclines: purpose and intend differ, there- thing to be constructed. Scheme, in foie, both in the nature of the action Latin schema, Greek (rxiifia, a form or and the object; we purpose seriously; figm-e, signifies the thing drawn out in we intend vaguely: we set about that the mind. Project, in Latin projedus, which we purpose; we may delay that from projicio, compounded of pro and which we have only intended: the execu- jacio, signifies to cast or put forth sometion of one's purpose rests mostly with thing, hence to propose. Arrangement is the idea common to one's self; the fulfilment of an intention depends upon circumstances: a man of those terms: the design includes the third

from

is

all

—

DESIST thing that is to be brought about; the plan includes the means by which it is to be brought about: a design was formed in the time of James I. for overturning the government of the country; the plan by which this was to have been reaUzed consisted in placing gimpowder under the Parharaent House and blowing up the assembly. A design is to be estimated according to its intrinsic worth; a plan is to be estimated according to its relative value, or fitness for the design: a design is noble or wicked, a plan is practicable; every foimder of a charitable institution may be supposed to have a good design; but he may adopt an erroneous plan for obtaining the end proposed. Scheme and project respect both the end and the means, which makes them analogous to design and plan: the design stimulates to action; the plan determines the mode of action; the scheme and project consist most in speculation: the design and plan are equally practical, and suited to the ordinary and immediate circumstances of life; the scheme and project are contrived or conceived for extraordinary or rare occasions: no man takes any step without a design; a general forms the plan of his

campaign; adventurous

men

are al-

ways forming schemes for gaining money; ambitious monarchs are full of projects for increasing their dominions.

Scheme and project differ priucipally in the magnitude of the objects to which they are apphed, the former being much less vast and extensive than the latter: a scheme may be formed by an individual

for

attaining

any

trifUng

advantage; projects are mostly conceived in matters of great moment involving deep interests. DESIGNATE. See Name. DESIGNING. See Scheming. DESIRE, Wish, Long For, Hanker After, Covet. Desire, in Latin desidero, is a word of obscure origin; it may be aUied to sidus^ star, like conMder, which see. Wish is derived from a Germanic root which is derived from the Aryan root whence the word win, and Latin ven, in Veniis, venerate, etc., are also drawn. Long comes from Anglo-Saxon langian, to crave or desire. Hanker signifies to hang on an object with one's mind. Covet (see Covetous).

253

imperious, it demands gratiwish is less vehement, it consists of a strong inclination; longing is an impatient and continued species of desire; hankering is a desire for that which is set out of one's reach; coveting is a desire for that which belongs to another, or what it is in his power to grant we desire or long for that which is near at hand or within view; we wish for and covet that which is more remote or less distinctly seen; we hanker after that which has been once enjoyed: a discontented person wishes for more than he has; he who is in a strange land longs to see his native country; vicious men hanker after the pleasures which are denied them; amDesire

is

fication;

:

bitious

men

men

covet honors, avaricious covet riches. Desires ought to be

moderated,

tvishes to be hmited, longhankerings, and covetings to be suppressed: imcontrolled desire's become the greatest torments; imbounded wishes are the bane of all happiness; ardent longings are mostly irrational and not entitled to indulgence; coveting is expressly prohibited by the Divine law. Desire, as it regards others, is not less imperative than when it respects ourselves; it lays an obhgation on the person to whom it is expressed: a wish is gentle and imassuming; it appeals to the good-nature of another: we act by the desire of a superior or of one who has a right to ask; we act according to the wishes of an equal, or of one who can only request: the desire of a parent will amount to a command in the mind of a dutiful child: his wishes will be anticipated by the warmth of

ings,

affection. See also

Beg; Yearn.

DESIST, Leave Off.

Desist,

from

the Latin desistere^ signifies to take one's Desist is apphed to actions self off. good, indifferent, or offensive to some person; leave off, to actions that are indiiTerent; the former is voluntary or involuntary, the latter voluntary: we are frequently obliged to desist; but we leave off at our option: it is prudent to desist from using our endeavors when we find them meffectual; it is natural for a person to leave off when he sees no further occasion to continue he who annoys another his labor:

DESOLATE

254

must be made to

he who does consequences: despondency is a disease off when of the mind, which nothing but a firm requested. trust in the goodness of Providence DESOLATE. See Solitary. can obviate. DESOLATION. See Ravage. Desperate, Hopeless. Desperate (see DESPAIR, Desperation, Despond- above) is apphcable to persons or ency. Despair, desperation, from the things; hopeless to things only: a perFrench desespoir, compounded of the son makes a desperate effort; he underdesist;

not wish to offend will leave

,

—

privative de and the Latin spes, hope, takes a hopeless task. Desperate, when signifies the absence or the annihila- applied to things, expresses more than tion of all hope. Despondency, from hopeless; the latter marks the absence despond, in Latin desporideo, compound- of hope as to the attainment of good, ed of the privative de and spondere, to the former marks the absence of hope promise, signifies hterally to deprive as to the removal of an evil: a person in a solemn manner, or cut off from who is in a desperate condition is overevery gleam of hope. whelmed with actual trouble for the Despair is a state of mind produced present and the prospect of its conby the view of external circumstances; tinuance for the future; he whose desperation and despondency may be the case is hopeless is without the prospect fruit of the imagination; the former, of effecting the end he has in view: therefore, always rests on some ground, gamesters are frequently brought into the latter are sometimes ideal: despair desperate situations when bereft of hes mostly in reflection; desperation everything that might possibly serve and despondency in the feelings: the to hghten the burdens of their misformer marks a state of vehement fortunes: it is a hopeless undertaking and impatient feeling, the latter that to endeavor to reclaim men who have of fallen and mournful feeUng. De- plunged themselves deep into the spair is often the forerunner of des- labyrinths of vice. peration and despondency, but it is See also Deter. DESPICABLE. See Contempnot necessarily accompanied with effects so powerful: the strongest mind tible. may have occasion to despair when DESPISE. See Contemn. DESPOIL. See Sack. circumstances warrant the sentiment; men of an impetuous character are See Despair. DESPONDING. See Pessimistic. apt to rim into a state of desperation; a weak mind fuU of morbid senDESPOTIC. See Absolute. sibility is most hable to faU into DESTINE. See Allot. DESTINY, Fate, Lot, Doom. Desdespondency. Despair interrupts or checks exertion; desperation impels tiny, from destine (see Appoint) signigreater exertions; despondency unfits fies either the power that destines or for exertion: when a physician de- the thing destined. Fate (see Chance).spairs of making a cure, he lays aside Lot, Anglo-Saxon hlot, signifies a ticket, the apphcation of remedies; when a die, or any other thing by which the soldier sees nothing but death or dis- casual distribution of things is detergrace before him, he is driven to des- mined; and, in an extended sense, it peration, and redoubles his efforts; expresses the portion thus assigned by when a tradesman sees before him chance. Doom comes from a Teutonic nothing but failure for the present and root meaning that which is put up or want for the future he may sink into set up irrevocably decreed and estabdespondency: despair is justifiable as hshed. far as it is a rational calculation into All these terms are employed with futurity from present appearances; regard to human events which are not among the control: desperation may arise from extraordi- under one's nary circumstances or the action of heathens destiny and fate were considstrong passions; in the former case it ered as deities, who each in his way is imavoidable, and may serve to could direct human affairs and were rescue from great distress; in the latter both superior even to Jupiter himself: case it is mostly attended with fatal the Destinies, or Parcae, as they were

DESPONDENCY.

—

DESTRUCTION termed, presided only over life and death; but Fate was employed in ruling the general affairs of men. Since revelation has instructed mankind in the natiu-e and attributes of the true God, those blind powers are now not acknowledged to exist in the overruling providence of an all-wise and an all-good Being; the terms destiny and fate, therefore, have now only a

255

children for their several professions or callings, it is of importance to consult their particular turn of mind as well as inclination.

DESTITUTE.

See

Bare;

For-

saken.

DESTROY, Consume, Waste.

De-

stroy, in Latin destruo, from de, privative, and struere, to build, is to undo

that which has been built or done. sense as to what happens Consume, in French consumer, Latin consumo, i. e., con or cum, together, without the will or control of man. Destiny is used in regard to one's and sumere, to take, signifies to take station and walk in Ufe; fate, in regard away altogether. Waste comes from to what one suffers; lot, in regard to Latin vastus, desolate, English vxiste, what one gets or possesses; and doom and signifies to make desolate. To destroy is to reduce to nothing to the final destiny which terminates unhappily and depends mostly upon that which has been artificially raised the will of another: destiny is marked or formed; as to destroy a town or a out; fate is fixed; a lot is assigned; house: to consume is to use up; as to a doom is passed. It is the destiny of consume food, or to consume articles of some men to be always changing their manufacture: to destroy is an immediplan of hfe; it is but too frequently ate act mostly of violence; consume is the faie of authors to labor for the a gradual and natural process, as oil benefit of mankind and to reap noth- is consumed in a lamp. ing for themselves but poverty and To destroy is always taken in the bad neglect; it is the lot of but very few sense for putting an end to that which to enjoy what they themselves con- one wishes to preserve; consume is also sider a competency; a man sometimes taken in a similar sense, but with the seals his own doom by his imprudence above distinction as to the mode of the or vices. action: as a hurricane destroys the Destiny, Destination. Both destiny crops; rust consumes iron: to wa^te is to and destination are used for the thing consume by a misuse; as to waste prodestined; but the former is said in re- visions by throwing them away or suflation to a man's important concerns, fering them to spoil; or to fall away or the latter only of particular circum- lose its substance, as the body wastes stances; in which sense it may like- from disease. In the figurative application they are wise be employed for the act of destining. Destiny is the point or line used with precisely the same distincmarked out in the walk of life; destina- tion: happiness or peace is destroyed; tion is the place fixed upon in particu- time is consumed in an indifferent sense: lar: as every man has his peculiar time or strength is wasted in the baa destiny, so every traveller has his sense. See also Demolish. particular destination. Destiny is altogether set above himian control; no DESTROYER. See Underseaman can determine, though he may craft. influence, DESTRUCTION, Ruin. Destructhe destiny of another: destination is, however, the specific act tion, from destroy, and the Latin destruo, of an individual, either for himself or signifies literally to unbuild that which another: we leave the destiny of a man is raised up. Ruin, from the Latin to develop itself; but we may inquire ruere, to fall, signifies that which is about his own destination or that of fallen into pieces. his children: it is a consohng reflection Destruction is an act of immediate that the destinies of short-sighted mor- violence; ruin is a gradual process; a tals hke ourselves are in the hands thing is destroyed by some external acof One who both can and will overrule tion upon it; a thmg falls to ruin of them to our advantage if we place full itself: we witness destruction wherever reliance in Him; in the destination of war or the adverse elements rage; we relative

—

/

DESULTORY

256

witness ruin whenever the works of is applied in the most extended sense to are exposed to the effects of time; every object which has been created or nevertheless, if destruction be more supposed to be so pernicious is applicaforcible and rapid, ruin is, on the other ble only to such objects as act only in a hand, more sure and complete: what Umited way: sin is equally destructive is destroyed may be rebuilt or replaced; to both body and soul; certain food is but what is ruined is mostly lost forever, pernicious to the body; certain books it is past recovery: when houses or are pernicious to the mind. towns are destroyed, fresh ones rise up See also Spoliation. in their place; but when commerce is DESULTORY. See Cursory. ruined it seldom returns to its old DETACH. See Segregate; SepaDestruction various rate; Wean. course. admits of degrees; ruin is something positive and DETAIN. See Hold. general. The property of a man may DETECT, Discover. Detect, from be destroyed to a greater or less extent the Latin de, privative, and tegere, to without necessarily involving his ruin. cover, and discover, from the privative The ruin of a whole family is often- dis and cover, both originally signify to times the consequence of destruction by deprive of a covering; see Cover.

man

;

destroyed by violent exactive cause; it is ruined by a course of imprudent conduct. The happiness of a family is destroyed by broils and discord; the morals of a young man are ruined by a continued intercourse with vicious companions. Both words are used figuratively with the same distinction. The destruction of both body and soul is the consequence of sin; the ruin of a man, whether in his temporal or spiritual concerns, is inevitable if he foUow the dictates of misguided passion. Destructive, Ruinous, Pernicious. Destructive signifies producing destruction. Ruinous signifies either having or causing ruin. Pernicious, from the Latin pemicies, or per, intensive, and stem neci of nex, slaughter, signifies causing violent and total dissolution. Destructive and ruinous, as the epithets of the preceding terms, have a similar distinction in their sense and application; fire and sword are destructive things; a poison is destructive: consequences are ruinous; a condition or state is ruinous; intestine commotions are ruinous to the prosperity of a state. Pernicious approaches nearer to destructive than to ruinous; both the former imply a tendency to produce dissolution, which may be more or less gradual; but the latter refers us to the result itself, to the dissolution as already having taken place: hence we speak of the instrument or cause as being destructive or pernicious, and the action, event, or result as ruinous: destructive fire.

Health

ercises or

is

some other

—

Detect is always taken in a bad sense: discover in an indifferent sense. person is detected in what he wishes to conceal; a person or a thing is discovered that has unintentionally lain concealed. Thieves are detected in picking pockets; a lost child is discovered in a wood or in some place of security. Detection is the act of the moment; it relates to that which is passing: a discovery is either a gradual or an immediate act, and may be made of that which has long since passed. plot is detected by

A

A

any one who communicates what he has seen and heard; many murders have been discovered after a lapse of years by

ways the most

extraordiiiary.

See also Convict.

DETER, Discourage, Dishearten. compounded of and terrere, signifies to frighten away from a thing. Discourage and disDeter, in Latin deterreo,

de

hearten, by the privative dis, signify to deprive of courage or heart. One is

deterred

from commencing anything;

discouraged or disheartened from proceeding. A variety of motives may

one

is

deter any one from an undertaking; but a person is discouraged or disheartened mostly by the want of suc-

cess or the hopelessness of the case. fearful are ahke easily to be deterred; impatient people are most apt to be discouraged; fainthearted people are easily disheartened.

The prudent and the

The foolhardy and the obdurate

are the least easily deterred from their object; the persevering will not suffer themselves to be discouraged by particular failures; the resolute and self-

DEVIL confident will not be disheartened

DETERMINED.

by

DETERIORATE. See Degenerate. DETERMINE, Resolve. To deter(see Decide) is more especially an act of the judgment; to resolve (see Courage) is an act of the will: we determine how or what we shall do; this requires examination and choice: we

DETEST. See Abhor; Hate DETESTABLE. See Abominable. DETRACT. See Asperse; Dis-

mine

we

will

parage.

DETRIMENT.

;

It is

more

difficult

See Disadvantage;

Loss.

DEVASTATE. See Sack. DEVASTATION. See Ravage. DEVELOP. See Unfold.

do what we have

determined upon; this requires a firm Our determinations should be spirit. prudent, that they may not cause repentance; our resolutions should be fixed, in order to prevent variation. There can be no co-operation with a man who is undetermined; it will be dangerous to co-operate with a man who is irresolute. In the ordinary concerns of Ufe we have frequent occasions to determine without resolving; in the discharge of our moral duties, or the performance of any office, we have occasion to resolve without determining. A master determines to dismiss his servant the servant resolves on becoming more diligent. Personal convenience or necessity gives rise to the determination; a sense of duty, honor, fidelity, and the Uke gives birth to the resolution. A traveller determines to take a certain route; a learner resolves to conquer every difficulty in the acquirement of learning. Humor or change of circumstances occasions a person to alter his determination; timidity, fear, or defect in principle occasions the resolution to waver. Children are not capable of determining; and their best resolutions fall before the gratification of the moment. In matters of knowledge, to determine is to fix the mind, or to cause it to rest in a certain opinion; to resolve is to lay open what is obscure, to clear the mind from doubt and hesitation. We determine points of question; we resolve difficulties.

See Unswerv-

ing.

trifling difficulties.

resolve that

257

DEVELOPMENT. DEVIATE, Stray.

See EvoLpTioN.

Wander,

Swerve,

from

devious, and the Latin de vid, signifies, hterallv, to run out of the way. Wander is a frequentative of u>end and is connected

Deviate,

with Anglo-Saxon windan, to wind; meant originally to keep winding in and out indicating a purposeless

it

—

going. For the derivation of swerve see Deflect. Stray comes from Old French estraier, to wander out into

the streets, from Latin strata, street, whence our word street is derived. Deviate always supposes a direct path which is departea from; wander idea. The act of faulty, that of wandering is different: they may frequently exchange significations; the former being justifiable by necessity, and the latter arising from an unsteadiness of mind. Deviate is mostly used in the moral acceptation; wander permay be used in either sense. son deviates from any plan or rule laid down; he wanders from the subject in which he is engaged. As no rule can be laid down which will not admit of

includes

no such

deviating is

commonly

A

an exception, it is impossible but the wisest will find it necessary in their moral conduct to deviate occasionally; yet every wanton deviation from an established practice evinces a culpable temper on the part of the deThose who wander into the viator. regions of metaphysics are in great danger of losing themselves; it is with them as with most wanderers, that they spend their time at best but idly.

to determine in matters of rank or precedence than in cases where the solid and real interests of men are concerned; it is the business of the See also Digress. DEVIL, Demon. Demi, in Angloteacher to resolve the difficulties which are proposed by the scholar. Every Saxon deofal^ French diable, etc., is point is not proved which is deter- connected with the Greek ^jd/3oXoc, mined, nor is every difficulty resolved from ^to/3dX\nv, to traduce, literally to throw something at another (cf the which is answered. slang phrase to "sbng inud" for meanSee also Decide; Fix. .

17

258

DEVISE

ing to slander). It signifies properly evil, and differ very little in meaning. a calumniator, and is always taken in Devilish and diabolical both come the bad sense for the spirit which in- ultimately from Greek oid(3oXoQ, devil, cites to evil and tempts men through literally slanderer, hater. Fiendish the medium of their evil passion. comes from Anglo-Saxon feond, an Demon, in Latin dcBmon, Greek Sal/iwv, enemy, from feogan, to hate. Satanic a being of divine nature, is taken comes originally from the Hebrew either in a bad sense or good sense for designation of the "Prince of the the power that acts within us and con- Powers of Darkness," which meant trols our actions. Since the devil is "Adversary." All the words signify represented as the father of all wicked- the highest degree of wickedness and

have been connected maUciousness, characteristic of the op)with the name that render its pronun- ponent of all good. Though devilish ciation in familiar discourse offensive and diabolical have the same derivation, to the chastened ear; it is therefore devilish has been so largely and careused in the grave style only. lessly used in colloquial speech to sigAmong Jews and Christians the term nify anjiihing unpleasant that it has demon is always taken in a bad sense for somewhat lost its force and dignity; an evil spirit generally; but the Greeks diabolical expresses more definitely the and Romans understood by the word idea of resemblance to the devil with dcemon any genius or spirit, but par- special reference to mahcious skill and Fiendish has the same ticularly the good spirit or guardian ingenuity. angel who was supposed to accompany meaning with special emphasis on a man from his birth. Socrates pro- malignity and cruelty. Satanic means fessed to be always under the direction characteristic of Satan, the prince of of such a daemon, who is alluded to very devils, and sometimes has special refermuch by the ancients in their writings ence to size and daring in malignant and on their medals; hence it is that in action, or to Satan's distinguishing figurative language the word may still characteristic of pride. However, the words are really well-nigh interbe used in a good sense. In general, the word is taken for an changeable. evil spirit, as the demon of discord. DIALECT. See Language. DEVISE, Bequeath. Devise, comDIALOGUE. See Conversation. pounded of de and vistis, participle DIAPHANOUS, Clear, Pellucid, of videre, to see or show, signifies to Translucent. Diaphanous, in French point out specifically. Beqtieath comes diaphane, from the Greek SuKpdvriQ, that from Anglo-Saxon becwethan, from a compovmd of Sid, through, and cwethan, to say (whence quoth), and (paivuv, to show, pertains to that means to give over to a person by say- which permits hght to pass through or ing or by word of mouth. has the quality of transmitting light. In the technical sense, to devise is to Clear and pellucid apply to substances, give lands by a will duly attested ac- as air and water, when free from anycording to law; to bequeath is to give thing that would obstruct a view personality after one's death by a less through them; but diaphanous implies formal instrument; whence the term a translucent quality in distinction from bequeath may also be used figura- a transparent one. A substance is transtively, as to bequeath one's name to lucent that permits rays of light to pass posterity. through it without rendering the form DEVOID. See Empty. or color of objects on the other side DEVOTE. See Addict: Dedicate; distinguishable; hence so nearly opaque Sanctify. that objects are scarcely, if at all, visible DEVOTEE. See Enthusiast. through it; while transparent applies DEVOUT. See Holy. to a substance that can be seen through DEXTERITY. See Ability; Knack. clearly or allows hght to pass through DEXTEROUS. See Clever. without diminution. A diaphanous DIABOLIC, Devilish, Fiendish, substance, therefore, is translvAxnt or Satanic. These words all mean re- only partially transparent. sembling the devil or the powers of Translvcency implies that property of ness, associations

DICTION

259

certain minerals, as well as other sub- the thing dictated, and has an imp)erastances, which permits Ught to pass tive sense, as in the former case. through them, but in a subdued degree. Suggestion signifies the thing sriggested, Diaphanous has been of late especially and conveys the idea of its being proappUed to semi-transparent textures posed secretly or in a gentle manner. There is such as lace and chiffon. These terms are both applied with nothing in the history of the word to this distinction to acts of the mind. support such a limitation of its mean- When conscience, reason, or passion ing, but this is its most frequent ap- presents anything forcibly to the mind, phcation. veil is diaphanous; a it is called a dictate; when anything piece of smoked glass for viewing the enters the mind in a casual manner, it sun and spectacles worn by people is called a suggestion. The dictate is motoring or exposed to strong light obeyed or yielded to; the suggestion is are translucent; window-glass is trans- followed or listened to. It is the part parent. of a Christian at all times to obey the Dictate, dictates of reason. DICTATE, Prescribe. He who yields to from the Latin dictatus and dictum, a the dictates of passion renounces the word, signifies to make a word for an- character of a rational being. It is other; and prescribe literally signifies the characteristic of a weak mind to to write down for another (see Ap- follow the suggestions of envy. point), in which sense the former of Dictate is employed only for what these terms is used technically for a passes inwardly; suggestion may be principal who gets his secretary to used for any action on the mind by exwrite down his words as he utters ternal objects. No man will err esthem; and the latter for a physician sentially in the ordinary affairs of life who writes down for his patient what who is guided by the dictates of plain he ^shes him to take as a remedy. sense. It is the lot of sinful mortals They are used figuratively for a to be drawn to evil by the suggestions sjjecies of comisel given by a sup>erior; of Satan as well as their own evil into dictate is, however, a greater exercise cUnations. of authority than to prescribe. To DICTION, Style, Phrase, Phrasedictate amounts even to more than to ology. Diction, from the Latin dictio, command; it signifies commanding saying, is put for the mode of expressing with a tone of unwarrantable authority, ourselves. Style comes from the Latin or still oftener a species of commanding stylus, the bodkin with which the by those who have no right to com- Latins wrote and corrected what they mand: it is therefore mostly taken in had written on their waxen tablets; a bad sense. To prescribe partakes whence the word has been used for the altogether of the nature of counsel, manner of writing in general. Phrase, and nothing of command; it serves in Greek ippamc, from ^po^tiv, to speak; as a rule to the person prescribed, and and phraseology, from pdaii:, and \070t, is justified by the superior wisdom and both signify the manner of speaking. knowledge of the person prescribing; Diction expresses much less than it is therefore always taken in an in- style: the former is apphcable to the different or a good sense. He who firat efforts of learners in composition; dictates speaks with an adventitious the latter only to the original producauthority; he who prescribes has the tions of a matured mind. Errors in sanction of reason. To dictate impUes grammar, false construction, a conan entire subserviency in the person fused disposition of words, or an imdictated to; to prescribe carries its own proper application of them constitutes weight with it in the nature of the Dad diction; but the niceties, the thing prescribed. Upstarts are ready elegancies, the peculiarities, and the to dictate even to their superiors on beauties of composition which mark every occasion that offers; modest peo- the genius and talent of the writer {)le are often fearful of giving advice are what is comprehended under the Diction is a general est they should be suspected of pre- name of style. term, applicable alike to a single senscribing. Dictate signifies tence or a connected composition; styl» Dictate, Suggestion.

A

—

V

•

DICTIONARY

260

used in regard to a regular piece of composition. As diction is a term of inferior import, it is of course mostly confined to ordinary subjects, and style to the productions of authors. We should speak of a person's diction in his private correspondence, but of his style in his literary works. Diction requires only to be pure and clear; style may Ukewise be terse, pohshed, elegant, florid, poetic, sober, and the like. Diction is said mostly in regard to what is written; phrase and phraseology are said as often of what is spoken as what is written; as that a person has adopted a strange phrase or phraseology. The former respects single words; the latter comprehends a succession of is

phrases.

DICTIONARY, Dictionary,

Dictionary, Lexicon, Vocabulary, GlosNomenclature. Dictionary is a general term; lexicon, from Xlytiv, to say; vocabulary, from vox, a word; glossary, from gloss, to explain, from vKQaaa, the tongue; and nomenclature, irom nomen, are all species of the dic-

—

sary,

tionary.

Lexicon is a species of dictionary appropriately applied to the dead languages. A Greek or Hebrew lexicon is distinguished from a dictionary of the French or English language. A vocabulary is a partial kind of dictionary,

may comprehend

which

a simple

list

of words, with or without explanation, arranged in order or otherwise. glossary is an explanatory vocabulary,

A

which commonly serves to explain the Encyclopedia. obsolete terms employed in any old

Late Latin dictionarium,

author.

A

nomenclature

is

literally

a

from the Latin dictum, a saying or Ust of names, and in particular a refword, is a register of words. Encyclo- erence to proper names. paedia, from the Greek iyKVKkoTraiSda, DIDACTIC, Pedagogic. Didactic, or Iv, in, KvicXog, a circle, and Traideia, in Greek SiSuktikoc, from SiSaaKsiv, to learning, signifies a book containing teach, cognate with the Latin doceo, in the whole circle of knowledge. French didactique, signifies, specifically, The definition of words, with their whatever pertains to teaching, convarious changes,

modifications, uses, acceptations, and applications, are the proper subjects of a dictionary; the nature and properties of things, with their construction, uses, powers, etc., are the proper subjects of an ericyclopoedia. general acquaintance with all arts and sciences as far as respects the use of technical terms, and a perfect acquaintance with the classical writers in the language, are essential for the composition of a dictionary; an entire acquaintance with all the minutiae of every art and science is requisite for the composition of an encyclopcedia. single individual may qualify himself for the task of writing a dictionary; but the universaUty and diversity of knowledge contained in an encyclopcedia render it necessarily the work of many. The term dictionary has been extended in its appUcation to any work alphabetically arranged, as biographical, medical, botanical dictionaries, and the Uke, but still preserving this distinction, that a dictionary always contains only a general or partial illustration of the subject Eroposed, while an encyclopcedia emraces the whole circuit of science.

A

A

veying instruction, or containing precepts or rules. In the plural and substantive form the term implies the science of teaching, the best methods of systematic instruction. Didactic poetry is a kind which aims, or seems to aim, at instruction, making pleasure entirely subservient to this. The "Georgics" of Virgil have been the model according to which such poems have generally been composed. Pedagogic has in recent years become a

more conspicuous term than

didactic,

because of the great advance in educational methods. The term is from the Greek iraiSayojyog, compounded of Traig, or ttmS-, a child, and aywyog, leading, and originally applied to a slave who led his master's children to school

and places

of

amusement while

they were too young to go alone, and, in exceptional instances, such pedagogues acted also as teachers. Latterly the term pedagogue came to be used

contempt or ridicule to designate a pedant or a supercilious instructor. in

Now

pedagogy, the science of teachhas become conspicuous among the learned arts, and has its special colleges with degree-granting privileges, ing,

DIFFER many

261

and municipal gether; a person may dissent from any normal schools. opinion which is offered or prescribed. DIE, Expire, Pass Over. Die is a Differences may occasion discordant Scandinavian word from a Teutonic feeling or otherwise, according to the base whence dead, death, etc., are also nature of the difference. Differences in Expire, from ex, out, and regard to claims or matters of interest derived. spirare, to breathe, means giving up are rarely unaccompanied with some the breath of life. asperity. Disagreements, variances, and There are beings, such as trees and dissensions are always accompanied plants, which are said to hve, al- with more or less ill-humor or ill-feeUng. though they have not breath; these Disagreements between those who ought die, but do not expire; there are other to agree and to co-operate are mostly beings which absorb and emit air, but occasioned by opposing passions; varido not hve; such as the flame of a lamp ance is said of whatever disturbs the which does not die, but it expires. By harmony of those who ought to Uve in a natural metaphor, the time of being love and harmony. Dissensions arise is put for the life of objects; and hence not merely from diversity of opinion, we speak of the date expiring, the term but also from diversity of interest, and expiring, and the hke; and as life is always produce much acrimony of besides the

state

applied figm-atively to moral objects, feeling. They arise mostly among so may death to objects not having bodies of men. physical hfe. In regard to things, differ is said of To pass over is the Christian Science two things with respect to each other; equivalent for to die. vary of one thing in respect to itself:

See also Perish. DIET. See Assembly; Food.

thus two tempers differ from each other, and a person s temper varies from time

DIFFER, Vary, Disagree,

Dis- to time. Things differ in their essences, they vary in their accidents; thus the genera and species of things differ from each other, and the individuals of each Disagree is Uterally not to agree. Dis- species vary: differ is said of eveiything sent, in Latin dissentio, or dis and promiscuously, but disagree is only said sentire, to think or feel, signifies to of such things as might agree; thus two trees differ from each other by the think or feel apart or differently. Differ, vary, and disagree are applica- course of things, but two numbers ble either to persons or things; dissent disagree which are intended to agree. sent.

Differ, in Latin differo, or dis, apart, and ferre, to bear, signifies to make into two. Vary (see Change).

to persons only. First as to persons: Difference, Variety, Diversity, Medto differ is the most general and indefi- ley. Difference signifies the cause or Variety, from nite term, the rest are but modes of dif- the act of differing. ference: we may differ from any cause, various or vary, in Latin varius, differor in any degree, we vary only in small ent, signifies a continual difference. matters: thus persons may differ or Diversity, in Latin diversitas, comes vary in their statements. There must from diverto, compoimded of dis, apart, be two at least to differ, and there may and vertere, to turn, and signifies to be an indefinite number: one may vary, turn asunder. Medley has the same or an indefinite number may vary; thus derivation as middle, for which see two or more may differ in an account intermeddle under Intercede. which they give; one person may vary Difference and variety seem to lie in at different times in the account which the things themselves; diversity and he gives. To differ may be either in medley are created either by accident or fact or matters of speculation; to dis- design; a difference may lie in two a variety cannot exist agree, mostly in matters of practice or objects only; personal interest; to dissent, mostly in without an assemblage: a difference is matters of speculation or opinion. Phi- discovered by means of a comparison losophers may differ in accounting for which the mind forms of objects to preany phenomenon; pohticians may dif- vent confusion; variety strikes on the fer as to the conduct of public affairs; mind and pleases the imagination with people may disagree who have to act to- many agreeable images; it is opfKJsed

—

DIFFER

262

to dull uniformity: the acute observer traces differences, however minute, in the objects of his research, and by this means is enabled to class them under their general or particular heads; nature affords such an infinite variety in everything which exists that if we do not perceive it the fault is in ourselves. Diversity arises from an assemblage of objects natm-ally contrasted; a medley is produced by an assemblage of objects so ill suited as to produce a ludicrous effect. Diversity exists in the tastes or opinions of men; a medley is produced by the concurrence of such tastes or opinions as can in no wise A diversity of sounds heard coalesce. at a suitable distance in the stillness of the evening will have an agreeable effect on the ear; a medley of noises, whether heard near or at a distance, must always be harsh and offensive.

—

Difference Difference, Distinction. in the thing; distinction is the act of the person: the former is, therefore, to the latter as the cause to the effect; the distinction rests on the difference: those are equally bad logicians who make a distinction without a difference, or who make no distinction where there is a lies

difference.

All these terms are here taken in the general sense of a difference on some personal question; the term difference is here as general and indefinite as in the former case: a difference, as distinguished from the others, is generally of a less serious and personal kind; a dispute consists not only of angry words, but much ill blood and imkind

an altercation is a wordy dispute, which difference of opinion is drawn out into a multitude of words on all sides; quarrel is the most serious of all differences, which leads to every species of violence; a difference may sometimes arise from a misunderstanding, which may be easily rectified; differences seldom grow to disputes but by the fault of both parties; altercations arise mostly from pertinacious adherence to, and offices;

in

obstinate defence of, one's opinions; quarrels mostly spring from injuries real or supposed differences subsist between men in an individual or pubhc capacity; they may be carried on in a direct or indirect manner; disputes and altercations are mostly conducted in a direct manner between individuals; quarrels may arise between nations or individuals, and be carried on by acts of offence directly or indirectly. Different, Distinct, Separate. Differ:

—

Sometimes distinction is put for the ground of distinction, which brings it ent (see Differ). Distinct, in Latin nearer in sense to difference, in which distinctu^, participle of distinguo, and case the former is a species of the latter separate (see Abstract for both). Difference is opposed to similitude; a difference is either external or internal a distinction is always external, the for- there is no difference between objects mer lies in the thing, the latter is de- absolutely aUke distinctness is opposed signedly made: we have differences in to identity; there can be no distinction character and distinctions in dress; the where there is only one and the same difference between profession and prac- being: separation is opposed to unity; tice, though very considerable, is often there can be no separation between :

lost sight of by the professors of Christianity; in the sight of God there is no rank or distinction that will screen a man from the consequences of unre-

pented

sins.

Difference, Dispute, Altercation, Qiiarrel. Difference (see Differ). Dispute (see Argue). Altercation, in Latin altercatio, from alter, the other of two people, signifies to dispute in tiuns, first

—

one speaking and then the other

objects that coalesce or adhere: things may be different and not distinct, or distinct

and not

different:

different is

said altogether of the internal properties of things; distinci is said of things as objects of vision, or as they appear either to the eye or to the mind when two or more things are seen only as one they may be different, but they are not distinct; but whatever is seen as two or more things, each complete in :

suggesting also a decided difference of itself, is distinct, although it may not opinion. Quarrel, in French querelle, be different: two roads are said to be from the Latin queri, to complain, sig- different which run in different direcnifies having a complaint against an- tions, but they may not be distinct when seen on a map on the other hand, other. :

DIFFICULTIES two roads are

said to

be

distinct

when

they are observed as two roads to run in the same direction, but they need not in any particular to be different: two stars of different magnitudes may, in certain directions, appear as one, which case they are different but not distinct; two books on the same subject, and by the same author, but not written in continuation of each other, are distinct books, but not different. What is separate must in its nature be generally distinct; but everything is not separate which is distinct: when houses are separate they are obviously distinct; but they may frequently be distinct when they are not positively separated: the distinct is marked out by some external sign which determines its beginning and its end; the separate is that which is set apart and to be seen by itself: distinct is a term used only in determining the singularity or pluraUty of objects; the separate only in regard to their proximity to or distance from each other: we speak of having a distinct household, but of Uving in separate apartments; of di-

m

viding one's subject into distinct heads, or of making things into separate parcels: the body and soul are different, inasmuch as they have different properties; they are distinct, inasmuch as they have marks by which they

may be

distinguished, and at death they will be separate. Different, Several, Divers, Sundry, Various. All these terms are employed

263

The same thing often affects different persons differently: an individual may be affected several times in the same way; or

particular persons

may

be affected at sundry times and in divers manners; the ways in which men are affectea are so various as not to admit of enumeration; it is not so much to understand different languages as to understand several different languages; divers modes have been suggested and tried for the good education of youth, but most are of too theoretical a nature to admit of being reduced successfully to practice; an incorrect writer omits sundry articles that belong to a statement; we need not wonder at the misery which is introduced into famiUes by extravagance and luxury when we notice the infinitely various alliu-ements for spending money which are held out to the

young and the thoughtless.

—

Different, Unlike. Different is positive, unlike is negative: we look at

what

is

different,

and draw a com-

parison; but that which is unlike needs no comparison: a thing is said to be different from every other thing, or unlike to anything seen before; which latter mode of expression obviously conveys less to the mind than the former.

DIFFICULT. lean;

Knotty'

See Hard; Hercu-

.

DIFFICULTIES,

Embarrass-

ments, Troubles. These terms are all applicable to a p>erson's concerns in Ufe; to mark a niunber, but different is the but difficulties relate to the difficulty most indefinite of all these terms, as of conducting a business; embarrassits office is rather to define the quality ments relate to the confusion attending than the number, and is equally apn a state of debt; and trouble to the pain pli cable to few and many; it is op- which is the natural consequence of posed to singularity, but the other not fulfilling engagements or answerterms are employed p>ositively to ex- ing demands. Of the three, the term press many. Several, from to sever, difficulties expresses the least, and that A young man signifies split or made into many; they of troubles the most. may be either different or alike: there on his entrance into the world will may be several different things, or sev- unavoidably experience difficulties if eral things aJike; but we need not say not provided with ample means in the But let his means be ever so several divers things, for the word divers outset. signifies properly many different. Sun- ample, if he have not prudence and dry, from Ajiglo-Saxon adverb sundor, talents fitted for business he will hardapart, signifies many things scattered ly keep himself free from embarrassor at a distance, whether as it regards ments, which are the greatest troubles time or space. Varums expresses not that can arise to disturb the peace of a only a greater nxunber, but a greater man's mind. Impediment, Obstacle, Difficulty, diversity than all the rest.

—

—

DIFFIDENCE

264 Difficulty, in

Latin

difficultas,

and

diffi-

compounded

of the privative dis and facilis, easy, from Jacere, to do, signifies not easy to be done. Obstacle, in Latin obstaculum, from oh, in the way, and stare, to stand, signifies the thing that stands in the way between a person and the object he has in view. Impediment, in Latin impedimentum, from impedio, compounded of in, in, and pedes, feet, signifies something eilis,

that entangles the feet. All these terms include in their signification that which interferes either with the actions or views of men: the difficulty hes most in the natm-e and circumstances of the thiag itself; the obstacle and impediment consist of that which is external or foreign: a difficulty interferes with the completion of any work; an obstacle interferes with the attainment of any end; an impediment interrupts the progress and prevents the execution of one's wishes: a difficulty embarrasses, it suspends the powers of acting or deciding; an obstacle opposes itself, it is properly met in the way, and intervenes between us and our object; an impediment shackles and puts a stop to our proceedings: we speak of encountering a difficulty, sur-

tropes, figures, and illustrations; the prolix writer is fond of circumlocution, minute details, and trifling particulars. l3iffvseness is a fault only in degree and according to circumstances; prolixity is a positive fault at all times. The former leads to the use of words unnecessarily; the latter to the use of phrases, as well as words, that are altogether useless: the diffuse style has too much of repetition the prolix style abounds in tautology. Diffuseness often arises from an exuberance of imagination; prolixity from the want of imagination; on the other hand, the former may be coupled with great superficiality and the latter with great soUdity. writers have fallen into the Lord Clarendon error of diffuseness. and many English writers preceding :

Modem

him

are chargeable with prolixity. See also Spread. DIGEST. See Abridgment; Dis-

pose.

DIGNIFIED. See Magisterial. DIGNITY. See Honor; Pride. DIGRESS, Deviate. Both in the

and the accepted sense, these words express going out of the ordinary course; but digress is used only mounting an obstacle, and removing an in particular, and deviate in general impediment: the disposition of the cases. We digress only in a narrative, mind often occasions more difficulties in whether written or spoken; we deviate negotiations than the subjects them- in actions as well as in words, in our well as in writings. Digress selves; the eloquence of Demosthenes conduct as was the greatest obstacle which Philip is mostly taken in a good or indifferent indifferent or bad of Macedon experienced in his poUtical sense, deviate in an Although frequent digressions career; ignorance of the language is sense. the greatest impediment which a for- are faulty, yet occasionally it is necesof exeigner experiences in the pursuit of sary to digress for the purpose planation every deviation is bad which any object out of his own country. original

;

See also Objection. DIFFIDENCE. See Distrust. DIFFIDENT. See Modest. DIFFUSE, Prolix. Both mark defects of style opposed to brevity. Diffuse, in Latin diffu^us, participle of diffundere, to pour out or spread wide, marks the quality of being extended in space. Prolix comes from Latin pro, beyond, and liquere, to flow (whence liquid, liquor, etc.), and means flowing beyond bounds, overflowing.

The diffuse is properly opposed to the Erecise; iconic.

the prolix to the concise or A diffuse writer is fond of

amplification, he

abounds

in epithets,

is

not sanctioned by the necessity of

circumstances.

DILATE, Expand. from

Dilate, in

and

Latin

wide, that is, to make very wide. Expand, in Latin expando, compounded of ex and pandere, to spread, to appear or show, signifying to set forth or lay open to view by spreading out. The idea of drawing anything out so as to occupy a greater space is common to these terms in opposition to contractbladder dilates on the admising. sion of air, or the heart dilates with joy; knowledge expands the mind, or a person's views expand with circumstances.

dilato,

A

dis, apart,

latus,

DIRECT DILATORY. See Slow. DILIGENT, Expeditious,

265

another according to his betjudgment: he regulates his own All these terms mark the quality of conduct by principles or circumquickness in a commendable degree. stances. Diligent, from dUigere, to love, marks But sometimes the word direct is the interest one takes in doing some- taken in the sense of giving a direction thing; he is diligent who loses no time, to an object, and it is then distinguished who keeps close to the work from in- from regulate, which signifies to deterclination. Expeditious comes from the mine the measure and other circumLatin expedio, from ex, out, and pes, stances. To dispose, from Latin dis, and pedis, foot, which meant originally to fet one's foot out, to set off with speed, French poser, for derivation of which [e who is expeditiotis applies himself see Compose, signifying to put apart to no other thing that offers; he finishes for a particular purpose, supposes everything in its turn. Prompt, from superior power like direct, and suthe Latin promo, to draw out or make perior wisdom like regulate; whence ready, marks one's desire to get ready; the term has been applied to the Alhe is prompt who sets about a thing mighty, who is styled the Supreme Diswithout delay, so as to make it ready. poser of events, and by the poets to Idleness, dilatoriness, and slowness are the heathen deities. See also Conduct; Straight. the three defects opposed to these rects

Prompt.

three qualities. The diligent man goes to his work willingly, and applies to it assiduously; the expeditious man gets it finished quickly; the prompt man sets about it reaculy and gets it finished immediately. It is necessair to be diligent in the concerns which belong to us, to be expeditious in any business that requires to h% terminated, to be prompt in the execution of orders that are given to us.

See also Active; Seduious. DIM. See Dark. DIMINISH. See Abate. DIMINUTIVE. See Little. DICX:esE. See Bishopric. DIP. See Dabble. DIPLOMACY. See Tact. DIRECT, Regulate, Dispose.

We

direct for the instruction of individuals;

we

regulate for the good order or convenience of many. To direct is personal, it supposes authority; to regulate is general, it supposes superior information. An officer directs the movements of his men in military operations; the steward or master of the ceremonies regulates the whole concerns of an entertainment: the director is often a man in power; the regulator is always the man of business; the latter is frequently employed to act under the former. To direct is always used with regard to others; to regulate, frequently with regard to ourselves. One person di-

ters

—

Direction, Address, Superscription. Direction marks that which directs. Address is that which addresses. Superscription, from super, above, and scribere, to write, signifies that which is written over. Although these terms may be used Eromiscuously for one another, yet they ave a peculiarity of signification by which their proper use is defined: a direction may serve to direct to places as well as to persons: an address is never used but in direct application to the person: a superscription has more respect to the thing than the person. A direction may be written or verbal; an address in this sense is always written; a superscription must not only be written, but either on or over some other thing: a direction is given to such as go in search of persons and places; it ought to be clear and particular: an address is put either on a card and a letter or in a book; it ought to be suitable to the station and situation of the person addressed: a superscription is placed at the head of other writings, or over tombs and pillars; it ought to be appropriate. (see Direction Direction, Order.

—

Order (see Command). Direction contains most of instruction in it order, most of authority Directions should be followed, orders obeyed. It is necessary to direct those who are unable to act for themselves: it is necessary to order those whose

Direct).

;

.

DIRIGIBLE

26a

it is to execute the orders. Directions given to servants and children must be clear, simple, and precise; orders to tradespeople may be particDirections extend to ular or general. the moral conduct of others, as well as the ordinary concerns of life; orders

business

are confined to the personal convenience of the individual. A parent directs a child as to his behavior in company, or as to his conduct when he enters life; a teacher directs his pupil in the choice of books, or in the distribution of his studies: the master gives orders to his attendants to be in waiting for him at a certain hour; or he gives orders to his tradesmen to provide what is necessary.

See also Key. Directly, Immediately, Instantly, Instantaneously. Directly signifies in a

—

direct or straight signifies without

of proceeding is direct, the consequences are immediate, and the effects instantaneous.

DIRIGIBLE. See Aircraft. DIRTY. See Squalid. DISABILITY. See Inability.

DISADVANTAGE, Injury, Hurt, Detriment, Prejudice. Disadvantage impUes the absence of an advantage, which see. Injury, in Latin injuria, from in, not, and jus, juris, right, properly signifies what is contrary to or justice, but extends in its sense to every loss or deficiency which is occasioned. Hurt, Middle EngUsh

right

hurten, from Old French hurter, meant to strike or dash against, hence to injure. Detriment, in Latin detrimentum,

from detritum and deterrere, to wear away, signifies the effect of being worn out. Prejudice, in the improper sense

manner. Immediately of the word (see Bias), implies the ill any medium or in- which is supposed to result from pre-

Instantly and instanta- judice. tervention. neously, from instant, signifies in an Disadvantage is rather the absence of instant. a good; injury is a positive evil: the Directly is most applicable to the ac- want of education may frequently be tions of men; immediately and instant- a disadvantage to a person by retarding ly to either actions or events. Directly his advancement; the ill word of anrefers to the interruptions which may other may be an injury by depriving intentionally delay the commence- him of friends. Disadvantage, therement of any work; immediately in gen- fore, is applied to such things as are of eral refers to the space of time that of an adventitious nature: the injury, diligent person goes di- to that which is of essential imporintervenes. rectly to his work; he suffers nothing to tance. draw him aside: good news is immediHurt, detriment, and prejudice are all ately spread abroad upon its arrival; species of injuries. Injury, in general, nothing intervenes to retard it. Im- impUes whatever ill befalls an object mediaiely and instantly, or instanta- by the external action of other objects, neously, both mark a quick succession of whether taken in relation to physical events, but the latter in a much stronger or moral evil, to persons or to things; degree than the former. Immediately hurt is that species of injury which is is negative; it expresses simply that produced by more direct violence; too nothing intervenes; instantly is posi- close an appUcation to study is intive, signifying the very existing mo- jurious to the health; reading by an ment in which the thing happens. A improper hght is hurtful to the eyes; person who is of a wilUng disposition so in a moral sense, the light reading goes or runs immediately to the assist- which a circulating Ubrary suppUes is ance of another; but the ardor of af- often injurious to the morals of yoimg fection impels him to fly instantly to his people; all violent affections are hurtrehef, as he sees the danger. sur- ful to the mind. Detriment and prejudice are species geon does not proceed directly to dress a wound: he first examines it in order of injury which affect only the outto ascertain its nature: men of hvely ward circumstances of a person or minds immediately see the source of thing, the former implying what may their own errors: people of delicate lessen the value of an object, the latter feelings are instantly alive to the what may lower it in the esteem of covu-se others. Whatever affects the stabiUty slightest breach of decorum.

A

A

A

DISBELIEF of a merchant's credit is highly detrimental to his interests: whatever is prejudicial to the character of a man should not be made the subject of indiscriminate conversation.

DISAPPROVE, DisuKE.

Men

are disaffected to the government, disloyal to their prince. Disaffection may be said with regard to any form of government; disloyalty, only with re-

gard to monarchy. Although both terms are commonly employed in a bad sense, yet the former does not always convey the unfavorable meaning which is attached to the latter. A man may have reasons to think himself justified in disaffection, but he will never attempt to offer anything in justification of disloyalty. A usm-ped government will have many disaffected subjects with whom it must deal leniently; the best king may have disloyal subjects, upon whom he must exercise the rigor of the law. Many were disaffected to the usurpation of OUver Cromwell, because they would not be disloyal to their king.

DISAGREE. See Differ. DISAPPEAR, Vanish. To

disappear signifies not to appear (see Air). Vanish, in French ivanouir, Latin ev~ aneo or evanesco, compoimded of e and vanescere, to become empty, from vanus, empty, signifies to go out of sight.

To

disappear comprehends no parmode of action; to vanish includes in it the idea of a rapid motion. A thing disappears either gradually or suddenly; it vanishes on a sudden; it disappears in the ordinary course of

ticular

To

dis-

approve is not to approve, or to think not good. To dislike is not to like, or to find imlike or unsuitable to one's wishes.

DISAFFECTION, Disloyalty, Disaffection is general: disloyalty is particular; it is a species of disaffection.

267

Disapprove

is

an act

of the judgment;

dislike is an act of the will or the affection. To approve or disapprove is pe-

culiarly the part of a superior, or one determines the conduct oi others; is altogether a personal act, in which the feelings of the individual are consulted. It is a misuse of the

who

to dislike

judgment to disapprove where we need only dislike;

it

is

a perversion of the

judgment to disapprove because we dislike.

DISASTER.

See Calamity.

DISAVOW, Deny, Disown.

To

disavow, from dis and avow (see Acknowledge), is to avow that a thing is not: deny is to assert that a thing is not: disown, from dis and own, is to assert that a person or thing is not one's own or does not belong to one. disavowal is a general declaration; a denial is a particular assertion; the former is made voluntarily and unasked for, the latter is always in direct answer to a charge: jwe disavow in matters of general interest where truth only is concerned; we deny in matters of personal interest where the character or feelings are implicated. What is disavowed is generally in support of truth; what is denied may often be in direct violation of truth: an honest

A

mind

will always disavow whatever has been erroneously attributed to it; a timid person sometimes denies what he knows to be true from a fear of the

consequences.

Deny is said of things that concern others as well as ourselves; disown only of things in which one is personally concerned or supposed to be so. Denial is employed for events or indifferent matters; disowning extends to whatever one tan own or possess: a person the denies that there is anv truth assertion of another; he disowns all participation in any aiffair. Our veracdisappear in the firmament; hghtning ity or judgment is often the only thing vanishes with a rapidity that is un- impUcated in the denial: our guilt or innocence, honor or dishonor, is impUcated in what we disown. DISAPPOINT. See Defeat.

vanishes by an unusiial effort, a supernatural or a magic power. Anv object that recedes or moves away will soon disappear; in fairy tales things are made to vanish the instant they are beheld. To disappear is often a temporary action; to vanish generally conveys the idea of being permanently lost to the sight. The stars appear and things;

it

DISAPPROBATION. pleasure.

See

Dis-

m

DISAVOWED.

See Neutral. DisbeHrf

DISBELIEF, Unbeuef.

268

DISCARD

cernment and penetration are great aids toward discrimination; he who can discern the springs of human action or penetrate the views of men wiU be most appUbelieved before: disbelief is most fitted for discriminating between the cable to the ordinary events of life; characters of different men. Although judgment derives much asunbelief to serious matters of opinion: our disbelief of the idle tales which are sistance from the three former operatold by beggars is justified by the fre- tions, it is a totally distinct power: quent detection of their falsehood; our these only discover the things that are Saviour had compassion on Thomas for acting on external objects by seeing his unbelief, and gave him such evi- them: the judgment is creative; it dences of His identity as dissipated produces by deduction from that which every doubt. passes inwardly. Discernment and the DISCARD. See Dismiss. others are speculative; they are directed to that which is to be known, DISCERN. See Perceive. DISCERNMENT, Penetration, and are confined to present objects; Discrimination, Judgment. Discern- they serve to discover truth and falsement expresses the power of discerning hood, perfections and defects, motives Penetration denotes and pretexts: the judgment is practical; (see Perceive). the act or power of penetrating, from it is directed to that which is to be done, penetrate, in Latin penetraiv^, parti- and extends its views to the future; ciple of penetrare, from penitus, within, it marks the relations and connections and penus, the inner part of a sanc- of things; it foresees their consequences tuary, signifying to see into the in- and effects. Discrimination denotes the act Of discernment, we say that it is terior. or power of discriminating, from dis- clear;, it serves to remove all obscurity criminate, in Latin discriminatus, par- and confusion: of penetration we say ticiple of discrimino, to make a differ- that it is acute; it pierces every veil ence. Judgment denotes the power of which falsehood draws before truth, judging, from judge, in Latin jvdico, and prevents us from being deceived: compounded of jus, right, and dicere, of discrimination we say that it is nice signifying to pronounce right. it renders our ideas accurate and The first three of these terms do not serves to prevent us from confounding express different powers, but different objects; of judgment we say that it is modes of the same power; namely, the solid or sound; it renders the conduct power of seeing intellectually, or exert- prudent and prevents us from coming the intellectual sight. Discernment mitting mistakes or involving ourselves is not so powerful a mode of intellectual in embarrassments. When the question is to estimate the vision as penetration; the former is a common faculty, the latter is a higher real quahties of either persons or things, degree of the same faculty; it is the we exercise discernment; when it is repower of seeing quickly, and seeing in quired to lay open that which art or spitfe of all that intercepts the sight and cunning has concealed, we must exerkeeps the object 6ut of view: a man of cise penetration; when the question is common discernment discerns charac- to determine the proportions and deters which ar^ not concealed by any grees of qualities in persons or things, when particiilar disguise; a man of penetra- we must use discrimination; tion is not to be deceived by any arti- called upon to take any step or act fice, however thoroughly cloaked or any part, we must employ judgment. secured, even from suspicion. Discern- Discernment is more or less indispenOTenlktid penetration serve for the dis- sable for every man in private or public covery of individual things by their stations; he who has the most prooutward marks; discrimination is em- miscuous deahngs with "men has the Eloyed in th6 discovery of differences greatest need of it: penetration is of etween two or more objects; the for- pecuhar importance for princes and mer consists of simple observation, the statesmen: discrimination is of great latter combines also comparison: dis- utiUty for all who have to determine

properly implies the believing that a thing is not, or refusing to believe that it is. Unbelief expresses properly a believing the contrary of what one has

DISCREDIT

269

the characters and merits of others: judgment is an absolute requisite for all

discord consists most in the feeling; strife consists most in the outward acto whom the execution or management tion. Discord evinces itself in various of concerns is intrusted. ways; by looks, words, or actions: strife displays itself in words or acts See also Gumption. of violence. Discord is fatal to the DISCHARGE. See Dismiss. happiness of families; strife is the DISCIPLE. See Scholar. DISCLAIM, Disown. Disclaim and greatest enemy to peace between neighdisown are both personal acts respect- bors; discord arose between the goding the individual who is the agent; desses on the apple being thrown into to disclaim is to throw off a claim, as the assembly; Homer commences his to disoum (see Disavow) is not to ad- poem with the strife that took place mit as one's own; as claim, from the between Agamemnon and Achilles. Latin clamo, signifies to declare with Discord may arise from mere difference a loud tone what we want as our own; of opinion; strife is in general occaso to disclaim is, with an equally loud sioned by some matter of personal inor positive tone, to give up a claim: terest; discord in the councils of a this is a more positive act than to nation is the almost certain foredisown, which may be performed by runner of its ruin; the common prininsinuation or by the mere abstaining ciples of p>oliteness forbid strife among to own. He who feels himself dis- persons of good breeding. See also Dissension. graced by the actions that are done by DISCOURAGE. See Deter. his nation or his family will be ready to disclaim the very name which he DISCOURSE. See Speak. DISCOVER, Manifest, Declare. bears in common with the offending idea of making known is conveyed The party; an absurd pride sometimes imby all these terms; but discover, which pels men to disown their relationship to those who are beneath them in ex- signifies simply to take off the covering ternal rank and condition: an honest from anything, expresses less than mind will disclaim, all right to praise manifest (see Apparent), and that than which it feels not to belong to itself; declare (see Declare): we discover by the fear of ridicule sometimes makes any means direct or indirect; we mania man disown that which would re- fest by imquestionable marks; we dedound to his honor. clare by express words: talents and DISCLOSE. See Publish; Un- dispositions discover themselves; parcover; Unveil. ticular leeUngs and sentiments maniDISCOMPOSE. See Abash; Dis- fest themselves; facts, opinions, and order. sentiments are declared; children early DISCONCERT. See Abash; Baf- discover a turn for some particular art fle; Disorder; Snub. or science; a person manifests his reDISCONTINUE. See Cease. gard for another by unequivocal proofs DISCORD, Strife. Discord comes of kindness; a person of an open disfrom Latin dis, apart, and the stem position is apt to declare his sentiments cx>rd, heart, signifying a lack of harmony without disguise. between two people, but now it is conAnimals or unconscious agents may sciously used as a metaphor in which be said to discover, as things discover it derives its signification from the symptoms of decay; but persons only, harshness produced in music by the or things personified, manifest or declashing of^ two strings which do not clare; cruelty may oe manifested by suit with each other; whence, in the actions; the works of the creation demoral sense, the chords of the mind clare the wisdom of the Creator. which come into an unsuitable colSee also Detect; Find; Spt; Unlision

produce a discord.

Strife

comes cover.

DISCREDIT, Disgrace, Reproach. any angry Scandal. Discredit signifies the loss of maimer (see Contend); where there credit; disgrace, the loss of grace, favor, is strife there must be discord; but or esteem; reproach stands for the there may be discord without strife; thing that deserves to be reproached,

from the word

strive,

action of striving, that

to denote the

is,

in

270

DISCRETION

and scandal comes from Greek oKavSaKov, Latin scandalum, a stumbling-block, from the root found in ascend, signifying to step or jump. The conduct of men in their various relations with one another may give rise to the unfavorable sentiment which is expressed in common by these terms. Things are said to reflect discredit or disgrace, or to bring reproach or scandal on the individual. These terms seem to rise in sense one upon the other: disgrace is a stronger term than discredit, reproach than disgrace, siadscandal thajxreproach. Discredit interferes with a man's credit or respectabiUty; disgrace marks him out as an object of unfavorable distinction; reproach makes him a subject of reproachfid conversation; scandal makes him an object of offence or even abhorrence. As regularity in hours, regularity in habits or modes of hving, regularity in payments, are a credit to a family, so is any deviation from this order to its discredit: as moral rectitude, kindness, charity, and benevolence serve to insure the good-will and esteem of men, so do instances of unfair deahng, cruelty, inhumanity, and an unfeeling temper tend to the disgrace of the offender: as a life of distinguished virtue or particular instances of moral excellence may cause a man to be spoken of in strong terms of commendation, so will flagrant atrocities or a course of immorality cause his name and himself to be the general subject of reproach: as the profession of a Christian with a consistent practice is the greatest ornament which a man can put on, so is the profession with an inconsistent practice the greatest deformity that can be witnessed; it is calculated to bring a scandal on reUgion itself in the eyes of those who do not know and feel its

The term reproach is also taken for the object of reproach, and scandal for the object of scandal. See also Disgrace. DISCRETION. See Judgment. DISCRIMINATE. See Distinguish.

DISCRIMINATION.

See Discern-

ment.

DISCUSS, Examine. Latin

from

Discuss,

in

disciissus, participle of discutio, dis, apart,

and

quatere, to shake,

shake asunder or to separate thoroughly so as to see the whole Examine, in Latin excomposition. amino, comes from examen, the middle beam, or thread, by which the poise of the balance is held, because the judgment holds the balance in examsignifies to

ining.

The intellectual operation expressed by these terms is applied to objects that cannot be immediately discerned or understood, but they vary both in mode and degree. Discussion is altogether carried on by verbal and personal communication; examination proceeds by reading, reflection, and observation; we often examine, therefore, by discussion, which is properly one mode of examination; a discussion is always carried on by two or more persons; an examination may be carried on by one only: politics are a frequent though not always a pleasant subject of discussion in social meetings; complicated questions cannot be too thoroughly examined.

DISDAIN.

See Contemn;

Haugh-

tiness.

DISDAINFUL.

See Contemptu-

ous.

DISEASE. See Disorder. DISEASED. See Sick.

DISENGAGE,

Disentangle, Ex-

Disengage signifies to make Disentangle Discredit and disgrace are negative free from an engagement. qualities, and apply properly to the out- is to get rid of an entanglement. Extriward and adventitious circumstances of cate, in Latin extricatvs, from ex and a person; but reproach and scandal are triccB, difficulties, impediments. As to something positive and have respect to engage signifies simply to bind, and the moral character. A man may entangle signifies to bind in an involved bring discredit or disgrace upon himself manner (for derivation and meaning by trivial or indifferent things; but re- see Embarrass), to disentangle is proach or scandal follows only the vio- naturally apphed to matters of greatlation of some positive law, moral or er difficulty and perplexity than to disengage; and as the term extricate divine. intrinsic excellences.

tricate.

DISHONOR includes the idea of that which would hold fast and keep within a tight in-

volvement,

it

is

employed with

re-

spect to matters of the greatest pos-

embarrassment

and intricacy: we may be disengaged from an oath; disentangled from pecimiary difficulties; extricated from a perplexity; it sible

is

not right to expect to be disengaged all the duties which attach to

from

men

as members of society; he who enters into metaphysical disquisitions must not expect to be soon disentangled: when a general has committed himself by coming into too close a contact with a very superior force, he sometimes may be able to extricate himself from his awkward situation by his general-

271

supposes peculiar art and design in the accomplishment. It is dishonest to take anything from another which does not belong to one's self^ it is knavish to get it by fraud or artifice, or by imposing on the confidence of another. We may prevent dishonest practices by ordinary means of security; but we must not trust ourselves in the company of knavish people if we do not wish to be overreached.

DISHONOR,

Shame. what does away honor. Dis^ace (see Degrade). Shame signifies what produces sliame. DisDishonor

Disgrace,

signifies

honor deprives a person of those outward marks of honor which men look for according to their rank and station, ship. or it is the state of being dishonored or DISENTANGLE. See Disengage. less thought of and esteemed than one DISFIGURE. See Deface. wishes. Disgrace deprives a man of the DISGRACE. See Abase; Dis- favor and kmdness which he has herecredit; DiSHONOK. tofore received from others, or it is the DISGUISE. See Conceal. state of being positively cast off by DISGUST, Loathing, Nausea. those who have before favored him or Disgust, from dis and gustare, to taste, by whom he ought to be looked upon from Latin gicstus, the taste, denotes with favor. It is the fault of the indithe aversion of the taste to an object. vidual that causes the disgrace. Shame Loathing (see Abhor). Nausea, in expresses more than disgrace; it is ocLatin nausea, from the Greek vavc, a casioned by direct mord turpitude or that of which one ought to be ashamed. ship, properly denotes seasickness. Disgust is less than loathing, and that The fear of dishonor acts as a laudable than nausea. When applied to sensible stimulus to the discharge of one's duty; objects, we are disgusted with dirt; we the fear of disgrace or shame serves to loathe the smell of food if we have a prevent the commission of vices or A soldier feels it a dishonor sickly appetite; we nauseate medicine: crimes. and when apphed metaphorically we not to be placed at the j)ost of danger, are disgusted with affectation; we loathe but he is not always suflBciently alive the endearments of those who are of- to the disgrace of being punished, nor fensive; we natiseate all the enjoy- is he deterred from his irregularities by ments of life after having made an the open shame to which he is someintemperate use of them and dis- times put in the presence of his fellowcovered their inanity. soldiers. See also Dislike. As epithets they likewise rise in DISHEARTEN. See Abash; De- sense and are distmguished by other ter. characteristics: a dishonorable action DISHONEST, Knavish. Dishonest is that which violates the principles of marks the contrary to honest; knavish honor; a disgraceful action is that which marks the hkeness to a knave, from reflects disgrace; a shameful action is Anglo-Saxon cnapa, a boy, German that of which one ought to be fully knabe, a boy, a bojr-servant; hence ashamed: it is very dishonorable for a some one as mischievous and un- man not to keep his word; very dt«rehable as boy-servants were likely gracefuL for a gentleman to associate to be. Dishonest characterizes sim- with those who are his inferiors in ply the mode of action;. knavish char- station and education; very shameful acterizes the agent as well as the action: for him to use his rank and influence what is dishonest violates the estab- over the lower orders only to mislead The sense of lished laws of man; what is knavish them from their duty.

DISINCLINATION

272

what is dishonorable is to the superior I am displeased with him for his carewhat the sense of the disgraceful is to lessness, and dissatisfied with his labor. the inferior, but the sense of what is Displeasure is awakened by whatever is independent of rank or and forms a part of that moral which is inherent in the breast sense of every rational creature. Whoever, therefore, cherishes in himself a Uvely

done amiss:

dissatisfaction is caused

shamefid

is

Station,

by what happens amiss

sense of

what

is

dishonorable or dis-

or contrary to

our

e^qpectation. Accordingly, the word dissatisfaction is not confined to of persons a particular rank, but to the nature of the connection which sub-

sists between them. Whoever does not committing anything that is shameful. receive what he thinks himself enSee also Disgrace. titled to from another is dissatisfied. DISINCLINATION. See Dislike. A servant may be dissatisfied with the DISJOIN. See Separate. treatment he meets with from his DISJOINT, Dismember. Disjoint master; and may be said, therefore, signifies to separate at the joint. Dis- to express dissatisfaction, though not

graceful is tolerably secure of never

member

signifies to separate

the

mem-

displeasure.

In regard to things, dislike is a casunot arising from any specific cause. A dissatisfaction is connected with our desires and expectations: we A dislike the performance of an actor from one or many causes, or from no apparent cause; but we are dissaiisfied with his performance if it fall short of or parts are separated from one another. what we were led to expect. In order So in the metaphorical sense our to lessen the number of our dislikes we ideas are said to be disjointed when ought to endeavor not to dislike withthey are so thrown out of their order out a cause; and in order to lessen our that they do not fall in with one an- dissatisfaction we ought to be moderate other: and kingdoms are said to be in our expectation. dismembered where any part or parts Dislike, distaste, and disgust rise on are separated from the rest. one another in their signification. DisDISLIKE, Displeasure, Dissatis- taste expresses more than dislike, and faction, Distaste, Disgust. Dislike disgust more than distaste. Dislike is Displeasure signifies a partial feeling, quickly produced and (see Aversion). the opposite to pleasure. Dissatisfac- quickly subsiding; distaste is a settled tion is the opposite to satisfaction. feeling, gradually produced and permaDistaste is the opposite to an agreeable nent in its duration: disgust is either transitory or otherwise; momentarily taste. Dislike and dissatisfaction denote the or gradually produced, but stronger feeling or sentiment produced either by than either of the two others. Caprice persons or things: displeasure, that pro- has a great share in our Ukes and disduced by persons only distaste and dis- likes: distaste depends upon the changes gust, that produced by things only. In to which the constitution physically regard to persons, dislike is the senti- and mentally is exposed: disgust owes ment of equals and persons uncon- its origin to the nature of things and nected; displeasure and dissatisfaction, their natural operation on the minds of superiors, or such as stand in some of men. A child likes and dislikes his particular relation to one another. playthings without any apparent cause Strangers may feel a dislike upon seeing for the change of sentiment: after a each other: parents or masters may long illness a person will frequently feel displeasure or dissatisfaction: the take a distaste to the food or the former sentiment is occasioned by sup- amusements which before afforded him posed faults in the moral conduct of the much pleasure: what is indecent or child or servant; the latter by sup- filthy is a natural object of disgust to posed defective services. I dislike a every person whose mind is not deperson for his assumption or loquacity; praved. It is good to suppress unbers.

The terms here spoken of derive their distinct meaning and application from the signification of the words joint and limb of the body may be member. disjointed if it be so put out of the joint that it cannot act; but the body itself is dismembered when the different limbs

:

al feeling

DISORDER

273

founded dislikes; it is difficult to over- descartar, compounded ofdes and cartar, come a strong distaste; it is advisable signifies to lay cards out or aside, to cast to divert our attention from objects them off. The idea of removing to a distance is calculated to create disgust. included in all these terms, but with See also Aversion; Disapprove.

—

Dislike (see various collateral circumstances. DisDisinclination is the reverse of miss is the general term; discharge and inclination (see Attachment). Dislike discard are modes of dismissing: dismiss applies to what one has or does; dis- is applicable to persons of all stations, inclination only to what one does: we but used more particularly for the dislike the thing we have, or dislike to higher orders: discharge, on the other do a thing; but we are disinclined only hand, is confined to those in a subclerk is disto do a thing. They express a similar ordinate station. feeUng that differs in degree. Disincli- missed; a menial servant is discharged: nation is but a small degree of dislike; an officer is dismissed; a soldier is dislike marks something contrary; dis- discharged. Neither dismiss nor discharge defines inclination does not amount to more than the absence of an incUnation. the motive of the action they are used None but a disobU^ng temper has a indifferently for that which is volimdislike to comply with reasonable re- tary or the contrary: discard, on the quests; but the .most obhging disposi- contrary, always marks a dismissal that tion may have an occasional disinclina- is not agreeable to the party discarded. person may request to be dismissed tion to comply with a particular reor discharged, but never to be discarded. quest. DISLOYALTY. See Disaffection. The dismissal or discharge frees a person from the obligation or necessity of DISMAL. See Dull. pierforming a certain duty; the disDISMANTLE. See Demolish. DISMAY, Daunt, Appal. Dismay carding throws him out of a desirable comes from the Old French participle rank or station. They are all applied to things in the form, dismaye, of a verb compounded from Latin dis, privative, and Old moral sense: we are said to dismiss our High German magan, might or power. fears, to discharge a duty, and to discard Daunt comes from Latin domare to a sentiment from the mind. Dislike, Disinclination.

above)

.

A

;

A

tame, English tame being probably the same word originally. Appal, compounded of the intensive ad and pallere, to grow pale, signifies to make pale with fear. The effect of fear on the spirit is strongly expressed by all these terms; but dismay expresses less than daunt, and this than appall. We are dismayed by alarming circumstances; we are daunted by terrifying; we are appalled

A

severe deby horrid circumstances. feat will dismay so as to lessen the force of resistance: the fiery glare from the eyes of a ferocious beast will daunt him

who was venturing

to approach: the

sight of an apparition will appall the stoutest heart.

DISMEMBER. DISMISS,

See Disjoint Discharge, Disca.rd.

Dismiss, in Latin dismissus, participle of dimitto, compounded of dis, away, and mittere, to send, signifies to send away. Discharge signifies to release from a charge. Discard, in Spanish

DISORDER, Derange,

Discon-

cert, Discompose. Disorder signifies to put out of order. Derange, from de ana range or rank, signifies to put out of the rank in which it was placed. Disconcert, to put out of the concert or harmony. Discompose, to put out of a state of composure. All these terms express the idea of putting out of order; but the latter three vary as to the mode or object The term disorder is of the action. used in a perfectly indefinite form, and might be applied to any object. As everything may be in order, so may everything be disordered; yet it is seldom used except in regard to such things as have been in a natural order. Derange and disconcert are employed in speaking of such things as have been put into an artificial order. To derange is to disorder that which has been systematically arranged or put in a certain range; and to disconcert is to disorder that which has been put

DISORDERED

274

together by concert or contrivance: thus the body may be disordered; a man's affairs or papers deranged; a scheme disconcerted. To discompose is a species of derangement in regard to trivial matters: thus a tucker, a frill, or a cap may be discomposed. The shghtest change of diet will disorder people of tender constitutions: misfortunes are apt to derange the affairs of the most prosperous: the unexpected return of a master to his home disconcerts the schemes which have been formed by the domestics: those who are particular as to their appearance are careful not to have any part of their dress discomposed.

When apphed to the mind, disorder and derange are said of the intellect; disconcert and discompose of the ideas or

the former denoting a per-

spirits,

manent

state, the latter a temporary or transient state. The mind is said to be disordered when the faculty of ratiocination is in any degree interrupted; the intellect is said to be

deranged tive

when

it is

brought into a posi-

incapacity for

of

state

action:

persons are sometimes disordered in their minds for a time by particular occurrences who do not become actually deranged; a person is said to be disconcerted who suddenly loses his collectedness of thinking: he is said to be discomposed who loses his regularity of feehng. sense of shame is the most apt to disconcert: the more irritable the temper the more easily one is discomposed. See also Jumble. Disorder, Disease, Distemper, Malady. Disorder signifies the state of being out of order. Disease signifies the state of being ill at ease, from Old French des, privative, and aise, ease. Distemper signifies the state of being out of temper or out of a due tempera-

A

—

more general than the other it comprehends every serious and permanent disorder in the animal economy, and is therefore of is

also

terms, for

universal application. The disorder is sUght, partial, and transitory: the disease is deep-rooted and permanent. The disorder may he in the extremities: the disease hes in the humors and the vital parts. Occasional headaches, colds, and what is merely cutaneous are termed disorders; fevers, dropsies, and

the

like are diseases. Distemper is used for such particularly as throw the animal frame most completely out

of its

temper or course, and

is

conse-

quently apphed properly to virulent disorders, such as the smallpox. Malady has less of a technical sense than the other terms; it refers more to the suffering than to the state of the body. There "may be many maladies where there is no disease; but diseases are themselves in general maladies. Our maladies are frequently bom with us, but oiu* diseases may come upon us at any time of hfe. Blindness is in itself a malady and may be produced by a disease in the Oiu" disorders are frequently eye. cured by abstaining from those things which caused them; the whole science of medicine consists in finding out suitable remedies for our diseases; our maladies may be lessened with patience, although they cannot always

be alleviated or removed by art. The terms disorder, disease, and distemper may be apphed with a similar distinction to the mind as well as the The disorders are either of a

body.

temporary or a permanent nature, but, unless specified to the contrary, are understood to be temporary: diseases consist in vicious habits: our distempers arise from the violent operations of passion; our maladies lie in ment. Malady is derived from the the injuries which the affections ocLatin male habitus, badly settled, in casion. Any perturbation in the mind a bad condition. is a disorder: avarice is a disease: AH these terms agree in their apph- melancholy is a distemper as far as it cation to the state of the animal body. throws the mind out of its bias; it is Disorder is, as before, the general term, a malady as far as it occasions siiffering. and the other specific. In this general DISORDERED. See Topsy-turvy. sense disorder is altogether indefinite; DISORDERLY. See Irregular. but in its restricted sense it expresses DISOWN. See Disavow; Disclaim. less

than

all

the rest:

commencement

it is

the mere

of a disease:

disease

DISPARAGE, Detract, Traduce, Depreciate, Degrade, Decry. Dis-

DISPARITY Enrage, compounded of dis and Late atin paraticum, from par, equal, signifies to make a thing imequal or below what it ought to be. Detract (see Asperse). Traduce, from Latin trans,

275

p>erverted notions that they are always depreciating whatever is esteemed excellent in the world: they whose interests have stifled all feelings of humanity have degraded the poor Africans in order to justify the enslaving of them: political partisans commonly decry the measures of one party in order to exalt those of another. Disparage, Derogate, Degrade. Disparage (see above). Derogate, in Latin derogatus, from de, from, away, and rogare, to ask, meaning to "ask away," to repeal in part, signifies to take from

and ducere, to lead, signifies to carry from one to another that which Depreciate, from the is unfavorable. Latin pretium, a price, signifies tq bring down the price. Degrade (see Abase). Decry signifies Uterally to cry down. The idea of lowering the value of an object is common to all these words, which differ in the circiunstances and object of the action. Disparagement is a thing that which is claimed. Degrade the most indefinite in the manner: de- (see Abase). Disparage is here employed, not as tract and traduce are specific in the forms by which an object is lowered: dis- the act of persons, but oi things, in paragement respects the mental endow- which case it is aUied to derogate, but ments and qualifications: detract and retains its indefinite and general sense traduce are said of the moral character, as before circumstances may disparage the former, however, in a less specific the performances of a writer, or they manner than the latter. We disparage may derogate from the honors and diga man's performance by speaking nities of an individual: it would be a slightingly of it: we detract from the high disparagement to an author to merits of a person by ascribing his suc- have it known that he had been guilty cess to chance; we traduce him by of plagiarism; it derogates from the handing about tales that are unfavor- dignity of a magistrate to take part in able to his reputation: thus authors are popular measures. To degrade is here, apt to disparage the writings of their as in the former case, a much stronger rivals; or a soldier may detract from expression than the other two: whatthe skill of his commander, or he may ever disparages or derogates does but traduce him by relating scandalous take away a part from the value: but whatever degrades a thing sinks it many reports. To disparage, detract, and traduce can degrees in the estimation of those in be applied only to persons or that whose eyes it is degraded; in this manwhich is personal; depreciate, degrade, ner religion is degraded by the low arts and decry, to whatever is an object of of its enthusiastic professors: whatever esteem; we depreciate and degrade, tends to the disparagement of learning therefore, things as well as persons, and or knowledge does injury to the cause decry things: to depreciate is, however, of truth; whatever derogates from the not so strong a term as to degrade, for dignity of a man in any office is apt to the language which is employed to degrade the office itself. DISPARITY, Inequality. Disdepreciate will be mild compared with that used for degrading: we may depre- parity, from dis, negative, and par^ Inequalrciate an object by implication or in equal, means to be unequal. indirect terms, but harsh and unseemly ily, from the Latin in, negative, and epithets are employed for degrading: ceguus, even, signifies having no reguthus a man may be said to depreciate larity. Disparity appUes to two objects himian nature who does not represent it as capable of its true elevation; he which should meet or stand in coahtion degrades it who sinks it below the scale with each other: inequality is appliof rationaUty. We may depreciaie or cable to those who are compared with degrade an individual, a language, and each other: the disparity of age, situathe like; we decry measures and princi- tion, and circimistances is to be conples: the former two are an act of an sidered with regard to persons entermdividual; the latter is properly the ing into a matrimonial connection: act of many. Some men have such the inequality in the portion of labor across,

—

:

DISPASSIONATE

276

to be performed by two pera ground for the inequality of their recompense: there is a great inequality in the chance of success where there is a disparity of acquire-

which sons

is

is

a direct and personal action communicated by the giver to the re-

distribute is

ceiver Providence dispenses His favors to those who put a sincere trust in Him; a prince distributes marks of his favor the dis- and preference among his courtiers.

ments

in rival candidates: parity between David and GoUath was such as to render the success of the former more strikingly miraculous; the inequality in the conditions of men

:

DISPERSE. See Dispel; Spread. DISPLAY. See Show. DISPLEASE, Offend, Vex. Dis-

please (see Dislike) naturally marks not attended with a corresponding the contrary of pleasing. Offend, from inequality in their happiness. Latin ob, against, and fendere, to strike, DISPASSIONATE, Cool. Dispas- means, hterally, to strike against. Vex, sionate is taken negatively, it marks in Latin vexo, is a frequentative of vemerely the absence of passion; cool here, to carry (whence vehicle), signifyis taken positively, it marks an entire ing literally to toss up and down. freedom from passion. These words express the painful senThose who are prone to be passion- timent which is felt by the supposed ate must learn to be dispassionate; impropriety of another's conduct. Disthose who are of a cool temperament please is not always applied to that will not suffer their passions to be which personally concerns ourselves; Dispassionate solely respects although offend and vex have always roused. angry or irritable sentiments; cool more or less of what is personal in respects any perturbed feeling: when them: a superior may be displeased we meet with an angry disputant it is with one who is under his charge for necessary to be dispassionate in order improper behavior toward persons in to avoid quarrels; in the moment of general; he will be offended with him danger our safety often depends upon for disrespectful behavior toward himour coolness. self or neglect of his interests: circumDISPEL, Disperse. Dispel, from stances as well as actions serve to the Latin pellere, to drive, signifies to displease; a supposed intention or dedrive away. Disperse comes from Latin sign is requisite in order to offend; dis, apart, and spargere, to scatter, and we may be displeased with a person or means to scatter in all directions. at a thing; one is mostly offended with Dispel is a more forcible action than the person; a child may be displeased to disperse: we destroy the existence at not having any particular hberty or of a thing by dispelling it; we merely indulgence granted to him; he may be destroy the junction or cohesion of a offended with his playfellow for an act body by dispersing it; the sun dispels of incivihty or unkindness. the clouds and darkness; the wind disDisplease respects mostly the inward perses the clouds or a surgeon dis- state of feeUng; offend and vex have perses a tumor. most regard to the outward cause which DISPENSE, Distribute. Dispense, provokes the feeling: a humorsome from dis, asunder, and pendere, to person may be displeased without any weigh, to weigh out money, to bestow, apparent cause, but a captious person is

bestow in different direc- will at least have some avowed trifle distribute, from the Latin for which he is offended. Vex expresses trihu£re, to assign, signifies the same more than offend; it marks, in fact, thing. Dispense is an indiscriminate frequent efforts to offend, or the act action; distribute is a particularizing of offending under aggravated circumsignifies to

tions;

and

action: we dispense to all; we distrib- stances: we often unintentionally disvie to each individually: nature dis- please or offend, but he who vexes has penses her gifts bountifully to all the mostly that object in view in so doing: mihabitants of the earth; a parent dis- any instance of neglect displeases; any tribuies among his children different marked instance of neglect offends; any tokens of his parental tenderness. aggravated instance of neglect vexes. Dispense is an indirect action that has The feeling of displeasure is more perno immediate reference to the receiver; ceptible and vivid than that of offence,

DISPOSAL but it is less durable: the feeling of vexation is as transitory as that of displeasure, but stronger than either. Displeasure and vexation betray themselves by an angry word or look; offence discovers itself in the whole conduct: our displeasure is unjustifiable when it exceeds the measure of another's fault; it is a mark of great weakness to take offence at trifles; persons of the greatest irritabihty are exposed to the most

277

that which is already disapprobation may be

come to pass; felt ujwn that

which is to take place; a master feels displeasure at the carelessness of his servant; a parent expresses his disapprobaiion of his son's proposal to leave his situation; it is sometimes prudent to check our displeasure, and mostly prudent to express our disapprobation;

the former cannot be expressed without infhcting pain; the latter cannot be withheld when required without the frequent veocations. These terms may all be applied to danger of misleading. See also Dislike. the acts of unconscious agents on the mind. DISPOSAL, Disposition, These As epithets they admit of a similar words derive their different meanings distinction: it is very displeasing to from the verb to dispose, to which they parents not to meet with the most owe their common origin. Disposal is a respectful attentions from children personal act; it depends upon the will when they give them counsel; and such of the individual: disposition is an act conduct on the part of children is of the judgment; it depends upon the highly offensive to God: when we meet nature of the things. The removal of with an offensive object we do most a thing from one's self is involved in wisely to turn away from it: when we a disposal; the good order of the things are troubled with vexatious affairs our is comprehended in their disposition. The disposal of property is in the hands best and only remedy is patience. Displeasure, Anger, Disapprobation. of the rightful owner; the success of a Displeasure (see Dislike). Anger (for battle often depends upon the right derivation see Anger) Disapprobation disposition of an army. is the reverse of approbation (see Dispose, Arrange, Digest. Dispose, in Assent). French disposer, from Latin dis, apart, Between displeasure and anger there and French poser, is derived from is a difference in the degree, the Greek iravmg, a pause, not from Latin cause, and the consequence of the feel- ponere (see Compose). Arrange (see ing: displeasure is always a softened Class). Digest, in Latin digestus, parand gentle feeling; anger is always a ticiple of digero, or dis, apart, and harsh feeUng, and sometimes rises to gerere, past participle gestus, to carry, vehemence and madness. Displeasure signifies to gather apart with design. is always produced by some adequate The idea of a systematic laying apart cause, real or supposed; but anger may is common to all, and proper to the be provoked by every or any cause, ac- word dispose. We dispose when we cording to the temper of the individual: arrange and digest; but we do not aldispleasure is mostly satisfied with a ways arrange and digest when we dissimple, verbal expression; but anger, pose; they differ in the circumstances unless kept down with great force, al- and object of the action. There is less ways seeks to return evil, for evil. thought employed in disposing than in Displeasure and disapprobation are to arranging and digesting; we mav disbe compared, inasmuch as they respect pose ordinary matters by simply asthe conduct of those who are imder the signing a place to each; in this manner direction of others: displeasure is an trees are disposed in a row, but we act of the will, it is an angry sentiment; arrange and digest by an intellectual disapprobation is an act of the judg- effort in the first case by putting those ment, it is an opposite opinion: any together which ought to go together, mark of self-will in a child is calculated and in the latter case bj^ both separatto excite displeasure; a mistaken choice ing that which is dissimilar and bringin matrimony may produce disappro- ing together that which is similar^ in a bation in the parent. this manner books are arranged Displeasure is always produced by library according to their size or their

—

—

.

;

m

DISPOSED

278

the materials for a literary production are digested, or the laws of the land are digested. What is not wanted should be neatly disposed in a suitable place: nothing contributes so much to beauty and convenience as the arrangement of everything according to the way and manner in which they should follow; when writings are involved in great intricacy and confusion, it is diflBcult to digest them. In an extended and moral apph cation of these words we speak of a person's time, talent, and the like being disposed to a good purpose; of a man's ideas being properly arranged, and of being digested into form. On the disposition of a man's time and property will depend in a great measure his success in life; on the arrangement of accounts greatly depends his facility in conducting business; on the habit of digesting our thoughts depends in a subject;

great measiu-e correctness of thinking.

temperament or that frame of mind which results from or is influenced

by

it.

—

Disposition, Inclination. Disposition in the former section is taken for the general frame of the mind; in the present case for its particular frame. Inclination (see Attachment).

more

positive than inalways expect a man to do that which he is disposed to do; but we cannot always calculate upon his executing that to which he is merely inclined. We indulge a disposi-

Disposition

clination.

is

We may

tion; we yield to an inclination. The disposition comprehends the whole state of the mind at the time; an inclination is particular, referring always to a particular object. After the performance of a serious duty, no one is expected to be in a disposition for laughter or merriment: it is becoming to suppress our inclination to laughter in the presence of those who wish to be serious; we should be careful not to enter into controversy with one who shows a disposition to be unfriendly.

See also Direct; Place. Disposition, Temper. Disposition, from dispose, signifies here the state of being disposed. Temper, like tempera- When a young person discovers any ment, from the Latin temperare, to inclination to study, there are hopes of temper or manage, signifies the thing his improvement. mocieUed or formed. DISPOSED. See Affected. These terms are both applied to the DISPROVE. See Confttte. mind and its bias; but disposition reDISPUTE. See Argue; Bicker; spects the whole frame and texture of the mind; temper respects only the Contend; Controvert; Difference. DISQUISITION. See Topic. bias or tone of the feeUngs. DISREGARD, Neglect, Slight. Disposition is permanent and settled; temper may be transitory and fluctuat- Disregard signifies properly not to reing. The disposition comprehends the gard. Neglect, in Latin neglectus, partisprings and motives of actions; the ciple of negligo, is compoimded of nee, temper influences the action of the mo- not, and legare, to gather or choose out, ment: it is possible and not infrequent signifying not to choose, to pay no Slight comes from an to have a good disposition with a bad attention to. Old Low Grerman word which originaltemper, and vice versd. A good disposition makes a man a ly meant flat, smooth, and developed useful member of society, but not al- in English through a series of meanings, ways a good companion; a. good temper smooth, simple, etc., into the meaning renders him acceptable to all and of trivial, unimportant. The verb peaceable with all, but essentially use- slight means to treat as if of no imful to none: a good disposition will go portance. far toward correcting the errors of We disregard the warnings, the temper; but where there is a bad dis- words, or opinions of others; we neglect position there are no hopes of amend- their injunctions or their precepts. To ment. The disposition is properly said disregard results from the settled purto be natural, the temper is rather ac- pose of the mind; to neglect, from a quired or formed by circiunstances. temporary forgetfulness or oversight. If the temper be taken for what is What is disregarded is seen and passed natural, it implies either the physical over; what is neglected is generally not

—

DISTINGUISH thought of at the time required. What is disregarded does not strike the mind at

all;

what

only when

we

enters the mind before the eye: what

is neglected

it is

disregard

is

not esteemed; what we

neglect is often esteemed, but not sufficiently to be remembered or practised: a child disregards the prudent counsels of a parent; he neglects to use

279

DISSENT. See Differ. DISSENTER. See Heretic. DISSERTATION. See Essay. DISSIMILAR. See Heterogeneotrs.

DISSIMULATION.

See Simula-

tion.

DISSIPATE. See Spend. DISSOLUTE. See Loose. the remedies which have been preDISTANT, Far, Remote. Distant scribed to him. is employed as an adjunct or otherDisregard and neglect are frequently wise; far is used only as an adverb. not personal acts; they respect the We speak of distant objects, or objects thing more than the person; slight is being distant; but we speak of things altogether an intentional act toward only as being far. Distant, in Latin

an individual or toward any object distans, compounded of dis, apart, and which one has heretofore esteemed or the participle starts, standing, from the ought to esteem. verb stare, to stand, means standing DISSATISFACTION. See Dislike. apart, and is employed only for bodies dissatisfying; See Unsatis- at rest. Far comes from a Germanic TACTORY. and ultimately an Aryan root meaning DISSEMBLE. See Conceal. beyond, found in Greek irspav, beyond; and is employed for bodies disseminate. See Spread. DISSENSION, Contention, Dis- either stationary or otherwise; hence cord. Dissension marks either the act we say a thing is distant, or it goes, runs, or the state of dissenting. Contention or flies far. Distant is used to desigmarks the act of contending. Discord nate great space; far only that which is ordinarj': astronomers estimate that (see Contention). collision of opinions produces dis- the sun is ninety-four miUions of miles sension; a colUsion of interests pro- distant from the earth; a person Uves duces contention; a colUsion of humors not very far off, or a person is far from love of one's own the spot. Distant is used absolutely produces discord. Reopinion, combined with a disregard for to express an intervening space. the opinion of others, gives rise to mote, in Latin remotus, participle of selfishness is the main removere, to move back or away, rather dissension; cause of contention, and an imgovemed expresses the relative idea of being gone person is said to Uve in out of sight. temper that of discord. distant country, or in a remote corner Dissension is pecuUar to bodies or a country. communities of men; contention is ap- of any They bear a similar analogy in the pUcable mostly, and discord always, to figurative application; when we speak Christian temper of individuals. remote idea it designates that which conformity to the general wiU of those of a is less liable to strike the mind than a with whom one is in connection would

A

A

A

A

A

distant

relationship

do away with dissension; a limitation of distant idea. between individuals is never altogether one's desire to that which is attainable when the connection beby legitimate means would put a stop lost sight of; tween objects is very remote it easily to contention; a correction of one s escapes observation. impatient and irritable humor would DISTASTE. See Disukb. check the progress of discord. DissenDISTEMPER. See Disorder. sion tends not only to alienate the See Categorical; DISTINCT. minds of men from one another, but to dissolve the bonds of society; conten- Different. DISTINCTION. See Difference; tion is accompanied by anger, ill-will, envy, and many evil passions; discord Fashion. DISTINCTLY. See Clear. interrupts the progress of the kind DISTINGUISH, Discriminate. To affections, and oars all tender interdistinguish (see Abstract) is the gencourse.

DISTORT

280

A man may be distinguished eral, to discriminate (see Discernment) stances. is the particular term: the former is an by his decorations, or he may be disindefinite, the latter a definite action. tinguished by his manly air, or by To discriminate is in fact to distinguish specifically; hence we speak of a distinction as true or false, but of a disdistinguish crimination as nice. things as to their divisibility or unity;

We

we

discriminate

them

as to their inher-

ent properties; we distinguish things that are alike or unhke, in order to separate or collect them; we discriminate those that are different, for the purpose of separating one from the other: we distinguish by means of the senses as well as the imderstanding; we discriminate by the understanding only: we distinguish things by their color or we distinguish moral objects by their truth or falsehood; we discriminate the characters of men or we discriminate their merits according to

circumstances.

See also Abstract; Perceive; Signalize. Distinguish, Conspicuous, Noted, Eminent, Illustrious. Distinguished

—

having a mark of distinction is to be distinguished (see Abstract). Conspicuous, in Latin conspicuus, from con, intensive, and spicere, to see, signifies easily to be seen. Noted comes from notus, known, well known. Eminent, in Latin eminens, from emineo, or e and a stem min, signifying to project, found in English signifies

by which a thing

means projecting out. Ila badly coined word from the root of lux, fight, meaning full of prominent,

lustrious is

shining out. idea of an object having something attached to it to excite notice is common to all these terms. Distinguished in its general sense expresses little more than this idea; the rest are thing but modes of the distinguished. is distinguished in proportion as it is distinct or separate from others; it is conspicuous in proportion as it is easily seen; it is noted in proportion as it is widely known. In this sense a rank is distinguished; a situation is conspicuous; a place is noted. Persons are distinguished by external marks or by characteristic qualities; persons or things are conspicuous mostly from some external mark; persons or things are noted mostly by collateral circum-

light,

The

A

his abiUties:

a person

by the gaudiness

is

conspicuous

of his dress;

a house

conspicuous that stands on a hill: a person is noted for having performed a wonderful cure; a place is noted for its fine waters. We may be distinguished for things good, bad, or indifferent: we may be conspicuous for our singularities or that which only attracts vulgar notice: we may be noted for that which is bad, and mostly for that which is the subject of vulgar discourse: we can be eminent and illustrious only for that which is really good and praiseworthy; the former applies, however, mostly to those things whicdi set a man high in the circle of has acquaintance; the latter to that which makes him shine before the world. A man of distinguished talent wiU be apt to excite envy if he be not also distinguished for his private virtue affection is never better pleased than when it can place itself in such a conspicuous situation as to draw all eyes upon itself: lovers of fame are sometimes contented to render themselves noted for their vices or absurdities: nothing is more gratifying to a man than to render himself eminent for his professional skill: it is the lot of but few to be illustrious, and those few are very seldom to be envied. In an extended and moral appfication these terms may be employed as epithets to heighten the character of an object: valor may be said to be distinguished, piety eminent, and a is

:

name

illustrious.

DISTORT. See Turn. DISTORTED. See Wry.

DISTRACTED.

See Absent. Anxiety, Anguish, Distress (see Adversity).

DISTRESS, Agony.

Anxiety is aUied to Latin angustus, narrow, and angere, to choke, from a root found also in anger. Agony, in French agonie, Latin agonia, Greek aywv/a, a struggle, signifies a severe struggle with pain and suffering. Distress is the pain felt when in a strait

from which we see no means of

anxiety is that pain which one feels on the prospect of extricating ourselves;

an

evil.

Distress always

deoends unon

DISTRIBUTE some outward cause; anxiety often

lies

Distress is proimagination. duced by the present but not always immediate evil; anxiety respects that which is future; anguish arises from the reflection on the evil that is past; agony springs from witnessing that which is immediate or before the eye. Distress is not pecuUar to any age; where there is a consciousness of good and evil, pain and pleasure, distress will inevitably exist from some circumstance or another. Anxiety, anguish, and agony belong to riper years: infancy and childhood are deemed the happy periods of human existence because they are exempt from the anxieties attendant on every one who has a station to fill and duties to discharge. Anguish and agony are species of distress, of the severer kind, which spring altogether from the maturity of reflection and the full consciousness of evil. in the

than

281

a deprivation disprovocations and hostile measlu-es harass; stratagems and ambiguous measures perplex: a besieged town is distressed by the cutting off its resources of water and provisions; the besieged are harassed by perpetual attacks; the in his feelings:

tresses;

besiegers are perplexed in all their

ma-

and plans by the countermanoeuvres and contrivances of their opponents: a tale of woe distresses; continual alarms and incessant labor harass; unexpected obstacles and innoeuvres

extricable difficulties perplex.

DISTRIBUTE,

Allot, Assign, Ap-

portion.

Distribute, in Latin distribiir tvs, participle of distrUmo, from dis, apart, and tribuere, to bestow, signifies to portion out to several. Allot (for

see Allot). Assign, in assigner, Latin assigno, from ad, to, and signare, to set a seed to, signifies, by signing or marking, to set Apporchild is in distress when it loses its out for a particular purpose. mother, and the mother is also in tion, from ad, to, and portio, a part predistress when she misses her chUd. The pared, signifies to give by way of porstation of a parent is, indeed, that tion for a particular purpose. which is most productive, not only of The idea of giving to several is comdistress, but of anxiety, anguish, and mon to these terms; this is the proper agony: the mother has her pecuUar signification of distribute; but to that anxieties for her child while rearing it of the other terms is annexed some Distributing is always in its infant state: the father has his qualification. anxiety for its welfare on its entrance applied to a number of individuals, but into the world: they both suffer the allotting, assigning, or apportioning is deepest anguish when their child dis- the giving either to one or several: a appoints their dearest hopes by running sum of money is distributed among a a career of vice; not unfrequently they number of f)oor people; it is allotted, asare doomed to suffer the agony of seeing signed, or apportioned to a particular a child encircled in flames from which individual, or to each individual out he cannot be snatched, or sinking into of a number. Distribute is said propa watery grave from which he cannot erly of that which is divided, or divisible into any number of parts, as bread be rescued. is distributed in loaves, or money is See also Afflict. Distress distributed in the way of shillings j alDistress, Harass, Perplex. (see above). Harass, in French harasser, lotted is appUed to that which is divisi-

derivation

French

A

—

possibly derived from Old French a dog on, from an Old High German word to call out. Perplex, in Latin perplexus, participle of perplector, compounded of plectere, to plait, with the prefix per, through, meaning to braid in and out, hence to make something difficult to unravel or to imderstand. person is distressed either in his outward circumstances or his feelings; he is harassed mentally or corporeally; he is perplexed in his understanding more

and apportion to that formed into certain propor-

is

ble into lots,

harer, to set

which

A

is

tional parts or portions, as to allot land, to give a lot of land; to apportion a sum of money that is, to give it in certain proportions. Assign is applied to any distinct whole, not considered either as divided or divisible, as to assign a house, place, etc. To distribute is to give promiscuously, without reference to the nature of objects or the purpose for which they are given; things may be distributed to the worthy

—

DISTRICT

282

or the unworthy, to those who want it or those who do not, at the will of the distributor or otherwise. To allot is to give according to the lots into which the thing is divided for a given purpose, as to allot land to each cottager; to assign is to set apart something that is suited to the person or adapted for the object proposed, as a prize is assigned to the most meritorious; a house is assigned for the reception of the houseless wanderer; to apportion is to give in a certain proportion according to a certain rule, as to apportion rent to different houses according to their size and value. So in the figurative or moral appUcation, the goods or iUs of life are distributed by a wise Providence, but often in ways or for purposes that are hidden from our view. Particular portions of that which is desirable, or the contrary, is allotted to each according to the circimastances of the case. OflBces, duties, properties, and the like are assigned according as they really are or are supposed to be suitable. Labor, happiness, misery, or anything of which only parts can be had, may be apportioned.

See also Dispense; Divide.

DISTRICT, Region, Tract, QuarDistrict is derived from the past participle of the verb distringere, from dis, apart, and stringere, to pull. It means to pull asunder, to vex, hence to force or rule; a district was a section in which a lord has power to enforce Region, in Latin regio, from justice.

ter.

regere, to rule, signifies a portion that Tract, in Latin tractus, is within rule. from trahere, to draw, signifies a part

drawn

from Latin quara fourth part. These terms are all appUed to portions of country, the former two comprehending divisions marked out on poUtical grounds; the latter a geographical or an indefinite division: district is smaller than a region; the former refers only to part of a country, the latter frequently applies to a whole country: a quarter is indefinite, and may be applied either to a quarter of the world or a particular neighborhood: a tract is the smallest portion of aU, and comprehends frequently no more than ttis,

out.

Quarter,

signifies hterally

what may

fall

within the compass of

We

consider a district only with relation to government; every magistrate acts within a certain district: we speak of a region when considering the circumstances of climate, or the natural properties which distinguish different parts of the earth; as the regions of heat and cold: we speak of the quarter simply to designate a point of the compass; as a person hves in a certain quarter of the town that is north or south, east or west, etc.; and so also, in an extended apphcation, we say to meet with opposition in an

the eye.

imexpected quarter: we speak of a tract to designate the land that nms on in a line; as a mountainous tract. DISTRUST, Suspicion, Diffidence. Distrust signifies not putting trust in (see Belief). Suspicion, from the Latin suspicio, or sub and specere, signifies looking at askance, or with a un-y mind. Diffidence, from the Latin diffido or disfido, signifies having no faith.

Distrust is said of either ourselves or others; suspicion is said only of others; diffidence only of ourselves: to be distrustful of a person is to impute no good to him; to be suspicious of a person is to impute positive evil to him: he who is distrustful of another's honor or prudence wiU abstain from giving him his confidence; he who is suspicious of another's honesty will be cautioiis to have no dealings with him. Distrust is a particular state of feeling having a specific object; suspicion is an habitual state of feehng, and has indefinite objects. As regards one's self, a person may distrust his own powers for the execution of a particular office, or a distrust of himself in company; he has a general diffidence, or he is naturally diffiy dent.

DISTURB,

Disturb Interrupt. Commotion). Interrupt, from the Latin inter, between, and rumpere, to break, signifies to break in between (see

so as to stop the progress. may be disturbed either inwardly or outwardly; we are interrupted only

We

outwardly: our minds

may be

dis-

disquieting refiections, or we may be disturbed in our rest or in our business by unseemly noises; but we turbed

by

DIVIDE can be interrupted only in our business or pursuits: the disturbance, therefore, depends upon the character of the person; what disturbs one man will not disturb another: an interruption is,

283

together: a loaf is divided when it is cut into two or more pieces; two loaves are parted. Sometimes things are both divided and parted in order to be distributed; in this case the distinction is the same; solid things, or what is in a mass, is divided; but things which do not lose their integrity are parted: an estate is divided; gooos or efifects are

however, something positive: what interrupts one person will interrupt another: the smallest noises may disturb one who is in bad health; illness or the visits of friends will interrupt a person parted. in

any

of his business. distinction exists

The same

As

disjunction

is

the

common

between attached to both separate and

part,

idea

they

these words when applied to things as are frequently used in relation to the to persons: whatever is put out of its. same objects; things are mostly said order or proper condition is disturbed; to be parted which are made to be thus water which is put into motion apart for any temporary purpose or from a state of rest is disturbed: what- by any means, however shght or trivial; ever is stopped in the evenness or regu- thus rooms may be parted by a partilarity of its course is interrupted; thus tion; that is said to be separated which water which is turned out of its ordi- is intended to be kept permanently separate, or which ought not to be nary channel is interrupted.

See also Trouble;

DISTURBANCE.

Worpy.

DITCH.

See Trench. See Daily. DIVE. See Plunge. DIVERGE. See Deflect. DIVERS. See Different. DIVERSION. See Amusement. DIVERSITY. See Difference. DIVERT. See Amuse, DIVERTED. See Absent. DIVIDE, Separate, Part. Divide comes from Latin dis, apart, and a Sepalost verb meaning to separate. rate (see Abstract). Part signifies to

DIURNAL.

make

into parts. is said to be divided which has been or is conceived to be a whole, that is separated which might be joined: an army may be divided into two or three divisions or portions: the divisions are frequently separated in their march. Things may be divided by anything which distingviishes the parts from one another; they are separated by disjimction of space only. Things may be mentally divided, but they are separated only corporeally: the minds of men are often most divided when in person they are least separated. To part has an intermediate sense between divide and separate; to divide is properly to make any whole into two parts; to part is to destroy the cohesion of two or more wholes when joined

That

thus

joined;

fields

are separated

by

See COMMOTION. hedges.

With regard to persons, part designates the actual leaving of the person; separate is used in general for that which lessens the society; the former is often casual, temporary, or partial; the latter is positive and serious; the parting is momentary; the separation may be longer or shorter: two friends part in the streets after a casual meeting; two persons separate on the road who had set out to travel together; men and their wives often part without coming to a positive separation: some couples are separated from each other in every respect but that of being directly parted; the moment of parting between friends is often more painful than the separation which iafterward ensues. Divide Divide, Distribute, Share. Distribute, in Latin dis(see above). tributus, from distribuere, or dis and signifies to bestow apart. tribuere, Share, aUied to the word shear, and the

—

German

scheeren,

signified

originally

to cut.

The

act of dividing does not extend

beyond the thing divided; that of tributing and sharing comprehends

disalso divide

the purpose of the action: we the thing; we distribute to the person: we may divide, therefore, without distributing; or we may divide in order to distribute: thus we divide our land into distinct fields for our private convenience; or we divide a sum of money

DIVINE

284 into so vie

it

sons:

many

parts, in order to distrib-

tility,

from dv/M, to lead, signifies aptled, and is applied to the powers, which yield readily

among a given nimiber of per- ness to be on the other hand, we may dis- mind or its

for money, to impressions. and many other things Animals may be said to be docile and may be distributed which require no tractable with a hke distinction; in-

tribute

without dividing;

books,

fruit,

division.

share is to make into parts, the same as divide, and it is to give those parts to some persons, the same as distribute; but the person who shares takes a part himself; he who distributes gives it all to others; a loaf is divided in order to be eaten, bread is distributed in loaves among the poor; the loaf is shared by a poor man with his poorer neighbor, or the profits of a business are shared by the partners. To share may imply either to give or to receive; to distribute imphes giving only: we share our own with another, or another shares what we have; but we distribute our own to others.

To

DIVINE.

See Ecclesiastic; God-

Guess; Holy. DIVINITY. See Deity.

like;

DIVISION.

DIVORCE,

See Part. Separation,

Divorce, in French the same form, from the Latin divortium, compounded of dis, apart, and vertere, to turn, means the legal dissolution of the marriage contract, with a complete severance of all mutual claims and the right to remarry. separation, often called a legal separation or a judicial separation, is a separation countenanced or required by a court of law, but not implying a complete severance of the marriage tie or the right to remarry. Divorce is often used, in a figurative sense, to refer to any disunion of things which have been closely united, and separation, of course, has also a wider application. See Separate.

A

animate objects, as metals, etc., may be ductile. DOCTRINE, Precept^ Principle. Doctrine, in French doctrine, Latin doctrina, from docere, to teach, signifies the thing taught; precept, from the Latin prae, before, and capere, to take, signifies the thing placed before one as a guide to conduct. Principle comes from French prindpe, Latin principium, the beginning of things, their or original

component

first

parts.

A

doctrine requires a teacher; a precept requires a superior with authority;

a principle requires only a maintainer doctrine is always framed or holder. by some one; a precept is enjoined or laid down by some one; a principle lies doctrine is comin the thing itself. posed of principles; a precept rests upon Pythagoras principles or doctrines. taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, and enjoined many precepts on his disciples for the regulation of their conduct, particularly that they should abstain from eating animal food and be only silent hearers for the first five years of their scholarship: the former of these rules depended upon the preceding doctrine of the soul's transmigration to the bodies of animals; the latter rested on that simple principle of education, the entire devotion of the scholar to the master. are said to believe in doctrines, to obey

A

A

We

imbibe or hold principles. that which constitutes our faith; precepts are that which directs the practice: both are the subjects of DIVULGE. See Publish. rational assent, and suited only to the DO. See Act. matured understanding: principles are DOCILE, Tractable, Ductile. often admitted without examination, Docile, in Latin docilis, from docere, and imbibed as frequently from obto teach, means ready to be taught. servation and circumstances as from Tractable, from tractare, the frequen- any direct personal efforts; children tative of trahere, to draw, denotes the as well as men acquire principles. readiness to be drawn. One is docile Doctrine, Dogma, Tenet. A doctrine as a scholar; one is tractable as a child originates with an individual. Dogma, or a servant. Where anything is to from the Greek Soy/ia, and Sokeo), be learned, docility is necessary; where think, signifies something thought, anything is to be done at the call of admitted, or taken for granted; this another, tractability is required. Duc- lies with a body or number of individprecepts, to

Doctrine

is

—

DOUBT from the Latin

285

he structure that may contain a home. "We have bought a new home," they say, meaning merely that they have bought a new house to contain the old A home. A home is the outside shell of a home. Residence is used to indicate dividual by whom it is framed; the a ho-use of some pretension and statedogma, on the authority of the body hness. We speak of a spacious resiby whom it is maintained; a tenet rests dence, a handsome residence, etc. It on its own intrinsic merits. Many of may also be extended to refer simply the doctrines of our blessed Savioiu- are in a general way to one's dweUing-place, held by faith in him; they are subjects as when we speak of residence in the of persuasion by the exercise of our city, etc., not referring to any specific rational powers; the dogmas of the habitation, but merely the general Romish Church are admitted by none idea of living or dwelUng. but such as admit its authority: every DOMINEERING. See Imperious. sect has its peculiar tenets. DOMINION. See Empire; Power; DOGMA. See Doctrine. Territory. DOGMATICAL. See Confident; DONATION. See Benefaction; Oracular. Gift. DOLEFUL. See Piteous. DOOM. See Destiny; Sentence. DOMESTIC. See Servant. DOUBT, Question. Doubt, in DOMICILE, Habitation, Home, French douter, Latin dubito, from duo, uals.

Tenet,

tenet,

holds, signifies the thing held or maintained, and is a species of principle specifically maintained in matters of opinion by persons in general. doctrine rests on the authority of the in-

House, Residence.

These words

all

signify a dwelling-place, but they differ in their application and in the dignity of their usage. Domicile, from Latin domus, home, is the Latin term cor-

two, and

ire,

past participle

a

itus,

to

in which the mind is going in two directions, as it were, or does not know which direction to take. Question, in Latin qv/Bstio, from quoerere, to inquire, siggo,

signifies

state

responding to the native English home, Anglo-Saxon ham. Home is the nifies to make a question. familiar and homely word, carrying Both these terms express the act of with it all the emotional and imagina- the mind in staying its decision. Doubt tive connotations of the intimate com- hes altogether in the mind; it is a less munal life of those bound together active feeling than question: by the by ties of birth and affection. Donv- former we merely suspend decision; icile is the corresponding intellectual by the latter we actually demand and "learned" word, meaning more proofs in order to assist us in deciding. than the mere externals of home in- We may doubt in silence: we cannot dicated in habitation or residence^ for question without expressing it, directly instance, but emptied of all emotional or indirectly. He who suggests doubts content, and sometimes employed, like does it with caution: he who makes many Latin words in English, with a a question throws in difficulties with a sUghtly humorous assumption of dig- degree of confidence. Doubts insinnity. Domicile is also used as a verb uate themselves on the part of the meaning "to make one's self at home." doubter; questions are always made Habitation, from Latin habitare, a fre- with an express design. We doubt in quentative of habere, to have, means matters of general interest, on abstruse simply a dweUing-place. House also as well as common subjects: we quessignifies a dwelling-place, but it is a tion mostly in ordinary matters that more specific term than habitation, in- are of a personal interest we doubt the dicating a certain kind of permanent truth of a position; we question the shelter, built for warmth and comfort. veracity of an author. When the pracA house is a habitation; but a habita- ticability of any plan is questioned, it is tion is not necessarily a house. Tents, unnecessary to enter any further into dug-outs, caves, etc., may be habitations. its merits. Many people have a sentimental habit The doxibt is frequently confined to of substituting home for the word the individual; the que^ion frequently house, when they mean merely the respects others. We doubt whetlier we :

DOWNFALL

286

be able to succeed; we question another's right to interfere: we doubt whether a thing will answer the end proposed; we question the utihty of any one making the attempt. There are many doubtful cases in medicine, where the physician is at a loss to decide; there are many questionable measures proposed by those who are in or out of power which demand condisposition to doubt sideration. everything is more inimical to the cause of truth than the readiness to believe everything; a disposition to qu^tion whatever is said or done by others is much more calculated to give offence than to prevent deception. shall

A

See also Demur.

—

Doubt, Suspense. Doubt respects that which we should beheve; suspense that which we wish to know or ascertain. We are in doubt for the want of evidence; we are in suspense for the want of certainty. Doubt interrupts our progress in the attainment of truth; suspense impedes us in the attainment of our objects: the former is connected principally with the understanding; the latter acts altogether upon the hopes. We have our doubts about things that have no regard to time; we are in suspense about what is to happen in the future. Those are the least inchned to doubt who have the most thorough knowledge of a subject; those are the least exposed to the unpleasant feehng of suspense who confine their wishes to the present.

See also Quandary. Doubtful, Dubious, Uncertain, Precarious. The doubtful admits of doubt; the dubious creates doubt or suspense.

—

The doubtful is we are required

said of things in which to have an opinion; the dubums respects events and things that must speak for themselves. In doubtful cases it is advisable for a judge to lean to the side of mercy; while the issue of a contest is dubious, all judgment of the parties, or of the case, must be carefully avoided. Doubtful and dubious have always a relation to the person forming the opinion on the subject in question; uncertain and precarious are epithets which designate the qualities of the things themselves. Wliatever is uncertain may from that very circum-

stance be doubtful or dubious to those

who attempt to determine upon them; but they may be designated for their uncertainty, without any regard to the opinions which they may give rise to. A person's coming may be doubtful or uncertain, the length of his stay is oftener described as uncertain than as The doubtful is opposed to doubtful. that on which we form a positive conclusion, the uncertain to that which is definite or prescribed. The efficacy of any medicine is doubtful; the manner of its operation may be uncertain.

While our knowledge is hmited, we must expect to meet with many things that are doubtful; as everything in the world is exposed to change, and all that is futiu-e is entirely above our control, we must naturally expect to find everything uncertain but what we see passing before us. Precarious, from the Latin precarius, and precare, to pray, signifies granted to entreaty, depending on the will or humor of another, whence it is appUcable to whatever is obtained from Precarious is the highest others. species of uncertainty, apphed to such things as depend on future casualties in opposition to that which is fixed

and determined by

design.

The weath-

the subsistence of a has no stated income or

er is uncertain;

person who source of hving must be precarious. It is uncertain what day a thing may take place until it is determined there is nothing more precarious than what depends upon the favors of princes. DOWNFALL. See Fall. DOZE. See Sleep. DRAIN. See Spend. DRAMATIC. See Theatrical. ;

DRAW,

Drag, Haul

or

Hale,

Pull, Pluck, Tug. Draw comes from Anglo-Saxon dragan, German tragen, to draw, and drag is the Scandinavian form of the same word. Haul or hale comes through French from an Old

High German word signifying to require or get. Pull comes from AngloSaxon- pvllian, to pull or pluck. Pluck is a Teutonic word which may possibly be borrowed from Late Latin piluccare, Itahan piluccare, from pilus, hair (EngUsh pile), meaning to pluck out hairs. Tu^ is a Scandinavian word; compare Icelandic tog, a rope to pull by.

DREGS Draw

expresses here the idea com- greatness;

mon

to the first three terms, namely, of putting a body in motion from behind one 8 self or toward one's self; to drag is to draw a thing with violence, or to draw that which makes resistance; to havl is to drag it with still greater violence. draw a cart; we drag a body along the ground ; or liavl a vessel to the shore. To pull signifies only an effort to draw without the idea of motion: horses jmll very long sometimes

We

before they can draw a heavily laden cart uphill. To pluck is to pvll with a sudden twitch, in order to separate; thus feathers are 'plucked from animals. To tv^ is to pull with violence; thus men tug at the oar. In the moral application of the words we may be said to be drawn by anything which can act on the mind to bring us near to an object; we are dragged only by means of force; we pvll a thing toward us by a direct effort. To haul, pluck, and tv^ are seldom used but in physical appUcation.

DREAD. See Apprehend; Awe. DREADFUL. See Fearful; Formidable.

DREAM,

Revert. Dream is a uncertain origin apparently unrelated to the AnglohSaxon dream. which meant joy, and aUied to Ola Norse drauge, a ghost, the radical meaning being a deceptive appearance, word

an

of

illusion.

Compare German

trugen,

to deceive. Revery, in French riverie, like the English rave and the Latin

287 enthusiasts

debase

the

of the Christian reUgion by blending their own wild reveries with the doctrines of the Gospel. He who indulges himself in idle dreams lays up a store of disappointment for himself when he recovers his recollection, and finds that it is nothing but a dream: a love of singularity operating on an ardent mind will too often lead men to indulge in strange reveries. puritjy-

DREGS, Sediment, Dross. Scum, Refuse. Dregs is a Scandinavian word; it is the plural form of a word which in Middle English means mire. Sediment, from sedere, to sit, signifies that which settles at the bottom. Dross is a Germanic word; compare German drusen, meaning husks of grapes. Scum comes from a Scandinavian word meaning froth or foam, and referred especially to the scum thrown off from metals in the process of melting. Refuse comes from Latin re, away, and fundere, to pour, signifying that which is poured out, thrown away. All these terms designate the worthless part of any body; but dregs is taken in a worse sense than sediment, for the dregs is that which is altogether of no value; but the sediment may sometimes form a necessary part of the body. The dregs are mostly a sediment in liquors, but many things are a sediment which are not dregs. After the dregs are taken away, there will frequently remain a sediment; the

madness, originally signified dregs are commonly the corrupt part something wandering or incoherent. which separates from compound liquids, Dreams and reveries are alike op- as wine or beer; the sediment con.sists posed to the reahty, and have their of the heavy particles which belong origin in the imagination; but the to all simple liquids, not excepting former commonly passes in sleep, and water itseli. The dregs and sediment the latter when awake; the dream may separate of themselves, but the scum and does commonly arise when the and dross are forced out by a process; imagination is in a sound state; the the former from liquids, and the latter revery is the fruit of a heated imagi- from soUd bodies rendered Uquid or nation: dreams come in the course of otherwise. Dross is applied to solid nature; reveries are the consequence of bodies in the same sense as scum, being a peculiar ferment. that which remains after the purifying, When the term dream is applied to as the dross of com after threshing and the act of one that is awake it admits cleaning. Refuse, as its derivation imof another distinction from revery. plies, is always said of that which is Thev both designate what is confound- intentionally separated to be thrown ed, but the dream is less extravagant away, and agrees with the former terms than the revery. Ambitious men only inasmuch as they express what please themselves with dreams of future is worthless. With this distinction rabies,

288

DRENCH

Sad, they are figuratively applied to moral compare the adjective glum. Anglo-Saxon seed, meant ori^ally objects. sated; hence tired, dispirited, grieved. DRENCH. See Soak. DRIFT. See Tendency; Tenor. Dismal comes from Latin diesmxili, bad DROLL. See Farcical; Laughable. days, unlucky days. When applied to natural objects, dull DROOP. See Fall. and gloomy denote the want of necesDregs. DROSS. See sary fight or life: in this sense metals DROWSE. See Sleep. are more or less dull according as they DRUDGE. See Servant. are stained with dirt: the weather is DRUMMER, Commercial-travel- either dull or gloomy in different deler, Salesman, Solicitor. Drummer grees, that is, dull when the sun is is a pure Americanism, supposed to obscured by clouds, and gloomy when have been derived from the old custom the atmosphere is darkened by fogs Dismal denotes not of having a man beat a drum to at- or thick clouds. tract people to a circus, fair, show, merely the want of that which is necesrecruiting-place, and the Uke, and signi- sary, but also the presence of that as fies, UteraUy one who drums up or which is repugnant to the senses; summons people for a special purpose. a glare of fight or a sound may be Its general appUcation is to a person dismal. A room is dull, gloomy, or employed by a manufacturer or mer- dismal, according to circumstances: it chant to soUcit or "drum up trade," is dull if the usual quantity of fight to secure new customers, to open up and sound be wanting; it is gloomy if' new fines of business. The professional the darkness and stiUness be very condrummer is not regarded in the same siderable; it is dismal if it have only The latter may light enough to show its wretchedness; fight as a salesman. be a graduated drummer, but his busi- in this sense a dungeon is a dismal ness is more particularly to keep in abode. Sad is not appfied so much to touch with the customers he has se- sensible as moral objects, in which cured for his employer, ascertain the sense the distressing events of hunian condition or amount of their stock of fife, as the loss of a parent or a child, commodities he is interested in, and is justly denominated sad. make such sales as he can. In regard to the frame of mind which The commercial - traveller and the is designated by these terms, it wiU be salesman are quite similar in quality, easily perceived from the above exbut with this difference: the former planation. As sfight circumstances travels extensively and at regular sea- produce dulness, any change, however sons to meet his customers at their small, in the usual flow of spirits may places of business, and the latter usual- be termed dull. Gloom weighs heavy ly remains at the home house to meet on the mind, and gives a turn to the the customers from other cities who reflections and the imagination: decome to his house for purchases, sponding thoughts of futurity wiU though he, too, may travel. Again, spread a gloom over every other object. a sahsman may be an ordinary em- Sad indicates a wounded state of the ployee in a retail store who waits on heart, feefings of unmixed pain. and sells to ordinary patrons. The See also Obtuse; Stupid. drummer and solicitor are also quite DUMB. See Silent. similar in quafity, as both seek orders DUNCE. See Ninny. for goods from any one likely to buy, DUPLICITY. See Deceit. whether regular customers or stranDURABLE, Lasting, Permanent. gers. Durable is said of things that are inDUBIOUS. See Doubtful. tended to remain a shorter time than DUCTILE. See Docile. that which is lasting; and 'permanent DULL, Gloomy, Sad, Dismal. DuU expresses less than durable. Durable, comes from Anglo-Saxon dol, foolish, from the Latin durus, hard, respects German toll, mad. Gloomy is in Middle the texture of bodies and marks their English gloumen, to lower, and is allied capacity to hold out. Lasting is the to Norwegian glyma, an overcast sky; participle of the verb laM from the

DUTIFUL Anglo-Saxon

Icestan, to observe, perform, originally to follow in the track of, from last, a foot-track (found in the shoemaker's term last of a shoe). It is applicable to that which is of the Permanent, from longest duration. the Latin per, through, and manere, to remain, signifies remaining to the end. Durable is naturally said of material substances, and lasting of those which are spiritual, although in ordinary discourse sometimes they exchange offices: permanent applies more to the affairs of men. That which perishes quickly is not durable; that which ceases quickly is not lasting; that which is only for a time is not permanent. Stone is more durable than iron, and iron than wood: in the feudal times animosities between famihes

used to be lasting; a clerk has not a permanent situation in an office.

—

Durable, Constant. Durability lies in the thing. Constancy lies in the person. What is durable is so from its inherent property; what is constant is so by the power of the mind. No durable connections can be formed where avarice or lust prevails. DURATION, Time. In the philosophical sense, according to Locke, time is that mode of duration which is formed in the mind by its own power of observing and measuring the passing objects. In the vulgar sense, in which

duration is synonjmaous with time, it stands for the time of duration, and is more particularly applicable to the objects which are said to last; time being employed in general for whatever passes in the world. Duration comprehends the beginning and end of any portion of time, that is, the how long of a thing; time is employed more frequently for the particular portion itself, namely, the time when: we mark the duration of a sound from the time of its commencement to the time that it ceases; the duration of a prince's reign is an object of particular concern to his subjects if he be either very good or the reverse; the time in which he reigns is marked by extraordinary events: the historian computes the duration of reigns and of events in order to determine the antiquity of a nation; he fixes the exact

19

time

289

when each person begins

to reign

and when he dies, in order to determine the number of years that each reigned. See also

Continuance.

DUTIABLE. See Ethical. DUTIFUL, Obedient, Respectful. Dutiful signifies fuU of a sense of duty or full of what belongs to duty. Obedient signifies ready to obey. Respectful signifies hterally full of respect. The obedient and respectful are but modes of the dutiful: we may be dutiful without being either obedient or respectful; but we are so far dutiful as we are either obedient or respectful. Duty denotes what is due from one being to another: it is independent of all circumstances: obedience and respect are relative dulies depending upon the character and station of individuals: as we owe to no one so much as to our parents, we are said to be dutiful to no earthly being besides; and in order to deserve the name of dutiful a child, during the period of his childhood, ought to maJce a parent's will to be his law, and at no future period ought that will ever to be an object of indifference: we may be obedient and respectful to others besides our parents, although to them obedience and respect are in the highest degree and in the first case due; yet servants are enjoined to be obedient to their masters, wives to their husbands, and subRespectful is a jects to their king. term of still greater latitude than either; for as the characters of men as much as their stations demand respect, there is a respectful deportment mie toward every superior. Duly, Obligation. Duly, as we see in the preceding section, consists altogether of what is right or due from one being to another. Obligation, from the

—

Latin obligo, to bind, signifies the bond or necessity which lies in the thing. All duly depends upon moral obliga-

which subsists between man and or man and his Maker; in thia abstract sense, therefore, there can be no duty without a previous obligation, and where there is an obligation it involves a duty; but in the vulgar action

man

ceptation, duty

duct of

men

obligation

is

applicable to the con-

in their various relations;

only to particular circum-

290

DWELL

modes of action: we have so lasting as the duiy:'onr affections imperform as parents and chil- pel us to the discharge of duty; interest dren, as husbands and wives, as rulers or necessity impels us to the discharge and subjects, as neighbors and citizens: of an obligation: it may therefore somethe debtor is under an obligation to dis- times happen that the man whom a charge a debt; and he who had prom- sense of duty cannot actuate to do ised is under an obligation to fulfil his that which is right will not be able promise: a conscientious man, there- to withstand the obligation under which fore, never loses sight of the obligations he has laid himself. See also Business; Tax. which he has at different times to disDWELL, See Abide. charge. The duty is not so peremptory DYE. See Color. as the obligation; the obligation is not stances or

duties to

EASE

291

E EACH. See All. EAGER, Earnest, Serious.

sense, the earnest,

compounded

of

Old

Eager French erre«, arres, from Latin arrha (see Avidity.) Earnest, Anglo-Saxon and a diminutive, is given as a token of earnest, meaning earnestness, comes our being in earnest in the promise we from a root found in Greek opw/ii, have made; the pledge, in all probabihty to excite, and in Icelandic ambrick, from plico, to fold or implicate, sigmimplying intensity of spirit; not the fies a security by which we are engaged same as pledge (see below). Serious, to indemnify for a loss. When a conLatin serius, grave, earnest, may pos- tract is only verbally formed, it is sibly be allied to German schwer, heavy. usual to give earnest; whenever money Eager is used to qualify the desires or is advanced, it is common to give a passions; earnest, to qualify the wishes or sentiments; the former has either a physical or moral application, the latter altogether a moral appUcation: a child is eager to get a plaything; a hungry person is eager to get food; a covetous man is eager to seize whatever comes within his grasp: a person is earnest in sohcitation, earnest in exhortation, earnest in devotion. Eagerness is mostly faulty; it cannot be too early restrained in children. Whence this term is with particular propriety applied to brutes. Earnestness is always taken in the good sense for the inward conviction of the mind, accompanied with the warmth of the heart in a good cause. person is said to be earnest, or in earnest; a person or tlyng is said to be serious: the former characterizes the temper of the mind, the latter charIn regard acterizes the object itself. to persons, in which alone they are to be compared, earnest expresses more than serious; the former is opposed to lukewarmness, the latter to unconcernedness: we are earnest as to our wishes or our persuasions; we are serious as to our intentions: the earnestness with which we address another depends upon the force of our conviction; the seriousness with which we address them depends upon our sincerity and the nature of the subject: the preacher earnestly exhorts his hearers to lay aside their sins; he seriously admonishes those who are guilty of

A

irregularities.

Earnest,

Pledge.

— In

the

pledge.

In the figurative application the terms bear the same analogy: a man of genius sometimes, though not always, gives an earnest in youth of his children are the future greatness; dearest pledges of affection between parents.

EAGERNESS. See AviDlTr. EARLY. See Soon. EARN. See Acquire. EARNESTNESS. See UNcnoN. EARTH. See Cosmos. EASE, Quiet, Rest, Repose. Ease comes from the French aise, a word of unknown origin. Quiet is derived from Latin quietus, quiet. Rest comes from Anglo-Saxon rest, originally, perhaps, a halting-place. Repose comes from Latin re, back, and French poser, to place, from Late Latin pausare, allied to pause; it means to place one's self backward in an easy posture. The idea of a motionless state is common to all these terms: ease and quiet respect action on the body; rest and repose respect the action of the body: we are easy or quiet when freed from any external agency that is painful; we have rest or repose when the body Ease denotes is no longer in motion. an exemption from any painful agency in general; quiet denotes an exemption from that m particular which noise,

disturbance, or the violence of others may cause: we are easy or at ease when the body is in a posture agreeable to itself, or when no circumjacent object presses imequally upon it; we proper are quiet when there is an agreeable

292

EASTERN

around: our ease may be disturbed either by internal or external causes; our quiet is most commonly disturbed by external objects. Rest simply denotes the cessation of motion; repose is that species of rest stillness

which is agreeable after labor: we rest as circumstances require; in this sense, our Creator is said to have rested from the work of creation: repose is a circumstance of necessity; the weary seek repose; there is no human being to whom it is not sometimes indispensable. We may rest in a standing posture; we can repose only in a lying position: the dove which Noah first sent out could not find rest for the sole of its foot; soldiers who are hotly pursued by an enemy have no time or opportunity to take repose: the night is the time for rest; the pillow is the place for

it requires no bodily effort, or not more than what the individual can

as

make who has to perform it. The same distinction exists between

easily

their derivatives, to ease, facilitate, and lighten; to ease is to make easy or free from pain, as to ease a person of his labor; to facilitate is to render a thing more practicable or less difficult, as to facilitate a person's progress; to lighten is to take off an excessive weight, as to lighten a person's biirdens.

—

Easy, Ready. Easy signifies here a freedom from obstruction in ourselves. Ready is derived from rcede, which meant literally equipped for riding, prepared for a raid all these words coming from

—

the same root.

Easy marks the freedom of being done; ready, the disposition or wiUingness to do; the former refers mostly to the thing or the manner, the latter repose. Rest may be as properly applied to to the person; the thing is easy to be things as to persons; repose is figura- done: the person is ready to do it; it is easy to make professions of friendapphed to things. ship in the ardor of the moment; but Ease, Easiness, Facility, Lightness. Ease denotes either the abstract state every one is not ready to act up to of a person or quaUty of a thing; easi- them when it interferes with his conor interest. As epithets, ness, from easy, signifying having ease, venience denotes simply an abstract quaUty both are opposed to difficult, but agreewhich serves to characterize the thing; ably to the above explanation of the a person enjoys ease, or he has an terms; the former denotes a freedom from such difficulties or obstacles as easiness of disposition. Ease is said of that which is borne, he in the nature of the thing itself; or that which is done; easiness and the latter an exemption from such as facility, from the Latin facilis, easy, he in the temper and character of the from facere, to do, most commonly of person; hence we say a person is easy that which is done; the former in ap- of access whose situation, rank, emphcation to the thing as before, the ployments, or circumstances do not latter either to the person or the thing: prevent him from admitting others to we speak of the easiness of the task, his presence; he is ready to hear when but of a person's facility in doing it: he himself throws no obstacles in the we judge of the easiness of a thing by way, when he lends a wilhng ear to comparing it with others more difficult what is said. So likewise a task is we judge of a person's facility by com- said to be easy; a person's wit, or a paring him with others who are less person's reply, to be ready.

tively

—

skilful.

Ease and lightness are both said of what is to be borne; the former in a general, the latter in a particular sense. Whatever presses in any form is not east/; that which presses by excess of weight is not light: a coat may be easy from its make; it can be light only from its texture. A work is easy which requires no particular effort either of body or of mind from any one performing it; a work is light as far

EASTERN. See EBULLITION,

Orient. Effervescence, Fermentation, Ferment. These technical terms have a strong resemblance in their signification, but they are not strictly synonymous; they have strong characteristic differences. Ebullition, from the Latin ebullitio and ebullio, compounded of e and bullire, to bubble, boil, marks the commotion of a liquid acted upon by fire, and in chemistry it is said of two substances which,

ECONOMICAL by penetrating each

other, occasion Effervescence, from

293

although he fills a station; a divine not only fills a station, but actually performs the office of teaching; a theo-

bubbles to rise up. the Latin effervescentia, and effervescere, to grow hot, marks the commotion logian neither fills any particular stawhich is excited in hquors by a com- tion nor discharges any specific duty, bination of substances, such as of but merely follows the pursuit of acids, which are mixed and commonly studying theology. An ecclesiastic is not produce heat. Ferment, or fermenta- always a divine, nor a divine an ection, from the Latin fermentatio and clesiastic; a divine is always more or fermentum or fervimentum, from fervere, less a theologian, but every theologian to grow hot, marks the internal move- is not a divine. Among the Roman ment which is excited in a Uquid of Cathohcs all monks, and in the Church itself, by which its components imdergo of England the various dignitaries who such a change or decomposition as to perform the episcopal functions, are form a new body. entitled ecclesiastics. There are but Ebullition is a more violent action few denominations of Christians who than effervescence; ferment and fer- have not appointed teachers who are mentation are more gradual and per- called divines. Professors or writers manent than either. Water is exposed on theology are peculiarly denominated to ebullition when acted upon by any theologians. powerful degree of external heat; iron ECLIPSE, Obscure. Eclipse, from aqua-fortis occasions effervescence; Greek U, out, and Xtiwuv, to leave, beer and wine xmdergo a ferment or means the leaving out or vanishing of fermentation before they reach a state light. Obsctire, from the adjective of perfection. These terms are applied obscure (see Dark), signifies to cause figuratively to moral objects. The the intervention of a shadow. passions are exposed to ebullitions; the In the natural as well as the moral heart and affections to effervescence appUcation eclipse is taken in a particuwhen powerfully awakened by partic- lar and relative signification; obscure ular objects. The minds or spirits, is used in a general sense. Heavenly particularly of numbers, may be in a bodies are eclipsed by the intervention ferment or fermentation. If the angry of other bodies between them and the humors of an irascible temper be not beholder; things are in general 06restrained in early Ufe, they but too scured which are in any way rendered frequently break forth in the most less striking or visible. To eclipse is dreadful ebullitions in maturer years; therefore a species of obscuring: that rehgious zeal, when not constrained by is always obscured which is eclipsed; the sober exercise of judgment and but everything is not eclipsed which is corrected by sound knowledge, is an obscured. So, figuratively, real merit unhappy effervescence that injures the is eclipsed by the intervention of sucause which it espouses and often perior merit; it is often obscured by an proves fatal to the individual by whom ungracious exterior in the possessor it is indulged: the ferment produced or by his unfortunate circumstances. ECONOMICAL, Saving, Sparing, by public measures may often endanger Niggardly. Penurious, Thrifty, the public peace. ECCENTRIC. See Erratic; Par- The idea of not spending is common to all these terms; but economical sigticular. ECCLESIASTIC, DmNE, Theo- nifies not spending unnecessarily or logian. An ecclesiastic derives his unwisely. Saving is keeping and laytitle from the office which he bears in ing by with care; sparing is keeping the ecclesia, or church; a divine and out of that which ought to be sjjent; theologian, from his pursuit after or thrifty or thriving is accumulating by engagement in divine or theological mat- means of saving; venurious is suffering ters. An ecclesiastic is connected with as from penury by means of saving; an episcopacy; a divine or theologian niggardly, after the manner of a nigis unconnected with any form of church gard, nigh or close person, is not spendgovernment. An ecclesiastic need not ing or fetting go out in the smallest his own person perform any office, possible quantities. To be economical

m

m

ECONOMIZE

294

a virtue in those who have but narall the other epithets, however, are employed in a sense more or less unfavorable; he who is saving when young will be avaricious when old; he who is sparing will generally be sparing out of the comforts of others; he who is thrifty commonly adds the desire of getting with that of saving; he who is penurious wants nothing to make him a complete miser; he who is niggardly in his dealings will be mostly avaricious is

row means;

in his character. Economy, Frugality,

—

Parsimony. oiKovofiia, the management of a house, is derived from

Economy, from the Greek

Greek

oTkoq, house, and vkfifiv, to deal Frugality, from the Latin /rugfes, fruits, means subsisting on the fruits of the earth, hence temperance. Parsi-

out.

mony

(see AvARiciotrs) impUes simply forbearing to spend, which is in fact the common idea included in these terms; but the economical man spares expense according to circumstances; he adapts his expenditure to his means and renders it by contrivance as effectual to his purpose as possible; the frugal man spares expense on himself, or on his indulgences; he may, however, be liberal to others while he is frugal toward himself as well as others; he has no other object than saving. By economy a man may make a lunited income turn to the best account for himself and his family; by frugality he may with a hmited. income be enabled to lay by

depends principally on the prudent management of the female: the economy of every well-regulated comfamily

munity requires that

all the members should keep their station and preserve a strict subordination; the management of particular branches of this economy should belong to particular individuals. ECONOMIZE. See Husband.

ECSTASY, Rapture, Transport. There is a strong resemblance in the meaning and apphcation of these words. They all express an extraordinary elevation of the spirits or an excessive tension of the mind. Ecstasy marks a passive state, from the Greek tKtxTaaig, from U, out, and 'iarafiat, I stand, means to be out of one's self, out of one's mind. Rapture, from the Latin rapere, to seize or carry away; and transport, from trans and portare, to carry beyond one's self, rather designate an active state, a violent impulse with which it hurries itself forward. Ecstasy and rapture are always pleasurable, or arise from pleasurable causes; transport respects either pleasurable or painful feeUngs: joy occasions ecstasies or raptures; joy and anger have theit transports. An ecstasy benumbs the faculties; it will take away the power of speech and often of thought; it is

commonly occasioned by sudden and unexpected events: rapture, on the other hand, often invigorates the powers and calls them into action; it frequently arises from deep thought: money; by parsimony he may be the former is common to all persons of enabled to accumulate great sums out ardent feelings, but more particularly of a narrow income; hence it is that to children, ignorant people, or to such we recommend a plan for being eco- as have not their feeUngs under connomical; we recommend a diet for trol; rapture, on the contrary, is apbeing frugal; we condemn a habit or a phcable to persons with superior minds character for being parsimonioiis. and to circumstances of peculiar imEconomy, Management. Economy portance. Transports are sudden bursts has a more comprehensive meaning of passion which, from their vehemence, than management; for it includes the may lead to intemperate actions: a resystem of science and of legislation as prieve from the sentence of death will well as that of domestic arrangements: produce an ecstasy or delight in the as the economy of agriculture; the in- pardoned criminal. Religious contemternal economy of a government; po- plation is calculated to produce holy litical, civil, or reUgious economy: or raptures in a mind strongly imbued with the economy of one's household. Man- pious zeal: in transports of rage men agement, on the contrary, is an action have committed enormities which that is very seldom abstracted from have cost them bitter tears of reits agent, and is always taken in a pentance ever after: youth is the partial sense, namely, as a part of period in which transports of delight economy. The internal economy of a are mostly felt.

—

EFFECT EDGE.

See Border. EDICT. See Decree; Ordinance. EDIFICE, Structure, Fabric. Edifice, in Latin oedificium, from cedifico, or cedes, a house, and facere, to make, signifies properly the house made. Structure, from the Latin struc-

295

establishment of the principles:

good

makes one wiser; good breeding makes one more p>olished and agreeable; good education makes one really good. want of education will always be to the injury, if not to the ruin, of the sufferer: a want of instruclura, and struere, to heap together, sig- tion is of more or less inconvenience, nifies the raising a thing or the thing according to circumstances; a want raised. Fabric comes from Latin faber, of breeding only unfits a man for the a workman, from a base signifying society of the cultivated. Education skill, and means something made by belongs to the period of childhood and skiU. youth; instruction may be given at Edifice in its proper sense is always different ages; good-breeding is best appUed to a builaing; structure and learned in the early part of lue. fabric are either employed as abstract EFFACE. See Blot. actions or the results and fruits of EFFECT, Produce, Perform. The actions: in the former case they are latter two are in reality included in the applied to many objects besides build- former; what is effected is both proings, structure referring to the act of duced and performed; but what is proraising or setting up together, fabric duced or performed is not always efto that of framing or contriving. As fected. To effect, in Latin effectus, paredifice bespeaks the thing itself, it re- ticiple of effido, compoimded of ex, quires no modification, since it conveys out, and facere, to make, signifies to of itself the idea of something superior: make out anything. To produce, from the word structure must always be qualified; it is employed only to designate the mode of action; fabric is itself a species of epithet, it designates the object as something contrived by the power of art or by design. Edifipes dedicated to the service of rehgion have in all ages been held sacred: it is the business of the architect to estimate the merits or demerits of any structure; when we take a survey of the vast fabric of the universe, the mind becomes bewildered with contemplating the infinite power of its Divine author.

When employed in the abstract sense of actions, structure is hmited to objects of magnitude, or such as consist of complicated parts :/a6ric is extended to everything in which art or contrivance is requisite; hence we may speak of the structure of vessels, and the fabric of cloth, ironware, or the fabric of states, the universe, etc.

EDUCATION, Instruction, Breeding.

Instruction and breeding are to education as parts to a whole: instruction respects the communication of knowledge, and breeding respects the manners or outward conduct; but education comprehends not only both these, but the formation of the mind, the regulation of the heart, and the

instruction

A

the Latin pro, forth, and ducere, to draw, signifies literally to draw forth. To perform. Old French oar/burmV, from Latin per, through, ana Old High German frumjan, to provide, French foumir, English furnish, signifies to do or provide everything necessary. To produce signifies to bring something forth or into existence; to perform to do something to the end: to effect is to produce an effect by performing; whatever is effected is the conse-

quence of a specific design; it always requires, therefore, a rational agent to ej^ect: what is produced aiay follow incidentally, or arise from the action of an irrational agent oi an inanimate object; what is performed is done by specific efforts; it is, therefore, like effect, the consequence of design, and To effect requires a rational agent. respects both the end

and the means

brought about; to produce respects the end only; to perform the means only. No person ou^ht to calculate on effecting a reformation in the morals of men without the aid of rehgion; changes both in individuals and communities are often produced

by which

by

it is

trifles.

To

effect is said of that which emanates from the mind of the agent himself; to perform, of that which is marked

EFFECTS

296

out by rule or prescribed by another. We effect a purpose, we perform a part, a duty, or office. A true Christian is always happy when he can effect a

fuse as the effusion; effusion is seldom taken in a good sense; ejaculation rarely otherwise. An effusion commonly flows from a heated imagination

reconciliation between parties who are at variance: it is a laudable ambition to strive to perform one's part creditably in society. See also Accomplish; Conse-

uncorrected

by the judgment;

it

is,

therefore, in general not only incoherent, but extravagant and senseless: an ejaculation is produced by the warmth of the moment, but never without refquence. erence to some particular circumstance. Effective, Efficient, Effectual, Effica- Enthusiasts are full of extravagant efcious. Effective signifies capable of fusions; contrite sinners will often exeffecting; signifies, literally, press their penitence in pious ejaculaefficient effecting; effectual and efficacious signify tions.

—

having the

power to

effect,

effect.

or

possessing

Effective

and

the

efficient

are used only in regard to physical oban army or a revenue is effective that can be employed to effect any object: a cause is efficient that is adequate to produce an effect. Effectual and efficacious are said of operations and intellectual objects: an end or result is effectual; the means are efficacious: a remedy or cure is effectual that is in reahty effected; a medicine is efficacious that effects a cure. No effectual stop can be put to the vices of the lower orders while they have a vicious example from their superiors: a seasonable exercise of severity on an offender is often very efficxiciovs in queUing a spirit of insubordination. When a thing is not found effectual, it is requisite to have recourse to further measures; that which has been proved to be inefficacious should never be jects:

See Misanthrop-

EJACULATION. See Effusion. ELATED. See Sanguine. ELDER. See Senior. ELDERLY, Aged, Old. These three words rise by gradation in their sense; aged denotes a greater degree of age than elderly, and old still more either. The elderly man has passed the meridian of hfe; the aged man is fast approaching the term of our existence; the old man has already reached this term or has exceeded it. In conformity, however, to the vulgar prepossession against age and its concomitant infirmities, the term elderly or aged is always more respectful than old, which latter word is often used by way of reproach, and can seldom be used free from such an association unless quaUfied by an epithet of

than

praise, as

good or venerable.

ELECT. See Choose. ELECTRIC, Magnetic.

adopted.

EFFECTS.

EGOISTICAL. ical; Opinionated.

See Goods.

Electric

EFFEMINATE. See EFFERVESCENCE. tion.

Female. comes from Latin electrum, Greek See Ebulli- iiXeKrpov, amber; and derives its present meaning from the fact that amber See Effect. developed electricity when excited by

EFFICACIOUS. EFFIGY. See Likeness. EFFORT. See Attempt; deavor.

EFFRONTERY.

See Audacity.

EFFUSION, Ejaculation.

Magnetic referred to a similar in the magnesian stone, so called because it was foimd in large quantities in magnesia. This friction.

En- property observed

Effusion signifies the thing poured out, from ex, out, and fundere, to pour, and ejaculation, the thing ejaculated or thrown out, from ex, out, and iacere, to throw, both indicating a species of verbal, expression; the former either by utterance or in writing; the latter only by utterance. The effusion is not so vehement or sudden as the ejaculation; the ejaculation is not so ample or dif-

stone had the power to attract iron and

Both words originally referred to the attractive power associated with certain substances under certain conditions. But, as the science of elecsteel.

tricity has developed, magnetic has been associated with the properties of the magnet and electric with a force or current existent or generated under certain conditions. When used figura-

tively electric refers to the swift

and

EMBARGO

297

thrilling quality of electricity, magnetic

employ eloquence to express our own to a quality of attractiveness associated thoughts and feelings. Elocution is with the mysterious thrill of electrical requisite for an actor; eloquence for a force.

speaker.

ELEGANT.

See Superb.

ELEMENTARY, CONSTITUENT, Primary. Rudimentary.

Elementary

the adjective corresponding to element, Latin elementum, a word whose et3Tnology and primary meaning are uncertain, but which is used to indicate one of the simple substances of which aU material bodies are compoimded. Constituent, from Latin con, together, and statuere, to set up, indicates that which when joined to something else goes to make up a complex whole. But it does not indicate a simple or uncompounded substance, as does elementary. Primary, from Latin primtis, first, means the first elements, the things absolutely necessary to form a contemplated whole; but it does not definitely suggest the combination of substances as does constituent. Rudimentary, from Latin rudimentum, from rudis, rough, indicates the first rude state of things. These words, therefore, all mean characteristic of that which is necessary to the formation of a complex whole; but they differ in the emphasis upon the character of the thing indicated, and its relation to a larger whole. ELEVATE. See Lift. is

ELIGIBLE, Preferable.

Eloquence lies in the person: it is a natural gift: oratory Ues in the mode of expression; it is an acquired art. Rhetoric is properly the theory of that art of which oratory is the practice. But the term rhetoric may be sometimes employed in an improper sense for the display of oratory or scientific speaking. Eloquence speaks one's own feelings; it comes from the heart and speaks to the heart: oratory is an imitative art; it describes what is felt by another. Rhetoric is either in the technical sense the science of oratory, or oratory reduced to rule, or, in the vulgar acceptation, it is the affectation of oratory.

ELUCIDATE. ELUDE. See

See Explain. Escape.

EMANATE. See Arise. EMANCIPATE, Enfranchise, Unshackle. Emancipate comes from Latin emandpare, e manibus capere, to take out of the hands of, and referred to the provision made in Roman law for freeing a child or a wife from the powor of the father or husband. It

also referred to the freeing of slaves. Enfranchise comes from Old French franchise, privileged Uberty, and referred especially to the admitting of a Eligible, slave or a serf to personal freedom.

or fit to be elected, and preferable, fit The two words have therefore almost to be preferred, serve as epithets in exactly the same meaning, but enfranthe sense of choose and prefer (see chise has also been given the special Choose" Prefer): what is eligible significance of to admit to the full is desirable in itseli, what is preferable rights of a citizen, especially to grant There the right to vote. Hence when we is more desirable than another. may be many eligible situations, out speak of the emancipation of the negro of which perhaps there is but one slaves, we refer to the decree of the Of persons, however, we President delivering them from the preferable. say rather that they are eligible to an power of their masters. When we office

than

preferable.

ELOCUTION, Eloquence, Ora-

sp>eak of their enfranchisement, we refer to the passing of the amendment to the Constitution of the United States

tory, Rhetoric. Elocution and elomience are derived from the same granting them the right to vote. Latin verb, eloqui, from ex, out, and Unshackle is a figurative word from loqui, to speak, to speak out. Oratory, shackle (see Chain), meaning to deliver from orare, to implore, signifies the art from shackles, and may be used to mean either emancipate or enfranchise or of making a set speech. Elocution consists in the manner of free in a still larger sense. See Free. EMBARGO, Ban, Prohibition. delivery; eloquence in the matter that We employ elocution in Embargo, Spanish embargo, from barra, is delivered. repeating the words of another; we a bar, means a prohibiting order, for-

EMBARRASS

298

Foetus, bidding the ships of a foreign power nifies the thing germinated. to enter or leave the ports of a country Latin foetics, comes from an obsolete Latin verb gensignifying to generate or proor native ships to proceed there, erally issued in anticipation of war. duce, and signifies the thing cherished. Both words of comrefer to what is formed It also indicates a suspension merce by municipal law. Ban is an in the womb of the mother; but embryo older term of Germanic origin signify- properly impUes the first-fruit of coning a formal edict a call to arms, an ception, and the foetxis that which is announcement of intention to marry, arrived to a maturity of formation. or an ecclesiastical excommunication. Anatomists teU us that the embryo in Prohibition (for derivation see Ban) is the human subject assumes the charused in a special sense to refer to the acter of the foetus about the fortyforbidding of the sale of alcohoUc liquor second day after conception. Foetus is applicable only in its proper by the law of a community. It refers to a special embargo on alcohoUc drink. sense to animated beings: embryo has a figiirative application to plants and See also Intern. EMBARRASS, Perplex, Entan- fruits when they remain in a confused gle. Embarrass (see Difficulty) re- and imperfect state, and also a moral spects a person's manners or circum- apphcation to plans, or whatever is stances, verplex (see Distress), his roughly conceived in the mind. See also Germ. views ana conduct; entangle (see DisEMEND. See Amend. engage) is said of particular circumEMERGE. See Rise. Embarrassments depend alstances. EMERGENCE. See Exigency. together on ourselves; the want of EMINENT. See Distinguished. prudence and presence of mind is the EMISSARY, Spy. Emissary, in common cause; perplexities depend on extraneous circumstances as well as our- Latin emissarius, from emittere, to send selves; extensive deaUngs with others forth, signifies one sent out. Spy is a are mostly attended with perplexities; shortened form of espy, which comes entanglements arise mostly from the through French espier, from Old High evil designs of others. That embarrasses German spehon, German spdhen, to which interrupts the even course or spy. Both these words designate a person progress of one's actions: that perplexes which interferes with one's deci- sent out by a body on some public consions: that entangles which binds a cern among their enemies; but they difperson in his actions. Pecuniary diffi- fer in their office according to the etyThe emissary is culties embarrass, or contending feeUngs mology of the words. produce embarrassment; contrary coun- by distinction sent forth; he is sent so sels or interests perplex; the artifices of as to mix with the people to whom he cunning entangle. Steadiness of mind goes, to be in aU places, and to assoErevents embarrassment in the outward ciate with every one individually as ehavior. Firmness of character is may serve his purpose; the spy, on the requisite in the midst of perplexities; other hand, takes his station wherever caution must be employed to guard he can best perceive what is passing; he keeps himself at a distance from all against entanglements. EMBARRASSMENT. See Quan- but such as may particularly aid him in the object of his search. Although dary. offices of emissary and spy are neiEMBARRASSMENTS. See Diffi- the ther of them honorable, yet that of the culties. is more disgraceful than that of EMBELLISH. See Adorn; Gar- former the latter. The emissary is generally nish. employed by those who have some EMBLEM. See Figure. illegitimate object to pursue; spies, on EMBOLDEN. See Encourage. the other hand, are employed by all EMBRACE. See Clasp; Comprise. regular governments in a time of warEMBRYO, Fanxrs. Embryo, in fare. Nations that are at war someFrench embryon, Greek tiifipvov, from times send emissaries into the states ^pvtiv, to swell out or germinate, sig- of the enemy to excite civil commo-

—

EMPIRE

299

At Sparta, the trade of a spy there is but one prince or sovereign was not so vile as it has been generally ruler, although there may be many esteemed; it was considered as a self- employed in the administration. With devotion for the pubUc good, and empires it is different: one part is formed a part of their education. sometimes governed by fundamental These terms are applied to other ob- laws very different from those by which jects figuratively. another part of the same empire is

tions.

See also Spy.

EMIT, Exhale, Evaporate.

Emii, from the Latin emittere, expresses properly the act of sending out: exhale, from halitus, the breath, and evaporate, from vapor, vapor or steam, are both

modes of emitting. Emit is used to express a more

positive effort to send out; exhale and evaporate designate the natural and progressive process of things; volcanoes emit fire and lava; the earth exhales the damps, or flowers exhale perfumes; liquids evaporate. Animals may emit by an act of volition; things exhale or evaporate by an external action upon them; they exhale that which is foreign to them; they evaporate that which constitutes a part of their substance. The skunk emits such a stench from it-

when pursued as to keep its pursuers at a distance from itself: bogs and fens exhale their moisture when acted upon by the heat: water evaporates by means of steam when put into a state of ebuUition. self

See also Transpire. EMOLUMENT. See Gain. EMOTION. See Agitation. EMPHASIS. See Stress. EMPIRE, Kingdom, Republic. Although the first two words obviously

two species of states, where the princes assume the title of either emperor or king, yet the difference between them is not limited to this dis-

refer to

tinction.

The word empire carries with it the idea of a state that is vast and composed of many different people; that of kingdom marks a state more hmited in extent and united in its composition. In kingdoms there is a uniformity of fimdamentai laws, the difference in regard to particular laws or modes of jurisprudence being merely variations from custom, which do not affect the unity of poUtical administration. From this uniformity, indeed, in the functions of government, we may trace the origin of the words king and kingdom, since

governed, which diversity destroys the. unity of government and makes the union of the state to consist in the submission of certain chiefs in the commands of a superior general or chief. From this very right of commanding, then, it is evident that the words empire and emperor derive their origin; and hence it is that there may be many princes or sovereigns, and kingdoms, in the same empire. Rome, therefore, was first a kingdom while it was formed of only one people: it acquired the name of empire as soon as other nations were brought into subjection to it and became members of it, not by losing the distinctive character as nations, but by submitting themselves to the supreme command of their conquerors. For the same reason the German empire was so denominated because it consisted of several states independent of one another, yet all subject to one ruler or emp>eror; so Hkewise the Russian empire, the Ottoman empire, and the former Mogul empire, which were composed of different nations: and, on the other hand, the kingdom of Spain and of England, both of which, though divided into different provinces, were, nevertheless, one people, having but one ruler. While France, however, included many distinct countries within its jurisdiction, it properly assumed the name of an empire, and, with Portugal later, took the name ol republic; and England, having by a legislative act united to itself a country distinct both in its laws and customs, has hkewise. with equal propriety, been denominated the British empire. The term republic appUes both to countries as vast as the United States, Brazil, and Mexico, as several in Europe, and also to smaller ones, as those in Central and South America and some parts of Europe; and the term represents the form of government, the supreme authority being chosen or delegated by the people instead of being a smgle family. hereditary

m

EMPIRICAL

soo

—

hshed as an absolute fact, but serving as a working basis" for further discovery. But the failure to estabhsh as an absolute fact or law is indicated power or an exercise of sovereignty. under somewhat different conditions. In this sense it is aUied to the word Empirical, from Greek iv, on, in, and trial, reign, which, from the verb to reign, irfipa, experience, refers to signifies the act of reigning; and to the knowledge gained simply from observaword dominion, which, from the Latin tion and experience, not based on any dominus, a lord, signifies either the thorough study of cause and effect or power or the exercise of the power of a even on scientific experiment. Experimental, on the other hand, coming lord. As empire signifies command, or the from Latin experiri, to make a thorough power exercised in commanaing, it trial of, means the process of discovproperly refers to the country or people ering laws or facts through systemEmpire, Reign, Dominion. In the preceding article empire has been considered as a species of state: in the present case it conveys the idea of

commanded; and as reign signifies the act of reigning, it refers to the individual who reigns. If we speak of an extended empire, it has regard to the space over which it extends; if of an extended reign, it has regard either to the country reigned over or to the length of time that a prince reigns. lYom this distinction of the terms the epithets vast, imited, dismemberized, and the hke are most appropriately applied to empire; the epithets peaceful, warhke, glorious, prosperous, and the hke, to reign. Empire and reign are properly apphed to civil government or the exercise of regular power; dominion signifies either the act of TuUng by a sovereign or a private individual, or the power exercised in ruhng, which may be either regular or irregular; a sovereign may have dominion over many nations by force of arms; he holds his reign by force of law. If empire and reign be extended in their appUcation to other objects, it is figurative; thus a female may be said to hold her empire among her admirers, or fashions may be said to have their reign. Dominion may be apphed in the proper sense to the power which man exercises over the brutes or inanimate objects, and figuratively to the power of the passions. In countries under the repubhcan form of government the entire body of citizens constitute the sovereignty. They choose the Congress, which is the highest lawmaking authority, and elect the President, who is the chief executive of the laws,

atized observation; experimental simply suggests an incomplete process of discovery. Hypothetical, from Greek vno, under, and 9kaiQ, a placing; it is the adjective corresponding to hypothesis. hypothesis is a formulation of a possible law which has not yet been fully demonstrated by experience. That which is experimental may be as yet unformulated; that which is hy-

A

pothetical may be formulated, but not yet proved by experiment. Provisional^ from pro, forward, and videre, to see, means taken as truth or right until a better way can be discovered; it is a formulation of a principle or method of action with the distinct expectation that it will be superseded; and is intended to serve as a means to an end. Tentative, from Latin tentare, to try, also means experimental, but it refers to informal rather than formal and systematic experiment, and partly suggests the meaning of provisional. That which is tentative is tried as an experiment till something better can be discovered. EMPLOY, Use. Employ, from the Latin in, in, and plicare, to fold, signifies to implicate or apply for any special purpose. Use, from the Latin usus, past participal of utor, signifies to enjoy or derive benefit from. Employ expresses less than xise; it is in fact a Species of partial using: we al-

ways employ when we iise; but we do not always wse when we employ. We

employ whatever we take into our service or make subservient to our convenience for a time; we use whatever EMPIRICAL, Experimental, Hy- we entirely devote to our purpose. pothetical, Provisional, Tentative. Whatever is employed by one person All these words mean "not yet estab- may, in its turn, be employed by an-

ENCOURAGE other, or at different times

be employed said to be empty, or a title empty; a stare is said to be vacant, or an hour

by the same person; but what is used is frequently consumed or rendered unfit for a similar use. What we employ

may

frequently belong to another; but

what one

301

uses is supposed to be his exOn this ground we clusive property. may speak of employing persons as well as things: but we speak of u^ing things only, and not persons, except in the most degrading sense. Persons, time, strength, and power are employed; houses, furniture, and all materials, of which either necessities or conveniences are composed, are used. It is a part of wisdom to employ well the short portion of time which is allotted to us in this sublunary state, and to use the things of this world so as not to abuse

vacant.

Void and devoid are used in the same sense as vacant, as qualifying epithets, but not prefixea as adjectives, and always followed by some object; thus we speak of a creature as void of reason, and of an individual as devoid of com-

mon

sense.

See also Hollow. EMULATION. See Competition. ENCHANT. See Charm. ENCHANTED. See Spellbound. ENCIRCLE. See Surround.

ENCOMIUM, Eulogy,

Panegyric.

Encomium comes from Greek

Iv,

in,

and Koipoc, revelry, and signifies a set form of verses used on festive occasions

No one is exculpated from the for the purposes of praise. Eulogy, in an immoral action by suffering Greek tvXoyia, from ei and Xoyoc, sighimself to be employed as an instrvunent nifies, literally, speaking well of any to serve the purposes of another: we one. Panegyric, in Greek vavtjyvpucov, ought to use our utmost endeavors to from irdv, the whole, and Ayopd, an abstain from all connections with such assembly, signifies that which is spoken as wish to implicate us in their guilty before an assembly, a solemn oration. them.

guilt of

practices.

EMPLOYMENT.

The

idea of praise

is

common

to

all

See Business; these terms; but the first seems more Vocation. properly appUed to the thing, or the unEMPOWER.^ See Commission. conscious object; the second to persons EMPTY, Vacant, Void, Devoid. in general, their characters and actions; Empty is in Anglo-Saxon oemta, (emetta, the third to the person of some particumeaning leisure. Void ana devoid lar individual: thus we bestow encome from Old French voide, of un- comiums upMjn any work of art or production of genius, without reference to known origin, meaning empty. Empty is the term in most general the performer; we bestow eulogies on use; vacant, void, and devoid are em- the exploits of a hero, who is of another ployed in particular cases; empty and age or country; but we write panevacant have either a proper or an im- gyrics either in a direct address or in proper application; void or devoid only direct reference to the person who is a moral acceptation. Empty, in the panegyrized: the encomium is produced natural sense, marks an absence of that oy merit, real or supposed; the eulogy which is substantial, of adapted for may spring frcun admiration of the perfilUng: vacant designates or marks the son eulogized; the panegyric may be absence of that which should occupy or mere flattery, resulting from servile demake use of a thing. That which is pendence: great encomiums have been hollow may be empty: that which re- paid by all persons to the constitution spects an even space may be vacant. of England; our naval and military A house is empty which has no inhabi- heroes have received the eulogies of tants; a seat is vacant which is without many besides their own countrjTnen; an occupant; a room is empty which is authors of no mean reputation have without furniture; a space on paper condescended to deal out their panegyrics pretty freely, in dedications to vacant which is free from writing. In their figurative apphcation empty their patrons. ENCOMPASS. See Besieob, and vacant have a similar analogy: the ENCOUNTER. See Attack. empty is opposed to that which is subENCOURAGE, Animate, Incite, stantial: the vacant to that which is or ought to be occupied; a dream is Impel, Urg£, Stimulate, Investiis

ENCOURAGE

302

GATE. Encourage (see Cheer). Ani- stigated, by circumstances; in this case mate (see Animate). Incite, from the the former two differ only in the Latin dtare, to stir up, signifies to put degree of force in the impelling cause: Impel less constraint is laid on the will when into motion toward an object. Urge comes from Latin we are impelled than when we are urged, (see Actuate) .

Stimulate, from the which leaves no alternative or choice: Latin stimulus, a spur or goad, and a monarch is sometimes impelled by the instigate, from the Latin stigo, signify state of the nation to make a peace The idea of actuat- less advantageous than he would otherliterally to goad. ing or calling into action is common wise do; he is urged by his desperate to these terms, which vary in the cir- condition to throw himself upon the mercy of the enemy: a man is impelled cumstances of the action. Encouragement acts as a persuasive: by the mere necessity of choosing to animate, as an impelling or enhvening take one road in preference to another; cause: those who are weak require to he is urged by his pecuniary embarbe encouraged; those who are strong rassments to raise money at a great become stronger by being animated: loss. We may be impelled, urged, and the former require to have their difficulties removed, their powers reno- stimulated to that which is bad; we are vated, their doubts and fears dispelled; never instigated to that which is good; the latter may have their hopes in- we may be impelled by ciu-iosity to pry creased, their prospects brightened, and into that which does not concern us; their powers invigorated; we are en- we may be urged by the entreaties of couraged not to give up or slacken in those we are connected with to take our exertions; we are animated to in- steps of which we afterward repent; we crease oiu* efforts: the sinner is encour- may be stimulated by a desire of reaged by offers of pardon, through the venge to many foul deeds; but those merits of a Redeemer, to turn from his who are not hardened in vice require sinful ways; the Christian is animated the instigation of persons more abanby the prospect of a blissful eternity, doned than themselves before they will to go on from perfection to perfection. commit any desperate act of wickedWhat encourages and animates acts ness. Encouragement and incitement are the by the finer feelings of our nature; what incites acts through the medium abstract nouns either for the act of of our desires: we are encouraged by encouraging or inciting, or the thing kindness; we are animated by the hope that encourages or incites: the encourof reward: we are incited by the desire agement of laudable undertakings is itof distinction. self laudable; a single word or look What impels, urges, stimulates, and may be an encouragement: the inciteinstigates acts forcibly, be the cause ment of passion is at all times dangerinternal or external: we are impelled ous, but particularly in youth; money and stimulated mostly by what is in- is said to be an incitement to evil. Internal; we are urged and instigated by centive, which is another derivative both the internal and the external, but from incite, has a higher application for particularly the latter: we are impelled things that incite than the word inciteIjy motives; we are stimulated by appe- ment; the latter being mostly applied tites and passions; we are urged and to sensible, and the former to spiritual instigated by the representations of objects: savory food is an incitement to others: a benevolent man is impelled sensualists to indulge in gross acts of by motives of humanity to relieve the intemperance: a religious man wants wretched; an ardent mind is stimulated no incentives to virtues; his own breast by ambition to great efforts; we are furnishes him with those of the noblest urged by entreaties to spare those who kind. Impulse is the derivative from are in our power; one is instigated by impel, which denotes the act of impelmalicious representations to take re- ling; stimulus, which is the root of the venge on a supposed enemy. word stimulate, naturally designates the We may be impelled and urged, instrument, namely, the spur or goad, though not properly stimulated or in- with which one is stimtdated: hence, we urgere, to drive.

ENCROACH

303-

speak of acting by a blind impulse, or a cause, or promoting an interest, or wanting a stimtdus to exertion. forwarding a purpose, these terms propSee also Hearten. erly convey the idea of keeping things Encourage, Advance, Promote, Prefer, alive or in a motion toward some deForward. To encourage (see above). sired end: to advance is, however, genAdvance (see Advance) Promote, from erally used in relation to whatever adthe Latin -pro, forward, and movere, to mits of extension and aggrandizement move, signifies to move forward. Pre- promote is applied to whatever admits fer, from the Latin prcefero, from prce, of being brought to a point of maturity before, and ferre, to carry, signifies to or perfection; forward is but a partial set up before others. To forward is to term, employed in the sense of promote put forward. in regard to particular objects: thus The idea of exerting an influence to we advance reUgion or learning; we the advantage of an object is included promote an art or an invention; we in the signification of all these terms, forward a plan. which differ in the circumstances and Encourage, Embolden. To eruxmra^e

—

.

—

mode

of the action: to encourage, ad- is to give courage, and to embolden to vance, and promote are apphcable to make bold, the former impelling to both persons and things prefer, to per- action in general, the latter to that which is more difficult or dangerous: we sons only forward, to things only. First as to persons, encourage is par- are encouraged to persevere; the resotial as to the end, and indefinite as to lution is thereby confirmed: we are the means: we may encourage a person emboldened to begin; the spirit of enin anything, however trivial, and by terprise is roused. Success encourages; any means; thus we may encourage a the chance of escaping danger emchild in his rudeness by not checking boldens. Intrench, Intrude, him; or we may encourage an artist or man of letters in some great national Invade, Infringe. Encroach comes work; but to advance^ promote, and through Old French en crochier, from prefer are more general in their end and French en (Latin in), and Middle specific in the means; a person may Dutch kroke, hook (corresponding to advance himself, or may be advanced by English crook), and means Uterally to Intrench, from Latin in and others; he is promoted and preferred hook in. only by others: a person's advancement trencare for truncare, to cut, from truntrimk of a tree, signifies to cut may be the fruit of his industry, or cus, the result from the efforts of his friends; into another's territory. Intrude comes promotion and preferment are the work from Latin in, and trudere, to thrust, of one's friends; the former in regard meaning, literally, in the slang phrase, to offices in general, the latter mostly "to butt in." Invade, from in, m, and in regard to ecclesiastical situations: vadere, to go, signifies to march in upon. Infringe, from the Latin infringo. comit is the duty of every one to encourage, to the utmost of his power, those poundea of in and frangere, to break, among the poor who strive to obtain signifies to break in uix)n. All these terms denote an unauthoran honest livelihood; it is every man's duty to advance himself in life by every ized procedure; but the first two desiglegitimate means; it is the duty and nate gentle or silent actions, the latter the pleasure of every good man in the violent if not noisy actions. Encroach state to promote those who show them- is often an imperceptible action, perselves deserving of promotion; it is the formed with such art as to elude obduty of a minister to accept of prefer- servation; it is, according to its deriment when it offers, but it is not his vation, an insensible creeping into: intrench is, in fact, a species of encroachduty to be sohcitous for it. When taken in regard to things, en- ment, namely, that perceptible species courage is used in an improper or figu- which consists in exceeding the bounrative acceptation; the rest are applied daries in marking out the groimd or properly: if we encourage an under- space. In an extended and figurative applitaking, we give courage to the undertaker; but when we spealc of advancing cation of the terms one is saia to ;

;

ENCROACH,

ENCUMBER

304

encroach on a person or on a person's time, etc.; to intrench on the sphere or privilege of another. Intrude and invade designate an unauthorized entry, the former in violation of right, equity, or good manners, the latter in violation of public law:

imply the last of those parts which constitute a thing; but the end designates

large communities: unbidden guests intrude themselves sometimes into famiUes to their no small annoyance; an army never invades a coimtry without doing some mischief. They are figuratively applied to other objects: intrude, in the sense of going in without being invited, as unwelcome thoughts intrude themselves into the mind invade, in the sense of going in by force, as sounds invade the

may

ear.

he

that

part

the extremity point. The exthe Latin extremus, the

generally;

marks the particular tremity

very

is

from

last end, that

which

is

outermost.

Hence end may be said of that which the former is more commonly apphed bounds anything, but extremity of that to individuals; the latter to nations or which extends farthest from us: we

:

To

invade

and

infringe are

posed to project lengthwise. The end is opposed to the beginning; the excentre or point from which we reckon. When a man is said the end of to go to a journey or the end of the world, the expression is in both cases indefinite and general: but when tremity to the

said to go to the extremities of the extremities of a kingdom, the idea of relative distance is manifestly imphed. He who goes to the end of a path may possibly have a Httle farther to go in order to reach the extremity. In the figurative application, end and extremity differ so widely as not to admit of any just comparison. is

both vio- earth or the

lent acts; but there is more violation of good faith in infringing than in invading, as the infringement of a treaty. privilege may be either invaded or infringed; but to invade in this sense is applied to any privilege, however obtained; but infringe properly appUes to

A

that which persons hold under grant, compact, or law.

ENCUMBER.

speak of the ends of that which is circular in its form, or of that which has no specific form; but we speak of the extremities of that only which is sup-

some

See Clog. ENCYCLOPAEDIA. See Dictionary. END, Terminate, Close. To end is either to come to an end or put an

ENDEAVOR, gle.

To

Aim, Strive, Strug-

is general in its object, aim is particular; we endeavor to do whatever we set about; we aim at doing something which we have set before ovu-selves as a desirable object. To strive is to endeavor earnestly; to An enstruggle is to strive earnestly. deavor springs from a sense of duty

endeavor

end to. To terminate, either to come to a term or set a term to. To close, to come or bring to a close. To end is indefinite in its meaning and general in (from French en devoir, on duty); we its apphcation terminate and close are endeavor to do that which is right and modes of ending: to terminate is to avoid that which is wrong: aiming is end finally; to close, to end gradually. the fruit of an aspiring temper; the obWhatever is begun will end, and it may ject aimed at is always something suend in any way; but what terminates perior either in reality or in imaginais that which has been designedly tion, and calls for particular exertion: brought to an end; a string, a Une, a striving is the consequence of an ardent verse, etc., may end, but a road is said desire; the thing striven for is always properly to terminate. conceived to be of importance: strugThings may end abruptly or at once, gling is the effect of necessity; it is probut they close by a process or by bring- portioned to the difficulty of attaining the parts or points together; a ment and the resistance which is opscene may dose, or several Unes may posed to it; the thing struggled for is inclose. dispensably necessary. Those only who Any period of time, as a day, a life, endeavor to discharge their duty to God may end or close. and their fellow-creatures can expect See also Aim; Sake. real tranquillity of mind. Whoever End, Extremity. Both these words aims at the acquirement of great wealth ;

—

ENEMY or much power opens much misery to himself.

the door for As our passions are acknowledged to be our Neatest enemies when they obtain the ascendency, w^e should always strive to keep them imder our control. There are some men who struggle through Ufe to obtain a mere competence, and yet die without succeedmg in their

305

ENDURE. See Bear; Brook; Tolerate; Undergo. ENEMY, Foe, Adversary, Opponent, Antagonist. Enemy, in Latin

inimicus, compoimd of in, privative, and amicus, a friend, signifies one that is unfriendly. Foe comes from AngloSaxon /aA, hostile. Adversary, in Latin adversarius from adversus, against, sigobject. nifies one that takes part against anEndeavor, Effort, Exertion. Endeav- other; adversarius in Latin was particor (see Attempt and above). Effort ularly applied to those who contested comes from Latin ex, out, and fortis, a point in law with another. Opponent, strong, and means to bring force to in Latin opponens, participle of opbear upon. Exertion is derived from ponere, from ob, in the way of, and Latin ex, out, and serere, to join, or put, ponere, to place, signifies one pitted meaning to put forth the strength and against another. Antagonist, in Greek uvrayajviarrji, compounded of dvri, apply it to something. The idea of calling our powers into against, and dywviZofiat, I struggle, signifies one struggling against anaction is common to these terms; endeavor expresses httle more than this other. An enemy is not so formidable as a common idea, being a term of general import: effort ana exertion are par- foe; the former may be reconciled, but ticular modes of endeavor; the former the latter always retains a deadly hate. being a special strong endeavor, the An enemy may be so in spirit, in action, latter a continued strong endeavor. An or in relation; a foe is always so in endeavor is called forth by ordinary cir- spirit, if not in action likewise: a man cumstances; effort and exertion, by may be an enemy to himself, though not those which are extraordinary. An en- a. foe. Those who are national or politdeavor flows out of the condition of our ical enemies are often private friends, being and constitution as rational and but a foe is never anything but a foe. single act may create an enemy, out responsible agents we must make daily endeavors to fit ourselves for a hereafter; continued warfare creates a foe. Enemies are either public or private, as willing and necessitous agents we use our endeavors to obtain such things collective or personal; in the latter as are agreeable or needful for us: sense the word enemy is most analogous when a particular emergency arises we in signification to that of adversary, opmake a great effort. An endeavor may ponent, antagonist. The term enemy is always taken in a larger sense than the call forth one or many powers; an effort other terms: a private enemy is never calls forth but one power: the endeavor seeks to do mischief from to please in society is laudable if it inactive; he do not lead to vicious compliances; it the desire of so doing. An adversary, opponent, and antagonist may be so is a laudable effort of fortitude to supsimply from the relation which they press our complaints in the moment of stand in to others: the adversary is one suffering. who is adverse either in his claims, his The exertion is as indefinite as the en- opinions, his purposes, or his endeavors; deavor is to the means, but, like the he is active against others only as far effortj is definite as to the object: when as his interests and views require. An a serious object is to be obtained, suit- opponent is one who stands or acts in able exertions must be made. The enopposition to another: an opponent deavor is mostly apphed to individuals, opposes the opinions, principles, conbut the exertion may frequently be the duct, and writings of others. An adcombined endeavors of numbers. versary is always personal, and seta ENDLESS. See Eternal. himseu up immediately against anSee Invest. other; but an opponent has nothing to See Gift. do with the person, but with the thing that emanates from or is connected See Patience.

—

;

ENDOW.

ENDOWMENT.

ENDURANCE.

A

ENERGY

306

can have no ENGENDER. See Breed. adversaries except while he is Hving, but ENGRAVE. See Imprint. ENGRAVING. See Picture. he may have opponents after he is dead; partisans are always opponents to each ENGROSS. See Absorb; MonopAn antagonist is a particular olize. other. ENIGMA, Paradox, Riddle. All species of opponent either in combat or in action; it is personal or otherwise, these words indicate something puzaccording to circumstances: there may zUng, hard to understand or solve, but be antagonists who contend for victory the character of the imphed intellectwithout any feehng of animosity; such ual difficulty varies. Enigma comes were the Horatii and Curiatii among from Greek aiviyfta, meaning an obthe Romans: or they may engage in a scure speech, and referred to a short personal and bloody conflict, as the composition in prose or verse in which gladiators who fought for their Uves: something was described by intentionalin this sense wild beasts are antagonists ly obscure metaphors, in order to afi'ord when they engage in battle; there are an exercise for the ingenuity of the also hterary antagonists who are di- reader in guessing what was meant. rectly pitted against each other: as Riddle, Anglo-Saxon rasdels, is the naScahger and Petavius among the tive Enghsh term for exactly the same French; Boyle and Bentley among the sort of thing. A paradox, from Greek Enghsh. irapd, contrary to, and SS^a, opinion, Enemy and foe are figuratively ap- is a statement contrary to received plied to moral objects, the first in a opinion, a statement which on the face general, the second in a particular of it seems self-contradictory, absurd, sense: our passions are our enemies or at variance with common sense, when indulged envy is a foe to happi- though it may be essentially true. An ness. The word antagonist may also enigma, therefore, is not a paradox, be apphed metaphorically to other ob- but a paradox, not being intelhgible, may seem like an enigma. Between jects. ENERGY, Force, Vigor. Energy enigma and riddle there is no essential comes from Greek Ivtpytia, from Greek difference. Enigma, being the Greek «v, in, and ipyov, work, meaning work term and the learned word, less clearly put into something. Fm-ce (see Com- suggests its exact character to the pel). Vigor, from the Latin vigere, to popular mind than the famihar native Accordingly it is at flourish, signifies* unimpaired power, term riddle. or that which belongs to a subject in once more vague and more dignified. Paradox has an essentially different a sound or flourishing state. With energy is connected the idea of meaning from enigma and riddle, but activity; with force, that of capability; it is included because it shares with with vigor, that of health. Energy lies them the general imphcation of obonly in the mind; force and vigor are scurity something puzzhng to the the property of either body or mind. mind, difficult to solve. ENJOYMENT, Fruition, GratiKnowledge and freedom combine to produce energy of character; force is a fication. Enjoyment, from enjoy, to gift of nature that may be increased have the joy or pleasure, signifies either by exercise: vigor, both bodily and men- the act of enjoying or the pleasure itself tal, is an ordinary accompaniment of derived from that act. Fruition, from youth, but is not always denied to old frui, to enjoy, is employed only for the act of enjoying; we speak either age of the enjoyment of any pteasure or of ENERVATE. See Weaken. the enjoyment as a pleasure: we speak ENFEEBLE. See Weaken. those pleasures which are received ENFRANCHISE. See Emancipa- of from the fruition, in distinction from tion. those which are had in expectation. ENGAGE. See Attract; Bespeak; Enjoyment is either corporeal or spiritBind. ual, as the enjoyment of music or the ENGAGEMENT. See Battle; enjoyrnent of study: but the fruition Business; Promise. of eating or any other sensible, or at with the person.

A man

:

—

_

ENORMOUS least external, object: hope intervenes between the desire and the fruition. Gratification, from the verb to gratify,

807

Enmity

ia something permanent; animosity is partial and^ transitory: in the feudal ages, when the darkness and to make grateful or pleasant, signifies ignorance of the times prevented the either the act of giving pleasure or mild influence of Christianity, enmities the pleasure received. Enjoyment between particular families were handsprings from every object which is ed down as an inheritance from father capable of yielding pleasure; by dis- to son; in free states party spirit entinction, however, and in the latter genders greater animosities than private

from moral and rational objects: disputes. which is a species of Enmity is altogether personal; hostilenjoyment, is obtained through the ity respects public or private measures. mediu of the senses. Enjoyment is Enmity often hes concealed in the heart not so vivid as gratification: gratifica^ and does not betray itself by any open tion is not so permanent as enjoyment. act of hostility. Domestic life has its peculiar enjoySee also Hatred. ments; brilliant spectacles afford graii/ENORMOUS, Huge, Immense, fication. Our capacity for enjoyment Vast. Enormous, from e and norma, a depends upon our intellectual endow- rule, signifies out of rule or order. ments; our gratification depends upon Huge comes from Anglo-French ahogct the tone of our feelings and the nature the origin of which is unknown. Imsense,

but

gratification,

of our desires.

ENLARGE,

Increase,

Extend.

Enlarge signifies Uterally to make large or wide, and is apphed to dimension and extent. Increase, from the Latin increscere, from in, in, and crescere, to grow, means to grow from within, and is applicable to quantity, signifying to become greater in size by natural development. Extend, in Latin extendo, or ex, out, and tendere, to stretch, signifies to stretch out, that is, to make greater in space. speak of enlarging a house, a room, premises, or boundaries; of increasing an army or property, capital, expense, etc. oi extending the Doundaries of an empire. We say the hole or cavity enlarges, the head or bulk enlarges; the number increases, the swelling, inflammation, and the like increase: so hkewise in the figurative sense, the views, the prospects, the powers, the ideas, and the mind are enlarged; pain, pleasure, hope, fear, anger, or kindness is increased; views, prospects, connections, and the like are extended.

We

;

ENLIGHTEN.

See Illuminate.

ENLIST. See Enroll.

mense, in Latin immensus, compounded of in, privative, and menms, measured, signifies not to be measured. Vast, in

French

vaste,

Latin

vastxis,

waste, sig-

characteristic of a great open space, of a waste or wUdemess. Enormous and huge are pecuUarly nifies

apphcable to magnitude; immense and and number. Enormous expresses more than huge, as immense expresses more than wos/: what is enormous exceeds in a very great degree all ordinary bounds; what is huge is great only in the superlative degree. The enormous is always out of proportion; the hv^e is relatively exvast to extent, quantity,

traordinary in its dimensions. Some animals may be made enormously fat

by a

particular

mode

of feeding: to

one who has seen nothing but level groimd common hills will appear to be huge moim tains. The immense is that which exceeds all calculation: the vast comprehends only a very great or unusu£j excess. The distance between the earth and sun may be said to be immense: the distance between the poles is vast.

Of

these terms huge

is the only proper appUcation sense of size: the Enmity hes in the heart it is deep and rest are employed with regard to moral maUgnant. Animosity, from animus, objects. We speak only of a huge a spirit, hes in the passions; it is fierce anunal, a huge monster, a huge mass, a and vindictive: hostility, from hostis, hv^e size, a huge bulk, and the like; but a poUtical enemy, lies in the action; we sp>eak of an enormous waste, an mischievous and destructive. immense difference, and a vast number. is it

all

one confined to the ENLIVEN. See Animate. ENMITY, Animosity, Hostility. and in the proper ;

ENOUGH

SOS

—

book. Enlist is compounded of French Enormous, Prodigioiis, Monstrous. Prodigious en and liste from Old High German lista, Enormous (see above). comes from prodigy, in Latin prodigium, a border or strip, signifying a long strip signifying, literally, breaking out in of paper on which names were written; Monstrous, the verb meaning to put on a list. excess or extravagance. from monster, in Latin monstrum, and Register comes from Latin re, back, monstro, show or make visible, signifies and gestum, past participle of gerere, to carry, and means a thing carried back, a remarkable, or exciting notice. The enormous contradicts our rules of memorandum brought back; the verb estimating and calculating; the prodig- means to write the memorandum. ious raises our minds beyond their or- Record, in Latin recorder, compounded dinary standard of thinking: the mon- of re, back or again, and cors, the heart, strous contradicts nature and the course signifies to bring back to the heart or of things. What is enormous excites call to mind by a memorandum. Enroll and enlist respect persons only; om* surprise or amazement: what is prodigious excites our astonishment: register respects persons and things; what is monstrous does violence to our record respects things only. Enroll is senses and understanding. There is generally applied to the act of inserting something enormous in the present names in an orderly manner into any scale upon which property, whether book; enlist is a species of enrolling appublic or private, is amassed and ex- plicable only to the military. The enpended the ^works of the ancients in rolment is an act of authority; the general, but the Egyptian pyramids in enlisting is the voluntary act of an particular, are objects of admiration, individual. Among the Romans it was on account of the prodigious labor the office of the censor to enroll the which was bestowed on them: igno- names of all the citizens, in order to rance and superstition have always ascertain their number and estimate :

been active in producing monstrous their property: in modem times solimages for the worship of its bUnd diers are mostly raised by means of votaries.

enlisting.

ENOUGH,

Sufficient.

Enough,

In the moral application of the terms, is to assign a certain place or

Anglo-Saxon genoh, German genug, to enroll probably comes from a root signifying rank; to

enlist is to

put one's

self

under

Latin a leader or attach one's self to a party. suffixdens, participle of sufficio, com- Hercules was enrolled among the gods; pounded of svb and facere, to make, sig- the common people are always ready to nifies made or suited to the purpose. enlist on the side of anarchy and reHe has enough whose desires are sat- bellion. isfied; he has sufficient whose wants are To enroll and register both imply supplied. We may therefore frequent- writing down in a book but the former ly have sufficiency when we have not is a less formal act than the latter. enough. A greedy man is commonly in The insertion of the bare name or this case, who has never enough, al- designation in a certain order is enough though he has more than a sufficiency. to constitute an enrolment; but regisEnough is said only of physical objects tering comprehends the birth, family, of desire: sufficient is employed in a and other collateral circumstances of moral application for that which serves the individual. The object of registerChildren and animals ing Ukewise differs from that of enrollthe purpose. never have enough food, nor the miser ing: what is registered serves for future enough money: it is requisite to allow purposes and is of permanent utihty to 8uffi,cient time for everything that is to society in general; but what is enrolled be done, if we wish it to be done well. often serves only a particular or temENRAPTURE. See Charm. porary end. Thus in numbering the ENROLL, Enlist or List, Regis- people it is necessary simply to enroll ter, Record. Enroll, compounded of their names; but when in addition to French en, Latin in, and role, from this it was necessary, as among the rotula, a Uttle wheel, signifies to place in Romans, to ascertain their rank in the a roll, that is, in a roll of paper or a state, everything connected with their

to

attain

to.

Sufficient,

in

;

ENTHUSIAST property, their family, and their connection required to be registered; so in like manner, in more modem times, it has been found necessary for the good government of the state to register the births, marriages, and deaths of every citizen: it is manifest, therefore, that what is registered, as far as respects persons, may be said to be enrolled; but

309

(see Attempt), is connected with the understanding; and adventurous, from adventure (from Latin ad, to, and venire, to come, meaning a coming to, an attempt or trial), is a characteristic of the passions. The enterprising terprise

character conceives great projects, and pursues objects that are difficult to be obtained; the adventurous character is what is enrolled is not always registered. contented with seeking that which is Persons only, or things personal, are new and placing himself in dangerous enrolled, and that properly for pubUc and unusual situations. An enterprispurposes only; but things as well as ing spirit belongs to the commander persons are registered for private as well of an army or the ruler of a nation; an as pubUc purposes. adventurous disposition is suitable to To register in its proper sense is to men of low degree. Peter the Great place in writing; to record is to make a possessed, in a peculiar manner, an memorial of anything, either by writ- enterprising genius; Robinson Crusoe ing, printing, engraving, or otherwise: was a man of an adventurous turn. registering is for some specific and im- Enterprising characterizes persons only, mediate purpose; as to register decrees but adventurous is also apphed to things, or other proceedings in a court: record- to signify containing adventures; hence ing is for general and oftentimes remote a journey, or a voyage, or a history may purposes: to record events in history. be denominated adventurous.

In an extended and figurative appUcation, things may be said to be registered in the memory; or events recorded in history. have a right to believe that the actions of good men are registered in heaven; the particular sayings and actions of princes are recorded in history, and handed down to the latest posterity.

We

ENTERTAIN.

See Amuse. See Amuse-

ENTERTAINMENT. ment; Feast.

ENTHUSIAST, ary, Devotee.

Fanatic,

Vision-

The enthiisiast,faTuUic,

and visionary have disordered imagina-

but the enthusiast is only affected inwardly with an extraordinary fervor, the fanatic and visionary betray that fervor by some outward mark; the ENSAMPLE. See Example. ENSLAVE, Captivate. To enslave former by singularities of conduct, the To latter by singularities of doctrine. is to bring into a state of slavery. Fanatics and visionaries are therefore captivate is to make a captive. There is as much difference between always more or less enthusiasts; but these terms as between slavery and cap- enthusiasts are not always fq,natics or ^EvQovaidarai, among the tivity: he who is a slave is fettered both visionaries. body and mind; he who is a captive is Greeks, from iv, in, and Sfof, God, only constrained as to his body: hence signified those supposed to have, or to enslave is always taken in the bad pretending to have, divine inspiration. sense; captivate, in a good or bad sense: Fanatici were so called among the enslave is employed literally or figiu"a- Latins from fana (temples), in which tively; captivate only figuratively: we they spent an extraordinary portion of may be enslaved by persons or by our their time; they, like the tvOovmaarai gross passions; we are captivated by the of the Greeks, pretended to revelations and inspirations, during the influence charms or beauty of an object. of which they indulged themselves in ENSUE. See Follow. ENTANGLE. See Embarrass; In- many extravagant tricks, cutting themselves with knives, and distorting SNARE. themselves with every species of antic, ENTER. See Begin. gesture, and grimace. ENTERPRISE. See Attempt. In the modem acceptation of these ENTERPRISING, Adventurous. These terms mark a disposition to en- terms the fanatic is one who fancies gage in that which is extraordinary and himself inspired, and, rejecting the use hazardous; but enterprising, from en- of his understanding, falls into every ^

tions;

ENTHUSIASTIC

810

kind of extravagance; it is mostly ap- The epithet {kTriOriTov, from ini, beElied to a man's religious conduct and side, and riOrjui., I place) is the word eUef, but may be applied to any ex- added by way of ornament to the travagant conduct founded on false diction; the adjective, from adjectivum, is the word added to the noun as its under appendage, and made subservient to it the influence of any particular fervor in aU its inflections. When we are of mind, more especially where it is a estimating the merits of any one's style religious fervor. or composition, we should speak of the There may be enthusiasm in other epithets he uses; when we are talking of matters, where it is less mischievous. words, their dependencies and relations, There may be enthusiasts in the cause we should speak of adjectives: an epithet of humanity, or in the love of one's is either gentle or harsh, an adjective country, or in any other matter in is either a noun or a pronoun adjective. which the affections may be called All adjectives are epithets, but all epiinto exercise. thets are not adjectives; thus, in VirThe visionary is properly one that gil's Pater ^Eneas, the pater is an epithet, sees or professes to see visions, and is but not an adjective. mostly appUed to those who pretend EPOCHA. See Time. to supernatural visions, but it may EQUAL, Even, Equable, Like or be employed in respect to any one who Alike, Uniform. EqvM, in Latin indulges in fantastical theories. cequalis, comes from aquus. Even is in A devotee is one who is extravagantly Anglo-Saxon efen. Equable, in Latin and, it may be, superstitiously devoted equabilis, signifies susceptible of eqtudto a cause. The word expresses exag- ity. Like, Anglo-Saxon lie, comes from gerated interest, and, so far, is synony- a Teutonic base meaning resembling mous with the other terms, but it does in form. Uniform, compounded of not suggest disordered imagination, as unu^, one, and forma, form, bespeaks its does fanatic. own meaning. ENTHUSIASTIC. See Sanguine. All these epithets are opposed to difENTICE. See Allure; Persuade; ference. Equal is said of degree, quanTWEEDLE. tity, number, and dimensions, as equal ENTIRE. See Whole. in years; of an equnl age; an equal ENTIRELY. See Quite. height: even is said of the surface and ENTITLE. See Name. position of bodies; a board is made ENTRAP. See Insnare. even with another board; the floor or ENTREAT. See Beg. the ground is even: like is said of acENTREATY. See Prayer. cidental qualities in things, as alike in ENVIOUS. See Invidious. color or in feature: uniform is said of ENVIRON. See Surround. things only as to their fitness to corENVOY. See Ambassador. respond; those which are unlike in ENVY. See Jealousy. color, shape, or make are not uniform, EPHEMERAL. See Evanescent. and cannot oe made to match as pairs: EPHEMERIS. See Calendar. equable is used only in the moral acEPICURE. See Sensualist. ceptation, in which all the others are EPIDEMICAL. See Contagious. likewise employed. EPITHET, Adjective. Epithet is As moral qualities admit of degree, the technical term of the rhetorician; they admit of equality: justice is dealt adjective that of the grammarian. The out in equxil portions to the rich and the same word is an epithet as it quahfies poor; God looks with an equnl eye on the sense; it is an adjective as it is a all mankind. As the natural path is part of speech: thus, in the phrase rendered uneven by high and low "Alexander the Great," great is an ground, so the evenness of the temper, epithet, inasmuch as it designates in the figurative sense, is destroyed by Alexander in distinction from aU other changes of humor, by elevations and persons: it is an adjective as it ex- depressions of the spirits; and. the presses a quahty in distinction from the equability of hfe, from prosperous to noun Alexander, which denotes a thing. adverse.

principles.

An

enthiisiast is

one who

is

ERROR

811

Even and equable are applied to the ERASE. See Blot. same object in regard to itself, as an ERECT. See Build; iNgiTi UTg ; even path or equable course; like or Lift. alike is applied to two or more objects ERRAND. See Message. in regard to one another, as two persons ERRATIC, Eccentric. Erratic are alike in disposition, taste, opinions, comes from French erratique, Latin etc.; uniform is said, either of one ob- erraiicus, prone to wander, from errare, ject in regard to itself, as to be uniform to wander. Eccentric comes through in conduct, or of many objects in re- French from Greek Ik, out, and Kivrpov, gard to one another, as modes are circle, meaning not concentric with anuniform. other circle, or, in astronomy, moving in an orbit deviating more or less EQUIP. See Fit. from a center. These words have EQUITABLE. See Faib. similar meanings. Both were asEQUITY. See Justice. tronomical terms; both indicate moEQUIVOCAL. See Ambiguous. tion deviating from a fixed course; and EQUIVOCATE. See Evade. both have been employed, in a figuraEQUIVOCATION. See Sophis- tive sense, to indicate that which does try. not correspond to a set .standard. ERA. See Time. Erratic, however, refers to a more ERADICATE, Extirpate, Exter- active departure from a fixed course minate. To eradicate, from radix, the than does eccentric. The eccentric i>erroot, is to get out by the root: extirpate, son does not do as others do; the erfrom ex and stirps, the stem, is to get ratic person fails to do as others do, out the stock, to destroy it thoroughly. but acts in a particularly irregular and In the natural sense we may eradicate jerky and imsystematic fashion. noxious weeds whenever we pull them ERROR, Mistake, Blunder. Erfrom the ground; but we can never ror, in French erreur, Latin error, from extirpate all noxious weeds, as they al- errare, to wander, marks the act of wanways disseminate their seeds and spring dering, as applied to the rational facup afresh. These words are seldomer ulty. A mistake is a taking amiss or used in the physical than in the moral wrong, and is derived from the Scandisense; where the former is applied to navian. Blunder is a Scandinavian word such objects as are conceived to be formed as a frequentative from Ice'

plucked up by the roots, as habits, vices, abuses, evils; and the latter to whatever is united or supposed to be united into a race or family, and is destroyed root and branch. Youth is the season when vicioUs habits may be thoroughly eradicated; by the imiversal deluge the whole human race was extirpated with the exception of Noah

landic blunda, to doze or slumber, allied to blind.

Error in its universal sense ia the general term, since every deviation from what is right in rational agents is termed error, which is strictly opposed to truth; error is the lot of hiunanity;

we attempt to do or think error will be sure to creep: the and his family. term, therefore, is of unlimit«l use: Exterminate, in Latin exterminatus, the very mention of it reminds us oi participle of extermino, from ex or ex- our condition: we have errors of judgtra and terminus, boundary, signifies ment, errors of calculation, errors of to expel beyond the boundary (of life), the head, and errors of the heart. The that is, out of existence. It is used other terms designate modes of error, only in regard to such things as have which mostly refer to the common hfe, and designates a violent and im- concerns of hfe: mistake is an error of mediate action: extirpaie, on the other choice; blunder an error of action: chilhand, may designate a progressive dren and careless people are most apt action: the former may be said of indi- to make mistakes; ignorant, conceited, viduals, but the latter is employed in and stupid people commonly commit the collective sense only. Plague, blunders: a mistake must be rectified: pestilence, famine, extirpate: the sword in commercial transactions it may be of exterminates. serious consequence: a blunder must be into whatever

ERST

3112

set right ; but blunderers are not always to be set right; and blunders are frequently so ridiculous as only to excite laughter. See also Sophistry. Error, Fault. Error respects the act; fault, from Latin fallere, to deceive,

—

respects the agent: an Ue in the judgment or in the conduct; but a fault hes in the will or intention: the errors of youth must be treated with indulgence; but their faults must on all accounts be corrected: error is said of that which

English error

fail,

may

individual and partial; faidt is said likewise of that which is habitual: it is an error to use intemperate language at any time; it is a fault in the temper of some persons that they cannot restrain their anger. See also Lapse. is

''

ERST.

See Once.

ERUDITION. See Knowledge. ERUPTION, Explosion. Eruption, from

e,

out,

and rumpere, to break,

sig-

but we disengage ourselves when we elude and evade: we escape from danger; we elude search: our escapes are often providential and often narrow; our success in eluding depends on our skill: there are many bad men who escape punishment by the mistake of a word; there are many who escape detection by the art with which they elitde observation and inquiry. Elude and evade both imply the practice of art on trying occasions; but the former is employed to denote a more ready and dexterous exercise of art than the latter; the former consists mostly of that which is done by a trick, the latter consists of words as well as actions: a thief eludes those who are in pursuit of him by dexterous modes of concealment; he evades the interrogatories of the judge by equivocating rephes. One is said to elude a punishment and to evade a law.

ESCORT. See Accompany. ESPECIALLY, Particularly,

Especially the breaking forth, that is, the Principally, Chiefly. coming into view, by a sudden bursting; and particularly are exclusive or superexplosion, from ex, out, and plaudere, to lative in their import; they refer to clap, meant to drive off the stage by one object out of many that is superior clapping; and now signifies bursting to all; principally and chiefly are comnifies

out with a noise: hence of flames there parative in their import; they desigwill be properly an eruption, but of nate in general the superiority of some gunpowder an explosion: volcanoes objects over others. Especially is a have their eruptions at certain inter- term of stronger imp>ort than particwvals, which are sometimes attended larly, and principally expresses s6mewith explosions: on this account erup- thing less general than chiefly: we tions are apphed to the human body ought to have God before our eyes at for whatever comes out as the effects all times, but especially in those moof humor, and may be applied in the ments when we present ourselves besame manner to any indications of fore Him in prayer: the heat is very humor in the mind; explosions are also oppressive in all countries under the applied to the agitations of the mind torrid zone, but particularly in the which burst out. deserts of Arabia, where there is a want ESCAPE, Elude, Evade. Escape of shade and moisture: it is principally means Uterally to sUp out from under among the higher and lower orders of one's cape, from French es, out, Latin society that we find vices of every ex, and cappa, cape. Elude (see Avoid). description to be prevalent; robberies Evade, from the Latin evado, com- happen chiefly by night.

pounded

of

e,

out,

and

vadere, to go,

ESPOUSE, Betroth.

Espouse, in

old French espouser, modem French go or get out of a thing. The idea of being disengaged from 4pouser, a spouse or wife, from the Latin that which is not agreeable is compre- sponso, to betroth, that from spondere, hended in the sense of all these terms; to promise, old Spanish esposar, Italbut escape designates no means by ian sposare, has two very different sigwhich this is effected; elude and evade nifications. In the present and more define the means, namely, the efforts common one the term implies to promwhich are used by one's self: we are ise, or engage in marriage, usually by simply disengaged when we escape, a written contract, sometimes by word signifies to

ESTATE of

mouth with

or without witnesses,

313

the former description are the prize

and espousal implies the act of con- essays in schools; and of the latter tracting a man and woman to each are the innumerable essays which have other in marriage. been published on every subject since Betroth, a compound of the Enghsh the time of Bacon to the present day: be and the Old Enghsh troth, truth, treatises are mostly written on ethical, the act of pUghting or pledging one's troth, a token of faith, truth, or earnest intention: in this appUcation a pledge or agreement of marriage. To espouse is to wed; ta betroth is to give a pledge that the man and woman will wed. father or sponsor gives a woman to a man to be his spouse, or wife, and a bridegroom takes the woman as his spouse. Espouse is also used figuratively, meaning to make one's own entirely, as in the phrase to espouse a cause. signifies

A

or speculative subjects such F^nelon's, Milton's, or Locke's treatise on education; Ete Lolme's treatise on the constitution of England; p>ohtical,

as

Colquhoun's

treatise on the police: disare employed on disputed points of Uterature, as Bent ley's dissertation upon the epistles of Phalaris; De Pauw's dissertations on the Egyptians and Chinese: tracts are ephemeral productions, mostly on political

sertations

and

religious subjects,

which seldom

survive the occasion which gave them birth; of this description are the pamf)hlets which daily issue from the press, tation. All these words are employed or or against the measures of governby authors to characterize compositions ment or the pubUc measurqs of any

ESPY. See Fiiro. ESSAY, Treatise, Tract, Disser-

varying in their form and contents. particular party. Essay, which signifies a trial or atSee also Attempt. tempt, is here used to designate in a ESSENTIAL. See Necessary. specific manner an author's attempt to ESTABLISH. See CoNnRii; Fix; illustrate any point: it is most com- Institute. monly appUed to small detached pieces, ESTATE, Property, Rank. Eswhich contain only the general thoughts tate, Old French estat, from Latin status. of a writer on any given subject, and meant originally condition in general afford room for amplification into de- or a good condition, with special refertails also: though, by Locke, in his ence to worldly prosperity. Out oS "Essay on the Understanding," Beat- its original sense it developed several tie, in his "Essay on Truth," and other different meanings, characterized in authors, it is modestly used for their each case, however, by a certain forconnected and finished endeavors to mality and legal stiffness in its applicaelucidate a doctrine. A treatise is more tion. In one sense estate is a sjiionyme systematic than an essay; it treats on of property, from Latin proprius, one's the subject in a methodical form, and own, meaning that whicn is one's own. conveys the idea of something labored, Property is the general and familiar scientific, and instructive. A tract is term apphed to all that one owns; only a species of a small treatise, drawn estate a legal term applied to the inup upon particular occasions, and pub- terest that any one has in lands, tenehshed in a separate form; they are ments, or other effects. Again property both derived from the Latin tractus, may indicate a piece of land owned Earticiple of traho, draw, manage, or by an individum or a corporation; andle. Dissertation, from Latin dis- estate that same piece of land if it is serere, compounded of dis, apart, and sufficiently large and sumptuously deWe speak of the farmer's serere, to join, means the taking up of veloped. a subject part by part, suggesting a property; the rich man's estate. Estate is also a Estate, Rank. thorough and exhaustive analysis. Essays are either moral, political, synonyme of rank (see Class), from philosophical, or Uterary: they are the which it differs in suggesting not merecrude attempts of the youth to digest ly a division into ranks, but something his own thoughts or they are the more of its original reference to worldly conmature attempts of the man to com- dition; as well as in being a somemunicate his thoughts to others: of what more formal and specific word

—

ESTEEM

314

with distinctly French associations. house on a given plan; a proprietor of In Great Britain the estates of the realm houses computes the probable diminumean the lords spiritual, the lords tem- tion in the value of his property in conporal, and the commons the first two sequence of wear and tear; the surbeing represented in the House of veyor rates the present value of lands Lords, the last in the House of Com- or houses. In the moral acceptation they bear mons. Respect, Regard. the same analogy to each other: some ESTEEM, Esteem (see Appraise). Respect, from men are apt to estimate the adventithe Latin respicere, signifies to look tious privileges of birth or rank too back upon, to look upon with atten- high; it would be a useful occupation for men to compute the loss they sustain tion. Regard (see Attend). A favorable sentiment toward par- by the idle waste of time, on the one ticular objects is included in the mean- hand, and its necessarily improfitable ing of all these terms. Esteem and consumption, on the other: he who respect flow from the understanding; rates his abilities too high is in danger regard springs from the heart as well of despising the means which are essenas the head: esteem is produced by in- tial to secure success; and he who trinsic worth; respect by extrinsic rates them too low is apt to neglect the quahties; regard is affection blended means, from despair of success. with esteem: it is in the power of ESTRANGEMENT. See Abstracevery man, independently of all col- tion.

—

lateral circumstances, to acquire the esteem, of others; but respect and regard are within the reach of a Umited niun-

the high and the low, the and the poor, the equal and the

ber only: rich

ETERNAL,

Endless, Everlast-

ing. The eternal is set above time, the endless lies within time; it is therefore by a strong figure that we apply eternal to anything sublunary; although end-

unequal are each, in their turn, the less may with propriety be appUed to objects of esteem; those only are ob- that whach is heavenly; that is properly jects of respect who have some mark eternal which has neither beginning nor of distinction or superiority of either end; that is endless which has a beginbirth, talent, acquirements, or the ning but no end: God is, therefore, an like; regard subsists only between eternal, but not an endless being: there friends, or those who stand in close is an eternal state of happiness or misconnection with one another: industry ery which awaits all men, according to and sobriety excite our esteem for one their deeds in this hfe; but their joys man, charity and benevolence our or sorrows may be endless as regards the esteem for another; superior learning or present hfe. That which is endless has abihties excite our respect for another; no cessation; that which is everlasting a long acquaintance or a reciprocity of has neither interruption nor cessation: kind offices excites a mutual regard. the endless may be said of existing things; the everlasting naturally exSee also Value. ESTIMATE, Compute, Rate. Esti- tends itself into futurity: hence we Compute (see speak of endless disputes, an endless mate (see Appraise). Calculate). Rate, in Latin ratus, warfare; an everlasting memorial, an participle of rear, to think, to weigh in the mind.

signifies

AU these terms mark the mental operations by which the swax, amount, or value of things is obtained: to estimate is to obtain the aggregate sum in one's mind, either by an immediate or a progressive act; to compute is to obtain the sum by the gradual process of putting together items; to rate is to fix the relative value in one's mind by deduction and comparison; a builder estimates the expense of building a

everlasting

crown

ETHEREAL, ly, Spiritual.

of glory.

Celestial, HeavenEthereal, derived from

same source as ether, Greek aiOrjp, the sky, from

the

light up, cognate

summer, or

cestus,

viz.,

the

aWo), to

with the Latin

cestas,

heat, in Italian etere,

which pertains or is formed of, ether, the fluid that is beheved to pervade all space beyond the atmosphere of the earth, and, figuratively, the high heavens or home of the gods. Ethereal, in chemimplies, hterally, that to,

EUPHONIOUS whatever

315

contains was customary to send small tickets to invited guests, informing them concerning the parts they were expected to take in the ceremony. From this practice the present meaning of the which pertains to the sky or heavens, term doubtless arose, and the word and, commonly, that which is exquisite came to signify the forms that should or supremely excellent or which relates be observed in the ceremonial interto the empire or people of China. courses of life. Whatever is heavenly pertains to or reOf the words included in this article sembles heaven, the firmament or sky, as synonymes of etiquette, manners is the the abode of God and the blessed, and most general, for the derivation and implies the state or condition of abso- definition of which see Manners. It lute bliss. Because of the general re- means simply ways of doing things. ligious and the mythological belief that Decorum (see Decency) means marirheaven is the abode of the redeemed ners, with special reference to that and the gods who controlled the desti- which is suitable and graceful. Fashion nies of mankind, the term has come to (see Fashion) signifies manners with designate the spiritual or incorporeal special reference to the habits that part of humanity, the state of being happen to prevail in society at the pure, holy, and heavenly-minded. minute. Etiquette indicates the marirETHICAL, Moral. Moral, from ners that prevail in formal society Latin vws, moris, meaning custom, was considered as a well-defined system, Cicero's translation of the Greek in which every detail of conduct is reg^QtKog, indicating habitual conduct. ulated. Ceremony is the etiquette of Both words, therefore, were meant to particular formal occasions, with special refer to a habit of right action habitual reference to external dignity and form with the individual and sanctioned by (see Form), EUGENICS, Breeding. There is the custom of the society in which he hved. But ethical has come to no real synonyme for eugenics, but refer to the principles of right in the the general word breeding, which it haa abstract, with reference to the indi- partly replaced, may serve the purpose. vidual character and its complete de- Eugenics, from Greek «;, well, and velopment in accordance with general yivog, race, means the science of prohuman laws; moral refers to action as ducing a good race of human beings, affecting the community and sanc- and all that pertains thereto. Breedtioned by social and reUgious law. ing (see Breed) means simpl> the proEthical has philosophical connotations; duction of animals or plants, but it moral practical and religious ones. has been speciaUzed among raisers of When we speak of something as being stock, etc., to refer to the production ethically right, we suggest that we are of a good stock or particular kinds of going back to first principles and stock, and hence as applied to the judging it as a matter of abstract development of the lower orders of right and wrong. When we speak of being it has much the same meaning something as morally wrong, we are as eugenics. EULOGY. See ENcoBnuM. thinking especially of the act in relaEUPHONIOUS, Harmonious. Ei*tion to society and social judgments. ETIQUETTE, Ceremony, Deco- phxmious, from Greek nJ, well, and rum, Fashion, Manners. Etiquette, in ^ovTi, a sound, meaning a pleasant Old French estiquet, a little note, from sound, and harmonious (see Melody), the German stichen, to stick, is really both mean "agreeable to the car," but a doublet of ticket, and signifies, Uter- harmonious is a more positive word than Harmonious suggests the ally, a ticket on which the forms to be euphonious. observed on particular occasions were presence of sounds whose combination Originally, the term was IS delightful; euphonious the absence inscribed. applied to a httle piece of paper or of all sounds which might be unpleasnote stuck up on the gate of a court. ant. Euphonious refers especially to On state or very formal occasions it the juxtaposition of sounds in speaking: istry,

applies

to

ether, but in ordinarj- language it has a strong poetical and religious significance. Celestial specifically implies that

EUTHANASIA

316

harmonious to the juxtaposition of to turn open thief will use any shifts musical sounds, in singing, playing, etc. rather than not get money dishonestly: EUTHANASIA, Easy Death. Eu- the subterfuge is the refuge of one's thanasia, from Greek tv, well, and fears; it is not resorted to from the Gdvarog, death, being a technical word, hope of gain, but from the fear of a has no exact synonymes except phrases loss; not for purposes of interest, but like easy death, painless death, which for those of character; he who wants are simply translations of the Greek to justify himself in a bad cause has term into familiar Enghsh. It refers recourse to subterfuge. to an easy or painless death, especially EVANESCENT, Ephemeral, Tranone attained through the administra- sitory. These words all indicate that tion of a drug by a physician in cases which endures for only a little space, of mortal and painful illness. but there is some difference in the

EVADE,

Equivocate, PrevariEvade (see Escape). EquivoPrevaricate cate Ambiguity). (see comes from Latin prevaricari, from proB, especially, very, and varus, crooked, and originally meant to say something cate.

very crooked, to

image conveyed in each word. Evanescent, from Latin e, away, and vanescere, about to vanish, means about to vanEphemeral, from Greek ish away. tTTi and vfifpa, for a day, means enduring but for a day. Transitory, from Latin trans, beyond, and itus, the past participle of ire, to go, means about to pass beyond our sight. Ephemeral indicates that which by its ver>' nature cannot endure; transitory that which, as a matter of fact but not of necessity,

a lie. designate an artful mode of escaping the scrutiny of an inquirer: we evade by artfuUy turning the subject or calling off the attention of the inquirer; we equivocate by the use of equivocal expressions; we is not enduring. Evanescent indicates prevaricate by the use of loose and in- a higher degree of transitoriness sugdefinite expressions; we avoid giving gesting that which is disappearing into satisfaction by evading; we give a false thin air, as it were, before our very satisfaction by equivocating: we give eyes.

These

tell

words

EVANGELICAL,

dissatisfaction by prevaricating. EvadGospel, Orthoing is not so mean a practice as equivo- dox. Gospel, used as an adjective, is caiing: it may be sometimes prudent a translation of the Greek evayjEKiKog to evade a question which we do not (from tv, well, and dyyekia, tidings), wish to answer; but equivocations are into Anglo-Saxon god, good, and spell, employed for the purposes of false- story or tale. Both referred specificalhood and interest: prevarications are ly to the original documents of the stiU meaner; and are resorted to most- Christian faith, the biographies of ly by criminals in order to escape Christ, and the message therein deUvered. But, as in the case of many detection. Evasion, Shift, Subterfuge. Evasion other similar pairs of words, the Greek is here taken only in the bad sense; has been speciaUzed to refer to particuand subterfuge are modes of lar sects and tenets. Evangelical means shift evasion: the former signifies that like the original gospel, and has been gross kind of evasion by which one adopted by certain sects, to characterize attempts to shift off an obUgation their attempts to carry out the precepts from one's self; the subterfuge, from of the Testament more literally. svbter, under, and fu^, to fly, is a Gospel perfection means the standard mode of evasion in which one has re- of perfection enjoined in the Christian course to some screen or shelter. The gospel; evangelical teaching may refer evasion, in distinction from the others, to the teaching of the Testament is resorted to for the gratification of or to the particular teaching of the pride or obstinacy: whoever wishes evangelical sects. Orthodox, from Greek to maintain a bad cause must have re- 6p96g, straight, S6^a, opinion, means course to evasions; candid minds de- holding the right opinion concerning spise aU evasions; the shift is the trick matters of Christian faith, and refers of a knave, it always serves a paltry, to matters of intellectual beUef, rather low purpose; he who has not courage than the active practice or emotional

—

New

New

EVENT faith suggested in evangelical. It also refers to the whole body of Christian

317

on the other hand,

is divested of everything obscure or figurative, and is teaching founded upon the gospel rather consequently a sjieech free from disthan to the gospel itself. guise and easy to be understood. EVEN, Smooth, Level, Plain. Even and level are applied to conduct Even (see Equax,). Smooth, Anglo- or condition, the former as regards Saxon smethe, comes from a Teutonic ourselves, the latter as regards others: base signifying creamy. Level, Late he who adopts an even course of conduct Latin lihelUi, from libra, balance, was is in no danger of putting himself upon originally simply the name of a car- a level with those who are otherwise his penter's instrument for determining inferiors. that a thing is horizontal. Plain (see

Apparent). Even and smooth are both opposed to roughness; but that which is even is free only from great roughness or irregularities; that which is smooth is free from every degree of roughness, however small: a board is even which has no knots or holes; it is not smooth unless its surface be an entire plane: the ground is said to be even, but not smooth; the sky is smooth, but not even. Even is to level, when appUed to the

EVENING. See Gloaming. EVENT, Incident, Accident, Ad-

venture, Latin

Occurrence.

Event,

eventtis, participle of evenire,

in to

come out, signifies that which falls out or turns up. Incident, in Latin incidens, from incidere, signifies that which falls in or forms a collateral part of anything. Accident (for derivation see Accident). Adventure, from the Latin advenire, to come to, signifies what comes to or befalls one. Occur-

ground, what smooth is to even; the rence, from the Latin 6b, in the way, even is free from protuberances and and currere, to learn, signifies that depressions on its exterior surface; the which runs or comes in the way. These terms are expressive of what level is free from rises or falls: a path is said to be even; a meadow is level: passes in the world, which is the sole ice may be level, though it is not even; signification of the term event; while to a walk up the side of a hill may be that of the other terms are annexed even, although the hill itself is the some accessory ideas: an incident is reverse of a level: the even is said of a personal event; an accident, an acthat which unites and forms one un- ciaental event which happens by the interrupted surface; but the level is way; an adventure, an extraordinary said of things which are at a distance event; an occurrence, an ordinary or from each other, and are discovered domestic event: event, in its ordinary by the eye to be in a parallel line; hence and Umited acceptation, excludes the the floor of a room is even with regard idea of chance; accident excludes that to itself; it is level with that of an- of design; incident, adventure, and ocother room. Evenness respects the currence are applicable in both cases. Events affect nations and communisurface of bodies; plainness respects their direction and freedom from external obstructions: a path is even

which has no indentures or footmarks; a path is plain which is not stopped up or interrupted by wood, water, or any other thing intervening. When applied figuratively, these words preserve their analogy: an even temper is secured from all violent changes of humor; a smooth speech is divested of everything which can ruffle the temper of others; but the former is always taken in a good sense, and the latter mostly in a bad sense, as evincing an illicit design or a purpose to deceive: a plain speech.

ties as well as individuals; incidents and adventures affect particular individuals; accidents and occurrences affect persons or things particularly or generally, individually or collectively: the making of peace, the loss of a battle, and the death of a prince are national events;

the forming a new acquaintance and the revival of an old one are incidents that have an interest for the parties concerned; an escape from shipwTeck, an encounter with wild beasts or savages, are adventures which individuals are pleased to relate and others to hear; a fire, the fall of a house, the breaking of a limb, are accidents or

318

EVER

occurrences; a robbery and the death of Latin minus, lacking in, less, and chef, individuals are properly occurrences Latin caput, head, and means foohshwhich afford subject for a newspa- ness, something lacking in sense and per and excite an interest in the wit, hence something harmful or annoying to others. reader. Evil, in its limited apphcation, is Event, when used for individuals, is always of greater importance than an taken for evils of the greatest magniThe settlement of a young tude; it is that which is evil without incident. person in hfe, the adoption of an em- any mitigation or qualification of cirployment, or the taking a wife, are cumstances. The misfortune is a minor events, but not incidents; while, on the evil; it depends upon the opinion and other hand, the setting out on a jour- circumstances of the individual; what ney or the return, the piu-chase of a is a misfortune in one respect may be house, and the despatch of a vessel the contrary in another respect. An are characterized as incidents, and not untimely death, the fracture or loss of a limb, are denominated evils; the loss events. It is further to be observed that of a vessel, the overturning of a caraccident, event, and occurrence are said riage, and the like are misfortunes, inonly of that which is supposed really asmuch as they tend to the diminution to happen: incidents and adventures are of property; but as all the casualties often fictitious; in this case the incident of life may produce various conse-

cannot be too important, nor the adtoo marvellous. History records the events of nations; plays require to be full of incident in order to romances render them interesting; venture

and novels derive most of their charms from the extravagance of the adventures which they describe; periodical works supply the pubhc with information respecting daily occurrences.

See also Consequence. EVER. See Always. EVERLASTING. See Eternal. EVERY. See All. EVERYWHERE. See Ubiquitous.

quences, it may sometimes happen that that which seems to have come upon us by our ill fortune turns out ultimately of the greatest benefit; in this respect, therefore, misfortune is but a partial evil: of evil it is hkewise observable that it has no respect to the sufferer as a moral agent; but misfortune is used in regard to such things as are controllable or otherwise by hu-

man foresight. The evil which befalls a man is opposed only to the good

which he in general experiences; but the misfortune is opposed to the good fortune or the prudence of the individual. Sickness is an evil, let it be EVIDENCE. See Deponent; endured or caused by whatever cirProof. cvunstances it may; it is a misfortune EVIDENT. See Apparent. for an individual to come in the way EVIL or III, Misfortune, Harm, of having this evil brought on himself: Mischief. Evil, in its full sense, com- his own relative condition in the scale prehends every quaUty which is not of being is here referred to. good, and consequently the other terms Harm and mischief are species of express only modifications of evil. The minor evils, the former of which is word is, however, more Umited in its much less specific than the latter both appUcation than its meaning, and ad- in the nature and cause of the evil. mits, therefore, of a just comparison A person takes harm from circumwith the other words here mentioned. stances that are not known; the misThey are all taken in the sense of evils chief is done to him from some positive proauced by some external cause, or and immediate circumstance. He who evUs inherent in the object and aris- takes cold takes harm, the cause of ing out of it. The evil, or, in its con- which, however, may not be known or tracted form, the ill, befalls a person; suspected: a fall from a horse is atthe misfortune comes upon him; the tended with mischief if it occasion a harm, originally Anglo-Saxon hearm, fracture or any evil to the body. EvU is taken, or one receives the harm; and misfortune respect persons only as mischief is compounded of French mes^ the objects; harm and mischief are said

EXAMINATION

319

of inanimate things as the object. A to things: particular and punctual, only tender plant takes harm from being in apphcation to persons. To be exact exposed to the cold air; mischief is is to arrive at perfection; to be nice done to it when its branches are vio- is to be free from faults; to be particlently broken off or its roots are laid ular is to be nice in certain particulars; bare. to be punctual is to be exact in certain See also Bad. points. We are exact in our conduct EVINCE. See Argue; Prove. or in what we do, nice and particular EVOLUTION, Development. Evo- in our mode of doing it, punctual as to lution, from Latin e, out, and volvere, to the time and season for doing it. It roll, unfold, and development, from de, is necessary to be exact in our accoimts; down, and volvere, to roll, have original- to be nice as an artist in the choice and ly the same meaning, but evolviion has distribution of colors; to be particular become a somewhat technical term re- as a man of business, in the nimiber and ferring to what in a more general way the details of merchandises that are is indicated in development. Develop- to be deUvered out; to be punctual in ment refers to the orderly unfolding of observing the hou^ of the day that plant or animal Ufe or to the courses has been fixed upon. of history, evolution to this same orderEoMctness and punctuality are always ly unfolding with specific reference to taken in a good sense; they designate the doctrines and laws of development an attention to that which cannot be formulated by the natural scientists of dispensed with: they form a part of the nineteenth century, especially one's duty: niceness and particularity Darwin, and extended from the field are not always taken in the best sense; they designate an excessive attention of natural science to all fields. EXACT, Extort. Exact, in Latin to things of inferior importance, to exodus, participle of exigere, to drive matters of taste and choice. Earlv out, signifies the exercise of simple habits of method and regularity will force; but extort, from extortu^, par- make a man very exact in the p)erticiple of extorqv^re, to wring out, marks formance of all his duties, and particuthe exercise of unusual force. In the larly punctual in his payments: an appUcation, therefore, to exact is to over-niceness in the observance of demand with force it is commonly an mechanical rules often suppUes the act of injustice: to extort is to get with want of genius; it is the mark of a conviolence it is an act of tyranny. The tracted mind to amuse itself with parcollector of the revenue exacts when he ticularities about dress, personal apH gets from the people more than he is pearance, furniture, and the like. When exact and nice are appUed to authorized to take: an arbitrary prince extorts from his conquered subjects things, the former expresses more than whatever he can grasp at. In the the latter; we speak of an exact refigurative sense, deference, obedience, semblance and a nice distinction. The applause, and admiration are exacted: exact point is that which we wish to a confession, an acknowledgment, a reach; the nice point is that which it is difficult to keep. discovery, and the hke are extorted. EXAGGERATION. See CaricaExeunt, Nice, Particular, Punctual. Exact (see Accurate). Nice in Middle ture. EXALT. See Lift. Enghsh means fooUsh or simple, from EXAMINATION, Search,Inquibt, Old French nice, lazy, simple, Latin nescius, ignorant, compounaed of ne, Research, Investigation, Scrutiny. From ,the Examination (see Discuss). Search not, and scius, knowing. earlier meaning of simple the mean- comes from Old French cercher, Latin ing of fastidious, careful in httle things, circare, to go around in a circle, to developed. Particular means atten- look everywhere. Inquiry (see Ask). Punctual, Research is an intensive of search. Intive to each httle particle. from the Latin punctum, a point, sig- vestigation, from the Latin vestigium, a track, signifies seeking by the tracks nifies keeping to a point. Exact and nice are to be compared or footsteps. Scrutiny, from the Latin in their application either to persons or scrutor, to search, ana scruta, broken

—

—

—

EXAMINE

320 Eieces, signifies looking for ish,

among rub- and

search (see above for both). Explore, in Latin exploro, compounded of ex, out, and plorare, to flow, signifies to

to ransack.

Examination is the most general of these terms, which all agree in ex- make to flow out, to look for somepressing an active effort to find out thing until it is found. that which is unknown. An examinaThese words are here considered as tion may be made without any par- they designate the looking upon places ticular effort, and may be made of or objects, in order to get acquainted things that are open to the observa- with them. To examine expresses a tion, as to examine the face or feat- less effort than to search, and this exures of a person, or anatomically to presses less than to explore. We examexamine the body: a search is a close ine objects that are near; we search examination into matters that are hid- those that are hidden or removed at a den or less obvious: as to search the certain distance; we explore those that person or papers of one that is sus- are unknown or very distant. The pected, to search a house for stolen painter examines a landscape in order goods. to take a sketch of it; the botanist Examinations may be made by put- searches after curious plants; the inting questions; an inquiry is always quisitive traveller explores unknown made in this manner. may ex- regions. An author examines the books amine persons or things; we inquire from which he intends to draw his of persons and into things: an exami- authorities; the antiquarian searches nation of persons is always done for every corner in which he hopes to find some specific and public purpose; one a monument of antiquity; the classic person inquires of another only for scholar explores the learning and wisprivate purposes; a student is ex- dom of the ancients. amined for the purpose of ascertaining EXAMINE. See Assay; Discuss. his progress in learning; an offender EXAMINER. See Censor. examined in order ascertain his is to EXAMPLE, Pattern, Ensample. guilt; a person inquires as to the resi- Example, in Latin exemplum, from dence of another, or the road to be Latin ex, from, and emere, to take, taken, and the like. means that from which something is In the moral appUcation of these to be imitated or taken. Pattern (see terms, the examination is, as before, a Copy). Ensample is an Anglo-French general and indefinite action, which corruption of Latin exemplum. may either be confined simply to those All these words are taken for that matters which present themselves to which ought to be followed: but the the mind of the examiner or it may be example must be followed generally; extended to all points: the search is a the pattern must be followed particulaborious examination into that which larly, not only as to what, but how a is remote; the inquiry is extended to thing is to be done: the former serves examination into that which is doubtful. as a guide to the judgment; the latter A research is a remote search; an in- to guide the actions. The example comvestigation is a minute inquiry; a scru^ prehends what is either to be followed Learned or to be avoided; the pattern only that tiny is a strict examination. men of inquisitive tempers make their which is to be followed or copied: the researches into antiquity: magistrates ensample is a species of example, the investigate doubtful and mysterious af- word being employed only in the solThe example may be prefairs; physicians investigate the causes emn style. of diseases; men scrutinize the actions sented either in the object itself or the of those whom they hold in suspicion. description of it; the pattern displays Acuteness and penetration are pe- itself most completely in the object culiarly requisite in making researches, itself; the ensample exists only in the patience and perseverance are the description. Those who know what necessary qualifications of the investi- is right should set the example of pracgator; a quick discernment will essen- tising it and those who persist in doing wrong must be made an example to tially aid the scrutinizer. Examine, Search, Explore. Examine deter others from doing the same every

We

;

—

:

EXCELLENCE one, let his age and station be what it may, may afford a pattern of Christian virtue; the child may be a pattern to his playmates of diUgence and dutifulness; the citizen may be a pattern to his feUow-citizens of sobriety, and conformity to the laws; the soldier may be a pattern of obedience to his comrades: our Saviour has left us an example of Christian perfection which we ought to, imitate, although we cannot copy it: the Scripture characters are drawn as ensampUs for our learning. Example, Precedent. Example (see Precedent, from the Latin above). precedens, preceding, signifies by distinction that preceding which is entitled to notice. Both these terms apply to that which may be followed or

—

made a

rule;

but the example

monly present or before our

is

321

means to pass out of, or beyond, the hne, and is the general term. Surpass, compounded of French cedere, to pass,

sur, Latin super, beyond, and French passer, to pass, from Latin passv^, step, is

one species of exceeding.

Excel, of ex and cella-e^ to lift over, found only in com-

compounded or

move

pounds, is another species. Exceed is applied mostly to things in the sense of going beyond in measure, degree, quantity, and quaUty; one thing exceeds another in ma^itude, height, or any other dimensions; a person's success exceeds his expectations. It is

taken either in an indifferent or a bad sense, particularly in regard to persons, as a person exceeds his instruccom- tions or exceeds the due measure.

eyes; the precedent is properly something past; the example may derive its authority from the individual; the precedent acquires its sanction from time and common consent: we are led by the example, or we copy the example; we are guided or governed by the precedent. The former is a private and often a partial affair; the latter is a pubhc and

in

To excel and surpass signify to exceed, or be superior in that which is good. To excel be used with refer-

may

ence to all persons generally, as a person strives to excel; to surpass is used in regard to particular objects, as to surpass another in any trial of skill. When excel is used in respect of par-

it is more general in sense than surpass: the Dutch and often a national concern; we quote Itahans formerly excelled the English in examples in literature and precedents in painting; one person may surpass another in bravery, or a thing may surlaw. Men excel Example, Instance. Example refers pass one's expectations. in this case to the thing. Instance, from in learning, arts, or arms; .competithe Latin instans, standing on or in, tors surpass one another in feats of signifies that which stands or serves agility. The derivatives excessive and excelas a resting-point. The eocample is set forth by way of lent have this obvious distinction beillustration or instruction; the instance tween them, that the former alwaj's is adduced by way of evidence or proof. signifies exceeding in that which ought Every instance may serve as an example, not to be exceeded; and the latter exbut every example is not an instance. ceeding in that where it is honorable to The example consists of moral or intel- exceed: he who is habitually excessive lectual objects; the instance consists in any of his indulgences must be inof actions only, or of what serves as a sensible to the excellence of a temperate proof. Rules are illustrated by exam- Ufe. Transcend, from trans, beyond, acarirples; characters are illustrated by instances: the best mode of instructing dere, to climb, signifies to climb bechildren is by furnishing them with yond; and outdo that is, to do out of examples for every rule that is laid the ordinary course, are particular down; the Roman history furnishes us modes of excelling or exceeding. The with many extraordinary instances of genius of Homer transcends that of almost every poet; HeUogabalus outself-devotion for their country. EXASPERATE. See Aggravate. did every other emperor in extravaEXCEED, Excel, Surpass, Tran- gance. EXCELLENCE, Superiority. Exscend, Outdo. Exceed, from the Latin excedo, compjounded of ex, out, and cellence is an absolute term; superiority

ticular objects, its

—

—

21

EXCEPT

322

may

the former stiU higher than the latter: immoderate is in fact the highest conceivable degree of excess. The excessive use of anything wiU always be attended cellence, but in many cases they are with some evil consequence: the imappUed to different objects. There is moderate use of wine will rapidly tend a moral excellence attainable by all who to the ruin of him who is guilty of the have the will to strive after it; but excess: the intemperate use of wine will there is an intellectual and physical proceed by a more gradual but not less superiority which is above the reach sure process to his ruin. See also Unreasonable. of our wishes and is granted to a few

have a relative term; many excellence in the same degree, but they must have superiority in different degrees; superiority is often superior exis

only.

EXCEPT.

-

See Besides; But;

less.

EXCEPTION.

EXCHANGE,

Un- Commute. To

Barter,

exchange (see

Truck, Change)

the general term signifying to take one for another, or put one thing in the Redun- place of another; the rest are but modes is

See Objection.

EXCESS, Superfluity, dancy. Excess is that which exceeds of exchanging. To barter is to exchange any measure; superfluity, from super, one article of trade for another, from over, and flu£re, to flow, and redundancy, Old French barater, to cheat, beguile, a from re, back, and unda, a wave, to word of doubtful origin, possibly Celtic. stream back or over, signify an excess To tru^k is a famihar term to express a We may have an famiharaction for exchanging one article of a good measure. excess of heat or cold, wet or dry, when of private property for another. Comwe have more than the ordinary quan- mute, from the Latin syllable cum, with, tity, but we have a superfluity of pro- and mutare, to change, signifies an exvisions when we have more than we changing one mode of punishment for want. Excess is appUcable to any ob- another, or one mode of payment for ject, but superfluity and redundancy are another; we may exchange one book species of excess, the former apphcable for another; traders barter trinkets in a particular manner to that which for gold-dust; coachmen or stablemen is an object of our desire, and redun- tru£k a whip for a handkerchief; govdancy to matters of expression or feel- ernment commutes the punishment of ing. We may have an excess of pros- death for that of banishment. perity or adversity, a superfluity of good Commute is now used, in a special things, and a redundancy of speech or sense, to refer to the traveUing to and words.

—

Excessive, Immoderate, Intemperate. The excessive is beyond measure; the

fro of people who dwell in the suburb of a city and do their business and find their pleasure within the city

immoderate, from modu^, a mode or itself. measure, is without measure; the inEXCITE, Incite, Provoke. To temperate, from tempus, a time or term, excite (see Awaken) is said more paris that which is not kept within bounds. ticularly of the inward feelings; incite Excessive designates eaxess in general; (see Encourage) is said of the external immoderate and intemperate designate actions; provoke (see Aggravate) is excess in moral agents. The excessive said of both. A person's passions are lies simply in the thing which exceeds excited; he is incited by any particular any given point: the immoderate hes in passion to a course of conduct; a parthe passions which range to a boundless ticular feehng is provoked, or he is extent: the intemperate lies in the will provoked by some feehng to a particular which is under no control. Hence we step. Wit and conversation excite speak of an excessive thirst physically mirth; men are incited by a lust for considered, an immoderate ambition gain to fraudulent practices; they are or lust of power, an intemperate indul- provoked by the opposition of others to gence, an intemperate warmth. Exces- intemperate language and intemperate sive admits of degrees; what is exces- measiires. To excite is very frequently sive may exceed in a greater or less used in a physical acceptation; incite degree: immoderate and intemperate always, and provoke mostly, in a moral mark a positively great degree of excess, appUcation. We speak of exciting hun-

EXECUTE ger, thirst, or perspiration;

of inciting

to noble actions; of provoking impertinence, provoking scorn or resentment. When excite and provoke are appUed to similar objects, the former designates a much stronger action than the latter. thing may excite a smile, but it provokes laughter; excite disit may pleasure, but it provokes anger; it may excite joy or sorrow, but it provokes to madness.

A

EXCITING.

EXCLAIM. EXCLUDE.

See Electric. See Call. See Comprise; Segre-

gate.

EXCLUDING. EXCLUSION.

See Bur. See Lockout.

EXCOMMUNICATE,

what

323

not to be seen from a highfrequent excursions into the interior of the country. Those who are fond of rural scenery, and pleased to follow the bent of their inclinations, make frequent rambles. Those who set out upon a sober scheme of enjoyment from travelling are satisfied with making the tour of some one country or more. Those who have not much time for pleasure take trips. Those who have no better means of spending their time make jaunts.

road

is

make

EXCUSE, Pardon. We excuse (see Apologize) a person or thing by exempting him from blame. We pardon (from Late Latin perdonare, to give entirely or freely) by remitting the for the offence one has

Anathema- punishment

Excommunicate and anathenui- committed. are used in similar connections to We excuse a small fault, we pardon a refer to the denunciation of individuals great fault; we excuse that which perdifby the CathoUc Church, but they sonally affects ourselves; we pardon fer somewhat in meaning. Excommunithat which offends against morals: we cate, from Latin ex, out, and communis, may excuse as equals: we can pardon common, means to banish from the only as superiors. We exercise goodcommon society and privileges of the nature in excusing: we exercise genchurch and the good graces and ser- erosity or mercy in pardoning. Friends vices of all Christian people. Anath- excuse one another for the unintentional emaiize, from Greek dvaOrjua, means omission of formaUties; it is the preto denounce formally and publicly, rogative of the king to pardon criminals and may refer to opinions and actions whose offences will admit of pardon: It does not the violation of good manners is in^ as well as individuals. necessarily include, however, the for- excusable in those who are cultivated; mal act of excommunication. Both falsehood is unpardonable even in a terms may be extended to refer to child. punishment by any society, or formal See also Pretence. tize. tize

denunciation of any sort. EXCORIATE. See Skin. EXCULPATE. See Apologize;

Exonerate.

EXCURSION,

EXECRABLE. See Abominable. EXECRATION. See Malediction. EXECUTE, Fulfil, Perform. (see Accomplish), in Latin executu^, participle of exsequi, compounded of ex, out, and sequi, to follow, To fuljU is IS to follow up to the end. to fill up to the full of what is wanted.

Execute

Ramble,

Tour,

Trip, Jaunt. Excursion signifies going out of one's course, from the Latin ex and cursu^, the course or prescribed path: a ramble is a going without any Perform comes from Old French varcourse or regular path (see ramble foumir. from Latin per, thorougnlv, imder Wander). A tour is a cir- and Old French foumir, to furnish, cuitous course: a trip, Middle EngUsh Old High German jfrumjon, to provide; trippen, from base trap, meaning tread, and meant to furnish completely, to found in tramp, means as a verb to carry through to the end. To execuie is more than to fulfil, and tread lightly, and, as a substantive, a pleasant walk or, at present, any to fulfil than to perform. To execuie is journey; jaunt comes from Old French to bnng about an end; it involves acjaunts, meaning toil, exercise. To go tive measures and is peculiarly apabroad in a carriage is an idle excur- plicable to that which is extraordinary sion, or one taken for mere pleasure: or that which requires particular spint travellers who are not contented with and talents; schemes of ambition are

EXEMPT

324

executed: to fulfil is to satisfy a moral obligation; it is applicable to those duties in which rectitude and equity are involved; we fulfil the duties of citizens: to perform is to carry

through

action or labor; it is more particularly applicable to the ordinary and regular business of Ufe; we perform a work or a task. One executes according to one's own intentions or those of others; the soldier executes the orders of his general; the merchant executes the commissions of his correspondent: one fulfils according to the wishes and expectations of one's it is the part of an self or others; honest man to enter into no engagements which he cannot fulfil; it is the part of a dutiful son, by diligence and assiduity, to endeavor to fulfil the expectations of an anxious parent: one performs, according to circumstances, what suits one's own convenience and purposes; every good man is anxious to perform his part in life with credit and advantage to himself and others.

by simple

EXEMPT. See EXEMPTION.

Free.

in every art practice is an indispensable requisite for acquiring perfection: the exercise of the memory is of the first importance in the education of children; constant practice in writing is

by which the penmanship is acquired. EXERT, Exercise. The employment of some power or qualification that belongs to one's self is the common idea conveyed by these terms; but exert (see Endeavor) may be used for what is internal or external of one's almost the only means art of

self;

exercise (see

above) only for that

which forms an express part of one's self; hence we speak of exerting one's strength, or exerting one's voice, or exerting one's influence: of exercising one's limbs, exercising one's understanding, or exercising one's tongue. Exert is often used only for an individual act of calling forth into action; exercise always conveys the idea of repeated or continued exertion; thus a person who calls to another exerts his voice; he who speaks aloud for any^ length of time exercises his lungs.

See Privilege. EXERCISE, Practice. Exercise, in Latin exercere, from Latin ex, out,

EXERTION. See Endeavor. EXHALE. See Emit. EXHAUST. See Speed.

arcere, to enclose, meant originally to drive out of an enclosure, to set at work.' Practice, from the Greek Trpaaaeiv, to do, signifies to perform a part. These terms are equally applied to the actions and habits of men; but we exercise in that where the powers are called forth; we practice in that where frequency and habitude of action are requisite: we exercise an art; we practice a profession: we may both exercise and practice a virtue; but the former is that which the particular occurrence calls forth, and which seems to demand a pecuhar effort of the mind; the latter is that which is done daily and ordinarily: thus we in a peculiar manner are said to eocercise patience, fortitude, or forbearance; to practice charity, kindness, benevolence, and

EXHIBIT.

and

the

A

Uice.

See Give; Show.

EXHILARATE. See Animate. EXHORT, Persuade. Exhort,

in

Latin exhorter, compounded of ex, intensive, and hortari, to persuade, meant to persuade earnestly. Persuade (see Conviction). Exhortation has more of impelling in it; persuasion, more of drawing: a superior exhorts; his words carry authority with them, and rouse to action a friend and an equal persuades; he wins and draws by the agreeableness or kindness of his expressions. Exhortations are employed only in matters of duty or necessity; persuasions are employed in matters of pleasure or convenience. EXIGENCY, Emergency. Necessity is the idea which is common to the signification of these terms: exigency, from the Latin exigere, to force out, to demand, expresses what the case demands; and emergency, from emergere, to arise out of, denotes what rises out of the case.

similar distinction characterizes these words as nouns, the former applying solely to the powers of the body or mind, the latter solely to the mechanical operation: the health of the body and the vigor of the mind are The exigency is more common, but alike impaired by the want of exercise; less pressing; the emergency is im-

EXPEDIENT perious when it comes, but comes less frequently: a prudent traveller will never carry more money with him than what will supply the exigencies of his journey; and in case of an emergency will rather borrow of his friends than risk his property.

325

when we speak

left;

of a departure,

we

think of the place gone to: the unbeUever may talk of his exit; the Christian most commonly speaks of his departure.

EXONERATE,

Exculpate. Exodt from onus, a burden, signifies to the burden of a charge or of EXILE. See Banish; Proscribe. guilt; to exculpate, from culpa, a fault EXIST, Live. lAve, Anglon^axon or blame, is to throw off the blame:

libban, is the native English word corresponding to the Latin exist, for which see Be. Existence is the property of all things in the universe; life, which is the inherent power of motion, is the particular property communicated by the Divine Being to some parts only of His creation: exist, therefore, is the general, and live the specific term: whatever lives, exists according to a

mode; but many things

certain

without

living:

most

of things in their tion,

we say they

const;

to characterize the

we say they

exist

when we wish

to speak abstract rela-

when we wish

form of

existence

live.

Existence, in its proper sense, is the attribute which we commonly ascribe to the Divine Being, and it is that

which

is

erate,

take

the

off

first

is

the act of another;

the

own act: we exonerate him upon whom a charge has lain, or who has the load of guilt; we exculpate ourselves when there is any danger of second

is

one's

blamed: circumstances may sometimes tend to exonerate; the ex-

being

planation of some person is requisite to exculpate: in a case of dishonesty, the absence of an individual at the moment when the act was committed will altogether exonerate him from suspicion; it is fruitless for any one to attempt to exculpate himself from the charge of faithlessness who i.s detected in conniving at the dishonesty of others. EXPAND. See Dilate; Spread.

EXPECT. See Wait. EXPECTATION. See Hope. EXPEDIENT, Resource. The ex~

immediately communicable pedient

is

an

artificial

means; the

re-

mode of exist- source is a natural means: a cunning ence which He has made to be com- man is fruitful in expedients; a fortumunicable by other objects besides nate man abounds in resources: Robinby Himself;

life is

that

Himself; existence is taken only in its and proper sense, independent of all its attributes and appendages; but life is regarded in connection with the means by which it is supported, In as animal hie, or vegetable hfe. like manner, when speaking of spiritual

son Crusoe adopted every expedient in order to prolong his existence at a time when his resources were at the lowest ebb. Expedient, Fit. Expedient ^ from the Latin expedire, present participial stem,

objects, eodst retains its abstract sense, and live is employed to denote an active principle: animosities should never

pedem, foot, and meaning to take one's feet out, to be ready to start) supposes a certain degree of necessity from circumstances; fit for the purpose signifies simply an agreement with, or suitability to, the circumstances: what is expedient must he fit, because it is callceak of it as fashioned. God formed man out of the dust of the ground He fashioned him after His own image. When we wish to represent a thing as formed according to a precise rule, we should ;

363

say of a

it

was moulded; thus the habits are moulded at the will of a

man

When we wish to represent a thing as receiving the accidental qualities Which distinguish it from others, we talk of shaping it the potter shapes the clay; the miUiner shapes a bonnet; a man shapes his actions to superior.

:

the humors of another. See also Make. Form, Compose, Constitute. Form is a generic and indefinite term, signifying to give a form. To compose and constitute are modes of forming. These '^

—

words

may

designate

be employed either to

modes

of action or to characterize things. Things may be /ormed either by persons or things; they are composed and constituted only by conscious agents: thus persons /ottw things,

or things form one another: thus we circle, or the reflection of the light after rain forms a rainbow. Persons compose and constitute: thus a musician composes a piece of music, or men constUule laws. To form, in regard to persons, is simply to put into a form; to compose is to put together into a form; and to constitute is to make to stand together in a form; to form, therefore, does not qualify the action: one forms a thing without defining how, whether at once or by degrees, whether with one or several materials; to compose and corvstituie are both modes of forming by the help of several materials, with device and contrivance; compose is said of that which only requires to be put together; constitute, of that to which a certain degree of stabihty must be given. God formed man, man form^ a cup or a vessel; he composes a book:

form a

he

constitutes oflBces, bodies. poUtic,

the

and

like.

When

employed to characterize form sigiufies simply to have a form, be it either simple or complex; compose and constitute are said only of those things which have complex things,

forms; the former as respecting the material, the latter the essential parts of an object: thus we may say that an object forms a circle, or a semicircle, or the segment of a circle: a society is

composed of individuals; but law

and order

constitute the essence of society: so letters and syllables compose

FORMER

364

a word; but sense a word.

is essential

faith: baptism is one rite of initiation into the Christian church;

to con^ their

stitute

at prayer is a ceremony, prayer itself is an observance. Formal, Ceremonious, Ceremonial.

Form, Ceremony, Rite, ObservanceCeremony, in Latin (see above) ceremonia, signifies a formal celebraRite, Latin ritus, means a going, tion. a way, a way of doing, from a root ri, meaning to flow, to move. Observance signifies the thing observed, from Latin

kneeling

observare, to heed, to observe.

bad

Form

.

—

Formal and ceremonious, from form and ceremony, are either taken in an indifferent sense with respect to what contains form and ceremony, or in a sense,

expressing the

excess

of

A

person expects All these terms are employed with form and ceremony. regard to particular modes of action to have a formal dismissal before he Form is here, as in considers himself as dismissed; people in civil society. the preceding sections, the most gen- of fashion pay one another ceremonious eral in its sense and apphcation; cere- visits, by way of keeping up a distant m/my, rite, and observance are particular intercourse. Ceremonial is employed in the sense kinds of form, suited to particular occasions. Form, in its distinct applica- of appertaining to prescribed ceretion, respects all determinate modes of monies; and formal implies appertainacting and speaking that are adopted ing to prescribed forms in public matby society at large in every trans- ters, as formal communications from action of hfe; ceremony respects those one government to another: it is the forms of outward behavior which are business of the church to regulate the made the expressions of respect and ceremonial part of religion. Ceremonious was formerly used in deference; rite and observance are applied to national ceremonies in matters the same sense as ceremonial. Formal, in the bad sense, is opposed certain form is requisite of rehgion. for the sake of order, method, and de- to easy: ceremonious, to the cordial. corum, in every social matter, whether formal carriage prevents a person from in affairs of state, in a court of law, indulging himself in the innocent f amihin a place of worship, or in the private arities of friendly intercourse; ceremointercourse of friends. So long as dis- nious carriage puts a stop to all hosPrinces, in tinctions are admitted in society, and pitahty and kindness. men are agreed to express their senti- their formal intercourse with one anments of regard and respect to one an- other, know nothing of the pleasures other, it wiU be necessary to preserve of society; ceremonious visitants give the ceremonies of poUteness which have and receive entertainments without been established. Administering oaths tasting any of the enjoyments which by the magistrate is a necessary form flow from the reciprocity of kind offices. in law; kissing the king!s hand is a See Antecedent. ceremony practiced at court. In Times Past or As far as form, ceremonies, rites, and Old Times, Days of Yore, Anciently observances respect rehgion, the first is or Ancient Times. Formerly supposes used in the most universal and im- a less remote period than in times past: qualified sense in respect to religion and that less remote than in days of generally or any particular form: the yore and anciently. The first two may second may be said either of an individ- be said of what happens within the ual or a community; the third only age of man; the last two are extended of a commimity; and the last, more to many generations and ages. Any properly, of an individual either in individual may use the word formerly pubUc or in private. There can be no with regard to himself: thus, we enreligion without some form, but there joyed our health better formerly than may be different forms which are now. An old man may speak of times aually good. Every country has past, as when he says he does not enopted certain riles founded upon its joy himself as he did in times past. peculiar religious faith, and prescribed Old times, days of yore, and anciently are certain observances by which individ- more apphcable to nations than to inuals can make a public profession of dividuals; and all these express differ-

A

A

FORMER. FORMERLY,

FORTUNATE ent degrees of remoteness. With respect to our present period, the age of Queen Elizabeth may be called old times; the days of Alfred, and, still yore: the earhest later, the days

^ Britain

is mentioned period in which ancient times.

may be termed

See also Once.

FORMIDABLE, rible, Shocking. pUed to that which

Dreadfiil, TerFormidable is apis apt to excite fear

Apprehend). Dreadful, to what calculated to excite dread; terrible (see Alarm), to that which excites terror; and shocking (from Middle EngUsh shokken, to jolt) is apphed to that which violently shakes or agitates (see Agitate) The formidable acts neither suddenly nor violently; the dreadful may act violently but not suddenly: thus the appearance of an army may be formidable; but that of a field of battle is dreadful. The terrible and shocking act both suddenly and violently; but the former acts both on the senses and on the imagination, the latter on the moral feeUngs: thus, the glare of a tiger's eye is terrible; the unexpected news of a friend's death is shocking. (see

is

365

forlorn condition;

if

poverty, his misery his

becoming

to this be added is

aggravated by

destitute.

FORSWEAR,

Perjure,

Suborn,

Forswear is Anglo-Saxon; -perjure is Latin; the prepositions for and per are both privative, and the words signify hteraUy to swear contrary to the truth; this is, however, not their only distinction to forswear is applied to all kinds of oaths; to -perjure is employed only for such oaths as have been administered by the civil magistrate. A soldier forswears himself who breaks his oath of allegiance by desertion; and a :

subject forswears himself who takes an oath of allegiance to his sovereign which he afterward violates; a man perjures himseK in a court of law who swears to the truth of that which he knows to be false. Forswear is used only in the proper sense: perjure may be used figuratively with regard to lover's vows; he who deserts his mistress to whom he has pledged his afifeotions is a perjured man. Forswear and perjure are the acts of individuals; suborn, from the Latin sub, secretly, and omare, to a(;iorn, to enrich, meaning to enrich secretly, to • bribe, and hence to make to forswear; FORSAKE. See Abandon. FORSAKEN, Forlorn, Destitxjte. a perjured man has all the guilt upon To be forsaken is to be deprived of the himself; but he who is svbomed shares company and assistance of those we his guilt with the suborner. FORTIFY. See Strengthen. have looked to; to be forlorn, AngloFORTITUDE. See Courage. Saxon /orZoren (Grerman verloren), past FORTUITOUS. See Fortunate. participle of forleosan, to lose entirely, FORTUNATE, Lucky, Fortuitous, signifying lost, is to be forsaken in time Fortunate of difficidty, to be without a guide in Prosperous, Successful. an unknown road; to be destitule, from signifies having fortune (see Chance). the Latin destittUus, from Latin de, Lucky is the adjective corresponding away, and statuere, to place, meaning to lu- a regard for the fair sex, a gallant vantage). Emolument, from emoliri, man will always be a gallant when he from e, out, and moliri, to work, signi- can render a female any service; somefies to work out or get by working. times, however, his gallantries may be Lucre is in Latin lucrum, gain. such as to do them harm rather than Gain is here a general term, the good: insignificance and eflfeminacy other terms are specific: the gain is characterize the heau or fine gentleman; that which comes to a man; it is the he is the woman's man the humble fruit of Ids exertions, or agreeable to servant to supply the place of a lackey: his wish: the profit is that which ac- the spark has but a spark of that fire crues from the thing. Thus, when ap>- which shows itself in impertinent puerplied to riches, that which increases ilities; it is applicable to youth who are a man's estate is his gains; that which just broke loose from school or collie flows out of his trade or occupation is and eager to display their manhood. his profiis; that is, they are his gains See also Brave. GAMBOL. See Frolic. upon dealing. Emolument is a species GAME. See Play. of gain from labor, or a collateral gain; GAMESOME. See PLAYFUli. of this description are a man's emoluGANG. See Band. m,ents from an office: a man estimates GAP. See Breach. his gains by what he receives in the GAPE, Stare, Gaze. Gape is a year; he estimates his profiis by what he receives on every article; he esti- Scandinavian word meaning to look mates his emoluments according to the with an open or wide mouth. Stare, nature of the service which he has to Anglo-Saxon starian, is aUied to sta,

GAIN,

—

perform: the merchant talks of his gains, the retail dealer of his profiis, the placeman of his emoluments. ^ Gain and profii are also taken in an abstract sense; lucre is never used otherwise; but the latter always conveys a bad meaning; it is, strictly speaking, unhallowed gain: an immoderate thirst for gain is the vice of men who are always calculating profii and loss; a thirst for lucre deadens every generous feeling of the mind. Gain and profit may be extended to other objects, and sometimes opposed to each other; for as that which we gain is what we wish only, it is often the reverse of profiiable. GAIT. See Carriage. GALL. See Rub.

the root of stand, station, staiue, etc.; signifies to look with fixed ey^s. Gaze, Middle English qasen, is a Scandinavian word meamng to look at

and

earnestly.

Gape and stare are taken in a bad sense, the former indicating the astonishment of gross ignorance, the latter

not only ignorance, but impertinence: gaze is taken always in a good sense, as indicating a laudable feeling of astonishment, pleasure, or curiosity: a clown gapes at the pictures of wild beasts which he sees at a fair; an imCertinent fellow stares at every woman e looks at, and stares a modest woman out of countenance: a lover of the fine arts will gaze with admiration and delight at the productions of Raphael or Titian; when a person is stupefied GALLANT, Beau, Spark. These by adffright he givts a vacant stare: words convey nothing respectful of the those who are filled with transport gaze person to whom they are appUed; but on the object of their ecstasy. Deposit, Hoard. Gar^ the first, as is evident from its deri-

GARNER,

GARNISH

374

ner comes from Latin granaria, a place in which the grain {granum) is gathDeposit is derived from deposiered. tus, the past participle of Latin depoHoard comes from nere, to lay down. Anglo-Saxon hord, from a root signifying to hide. These words have in common the general idea of gathering and stowing away, but they differ widely in their application. In one sense gamer is synonymous with gather, which see. It signified originally to gather and put away the grain, and is used figuratively always with a distinct and poetic reminiscence of its original meaning. Deposit emphasizes not the gathering, but the putting away; it is given a special apphcation

nowadays

in business.

A

deposit

of

a sima of money paid down against a debt that may be incurred, or simply the putting away of money Hoard adds to the idea of in a bank. gathering and stowing away the special suggestion of hiding secretly. A miser hoards his money; selfish people, in time of war, hoard foodstuffs, etc.

money

is

GARNISH, Trim. Garnish, Old French gamis, comes from Old High German tvamon,

to defend one's self, to provide one's self with. It shares with trim the general idea of adorning by the addition of something external, especially of small and pretty decorations; but it has now a somewhat more limited apphcation than trim. speak of garnishing when we wish to refer especially to an ephemeral and perishable trimming. garnish dishes served at the table, for instance; we may speak of garnishing a room with flowers. Trim is used in this connection, but it is extended to refer to aU sorts of ornamental additions, including those of a more permanent nature as trimming a hat, a

We

ing or forming into a whole; we gather that which is scattered in different parts: thus stones are gathered into a heap; vessels are collected so as to form a fleet. Gathering is a mere act of necessity or convenience; collecting is an act of design or choice: we gather apples from a tree, or a servant gathers books from off a table; the antiquarian collects coins, and the bibhomaniac collects rare books.

See also Garner. GAUDY. See Showy. GAUNT. See Haggard. GAY. See Cheerful; Showt. GAYETY. See Glee. GAZE, See Gape. GENDER, Sex. Gender, in Latin genus, signifies properly a genus, or kind. Sex comes from Latin sexws. "Was it originally 'division,' from secure, (Skeat.) Gender is to cut?" that distinction in words which marks the distinction of sex in things; there are, therefore, three genders, but only two sexes. By the inflections of words is denoted whether things are of this or that sex or of no sex. The genders, therefore, are divided in grammar into masculine, feminine, and neuter; and animals are divided into male and female sex. GENERAL, Universal. The general is to the universal what the part is to the whole. What is general includes the greater part or number; what is universal includes every individual or

The general rule admits of many exceptions; the universal rule admits of none. Human government has the general good for its object; the government of Providence is directed to universal good. General is opposed to particular, and universal to individual. scientific writer will not content himself with general remarks when he has dress, etc. It is a less dignified word it in his power to enter into particuthan adorn and its syiionymes (see lars; the universal complaint which we Adorn), with which it has something hear against men for their pride shows in common. that in every individual it exists to a GARRULOUS. See Talkative. greater or less degree. It is a general GASCONADE. See Vaunt. opinion that women are not qualified part.

We

A

—

GASP.

See Palpitate.

GATHER,

Collect. To gather is in Anglo-Saxon gaderian, to bring things together, from the root also found in together. To collect (see Assemble) annexes also the idea of bind-

but many females have proved themselves honorable exceptions to this rule: it is a universal principle that children ought to honor their parents; the intention of the Creator in this respect is manifor scientific pursuits,

GENTILE

375

fested in such a variety of forms as whose politeness is a recommendation to admit of no question. to him wherever he goes. See also Public. GENTILE, Heathen, Pagan. The See Commonly. Jews comprehended all strangers under Age. Generation the name of Goim, nations or gentiles: is said of the persons who hve during among the Greeks and Romans they any particular period; and age is said wore designated by the name of barof the ])eriod itself. barians. By the name gentile was unThose who are bom at the same derstood especially those who were not time constitute the generation; that of the Jewish rehgion, including, in period of time which comprehends the the end, even the Christians. Some age of man is the age: there may, there- learned men pretend that the Gentiles fore, be many generations spring up in were so named from their having only a the course of an age; a fresh generation natural law, and such as they imp>osed is springing up every day, which in the on themselves, in opposition to the Jews course of an age pass away and are and Christians, who have a positive resucceeded by fresh generations. vealed law to which they are obliged to consider man in his generation as to the submit. Heathen, Anglo-Saxon fwelhen, part which he has to perform. meant originally a dweller on the heath; consider the age in which we live as to pagan comes from Latin pagiis, village, the manners of men and the events of and means a dweller in the village, benations. cause when Constantine banished idolSee also Race. aters from the towns they repaired to the villages, and secretly adhered to See Beneficent. GENIUS. See Intellect; Taste. their religious worship, whence they GENTEEL, Polite. Genteel, in were termed by the Christians of

GENERALLY. GENERATION,

We

We

GENEROUS.

French

gentil, Latin gentilis, signifies UteraUy one belonging to the same family, or the next akin to whom the estate would fall if there were no children; hence by an extended application it denoted to be of a good family.

Polite (see Civil). Gentility respects rank in Ufe; politeness, the refinement of the mind and outward behavior. genteel education is suited to the station of a gentleman; a polite education fits for poUshed society and conversation, and raises the individual among his equals. There

A

may be

gentility without politeness, and vice versd. have genteel person manners, a genteel carriage, a genteel

A

may

mode of hving as far as respects his general relation with society; but a polite behavior and a polite address, which may quahfy him for every relation in society and enable him to shine in connection with all orders of men, is independent of either birth or wealth; it is in part a gift of nature, although His equiit is to be acquired by art.

the fourth century Pagani, which was translated Uterally into the German hiidener, a villager or worshipper in the field. Be this as it may, it is evident that the word pagan is in our language more applicable than heathen to the Greeks, the Romans, and the cultivated nations who practiced idolatry; and, on the other hand, heathen is more properly employed for rude and uncivilized people who worship false gods. The Gentile does not expressly believe in a Divine Revelation; but he either admits of the truth in part or is ready to receive it: the heathen adopts a positively false system that is opposed to the true faith: the pagan is a species of heathen, who obstinately persists in a worship which is merely the fruit of his own imagination. The heathens and pagans are Gentiles; but the Gentiles are not all either heathens or pagans. Confucius and Socrates, who rejected the plurality of gods, ana the followers of Mohammed, who adore the true God, are, properly speaking, The worshippers of Jupiter, Gentiles. Juno, Minerva, and all the deities of the ancients are termed pagans. The worshippers of Fo, Brahma, Xaca, and all the deities of savage nations are

page, servants, house, and furniture may be such as to entitle a man to the name of genteel, although he is wanting in all the forms of real goodbreeding; while fortune may sometimes frown upon the pohshed gentleman, termed heathens.

\

376

GENTLE

Gentiles were called to the true to an irritable and conceited temper and obeyed the call: many of it is necessary to be gentle: tame exthe illustrious pagans would have pressions are nowhere such striking dedoubtless done the same had they en- formities as in a poem or an oration. joyed the same privilege: there are to See also Soft. this day many heaihens who reject this GENUINE. See Intrinsic. bhnd their own advantage, to pursue GERM, Bud, Embryo, Seed. These imaginations. words all indicate the original or rudiGENTLE, Tame. Gentleness hes mentary state of a living organism rather in the natural disposition; lame- either animal or plant. Germ and seed

The

faith,

—

ness is the effect either of art or cir-

cumstances. Any unbroken horse may be gentle, but not tame; a horse that is broken in will be tame, but not always gentle. Gentle, as before observed (see Genteel), signifies hterally well-bom, and is opposed either to the fierce or the rude: tome is allied to Latin domare, to tame, whence daunt is also derived, and is opposed either to the wild or the spirited. Animals are in general said to be gentle who show a disposition to associate with man and conform to his will; they are said to be tame if, either by compulsion or habit, they are brought to mix with himaan society. Of the first description there are individuals in almost every species which are more or less entitled to the name of gentle; of the

represent the first beginnings, as it were, of life; embryo and bud, an early stage of development. Germ is a word of doubtful origin, probably aUied to the root ger in gerere, to bear; it signifies that portion of an organic being which is capable of developmg into the hkeness of that from which it sprang. Seed, from Anglo-Saxon sawan, to sow, indicates that portion of a plant which is sown in the ground, and from which the new plant springs; it is the germ, of the plant with a protective covering

Embryo, Greek

tfi/ipvov,

Greek

iv

and

^pvov, neuter of the present participle of ppvHv, to be full, to swell out. It refers to the first stage of new animal life. Bud, Middle English budde, is not found in Anglo-Saxon. It refers to the first stage of a new flower or latter description are many species, as the group of new leaves folded together the dog, the sheep, the hen, and the in a hard little bundle, as it were.

like.

In the moral apphcation, gentle is always employed in the good, and tame in the bad, sense: a gentle spirit needs no control, it amalgamates freely with the will of another: a tam£ spirit is without any will of its own; it is aUve to nothing but submission; it is perfectly consistent with our natural Uberty to have gentleness, but tameness

GESTICULATION. See GESTURE. See Action.

Action.

GET, Gain, Obtain, Procure. To get signifies

simply to cause to have or

possess; it is generic, and the rest specific: to gain is to get the thing one wishes or that is for one's advantage: to obtain is to get the thing aimed at or striven after: to procure, from pro, for, and curare, to care, to care for, is

the accompaniment of slavery. The same distinction marks the use of these to get the thing wanted or sought for. Get is not only the most general in words when appUed to the outward is

conduct or the language: gentle bespeaks something positively good; tame bespeaks the want of an essential good the former is alhed to the kind, the latter to the abject and mean qualities which naturally flow from the compression or destruction of energy and will in the agent. A gentle expression is devoid of all acrimony and serves to turn away wrath: a tome expression is devoid of all force or energy, and ill calculated to inspire the mind with any feeling whatever. In giving counsel

its sense, but in its apphcation; it may be substituted in almost every case for

the other terms, for we may say to get or gain a prize, to get or obtain a reward, to get or procure a book; and it is also

employed in numberless familiar cases, where the other terms would be less suitable, for, what this word gains in famiharity

loses in dignity: hence propriety talk of a servant's getting some water, or a person getting a book off a shelf or getting meat from the butcher, with numberit

we may with

GIFT less similar cases in which the other terms could not be employed without losing their dignity. Moreover, get is promiscuously used for whatever comes to the hand, whether good or bad, desirable or not desirable, sought for or not; but gain, obtain, and procure always include either the wishes or the instrumentaUty of the agent, or both

377

condescension;

contributes to the

it

benefit of the receiver: the present is an act of kindness, courtesy, or respect; it contributes to the pleasure of the receiver. The gift passes from the rich to the poor, from the high to the low, and creates an obUgation; the present passes either between equals or from the inferior to the superior. Whattogether. Thus a person is said to get ever we receive from God, through the a cold or a fever, a good or an ill name, bounty of His providence, we entitle without specifying any of the circum- a gift; whatever we receive from our stances of the action; but he is said to friends, or whatever princes receive gain that approbation which is grati- from their subjects, are entitled presfying to his feelings; to obtain a recom- ents. are told by all travellers that pense which is the object of his exer- it is a custom in the East never to aptions; to procure a situation which is proach a great man without a present; the end of his endeavors. the value of a gift is often heightened

We

The word gain is pecuharly apphcable to whatever comes to us fortuitously; what we gain constitutes our good fortune; we gain a victory or we gain a cause; the result in both cases

may be independent of our exertions. To obtain ana procure exclude the idea of chance, and suppose exertions directed to a specific end: but the former may include the exertions of others, the latter is particularly employed for perone's own persorfal exertions. son obtains a situation through the recommendation of a friend: he procures a situation by applying for it. Obtain is Ukewise employed only in that which requires particular efforts, that which is not immediately within our reach; procure is apphcable to that which is to be got with ease, by the simple exertion of a walk, or of asking

A

for.

GIBE.

above).

See Scoff. See Lightness.

GIFT, Present, Donation.

Gift is

derived from Anglo-Saxon gifan, to give (the hard g sound being due to Scandinavian influence) in the sense of what is communicated to another grar tuitously of one's property. Present is derived from to present, signifying the thing presented to another. Donation, in French donation, from the Latin donare, to present or give, is a species of ,

gift.

gift is

Endowment, Talent.

Endowment

with which one

GIDDINESS.

The

being given opportunely. The value of a present often depends upon the esteem we have for the giver; the smallest present from an esteemed friend is of more worth in our eyes than the costhest presents that monarchs receive. The gift is private, and benefits the individual: the donation is pubUc, and serves some general purpose: what is given to reUeve the necessities of any poor person is a gift; what is given to support an institution is a donation. The clergy are indebted to their patrons for the hvings which are in their pi/ermanent: the guard only GUARD, Defend, Watch. Guard guards against external evils; the guarcomes from Anglo-Saxon weardian, to dian takes upon him the oflBce of parwatch, the gu being due to French in- ent, counsellor, and director: when a fluence. Defend (see Apologize and house is in danger of being attacked, Defend). Watch and wake come from a person may sit up as a guard; when a parent is dead, a guardian suppUes his Anglo-Saxon wacan, to wake. To gvm-d, in its largest sense, com- place: we expect from a gtiara nothing prehends both watching and defending, but hiunan assistance; but from our that is, both the preventing the attack guardian angel we may expect superand the resisting it when it is made. natural assistance. Guard Against, Take Heed. Both In the restricted sense, to guard is properly to keep off an enemy; to these terms imply express care on the defend is to drive him away when he part of the agent^; but the former is makes the attack. The soldier guards used with r^ard to external or interthe palace of the king in time of peace, nal evils, the latter only with regard to and defends his country in time of internal or mental evils: in an enemy^s country it is essential to be particuwar. Watch, like guard, consists in looking larly on one's guard, for fear of a surto the danger, but it does not neces- prise; in difficult matters, where we sarily imply the use of any means to are hable to err, it is of importance to prevent the danger: he who waiches take heed lest we run from one extreme td another: young men, on their enmay only give an alarm. In the improper apphcation they trance into life, cannot be too much have a similaj sense: modesty guards on their guard against associating with female honor; clothing defends against those who would lead them into exthe inclemency of the weather: a per- f>ensive pleasures; in shppery paths,

—

—

—

GUARDIAN

396

fail either on the one side or the other. The Bible is our best guidi for moral practice; its doctrines, as interpreted in the articles of the Christian Church, are the best rule of

whether physically or morally under- quently to stood,

we

it IS

necessary to take heed

how on

go.

GUARDIAN. GUESS,

See Guard. Divine. Conjecture,

ConGiiess is a Scandinavian word. Divine, from jecture (see that word). the Latin divinus and deus, a god, sigthink and know as a god. guess that a thing actually is; we conjecture that which may be; we guess that it is a certain hour; we conjecture as to the meaning of a person's Guessing is opposed to the actions. certain knowledge of a thing; conjecturing is opposed to the full conviction of a thing: a child guesses at that portion of his lesson which he has not properly learned; a fanciful nifies to

We

person employs conjecture where he cannot draw any positive conclusion. To gu£ss and conjecture are natural acts of the mind to divine, in its proper sense, is a supernatural act; in this sense the heathens affected to divine that which was known only to an Omniscient Being; and impostors in our time presume to divine in matters that are set above the reach of human comprehension. The term is, however, employed to denote a species of :

guessing in different matters, as to divine the meaning of a mystery. GUEST, Visitor, Visitant. Guest is a Scandinavian word from the same root as Latin hostes, signifying a stranger or an enemy; visitor or visitant is the one who pays the visit. The guest is to the visitor as the species to the genus: every gusst is a visitor, but every visitor is not a guest; the visitor simply comes to see the person and enjoy social intercourse; but the gu^st also partakes of hospitality: we are visitors at the tea-table, at the card-table, and round the fire; we are guests at the festive board. GUIDE, Rule. Guide is to nde as the genus to the species: every rule is a guide to a certain extent; but the guide is often that which exceeds the rule. The guide, in the moral sense, as in the proper sense, goes with us and points out the exact path; it does not permit us to err either to the right OT left: the rule marks out a hne beJrond which we may not go; but it eaves us to trace the Wnfi. and conse-

faith.

See

also

Chaperon; Lead;

Syllabus.

GUILE. See Deceit. GUILTLESS, Innocent, Harmless. Guiltless,

without

guilt,

is

more than

innocent: innocence, from nocere, to hurt, extends no further than the quality of not hurting by any direct act; guiltless comprehends the quaUty of not intending to hurt: it is possible, therefore, to be innocent without being

though not vice versd; he who wishes for the death of another is not guiltless, though he may be innocent of the crime of murder. Guiltless seems to regard a man's general condition, innocent his particular condition: no man is guiltless in the sight of God, for no man is exempt from the guilt of sin; but he may be innocent in the sight of men, or innocent of all such intentional offences as render him obnoxious to his fellow-creatures. Guiltlessness was that happy state of perfection which men lost at the fall; innocence is that relaguiltless,

tive or comparative state of perfection which is attainable here on earth: the highest state of innocence is an ignorance of evil. Guiltless is in the proper sense applicable only to the condition of man, and, when apphed to things, it still

has a reference to the person: innocent is equally apphcable to persons or things; a person is innocent who has not committed any injury or has not any direct purpose to commit any injury; or a conversation is innocent

which

is

free

from what

is

hurtful.

Innocent and harmless both recommend themselves as quaUties negatively good; they designate a freedom either in the person or in the thing from injuring, and differ only in regard to the nature of the injury: innocence respects moral injury, and harmless physical injury: a person is innocent who is free from moral impurity and wicked purposes; he is harmless if he have not the power or disposition to commit any violence; a diversion is innocent which has nothing in it hkely to corrupt the morals; a

GYROPLANE game

is

inflict

harmless which is not likely to terminable space which has neither beany wound or endanger the ginning nor end; he does wisely who

health.

GUILTY.

See Criminal. Guise is the French form of EngUsh udse, both from a Teutonic root, and both signifying the manner. Habit, from the Latin habitus, a habit, fashion, or form, is taken for a

GUISE, Habit.

settled or permanent mode of dress. The guise is that which is unusual and often only occasional; the habit is that which is usual among particular classes: a person sometimes assumes the guise of a peasant, in order the better to conceal himself; he who de-

votes himself to the clerical profession puts on the habit of a clergyman.

GULF, ItaUan

Abyss.

golfo,

Gulf, French golfe, comes from Greek Kokirog,

hollow, and is applied hterally in the sense of a deep concave receptacle for water, as the gulf of Venice, guif of

Mexico,

397

etc.

compounded

Abyss, in Greek

and

djivaffoc,

docs not venture in, or who retreats before he has plimcied too deep to retrace his footsteps; as tno ocean, in the natural sense, is a great abyss^ so are metaphysics an immense abyss mto which the human mind precipitates itself only to be bewildered.

GUMPTION,

AcuTENESs, CleverDiscernment, Shrewdness. Gumption is a Scandinavian word. The term is one of colloquial usage, implying, as a substantive, a quickness ness,

of perception, the possession of much common sense, and, in painting, the art of preparing colors. say that a person is possessed of gumption who exhibits a quick-acting intellectuality, who perceives the drift, heart, spirit, of things speedily, whose mental activities evidence sharpness, keenness, acuteness. Cleverness expresses more than acuteness, for it is that state or quahty which enables its possessor to exercise a special skill or abihty on certain lines, to be dexterous, expert, hwidy, adroit, to act expeditiously and efficiently with mind and body, and in intercourse with his fellow-men to be

We

a bota bottoinless pit. One is overwhelmed in a gvlf; it carries with it the idea of hquidity and profimdity, into which one inevitably sinks never to rise: one is lost in an Shrewdabyss; it carries with it the idea of good-natured and obhging. immense profundity, into which he ness, in a proper sense, implies sagacity, who is cast never reaches a bottom, nor ingenuity, inteUigence, "mother-wit, tom,

of d-

jivaaoQ,

signifies hterally

able to return to the top; an insatiable voracity is the characteristic idea in the signification of this term. gulf is a capacious bosom, which is

A

holds within itself and buries all objects that suffer themselves to sink into it, without allowing them the possibiUty of escape; hell is represented as a fiery gulf, into which evil spirits are plunged, and remain perpetually

overwhelmed: a guilty mind may be said, figuratively, to be plunged into a gidf of woe or despair when filled with the horrid sense of its enormities. An abyss presents nothing but an in-

and cleverness in an improper

in practical matters; sense, craftiness, cunning, slyness, depravity, and iniquity. Discernment is an act of perception, an acuteness or sharpness in judmient,

a penetrative abihty, and, specifically, the quahty of discrimination, the mental condition of being able to weigh, analyze, segregate, and classify objects so that each may be considered by itself, and the relation of a part to the whole may be clearly determined.

GUSH. GUSTO.

See Flow. See Zest. GYROPLANE. See Aircraft.

398

HABIT

H HABIT. See Custom; GmsE. HABITATION. See Domicile.

from hallucinaiion originates at the other extremity of the chain of consciousness See Trite. Gaunt. These words in the mind itself, and consists of signify a wasted appearance. Haggard erroneous interpretations of real senThus we recognize in anoriginally was applied to a hawk "that sations. preyed for herself long before she was other an aberration, a departure from taken," and meant wild. It was ap- a customary course, a wandering from pUed to a person with special reference fact to fancy; a fallacy in a deceptive to a wild look in the eyes, but its mean- or false appearance, in an unsound ing has been distinctly influenced by method of reasoning; a phantasm, a the resemblance in form to hag, so that vision of something that does not exit came to signify hag-like. It differs ist, a spectre that appears visible to from gaunt, an East AngUan word the victim only. victim of hallucimeaning lean, in referring primarily to nation imagines that which is wholly the wasted appearance of the face, es- erroneous, non-existent, but beheves pecially the hollows under the eyes implicitly that it is real. caused by illness or weariness. Gaunt An aberration, from Latin ah, away, refers both to the whole face and the and errare, to wander, means a wanwhole figure. It means thin, angular, dering out of the accustomed or normal bony, with hollows where rounded flesh course, with reference both to thought would naturally be. Haggard is always and to conduct. As applied to the an abnormal condition caused by ill- activity of the mind, it differs from ness or some physical or emotional hallucination and delusion in emphastrain. Gaunt may apply under the sizing not the false vision or interpresame conditions, but it may also indi- tation, but the abnormal action of the cate the usual or normal appearance of mind itself. an individual. See Wield. but

delv,sion differs

in that

it

HACKNEYED. HAGGARD,

A

HAIL.

See Accost. See Draw. HALLOW. See Dedicate; Sanc-

HALE.

HANDLE. HANDSOME. See Beautiful. HANKER. See Desire.

HAPLESS, Ill-fated, Luckless. Hapless is a negative of hap, a ScandiAberration. navian word signifying good luck, Delusion. Hallucination, in French whence happy, happen, etc., are dethe same form, from the Latin hallvxn- rived. Hapless, accordingly, implies natio, that from hallucinor, to wander the condition that is contrary to the in the mind, signifies, in common lan- hap events hence, misfortune and its guage, a perception without a real attendant Adcissitudes. object to be perceived, an erroneous or We say that a person is ill-fated who insane belief in the reality of things seems destined to misfortune. This which have no existence. Specifically, is the strongest of the above group of the term implies a morbid condition terms, for it implies the recognition of the mind in which a perception of of a condition in which a person may something occurs where no impression have been bom or one into which he has been made upon the external or- has fallen, and from which apparently gans of the special senses, yet where he cannot extricate himself a conthe object is beUeved to be real and dition to which he was doomed at existent. birth and in which he remains through In a sense this state is a delusion, fife. Luckless, on the contrary, imtify.

HALLUCINATION,

—

—

HAPPINESS a condition that may be similar to ill-faled, but in the most common usage it suggests not a permanent, but a temporary misfortune, as a venture may be luckless that is without an anticipated advantage: some proceedings out of many may be imfortunate in their results, while the others may turn out according to our desires. HAPPEN, Chance. To happen, that is, to fall out by a hap, is to chance as the genus to the species; whatever chances happens, but not vice versd. Happen respects all events, without including any collateral idea; chance comprehends likewise the idea of the cause and order of events: whatever comes to pass happens, whether regularly in the course of things or particularly and out of the order; whatever chances happens, altogether without concert, intention, and often without relation to any other thing. Accidents happen daily which no hiunan foresight could prevent; the newspapers contain an account of all that happens in the course of the day or week: listeners and busybodies are ready to catch every word that chances to fall in their plies

hearing.

HAPPINESS, ness,

signifies licity

Felicity,

Beatitude, Bliss.

BlessedHappiness

the state of being happy.

comes from Latin

felicitas,

Fehap-

piness. Bliss is in Anglo-Saxon blilhs, happiness, hterally blitheness, from An-

glo-Saxon

blithe,

English

blithe.

original sense of blessedness

The

may have

been to consecrate with blood, either

by

sacrifice or the sprinkling of blood, as the word can be clearly traced back to blood; hence it may have meant to be consecrated, holy; then simply happiness. It retains a rehgious suggestion still. Beatitude, from the Latin beutus, signifies the property of being happy in a superior degree. Happiness comprehends that aggregate of pleasurable sensations which we derive from external objects. It is the ordinary term which is employed alike in the colloquial or the philosophical style: felicity is a higher expression, comprehending inward enjoyment, or an aggregate of inward pleasure, without regard to the source whence either is derived: bliss is a still higher term, expressing more than

399

either happiness or felicity, both as to the degree and nature of the enjoy-

ment. Happiness is the thing adapted to our present condition and to the nature of our being, as a compound of body and soul; it is impure in its nature and variable in degree; it is sought for by various means and with great eagerness; but it qften lies much more within our reach than we are apt to imagine: it is not to be foimd in the possession of great wealth, of great power, of great dominions, of great splendor, or the unbounded indulgences of any one appetite or desire; but in moderate possessions with a heart tempered by religion and virtue for the enjoyment of that which God has bestowed upon us: it is, therefore,

not so imequally distributed as

some have been

led to conclude.

Happiness admits of degrees, since every individual is placed in different circumstances, either of body or of mind, which fit him to be more or less happy. Felicity is not regarded in the

same

Ught; it is that which is positive and independent of all circumstances: domestic felicity and conjugal felicity are regarded as moral enjoyments, abstracted from everything which can serve as an alloy. Bliss is that which is purely spiritual; it has its source in the imagination and rises above the ordinary level of human enjoyments: of earthly bliss little is known but in poetry; of heavenly bliss we form but an imperfect conception from the utmost stretch of our powers. Blessedness is a term of spiritual import, which refers to the happy condition of those who enjoy the Divine favor, and are permitted to have a foretaste of heavenly bliss by the exaltation of their minds above earthly happiness. Beatitude denotes the quahty of happiness only which is most exalted, namely, heavenly happiness. See also Well-being.

—

Happy, Fortunate. Happy and fortunate are both applied to the external circumstances of a man; but the former conveys the idea of that which is abstractly good, the latter implies rather what is agreeable to one's wishes.

A

man

happy

in his marriage, in his children, in his connections, and the like: he is fortunate in his trading conis

HARANGUE

400

cems. Happy excludes the idea of lodge, Old French lege, Italian loggia, chance; fortunate excludes the idea of comes from Old High German loube, personal effort: a man is happy in the an arbor, from loub, a leaf an arbor possession of what he gets; he is for- being a leafy shelter. Lobby is a doubOne harbors that which let of lodge. tunate in getting it. In another sense, they bear a similar ought not to find room anywhere; one analogy. A happy thought, a happy shelters that which cannot find secuexpression, a happy turn, a happy rity elsewhere; one lodges that which event, and the Uke, denote a degree wants a resting-place. Thieves, traiof positive excellence; a, fortunate idea, tors, conspirators, are harbored by a fortunate circumstance, a fortunate those who have an interest in securevent, are all relatively considered with ing them from detection: either the regard to the wishes and views of the wicked or the imfortunate may be sheltered from the evil with which they individual. are threatened: travellers are lodg^ HARANGUE. See Address. HARASS. See Distress; Weary; as occasion may require. As the word harbor does not, in its Worry. HARBINGER. See FoRERtTNNER. original sense, mean anything more HARBOR, Haven, Port. The idea than affording a temporary entertainof a resting-place for vessels is common ment, it may be taken in a good sense to these terms, of which harbor is gen- for an act of hospitaUty. Harbor and shelter are said of things eral and the two others specific in their significance. Harbor is Scandinavian, in the sense of giving a harbor or shelfrom Icelandic herbergi, a shelter for an ter; lodge in the sense of being a restarmy, compounded of heri, army, Ger- ing-place: furnitm-e harbors vermin, man heer, and bergen, to hide; it carries trees shelter from the rain, a ball lodges with it little more than the common in the breast; so in the moral sense idea of affording a resting or anchoring a man harbors resentment, ill-will, evil place. Haven is also a Scandinavian thoughts, and the hke; he shelters himword possibly allied to Anglo-Saxon self from a charge by retorting it upon Port, from the Latin portu^, his adversary; or 'a particular passion h^af, sea. a harbor, aUied to porta, a gate, and may be lodged in the breast or ideas to English /ord, conveys the idea of an lodged in the mind. enclosure. A haven is a natural harbor; HARD, Firm, Solid. The close ada port is an artificial harbor. We char- herence of the component parts of a

—

The

acterize

body

/laven

adherence of different bodies to one another constitutes ^rmness (see Fixed). That is hard which will not yield to a closer compression; that is firm which will not yield so as to produce a separa-

a harbor as commodious, a as snug and secure; a port as and easy of access. A commercial country profits by the excellence and number of its harbors; it values itself on the security of its havens, and increases the number of its ports accordingly. vessel goes into a harbor only for a season; it remains in a haven for a permanency; it seeks a port as the destination of its voyage. Merchantmen are perpetually going in and out of a harbor; a distressed vessel, at a distance from home, seeks some haven in which it may winter; the weary mariner looks to the port, not as the termination of his labor, but as the comsafe

A

constitutes hardness.

close

hard, as far as it respects every pressure; it is firm, with regard to the water which it covers, when it is so closely bound as to resist every weight without breaking. Hard and solid respect the internal constitution of bodies and the adherence of the component parts; but hard denotes a much closer degree of adhertion.

itself,

Ice

is

when

it resists

ence than solid: the hard is opposed to the soft; the solid to the fluid; every mencement of all his enjoyments. hard body is by nature solid; although Harbor, Shelter, Lodge. The idea of every solid body is not hard. Wood giving a resting-place is common to is always a solid body, but it is somethese terms; but harbor (see Foster) times hard and sometimes soft; water, is used mostly in a bad sense, shelter when congealed, is a solid body, and (see Asylum) in an indefinite sense: admits of different degrees of hardness.

—

HARD In another application, hardness

is

allied to insensibility ;^rmness to fixedness; solidity to substantiality; a hard

man

is not to be acted upon by any tender motives; a firm man is not to be turned from his purpose; a solid man holds no purposes that are not well-founded. A man is hardened in that which is bad by being made insensible to that which is good; a man is confirmed in anything good or bad by being rendered less disposed to lay

aside; his mind is consolidated by acquiring fresh motives for action. Hard, Callous, Hardened, Obdurate. Hard is here, as in the former case, the general term, and the rest particular: hard, in its most extensive physical sense, denotes the property of resisting the action of external force, so as not to undergo any change in its form or separation in its parts: callous is that species of the hard, in application to the skin, which arises from its dryness and the absence of all nervous susceptibihty. Hard and callous, from it

—

Latin callosu^, thick-skinned, are Ukewise applied in the moral sense: but hard denotes the absence of tender feeling, or the property of resisting any impression which tender objects are apt to produce; callous denotes the property of not yielding to the force of motives to action. A hard heart cannot be moved by the sight of misery, let it be presented in ever so affecting a form: a callous mind is not to be touched by any persuasions, however powerful. Hard does not designate any circumstance of its existence or origin: we may be hard from a variety of causes;

but callousness arises from

the indulgence of vices, passions, and the pursuit of vicious practices. When we speak of a person as hard, it simply determines what he is: if we speak of him as callous, it refers also to what he was, and from what he is become so. Callous, hardened, and obdurate are all employed to designate a morally depraved character; but callousness belongs properly to the heart and conscience; hardened, to both the heart and the understanding; obdurate, more particularly to the will. Callousness is the first stage of hardness in moral depravity; it may exist in the infant mind, on its first tasting the p>oisonous

401

pleasures of vice, without being acquainted with its remote consequences. A hardened state is the work of time; it arises from a continued course of vice, which becomes, as it were, habitual, and wholly unfits a person for admitting any other impressions; obduracy is the last stage of moral hardness, which supposes the whole mind to be obstinately bent on vice. A child discovers himself to be caUous when the

entreaties, threats, or punishments of a parent cannot awaken in him a single sentiment of contrition; a youth Sacovers himself to be hardened when he begins to take a pride and a pleasure in a vicious career; a man shows himself to be obdurate when he betrays a settled and confirmed purjK)se to pursue his abandoned course without regard to consequences. Hard, Hardy, Insensible, Unfeeling. Hard may be appUed to either that which makes resistance to external impressions or that which presses with a force upon other objects. Hardy, which is only a variation of hard, is appUcable only in the first case: thus, a person's skin may be hard which is not easily acted upon; but the person is said to be hardy who can withstand the elements: on the other hand, hard, when employed as an active principle, is only applied to the moral character; hence the difference between a hardy man \/ho endures everything and a

—

hard

man who makes

others endure.

Insensible and unfeeling are but modes of the hard; that is, they designate the negative quaUty of hardness, or its incapacity to receive impression: hard, therefore, is always the strongest term of the three; and of the two others unfeeling is stronger than insensible. Hard and insensible are appUed physically and morally: unfeeling is employed only as a moral characteristic. horse's mouth is hard when it is insensible to the action of the

A

bit;

a man's heart

is

hard which

is in-

sensible to the miseries of others; a man is unfeeling who does not regard the feeUngs of others. The heart may be hard by nature, or rendered so by the influence of some passion; but a person is commonly unfeelinq from cir-

cumstances. Shylock is depicted by Shakespeare as hard, from his strong

HARD

402

antipathy to the Christians: people who enjoy an uninterrupted state of good health are often unfeeling in cases As that which is hard of sickness. mostly hurts or pains when it comes in contact with the soft, the term hard is pecuharly apphcable to superiors or such as have power to inflict pain: a creditor may be hard toward a debtor. As insensible signifies a want of sense, it may be sometimes necessary: a surgeon, when performing an operation, must be insensible to the

present pain which he

As «n-

inflicts.

feeling signifies a want of feeUng, it is always taken for a want of good feeling: where the removal of pain is required, the surgeon shows himself to be unfeeling who does not do everything in his power to lessen the pain of the sufferer.

Hard,

Difficult,

Arduous.

—Hard

is

so in various degrees, according to circumstances; that which is difficult to one person may be less so to another; but that which is arduaus is difficult in a high degree, and positively difficult imder every circumstance. See also Herculean. Hard - hearted. Cruel, Unmerciful, Hard-hearted signifies havMerciless. ing a hard heart, or a heart not to be moved by the pains of others. Cruel, in Latin crudelis, allied to crvdus, raw flesh, and cruor, blood, that is, dehghting in blood like beasts of prey, signifies ready to inffict pain: as a is diffixniU is

—

temper of mind, therefore, cruel expresses much more than hard-hearted; the latter denotes the want of that sensibihty toward others which ought to be the property of every human heart; the former, the positive inchnation to inflict pain and the pleasure from so doing. Hard-hearted is employed as an epithet of the person; cruel, as an epithet to things as well as persons; as a cruel man, a cruel action. Hard-hearted respec.r' solely the moral

here taken in the sense of causing trouble and requiring pains, in which sense it is a much stronger term than diffi/mlt, which, from the Latin difficilis, compounded of the privative dis and Hard fadlis, signifies merely not easy affections; cruelty, in its proper sense, is therefore positive, and difficult negative. the infhction of corporeal difficult task cannot be got respects through with without exertion, but a pains, but is extended in its applicahard task requires great exertion. Dif- tion to whatever creates moral pains: ficult is apphcable to all trivial matters a person may be cruel, too, in his which call for a more than usual por- treatment of children or brutes by tion either of labor or thought; hard is beating or starving them; or he may applicable to those which are of the be cruel toward those who look up to highest importance and accompanied him for kindness. with circumstances that call for the The unmerciful and merciless are both utmost stretch of every power. It is modes of characteristics of the harda difficult matter to get admittance hearted. An unmerciful man is hardinto some circles of society that are hearted, inasmuch as he is unwilling select: it is difficult to decide between to extend his compassion or mercy to two fine paintings which is the finer; one who is in his power; a merciless it is a hard matter to come to any conman, which is more than an unmerciful clusion on metaphysical subjects. A man, is hard-hearted, inasmuch as he is child mostly finds it difficult to learn restrained by no compunctious feelings his letters; there are many passages from infficting pain on those who are in in classical writers which are hard to his power. Avarice makes a man hardbe understood by the learned. hearted even to tu.ise who are bound Arduous, from the Latin arduus, to him by the closest ties; it makes lofty, signifying set at a distance or him unmerciful to those who are in out of reach, expresses more than his debt. There are many merciless either hard or difficult. What is diffi- tyrants in domestic life, who show cult may be conquered by labor and their dispositions by their merciless perseverance without any particular treatment of their poor brutes. degree of talent; but what is arduous Hardly, Scarcely. What is hard is cannot be effected without great men- not common, and in that respect scarce: tal powers and accomphshments. What hence the idea of imfrequency assimi.

A

—

HASTEN lates those

terms both

in signification

and application. In many cases they may be used indifferently; but where the idea of practicability predominates hardly seems most proper; and where the idea of frequency predominates scarcely seems preferable. One can hardly judge of a person's features glance; we lay aside their vices from a thorough conviction of

by a single and scarcely ever see

partial

men

their enormity: but it may with equal propriety be said in general sentences, hardly one in a thousand, or scarcely one in a thousand, would form such a conclusion.

HARDIHOOD,

See Audacity.

HARDINESS. See Audacity. HARDSHIP. See Grievance. HARLEQUIN. See Zany.

403

stiffen, ible.

designates unbending,

inflex-

These terms mark different modes

treating those that are in one's power, all of which are the reverse of the kind. Harsh and rough are epithets of that which is unamiable: they indicate the harshness and roughness of the humor: severity and rigor are not always to be condemned; they spring from of

principle, necessity.

and are often resorted to by

Harshness is always mingled with anger and personal feeling: severity and rigor characterize things more than the temper of persons. A harsh master renders every burden which he imposes doubly severe by the grating manner in which he communicates his will: a severe master simply imposes the burden in a manner to enJorce obedience. The one seems to indulge

himself in inflicting pain: the other See Evil; Injury; Scathe. seems to act from a motive that is independent of the pain inflicted. A harsh man is therefore always severe, HARMONY. See Concord; Mel- but with injustice: a severe man, howody. ever, is not always harsh. Rigor is a HARSH, Rough, Severe, Rigor- high degree of severity. One is severe ous. Harsh (see Acrimony) and rough in the punishment of offences: one is (see Abrupt) borrow their moral sig- rigorous in exacting compliance and nification from the physical properties obedience. Severity is always more or of the bodies to which they belong. less necessary in the army, or in a The harsh and the rough both act pain- school, for the preservation of good fully upon the taste, but the former order: rigor is essential in dealing with with much more violence than the the stubborn will and unruly passions latter. An excess of the sour mingled of men. with other unpleasant properties conHARSHNESS. See Acrimony. stitutes harshness: an excess of astrinHASTEN, Accelerate, Speed, Exgency constitutes roughness. Cheese is pedite, Despatch. Hasten comes said to be harsh when it is dry and from Anglo-Saxon hcest, Modem Engbiting: roughness is the peculiar qual- lish haste, meaning originally violence. ity of the damascene. From this phys- Old French haste is from the same ical distinction between these terms Teutonic root. Accelerate, from celer, we discover the ground of their moral quick, signifies Uterally to quicken for appUcation. Harshness in a person's a specific purpose. Speed, from Angloconduct acts upon the feelings and does Saxon spouxin, to succeed, meant origiviolence to the afifections: roughness nally to increase, to become prosperous acts only externally on the senses: we whence the phrase, speed the partmay be rou^h in the tone of the voice, ing guest. Expedite (see Diligent). in the mode of address, or in the manner Despatch comes from Spanish despachar, of handling or touching an object; but from Latin dis, away, and a root found we are harsh in the sentiment we con- in the past participle padus, from panvey and according to the persons to gere, to fix. whom it is conveyed: a stranger may Quickness in movement and action be rough when he has it in his power is the common idea of all these terms, to be so: only a friend or one the which varj' in the nature of the movetenderest relation can be harsh. ment and the action. To hasten exAustere). Rigorous, presses httle more than the general Severe (see from the Latin rigor and rigere, to idea of quickness in moving toward a

HARM.

HARMLESS. See Guiltless. HARMONIOUS. See Euphonious.

—

m

HASTINESS

404

point; thus, he hxistens who runs to get to the end of his journey: accelerate expresses, moreover, the idea of bringing something to a point; thus, every mechanical business is accelerated by the order and distribution of its' several parts. It may be employed, hke the word hasten, for corporeal and famiUar actions: a tailor accelerates any particular work that he has in hand by putting on additional hands; or a compositor accelerates the printing of a work by doing his part with correctness. The word speed includes not only quick, but forward movement. He who goes with speed goes effectually forward, and comes to his journey's end the sooner. This idea is excluded from the term haste, which may often be a planless, unsuitable quickness. Hence the proverb, "The more haste the worse speed." Expedite and despatch are terms of higher import, in appUcation to the most serious concerns in hfe; but to expedite expresses a process, a bringing forward toward an end: despatch im-

opposed to delay, or a dilatory mode of proceeding; it is frequently indispensable to hasten in the affairs of human Ufe: to hurry is opposed to dehberate and cautious proceeding: it must always be prejudicial, and unwise to hurry; men may hasten; children hurry. As epithets, Iiasty and hurried are

both employed in another sense; but hasty imphes merely an overquickness of motion which outstrips consideration; hurried imphes a disorderly motion which springs from a distempered Irritable people use state of mind. hasty expressions; they speak before they think: deranged people walk with hurried steps; they follow the blind impulse of undirected feeling. HASTINESS. See Rashness. HASTY. See Angry; Cursory;

Sudden.

HATE, Detest. tween these terms

The alliance bein signification is sufficiently illustrated in the articles referred to. Their difference consists more in sense than appHcation. To hate (see Antipathy) is a personal

a making a feeUng directed toward the object independently of its quaUties; to detest (see Abhor) is a feeling mdependent of the person, and altogether dependent upon the nature of the thing. What one hates one hates commonly on one's own account; what one detests one directs. An inferior officer must pro- detests on accoimt of the object: hence ceed with expedition to fulfil the orders it is that one hates, but not detests, the or execute the purposes of his com- person who has done an injury to one's mander; a general or minister of state self; and that one detests, rather than despatches the concerns of planning, hates, the person who has done indirecting, and instructing. Hence it juries to others. Joseph's brethren is we speak only of expediting a thing; hated him because he was more beloved but we may speak of despatching a per- than they; we detest a traitor to his son as well as a thing. country because of the enormity of his Hasten, Hurry. Hasten (see above). offence. Hurry is a word of imitative origin, In this connection to hate is always indicating the sound of swift movement. a bad passion: to detest always laudTo hasten and hurry both imply to able; but, when both are appUed to move forward with quickness in any inanimate objects, to hate is bad or matter; but the former may proceed good, according to circtunstances; to with some design and good order, but detest always retains its good meaning. the latter always supposes perturba- When men hate things because they tion and irregularity. We hapten in the interfere with their indulgences, as communication of good news when we the wicked hate the light, it is a bad make efforts to convey it in the short- personal feehng, as in the former case, est time possible; we hurry to get to an but when good men are said to hate end when we impatiently and incon- that which is bad it is a laudable feelsiderately press forward without mak- ing, justified by the nature of the obing choice of our means. To hasten is ject. As this feehng is, however, so plies

a putting an end

We

to,

clearance. do everything in our power to expedite a business: we despatch a great deal of business within a given time. Expedition is requisite for one who executes; despatch is most important for one who determines and

—

HAUGHTINESS closely allied to detest, it is necessary further to observe that hate, whether rightly or wrongly applied, seeks the injury or destruction of the object: but detest is confined simply to the shunning of the object, or thunking of God hates sin, it with very great pain. and on that account punishes sinners: conscientious men detest all fraud, and therefore cautiously avoid being con-

cerned in

it.

*

oftener displays his temper in trifling than in important matters. lU-will, as the word denotes, lies only in the mind, and is so indefinite in its signification that it admits of every conceivable degree. When the will is evilly directed toward another in ever so small a degree it constitutes iH-tciU. Rancor comes from Latin rancius, evil smelling.

HAUGHTINESS,

—

Odious. Hateful signifies, literally, full of that which is apt to excite hatred. Odious, from the Latin odi, I hate, has the same sense originully. These epithets are employed in regard to such objects as produce strong aversion in the mind; but when employed, as they commonly are, up>on familiar subjects, they indicate an unbecoming vehemence in the speaker. Hateful is properly applied to whatever violates general principles of morality; lying and swearing are hateful vices; odioics is more commonly applied to such things as affect the interests of others and bring odium upon the individual; a tax that bears particularly Hatefid,

405

hard and unequally is termed odious, or a measure of government that is oppressive is denominated odious. Hatred, Enmity, lU-tvill, Rancor. These terms agree in this particular, that those who are under the influence of such feelings derive a pleasure from the misfortune of others; but hatred (see Aversion) expresses more than enmity (see Enemy), and this more than

—

gance.

Disdain, ArroHaughtiness denotes the ab-

stract quality of haughty, which comes from Old French haid, originally halt, from alius, high. It meant originally "high and mighty." Disdain (see Contemn) Arrogance (see that word) Haughtiness is founded on the high .

we entertain of ourselves; disdain, on the low opinion we have of others; arrogance is the result of both, but, if anything, more of the former opinion

than the latter. Haughtiness and disdain are prop>erly sentiments of the mind, and arrogance a mode of acting resulting from a state of mind: there

may

therefore be haughtiness and dis-

dain which have not betrayed themselves by any visible action; but arrogance is always accompanied with its corresponding action the haughty man is known by the air of superiority which he assumes; the disdairifvl man, by the contempt which he shows to others; the arrogant man, by his lofty pretensions. Haughtiness and arrogance are both vicious; they are built upon a false idea of ourselves; but :

disdain may be justifiable when prowhich signifies either an evil voked by what is infamous: a lady a willing of evil. Hatred is not must treat with disdain the person contented with merely wishing ill to who insults her honor. others, but derives its whole happiness See also Pride. from their misery or destruction; enHigh, High - minded. Haughty, mity, on the contrary, is limited in its Haughty and high, derived from the Ul-will, will or

—

operations to particular circumstances: hatred, on the other hand, is frequently confined to the feeUng of the individual; but enmity consists as much in the action as in the feeUng. He who is possessed with hatred is happy when the object of his passion is miserable, and is miserable when he is happy; but the hater is not always instrumental in causing his misery or destroying his happiness: he who is inflamed with enmity is more active in disturbing the peace of his enemy, but

.same source as haughty, characterize both the external behavior and the internal sentiment; high-minded marks the sentiment only, or the state of the mind. With regard to the outward behavior, haughty is a stronger term than high; a haughty carriage bespeaks not only a high opinion of one's self, but a strong mixture of contempt for others: a high carriage denotes simply a high opinion of one's self: haughtiness is therefore always offensive, as it is burdensome to others;

406

HAUL

may sometimes be laudable, ard. All these terms denote actions inasmuch as it is justice to one's self: performed under an uncertainty of the one can never give a command in a event: but hazard (see Chance) behaughty tone without making others speaks a want of design and choice on feel their inferiority in a painful de- the part of the agent; to risk (see gree; we may sometimes assume a high Danger) implies a choice of alternatone in order to shelter oiu-selves from tives; to venture, which is the same as adventure (see Event), signifies a calinsult. With regard to the sentiment of the culation and balance of probabihties: mind, haughty, whether it shows itself one hazards and risks imder the fear in the outward behavior or rests in of an evil; one ventures with the hope the mind, is always bad; height as of a good. He who hazards an opinion an habitual temper, and stUl more or an assertion does it from presumphigh-mindedness, which more strongly tuous feelings and upon slight grounds; marks the personal quality, are ex- chances are rather against him than but height

him that

it may prove erroneous: a battle does it often from

pressly inconsistent with Christian humility; but a man may with reason

for

be too high or too high-minded to condescend to a mean action. HAUL. See Draw. HAUNT. See Frequent. HAVE, Possess. Have comes from Anglo-Saxon habban, a widely distributed Teutonic word. Possess, in Latin

necessity; he chooses the least of

possessus, participle of possideo, compounded of Latin pot, as in potes, able,

and sedere, to sit, means to remain master, to be able to keep. Have is the general, possess is the particular term: have designates no circumstance of the action; possess expresses a particular species of having. To have is sometimes to have in one's hand or within one's reach; but to possess is to have as one's own; a clerk has the money which he has fetched for his employer; the latter possesses the money, which he has the power of turning to his use. To have is sometimes to have the right to, to belong; to possess is to have by one and at one's command: a debtor has the property which he has surrendered to his creditor; but he cannot be said to possess it, because he has it not within his reach and at his disposal: we are not necessarily masters of that which we have; although we always are of that which we possess: to have is sometimes only temporary; to possess is mostly permanent: we have money which we are perpetually disposing of: we possess lands which we keep for a permanency: a person has the good graces of those whom he pleases; he possesses the confidence of those who put everything in his power. HAZARD, Risk, Venture, Jeop-

he who

risks

two

although the event is dubious, yet he fears less from a failure than from inaction: he who ventures on a mercantile speculation does it from a love of gain; he flatters himself with a favorable event, and acquires boldness from the prospect. He who jeopards a cause (from Old French jeu, Latin iocus, a game, and partitus, parted, meaning a divided game, one in which the outcome is dubious) threatens its downfall or disaster. Jeopard means to hazard, with a presumption, however, in favor of an imfortunate outcome. There are but very few circumstances to justify us in hazarding; evils;

there

may be

render

many

it

several occasions which necessary to risk, and very

cases in which

it

may

be advan-

tageous to venture. HEAD. See Chief; Topic. HEADSTRONG. See Obstinate. HEADY. See Obstinate. HEAL. See Cure. HEALING. See Sanitary.

HEALTHY, Wholesome,

Salubri-

ous, Salutary. Healthy signifies not only having health, but also causing health. Wholesome, like the German heilsarn., signifies making whole, keeping whole or sound. Salubrious and salutary, from the Latin salu^, safety or health, signify hkewise contributive to health or good in general. These epithets are all appUcable to such objects as have a kindly influence on the bodily constitution: healthy is the most general and indefinite; it i& applied to exercise, to air, situation.

HEARTEN climate, and most other things but food, for which wholesome 'm commonly substituted: the life of a farmer is reckoned the most healthy; and the simplest diet is the most wholesome. Healthy and wholesome are rather negative in their sense; salubrious and salutary are positive, that is, healthy and wholesome which does no injurv to the health; that is salubrious which serves to improve the health; and that is salutary which serves to remove a disorder: cUmates are healthy or unhealthy, according to the constitution of the person; water is a wholesome beverage for those who are not dropsi-

407

with design and order; thus we heap stones, or pHe wood: to heap may be to make into large or small heaps: to pile is always to make something considerable in height: children may heap sticks together; men pile loads of wood together. To pile is used always, to heap mostly, in tLc physical, accumulate and amass in the physical or moral acceptation. To accumulate is properly to bring or add heap to heap, which is a gradual and xmfinished act ; to amass is to form into

a mass, which is a single complete act; a man may accumulate guineas or anything else in small quantities, but he properly amasses wealth, and in a figurative sense he amasses knowledge. To accumulate and to am/iss are not always the acts of conscious agents: things may accumulate or amass; water

bread is a wholesome diet for man; the air and climate of southern France have been long famed for their salubrity, and have induced many invalids to repair thither for the benefit of their health; the effects have not been equally or snow accumulates hy the continual saluiary in all cases accession of fresh quantities; ice amasses Wholesome and salutary have like- in rivers until they are frozen over: so wise an extended and moral appUca- in the moral acceptation, evils, abuses, tion; healthy and salubrious are em- and the like, a4xumulate: corruption ployed only in the proper sense: amasses. HEAR, Hearken, Overhear. To wholesome in this case seems to convey the idea of making whole again hear is properly the act of the ear; what has been unsound; but saluiary it is sometimes totally abstracted from retains the idea of improving the con- the mind, when we hear and do not dition of those who stand in need of understand: to hearken is an act of unprovement: correction is wholesome the ear and the mind in conjunction; which serves the purpose of amend- it impUes an effort to hear, a tendency ment without doing any injury to the of the ear: to overhear is to hear clanbody; instruction or admonition is sal- destinely, or unknown to the person utary when it serves the purpose of who is heard, whether designedly or strengthening good principles and not. We hear sounds: we hearken for awakening a sense of guilt or im- the sense; we overhear the words: a propriety: laws and punishments are quick ear hears the smallest sound; a wholesome to the body pohtic, as diet wiUing mind hearkens to what is said; is to the physical body; restrictions a prying curiosity leads to overhearing. HEARSAY. See Fame. are salutary in checking uregularities. HEARTEN, Animate, Cheer, See also Sound. HEAP, PiL?j, Accumulate, Amass. Comfort, Encourage. Hearten is a To heap signifies to form into a heap, compound of the En^ish heart and Anglo-Saxon from Anglo-Saxon heap, a crowd, a the suffix en. Heart, pile. To pile is to form into a pile, heorte, aUied to Latin a/r, implies the from Latin pHa, originally a pillar, a vital, inner, or chief part of anything, £ier of stone. To accumulate, from the in persons the seat of the faculties. latin cumulus, a, heap, signifies to put To hearten another is to bestow upon heap upon heap. Amass comes from him an influence directly from the French d masse, Latin ad massa, hter- heart; figuratively a spoken word or ally in a mass, meaning to gather to a voluntary act, when the person is disheartened, that is, timely, sincere, one's self in a mass. To heap is an indefinite action; it and thoroughly meant. To animate either a person, animal, may be performed with or without order: to pile is a definite action done or drooping plant is to impart new cal;

m

408

HEARTINESS

A

further discussion of the general conditions which the above terms imply will be found in the article on

to the subject by an infusion that goes directly to the heart; to inspire a person with energy, courage, ardor, to stimulate: to cheer, to comfort, console, invigorate, brace up, produce a joyous, hopeful state of mind: to comfort, to give consolation in time of affliction, sickness, or trouble, support, life

Cruel.

HEARTY, Warm,

Sincere, Cor-

Hearty, i. e., having the heart dial. in a thing, and warm (see Fire) express a stronger feehng than sincere (see assistance, relief in time of misfort- Candid); cordial, from cor, the heart, vme or danger: and to encourage, to i. e., according to the heart, is a mixtThere incite to renewed effort, to lu-ge for- ure of the warm and sincere. ward, to give confidence to another, are cases in which it may be pecuharly also to promote, help forward, ad- proper to be hearty, as when we are supporting the cause of rehgion and vance. While there is an apparent similarity virtue; there are other cases in which in the import of all these terms, there it is peculiarly proper to be warm, as are variant shades of meaning con- when our affections ought to be roused nected with each, which are critically in favor of our friends; in all cases considered in the articles on Animate, we ought to be sincere when we express either a sentiment or a feeling; Cheer, and Encourage. it is pecuharly happy to be on terms HEARTINESS. See Zeal. ILESS, Unfeeling. Heartless (for deri- of cordial regard with those who stand vation see Hearten) means Uterally in any close relation to us. The man without heart, and is appMed to a vari- himself should be hearty; his heart ety of conditions that exhibit the worst should be warm; professions should be features of human life, with nothing in sincere; a reception cordial. HEAT. See Fire. extenuation. Of the terms here mentioned brutal and pitiless are the severSee Gentile. HEAVE, Swell. Heave is used Brutal is associated with the acest. tions of a savage, an irresponsible, con- either transitively or intransitively, as scienceless creature, scarcely a whit a reflective or a neuter verb; swell is better than a wild animal, whose at- used only as a neuter verb. Heave imtacks are liable to occur at any moment plies raising, and swell imphes distenand to be repeated indefinitely, if death sion: they differ, therefore, very widely in sense, but they sometimes agree in does not ensue from the first. person who is naturally brutal or apphcation. The bosom is said both who becomes so by evil influences is to heave and to swell, because it hapcapable of deeds of violence and in- pens that the bosom swells by heaving; humanity with and without provoca- the waves are likewise said to heave tion. The cruel person may in his themselves or to swell, in which there conduct reach the state of brutality, is a similar correspondence between for he is disposed to injure or take the actions: otherwise most things pleasure in the injury of others, but which heave do not swell, and those his acts are generally studied ones, which swell do not heave. thought out in advance, showing a See Celestial; Goddisposition or a growing gratification like. to injure others, while the brvial one HEAVINESS. See Gloom; Weight. is more apt to act on a momentary HEAVY, Dull, Drowsy. Heavy is impulse. allied to both dull and drowsy, but the Pitiless, however, impUes a combi- latter have no close connection with nation of whatever is brutal and cruel, each other. for those whom these terms designate Heavy and dvU are employed as epiare destitute of compassion, are merci- thets both for persons and for things; less, insistent in inflicting injury upon heavy characterizes the corporeal state others, deaf to appeals for considera- of a person; dull qualifies the spirits or tion, pity, and even hf e itself, unmoved the understanding of the subject. by any sentiment or sympathy, and ab- person has a heavy look whose tempersolutely unfeeling toward their victims. ament seems composed of gross and

HEATHEN.

A

HEAVENLY.

A

I

HEED

409

weighty materials which weigh him from Greek "Ektw/o, tile celebrated hero down and impede his movements; he of Troy and a mighty warrior. To has a dull countenance in whom the hector was to treat others as Hector ordinary brightness and vivacity of the mind is wanting. Heavy and drowsy are both employed in the sense of sleepy; but the former is only a particular state, the latter articular or general; all persons may E e occasionally heavy or drowsy; some are habitually drowsy from disease: they hkewise differ in degree, the latter being much the greater of the two; and occasionally they are applied to such things as produce sleepiness. Heavy, Burdensome, Weighty, Ponderous. Heavy, from heave, signifies the causing to heave, or requiring to be hfted up with force; burdensome signifies having a burden; weighty, having a weight; and ponderotis, from the Latin pondus, a weight, has the same

—

original meaning.

Heavy is the natural property of some bodies; burdensome is incidental to some. In the vulgar sense things are termed heavy which are found difficult to lift, in distinction from those which are light or easy to be hfted; but those things are burdensome which are too troublesome to be carried or borne: many things, therefore, are actually heavy that are never burdensome; and others are occasionally burdensome that are never heavy: that

which is heavy is so whether hfted or not; but that which is burdensome must be burdensome to some one carrying it: hard substances are mostly heavy; but to a weak person the softest substance may sometimes be burdervsome if he is obhged to bear it; things are heavy according to the difficulty with which they are lifted; but they are weighty according as they weigh other things down. The hea^/y is therefore indefinite; but the weighty is definite and something positively great: what is heavy to one may be fight to another; but that which is weighty exceeds the ordinary weight of other things: ponderous expresses even more than weighty, for it includes also the idea of bulk; the ponderous, therefore, is that which is so weighty and large that it cannot easily be moved.

HECTOR, Bully. These words have a similar meaning. Hector comes

treated his foes in battle. Hector now from buUy in suggesting a repeated exercise of argvunent and force something irritating and harassing, and less definitely indicating the display of superior brute force. BuJly differs

—

comes from Old Low German. The is "dear one," a lover. It now signifies a person who gets his own will by a display of force, especially against those whom he knows to be much weaker than himself; it carries the suggestion of a perfectly oldest sense in English

safe threat of force. The bully generally knows that he will not be called upon to five up to his fierce protestations; that the mere display will make his victim yield. Hector does not suggest this element in the verb to bully. One may hector one's equal or superior; one bullies one's inferiors.

HEED,

Care, Attention. Attend) apphes to matters

Heed

of importance to one s moral conduct; care (see Care) to matters of minor import: a man is required to take heed; a child is required to take care: the former exercises his imderstanding in taking heed; the latter exercises his thoughts and his senses in taking care: (see

the former looks to the remote and probable consequences of his actions, and endeavors to prevent the evil that may happen; the latter sees princiEally to the thing that is immeaiately efore him. When a young man enters the world he must take heed lest he be not ensnared by his companions into vicious practices; in a slipperj' path we must take care that we do not fall. Heed has, moreover, the sense of thinking on what is proposed to our notice, in which it agrees with attention (see Attend); hence we speak of giving fieed and paying attention: but the former is apphed only to that which is conveyed to us by another, in the shape of a direction, a caution, or an instruction; but the latter is said of everything which we are said to perform. A good child gives heed to his parents when they caution him against any dangerous or false step; he pays attention to the lesson which is set

410

HEEDLESS

He who gives no heed learn. to the counsels of others is made to repent his folly by bitter experience; he who faUs in paying attention cannot him to

learn.

flagrant which is in direct defiance of established opinions and practice: it is flagitious if a gross violation of the moral law or coupled with any grossa crime is atrocious which is ness; is

attended with any aggravating circumSee Negligent. Raise, Aggravate. stances. Lying is a heinous sin; gamTo heighten is to make higher (see ing and drunkenness are flagrant Haughty). To raise is to cause to breaches of the Divine law; the mm-To aggravate (see der of a whole family is in the fullest rise (see Akise). that word) is to make heai}y. Heighten sense atrocious. HELICOPTER. See Aircraft. refers more to the result of the action HELP, Assist, Aid, Succor, Reof making higher; raise to the mode; we heighten a house by raising the roof, lieve. Hel-p is in Anglo-Saxon helwhere raising conveys the idea of set- pan, German helfen. Assist, in Latin or ad and sisto, signifies ting up aloft, which is not included in assisto, the word heighten. On the same ground to place one's self by another so a head-dress may be said to be height- as to give him our strength. Aid, ened which is made higher than it was in Latin adjuiare, a frequentative of before; and a chair or a table is raised ad and juvare, to help, signifies to that is set upon something else: but profit toward a specific end. (Sucin speaking of a wall we may say that cor, in Latin succurrere, to run to help of any one. Relieve (see it is either heightened or raised, because the the operation and result must in both Alleviate). The idea of communicating to the In the improper cases be the same. sense of these terms they preserve a advantage of another in case of need Help similar distinction: we heighten the is common to all these terms. value of a thing; we raise its price: is the generic term; the rest specific: we heighten the grandeur of an object; help may be substituted for the others, and in many cases where they would we raise a family. Heighten and aggravate have connec- not be applicable. The first three are tion with each other only in appUca- employed either to produce a positive tion to offences: the enormity of an good or to remove an evil; the latter offence is heightened, the guilt of the two only remove an evil. We help a offender is aggravated, by particular person to prosecute his work, or help circumstances. The horrors of a mur- him out of a difficulty; we assist in der are heightened by being committed order to forward a scheme, or we assist in the dead of the night: the guilt of a person in the time of his embarrassthe perpetrator is aggravated by the ment; we aid a good cause, or we aid addition of ingratitude to mxirder. a person to make his escape; we succor HEINOUS, Flagrant, Flagitious, a person who is in danger; we relieve Atrocious. Heinous comes from Old him in time of distress. To help and French ha'inos, from hair, to hate, from assist respect personal service, the the Teutonic root also found in Eng- former by corporeal, the latter by corFlagrant, in Latin flagrans, poreal or mental labor: one servant lish hale. burning, is a figurative expression de- helps another by taking a part in his noting excessive and violent in its nat- employment; one author assists another ure. Flagitious, in Latin jlagiiiosus, in the composition of his work. We from flagitium, signifies pecuharly in- help up a person's load; we assist him famous. Atrocious, in Latin airox, to rise when he has fallen; we speak cruel, signifies exceedingly black in of a helper or a helpmate in mechanical guilt. employments, of an assistant to a pro-

HEEDLESS. HEIGHTEN,

These epithets, which are appUed to crimes, seem to rise in degree. crime is heinous which seriously offends against the laws of men; a sin is heinous which seriously offends against the will of God; an offence

A

fessional

man.

To assist and aid are used for services directly or indirectly performed: but the former is said only of individuals; the latter may be said of bodies as well as individuals. One friend assists

HERETIC another with his purse, with his counand the Hke: one person aids another in carrying on a scheme; or one king, or nation, aids another with armies and subsidies. We come to the assistance of a person when he has met with an accident; we come to his aid when contending sel, his interest,

against nimibers. Assistance is given, aid is sent. To siuxor is a species of immediate assistance, which is given on the spur of the occasion; the Good Samaritan went to the succor of the man who had fallen among thieves; so in hke manner we may succor one who calls us by his cries; or we may succor the poor

whom we tress.

find in circumstances of dis-

So Ukewise one may succor a

nation.

The word

relieve has nothing in comwith succor, except that they both express the removal of pain; but the latter does not necessarily imply any mode by which this is done, and there-

mon

fore excludes the idea of p>ersonal interference. To help is commonly an act of good-nature or discretion; to relieve, an act of humanity or generosity. All these terms, except succor, may be appUed to things as well as persons; we may walk by the help of a stick, read with the assistance of glasses, learn a task quickly by the aid of a

good memory, and obtain

relief

from

medicine.

HELPER. HELPING.

See Accommodatoe. See Auxiliary,

HERCULEAN, Brawny, Powerful, Strong, Vigorous. Herculean, an adjective derived from Hercules (in Greek 'HpaicX^e, the hero of Grecian mythology who was said to be possessed of superhuman strength, implies, both as to persons and objects, the quaJity of extraordinary strength. Applied to persons, brawny designates a tough, muscular condition, and relates particularly to the arms, calves of the legs, the breast, back, and such other parts as are employed in strenuous actions. Powerful, in this sense means might, force, both in an unusually high development; strong, having the power or abiUty to exert great bodily force, the mental or physical capability to bear or endure great burdens, sorrow, sufferiog; and vigorous.

411

condition resulting from sound the possession of mental or physical energy, derived from the Latin vigere, to be Uvely. Herculean, Difficult, Hard, Perilous, Toilsome. This apphcation of the term impUes actions that require the power, strength, or courage of Hercules to perform or encounter that which is exceedingly great in magnitude and diflficult or dangerous in the performance. Difficult implies that which is arduous, not easily managed or comprehended, more or less perplexing, that which requires much labor and skill to overcome or accomplish; hard, that ^hich is compact and solid, not easily pierced or broken, unyielding, and, hence, necessitating continuous application and labor and involving mental or physical fatigue; perilous, that which is beset with danger to the performer, which exposes him to injury or hazard, to the extent of his life; and toilsome, that which requires much time, labor, and ingenuity, the exertion of bodily strength, with efforts of some continuance or duration, producing weariness, exhaustion, fatigue, and other results of

the

health,

—

over-labor.

HERESY. HERETIC,

See Heterodoxy. Schismatic, Sectarian

Dissenter, Non-conor Sectary, FORMisT. A heretic is the maintainer of heresy (see Heterodoxy) the schismatic is the author or promoter of schism; the sectarian or sectary is the member of a sect; the dissenter is one who dissents from an established religion; and the non-conformist one who does not conform to an establishment. A man is a heretic only for matters of faith and doctrine, but he is a schismatic in matters of discipUne and practice. The heretic, therefore, is not always a schismatic, nor the schismatic a heretic. Whoever holds the doctrines that are common to the Roman Catholic and reformed churches is not a heretic in the Protestant sense of the word, although he may in many outward formaUties be a schismatic. Calvinists are not heretics, but many among them are schismatics; on the other hand, there are many members of the establishment who hold, though they do not ;

avow,

The

hrretical notions. heretic is considered as

such with

412

HESITATE

regard to the Catholic Church or the matics and sectarians are not disseiiters, whole body of Christians, holding the because every established community same fundamental principles; but the of Christians, all over the world, have schismatic and sectarian are considered had individuals, or smaller bodies of setting themselves up as such with regard to particular bodies individuals, Schism, from the Greek against them: the term dissenter beof Christians. ayi^Hv, to split, denotes an action, and ing in a great measure technical, it the schismatic is an agent who sphts may be apphed individually or generfor himself in his own individual ca- ally without conveying any idea of repacity: the sectarian does not express- proach; the same may be said of nonly perform a part, he merely holds a conformist, which is a more special relation; he does not divide anything term, including only such as do not himself, but belongs to that which is conform to some established or naalready cut or divided. The schis- tional religion: consequently, all memmatic, therefore, takes upon himself bers of the Romish Church, or of the the whole moral responsibihty of the Kirk of Scotland, are excluded from schism.; but the sectarian does not nec- the number of non-conformists; while essarily take an active part in the on the other hand, all British-born measures of his sect; whatever guilt subjects not adhering to these two attaches to schism attaches to the forms, and at the same time renouncschismatic; he is a voluntary agent, ing the established form of their counacting from an erroneous principle, if try, are of this number, among whom not an unchristian temper: the sec- may be reckoned Independents, Prestarian is often an involuntary agent; byterians, Baptists, Quakers, Methohe follows that to which he has been dists, and all other such sects as have incidentally attached. It is possible, been formed since the Reformation. HESITATE, Falter, Stammer, therefore, to be a schismatic and not a sectarian; as also to be a sectarian and Stutter. Hesitate (see Demur). Falnot a schismatic. Those professed mem- ter or faulter seems to signify to combers of the estabUshment who affect the mit a fault or blunder. Stammer comes title of evangeUcal and wish to palm from a root found in stand; it meant to upon the Church the peculiarities of stand fixed, amazed, and is related to the Calvinistic doctrine, and to ingraft German stumm, dumb. It now signitheir own modes and forms into its fies the confusion and hesitation of discipline, are schismatics, but not sec- speech incident to extreme amazement. tarians; on the other hand, those who Stutter is a frequentative of stut, once by birth and education are attached to common in the sense of stutter. "I a sect are sectarians, but not always stutte; I can not speake my wordes schismatics. Consequently, schismatic redyly," writes Palgrave. The origiis a term of much greater reproach than nal root of stutter meant to strike sectarian. against, hence to trip in the speech. The schismatic and sectarian have a A defect in utterance is the idea reference to any established body of which is common in the signification of Christians of any country; but dis- all these terms: they differ either as to senter is a term applicable only to the the cause or the mode of the action. inhabitants of Great Britain, and bear- With regard to the cause, a hesitation ing relation only to the established results from the state of the mind and Church of England: it includes not an interruption in the train of thoughts only those who have individually and falter arises from a perturbed state of personally renounced the doctrines of feeling; stammer and stutter arise either the Church, but those who are in a from an incidental circumstance or state of dissent or difference from it. more commonly from a physical defect Dissenters are not necessarily either in the organs of utterance. A person schismatics or sectarians, for British who is not in the habit of public speakRoman Catholics are all dissenters, al- ing, or of collecting his thoughts into though they are the reverse of what a set form, will be apt to hesitate even is understood by schismatic and sec- in familiar conversation; he who first tarian: it is equally clear that all schis- addresses a public assembly will be apt

HIGH

413

to faltefr. Children who first begin to elements, and is opposed to homoread will stammer at hard words: and geneous. It has no real synonymes one who has an impediment in his except the more general words hste^d speech will stutter when he attempts to under different, which see. speak in a hurry. HIDDEN. See Secret. With regard to the mode or degree HIDE. See Conceal; Cover; of the action, hesitate expresses less Skin.

than

The

falter;

stammer

less

than

stutter.

difficulty in uttering words constitutes a hesitation; a pause or the rep)etition of a word be

slightest

may

HIDEOUS, Ghastly, Grim, Grisly. Hideous comes from Old French hidos, which is probably derived from Latin hispidosus,

rough,

shaggy.

Ghastly to failure in the voice as well as terrify, allied to aghast. Grim is dethe lips when they refuse to do their rived from Anglo-Saxon grim, fierce. office. Stammering and stuttering are Grisly, Anglo-Saxon grislic, is formed confined principally to the useless mov- with the suflSx lie from grisan, to ing of the mouth; he who stammers shudder. brings forth sounds, but not the right An unseemly exterior is charactersounds, without trials and efforts; he ized by these terms; but the hideous who stviters remains for some time in refers to natural objects, and the ghastly a state of agitation without uttering more properly that which is supernata soimd. ural, or what resembles it. mask with monstrous grinning features looks See also Scrtiple. Heresy. Hetero- hideous; a human form with a visage doxy, from the Greek 'irepog and So^a, of death-like paleness is ghastly. The signifies another or a different doctrine. grim is applicable onlv to the coimteHeresy, through French and Latin from nance; dogs or wild beasts may look the Greek a'ipimc, a choice, signifies an very grim: grisly refers to the whole opinion adopted by individual choice. form, but particularly to the color; as To be of a different persuasion is blackness or darkness has always someheterodoxy; to have a faith of one's thing terrifying in it, a grisly figure own is heresy, the heterodoxy charac- having a monstrous assemblage of dark terizes the opinions formed; the heresy color is particularly calculated to strike characterizes the individual forming terror. Hideous is applicable to obthe opinion: the heterodoxy exists in- jects of hearing also, as a hideous dependently and for itself; the heresy roar; but the rest to objects of sight As all only. sets itself up against others. HIGH, Tall, Lofty. High is allied division supposes error either on one side or on Doth, the words heterodoxy to German hoch. Tall comes from Midand heresy are appUed only to human dle English tal, seemly, obedient, vahopinions, and strictly in the sense of ant, which was a general word of apa false opinion, formed in distinction proval. Lofty comes from Scandinavian from that which is better founded; but loft, an upper room, aUied to Anglothe former implies any opinions, im- Saxon lyft, air, sky, meaning high in portant or otherwise; the latter refers the air. High is the term in most general only to matters of importance: the heresy is therefore a fundamental use, which seems likewise in the most schism. There has been much hetero- unqualified maimer to ejcpress the idea doxy in the Christian world at all of extension upward, which is common Whatever is tall and lofty times, and among these have been to them all. heresies denying the most serious doc- is high, but everything is not tall or trines which have been acknowledged lofty which is high. Tall and lofty both by the great body of Christians since designate a more than ordinary degree of fmght; but tall is peculiarly applithe Apostles. HETEROGENEOUS, from Greek cable to what shoots up or stands up trepoct other, and yiyog, kind, meant Uter- in a perpendicular direction, while lofty ally of a different kind. It signifies that is said of that which is extended in which is made up of different kinds of breadth as well as in height, that which

termed poses a

hesitatirig:

but to

falter sup-

comes from Anglo-Saxon

gcestan,

A

HETERODOXY,

414

HIGHEST

HIGH-MINDED. See Haughty. up or raised by an accretion HIGH-SOUNDING. See Loud. an expansion in the air. HILARITY. See Mirth. we say that a house is HIND. See Countryman. high, a chimney tail, a room lofty. HINDER, Prevent, Impede, ObWith the high is associated no idea Hinder comes from Angloof what is striking; but the tall is struct. coupled with the aspiring, or that Saxon hindrian, to keep back or bewhich strives to outtop: the lofty is hind. Prevent, from -prce and venire, always coupled with the grand and to come before, signifies to hinder by coming before, or to cross another by that which commands admiration. High and lofty have a moral accepta- the anticipation of his purpose. Imsignifies to tion, but tall is taken in the natural pede, from in and pedes, sense only: high and lofty are applied come between a person's feet and ento persons or what is personal, with tangle him in his progress. Obstruct, the same difference in degree as be- from ob, in the way of, and stritere, signifies to set up fore: a lofty title or lofty pretension to heap together, conveys more than a high title or a something in his way, to block the is lifted

of matter or By this rule

high pretension. Men of high rank passage. Hinder is the most general of these should have high ideas of virtue and personal dignity, and keep themselves terms, as it conveys little more than clear from everything low and mean: the idea which is common to them all, a lofty ambition often soars too high namely, that of keeping one from his to serve the purpose of its possessor, purpose. To hinder is commonly said whose fall is the greater when he finds of that which is rendered impracticable only for the time being, or merely dehimself compelled to descend. layed; prevent is said of that which is See also Haughty. rendered altogether impracticable. A HIGHEST. See Supreme. person is hindered by the weather and HIGH-FLOWN, Bombastic, Swol- his various engagements from reaching liEN. High-flown is a compound of a place at the time he intended; he is the English high and floum; high, in prevented but not hindered by ill health Anglo-Saxon heah, implies that which from going there at all. If a friend is elevated; flown, from fly, in Anglocalls, he hinders me from finishing the Saxon fledgan, implies to move or pass letter which I was writing; if I wish through the air. High-flovm, in most to prevent my son from reading any common usage, is apphed to the vari- book I keep it out of his way. To ous terms of language as employed in hinder is an act of the moment, it supspeech and writing that are extrava- poses no design; prevent is a pregant, inflated, above the customary meditated act, deliberated upon, and quality, in a pretentious flowery or adopted for general purposes: the affected style. is from bombast, originally loose stuff used to swell out garments, and is applied to high-soimd-

Bombastic

a

soft,

ing words, big and puffing, without much meaning or relation to a subject

under discussion. Swollen and bombastic are terms more closely allied, each implying language that is puffed up; hence used to make one appear consequential, as possessing greater inteUigence than others. Swollen is a general word which may under certain conditions have the meaning of bombastic or high-flown. Bombastic and high-flown, on the other hand, are specific words applied to language and manner.

is applied only to the movements of any particular individual, the I latter to events and circumstances. hinder a person who is rimning, if I lay hold of his arm and make him walk: it is the object of every good government to prevent offences rather than to punish offenders. In ordinary discourse these words come very close

former

in sense

case

when the circumstances

do not

sufficiently define

of the

whether

action in hand be altogether suspended or suspended only for a time; but the above explanation must make it very clear that to hinder, in its proper sense and appKcation, is but to

the

stop in the progress, and prevent to stop at the outset.

HINT To impede and

a species said rather of things than of persons: hinder is said of both; but hinder is commonly employed in regard to trifling matters, or such as retard a person's proceedings in the smallest degree; impede and obstruct are acts of greater importance, or produce a still greater degree of delay. person is hindered in his work, although neither impeded nor obstructed; but the quantity of artillery and baggage which is attached to an army will greatly impede it in its march; and the trees which are thrown across the roads of hindering

obstruct are

which

is

A

will obstruct its march. Hindrances always suppose the agency of a person, either of the one who hinders or the one who is hindered: but impediments and obstructions may be employed with regard to the operations of nature on inanimate objects. Cold impedes the growth of plants; a dam obstructs the

course of water.

See also Retard. Hinder, Stop. Hinder refers solely to the prosecution of an object: stop,

—

signifying to make to stand, refers simply to the cessation of motion; we may be hindered, therefore, by being stopped; but we may also be hindered without being expressly stopped, and we may be stopped without being hiridered. If the stoppage does not interfere with any other object in view, it is a stoppage, but not a hindrance; as when we are stopped by a friend while walking for pleasure: but if stopped the midst of urgent by an idler business, so as not to be able to proceed according to our business, this is both a stoppage and a hindrance: on

m

the other hand, if we are interrupted in the regular course of our proceeding, but not compelled to stand still or give up our business for any time, this may be a hindrance, but not a stoppage: in this manner, the conversation of others in the midst of our business may considerably retard its progress, and so far hinderf but not expressly put a stop to, the whole concern.

HINT, Suggest,

Intimate, InsinHint and suggest (see Allude). To intimate is to make one intimate, or specially acquainted with, to communicate one's most inward thoughts.

uate.

415

Insinuate, from the Latin sinus, a bend, is to introduce by a winding course into the mind of another. AH these terms denote indirect expressions of what passes in one's own mind. hint at a thing from fear and imcertainty; we suggest a ^ thing

We

from prudence and modesty; we intimate a thing from indecision; a thing is insinua,ted from artifice. A person who wants to get at the certain knowledge of any circumstance hints at it frequently in the presence of those who can give him the information; a man who will not offend others by an assumption of superior wisdom suggests his ideas on a subject, instead of setting them forth with confidence; when a person's mind is not made up on any future action, he only intimates what may be done; he who has anything offensive to communicate to another will choose to insinuate it rather than declare it in express terms. Hints are thrown out; they are frequently characterized as broken suggestions are offered; they are frequently termed idle or ill-grounded: intimations are given, and are either shght or broad: insinuations are thrown out, they are commonly designated as slanderous, malignant, and the like. To hint is taken either in a bad or an :

indifferent sense; it is commonly resorted to by tale-bearers, mischiefmakers, and all who want to talk of more than they know. To suggest is oftener used in the good than the bad sense: as to suggest doubts, queries, difficultieSj or improvements in matters of opinion is truly laudable, par' ticularly for young persons; but to suggest anything to the disadvantage of another is even worse than to speak ill of him openly, for it bespeaks cow->. ardice as well as ill-nature. To inti" mate is taken either in a good or an indifferent sense; it commonly passes between relatives or persons closely connected in the communication of their half-formed intentions or of doubtful intelligence; but to insinuate is always taken in a bad sense; it ia the resource of an artful and malig-

nant enemy to wound the reputation of another, whom he does not dare openly to accuse. A person is said to take a hint, to follow a suggestion, V

lypt-^V Ar^A4j;uAV HIKE

416

to receive an intimation, to disregard an insinuation. See also Key.

HIRE. See Aulowancb. HIRELING, Mercenary.

hireling may sometimes De taken in its proper and less reproachful sense, for one who is hired as a servant to perform an allotted work; but in general they are both reproacnful epithets, the former having particular reference to the meanness of the emplojrment, and the latter to the sordid character of the person. Hireling papers are those which are in the pay of a party; a mercenary principle will sometimes actuate men in the highest station. HIT. See Beat; Strike. HOARD. See Garner; Treasure. HODGE-PODGE. See Olio. HOIST. See Lift.

plnympu t: but

HOLD, Keep, Detain, Retain. Hold comes from Anglo-Saxon healdan, to hold; keep from Anglo-Saxon cepan, to observe, notice, attend to. Detain and retain both come from the Latin The first signifies, by tenere, to hold. virtue of the particle de, meaning from, to hold from another; the second, by virtue of the particle re, to hold back for one's self. To hold is a physical act; it requires a degree of bodily strength or at least the use of the limbs; to keep is simply to have by one at one's pleasure. The having in one's power so that it shall not go is the leading idea in the signification of hold; the durability of having is the leading idea in the word keep: we may hold a thing only for a moment; but what we keep we keep for a time. On the other hand, we may keep a thing by holding, although we may keep it by various other means we may, therefore, hold without keeping, and we may keep without holding. servant holds a thing in his hand for it to be seen, but he does not keep it; he gives it to his master, who puts it into his pocket, and consequently keeps, but does not hold it. thing may be held in the hand, or kept in the hand in the former case the pressure of the hand is an essential part of '

A

A

What

held is fixed in position, kept is left loose, or otherwise, at the win of the individual. Things are held by men in their hands, by beasts in their claws or mouths, by birds in their beaks; things are kept by people either about their persons or in their houses, according to convenience. Detain and retain are modes of keeping; the former signifies keeping back what belongs to another; the latter signifies keeping a long time for one's own jjerson may be either held, purpose. kept, detained, or retained: when he is held he is held contrary to his will by the hand of another; as suspected persons are held by the ofiicers of justice, that they may not make their escape: he is kept, if he stops in any place, by the desire of another; as a man is kept in prison until his innocence is proved, or a child is kept at school until he has finished his education: he is detained if he be kept away from any place to which he is going or from any person to whom he belongs; as the servant of another is detained to take back a letter, or one is detained by business, so as to be prevented from at^ tending to an appointment: a person is retained who is kept for a continuance in the service of another; as some servants are said to be retained, while others are dismissed. Things are held in the improper sense: they are kept, detained, and retained in money-lender the proper sense. holds the property of others in pledge; the idea of a temporary and partial action is here expressed by hold, in distinction from keep, which is used to express something definite and perit.

Hireling,

from hire, and mercenary, from mercenarius, based on jnerx, pay, are applied to any one who follows ^a-SQldii-fiffli.

;

the action, but in the latter case it is simply a contingent part of the action: the hand holds, but the p>erson keeps

but what

is

is

A

A

manent: the money-lender keeps the property as his own if the borrower

by breach of contract When a person purchases anything he is expected to keep it or pay the value of the thing ordered, if the tradesman fulfil his part of the engagement. What is detained is kept either contrary to the will, or without the consent, of

forfeits it

.

the possessor: when things are suspected to be stolen, the officers have the right of detaining them until inquiry be instituted. What is retained

HOLD is continuQd to be kept; it supposes, however, some alteration in the terms or circumstances under which it is kept: a person retains his seat in a train, notwithstanding that he finds it disagreeable or a lady retains some of the articles of millinery which are sent for her choice, but she returns the rest. All are used in a moral application except detain; in this case they are marked by a similar distinction. A person is said to hold an office, by which simple possession is implied: he may hold it for a long or a short time, at the will of others, or by his own will, which is not marked: he keeps a situation or he keeps his post, by which his continuance in the situation or at the post is denoted: but to say he retains his office signifies that he might have given it up, or lost it, had he not been led to continue in it. In like maimer, with regard to one's sentiments or feelings, a man is :

said to hold certain opinions, which are ascribed to him as a part of his creed; he keeps the opinions which no one can induce him to give up; he retains his old attachments, notwithstanding the lapse of years and change of cir-

cmnstances which have intervened and were naturally calculated to wean him from them. See also Contain. Hold, Occupy, Possess. Hold (see above). Occupy, in Latin occupo, or oh and capere, to hold or keep near, so that it cannot be held by others, or fill a space so that it cannot be filled by any other object. Possess, from Latin possesstis, pastj participle of pos-

—

sideo, sit

or potis and sedeo, signifies to

as master of. hold a thing for

We

a long or a

we occupy it for a permanence: we hold it for ourselves or others; we occupy it only for oiu*selves: we hold it for various purposes; we short time;

occupy only for the pin-pose of converting it to our private use. Thus a person may hold an estate, or, which is the same thing, the title-deeds to an estate, pro tempore, for another person's benefit; but he occupies an estate if he enjoys the fruit of it. On the other hand, to occupy is only to hold under a certain compact; but to The possess is to hold as one's own.

27

417

when he holds certain lease and cultivates it for his subsistence: but the landlord possesses the farm, possessing the right to let it and to receive the rent. may hold by force, or fraud, or right; we occupy either by force or right; we possess only by right. Hence we say, figm-atively, to hold a person in esteem or contempt, to occupy a person's attention or a place, or to possess one's affection. tenant occupies the farm

it

by a

We

Hold, Support, Maintain.

—Hold

is

here, as in the former article, a term of very general import. Support (see

Countenance) and maintain

(see

As-

sist) include the idea of holding with other cour.teraI ideas in their signification. Hold and support are employed in the proper sense, maintain in the improper sense. To hold is a term unqualified by any circumstance; we may hold a thing in any direction, hold it up or down, in a straight or oblique direction: support is a species of hold-

ing up; to hold up, however, is a personal act or a direct effort of the individual; to support may be an indirect and a passive act; he who holds anything up keeps it in an upright posture by the exertion of his strength he who supports a thing only bears its weight or suffers it to rest upon himself: persons or voluntary agents can hold up; inanimate objects may support: a servant holds up a child that it may see; a pillar supports a building. In the figurative application a person is said to hold power for himself, but to support the authority of another, or to have one's own mind supported by circumstances or reflections. To maintain is to hold firmly or with vigor. These terms are all appUed to the opinions with a similar distinction. Opinions are held and maintained as one's own; they are supported when they are another's. We hold and maintain whatever we believe. We support the behef or doctrine of another or what we ourselves have asserted and maintained at a former time. What is held is held by the act of the mind within itself and as regards itself, wthout ref-Tence to others; but what is maintained and supported is openly declared to be held; it is maintained with

HOLIDAY

418

others or against others; it is supported in an especial manner against others; it may be maintained by simple declaration or assertions; it is supported by

argument.

maintain and support are applied only to speculative matters with which the imderstanding is engaged, as to maintain or support truth or error, to maintain or support a cause.

HOLIDAY.

hollow whose goodness

lies

only at the

whose fair words are without meaning; a truce is hollow which is only an external cessation from hostilities: a person is empty who is void of understanding and knowledge; an excuse is empty which is unsupported by fact and reason; a pleasure is empty which cannot afford satisfaction. HOLY, Pious, Devout, Religious. Holy (see Holiness). Pious, in Latin piu^, signifies having a regard for the gods. Devout, in Latin devolve, from devovere, to engage by a vow, signifies surface,

What is held may be held by means of the afifections, as to hold a person dear, or hold a thing in esteem; to

HOLINESS,

hollow, in this case, is applied to what ought to be solid or sound, and empty to what ought to be filled; a person is

See Feast. Sanctity.

Holiness,

from Anglo-Saxon halig, allied to hal, whole, and health, has altogether ac-

quired a Christian signification; it re- devoted or consecrated. Religious, in spects the life and temper of a Christian. Latin religiosu^, comes from religio, Sanctity, based on the Latin sanctum, meaning attention to the worship of holy, has merely a moral signification, the gods. which it derives from the sanction of strong regard for the Supreme Behimaan authority. ing is' expressed by all these epithets; Holiness is to the mind of a man but holy conveys the most comprewhat sanctity is to his exterior, with hensive idea; piov^ and devout desigthis difference, that holiness to a cer- nate most fervor of mind; religious is tain degree ought to belong to every the most general and abstract in its man professing Christianity; but sanc- signification. holy man is in all tity, as it lies in the manners, the respects heavenly-minded; he is more outward garb, and deportment, is be- fit for heaven than earth: holiness, to coming only to certain persons and at whatever degree it is possessed, abcertain times. Holiness is a thing not stracts the thoughts from sublunary to be affected; but sanctity, consisting objects and fixes them on things that in externals, is from its very nature are above. Our Saviour was a perfect exposed to falsehood. It becomes those pattern of holiness; his apostles after who fill a sacred office, but no others. him, and innumerable saints and good HOLLOW, Empty. Hollow, from men, both in and out of the ministry, hole, signifying like a hole, concerns the have striven to imitate his example body itself; the absence of its own ma- by the holiness of their life and conterials produces hollowness. Empty versation. concerns foreign bodies; their absence Piou^ is a term more restricted in its in another body constitutes emptiness. signification, and consequently more Hollowness is therefore a preparative extended in application than holy: pito emptiness, and may exist indepen- ety is not a virtue peculiar to Chrisdently of it; but emptiness presupposes tians; it is common to all believers in the existence of hollowness: what is a Supreme Being; it is the homage of empty must be hollow; but what is hol- the heart and the affections to a sulow need not be empty. Hollowness perior Being: from a similarity in the is often the natural property of a body; relationship between a heavenly and emptiness is a contingent property: that an earthly parent, devotedness of the which is hollow is destined by nature mind has in both cases been denomito contain; but that which is empty nated piety. Piety toward God natuis deprived of its contents by a casu- rally produces piety toward parents; for alty: a nut is hollow for the purpose the obedience of the heart, which gives of receiving the fruit; it is empty if it rise to the virtue in the one case, seems contain no fruit. instantly to dictate the exercise of it They are both employed in a moral in the other. The difference between acceptation and in a bad sense; the holiness and piety is obvious from this.

A

A

HOMAGE that our Saviour and his apostleo are characterized as holy, but not jrioxis, because piety is swallowed up in holiness. On the other hand, Jew and Gentile, Christian and heathen, are alike termed -pious when they cannot be called holy, because piety is not only a more practicable virtue, but because it is more imiversally applicable to the dependent condition of man. Devotion is a species of piety pecuhar to the worshipper; it bespeaks that devotedness of mind which displays itself in the temple when the individual seems by his outward services solemnly to devote himself, soul and body, to the service of his Maker. Piety, therefore, lies in the heart and need not

appear externally; but devotion requires to be marked by some external observance: a vasia piously resigns himseK to the will of God in the midst of his afflictions; he prays devovily in the

bosom

of his family. Religious is a term of less import than either of the other terms; it denotes httle more than the simple existence of religion, or a sense of religion, in the mind: the religious man is so more in his principles than in his affections; he is religious in his sentiments, inasmuch as he directs all his views according to the will of his Maker; and he is religious in his conduct, inasmuch as he observes the outward formalities of homage that are due to his Maker. When applied to things, these terms preserve a similar distinction: we speak of the holy sacrament; of a pious discourse, a pious ejaculation; of a devoid exercise, a devoui slit; a religious senti-

ment, a religious tion,

and the

life,

like.

a religious educa-

—

4ia

served as much as possible from all contamination with that which is earthly: among the Christians, that religion or form of religion is termed holy which is esteemed purest in its doctrine, discipline, and ceremonies. Sacred is less than holy; the sacred derives its sanction from human institutions and is connected rather with

our moral than our religious duties;

what is holy is altogether spiritual, and abstracted from the earthly. The laws are sacred, but not holy; a man's word should be sacred, though not holy: for neither of these things is to be reverencedj but both are to be kept free from mjury or external violence. The holy is not so much opposed to, as it is set above, everything else; the sacred is opposed to the profane: the Scriptures are properly denominated holy, because they are the word of God, and the fruit of His Holy Spiritr but other writings may be termea sacred which appertain to religion, in distinction from the profane, which appertain only to worldly matters. Divine is a term of even less import than sacred; it signifies either belonging to a deity or being like a deity; but from the looseness of its application it has lost in some respects the dignity of its meaning. The divine is often contrasted with the human: but there are many human things which are denominated divine: Milton's poem is

entitled a divine poem, not merely on accoimt of the subject, but from the exalted manner in which the poet has treated his subject: what is divine, therefore, may be so superlatively excellent as to be conceived of as having the stamp of inspiration from the Deity, which, of course^ as it apphes to himian

Holy, Sacred, Divine. Holy is here, as in the former article, a term of performances, is but a hyperbohcal higher import than either sacred, which mode of speech. Fealty, Court. Homis in Latm sax:er, or divine (see Godlike). Whatever is most intimately age, in Old French homage, from Latin connected with religion and religious homo, a man, signifies a man's, that is worship, in its piu-est state, is holy, an inferior's, act of acknowledging suunhallowed by a mixture of inferior periority. Homage, in the technical objects, and elevated in the greatest sense, was an oath taken, or a service possible degree, so as to suit the nature performed, by the tenant to his lord, on of an infinitely perfect and exalted being admitted to his land; or by inBeing. Among the Jews, the holy of ferior princes to a sovereign, whereby holies was that place which was in- they acknowledged his sovereignty and tended to approach the nearest to the Eromised fidelity: in its extended and gurative sense it comprehends any heavenly abde, consequently was pre-

HOMAGE,

HOME

420

solemn mark of deference, by which the superiority of another is acknowledged. Fealty, through Old French/eoZ^e, from Latin fidelatem, based on jidelis, loyal, trusty, is a lower species of homage, consisting only of an oath; it was made formerly by tenants, who were bound thereby to personal service under the Court, which derives feudal system. its meaning from the verb to court, woo, and seek favor, is a species of homage, complaisance, or deference, which is assmned for a specific purpose; it is not

only voluntary, but depends upon the humor and convenience of the courtier. Homage is paid or done to superior endowments; court is paid to the contingent, not the real, superiority of the individual. Fealty is figuratively employed in the sense of fidelity to one's sovereign. Homage consists in any form of respect which is admitted in civil society; the Romans did hom^age to the talents of Virgil by always rising when he entered the theatre; men do homage to the wisdom of another when they do not venture to contradict his assertions or call in question his opinions. Court is everything or nothiiig, as circvunstances require; he who pays his court consults the will and humor of him to whom it is paid, while he is consulting his

own

interest.

HOME.

See Domicile.

HONEST. See Fair; Sincere. HONESTY, Probity, Uprightness, Integrity.

Honesty

is

the most fait is ap-

mihar and imiversal term;

plied alike to actions and principles, to a mode of conduct or a temper of mind: a person may be honest, a principle honest, or an action honest; the other terms are applied to the person, as a person of probity, uprightness, and integrity: a man is said to be honest who in his dealings with others does not violate the laws; a servant is honest who does not take any of the Eroperty of his master or suffer it to e taken; a tradesman is honest who

bad articles; and people denominated honest who pay what they owe and do not adopt any methods of defrauding others.

does not

sell

in general are

Honesty is a negative virtue all the other terms denote positive virtues and higher characteristics. Probity, from ;

probus, good, and probo, to prove, signifying tried virtue or solid goodness, applied not merely to the comis mercial dealings of men, but to all

the concerns of life where truth and goodness are called into exercise. Probity refers to the rights of men, giving to every one his due, whether as regards his property, reputation, honor, or any other thing on which a value is set. Honesty is opposed to direct fraud, probity to any species of insincerity.

from upright or up and bearing up in a straight and undeviating course in opposition to every temptation which may offer. Uprightness, therefore, supposes an inUprightness,

right, signifies

dependent and positive principle which forms the rule of life. Any person may be said to be upright in all situations where confidence and intelligence are required, but more particularly a judge who scrupulously adheres to the dictates of an unbiassed conscience. Integrity, from integer, whole or sound, "signifying soimdness of principle, (as in Horace, "integer vitoe, scelerisqu£ purus") is appUed, like uprightness, to cases where a particular trust is reposed but integrity is taken absolutely, that is, without any reference to the outward circumstances which might tend to produce the contrary charac;

teristic.

He who

his trust

and consults the

faithfully discharges interests of others rather than his own is justly styled a man of integrity. This virtue is to be looked for especially in those

who

fill

any

office.

—

Honesty, Honor. These terms both regard the principle which actuates men in the adjustment of their rights with one another. The words are both derived from the same source, namely, the Hebrew hon, substance or wealth, which, being the primitive source of esteem among men, became at length put for the measure or standard of esteem, namely, what is good. Hence honesty and honor are both founded upon what is estimable, with this difference, that honesty is confined to the first principles or laws upon which civil society is foimded, and honor is an independent principle that extends to everything which by usage has been admitted as estimable or entitled to

HOPE An

421 Dignity. — Honor

Honor, may be taken either for that which intrinsically belongs to a person or for that which is conferred on him. Dignity, based on the Latin dignus, worthy, signifying worthiness, may be equally appUed to what is extrinsic or intrinsic in a man. In the first case honor has a reference to what is esteemed by others; dignity to that which is esteemed by ourselves: a sense of honor impels a man to do that which is esteemed honorable among men; a sense of dignity to do that which is consistent with the worth and greatprinciples of human society, and fionor ness of his nature: the former impels on the incidental principles which have a man to elevate himself as an indibeen attached to them in the progress vidual; the latter to raise himself to of time and culture; the former is the standard of his species: the former positive and definite, and he who is may lead a person astray, but the latactuated by this principle can never ter is an unerring guide. It is honor err; but the latter is mdefinite and which makes a man draw his sword variable, and, as it depends upon opin- upon his friend: it is dignity which ion, it will easily mislead. We cannot makes him despise every paltry affront have a false honesty, but we may have from others, and apologize for every Honesty always keeps a apparent affront on his own part. false honor. man within the hne of his duty; but This distinction between the terms is a mistaken notion of what is honor- kept up in their appUcation to what is able may carry a man very far from extraneous of a man: honor is that what is right, and may even lead him which is conferred on him by others; but dignity is the worth or value which to run counter to common honesty. is added to his condition: hence we See also Glory. HONOR, Reverence, Respect. always speak of honors as conferred or These terms agree in expressing the received; but dignities as possessed or act of an inferior toward his superior; maintained. Honors may sometimes but honor (see Glort) expresses less be casual; but dignities are always than reverence (see Adore), and more permanent: an act of condescension from the sovereign is an honor; but than respect (see Esteem). To honor is only an outward act; to the 4ignily is that which exalts the esteem.

honest action, therefore,

can never reflect so much credit on the agent as an honorable action, since in the performance of the one he may be guided by motives comparatively low, whereas in the other case he is actuated solely by a fair regard for the honor or the esteem of others. To a breach of honesty is attached punishment and personal inconvenience in various forms; but a breach of honor is only followed ^^^ disgrace or the ill opinion of others. On the other hand, honesty is founded on the very first

an act of the mind or the outward expression of a sentiment; to respect is mostly an act of the mind, though it may admit of being expressed by some outward act. We hcmor God by adoration and worship, as well as by the performance of His will; we honor our parents by obeying them and giving them our personal reverence is either

service:

reverence our Maker by in our minds a dread of

we

cherishing offending Him and making a profane use of His holy name and word: we

reverence our parents by holding a similar sentiment in a less degree.

To

honor,

when apphed

to things,

is

taken in the sense of holding in honor;

and

respect,

with

the

them.

to

same

have

respect

distinction

for,

between

man.

Hence

mostly also be

civil

that horurrs it is or political; dignities

are

may

ecclesiastical.

HOPE,

Expectation, Trust, Con-

fidence.

Anticipation of futurity is the common idea expressed by all these words. Hope is in Anglo-Saxon hopa. Hope is that which is welcome; expectation

(see

Await)

is

either

welcome

or unwelcome: we hope only for that which is good; we exvecl the bad as In Dad weather we well as the good. hope it will soon be better; but in a bad season we expect a bad harvest, and in a good season a good harvest. Hope is simply a presentiment; it may vary in degree, more according to the temper of the mind than the nature of the circumstances; some hope where there is no ground for hope.

HOPEFUL

422

others despair where they might a conviction that excludes doubt; we expect in proportion as that conviction is positive: we hope that which may be or can possibly be; we expect that which must be or which ought to be. The young man hopes to hve many years; the old man expects to die in a few years. Hope and expectation consist in looking for some good, trust (see Belief) and confidence (see Confide) in a dependence on a person or thing to bring may, therefore, about the good. have either hope or expectation grounded on trust or confidence, or we may have them where there is no room for either trust or confidence; a person may hope that something good may turn up because the future is imcertain; we may expect that it will rain to-day; a person may trust to the skill of another, or confide in his promises. Trust and confidence denote the same sentiment, but trust is applied to objects generally, confidence to particular objects; we may

and

fiope: expectation is

We

tmst partially, but

we

confide entirely; we confide in friends or those we are partial to. Trust and confidence may both be

we may

trust strangers,

appUed to a man's

self,

or that which

belongs to him, with a similar distinction.

HOPEFUL. See Sangihnb. HOPELESS. See Desperate. HORRIBLE. See Fearful. HORRID. See Fearful. HOST. See Army. HOSTILE. See Adverse. HOSTILITY. See Enmity. HOT, Fiery, Burning, Ardent.

In the figm-ative appUcaticn, a temper is said to be hot or fiery; rage is burning; the mind is ardent pursuit of an object. Zeal may be h^t, fiery, burning, and ardent, but in the first three cases it denotes the intemperance of the mind when heated by reUgion or poUtics; the last is admissible so long as it is confined to a good object. See also Fire. HOUSE. See Family.

m

HOWEVER, Yet, Nevertheless, Notwithstanding. These conjunctions are in grammar termed adversbecause they join sentences together that stand more or less in opposition to each other. However is the most general and indefinite; it serves as a conclusive deduction drawn from the whole. "The truth is, however, not yet all come out"; by this is understood that much of the truth has been ative,

and much yet remains to be told: so likewise in similar sentences, "I am not, however, of that opinion"; where it is implied either that many hold the opinion or much may be said of it, but, be that as it may, I am not of that opinion: "however, you may rely on assistance to that amount"; that is, at all events, let whatever happen, you may rely on so much of my assistance: however, as is obvious from the told,

my

above examples, connects not only one single proposition, but many propositions either expressed or understood. Yet, nevertheless, and notwithstanding are mostly employed to set two specific propositions either in contrast or direct opposition to each other; the latter two are but speciss of the former, pointing out the opposition in a more

These terms characterize either the

specific

presence of heat or the cause of heat. Hot, Anglo-Saxon hat, is the general term which marks simply the presence of heai; fiery, i. e., having fire, goes further, it denotes the presence of fire, which is the cause of heat; burning, i. e., in a state of burning, denotes the action of fire, and consequently is more expressive than the two; ardent (see Fervor), which is literally the same in

withstanding could not in these cases

manner. There are cases in which yet is pecuharly proper, others in which nevertheless, and others in which notwithstanding are preferable. Yet bespeaks a simple contrast; "Addison was not a good speaker, yet he was an admirable writer; Johnson was a man of uncouth manners, yet he had a good heart and a sound head"; nevertheless and not-

employed either in have been substituted. Nevertheless poetry or in apphcation to moral ob- and notwithstanding are mostly used to jects: a room is hot; a furnace or the imply efifectis or consequences opposite tail of a comet fi^ry; a coal burning; to what might naturally be expected the sun ardent. to result. " He has acted an unworthy

signification,

is

HUMBLE part, nevertheless I will be a friend to him as far as I can"; that is, although he has acted an unworthy part, I will be no less his friend as far as lies in p>ower. " Notwithstanding all I have said, he still persists in his own imprudent conduct ; that is, all I have said notwithstanding or not restraining him

my

"He

from

it, he still persists. is still rich, notwithstanding his loss"; that is, his loss notwithstanding, or not standing

in the way of it, he is still rich. From this resolution of the terms, more than from any specific rule, we judge of their distinct applications, and clearly

may

perceive that in such cases as those above cited the conjunctions nevertheless and notwithstanding could not be substituted for each other, nor yet for either: in other cases, however, where the objects are less definitely pointed out,

they may be used indifferently. "The Jesuits piqued themselves always upon their strict morality, and yet [nottvith-

423

and walk of so either in his sentiments, in his actions, or in his rank and condition; but persons may sometimes be law from particular circumstances who are not low in condition. Humility should form a part of the character, as it is opposed to arrofeelings, or in his station life;

a low person

is

gance and assumption; it is most consistent with the fallibility of our nature. Lowliness, in the Christian belief, should form a part of our temper, as it is opposed to an aspiring and lofty mind; it is most consistent with the temper of our Saviour, who was meek and lowly of mind. The humble and lowly are alwaj^ taken in a good sense; but the low either in a bad or an indifferent sense. A lowly man, whether as it regards his mind or his condition, is so without any moral debasement; but a man who is low in his condition is likewise conceived to be low in his habits and his sentiments, which is being nearly akin

standing or nevertheless] they admitted of many things not altogether conso- to the vicious. The same distinction nant with moral principle. You know is preserved in applying these terms that these are but tales, yet [notwith- to inanimate or spiritual objects.

A

beUevethem." humble roof, a hurnble office, a humble station are associated with the highHtTDDLE. See Jumble. HUE. See Color. est moral worth; while a low office, a low situation, a low birth, seem ta HUG. See Clasp.

standing, nevertheless]you

HUGE.

HUMAN,

See Enormous.

Humane.

Though both

derived from hoTtw, a man, they are thus far distinguished that human is said of the genus and humane of the species. The human race or human beings are opposed to the irrational part of the creation; a humane race or a humane individual is opposed to one that is cruel and fond of inflicting pain. He who is not human is divested of the first

and distinguishing

characteristics

he who is not humane, of the most important and elevated charof his kind;

acteristic that belongs to his nature.

HUMANITY. See HUMBLE, Lowly,

Benevolence. Low. Humble

here compared with the other terms it respects both persons and things. A person is said to be humble on accoimt of the state of his mind: he is said to be lowly and low either on account of his mind or his outward circumstances. A humble person is so in his principles and in his conduct; a lowly person is so in the tone of his is

as

exclude the idea of worth. See also Abase. Humble^ Modest, Submissive. These terms designate a temper of mind the reverse of self-conceit or pride. The humble, in Latin humilis, low, from humus, the ground, signifying the lowest position, is so with regard to ourselves or others. Modesty (see Modest) is that which regards ourselves only: submissiveness, from submissus, signifying putting under, is that which regards others. A man is humble from a sense of his comparative inferiority to others in point of station and outward circumstances or he is humble from a serfse of his imperfections and a consciousness of not being what he

—

;

ought to be: he is modest, inasmuch as he sets but httle value on his qualifications, acquirements, and endowments. Humility is a painful sentiment; for when it concerns others it is coupled with fear; when it concerns our own un worthiness it is coupled with sorrow: modesty is a peaceful sentiment; it

424

HUMIDITY

serves to keep the whole mind in due bounds. When humility and modesty show themselves in the outward conduct, the former bows itself down, the latter shrinks: a humble man gives freely to others from a sense of their deserving; a, modest man demands nothing for himself, from an imconsciousness of deserving in himself. Between humble and submissive there is this prominent feature of distinction, that the former marks a temper of mind, the latter a mode of action: the former is, therefore, often the cause of the latter, but not so always; we may be submissive because we are humble; but we may likewise be submissive from fear, from interested motives, from necessity, from duty, and the like; and on the other hand, we may be humble without being submissive, when we are not brought into connection with others. man is humble when in solitude he takes a review of his sinfulness; he is submissive to a master whose displeasure he dreads. Humble, Humiliate, Degrade. Humble and humiliate are both drawn from the same som-ce (see above). Degrade (see above). Humble is commonly used as the act either of persons or things: a person may humble himself or he may be humbled: humiliate is employed to characterize things; a thing is humiliating or a humiliation. No man humbles himself by the acknowledgment of a fault; but it is a great humiliation for a person to be dependent on another for a hving when he has it in his power to obtain it for himself. To humble is to bring down to the ^ound; it supposes a certain eminence, either created by the mind or really existing in the outward circmnstances; to degrade is to set down lo\^.?r; it supposes steps for descending. He who is most elevated in his own esteem may be

A

—

most humbled; misfortunes may humble the proudest conqueror: he who is most elevated in the esteem of others may be the most degraded; envy is ever on the alert to degrade. A lesson in the school of adversity is humbling to one who has known nothing but prosperity: terms of peace are humiliating: low vices are pecuUarly degrading to a man of rank.

^

HUMIDITY. HUMILIATE.

HUMOR,

See Moisture. See Hximble.

Humor

Temper, Mood.

moisture or fluid, in which sense it is used for the fluids of the human body; and as far as these humors or their particular state is connected with, or has its influence on, the animal spirits and the moral feel-

literally signifies

humor applicable to moral Temper (see Disposition) is

ings, so far is

agents.

less specific in its signification; it

may,

with equal propriety, under the changed form of temperament, be appHcable to the general state of the body or the mind. Mood, which is but a change from mode or manner, has an original signification not less indefinite than the former; it is applied, however, only to the mind. As the humors of the body are the most variable parts of the animal frame, humor in regard to the mind denotes but a partial and transitory state when compared with the temper, which is a general and habitual state.

The humor

is

varies in the

so fluctuating that

it

same mind perpetually;

but the temper is so far confined that it always shows itself to be the same whenever it shows itself at all: the humor makes a man different from himself;

the temper makes

him

different

from others. Hence we speak of the humor of the moment; of the temper of youth or of old age: so likewise we say, to

accommodate

humor

of a person; to

one's seK to the

manage

per: to put one into a certain to correct or sour the temper. is not less partial in its nature

his tem-

humor;

Humor than in

often on only one object, or regards only one particular direction of feelings: temper extends to aU the actions and opinions as well as feelings of a man: it gives a coloring to all he says, does, thinks,

its

duration;

it fixes itself

We

and feels. may be in a humor for writing or reading; for what is gay or what is serious; for what is noisy or what is quiet; but our temper is discoverable in our daily conduct; we may be in a good or ill humor in company, but in domestic life and in om- closest relations we show whether we are good or iU tempered. man shows his hu/mar in different or trifhng actions; he shows his temper in the most important actions: it may be a man's humor to

A

HURT

425

while others stand, or to go un- humorsotne; prosperity or unlimited shaven while others shave; but he power is apt to render a man capricious: shows his temper as a Christian or a humorsome person commonly objects otherwise in forgiving injuries or not to be pleased or is easily displeased a harboring resentments in Uving peace- capricious person likes and dislikes, ably) not indulging himself in con- approves and disapproves the same sit

;

;

thmg

tentions.

When

applied to bodies of

men

hvn

in

quick succession.

Hurnxnous, Capricious —Humorsome, Humor, when applied to things, has

mor, as denoting a temporary or fluctuating feeling, is more commonly used the sense of wit, whence the distinction between humorsome and humorous, the than temper. Humor and mood agree in denoting former implying the existence of humor a particular and temporary state of or perverted feeling in the person; the feeling; but they differ in the cause, '.-.tter implying the existence of humor the former being attributable rather or wit in the person or thing. Caprice to the physical state of the body, and is improperly applied to things to desthe latter to the moral frame of the ignate their total irregularity and planspeaking mind; the former, therefore, is inde- lessness of proceeding, as, pendent of all external circumstances, of fashion, we notice its caprice when or at all events of any that are re- that which has been laid aside is again ducible to system; the latter is guided taken into use; diseases are termed opposientirely by events, or the view which capricious which act in direct the mind tjikes of events. Humor is, tion to all established rule. HUNT, Chase. The leading idea therefore, generallv taken in a bad sense unless actually qualified by some in the word hunt from Anglo-Saxon epithet to the contrary: mMxi is always huntian, to capture, is that of searching taken in an inr'lfTerent sense. There after; the leading idea in the word chase is that of driving away or before is no calculating on the humxrr of a man; it depends upon his mood whether one. In a strict sense, hunt denotes he performs ill or well: it is necessary a search for objects not within sight; pursuit after such objects to suppress humor in a child; we dis- chase is a hunt, cover by the melancholy viood of a only as are within sight: we may we may man that something distressing has therefore, without' chasing: chase without hunting: a person hunts happened to him. after, but does not chase that which See also Gratify; Qualify; Wit. is lost a boy chases, but does not hunt. Humor, Caprice. Humor is general, a butterfly. When applied to field caprice (see Fanciful) is particular: sports, the hunt commences as soon hum^rr may be good or bad; caprice is as the huntsman begins to look for the always taken in a bad sense. Humor game; the chase commences as soon as is always independent of fixed prin- it is found: on this ground, perhaps, it ciple; it is the feeling or impulse of the is that hunt is used, in familiar dismoment: caprice is always opposed to course, to designate the specific act of fiixed principle or rational motives of taking this amusement; and chase is acting; it is the feeling of the indi- used only in particular cases where the vidual setting at naught aU rule and peciUiar idea is to be expressed: a foxdefying all reason. The feeling only hunt, or a stag-hunt, is said to take is perverted when the humor predomi- place on a particular day; or that there nates; the judgment and will are per- has been no hunting this season, or that verted by caprice; a child shows its the hunt has been very bad: but we humor in fretfulness and impatience; a speak, on the other hand, of the pleasman betrays his caprice in his inter- ures of the chase, or that the chase course with others, in the management lasted very long; the animal gave a of his concerns, or in the choice of his long chase. amusements. HURL. See Cast. HURRY. See Hasten. Indulgence, according to a mode of HURT. See Disadvantage; Inspeech now practically obsolete, renders children and subordinate persons jury; Sorry.

m

—

:

HURTFUL

426

HURTFUL,

Pernicious, Noxious, Between hurtful, signifying full of hurt, and -pernicious there is the same distinction as between hurting and destroying: that which is hurtful

Noisome.

may

hurt in various ways; but that is pernicious necessarily tends to destruction: confinement is hurtful to the health: bad company is pernicimis to the morals, or the doctrines of free-thinkers are said to be pernicious to the well-being of society. Noxious and noisome, from nocere, to hurt, are species of the hurtful: things may be hurtful both to body and mind; noxious and noisome only to the body: that which is noxious inflicts a direct injury; that which is noisome inflicts it indirectly: noxious insects are such as wound; noisome vapors are such as tend to create disorders.

which

HUSBAND, Conserve, Economize. Husband, from the Icelandic husbondi, that contracted from huslmandi, compound of hus, a house, and buandi, a dwelling, all imply the male head of a household. In the present appUcation the term signifies to manage one's affairs with frugality, to use one's resources so as to produce the best results. Conserve, from Latin conservare,

usage as names for the same phenomenon. This phenomenon is a pecuhar condition of the nervous system induced by a fixed, abstracted attention of the mental and visual eye on one object not of an exciting nature. It was called animal magnetism by F. A. Mesmer, because he belieVed in a magnetic force in animals, peculiar to hving beings, by which one acts on another just as the magnet acts on steel; to this the inducing of the hypnotic state

was due. The phenomenon was by others called mesmerism, after Mesmer (about 1766), because it was made known to the pubUc everywhere chiefly through his somewhat spectacular methods of producing it. Mesmerism refers, then, primarily to the manner of inducThe term ing a hypnotic condition. hypnotism, fro^n vwoq, sleep, and vtvpov, nerve, was coined in 1842 by James Braid, who was the first tg investigate the subject in a physiological way. This name was intended to imply that the phenomenon was due not to any occult magnetic force, inherent in organic life everywhere, but to a peculiar condition of the nerves. His name replaced mesmerism in popular usage.

HYPOCHONDRIACAL,

Melan-

means primarily to save. We con- cholic, Splenetic. These words all serve our health and property by refer to an abnormal psychological conadopting such methods as will save dition supposed 3 be produced or acthem from depreciation, injury, loss, or companied by a disorder of the spleen;

We

destruction. economize our health, time, and property by managing each

but they indicate

slightly

different

psychological states.

with care, prudence, and a proper reHypochondriacal (from Greek iwo and gard for their value. Economize has an XovSpia, the parts beneath the breastoriginal meaning similar to that of hus- bone, i. e., the spleen) is the adjective band, being derived from the Greek corresponding to hypochondria, a gloomy

word for house, and indicating the man- and irritable state of mind in which the agement of the household. Husband, subject believes that his health is in however, means primarily prudence in a very serious condition and that he saving, in gathermg together, and con- is threatened with death. Melancholic serving resources; economize signifies prudence in spending. See Economical.

(Greek fieXayxoXia, black

bile,

refer-

ring to secretions of the spleen) refers See Farmer. simply to a state of morbid gloom. See Cultivation. SptenetiCfirora Latin splen, Greek (tttX^v, See Aircraft. spleen, refers to a state of morbid gloom HYPNOTISM, Mesmerism, Ani- especially characterized by irritableness mal Magnetism. The difference be- of temper, a disposition to take offence tween these three words is not a differ- at everything. ence in meaning, but a difference in the HYPOCRITE, Dissembler. Hyptheory implied in them, and in fashion- ocrite, in Greek vTroKpirTjg, from viro able and professional usage. Hypno- and Kpivofiai, signifies one playing a tism replaced mesmerism, and mesmer- part on a stage. Dissembler, from ism animal magnetism in professional dissemble, in Latin dissimulo or dis and

HUSBANDMAN. HUSBANDRY. HYDROPLANE.

^

HYPOTHETICAL

427

simUis, signifies one who makes him- hypocrite is a dissembler; but every disself appear unlike what he really is. sembler is not a hypocrite: the hypocrite The hypocrite feigns to be what he is makes truth serve the purpose of falsenot; the dissembler conceals what he is: hood; the dissembler is content with the former takes to himself the credit making falsehood serve his own parof virtues which he has not; the latter ticular purpose. fionceals the vices that he has; every HYPOTHETICAL. See Empirical.

IDEA

428

IDEA, Thought, Imagination. account

lose its characteristic meaning. Imagination is not only the fruit of from the root found in Latin videre, thought, but of pecuUar thought: the to see, signifies the thing seen in the thmight may be another's the imaginamind. Thought comes from Anglo- tion is one's own: the thought occurs Saxon thencan, modern English think. and recurs; it comes and it goes; it Imagination signifies the thing imag- is retained or rejected at the pleasure ined, from Latin imago, from the root of the thinking being: the imagination is framed by the power which we term im, found in imitare, English imitate. The idea is the simple representation imagination; it is cherished with the of an object; the thought is the re- partiality of a parent for its offspring. flection; and the imagination is the Thoughts are busied with the surcombination of ideas: we have ideas rounding objects; imaginations are emof the sun, the moon, and all material ployed on distant and strange objects: objects; we have thoughts on moral hence thoughts are denominated sober, subjects; we have imaginations drawn chaste, and the like; imaginations, wild from the ideas already existing in the and extravagant. mind. Ideas are formed; they are the See also Perception. rude materials with which the thinking Ideal, Imaginary. Ideal does not faculty exerts itself: thoughts arise in strictly adhere to the sense of its primithe mind by means of association and tive, idea: the idea is the representation combination, or recur in the mind by of a real object in the mind; but ideal the power of the memory; they are signifies belonging to the idea indepenthe materials with which the thinking dently of the reaUty or the external faculty employs itself imaginations are object. Imaginary preserves the sigcreated by the mind's reaction on it- nification of its primitive, imagination self; they are the materials with which (see Fancy) denotes what is created the understanding seeks to enrich it- by the mind itself. The ideal is self. The term ideas is used in all not directly opposed to, but abcases for the mental representation, stracted from the real; the imaginary, abstractedly from the agent that rep- on the other hand, is d rectly opposed resents them: hence ideas are attached to the real; it is the unreal thing to words; ideas are analyzed, con- formed by the imagination. Ideal hapfoimded, and the like; in which cases piness is the happiness which is formed the word thought could not be substi- in the mind without having any direct tuted. Thought belongs only to think- and actual prototype in nature; but ing and rational beings: the animals it may, nevertheless, be something posmay be said to have ideas, but not sible to be realized; it may be above thoughts: hence thoughts are either nature, but not in direct contradiction mean, fine, grovelling, or sublime, ac- to it: the imaginary is that which is cording to the nature of the mind in opposite to some positive existing rewhich they exist: hence we say with ality; the pleasure which a lunatic more propriety, to indulge a thought derives from the conceit of being a than to indulge an idea; to express king is altogether imaginary. one's thoughts, rather than one's ideas, See also IJtopian. on any subject: although the latter IDIOM. See Language. term idea, on account of its compreIDIOT. See Fool. hensive use, may, without violation of IDLE, Lazy, Indolent. Idle comes any express rule, be indifferently em- from Anglo-Saxon idel, vain, empty. gloyed in general discourse for thought; Lazy comes from Low German lasich, ut the former term does not on this aUied to loose, signifying languid, idle.

Idea,

in

Latin idea, in

Greek

ISka,

:

—

\

:

IGNORANT Indolent, in Latin indolens, from in, not, and dolens, from dolere, to grieve, signifies not grieving, lacking in feeling; hence, lacking in life and energy. propensity to inaction is the co""-

A

mon

who

429

values his time will take care to

have as few idle hours as possible; but since no one can always be employed in severe labor, he wiU occupy his leisure hours in that which best suits his taste.

by which

these words are Idle and leisure are said in particular connected they differ in the cause and reference to the time that is employed; degree of the quaUty: idle expresses vacant (see Fill) is a more general less than lazy, and lazy less than in- term that simply qualifies the thing:

idea

;

dolent:

one

is

termed

tdle

who

do an idle hour is one without any prof)er employment; a vacant hour is in general one free from the employments with which it might be fiUed; a per-

will

nothing useful; one is lazy who will do nothing at all without great reluctance; one is indolent who does not care to do anything or set about anything.

There

is

no direct inaction

in

the idler; for a child is idle who will not learn his lesson, but he is active enough in that which pleases himself: there is an aversion to corporeal action in a lazy man, but not always to mental action; he is lazy at work, lazy in walking, or lazy in sitting; but he may not object to any employment, such as reading or thinking, which leaves

son has leisure time according to his wishes; but he may have voamtiI time from necessity; that is, when he is in

want

of

Idle,

employment. These epithets are both

Vain.

—

opposed to the solid or substantial; but idle has a more particular reference to what ought or ought not to engage the time or attention; vain, in Latm vanus, signifying empty, seems to qualify the thing without any such reference. A pursuit may be termed either idle or vain: in the former case, it reflects immediately on the agent for not employing his time on something more serious; but in the latter case it simply characterizes the pursuit as one that will be attended with no good conse-

body entirely at rest: an indolent man, on the contrary, fails in activity from a defect both in the mind and the body; he will not only not move, but he will not even think, if it give him trouble; and trifling exertions of any kind are sufficient, even in prospect, to deter him from attempting to quences: when we consider ourselves as beings who have but a short time move. Lazy is figuratively applied to other to live, and that every moment of that his

objects. Idle is also applied to things in the sense of leisure and vanity, for which see the next analysis. Idle is opIdle, Leisure, Vacant.

time ought to be thoroughly well spent, we should be careful to avoid all idle

concerns; when we consider ourselves as rational beings, who are responsible for the use of those powers with which posed here to busy; leisure comes from we have been invested by God we shall Anglo-French leisir, originally the in- be careful to reject all vain concerns: finitive mood, signifying to be per- an idle effort is made by one who does mitted, from Latin licere. He, there- not care to exert himself for any useful fore, who is idle, instead of being busy, purpose, who works only to please himcommits a fault; which is not always self; a vain effort may be made by one the case with him who is at leisure or who is in a state of desperation. IGNOMINY. See Infamy. free from his employment. Idle is alIGNORANT, Illiterate, Unways taken in a sense more or less unfavorable; leisure in a sense perfectly learned, Unlettered. Ignorant, in indifferent: if a man says of himself Latin ignorans, from the privative in, that he has spent an idle hour in this and the root gno, signifying to know, or that place, in amusement, company, signifies not knowing things in genand the like, he means to signify he eral, or not knowing any particular cirwould have spent it better if anything cumstance. Unlearned, illiterate, and had offered; on the other hand, he unlettered are compared with ignorant would say that he spends his leisure in the general sense. Ignorant is a comprehensive term; moments in a suitable relaxation: he

—

_

ILL

430

any degree from the high- Righteousness illumined the benighted and consequently in- world; illuminations are employed as cludes the other terms, illiterate, un- pubhc demonstrations of joy; no nation learned, and unlettered, which express IS now termed enlightened but such as it

includes

est to the lowest,

forms of ignorance. Ignorance has received the light of the Gospel. ILLUSION. See Delusion; Faitnot always to one's disgrace, since it is not always one's fault; the term LACY. ILLUSTRATE. See Explain. is not, therefore, directly reproachful: ILLUSTRIOUS. See Distinthe poor, ignorant savage is an object of pity rather than condemnation; guished; Famous. ILL-WILL. See Hatred. but when ignorance is coupled with IMAGE. See Likeness. self-conceit and presumption, it is a IMAGINARY. See Ideal. real deformity: hence the word ilIMAGINATION. See Fancy; Idea. literate, which is mostly used in such IMAGINE. See cases, has become a term of reproach: ; an ignorant man who sets up to teach Think. IMBECILITY. Debility. See illiterate preacher; an termed others is IMBIBE. See Absorb. and quacks, whether in reUgion or medIMITATE, Copy, Counterfeit. icine, from the very nature of their calling, are altogether an illiterate race The idea of taking a likeness of some The term illiterate is in all object is common to all these terms; of men. cases taken for one who is without but imitate (see Follow) is the geneducation or even the knowledge of his eric: copy (see that word) and counterletters; the words unlearned and un- feit, through French contrefait, from the lettered are disengaged from any im- Latin contra, against, and facere, to favorable associations. A modest man, make, signifying to make in opposition who makes no pretensions to learning, to the reaUty, are the specific terms: may suitably apologize for his sup- to imitate is to take a general likeness; posed deficiencies by saying he is an to copy, to take an exact likeness; to unlearned or unlettered man; the former counterfeit, to take a false hkeness: to is, however, a term of more familiar imitate is, therefore, almost always use than the latter. A man may be used in a good or an indifferent sense; described either as generally unlearned to copy mostly, and to counterfeit still or as unlearned in particular sciences oftener, in a bad sense: to imitate an or arts; as unlearned In history; un- author's style is at all times allowable learned in philosophy; unlearned in the for one who cannot form a style for ways of the world: a rustic poet's muse himseK; but to copy an author's style may be described as unlettered. would be a too slavish adherence even ILL. See Badly; Evil. for the dullest writer. ILL-FATED. See Hapless. To imitate is applicable to every obILLiqpERATE. See Ignorant. ject, for every external object is susILLNESS. See Sickness. ceptible of imitation; and in man the different is

Apprehend

ILLUMINATE,Illxjmine,EnlightEN.

Illuminate, in Latin illuminatus, participle of illumino (from Latin in,

imitative faculty displays itself aUke in the highest and the lowest matters, in works of art and moral conduct: to

and lumen,

copy

light), and enlighten, coined with the French en, from the verb lighten, both denote the communication of light; the former in the natural, the latter in the moral sense. We illuminate by means of artificial Ughts; or, as in the case of mediaeval manuscripts (though, in this sense, the term is now obsolete) by color: the sim illv^ minates the world by its own light: preaching and instruction enlighten the minds of men. Illumine is but a poetic

variation of illuminate; as, the

Sun

of

appUcable only to certain obwhich wUl admit of a minute hkeness being taken; thus, an artist may be said to copy from nature. To counterfeit is appUcable to but few objects: we may counterfeit coin, which is an unlawful act, or we may is

jects

counterfeit the person, the character, the voice, or the handwriting of any one for we would wish to pass,

whom

which on the

also an unlawful act except stage. Imitate, Mimic, Ape, Mock. To is

—

IMPASSABLE is here the general term: to mimic, from the Greek tUfioQ, an actor or mimic, and to a-pe, signifjang to imitate like an ape (Anglo-Saxon apa, Grerman affe), are boti species of vicious imitation. One imitates that which is deserving of imitation, or the contrary: one mimics either that which is not an authorized subject of imitation or which is imitated imperfectly or so as to excite laughter. A person wishes to make that his own which he imitates, but he mimics for the entertainment of others. To ape is a serious, though an absurd, act of imitation. To mock, Old French mocqtier, a Picard form for moucher, to wipe the nose, Latin mriccare, to blow the nose (from Latin mucus, Enghsh mticus), indicating a vulgar gesture of contempt, signifies to laugh at, and is an ill-natured and vulgar act

imitate

431

the blackness of the sky; we hear the threatening sounds of the enemy's clashing sword. IMMODERATE. See Excessive.

IMMODEST,

Impudent,

Shame-

less. Immodest signifies the want of modesty: impudent and shameless signify without shame. Immodest is less than either impudent or shameless: an immodest girl lays aside the ornament of her sex and puts on another garb

that is less becoming; but her heart need not be corrupt until she becomes impudent: she lacks a good quahty when she is immodest; she is possessed of a positively bad quality when she is impudent. There is always hope that an immodest woman may be conscious of her error, and amend; but of an impudent woman there is no such chance she is radically corrupt. Impudent may characterize the person or The ape imitates to the thing: shameless, from Angloof imitation. please himself; the mocker Tnocks to Saxon sceamu, shame, and negative insult

others.

IMMATERIAL.

Incorpo-

See Directly;

Now.

IMMENSE. See Enormous. IMMINENT, Impending, Threatening.

Imminent, in Latin imminens,

from minere, to project, signifies resting or coming upon. Impending, from the Latin pendere, to hang, signifies hanging upon or over. Threat, Anglo-

Saxon

threotan, to afflict, vex, urge, is allied to Latin trudere (found in intrude and obtrude), signifying to push, work,

urge. All these terms are used in regard to some evil that is exceedingly near: imminent conveys no idea of duration; impending excludes the idea of what

momentary. A person may be in imminent danger of losing his life in one instant, and the danger may be over the next instant: but an impending danger is that which has been long in existelice and gradually approaching; we can seldom escape imminent danger by any eflForts of our own: but we may be successfully warned to escape from an impending danger. Imminent and impending are said of dangers that are not discoverable; but a threatening evil gives intimations of its own approach; we perceive the threatening tempest in is

A

characterizes the person. person's air, look, and words are impudent when contrary to all modesty: the person himself is shameless who is devoid of all sense of shame. See also Impertinent; Indecent. suffix,

See

real: Unimportant.

IMMEDIATELY.

—

IMMUNITY. IMPAIR,

See Privilege. Injure. Impair comes

through Old French empeirer, from Late Latin impeiorare, compounded of the Latin in and peior, worse, signifying to make worse. Injure, from in, against, and iur, the stem of ius, right, signifies to majce otherwise than it ought to be. Impair seems to be in regard to injury as the species to the genus; what is impaired is injured, but what is inrjured is not necessarily impaired. To impair is a progressive mode of injuring: an injury may take place either

by degrees or by an instantaneous act: straining of the eyes impairs the sight, but a blow injures rather than impairs man's health may be imthe eye. paired or injured by his vices, but his limbs are injured rather than impaired person's circumstances by a fall. are impaired by a succession of misfortunes they are injured by a sudden turn of fortune.

A

A

;

IMPART. See Communicate. IMPARTIAL. See Neutral. IMPASSABLE. See Impervious.

432

IMPEACH

or there may be imperfection in regard See Accuse. to what we conceive of perfection; and See Hinder. IMPEL. See Actuate; Compel; in this case the term simply and generally impUes whatever falls short in Encourage. any degree or manner of perfection. IMPENDING. See Imminent. IMPERFECTION, Defect, Fault, Defect is a positive degree of imperfecVice. These terms are applied either tion; it is contrary both to our ideas to persons or to things. Imperfection, of perfection and to our particular intendenoting either the abstract quaUty of tion: thus, there may be a defect in the imperfect or the thing which consti- materials of which a thing is made; tutes it imperfect, in a person arises or a defect in the mode of making it: from his want of perfection and the the term defect, however, whether said infirmity of his nature; there is no one of persons or things, characterizes without some point of imperfection rather the object than the agent. which is obvious to others, if not to Fault, on the other hand, when said himself; he may strive to diminish it, of things, always refers to the agent: although he cannot expect to get alto- thus we may say there is a defect in gether rid of it: a defect (see Blemish) the glass, or a defect in the spring; is a deviation from the general consti- but there is a fault in the workmantution of man; it is what may be ship, or a fault in the putting together, Vice, with regard to natural to the man as an individual, and the like. but not natural to man as a species; things, is properly a serious or radical in this manner we may speak of a de- defect; the former lies in the constitufect in the speech, or a defect in temper. tion of the whole, the latter may lie in The fault and vice rise in degree and the parts; the former lies in essentials, character above either of the former the latter lies in the accidents: there terms; they both reflect disgrace more may be a defect in the shape or make or less on the person possessing them; of a horse; but the vice is said in regard but the fauU always characterizes the to his soundness or unsoundness, his

IMPEACH. IMPEDE.

agent, and is said in relation to an individual; the vice, from Latin vitium, a vice or fault, characterizes the action and may be considered abstractedly: hence we speak of a man's faults as the things we may condemn in him; but we may speak of the vices of drunkenness, lying, and the like, without any immediate reference to any one who Practices these vices. When they are oth employed for an individual their distinction is obvious: the fault may lessen the amiability or excellence of the character; the vice is a stain; a single act destroys its purity; a habitual practice is a p)ollution. In regard to things, the distinction

docility or indocility. Imperfection, Weakness, Frailty, Failing, Foible. Imperfection has already been considered as that which in the

—

most extended sense diminishes the moral perfection of man; the rest are but modes of imperfection varying in degree and circumstances. Weakness is a positive and strong degree of imperfection which is opposed to strength; it is what we dq not so necessarily look for,

and therefore distinguishes the

dividual

who

hable to

in-

Frailty is another strong mode of imperfection which characterizes the fragility of man, but not of all men in the same degree; it differs from weakness in redepends upon the preceding explana- spect to the object. weakness lies tion in a great measure, for we can more in the judgment or in the sentiscarcely use these words without think- ment; frailty Ues more in the moral ing on man as a moral agent, who was features of an action. It is weakmade the most perfect of all creatures, ness in a man to yield to the persuaand became the most imperfect; and sions of any one against his better from our imperfection has arisen, also, judgment; it is frailty to yield to a general imperfection throughout all intemperance or iUicit indulgences. the works of creation. The word im- Failings and foibles (from Old French perfection is therefore the most un- foible, English feeble, Latin flebilis, qualified term of all: there may be doleful, from flere, to weep) are the imperfection in regard to our Maker, smallest degrees of imperfection to is

A

it.

IMPERVIOUS

433

which the human character is liable: ished, and, in an extended sense, wantr we all have our failings in temper, and ing all culture. Sauq/ comes from OUT foibles in our habits and our pre- savxx, in Latin sals, a, feminine of possessions; and he, as Horace ob- salsus, salt, signifying hterally full of serves, is the best who has the fewest. sauce, pungent, and, in an extended IMPERIOUS, Lordly, Domineer- sense, stinging like salt. Impudent (see ing, Overbearing. All these epithets Assurance). Insolent, from the Latin imply an unseemly exercise or affecta- insolens, is a word of doubtful origin, tion of power or superiority. Imperi- possibly comp>ounded of in, against, and ous, from imperare, to command, char- solens, from a root signifying to swell the

referring here to the swelling of pride. Impertinent is alUed to 7-ude, as regards one's general relations in sofensive manner: lordly (from Anglo- ciety, without regard to station; it is Saxon hlaford, lord, from hlaf, bread aUied to saucy, impudent, and insolent English loaf and weard, guard, Eng- as regards the conduct of inferiors. lish ward, signifying the guardian of He who does not respect the laws of the loaf) characterizes the manner of civil society in his mtercourse with acting the lord: and domineering, from individuals, and wants to assume to dominus, a lord, denotes the manner himself what belongs to another, is of ruling like a lord, or rather of at- impertinent: if he carry this impertitempting to rule; hence a person's tem- nence so far as to commit any violent per or his tone is denominated imperi- breach of decorum in his behavior, he ous; his air or deportment is lordly; is rude. Impertinence seems to spring woman of from a too high regard of one's self: his tone is domineering. an imperious temper commands in rudeness from an ignorance of what order to be obeyed; she commands is due to others. Impertinent, in comwith an imperums tone in order to parison with the other terms, saucy,

acterizes

either

disposition

to

command without adequate authority or to convey one's commands in an of-

—

A

A

person assumes enforce obedience. a lordly air in order to display his own importance; he gives orders in a domineering tone in order to make others

There is always feel their inferiority. something offensive in imperiou^ness; there is frequently something ludicrous in that which is lordly; and a

impudent, and insolent, is the most general and indefinite: whatever one does or says that is not compatible with one's station is impcrtineni; saucy is a sharp kind of impertinence: imn pudent an unblushing kind of imperti^ nence; insolence is an outrageous kind of impertinence, it runs counter to all established order: thus, the terms seem to rise in sense. person may be imrpertinent in words or actions: he is saucy in words or looks: he is impudent or insolent in words, tones, gesture, looks, and every species of action.

mixtiu-e of the ludicrous and offensive in that which is domineering. These terms are employed for such as are invested with some sort of power, or endowed with some sort of superiority, however trifling; but overbearing is IMPERVIOUS, Impassable, Inacemployed for men in the general relar tions of society, whether superiors or cessible. Impervious, from the Latin in, per, and via, signifies not having a man of an imperious temequals. per and some talent will frequently be way through; impassable, not to be so overbearing in the assemblies oi his passed through; inaccessible, not to be wood is imvervious equals as to awe the rest into silence approached. and carry every measure of his own when the trees, branches, ana leaves are entangled to such a degree as to without contraciiction. admit of no passage at all: a river is See also Commandinq. IMPERTINENT, RuDE, Saucy, impassable that is so deep that it canImpudent, Insolent. Impertinent, in not be forded: a rock or a mountain Latin in, a privative prefix, and perti- is inaccessible the summit of which is nens, belongmg, signifies being or want- not to be reached by any path whating to do what it does not belong to ever. What is imperyurus is so for a one to be or do. Rude, in Latin permanency; what is impassable is rudis, rude, signifies literally unpol- commonly so only for a time: roads

A

A

A

434

IMPETUOUS Manhus Torquatus displayed an instance of unrelenting severity toward his son; Minos, JEacus, and Rhadamanthus were the inexorable judges of hell. Implacable and unrelenting are said only of animate beings in whom is wanting an ordinary portion of the tender affections: inexorable may be improperly applied to inanimate obSee Irreligious; Sac- jects; justice and death are both represented as inexorable.

are frequently impassable in the winter that are passable in the summer, while a thicket is impervious during the whole of the year: impassable is likewise said only of that which is to be passed by living creatm-es, but impervious may be extended to inanimate objects; a wood may be impervious to the rays of the sim. IMPETUOUS. See Violent.

IMPIOUS. rilegious.

IMPLACABLE, Unrelenting, Relentless, Inexorable. Implacable, from Latin in, privative, and placere, to please, signifies not to be softened or pleased. Unrelenting, from the Latin lentu^, slow, slack, soft, signifies not rendered soft. Inexorable, from oro, pray, signifies not to be turned by prayers. Inflexibihty is the idea expressed in common by these terms, but they differ in the causes and circumstances with which it is attended. Animosities are implacable when no misery which we occasion can diminish their force, and no concessions on the part of the offender can lessen the spirit of revenge the mind or character of a man is unrelenting when it is not to be turned from its purpose by a view of the pain which it inflicts: a man is inexorable who turns a deaf ear to every solicitation or entreaty that is made to induce him to lessen the rigor of his sentence. A man's angry passions render him implacable; it is not the magnitude of the offence, but the temper of the offended that is here in question; by implacability he is rendered insensible to the misery he occasions and to every satisfaction which the offender may offer him: fixedness of purpose renders a man unrelenting or relentless; an unrelenting temper is not less callous to the misery produced than an implacable temper; but it is not grounded always on resentment for personal injuries, but sometimes on a certain principle of right and a sense of necessity: the inexorable man adheres to this rule, as the unrelenting man does to his purpose; the former is insensible to any workings of his heart which might shake his purpose, the latter turns a deaf ear to all the solicitations of others which would go to alter his decrees: savages are mostly implacable in their animosities; Titus

IMPLANT,

Inculcate,

Ingraft,

Instil, Infuse. To plant is properly to fix plants in the ground; to implant is, in the improper sense, to fix principles in the

mind.

To

ingraft,

from

to make one plant grow on the stock of another, is to make particular principles flourish in the mind and form a part of the character. Inculcate, from Latin in and culcare, for calcare, or tread into, means to stamp into the graft,

mind.

To

instil,

from French

instiller,

derived from Latin in and stillare, to drop into, is, in the improper sense, to make sentiments, as it were, drop into the mind. To infuse, from in and fu^us, past participle of fundere, to pour, is, in the improper sense, to pour principles or feelings into the mind. To implant, ingraft, and inculcate are said of abstract opinions or rules of

and wrong; instil and infuse of such principles as influence the heart, the affections, and the passions. It is the business of the parent in early life to implant sentiments of virtue in his right

child; it is the business of the teacher to ingraft them. Instil is a corresponding act with implant; we implant belief; we instil the feeling which is con-

nected

with

this

belief.

It

is

not

enough to have an abstract belief of a God implanted into the mind: we must likewise have a love, and a fear of Him, and reverence for His holy name and Word instilled into the mind. To instil is a gradual process which is the natural work of education; to infuse is a more arbitrary and immediate act. Sentiments are instilled into the mind, not altogether by the personal efforts of any individual, but likewise by collateral endeavors; they are, however, infused at the express will and with the express endeavor of some person. Instil is applicable only to permanent sentiments; infuse may be said of any

IMPRINT partial feeling: hence

we speak

of in-

fusing poison into the mind by means of insidious and mischievous publications; or inftising jealousy by means of crafty insinuations, or infusing ardor into the minds of soldiers by means of spirited addresses coupled with military successes.

435

the other terms more or less. Consequence is the importance of a thing from its consequences. This term, therefore, is pecuharly apphcable to such things the consequences of which may be more immediately discerned either from the neglect or the attention: it is of corv-

sequence for a letter to go off on a cerImplicate, tain day, for the affairs of an individual from plicare, to fold, denotes to fold may be more or less affected by it; into a thing; and involve, from volvere, an hour's delay sometimes in the deto roll, signifies to roU into a thing: by Earture of a military exp>edition may which explanation we perceive that e of such consequence as to determine to implicate marks something less en- the fate of a battle. The term weight tangled than to involve: for that which imphes a positively great degree of imis folded may be folded only once, but portance: it is that importance which that which is rolled is turned many a thing has intrinsically in itself, and times. In application, therefore, to which makes it weigh the mind: it human affairs, people are said to be is apphed, therefore, to such things implicated who have taken ever so as offer themselves to deliberation; small a share in a transaction; but hence the counsels of a nation are althey are involved only when they are ways weighty, because they involve the deeply concerned: the former is like- interests of so many. Moment is that wise especially applied to criminal importance which a thing has from the transactions, the latter to those things power in itself to produce effects or which are in themselves troublesome: to determine interests: it is apphcable, thus a man is implicated in the gmlt therefore, only to such things as are of robbery who should stand by and connected with our prosperity or hapsee it done, without interfering for its piness: when used without any adprevention; he who is in debt in every junct, it imphes a great degree of direction is strictly said to be involved importance, but may be modified in various ways, as a thing of no momerU, in debt. or small moment, or great moment; but IMPLORE. See Beg. we cannot say with the same propriety, IMPLY. See Signify. a thing of small weight, and still less a IMPORT. See Signification. Consequence, thing of great weight: it is a matter of Weight, Moment. Importance, from no small moment for every one to choose in and portare, to carry, signifies the that course of conduct which will stand carrying or bearing with or in itself. the test of a death-bed reflection.

IMPLICATE,

Involve.

m

IMPORTANCE,

Consequence, from the present participial stem of consequi, to follow, or result, signifies that which follows or Weight, Angloresults from a thing. Saxon gewiht, from wegan, to carrv, or

IMPORTANT. See Critical. IMPORTUNATE. See Pressing. IMPORTUNITY. See SoucttaTION.

IMPOSE. See Decetvb. IMPOST. Sec Tax. (compare the phrase weigh anchor), IMPRECATION. See Maledio hence to weigh, signifies the quantity that a thing weighs. Moment, from TION. IMPRINT, Impress, Engrave. momentum, Latin movere, to move, sigPrint and press are both derived from nifies the force that puts in motion. Importance is what things have in Latin primere, the former from the inthemselves; they may be of more or finitive, the latter from pressu^, the lift

m

the literal according to the value past pajliciple, signifying this may be sense to press or to make a mark by real or imreal; it may be estimated pressing: to impress and imjtrinl are by the experience of their past utility figuratively employed in the same or from the presumption of their utility sense. Things are impressed on the for the future: the idea of importance, mind so as to produce a conviction: therefore, enters into the meaning of they are imprinted on it so as to proless importance,

which

is

set

upon them:

IMPRISONMENT

436

INABILITY, Disability. Inability denotes the absence of ability (see Abilthey will show themselves in a cor- ity) in the most general and abstract responding conduct: whatever is im- sense. Disability implies the absence printed on the mind in early life or of ability only in particular cases: the by any particular circumstance is not inabiliiy lies in the nature of the thing, readily forgotten. Engrave, fromFrench and is irremediable; the disability Ues en and grave, imitating Old French en- in the circumstances, and may somegraver, from Latin in and Old High times be removed: weakness, whether German graban, to cut, or dig, cognate physical or mental, will occasion an with English grave, to dig, expresses inability to perform a task; there is a more in the proper sense than either, total inability in an infant to walk and imprint, or impress and the same in act like an adult: a want of knowledge its moral application; for we may truly or of the requisite qualifications may say that if the truths of Christianity be a disability; in this manner minority be engraven in the minds of youth, they of age or an objection to take certain oaths may be a disability for filling a can never be eradicated. If the truths of recollection. Christianity be impressed on the mind,

duce

IMPRISONMENT.

See Confine- public

ment.

IMPROMPTU.

See

Unpremedi-

office.

INACCESSIBLE. See Impervious. INACTIVE, Inert, Lazy, Sloth-

A

ful, Sluggish. reluctance to bodily exertion is common to all these terms. Inactive (see Active) is the most general and unqualified term of all; it expresses simply the want of a stimulus pertinent. to exertion. Inert is something more IMPUGN, Attack. These terms positive, from the Latin in, privative, are employed synonymously only in re- and ars, art, without skill or mind; it gard to doctrines or opinions; in which denotes a specific deficiency either in case, to impugn, from in, against, and body or in mind. Lazy (see Idle). pugnare, to fight, signifies to call in Slothful comes from sloth, which is question, or bring arguments against; formed from the adjective slow, origito attack is to oppose with warmth. nally slowth, and signifies fuU of slowSceptics impugn every opinion, how- ness; and sluggish, from slug (a Scanever self-evident or well-grounded they dinavian word signifying to droop, and may be: infidels make attacks upon the hence, to be inactive, drowsy, heavy), Bible and all that is held sacred by the denote an expressly defective temperarest of the world. He who impugns may ment of the body which directly im-

tated.

IMPROVE.

See Amend. IMPROVEMENT. See Progress. IMPRUDENCE. See Assurance. IMPUDENT. See Immodest; Im-

sometimes proceed insidiously and circuitously to imdermine the faith of others: he who attacks always proceeds with more or less violence. To impugn is not necessarily taken in a bad sense; we may sometimes impugn absurd doctrines by a fair train of reasoning: to attack (see Attack) is sometimes objec-

pedes action.

To be inactive is to be indisposed to action, that is, to the performance of any office, to doing any specific business: to be inert is somewhat more; it is to be indisposed to movement; to be lazy is to move with pain to one's self: to be slothful is never to move tionable, either in the mode of the otherwise than slowly: to be sluggish action or its object, or in both; it is is to move in a sleepy and heavy man-

of proceeding which may be ner. A person may be inactive from a employed either in the cause of false- variety of incidental causes, as timidhood or of truth: when there are no ity, ignorance, modesty, and the Uke, arguments where-with to impugn a doc- which combine to make him averse to trine, it is easy to attack it with ridicule enter upon any business or take any and scurriUty: it is one's duty to attack serious step; a person may be inert from an absurd or an erroneous, or a temporary indisposition; but lazijiess, criminal doctrine, in the interest of slothfulness, and sluggishness are inhertruth and progress. ent physical defects: laziness is, how-

a mode

IMPUTE.

See Ascribe.

ever, not altogether independent of the

INCAPABLE mind or the

will;

but

slothfidness

INANIMATE.

and

A

frequently inactive. Some diseases, particularly of the melancholy kind, are accompanied with a strong degree of inertness, since they seem to deprive the frame of its ordinary powers to action, and to produce a certain degree of torpor; hence the term is properly applied to matter to express the highest degree of inactivity,

which

will

not

is

move without an

ex-

ternal impulse.

See Lifeless.

INANITY. See Vacancy. INAPPRECIABLE. See Atomic.

sluggishness are purely the offspring of nature, or, which is the same thing, habit superinduced upon nature. man of

a mild character

437

INATTENTION.

See

Inadver-

tency.

INATTENTI\^. See Negligent. INBORN. See Inherent. INBRED. See Inherent. INCAPABLE, Insufficient, Incompetent, Inadequate. Incapable, that is, not having capacity (see Abii/ity); insufficient, or not sufficient, or not having what is sufficient; incompetent, or not competent (see Competent), are employed either for persons or for things: the first in a general, the last two in a specific sense: inadequate, or not adequate or equalled, is appUed most generally to things. When a man is said to be incapable it characterizes his whole mind; if he be said to have insufficiency and incompetency, it regards the particular objects to which the power is applied:

Lazy people move as if their bodies were a burden to themselves; they are fond of rest and particularly averse to be put in action; but they will sometimes move quickly, and perform much when once- impelled to move. Slothful people never vary their pace; they have a physical impediment in themselves to quick motion: sluggish people are with difficulty brought into he may be insufficient or incompetent action; it is their nature to be in a state for certain things; but he may have of stupor. a capacity for other things: the term INADEQUATE. See Incapable. incapacity, therefore, implies a direct INADVERTENCY, Inattention, charge upon the imderstanding which Oversight. Inadvertency, from advert, is not impUed by insufficiency and irirto turn the lion (see

mind

mind

to, is allied to inailerv-

Attentive) when the act

of

signified in general terms; and to oversight when any particular /ninstance of inadvertency occurs, advertency never designates a habit, but inattention does; the former term, therefore, is unqualified by the re-

the

is

proachful sense which attaches to the latter:

any one may be guilty of mind that is

advertencies, since the

inoc-

cupied with many subjects equally serious may not be turned so steadily toward some others that may escape notice; but inattention, which designates a direct want of attention, is always a fault, and belongs only to the young, or such

competency. Incapable

is

applied sometimes, in

colloquial discourse, to signify the absence of that which is bad; insufficient and inconvpeterU always convey the idea of a aeficiency in that wmch is at least desirable: it is an honor to a person to be incapable of falsehood, or incapable of doing an ungenerous action; but to be insufficient and incompetent are, at all events, qualities

not to be boasted of, although they may not be expressly disgraceful. These terms are likewise applicable to thingSj in which they preserve a

never serious; we must be guarded

similar distinction: infideUty is incopable of affording a man any comfort: when the means are insufficient for obtaining the ends, it is madness to exEect success; it is a sad condition of umanity when a man's resources are iiicompetent to supply him with the first necessaries of life. Inadequate is relative in its signification, like insufficient and incompetent; thing but the relation is different.

against oversights in business, as their

is

as are thoughtless by nature: since inadvertency is an occasional act, it must not be too often repeated, or it becomes inattention. An oversight is properly a species of inadvertency, which arises from looking over, or passing by, a thing: we pardon an inadvertency in another, since the consequences are

consequences

may

be serious.

A

insufficient

which does not

suffice

either for the wishes, the purposes, or

438

INCESSANTLY

the necessities of any one in particular or in general cases; thus, a quantity of materials may be insufficient for a particular building: incompetency is an insuffi,ciency for general purposes in things of the first necessity; thus, a person may be incompetent to support a family: inadequacy is still more particular, for it denotes any deficiency which is measured by comparison with the object to which it referred; thus, the strength of an animal may be inadequate to the labor which is required, or a reward may be inadequaie to the

however, mostly employed for persons;

and react

things act

incessantly

upon

one another; a man of a persevering temper goes on laboring vnthout intermission until he has effected his purpose.

INCIDENT.

See

Circumstance;

Event.

INCIDENTAL. See Accidental. INCINERATION. See Cremation. INCIPIENT. See Elementary. INCITE. See Encourage; Excite.

INCLINATION, Tendency, Pro-

pensity, Proneness. All these terms are employed to designate the state of service. Unceasingly, the will toward an object: inclination INCESSANTLY, Uninterruptedly, Without Inter- (see Attachment) denotes its first mission. Incessantly and unceasingly movement toward an object: tendency, are but variations of the same word, through French from tendere, to stretch, Latin cessare, to cease, a frequentative is a continued inclination: propensity, of cedere, to yield; in and un are both from propensv^, past participle of the negative prefixes. Uninterruptedly (see Latin pro, forward, and pendere, to hang, Disturb). Intermission (see Subside). denotes a still stronger leaning of the Continuity, but not duration, is de- will; and prone, from the Latin pronum, noted by these terms: incessantly is the accusative of pronum, inclined toward, most general and indefinite of all; it characterizes a habitual and fixed state The insignifies without ceasing, but may be of the will toward an object. apphed to things which admit of cer- clination expresses the leaning, but not tain intervals: unceasingly is definite, the direction of that leaning; it may be and signifies never ceasing; it cannot, to the right or to the left, upward or therefore, be applied to what has any downward consequently we may have cessation. In familiar discourse, in- an inclination to that which is good or cessantly is an extravagant mode of bad, high or low; tendency does not speech, by which one means to denote specify any particular direction; but it the absence of those ordinary inter- is frequently apphed to those things vals which are to be expected; as when wliich degenerate or lead to what is one says a person is incessantly talk- bad; excessive strictness in the treating, by which is imderstood that he ment of children has a tendency to does not allow himself the ordinary damp their spirit propensity and proneintervals of rest from talking: unceas- ness both designate a downward direcingly, on the other hand, is more lit- tioji, and consequently refer only to erally employed for a positive want that which is bad and low; a person of cessation; a noise is said to be un- has a propensity to drinking, and a ceasing which literally never ceases; or proneness to lying. complaints are unceasing which are Inclination is always at the commade without any pauses or intervals. mand of the imderstanding; it is our Incessantly and unceasingly are said of duty, therefore, to suppress the first things which act of themselves; wn- risings of any inclination to extravainterruptedly is said of that which de- gance, intemperance, or any irregularpends upon other things: it rains in- ity: as tendency refers to the thing cessantly marks a continued operation rather than the person, it is our busiof nature, independent of everything; ness to avoid that which has a terpbut to be uninterruptedly happy marks dency to evil: the propensity will soon one's freedom from every foreign in- get the mastery of the best principles fluence which is unfriendly to one's and the firmest resolution; it is our happiness. Incessantly and the other duty, therefore, to seek all the aids two words are employed either for per- which religion affords to subdue every sons or things; without intermission is, propensity: proneness to evil is inher;

»

:

INCORPOREAL ent in our nature, which we derive from our animal nature; it is the grace of God alone which can lift us up above this groveUing part of ourselves. See also Bent; Disposition. INCLINE. See Lean; Mehge. INCLOSE, Include. From the Latin indvdo (from in, in, and dav^ dere, to shut) are derived inclose and include, inclose being derived through Old French indore, past participle indos. The former expresses the proper, and the latter the improper signification:

a yard

is inclosed by a wall; particular goods are included in a reckoning: the kernel of a nut is inclosed in a shell; morality, as well as faith, is induded

in Christian perfection. See also Circumscribe.

INCOHERENT.

See

Inconsist-

ent.

INCOMPETENT. INCONGRUOUS.

See Incapable. See Inconsist^

ent.

INCONSIDERABLE.

See Unim-

portant.

INCONSISTENT, Incongruous, Incoherent. Inconsistent, from in, privative, and consistent (Latin con, together, and sistens, participle of sistere, to cause to stand), marks the unfit-

INCONTROVERTIBLE.

439 See In-

dubitable.

INCONVENIENCE, Annoy. Molest. To inconvenience is to make not convenient (see Convenient). To annoy comes from the Old French anoi, Modem French ennui, derived from the Latin phrase in odio, signifying in hatred, or dislike. To molest, from the Latin moles, a mass, or weight, signifies to press with a weight. We inconvenience in small matters, or by omitting such things as might be convenient; we annoy or molest by doing that which is positively painful: we are inconvenienced by a person's absence; we are annoyed by his presence if he renders hunsdf offensive: we are inconvenienced by what is temporary; we are annoyed by that which IS either temporary or durable; we are molested by that which is weighty and oppressive; we are inconvenienced simply in regard to our circumstances; we are annoyed mostly in regard to our corporeal feelings; we are molested mostly in regard to our minds: the removal of a seat or a book may inconvenience one who is engaged in business; the buzzing of a fly or the stinging of a gnat may annoy; the impertinent freedom or the rude insults of ill-disposed persons may molest.

ness of being placed together. Incongruous, from in, privative, and congruere, to suit, a Latin word of INCORPOREAL, Unbodied, Imuncertain origin, marks the unsuit- material, Spiritual. Incorporeal (see ableness of one thing to another. In- Corporeal for derivation) marks the coherent, from in, privative, con, to- quaUty of not belonging to the body gether, and hcerere, to stick, marks or having any properties in common the incapacity of two things to co- with it; unbodied (for derivation see alesce or be united to each other. Corporeal) denotes the state of beInconsistency attaches either to the ing without the body or not inclosed in actions or sentiments of men; incon- a body: a thing may therefore be ingruity attaches to the modes and quali- corporeal without being unbodied; but ties of things; incoherency, to words or not vice versd: the soul of man is inthoughts; things are made inconsistent corporeal, but not unbodied, during his by an act of the will; a man acts or natural life. Incorporeal is always used in regard thinks inconsistently, according to his own pleasure: incongruity depends up>on to Uving things, particularly by way the nature of the things there is some- of comparison with corporeal or human thing very incongruous in blending the beings: hence we speak of incorporeal solemn service of the church with the agency, or incorporeal agents, in referextravagant rant of some self-styled ence to such beings as are supposed reUgious leaders: incoherence marks the to act in this world without the help want of coherence in that which ought of the body; but immaterial is applied to follow sequentlv; extemporary effu- to inanimate objects; men are corsions from the pulpit are often distin- poreal as men, spirits are incorporeal; the body is the material part of man, guished most by their incoherence. INCONSTANT. See Changeable. the soul his immaterial part: what;

!

440

INCREASE

ever external object acts upon the senses is material; but the action of the mind on itself, and its results, are all immaterial: the earth, sun, moon, etc., are termed material; but the impressions which they make on the mind; that is, our ideas of them, are immaterial. The incorporeal and immaterial have always a relative sense; the spiritual is that which is positive: God is a spiritual, not properly an incorporeal nor immaterial Being: the angels are likewise designated, in general, as the spiritual inhabitants of heaven; although, when spoken of in regard to

For this reason hkewise inlike. crease is used in a transitive as well as intransitive sense; but grow always in an intransitive sense: we can increase a thing, though not properly grow a thing, because we can make it larger by whatever means we please; but when it grows it makes itseff larger. In their improper acceptation these words preserve the same distinction: "trade increases" bespeaks the simple fact of its becoming larger; but "trade grows" implies that gradual increase the

which flows from the natural concur-

rence of circumstances. The affections which are awakened in infancy grow men, they may be denominated in- with one's growth; a natm-al and moral ' process is here combined. The fear corporeal. of death sometimes increases as one See also Corporeal. INCREASE, Grow. Increase, from grows old; the courage of a truly brave the Latin in, in, and crescere, to grow man increases with the sight of danger a (whence crescent is derived), signifies moral process is here indicated which is to grow larger and stronger. Grow, both gradual and immediate, but in both Anglo-Saxon growan, signified to put cases produced by some foreign cause. forth green shoots; it is aUied to the See also Enlarge. word green. Increase, Addition, Accession, AugThe idea of becoming larger is com- mentation. Increase is here, as in the mon to both these terms, but the former article, the generic term: there former expresses the idea in an un- will always be increase where there is qualified manner, and the latter an- augmentation, addition, and accession, nexes to this general idea also that of though not vice versd. the mode or process by which this is Addition is to increase as the means effected. To increase is either a grad- to the end: the addition is the artificial ual or an instantaneous act; to grow mode of making two things into one; is a gradual process: a stream increases the increase is the result: when the by the addition of other waters; it may value of one figure is added to another, come suddenly or in course of time, the smn is increased; hence a man's by means of gentle showers or the rush- treasures experience an increase by the ing in of other streams; but if we say addition of other parts to the main that the river or stream grows, it is stock. Addition is an intentional mode supposed to grow by some regular and of increasing; accession is an accidental continual process of receiving fresh mode: one thing is added to another water, as from the nmning in of differ- and thereby increased; but an accesent rivulets or smaller streams. To sion takes place of itself; it is the comincrease is either a natural or an arti- ing or joining of one thing to another ficial process; to grow is always natu- so as to increase the whole. A merral money increases by artificial means chant increases his property by addcom may either increase or grow: in ing his gains in trade every year to the former case we speak of it in the the mass; but he receives an accession sense of becoming larger or increasing of property either by inheritance or by in bulk; in the latter case we consider any other contingency. In the same the mode of its increasing, namely, by manner a monarch increases his dothe natural process of vegetation. On minions by adding one territory to this ground we say that a child grows another, or by various accessions of when we wish to denote the natural territory which fall to his lot. When process by which his body arrives at we speak of an increase we think of its proper size; but we may speak of the whole and its relative magnitude his increasing in stature, in size, and at different times; when we speak of :

—

:

INDEMNIFY

441

an addition we think only of the part cate. Indecent is the contrary of deand the agency by which this part is cent (see Becoming), immodest the conjoined; when we sf>eak of an accession trary of modest (see Modest), indelicate we think only of the circumstance by the contrary of delicate (see Fine). Indecency and immodesty violate the which one thing becomes thus joined Increase of happiness does not depend upon increase of wealth; the miser makes daily additions to the latter without making any to the former: sudden accessions of wealth are seldom attended with any good consequences, as they turn the thoughts too violently out of their sober chaimel to another.

fundamental principles of moraUty: the former, however, in external matters,

as dress, words, and looks; the latter in conduct and disposition. person may be indecent for want of either knowing or thinking better. Indecency may be a partial, immodesty is a positive and entire breach of the moral and bend them too strongly on present law. Indecency belongs to both sexes; immodesty is pecuUarly apphcable to possessions and good-fortune. Augmentation is a mode of increasing the misconduct of women. Indecency is less than immodesty, but not merely in quantity or number, but also in value or in the essential ingredi- more than indelicacy: they both reIt is a ent of a thing; it is therefore applied gard the outward behavior. for the most part to the increase of a great indecency for a man to marry man's estate, possessions, family, in- a^ain very quickly after the death of his wife; but a still greater indecency come, or whatever is desirable. It may also be applied to moral ob- for a woman to put such an affront on husband: it is a great jects, as hopes, fears, joys, etc., with a her deceased indelicacy in any one to break in upon like distinction. the retirement of such as are in sorrow

A

INCREDULITY. See Unbelief. and mourning. INCULCATE. See Implant. INDEED. See Ate. INCURSION. See Invasion. INDELICATE. See Indecent. INDEBTED, Obliged. Indebted is INDEMNIFY, Compensate, Reim-

more binding and positive than obliged: burse. These terms all mean to make we are indebted to whoever confers an good that which has been lost, but they essential service: we are obliged to him differ somewhat in the extent of their who does us any service. A man is appUcation. Compensate, from Latin indebted to another for the preserva- con, against, and pensare, to weigh, tion of his life; he is obliged to him for means, hterally, to weigh one thing an ordinary act of civility: a debt, with another; it is the most general whether of legal or moral right, must of these three terms. It signifies to in justice be paid; an obligation which give back an equivalent for something is only moral ought in reason to be lost, taken, or injured. Indemnify and returned. We may be indebted to reimburse have a similar meaning, but a Indemnify things; we are obliged to persons only: more special application.

we

are indebted to Christianity, not is derived from Latin in, privative, only for a superior faith, but also for a damnum, loss, and French fier, English superior system of morality; we ought fy, from Latin facere, to make. Hence to be obliged to our friends who ad- it literally means to make free from monish us of our faults in friendly loss. It signifies to make a payment wise. A nation may be indebted to to compensate for the loss of life or an individual, but men are obliged to property. Reimburse is adapted from one another only as individuals: the French rembourser L»y substituting EngUsh nation is indebted to Alfred for Latin re, again, and in, in, for rem. the groundwork of its constitution; the Bourser comes from Latin bursa, a ^vpISIPID, Dull, Flat. Insipid, in Latin insipidus, from in, privative, and sapere, to taste, signifies without savor. DuU (see Dull). Flat (see Flat). want of spirit in the moral sense is designated by these epithets, which borrow their figurative meaning from different properties in nature the taste humor. INSNARE, Entrap, Entangle, Inis referrea to in the word insipid; the properties of colors are considered un- veigle. The idea of getting any ob-

A

:

INSOLENT

452 ject artfully into one's

mon

power

is

is a state; failure, an act consequent upon that state; and bank-

com- Insolvency

these terms: to insnare is to take in, or by means of, a snare, from Anglo-Saxon sneare, a cord, string, or noose; to entrap is to take in a trap, from Anglo-Saxon treppe, a step, a trap being a contrivance into which an animal steps aUied to tramp; to entangle is to take in a tangle, which is a Scandinavian word, a frequentative of tang, sea-weed, and means to twist around and around like sea-weed; to inveigle, or to take by means of making blind, is avitiation of the French aveugle, bhnd, from Latin ab, without, and oculum, eye. Insnare and entangle are used either in the natural or moral sense; entrap mostly in the natural, sometimes in the figurative, inveigle only in the moral In the natural sense birds are sense. insnared by means of bird-Ume, nooses, or whatever else may deprive them of their hberty: men and beasts are entrapped in whatever serves as a trap or an enclosure; they may be entrapped by being lured into a house or any place of confinement; all creatures are entangled by nets, or that which confines the limbs and prevents them from moving forward. In the moral sense, men are said to be insnared by their own passions and the allurements of pleasure into a course of vice which deprives them of the use to

all

—

ruptcy is an effect of that act. Insolvency is a condition of not being able to pay one's debts; failure is a cessation of business, from the want of means to carry it on; and bankruptcy is a legal surrender of all one's remaining goods into the hands of one's creditors, in consequence of a real or supposed inThese terms are seldom consolvency. fined to one person or description of persons. As an incapacity to pay debts is very frequent among others besides men of business, insolvency is said of any such persons; a gentleman may die in a state of insolvency who does not leave effects sufficient to cover aU demands. Although failure is here specifically taken for a failure in business, yet there may be a failure in one particular undertaking without any direct insolvency: a failure may likewise imply only a temporary failure in payment, or it may imply an entire failure of the concern. As a bankruptcy is a legal transaction, which entirely dissolves the firm imder which any business is conducted, it necessarily implies a failure to the full extent of the term; yet it does not necessarily imply an insolvency; for some men may, in consequence of a temporaxy failure, be led to commit an act of bankruptcy who

of their facilities and makes them virtually captives; they are entangled by their errors and imprudences in difficulties which interfere with their moral freedom and prevent them from acting. They are inveigled by the artifices of others when the consequences of their own actions are shut out from their view, and they are made to walk

are afterward enabled to give a full dividend to all their creditors.

Failure (see that word). Bankruptcy, modified etymologically from French banqueraute by knowledge of the second element, from the two words hanka and Tupta, signifies literally a broken bank. All these terms are in particular use in the mercantile world, but are not excluded also from general application.

or superior officer has the superintendence of any miUtary operation. Fi-

INSPECTION, Superintendency, Oversight. The office of looking into the conduct of others is expressed by the first two terms, but inspection comprehends little more than the preservation of good order; superintendence includes the arrangement of the whole. like bhnd men. The monitor of a school has the inspecINSOLENT. See Impertinent. tion of the conduct of his school-felINSOLVENCY, Failure, Bank- lows, but the master has the superinruptcy. Insolvency, from Latin in, tendence of the school. The officers of not, and solvere, to loose, to discharge an army inspect the men, to see that one's obligations, hence to pay, signi- they observe all the rules that have fies the state of not being able to pay. been laid down for them; a general deUty spector,

pecuUarly wanted in an injudgment and experience in a

is

superintendent. Inspection is said of things as well as persons; oversight only of persons; one has the inspection of books in order to ascertain their ac-

INSTRUMENT curacy; one has the oversight of persons to prevent irregularity: there is an inspector of the customs and an overseer of the poor. See also Insight. INSPECTOR. See Censor. INSPIRE. See Animate; Thrill. INSPIRING. See Electric. INSTANCE. See Example.

INSTANT, Moment.

Instant, from stand over, signifies the point of time that stands over us, or, as it were, over our heads. Moment, from the Latin momentum, from moinstare,

to

to move, signifies properly movement, but is here taken for the small particle of time in which any movevere,

ment

is

made.

Instant is always taken for the time present; moment is taken generally for dutieither past, present, or future. ful child comes the instant he is called; a prudent person embraces the favorable moment. When they are both taken for the present time, instant expresses a much shorter space than moment; when we desire a person to do a thing this instant, it requires haste: if we desire him to do it this moment, Instantait only admits of no delay. neous rehef is necessary on some occasions to preserve life; a moment's thought will furnish a ready wit with a suitable reply. Instant, Jiffy. Jiffy is a coUoquial word of uncertain origin, differing in its meaning from moment, much as instant differs, but indicating a still briefer moment of time than instant. It cannot, however, be employed in serious writing.

A

—

453

in the latter case it is

supposed only

to have a certain situation assigned to it. The order of the Jesuits was instituted by Ignatius de Loyola; schools were established by Alfred the Great in various parts of his dominions. The act of instituting comprehends design and "method; that of establishing includes the idea of authority. The Inquisition was instituted in the time of Ferdinand; the Church of England is established by authority. To institute is always the immediate act of some agent; to establish is sometimes the effect of circumstances. Men of public spirit instUvie that which is for the pubhc good; a communication or trade between certain places becomes established in course of time. An institution is properly of a public nature, private: but establishments are as often there are charitable and literary insti-

but domestic establishments. is a species of instituting which borrows its figurative meaning from the nature of buildings and is apphcable to that which is formed after the manner of a building; a pubhc school is founded when its pecuniary resources are formed into a fund or foundation. To erect is a species of tuiions,

To found

founding, for it expresses, in fact, a leading particular in the act of founding: nothing can be founded without

being erected;

although some things

may be

erected without being expressly founded in the natural sense; a house is both founded and erected; a monument is erected, but not founded; so in the figurative sense, a college is founded and consequently erected: but a tri-

INSTIGATE.

bunal is erected, not founded. See Encourage. INSTRUCT. See Inform. See Implant. INSTRUCTION. See Advice; EdINSTITUTE, Establish, Found, Erect. To institute, in Latin institutus, ucation. INSTRUCTIVE. See DiDAcnc. participle of instituo, from in and status

INSTIL.

to place or appoint, signifying to dispose or fix for a specific end, is to form according to a certain plan; to establish (see 'Fix) is to fix in a certain position what has been formed; to found (see Found) is to lay the foundation of anything; to erect (see Build) La^vs, communities, is to make erect. and particular orders are instituted; schools, colleges, and various societies are established: in the former case something new is supposed to be framed; ere,

INSTRUMENT, Tool.

Instrument, Latin itistrunienlum, from inslruo, signifies the thing by which an effect Tool comes from Anglois produced. Sax6n tol, an implement for working, signifying the thing with which one These terms are both employed toils. to express the means of producmg an end. An instrument is a tool of delicate or elaborate mechanism. Applied figuratively to persons, instrument is used a good sense, tool only in a mostly in

m

INSUFFICIENT

454

on by subjects only against their gov-

bad sense. Individuals in high stations are often the instruments in bringing about great changes in nations; spies and informers are the tools of

ernment. Revolt,

government.

INSUFFICIENT.

See Incapable;

Unsatisfactory.

INSULT. See Affront; Indignity.

INSUPERABLE. INSURRECTION,

Uke

rebellion,

signifies

origi-

nally a warring or turning against the power to which one has been subject; but revolt is mostly taken either in an indifferent or a good sense for resisting a foreign dominion which has been imposed by force of arms. Rebel and revolt may be figuratively applied to the powers of the mind when opposed to each other: the wiU rebels against the reason.

See Invincible. Sedition, Re-

bellion, Revolt. Insurrection, from insurrectus, participle of surgere (English surge), to rise up, signifies rising

INTEGRAL. INTEGRITY. INTELLECT,

up against any power that is. Sedition, in Latin seditio, compounded of sed, for se and itio, signifies a going

See Whole. See Honesty.

Genius,

Talent.

Latin intellectus, from inter, from the government. Rebellion, from between, and the past participle of leLatin re, against, and helium, war, sig- gere, to choose, meaning that which nifies turning upon or against, in a chooses between or judges, signifies the hostile manner, that to which one has gift of imderstanding, as opposed to Genius, in been before bound. Revolt, in French mere instinct or impulse. revolter, is most probably compoimded Latin genius, from gignere, to be born, of re and volter, from volvere, to roll, signifies that which is pecuharly born Talent (see Faculty). signifying to roll or turn back from, with us. Intellect is here the generic term, and to turn against that to which one has includes in its meaning that of the two been bound. The term insurrection is general; it is other terms; there cannot be genius used in a good or bad sense, according and talent without intellect, but there to the nature of the power against may be intellect without any express which one rises up: sedition and re- genius o' talent. Intellect is the inhellion are more specific; they are al- tellectual power improved and exalted ways taken in the bad sense of un- by cultivation and exercise; in this allowed opposition to lawful authority. sense we speak of a man of intellect, There may be an insurrection against or a work that displays great intellect; usurped power, which is always justi- genius is the particular bent of the fiable; but sedition and rebellion are intellect which is born with a man, as a levelled against power universally ac- genius for poetry, painting, music, etc. knowledged to be legitimate. Insur- talent is a particular mode of intellect rection is always open; it is a rising which qualifies its possessor to do some up of many in a mass; but it does not things better than others, as a talent imply any concerted or any specifically for learning languages, a talent for the active measure: a imited spirit of op- stage, etc. position, as the moving cause, is all See also Understanding. that is comprehended in the meaning INTELLECTUAL. See Mental. of the term: sedition is either secret INTELLIGENCE. See Informaor open, according to circumstances; tion. in popular governments it will be open INTEMPERATE. See Excessive. and determined; in monarchical govINTEND. See Design. ernments it is secretly organized: reINTENT, Intense. Intent and inbellion is the consummation of sedition; tense are both derived from the verb the scheme of opposition which has to intend, Latin intendere, signifying been digested in secrecy breaks out to stretch toward a point or to a great into open hostilities ana becomes re- degree the former is said only of the bellion. Insurrections may be made person or mind; the latter qualifies by nations against a foreign dominion, things in general: a person is intent or by subjects against their govern- when his mind is on the stretch toward ment: sedition and rebellion are carried an object; his apphcation is intense apart, that

is,

the people going apart

Intellect, in

:

i

nSTTERCOURSE when

his mind is for a continuance closely fixed on certain objects; cold is

intense its

when

it

seems to have reached

highest pitch.

-

See also Tenor.

INTERCEDE,

Interpose,

455

we

require the intercession of a Divine Being: without the timely interposition of a superior, trifling disputes may grow into bloody quarrels; without the interposition of Divine Providence, we of anything important as taking place: to settle the affairs of nations, mediators may afford a salutary assistance; to bring about the redemption of a lost world, the Son of God condescended to be Medi-

Medi- cannot conceive

ate, Interfere, Intermeddle. Intercede: from inter, between, and cedere, to go, signifies hterally going between; interpose, through French from Latin

between, and Late Latin pausare, to place, means placing one's self » between; mediate, from Latin mediatus, past participle of mediare, based on mediv^, middle, means coming in the

inter,

middle; interfere, through French from between, and Latin ferire, to strike, means striking between; and irvtermeddle, through French from Latin inter, between, and miscvlare (the intercalated d being an Anglo-French development, which was brought over into Middle English) (Late Latin), Latin miscere, to mix, signifies meddling or mixing among. One intercedes between parties that are unequal; one interposes between parties that are equal; one intercedes favor of that party which is threatinter,

m

ened with punishment; one interposes between parties that threaten each other with evil: we intercede with the parent in favor of the child who has offended, in order to obtain pardon for him; one interposes between two friends who are disputing to prevent them from going to extremities. One

by means of persuasion; it an act of covu-tesy or kindness in the person between whom and him on whose behalf the intercession is made to comply; one interposes by an exer-

intercedes is

ator.

All these acts are performed for the goodjof others; but interfere and intermeddle are of a different description: one may interfere for the good of others or to gratify one's self; one never intermeddles but for selfish purposes: the first three terms are, therefore, always used in a good sense; the fourth in a good or bad sense, according to circumstances; the last always a bad

m

INTERCHANGE, Exchange, Reciprocity, hiterchange is a frequent and mutual exchange (see Change); exchange consists of one act only; an interchange consists of many acts: an interchange is used only in the moral sense; exchange is used mostly in the proper sense: an interchange of civilities keeps alive good-will; an exchange of commodities is a convenient mode of trade. Interchange is an act; reciprocity is an abstract property by an interchange of sentiment, friendships are engendered; the reciprocity of good services is what renders them doubly acceptable to those who do them and to those who receive them. :

INTERCOURSE, Commxtnication, a matter of pro- Connection, Commerce. Intercourse, the parties to through French, from Latin intercurconform. The favorite of a monarch sus, signifies, literally, a running beCommunication (see Commuintercedes in behalf of some criminal, tween. Connection (see Connect). that his punishment may be mitigated nicate). the magistrates interpose with their Commerce, from cum, and merces, merauthority to prevent the broils of the chandise, signifies, literally, an exdisorderly from coming to serious acts change of merchandise, and generally cise of authority; it is priety or necessity in

of violence. To intercede

and

interpose are

em-

ployed on the highest and lowest occasions; to mediate is never employed but in matters of the greatest moment.

As earthly offenders, we require the intercession of a fellow-mortal; as offenders against the God of heaven,

an interchange. Intercourse and commerce subsist only between persons; communication and connection between persons and things. An intercourse with persons may be carried on in various forms; either b^ an interchange of civilities, which is a friendly intercourse; an exchange of

INTERDICT

456

which is a commercial involuntary or painful; we have a conan exchange of words, cern in that which we are obliged to look a verbal and partial inter- to, which we are bound to from the fear

commodities,

intercourse; or

which

is

course: a communication, in this sense, is a species of intercourse, namely, that which consists in the communication of

one's thoughts to another, subsist between man and

which

man

may

or be-

man and

his Maker. connection consists of a permanent intercourse; since one who has a regular intercourse for purposes of trade with

tween

A

another is said to have a connection with him, or to stand in connection with him. There may, therefore, be a partial intercourse or communication where there is no connection, nothing to bind or link the parties to each other: but there cannot be a connection which is not kept up by continued intercourse. The commerce is a species of general close intercourse; it may consist either of frequent meeting and regular co-operation or in cohabitation: in this sense we speak of the commerce of

but

men one with another, or the commerce of man and wife, of parents and children, and the hke. As it regards things, communication is said of places in the proper sense; connection is used for things in the proper or improp>er sense: there is said to De a communication between two rooms when there is a passage open from one to the other; one house has a connection with another when there is a common passage or thoroughfare to them: a communication is kept up between two countries by means of regular or irregular conveyances; a connection subsists between two towns when the inhabitants trade with one another, intermarry, and the like.

INTERDICT. See Forbid. INTEREST, Concern. The

inter-

(from the Latin interesse, to be among, or have a part or a share in

est

a thing) concern

more comprehensive than Affair). We have an whatever touches or comes

is

(see

interest in

near to our feeUngs or our external circvmistances; we have a concern in that which demands our attention. Interest is that which is agreeable; it consists of either profit, advantage, gain, or amusement; it binds us to an object and makes us think of it: concern,

on the other hand,

is

of losing or of suffering. It is the interest of every man to cultivate a philosophical temper: it is the concern of all to be on their guard against temptation.

INTERFERE. See Intercede. INTERIOR. See Inside; Inward. INTERLOPER. See Intruder.

INTERMEDDLE. See Intercede. INTERMEDIATE, Intervening. Intermediate signifies being in the midst, between two objects; intervening signifies

coming between: the former to space and time; the

is ap>-

pli cable

latter

either to time or circumstances. intermediate time between the

mencement and the termination

The comof

a

truce is occupied with preparations for the renewal of hostilities; intervening circumstances sometimes change the views of the belligerent parties, and dispose their minds to peace.

INTERMENT.

See Burial

INTERMIT. See Subside. INTERN, Confine, Interne.

In-

in French interne, from Latin internum, inward, from inter, within, between, and suffix -nus, Itahan and Spanish interna. Intern, as a substantive, signifies a student residing at a school, a boarder; in the more common form, interne, a physician or surgeon living at a hospital or similar institution, in distinction from a visiting or consulting physician or surgeon; also, in war-times, to a person or a vessel detained at an appointed place, without permission to leave. Intern, as a verb, signifies to send and confine in the interior of a country. Prisoners of war are interned at places more or less remote from the field of action, and captured war-ships and some other vessels are interned also at a distance from home ports. The former are usually held till exchanged, the latter till the close of the war. In the summer of 1915 there were about seventy Teutonic vessels of all kinds interned in the ports of the United States, because of the European war. tern,

INTERPOSE. INTERPRET.

See Intercede. See Explain. INTERROGATE. See Ask. INTERVAL, Respite. Interval, in Latin intervallum, signifies, literally, the something space between the stakes which formed

INTRANSIGENT a Homan intrenchment; and, by an extended application, it signifies any space. Respite, Old French respit, comes from Latin respedum. It referred originally to the "resjpect had to a suit on the part of a judge," and so meant a delay, a reprieve. Every respite requu*es an interval; but there are many intervals where there is no respite. The term interval

457

gence in some intoxicating Uquor: a person may be intoxicated by the smell of strong liquors, or by vapors which produce a similar effect; he becomes drunken by the drinking of wine or other spirits. In another sense, a dep-

rivation of one's reasoning faculties is the common idea in the signification of aU these terms: intoxication and drunkenness spring from the intemperconcerns time only; respite includes the ate state of the feeUngs; infatuation idea of ceasing from action for a time; springs from the ascendency of the intervals of ease are a respite to one passions over the reasoning powers: a who is oppressed with labor; the in- person is intoxicated with success, drunk terval which is sometimes granted to a with joy, infatuated by an excess of vancriminal before his execution is in the ity, an impetuosity of character, or a most proper sense a respite. passion for one of the opposite sex.

INTERVENTION, iNTERPOsmoN. The and

intervention, from inter, between, the past participle of venio, to

come,

is

said of inanimate objects; the

interposition, from inter, between, and positus, past participle of pono, to place,

The said only of rational agents. light of the moon is obstructed by the intervention of the clouds; the life of an individual is preserved by the interposition of a superior: human life is so full of contingencies that when we have is

INTRANSIGENT, Communist, Nihilist, Socialist.

Intransigent, in

French intransigeant and Spanish intransigente, is a compound of the Latin in, not, and transigo, to agree or settle,, and implies a person who is dissatisfied with present conditions, esf>ecially of a social character, and who refuses

to come to an agreement with others on questions of pubhc interest. These terms form a part of a considerable number of designations having a com-

formed our projects we can never say

mon import, yet conveying different im-

what may

intervene to prevent their execution; when a man is engaged in

pressions according to conditions in the coimtries where they are most in vogue.

an imequal combat, he has no chance

An intransigent, intransigeant, and intransigente, applied to persons in France, Italy, and Spain, respectively, or an irreconcilable, representing at first a member of the Extreme Left in

of escaping but by the timely interposition of one who is able to rescue

him.

INTIMACY. See Acquaintance. INTIMATE. See Hint. INTIMIDATE. See Fmghten; Overawe.

INTOXICATION, Drunkenness, Intoxication, from the Latin toxicum (Greek to^ikov, a poison

Infatuation,

the Spanish Cortes and subsequently a member of the extreme Republican party in Spain, is one who opposes existing pohcies in a pohtical, economical,

and

social sense.

The communist beUeves

in the docfor arrows, from ro?a, arrows), signi- trine that all property should be held fies the state of being imbued with equally by all members of a community. Drunkenness signifies the The nihilist of Russiar beUeved in dea poison. In- stroying existing institutions and govstate of having drunk overmuch. fatuation, from fatuus, foohsh, signi- ernmental forms and pohcies, and in fies making foolish, or the state of founding a new order of things generally. The socialist of Germany, the being made foohsh. Intoxication and drunkenness are United States, and other countries beused either in the proper or the im- Ueves that society should be reconproper sense; infatvMion in the im- structed on the basis of co-operation proper sense onJy; intoxication is a of labor and the community of propgeneral state; drunkenness a particu- erty, so that there would be neither lar state; intoxication may be produced the really rich nor the really poor. The principles underlying these variby various causes; drunkenness is produced only by an immoderate indul- ous doctrines have had earnest and emi-

INTRENCH

458

nent advocates for many years, and, as in innumerable attempts to harmonize and improve social conditions, many pf the propagandists, through overzeal, have been guilty of criminal excesses, especially in France, Italy, and Russia. A fiuther exposition of movements

for social betterment will

be found in

the article on Socialism.

INTRENCH.

See

Encroach;

Trench.

INTREPID. See Bold. INTRICACY. See Complexity. INTRICATE. See Knotty. INTRIGUING. See Scheming. INTRINSIC, Real, Genuine, Native.

from low,

Intrinsic, in Latin intrinsecus, intra, ^-ithin, and sequi, to folsignified hterally following in-

ward, that is, lying in the thing itself. Real, through French reel, or directly from Late Latin realis, from the Latin res, signifies belonging to the very Genuine, in Latin genuinus, thing. from gignere, to bring forth, signifies actually brought forth, or springing out of a thing. Native, in Latin nativus, and ^rialus, bom, signifies actually bom, or .arising from a thing. The value of a thing is either intrinsic or real: but the intrinsic value is said in regard to its extrinsic value; the real value in regard to the artificial: the intrinsic value of a book is that which it will fetch when sold in a regular way, in opposition to the extrinsic value, as being the gift of a friend, a particular edition, or a Particular type: the real value of a ook, in the proper sense, lies in the fineness of the paper and the costliness of its binding, and, in the improper sense, it hes in the excellence of its contents, in opposition to the artificial value which it acquires in the minds pf bibliophiles from being a scarce edition. The worth of a man is either genuine or native: the genuine worth of a man lies in the excellence of his moral char-

opposed to his adventitious worth, which he acquires from the possession of wealth, power, and dignity: his native worth is that which is inborn in him, and natural, in opf>osition to the meretricious ana borrowed worth which he may derive from his situation, his talent, or his efforts to please. acter, as

INTRODUCE,

Present. To irdroduce, from the Latin intra, into, and ducere, to lead, signifies UteraUy to bring within or into any place; to present (see Give) signifies to bring into the presence of. As they concern persons, the former passes between equals, the latter only among persons of rank and power: one hterary man is introduced to another by means of a common friend; he is presented at court by means of a nobleman. As these terms concern things, we say that subjects are introdvxxd in the course of conversation; men's particular views upon certain subjects are presented to the notice of others through the medium of publication. Obtrude. To intrude is to thrust one's self into a place; to obtrude, a use now practically obsolete, is to thrust one's self in the way ^both from trudere, to thrust. Intrude, therefore, literally corresponds to the slang phrase butt in. It is intrusion to go into any society imasked

INTRUDE,

—

and Uudesired;

it is obtruding to put one's self in the way of another by joining the company and taking a part in the conversation without invitation or consent. An intruder is unwelcome because his company is not at all desired, but an obtruder may be no further unwelcome than as he occasions an interruption or disturbance. In the moral application they preserve the same distinction. Thoughts which we wish to banish intrude some-

times on the mind unpleasant thoughts obtrude themselves to the exclusion or interruption of those we wish to retain. See also Encroach. ;

—

Intruder, Interloper. An intruder thrusts himself in: an interloper (coined from inter, Latin, meaning within, and

Dutch

looper,

English leap) runs in

between and takes his station.

The

intruder, therefore, intrudes only for a short space of time, and in an unimpor-

tant degree; but the wierZoper deprives another of his essential rights and for a permanency. A man is an intruder who is an unbidden guest at the table of another; he is an interloper when he joins any society in such manner as to obtain its privileges without sharing its burdens. Intruders are always

INVENT offensive in the domestic circle: interlopers in trade are always regarded with an evil eye.

INTRUST.

See Consign. See Overflow. See Encroach. Patient. Invalid,

INUNDATE. INVADE. INVALID,

in

Latin invcdidus, signifies, literally, one not strong or in good health; jxitient, from the Latin pattens, suffering, signifies one suffering under disease. Invalid is a general, and patient a particular, term; a person may be an invalid without being a patient: he may be a patient without being an invalid. An is so denominated from his wanting the ordinary share of health and strength; but the paiient is one who is laboring under some bodily suffering. Old soldiers are called in-

invalid

who

are no longer able to bear the fatigues of warfare: but they are not necessarily patients. He who is under the surgeon's hands for any valids

wound an

is

a

patient,

but not necessarily

invalid.

INVASION,

459

the Scotch and English used to make inroads upon each other. These words preserve the same distinction in their figurative appUcation. Invade signifies a hostile attack, and may be applied to physical objects or to spiritual objects; as to invade one's peace of mind, privileges, etc. Inroad denotes the progress into any body of what is bad; as the inroads of disease into the constitution, into the

mind.

INVECTIVE. See Abuse. INVEIGH. See Declaim. INVEIGLE. See Insnare, INVENT, Feign, Frame, Fabricate, Forge. All these terms are employed to express the production of something out of the mind, by means of its

own

efforts.

To

invent (see

Con-

trive) is the general term; thp other terms imply modes of invention imder different circumstances. To invent, as distinguished from the rest, is busied in creating new forms either by means of the imagination or the reflective powers; it forms combinations either purely spiritual or those which are mechanical and physical: the poet invents imagery; the philosopher invents mathematical problems or mechanical instruments. Invent is used for the production of new forms to real objects, or for the

L^CTJRSiON, Irruption, idea of making a forcible entrance into a foreign territory is common to all these terms. Invasion, from in, into, and vado, to go, expresses merely this general idea, without any particular qualification: incursion, (rova in and cursus, past participle of curro, to run, signifies a hasty and sudden in- creation of unreal objects; to feign is vasion: irruption, from in, and ruptus, used for the creation of unreal objects past participle of rumpo, to break, signi- or such as have no existence but in fies a particularly violent invasion; in- the mind: a play or a story is invented road, from in and road, signifying the from what passes in the world: Momaking a road or way for one's self, hammed's religion consists of nothing impUes the going farther into a coun- but inventions: the heathen poets try and making a longer stay than by feigned all the tales and fables which an incursion. Invasion is said of that constitute the mythology or history which passes in distant lands; Alex- of their deities. To frame, that is, to ander invaded India; Hannibal crossed make according to a frame, is a species the Alps and made an invasion into of invention which consists in the disItaly: incursion is said of neighboring position as well as the combination of Thespis was the inventor of states; the borderers on each side the objects. Tweed used to make frequent incur- tragedy: Psalmanazar framed an entirely new language, which he presions into England or Scotland. Invasion is the act of a regular army; tended to be spoken on the island of it is a systematic mihtary movement: Formosa; Solon framed a new set of irruption and inroad are the irregular laws for the city of Athens. To invent, frame, and feign are all movements of bodies of men the former is apphed particularly to uncultivated occasionally employed in the ordinary nations, and the latter, like incursion, concerns of life, and in a bad sense; to neighboring states: the Goths and fabricate is selaom, and forge never, Vandak made irruptions into Europe; used any otherwise. Invent is employed

Inroad.

The

;

INVERT

460

the fruit of one's ing at with an evil eye: envious is contrary to the literally only a variation of invidious. truth; to feign is employed for that Invidious, in its common acceptation, whdch is unreal; to frame is employed signifies causing ill-will; envious sigtask is infor that which requires dehberation nifies having iU-will. and arrangement to fabricate and forge vidious that puts one in the way of are employed for that which is ab- giving offence; a look is envious that solutely false and requiring more or is full of envy. Invidious qualifies the A thing; envious qualifies the temper of less exercise of the inventive power. person inverUs a lie, and feigns sorrow; the mind. It is invidious for one auinvents an excuse, and feigns an at- thor to be judge against another who tachment. A story is invented, inas- has written on the same subject: a much as it is new and not before man is envious when the prospect of conceived by others or occasioned by another's happiness gives him pain. INVIGORATE. See Strengthen. the suggestions of others; it is framed, INVINCIBLE, Unconquerable, inasmuch as it requires to be duly disposed in all its parts, so as to be Insuperable, Insurmountable. Inconsistent; it ia fabricated, inasmuch as vincible signifies not to be vanquished (see Conquer): unconquerable, not to it runs in direct opposition to actual circumstances and therefore has re- be conquered: insuperable, not to be quired the skill and labor of a work- overcome: insurmountable, not to be man; it is forged (from Old French surmounted. Persons or things which forge, a work-shop, Latin fabrica), in- can withstand all force are in the asmuch as it seems by its utter false- strict sense invincible; but as in this hood and extravagance to have caused sense nothing created can be termed as much severe action in the brain as invincible, the term is employed to exwhat is produced by the fire in a press strongly whatever can withstand furnace or forge. human force in general: on this groimd See also Contrive; Find. the Spaniards termed their Armada INVERT. See Overturn. invincible. The quahties of the mind INVEST, Endue or Endow. To are termed unconquerable when they invest, from vestire, to clothe, whence are not to be won over or brought EngUsh vestments is derived, signifies under the control of one's own reason to clothe in anything. Endue or en- or the judgment of another: hence dow, from the Latin induo, signifies to obstinacy is with propriety denomiput on anything. One is invested with nated unconquerable which will yield that which is external: one is endued to no foreign influence. The particuwith that which is internal. We irir- lar disposition of the mind or turn of vest a person with an office or a dig- thinking is termed insuperable, inasnity: a person is endued with good much as it baffles our resolution or quahties. To invest is a real external wishes to have it altered; an aversion action; but to endue may be merely is insuperable which no reasoning or fictitious or mental. The king is in- endeavor on our own part can overvested with supreme authority; a lover come. Things are denominated inendues his mistress with every earthly surmountable, inasmuch as they baffle perfection. Endow is but a variation one's skill or efforts to get over them of endue, and yet it seems to have ac- or put them out of one's way: an obquired a distinct office: we may say stacle is insurmountable which in the that a person is endued or endowed with nature of things is irremovable. Some a good understanding; but as an act people have an insuperable antipathy of the imagination endow is not to be to certain animals; some persons are substituted for endue: for we do not of so modest and timid a character say that it endows, but endues things that the necessity of addressing stranwith properties. gers is with them an insuperable objecSee also Besiege. tion to using any endeavors for their INVIDIOUS, Envious. Invidious, own advancement; the difficulties which in Latin invidiosus, from invidia, or in, Columbus had to encounter in his disnot, and videre, to see, signifies look- covery of the New World would have for that

which

is

own mind and mostly

A

;

IRREGULAR appeared insurmountable to any mind less determined and persevering. INVITE. See Attract; Call. INVOLVE. See Implicate. INWARD, Internal, Inner, Interior. Inxoard signifies toward the inside, that is, not absolutely within: internal signifies positively within: inner, as the comparative of inward, sig-

more inward; and interior, as the comparative of internal, sigmfies nifies

more internal. Inward is employed more frequently to express a state than to qualify an object; internal to qualify the objects: a thing is said to be turned inward which forms a part of the inside: it is said to be internal as one of its characteristics; inward, as denoting the position, is indefinite; anything that is in the smallest

w

degree is inward; thus what we take in the mouth is inward in distinction from that which may be applied to the hps; but that is properly internal which lies in the very frame and system of the body; inner, which rises in degree on inward, is apphcable to such bodies as admit of specific degrees of enclosure: thus the inner shell of a nut is that which is enclosed in the inward: so likewise interior is applicable to that which is capacious and has many involutions, as the irvterior coat of the intestines. IRE. See Anger. IRIDESCENT. See Nacreotts. IRONY. See Ridicule; Wit. IRRATIONAL, Foolish, Absurd,

461

to the practice rather than the principle. Scepticism, to those who have faith, is the most irrational thing that exists; the human mind, from this viewpoint, is formed to believe, but not to doubt: he is, of all men, considered most foolish who stakes his eternal salvation on his own fancied superiority of inteUigence and illummation. Foolish, absurd, and preposterous rise in degree: a violation of common sense is implied by them aU, but they vary according to the d^ree of violence which is done to the understanding :/ooZis/i is applied to anything, however trivial, which in the smallest degree offends our understanding: the conduct of children is therefore often foolish, but not absurd and preposterous, which are said only of serious things that are opposed to our judgment: it is absurd for a man to persuade another to do that which he in like circumstances would object to do himself; it is preposterous for a man to expose himself to the ridicule of others and then be angry with those

who

will

not treat him respectfully. See Intran-

IRRECONCILABLE. sigent.

IRREFRAGABLE. IRREGULAR,

See Indubita-

Disorderly, Inor-

dinate, Intemperate.

Irregttlar,

that

not regular, marks merely the absence of a good quality; disorderly, that is, literally, out of order, marks the presence of a positively baa Preposterous. Irrational, compound- quality. What is irregtuar may be so ed of in, not, ratio, reason, and a suffix, from the nature of the thing; what is signifies contrary^ reason, and is em- disorderly is rendered so by some ployed to express the want of the faculty external circumstance. Things are itself, or a deficiency in the exercise of planted irregularly for want of design: this faculty. Foolish (see Folly) signi- the best troops are apt to be disorderly Ab- in a long march. Irregular and disfies the perversion of this faculty. surd, from ab, and surdus, deaf, signifies orderly are taken in a moral as well as that to which one would turn a deaf ear. a natural sense: inordinate, which sigPreposterous, from prae, before, and pos- nifies also put out of order, is employed What is irierus, behind, signifies, literally, that only in the moral sense. side foremost which ought to be be- regular is. or ought to be, contrary to hind, which is unnatural and contrary the rule that is established; what is disorderly is contrary to the order that to common sense. Irrational is not so strong a term as has existeti; what is inordinate is confoolish: it is applicable more frequently trary to the order that is prescribed; to the thing than to the person, to the what is intemperate is contrary to the principle than to the practice; foolish, temper or spirit that ought to be enon the contrary, is commonly appli- couraged. Our habits will be irregucable to the person as well as the thing; lar which are not conformable to the is, literally,

IRRELIGIOUS

462

laws of social society; our practices will be disorderly when we foUow the blind impulse of passion; our desires will be inordinate when they are not under the control of reason guided by religion; our indulgences will be intemperate when we consult nothing but our appetites. Young people are apt to contract irregular habits if not placed under the care of discreet and sober people and made to conform to the regulations of domestic life: children are naturally prone to become disorderly if not perpetually under the eye of a master: it is the lot of human beings of all ages and stations to have inordinate desires, which require a constant check so as to prevent intemperale conduct of any kind. IRRELIGIOUS, Profane, Impious. As epithets to designate the character of the person they seem to rise in degree:

and

irreligious

is

negative; profane the latter

impioiLs are positive,

much stronger than the former. men who are not positively act-

being All

uated by principles of rehgion are

ir-

profanity and impiety are, however, of a still more heinous nature; they consist not in the mere absence of regard for religion, but in a positive contempt of it and open outrage against its laws; the profane man treats what is sacred as if it were profane; what a believer holds in reverence and utters with awe is pronounced with an air of indifference or levity, and as a matter of common discourse, by a profane man; he knows no difference between sacred and profane, but as the former may be converted into religious;

a som-ce of scandal toward others; the impious man is directly opposed to the pious man; the former is filled with

and rebellion against his Maker, as the latter is with love and

defiance

reverence.

When appHed

to things, the term seems to be somewhat more positively opposed to religion; an irreligious book is not merely one in which there is no religion, but that also which is detrimental to rehgion, such as sceptical or hcentious writirreligious

ings: the epithet profane in this case is not always a term of reproach, but

employed to distinguish what is temporal from that which is expressly spiritual in its nature; the history of nations is profane as distinguished from the sacred history contained in the Bible: the writings of the heathens are altogether profane as distinguished from the moral writings of Christians or the beUevers in Divine Revelation. On the other hand, when we speak of a profane sentiment or a profane joke, profane hps, and the Hke, the sense is personal and reproachful; impious is never appUed but to what is personal, and in the very worst sense; an impious thought, an impious wish, or an impious vow, is the fruit of an impious mind. is

IRREPROACHABLE.

See Blame-

less.

IRREVERENT. IRRITATE.

See Sacrilegious. Aggravate; See

Worry.

IRRUPTION.

See Invasion. See Segregate. ISSUE. See Arise; Consequence; Event; Offspring; Rise; Sally.

ISOLATE.

JEALOUSY

JABBER, Gabble, Mumble. These imitative words signifying methods of vocal expression. Between jabber and gabble there is httle difference except that suggested by the sound of the words; they are both derived from gab, to talk, itself an imitative word which has an interesting history. They signify the utterance of rapid, inarticulate sounds. Jabber is more frequently used to indicate that which is inarticulate, and suggests a greater rapidity and sharpness of utterance. Parrots and monkeys are said to jabber; ducks and geese, to gabble. Jobber is used especially of the sound of a foreign language; we speak of jabbering French, jabbering ItaUan, etc. Gabble is contemptuously apphed to the sound of any talk. Mumble suggests a different type of utterance. It is a frequentative of Middle English mum, which signifies the least sound made with closed hps; it means, hterally, to keep saying "mum, mmn." are

all

See also Babble. JADE. See Weaby.

JAGGED, Cleft, Denticulated, Serrated, Uneven. Jagged is the adjective form of the substantive jag, a Scandinavian word signifying notch or tooth, and means notched or toothhke, signifying an uneven edge. An object that has been deft or spUt usually exhibits irregular or rough edges or surfaces, as a rock that has been blasted; one that has become denticulated (from the Latin dentiadus, a small tooth) displays projecting points; one that is serrated (from the Latin serro, to saw) shows protuberances or an irregular edge, as the cutting edge of a fine saw; and whatever is uneven is more or less rough or ragged on its surface or edge. The Sierra Madre Moimtains in Mexico and the Sierra Nevada range in California are so called because they have serrated or saw-tooth ridges, and

463

Jag also has the significance of a small load^ and from this is derived two American slang terms: a person who is thoroughly intoxicated is said to have a load on or to be carrying a load; another who is but partially intoxicated is said to have a jag on. JAM. See Pack. JANGLE, Jar, Wrangle. verbal contention is expressed by all these terms, but with various modifications: jangle is an imitative word of Scandi-

A

navian origin; it conveys by its own discordant sound an idea of the discordance which accompanies this kind of war of words. Jar is also an imitative word, which has parallels in the various Teutonic tongues; it means to utter SL harsh soimd, and comes from Middle English garren, to chide, AngloSaxon ceorian, to murmur, etc. Wrangle is a frequentative of wring; its original sense was to keep twisting on or urging; hence to argue vehemently. There is in jangling more of cross-questions and perverse replies than direct differences of opinion; those jangle who are out of

humor with one another;

there

is

more

of discordant feeling and opposition of opinion in jarring: those who have no good-will to each other will be sure

when they come into collision; and those who mdulge themselves in to jar

jarring will soon convert affection into ill-will. Married people may destroy the good -humor of the company by jangling, but they destroy their domesTo tic peace and feUcity by jarring. wrangle is technically what to jangle is morally: those who dispute by a verbal opposition only are said to wrangle; and the disputcrs who engage in this scholastic exercise are termed wranglers; most disputations amount to httle more than wrangling.

JAR.

See Jangle.

JAUNT. See Excursion. JEALOUSY, Envy, Suspicion.

a leaf and other botanical growths that Jealousy comes from Late Latin zelohave sharp, straight-edged teeth, point- sus, full of zeal, from Greek JqXof, zeal, and signifies zealous for that which ing to the apex, are termed serrated.

JEER

464

is one's own, and hence fearful lest or those who have a common object of some one should take it away. Envy, desire; but suspicion is directed toward in French envie, Latin invidia, from iv^ any one who has the p>ower as well as video, compomided of in, privative, and the will to hurt; rival lovers axe jealous

to see, signifies not looking at, or looking at in a contrary direction. are jealous of what is our own; we are envious of what is another's. Jealousy fears to lose what it has; envy is pained at seeing another have that which it wants for itself. Princes are jealous of their authority; subjects are jealous of their rights; covirtiers are envious of those in favor; women are envious of superior beauty. The jealous man has an object of desire, something to get and something to retain; he does not look beyond the object that interferes with his enjoyment; a. jealous husband may therefore be appeased by the declaration of his wife's animosity against the object of Ms jealousy. The envious man sickens at the sight of enjoyment; he is easy only in the misery of others: all endeavors, therefore, to satisfy an envious man are fruitless. Jealousy is a noble or an ignoble passion, according to the object; in the former case it is rridere,

We

of each other, but one person is suspicious of another's honesty, or parties

entering into a treaty may be suspicious of each other's good faith. Jealousy

cannot subsist between a king and his people in any other than in the anomalous and imhappy case of power being the object sought for on both sides; a king may then be jealous of his prerogative when he fears that it wUl be infringed by his people; and the people will he jealous of their rights when they fear that they will be invaded by the crown. According to this distinction, jealousy is erroneously substituted in the place of suspicion. Jealousy is concerned only in not losing what one wishes for; suspicion is afraid of incurring some positive evil. JEER. See Scoff. JEOPARD, See Hazakd.

JEST, Joke, Make Game, Sport. meant originally a story, a merry

Jest

tale, from Old French geste, an exploit, from Latin gesta, past participle of geremulation sharpened by fear; in the rere, to wage war a geste being a tale latter case it is greediness stimulated of warUke deeds. Joke is derived from by fear; envy is always a base passion, Latin iocus, a game. To make game drawing the worst passions in its train. signifies here to make the subject of

Jealous is appUcable to bodies of men as well as individuals; envious, to the individuals only. Nations are jealous of any interference on the part of any other power in their commerce, government, or territory; individuals are envious of the rank, wealth, and honors of one another. Suspicion, from Latin suspicere, sub, under, and specere, to look, i.e., to look from under one's eyelids out of fear of being seen to look, denotes an apprehenjealousy, imphes sion of injury, and, a fear of another's intentions; but susmore of distrust in it than picion has jealousy: the jealous man doubts neither the integrity nor the sincerity of his opponent; the suspicious man is altogether fearful of the intentions of another: the jealous man is jealous only of him who he thinks wishes for the same thing as he does, and may rob him of it the suspicious man is suspicious or fearful that he may suffer something from another. Jealousy properly exists between equals

^e

:

—

To sport or play (see Play). here to sport with or convert into a subject of amusement. One jests in order to make others laugh; one jokes in order to please one's self. The jest is directed at the object; the joke is practiced with the person or on the person. One attempts to make a thing laughable or ridiculous by jesting about it, or treating it in a jesting manner; one attempts to excite good-hxmaor in others, or indulge it in one's self, by joking with them. Jests are therefore seldom harmless: jokes are frequently allowable. The most serious subject may be degraded by being timied into a jest; but melancholy or dejection of the mind may be conveniently dispelled by a joke. game

signifies

Court fools and buffoons used formerly to turn their jests upon every subject by which they thought to entertain their employers: those who know how to joke with good-nature and discretion may contribute to the mirth of the

JUDGE company

:

to

make game

of

is

applicable

only to persons: to make a sport of or ^port with is applied to objects in general, whether persons or things; both are employed, hkejest, in the bad sense of treating a thing more Ughtly than it

deserves.

JIFFY.

See Instant. See Coquet. JITNEY. See Automobile. JOCOSE.' See Facetious; Jocular. JOCUND. See Lively. JOIN. See Add. JOKE. See Jest. JOLLITY. See Mirth. JOURNEY, Travel, Voyage. Journey, through the French youmee, a day's work, from Latin diumata, the feminine past participle of Late Latin diumare, to sojourn, based on diumus, daily, signifies the course that is taken in the space of a day, or in general any comparatively short passage from one place

JILT.

Travel is the same word to another. as travail, to labor; it may be derived from Late Latin trepalium, a kind of

465

condition of the soul is designated by all these terms; but joy, from the Latin gaudia, joys, and gladness (see Glad) he more internally; mirth (see Festivity) is the more immediate result of external circumstances. What creates jf>^ and gladness is of a permanent nature; that which creates mirth is temporary: yortance in drawing; correctgether are so crowded that the parts of ness of dates enhances the value of a one are mixed with the parts of others, history. It has been justly observed and the result is disorganizing con- by the morahsts of antiquity that ;

fusion.

money

is

the root of

all

evil;

parti-

sans seldom state correctly what they See Combination. see and hear. JUST. See Right. JUTTING. See Salient. JUSTICE, Equity. Justice, based on JUVENILE. See Youthful. ius, right, is founded on the laws of

JUNTO.

KEEN

468

K KEEN.

See

Acute; Sharp;

Trenchant.

KEEP, Preserve, of

Save. The idea having in one's possession is com-

mon

to

all

these terms;

it

is,

how-

To keep marks simply a perseverance or continuance in a thing; a man keeps his word if he does not depart from it: to observe marks fideUty and consideration; we observe a mle when we are careful to be guided by it; to fulfil marks the perfection and consummation of that

ever, the simple meaning of keep (see Hold): to preserve, from prce, beforehand, and servare, to keep, that is, to which one has kept; we fulfil a promise keep for futm-e use, signifies to keep by acting in strict conformity to it. Keeping, Custody. Keeping is, as bewith care and free from all injury; to Custody is in save, aUied to safe, is to keep laid up in fore, the general term. a safe place and free from destruction. Latia custodia, from custos, a guardian, Things are kept at all times and under UteraUy a "hider," related to Greek The first of these all circumstances; they are preserved in Ktvduv, to hide. circumstances of peculiar difficulty and terms is, as before, the most general in danger; they are saved in the moment its signification; the latter is more freThe keeping amounts in which they are threatened with de- quent in its use. struction: things are kept at pleasure; to Httle more than having purposely in they are preserved by an exertion of one's possession; but custody is a parpower; they are saved by the use of ex- ticular kind of keeping, for the purpose traordinary means: the shepherd keeps of preventing an escape inanimate obhis flock by simply watching over them; jects may be in one's keeping; but a children are sometimes wonderfully prisoner, or that which is in danger of preserved in the midst of the greatest getting away, is placed in custody: a dangers; things are frequently saved, in person has in his keeping that which the midst of fire, by the exertions of he values as the property of an absent those present. friend: the oflScers of justice get into Keep, Observe, FvXfil. These terms their custody those who have offended are synonymous in the moral sense of against the laws, or such property as abiding by and carrying into execu- has been stolen. tion what is prescribed or set before KEY, Clue, Hint. These words one for his rule of conduct; to keep is represent the same idea imder different simply to have by one in such manner metaphors. key, a clue, and a hint that it shall not depart; to observe, in are all means of discovery. Key, from Latin observe, compounded of ob, near, Anglo-Saxon cceg, is that which unand servare, to keep, signifying to keep locks. Clixe signified originally a ball in one's view, to fix one's attention, is of thread, from Anglo-Saxon cliwen; to keep with a steady attention: to ful- hence a single thread by which the ball

—

:

—

A

(see Accomplish) is to keep to the may be unrolled or a web untangled. end or to the full intent. A day is Hint comes from Middle English heneither kept or observed: yet the former ten, to seize; it is that upon which one is not only a more familiar term, but it seizes as a possible aid to discovery. Ukewise imphes a much less solemn act A clv^ is less certain than a key; and a than the latter; one must add, there- hint less certain than a cltie. If a defore, the mode in which it is kept, by tective has found the key to a mystery, saying that it is kept holy, kept sacred, he is certain that he has succeeded in or kept as a day of pleasure; the term his case; if he has found a clue, he is observe, however, imphes always that hopeful, but not certain. If he has a it is kept reUgiously: we may keep, but hint to work upon, he may find a defiwe do not observe a birthday; we keep nite clv£, but he has no reason for great or observe the Sabbath. optimism as yet.

fil

KIND

469

KILL, MtTRDER, Assassinate, Slay

that they are of the animal or vegetable Kill, from Anglo- kind; oi the canine or feline kind; but or Slaughter. Saxon cwelan, to die, means to cause we discriminate them precisely if we to die, and is related to the verb qtteU. say that they are a species of the arMurder, in Anglo-Saxon morth, Grerman butus, of the pomegranate, of the dog, mord, etc., is connected with the Latin the horse, and the like. By the same mors, death. Assassinate, from Arabic rule we may speak of a species of madhashashin, signifies to kill after the ness, a species of fever, and the like; bemanner of an assassin, which word cause dieases have been brought under probably comes from the Levant, where, a systematic arrangement: but on the the thirteenth century, there lived a other hand, we should speak of a kind prince who was called the "Old Man of language, a kind of feeling, a kind of of the Mountains." He lived in a cas- influence; and in similar cases where a tle between Antioch and Damascus, and general resemblance is to be expressed. brought up young men, whom he fed on Sort may be used for either kind or the intoxicating drug hashish (whence species; it does not necessarily imply ctssassin) and trained to lie in wait and any affinity or common property in kill passengers. Slay comes from Anglo- the objects, but simple assemblage, Saxon slean, to smite. produced, as it were, by sors, chance: To kill is the general and indefinite hence we speak of such sort of folks term, signifying simply to take away or people; such sort of practices; diflife; to murder is to kiU with open vio- ferent sorts of grain; the various sorts lence and injustice; to assassinaie is of merchandise: and in similar cases to murder by sm-prise or by means of where things are sorted or brought lying in wait; to slay is to kill in battle: together, rather at the option of the to loll is appHcable to men, animals, person than according to the nature and also vegetables; to murder and as- of the thing. sassinaie to men only; to slay mostly Kindred, Relationship, Affinity, Corvto men, but sometimes to animals; to sanguinUy. ^The idea of a state in slaughter only to animals in the proper which persons are placed with regard sense, but it may be appUed to men in to each other is common to all these the improper sense, when they are terms, which differ principally in the killed like brutes, either as to the niun- nature of this state. Kindred signifies bers or to the manner of killing them. that of being of the same kin or kind. KIND, Species, Sort. Kind comes Relationship signifies that of holding from Anglo-Saxon cynd, race, indicat- a nearer relation than others (see Ck)Ning those united by ties of blood. Spe- nect). Affinity, from Latin ad, to, and cies, in Latin species, from specere, to finis, border, signifies that of coming behold, signifies literally the form or close to each other's boundaries. Conappearance, and in an extended sense sanguinity, from sanguis, the blood, sigthat which comes under a particular nifies that of having the same blood. The kindred is the most general state form. Sort, in Latin sors, a lot, signifies that which constitutes a particular here expressed: it may embrace all mankind or refer to particular famihes lot or parcel. Kind and species are both employed or •communities; it depends upon posin their proper sense; sort has been di- sessing the common property of huverted from its original meaning by manity: the philanthropist claims kincolloquial use: kind is properly em- dred with aJJ who are unfortunate, when ployed for animate objects, particularly it is in his power to reUeve them. Retor mankind, and improjjerly for moral lationship is a state less general than objects; species is a term used by phi- kindred, out more extended than either losophers, classing things according to affinity or consanguinity; it appUes to their external or internal properties. particular families only, but it applies Kind, as a term in vulgar use, has a to all of the same family, whether reAffinity less definite meaning than species, motely or distantly related. which serves to form the groundwork denotes a close relationship, whether of science: we discriminate things in of an artificial or a natural kind: there a loose or general manner by saying is an affinity between the husband and

m

—

/

KINDNESS

470

the wife in consequence of the marriage tie; and there is an affinity between those who descend from the same parents or relations in a direct line. Consanguinity is, strictly speaking, this latter species of descent; and the term is mostly employed in all questions of law respecting descent and inheritance. See also Affectionate; Gracious;

Relation.

KINDNESS.

sponds to a difference in derivation. Kleptomania is a scientific term, from Greek /cXiTrrof, I steal, and Latin mania, madness. Thievery comes from Anglo-

Saxon theof, and indicates the act Thievof taking another's property. ery is the general and popular word and carries with it the suggestion of moral condemnation.

Kleptomania

is

a specialized scientific word, suggesting See Benefit; Benev- an abnormal psychological condition.

Kleptomania is an irresistible tendency Movable. to theft actuating people who are not Active, These three terms signify "pertaining tempted to it by necessitous circumto motion," but they differ in their ap- stances or any obvious and natural Kinetic, from Greek Kivew, motive, and is regarded as a form of Flication. move, means "resulting from mo- insanity. The thief steals because he tion," or "associated with motion," wants or needs the object, or intends and is a scientific term. Kinetic en- to exchange it for something that he The kleptomxiniac ergy, for instance, is energy resulting wants or needs. from motion. Active, from Latin actus, takes objects with which he may be past participle of agere, to do or drive, already well provided and makes no and a suffix, signifies a state of mo- apparent use of the stolen goods. Often tion, and further suggests motion ema- he steals only a particular kind of arnating from within, not the result of ticle an article perhaps valueless in force apphed from without. Movable itself or useless to him. means a capacity for being put in moKNACK, Adroitness, Dextertion suggesting that the motion is a ity. Knack is an imitative word. It result of an external impetus. Hence meant originally (1) a snap; (2) a snap none of these terms can be substituted with the finger-nail; (3) a jester's trick, for the other closely aUied in their a piece of dexterity. Knack is usually meaning as they seem to be. employed now to indicate a kind of KINGDOM. See Empire. skill or dexterity which does not result KINGLY. See Royal. from practice and training, but is an acKINSMAN. See Relation. cidental gift or acquirement, or the reKISS, Osculation. The difference sult of some unexplained trick. There between these two terms is not one of is always something inexplicable about meaning, but of cutomary usage. Kiss, a knack; it cannot be imitated or refrom Anglo-Saxon coss, is the familiar duced to rules of procedure. Dexterity, and homely word. It is employed in on the contrary, from dexter, the right simple, sincere, emotional, or poetical hand, signifies ease and skill in using expression. Osculation, from Latin the hand;- hence, by extension, any osculum, a little mouth, is a self-con- ease and skill in making or doing somescious and humorous periphrasis. It thing; it may be the result of inborn may be employed in scientific writing, gifts or of training and practice. Dexas when the physiologist writes that terity is uniform and reliable; a knack "promiscuous osculation is a contribu- is casual and may be uncertain. Adroittory factor in this disease"; or it may ness, from French a droit, Latin ad dibe employed by the smart journalist as rectum, or, in a right manner, is praca humorous substitute for the famiUar tically synonymous with dexterous; it Anglo-Saxon term. In this case, as in indicates special quickness and clevermany others, the Latin furnishes the ness of action. For a further distinction dignified and impersonal word, whose between adroit and dexterous see Clever. dignity, however, may be made to look KNAVISH. See Dishonest. like pomposity; the Anglo-Saxon furKNELL, Toll. There is little difnishes the familiar and natural term. ference between" these two words. Both KLEPTOMANIA, Thievery. Here indicate the slow ringing of a bell to again the difference in meaning corre- announce death or disaster. Toll sug-

olence.

KINETIC,

—

—

—

c^^£^:tijj^

KNUCKLE gests by its sound a more solemn and a slower ringing. Knell is also used as a substantive to indicate figuratively the death or end of anything.

KNOCK. KNOTTY,

See Rap. Intricate, Perplexing. These words aU indicate the quality of being difficult under the image of entangled threads, but they differ from each other in the character of the image and the concreteness and vividness with which it is suggested to the mind. A knot is the interweaving of two threads at one point in such a fashion as to tie them tightly together; knotty means full of knots, difficult to unfasten. Intricate, from Latin in and tricoe, wiles or hindrances, did not originally suggest the image of interwoven threads so clearly as -perplexing, from Latin per, through, and pleocus, past participle of plectere, to weave, which meant woven through and through.

Now

intricate,

which

first

meant

full of

hindrances, clearly suggests the physical image of interwoven threads, and perplexing, which first suggested the physical image, is given the more general apphcation. Intricate is an objective word; perplexing, a subjective word. Intricate describes the external object; perplexing indicates the state of mind induced by it. An intricate question becomes perplexing the minute some individual mind tries to solve it. Knotty is also an objective word, but more obviously metaphorical than intricate, and suggesting a somewhat different image.

KNOW, Be Acquainted With. To is a general term; to be acquainted may know with is particular. things or persons in various ways; we may know them by name only, or we may know their internal properties or characters; or we may simply kruno

know

We

we may know them by we may know them by di-

their figure; reix)rt,

or

rect intercourse: one is acquainted with either a person or a thing only in a direct manner and by an immediate interknow course in one's own person.

We

471

knovm, from Anglo-Saxon piawan, allied to Latin noscere, to knoWr~55ience, in Latin scierUia, from scire, to know, has the same original meaning. Learning, from learn, signifies the thing learned. Erudition, in Latin eruditio, comes from Latin e for ex, out, and rudis, rude, and signifies to bring out of a stato of rudeness or ignorance, that

is,

the bringing into a state of

perfection.

Knowledge is a general term which simply impUes the thing known: science,

and erudition are modes of knowledge qualified by some collateral idea: science is a systematic species of knowledge which consists of rule and order; learning is that species^ofknowledge which one derives from schools or through the medium of personal instruction; erudition is scholastic knowledge obtained by profound research: knowledge admits of every possible degree, and is expressly opposed to ignorance; science, learning, and enudition are positively high degrees of knowledge. The attainment of knowledge is of itself a pleasure independent o the many extrinsic advantages which it brings to every individual, according to the station of hfe in which he is placed; the pursuits of science have a peculiar interest for men of a peculiar turn. Learning is less dependent on the genius than on the will of the individual; men of moderate talents have overcome the deficiencies of nature by learning,

labor and f)erseverance, and have acquired such stores of learning as have raised them to a respectable station Profound in the republic of letters. erudition is obtained by but few; a retentive memory, a patient industry, and deep p>enetration are requisites for one who aspires to the title of an erttKnowledge, in the imqualidite man. fied and imiversal sense, is not always a good; we may have a knowledge of evil as well as good: science is good as far as it is founded upon experience; learning is more generally and practically useful to the morals of men than scigood^ as is a ence: erudition is

a man to be good or bad, virtuous or alw^ vicious, by being a witness to his actions; we become acquainted with him profound knowledge of what Knowing. by frequently being in his company. Knowledge, Science, Learning, Erur Knowledge signifies the thing

diticm.

—

KNOWN. See Public. KNUCKLE. See Quail.

is

worth

LABOR

472

LABOR, Take Pains or Trouble, other works of art; it was constructed Use Endeavor. Labor, in Latin labor, on so prodigious a scale, and with so toil. To take pains is to expose one's many windings, that when a person pains (see Pain); and to take the trovhle is to impose trouble on one's Endeavor (see self (see Affliction). that word). The first three terms suppose the necessity for a painful exertion; but to labor expresses more than to take self to

pains, and this more than to trouble: to use endeavor excludes every idea of

pain or inconvenience: great difficulties to be conquered; great perfection or correctness require pains; a concern to please will give trouble; but we use endeavors wherever any object is to be obtained or any duty to be performed. To labor is either a corporeal or a mental action to take pains IS principally an effort of the mind or the attention: to take trouble is an effort of either the body or mind: a faithful minister of the Gospel labors to instil Christian principles into the minds of his audience, and to heal all the breaches which the angry passions ;

had once entered he could not

find his

way out without the assistance of a clue Maze is a word of doubtful or thread. it was at first used to signify dreamy thought, dreamy perplexity, and then a structure of interweaving

origin;

paths which induced such a state of mind. It is a modern term for a structure similar to a labyrinth, on a smaller scale, which is frequently made by way

ornament in large gardens. From the proper meaning of the two words we may easily see the ground of their metaphorical appUcation: political and polemical discussions are compared to a labyrinth; because the mind that is once entangled in them is unable to of

by any efforts of its own: on the other hand, that perplexity and confusion into which the mind is thrown by unexpected or inexplicable events is termed a maze, extricate itself

because, for the tiine, the brain is bereft of its power to pursue its ordichild is nary functions of recollection and comproperly sensible of the value of im- bination. provement, he will take the utmost See Tearful. pains to profit by the instruction of the LACK. See Want. master: he who is too indolent to take LACONIC, Brief, Concise, Pithy. the trouble to make his wishes known All of these terms indicate speech which to those who would comply with them contains no unnecessary words, but cannot expect others to trouble them- they differ from each other in the idea selves with inquiring into his necessi- that they suggest in addition to that ties: a good name is of such value to common to them all. Brief, from Latin every man that he ought to use his brevis, means simply short; the opposite best endeavors to preserve it unblem- of long containing few words. Concise, ished. from Latin cidere, con, intensive, and See also Work. ccedere, to cut, means cut short made

make between them: when a

LACHRYMOSE.

—

LABORIOUS.

See Active.

LABYRINTH, Maze.

Intricacy is to both the objects expressed by these terms; but the term labyrinth has it to a much greater extent than

common

maze: the labyrinth, from the Greek Xa^vpivQoQ, of Egyptian origin, was a of antiquity which surpassed the maze in the same proportion as the ancients surpassed the modems in all

work

— —

shorter than it might naturally be and suggests therefore a deliberate concentration in a small space. Pithy adds to this idea it means full of pith. It does not necessarily mean short; but is usually connected with that idea suggesting the concentration of much substance in a little space. Lor conic comes from AaKCDviKoc, from Aaxiav, a Laconian or inhabitant of Laconia

—

—

LANGUAGE

473

Laconians or Spartans being noted for under a government, as the land of their brevity of speech. It suggests liberty; and country may be put for not only the character of the speech any spot of earth or Une of country, brief, to the point but the manner of together wth that which is upon it; utterance. as a rich country. LADING. See Freight. LANDSCAPE. See View. LAG. See Linger. LANGUAGE, Tongue, Speech, LAMBENT, Flickering, Gleam- Idiom, Dialect. Language, through ing, Twinkling. Lambent, from the Middle French language, cased on Latin larnbo, to lick, signifies licking langue, from the Latin lingua, a tongue. or playing about hke flames, hence, and a suffix, signifies, like the word touching lightly, or gUding over. The tongue, that which is spoken by the term is most generally applied to light tongue, Anglo-Saxon tunge. Speech is the from any source as affected by exterior act of speaking, or the word spoken. influences. Thus, we say that a Ught Idiom, in Latin idioma, Greek iSiwfia, is flickering when it is moving with an from iSioc, proprius, proper, or peculiar, imsteady and quick motion, swaying signifies a peculiar mode of speaking. because of a sudden commotion in the Dialect, through French from Latin

—

air,

and

flickering out,

especiaUy the diciXectV£,GTQekSi(tK(.KToq,{ToraSiakiyofiat, to speak in a distinct maimer, signifies

Ught from a candle or a lamp, when the wick or the oil is nearly consumed: gleaming, when it emits shooting or darting rays or exhibits unusual brightness; and twinkling, when it is burning unsteadily, shining with a tremu-

a

distinct mode of speech. All these terms mark the

manner

of

expressing our thoughts, but under different circumstances. Language is the most general term in its meaning and lous, quivering effect, or exhibiting apphcation; it conveys the general idea quick, spasmodic spurts, as the twink- without any modification, and is apling of the stars. The term is often plied to other modes of expression beused in poetry to imply that which sides that of words, and to other obtouches lightly or glides over. jects besides persons; the language of LAMENT. See Bewail; Com- the eyes frequently supplies the place plain; Deplore; Grieve; Wail. of that of the tongue; the deaf and LAND, Country. Land, Anglo- dumb use the language of signs; birds Saxon land, signifies an open, even and beasts are supposed to have their space, and refers strictly to the earth. pecuhar language: tongue, speech, and Country, through Old French contree, the other terms are appUcaole only to Language is eithc* from Late Latin contrata, the region human beings. lying opposite, comes from contra, op- written or spoken; but a tongue is conposite. Compare German gegend, from ceived of mostly as something to be gegen, opposite. The term land, there- spoken: whence we speak of one's fore, in its proper sense, excludes the mother tongue. Speech is an abstract term, implying idea of habitation; the term country excludes that of the earth, or the parts either the power of uttering articula,te of which it is composed hence we speak sounds, as when we speak of the gift of the land as rich or poor, according of speech, which is denied to those who to what it yields: of a country, as rich are dumb; or the words themselves or poor, according to what its inhabi- which are spoken, as when we speak tants possess: so, in like manner, we of the parts of speech; or the particular say, the land is ploughed for receiving mode of expressing one's self, as that the grain; or a man's land, for the a man is known by his sveech. Idiom ground which he possesses or occupies: and dialect are not properly a language, but the country is cultivated; the coun- but the properties of language: idiom try is under a good government; or a is the f>ecuhar construction and turn of a language, which distinguishes it man's country is dear to him. In an extended application, however, altogether from others; it is that which these words may be put for one an- enters into the composition of the lan:

word land may sometimes guage, and cannot be separate*! from it. A dialect is that which is engrafted be put for any portion of land that is

other: the

LANGUID

474

on a language by the inhabitants of particular parts of a country, and admitted by its writers and learned men to form an incidental part of the language; as the dialects which originated with the lonians, the Athenians, the iEoUans, and were afterward amalga-

mated into the Greek tongue. Whence the word dialect may be extended in its application to denote any pecuhar manner of speech adopted by any community. LANGUID. See Faint. LANGUISH. See Flag. LAPSE. See Slip. LARGE, Wide, Broad. Large (see Great) is applied in a general way to express every dimension; it implies not only abundance in solid matter, but also freedom in the space, or extent of a plane superficies. Wide, in AngloSaxon wid, signifies an open space unencumbered by any obstructions. in Anglo-Saxon hrad, has a

Broad,

meaning. Many things are large, but not wide; as a large town, a large circle, a large ball, a large nut: other things are both large and wide; as a large field, or a vnde field: a large house, or a wide house: but the field is said to be large from the quantity of ground it contains; it is said to be wide both from its figure and the extent of' its space in the cross directions; in hke manner, a house is large from its extent in all directions; it is said to be wide from the extent which it runs in front: some things are said to be wide which are not denominated large, that is, either such things as have less bulk and quantity than similar

extent

of

plane surface;

as

eW-toide

wide and broad only in the figurative sense of space or size: as a unde difference; or a broad line of distinction. Largely, Copiously, Fully. Largely is here taken in the moral sense, and, if the derivation given of it be true, in the most proper sense. Copiously comes from the Latin copia, plenty, signifying in a plentiful degree. FuMy signifies in a full degree; to the fuU extent, as far as it can reach. Quantity is the idea expressed in common by all these terms; but largely ity;

—

has always a reference to the freedom of the will in the agent; copiously quali-

actions that are done by inanimate objects; fully qualifies the actions of a rational agent, but it denotes a degree fies

or extent which cannot be surpassed. person deals largely in things, or he drinks large draughts; rivers are copiously supplied in rainy seasons; a person is fully satisfied or fully prepared. bountiful Providence has distributed His gifts largely among His creatures: blood flows copiously from

A

A

a deep wound when it is first made: when a man is not fully convinced of his own insufficiency he is not prepared to hsten to the counsel of others.

LASH.

See Whip. See Virgin. LASSITUDE. See Fatigue. LAST, Latest, Final, Ultimate. Last and latest are both from latst, the superlative of Anglo-Saxon Icet, slow Modern English late allied to Latin lassu^, which is found in English words Uke lassitude. Final (see that word) Ultimate comes from Latin ultimatum, participle of ultimare, based on

LASS.

—

—

.

ultimus, the last.

a wide opening, a wide entrance, Last and ultimate concern the order and the Uke; or such as have an ex- of succession: latest^ the order of time; tent of space only one way; as a wide final, the completion of an object. What road, a wide path, a wide passage, and is last or ultimate is succeeded by noththe hke. What is hroad is in sense, ing else what is latest is succeeded at no and mostly in application, wide, but great interval of time; what is final renot vice versd: a ribbon is broad; a quires to be succeeded by nothing else. ledge broad; a ditch is broad; a plank The last is opposed to the first; the ultiis broad; the brim of a hat is broad; or mate is distinguished from that which the border of anything is broad; on immediately precedes it; the latest is the other hand, a mouth is tvide, but opposed to the earliest; the final is not broad; apertures in general are opposed to the introductory or beginwide, but not broad. Large is opposed ning. A person's last words are those to small; uride to close; broad to nar- by which one is guided; his ultimate row. In the moral application, we object is sometimes remote or conspeak of largeness in regard to liberal- cealed from the view; a conscientious cloth,

:

LAUGH

475

man

remains firm to his principles to his latest breath; the final determination

minor and particular duties which belong to children and subordinate per-

matters requires caution. of Jealous people strive not to be the last in anything; the latest intelligence which a man gets of his country is acceptable to one who is in distant quarters of the globe; it requires resolution to take a final leave of those whom one holds near and dear. See also Uttermost.

sons is in the proper sense commendable. LAUGH, Kidicule. Laugh is the Anglo-Saxon word, from hlihan, an imi-

difficult

tative

word

;

ridicule,

from

ridicidus, is

the Latin term, from ridere, to smile or laugh.

mandare, to place in the hands of that is to say, worthy of trust, hence worthy

Both these verbs are used here in the sense for laughter, blended with more or less of contempt: but the former displays itself by the natural expression of laughter: the latter shows itself by a verbal expression: the former is produced by a feeling of mirth on observing the real or supposed weakness of another; the latter is produced by a strong sense of the absurd or irrational in another: the former is more immediately directed to the person who has excited the feeling: the latter is more commonly produced by things than by persons. We laugh at a person to his face; but we ridicule his notions by writing or in the course of conversation: we laugh at the individual; we ridicule that which is maintained uy him. Laughable, Ludicrous, Ridiculous, Comical, Comic, Droll. Laughable signifies exciting, or fit to excite, laughter. Ludicrovs, in Latin ludicrus, from /udvs, a game, signifies belonging to a game or sport. Ridiculous, exciting, or

of praise.

fit

—

Last, At Length. Lastly, implies the order of succession: at last or at length refers to what has preceded. When a sermon is divided into many heads, the term lastly comprehends the kist division. Lastly,

like

At

last,

When an

affair is settled after much be at last settled;

difficulty, it is said to

and

if it

after a protracted said to be settled at

be settled

continuance,

it is

length.

LAST-TERMS. See Ultimatum. LATENT. See Secret. LATEST. See Last.

LAUDABLE,

Praiseworthy, Com-

mendable.

Lavdahle, from the Latin laudare, to praise, is in sense hterally praiseworthy, that is, worthy of praise or to be praised (see Praise). Convsignifies entitled to commendation, from Latin con, together, and

mendable

—

—

to excite, ridicule.

Either the direct action of lartghter used in a general application; praiseworthy and commendable or a corresponding sentiment is in-

Lavdable

is

are applied to individuals: things are laudable in themselves; they are praiseworthy or commendable in this or that person. That which is laudable is entitled to encouragement and general approbation; an honest endeavor to be useful to one's family or one's self is at all times laudable, and will insure the support of all good people. What is praiseworthy obtains the respect of all men: as all have temptations to do that which is wrong, the performance of one's duty is in all cases praiseworthy, but particularly so in those cases where it opposes one's interests and interferes with one's pleasures. What is commendable is not equally as impMsrtant as the former two; it entitles a person only to a temporary or partial expression of good-will and approbation; the performance of those

cluded in the signification of all these terms: they differ principally in the cause which produces the feeling; the laughable consists of objects in general,

whether personal or otherwise; the Zudicrous and ridiculous have reference more or less to that which is personal.

What

is

laughable

may

excite simple

merriment independently of all personal reference, unless we admit what Mr. Hobbes, and after him Addison, have maintained of all laughter^ that But without it springs from pride. entering into this nice question, I am inclined to di-stinguish between the lattghable which arises from the reflection of what is to our own advantage or plea.sure, and that which arises from reflecting on what is to the disadvantage of another. The tricks of a monkey or the humorous stories of

476

LAVISH

wit are laughable from the nature of the things themselves, without any apparent allusion, however remote, to any individual but the one whose senses or mind is gratified. The ZtwiicrotLS and ridiculous are, however, species of the laughable which arise altogether from reflecting on that which is to the disadvantage of another; but the ludicrous has in it less to the disadvantage of another than the ridicur-

differ, therefore,

according to the sense

of the word law; lawful signifies the law in general, defined or undefined; legal, only the law of the land which is defined legitimate, the laws or rules of science as well as civil matters in general. Licit, from the Latin licet, it is allowed, is used only to characterize the moral quality of actions; the lawful properly implies

conformable to or enjoined by law; the legal what is in the form or after It is possible, therefore, for a the manner of law, or binding by law: lou^. person to be in a ludicrous situation it is not lawful to coin money with without any kind of moral demerit, or the king's stamp; a marriage was forthe sUghtest depreciation of his moral merly not legal in England which was character; since that which renders his not solemnized according to the rites situation ludicrous is altogether inde- of the Established Church: men's paspendent of himself; or it becomes iu- sions impel them to do many things dicrous only in the eyes of incompe- which are unlawful or illicit; their ig"Let an ambassador," norance leads them into many things tent judges. says Mr. Pope, "speak the best sense which are illegal or illegitimate. As a in the world, and deport himself in good citizen and a true Christian, the mc'st graceful manner before a every man wiU be anxious to avoid prince, yet if the tail of his shirt everything which is unlawful: it is the happen, as I have known it happen to business of the lawyer to define what a very wise man, to hang out behind, is legal or illegal: it is the business of more people wiU laugh at that than the critic to define what is legitimate attend to the other." This is the Zit- verse in poetry; it is the business of the dicTous. The same can seldom be said linguist to define the legitimate use of of the ridiculous; for as this springs words it is the business of the moraJist from positive moral causes, it reflects to point out what is illicit. on the person to whom it attaches in LAX. See Loose. a less questionable shape and produces LAY, Take Hold Of, Catch, Seize, positive disgrace. Persons very rarely Snatch, Grasp, Gripe. To lay or take appear ridiculous without being really hold of is here the generic expression; so; and he who is really ridiculous it denotes simply getting into one's posjustly excites contempt. session, which is the common idea in Droll and comical are in the proper the signification of all these terms, sense apphed to things which cause which differ in regard to the motion laughter, as when we speak of a droll in which the action is performed. To story, or a comical incident, or a comic catch is to lay hold of with an effort. song. They may be applied to the To seize is to lay hold of with violence. person; but not so as to reflect disad- To snatch is to lay hold of by a sudden vantageously on the individual, as in effort. One is said to lay hold of that the former terms. on which one places his hand; he takes LAVISH. See Extravagant. hold of that which he secures in his LAW. See Maxim; Ordinance. hand. We lay hold of anything when LAWFUL, Legal, Legitimate, we see it faUing; we take hold of anyLicit. Lawful is the adjective corre- thing when we wish to lift it up; we sponding to law, a Scandinavian word catch what attempts to escape; we seize from the root found in lie, a law being it when it makes resistance; we snatch that which is laid down, which is fixed that which we are particularly afraid or established. Legal comes from Latin of not getting otherwise. A person legalis, from lex, from the root found in who is fainting lays hold of the first legere, to collect law being the collection thing which comes in his way; a sick of the customs and judgments of the person or one that wants support takes people in one standard code of action. hold of another's arm in walking; variLegitimnte has the same derivation. They ous artifices are employed to catch ani:

LEAN mals; the wild beasts of the forest seize their pre)^ the moment they come within their reach; it is the rude sport of a school-boy to snatch out of the hand of another that which he is not wiUing to let go. To lay hold of is to get in the possession. To grasp and to gripe signify to have or keep in the possession; an eagerness to keep or not to let go is expressed by that of grasping; a fearful anxiety of losing and an earnest desire of keeping are expressed by the act of gripping. When a famished man lays hold of food he grasps it, from a convulsive kind of fear lest it should leave him: when a miser lays hold of money he gripes it from the love he bears to it, and the fear he has that it will be taken from him. See also Lie; Put. LAZY. See Idle; Inactive.

LEAD, Conduct, Guide. Lead

is

lead

477

a person into a course of Ufe; to in a course of reading or conduct a lawsuit, or any business. To lead, being a

guide him study; to particular matter of

may

purely personal influence,

be either for the benefit or injury

of the person led. To conduct, supposing judgment and management, and to guide, supposing superior intelligence, are always taken in the good sense, unless otherwise qualified. Things as well as persons may lead, conduct, and guide, with a similar distinction. Whatever serves as a motive of action, or as a course and passage to a place or an object, leads. Whatever influences our conduct rightly conducts.

Whatever serves as a rule or guide guides.

As persons may sometimes be may furnish a

guides, so things

false false

the Anglo-Saxon word, originally ke- rule. LEADER. See Chief. corresponding to Latin ducere, LEADING. See CAKDiNAii; Sufoimd here in condtict, from cum, with, and ducere, to lead. For the origin of preme. LEAGUE. See Axliance. guide see Chaperon. LEAN, Meagre. Lean is the AngloAll these terms are employed to denote the influence which a person has Saxon word, from hlcene, originally over the movements or actions of some bending or stooping, hence inclined to person. To lead is an unqualified ac- bend, or thin; meagre is probably a tion: one leads by helping a person on- Latin word from macer, thin, Greek ward in any manner, as to lead a child fiaicpoc, long, though it earlv appears by the hand, or to lead a person through in Anglo-Saxon as mceger, probably bora wood by going before him. To con- rowed from the Continent. LAxm denotes want of fat; meagre duct and guide are different modes of leading, the former by virtue of one's want of flesh: what is lean is not aloffice or authority, the latter by one's ways meagre; but nothing can be meagre knowledge or power; as to conduct an without being lean. Brutes as well as army, or to conduct a person into the men are lean, but men only are said presence of another; to guide a traveller to be meagre: leanness is frequently with the temperament; in an imknown country. These words connected may therefore be applied to the same meagreness is the consequence of starThere are some objects: a general leads an army, inas- vation and disease. much as he goes before it into the field animals by nature inclined to be lean; he conducts an army, inasmuch as he a meagre, pale visage is to be seen directs its operations; the stable-boy perpetually in the haimts of vice and leads the horses to water; the coach- poverty. Lean^ in AngloI^ean, Incline, Bend. man guides the horses in a carriage. Condu^ and guide may also be ap- Saxon hlaenan (see above), is derived plied in this sense to inanimate objects; from the root found in incline, from as the pilot conducts the vessel into the the Latin, Greek kkivta, I bend. Bend port, the steersman guu^s a vessel by (see that word). In the proper sense, lean and incline the help of the rudder. In the moral apphcation of these are both said of the [xeition of bodies; terms, persons may lead or guide other bend is said of the shape of bodies: persons, but they conduct things; as to that which leans rests on one side, or dan,

—

LEARNED

478

in a sideward direction; that which inclines leans or turns only in a slight

their Jiold

by the most

persuasive elo-

quence and forcible reasoning. See also Cease; Desist. degree: that which bends forms a curvaLeave, Take Leave, Bid Farewell or ture; it does not all lean the same way: a house leans when the foundation Adieu. Leave is here general as before; gives way: a tree may grow so as to it expresses simply the idea of separatincline to the right or the left, or a ing one's self from an object, whether road may incline this or that way; a for a time or otherwise; to take leave tree or a road bends when it tm-ns and bid farewell imply a separation for out of the straight course. In another a perpetuity. Farewell is a native Engsense, the judgment leans, the wiU in- hsh expression meaning "May you fare clines, the will or conduct bends, in well"; adieu is French, from the phrase consequence of some outward action. a Dieu, Latin ad Deum, meaning "I A person leans to this or that side of commit you to God's keeping." To leave is an unqualified action; it a question which he favors he inclines,

—

;

inclined, to this or that mode of conduct; he bends to the will of anIt is the duty of a judge to other. lean to the side of mercy as far as is consistent with justice: whoever inclines too readily to hsten to the tales of distress which are continually told to excite compassion will find himself

or

is

in general deceived; an unbending temper is the bane of domestic felicity.

LEARNED. LEARNING.

See Academic. See Knowledge;

Letters.

LEAVE,

Qtjit, Relinqxhsh. Leave derived from Anglo-Saxon loefan, to leave, corresponding to the Latin linis

quere,

French

found ia relinquish. Quit, in quitter, from the Latin quietus, remain, to give Relinquish (see Aban-

rest, signifies to rest or

up the hold

of.

don).

We leave that to which we may intend to return; we quit that to which we retiu"n no more: we may leave a place volimtarUy or otherwise; but we relinquish it imwiUingly. We leave persons or things; we quit and relinquish things only. I leave one person in order to speak to another; I leave my house for a short time; I quit it not to return to it. Leave and quit may be used in the improper as well as the proper sense. It IS the privilege of the true Christian to be able to leave all the enjoyments of this hfe, not only with composure, but with satisfaction; dogs have sometimes evinced their fidelity, even to the remains of their masters, by not quit^ ting the spot where they are laid; prejudices, particularly in matters of religion, acquire so deep a root in the mind that they cannot be made to relinquish

apphed to objects of indifference, or otherwise, but supposes in general no exercise of one's feeUngs. leave persons as convenience requires; we leave them on the road, in the field, in the house, or wherever circumstances direct; we leave them with or without speaking; but to take leave is is

We

a parting ceremony between friends, on their parting for a considerable time; to- bid farewell, or adieu, is a still more solemn ceremony, when the parting is expected to be final. When applied to things, we leave such as we do not wish to meddle with; we take leave of those things which were agreeable to us, but which we find it prudent to give up; and we bid farewell to those for which we still retain a great attachment. It is better to leave a question undecided than to attempt to decide

by altercation or violence; it is greater virtue in a man to take leave of his vices than to let them take leave it

a man engages in schemes he must bid adieu to all the enjoyments of domestic hfe. of him ; when of ambition,

Liberty, Permission, License. —Leave, Leave as here used a word of

differ-

is

ent origin, from Anglo-Saxon leof, dear, found in English lief meaning here

—

pleasure, hence freedom of will, hterally permission "to do as you please." Liberty is also taken for liberty granted,

from Latin

liber, free. Permission sigthe act of permitting (see Allow) or the thing permitted. License, in Latin licentia, from licet, it is lawful, signifies the state of being permitted by law or authority. Leave and liberty may sometimes be taken as well as given; permission and license are never to be taken, but must

nifies

LEGENDARY

may be enabled to estimate what her personal gifts were. LEGAL. See Lawful. LEGENDARY, Fabulous, Mytha female we

always be granted, and that in an the former by exespecial manner press words, the latter by some acknowledged and mostly legal form. Leave is employed only on famiUar occasions; liberty is given in more important matters: the master gives leave to his servant to go out for his pleasure; a gentleman gives his friends the liberty of shooting on his groimds: leave is taken in indifferent matters,

—

ical, Traditional. These are all adjectives signifying the quaUty of old stories handed? down from generation to generation either in oral or written form. Legendary comes from the gerimdive of Latin legere, to collect or read; it signifies worthy of being collected and read, or characteristic of old collections of tales. Fabulous, from Latin fabtda, a story, signifies story-

particularly as it respects leave of absence; liberty is taken by a greater, and in general an unauthorized, stretch of one's powers, and is, therefore, an infringement on the rights of another.

Uke, with an emphasis upon the difference between the story which is the product of the untrammelled imagination and the plain reahty. Mythical comes from Greek fivOoc, a fable. Tradition comes from Latin Iradere, to hand down signifying that which is handed down by word of mouth. Legendary and traditional differ from each other in the indication of the means of commimication; the one is written, the other is generally oral, though these distinctions are not strictly observed. speak of "written tradition" and denominate as legends stories that have Traditional has never been written. more of truth and seriousness than tradition is preserved as legendary. a record of some fact, and the changes that it undergoes are usually due to natural mistakes and failures of memory; a legend is usually handed down

What is done without the leave may be done without the knowledge, though not contrary to the wiU of another; but liberties which are taken without offering an apology are always calcu-

—

Leave respects lated to give offence. only particular and private matters; liberty respects general or particidar matters, pubUc or private; as liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and the Uke.

We

Leave and permission are both the acts of private individuals in special is a more forfamiUar act than leave; the permission is often an act of courtesy passing between equals and

cases.

The permission

mal and

less

A

friends; the leave is properly said of what passes from superiors to inferiors: a person obtains leave of absence. The license is always general, or resting on some general authority; as the licenses

given

479

—

it makes a it is interesting good story worthy of being read, and hence it may be improved by the im-

because

by government, and poetic liWhenever appUed to individ-

aginations of successive generations. the idea of a Mythical suggests less of fact and vea license given by racity. A mythical hero, a mythical a landlord to the tenant to assign his land are those which exist only in the imagination of those who tell about lease. Leavings are them. Mythical sometimes refers espeLeavings, Remains. the consequences of a voluntary act: cially to the myths or old stories of the they signify what is left: remmns are divinities and heroes preserved by vawhat follow in the com-se of things; rious nations. It therefore suggests they are what remains; the former is stories of the supernatural, and has or therefore taken in the sense to signify some of the digmty of a tradition what has been left as worthless; the lat- legend. Fabulous has none of this tra-

censes.

uals it carries with special authority; as

it

—

seriousness; ter is never taken in this sense. When ditional credibility and many persons of good taste have the something fabulous is a dehberate crehberty of choosing, it is fair to ex- ation of the imagination transcending there pect that the leavings will be worth all bounds of reality. However, curious modifications of little or nothing, after all have made are several suggestBy the remains of beauty thepe words. Fabulous, while their choice. which are discoverable in the face of ing the wildly extravagant, the apparI

LEGITIMATE

480

ently impossible, etc., does not arouse the same degree of incredulity that is aroused by mythical. Mythical wealth is wealth which is said to exist but does not; fobvious wealth is wealth transcending all boimds of probability, with the implication that it does Mythical indicates that really exist. which is believed but does not exist; fabidous that which is not believed but does exist. There is always a distinct difference in the significance of these four words; they are interchangeable only within some definite Umits. The traditional splendor of a noble family, for instance, means splendor enduring from generation to generation both in memory and in reality; legendary splendor means splendor described in old stories, existent long ago, but not now; mythical splendor means that which is said to be but is not; fabidous splendor, splendor now existent but so great as to seem impossible. LEGITIMATE. See Lawful. LEISURE. See Idle. LENITY. See Clemency. LESSEN. See Abate.

any one; consequently the former the generic, the latter the specific term. Letter is a term altogether fato is

may

be used for whatever friend to another in domestic fife, or for the public documents of this description which have emanated from the pen of writers, as the letters of Madame de Sevigne, the letters of Pope or of Swift; and even those which were written by the anmiliar; it is

written

by one

cients, as the letters of Cicero, Pliny, and Seneca; but in strict propriety

those are entitled epistles, as a term most adapted to whatever has received the sanction of ages, and by the same rule, likewise, whatever is pecuharly solemn in its contents has acquired

the same epithet, as the epistles of St. Paul, St. Peter, St. John, St. Jude;

and by an analogous poetry

rule,

whatever

written in the epistolary form is denominated an epistle rather than a letter, whether of ancient or modern date, as the epistles of Horace, or the epistles of Boileau; and, finally, whatever is addressed by way of dedication is denominated a dedicatory epistle. LET, Leave, Suffer. The re- Ease and a friendly familiarity should moval of hindrance or constraint on characterize the letter: sentiment and the actions of others is implied by all instruction are always conveyed by an these terms; but let, like the German epistle. lessen, to leave, is a less formal action See also Character. Letters, Literature, Learning. than leave, and this than suffer, from Letters the Latin suffero, to bear with, signify- and literature signify knowledge, deing not to put a stop to. I let a person rived through the medium of written pass in the road by getting out of his letters or books, that is, information: way: I leave a person to decide on a learning (see Knowledge) is confined matter according to his own discre- to that which is communicated, that tion, by decUning to interfere; I suffer is, scholastic knowledge. The term a person over whom I am expected to men of letters or the republic of letters exercise a control to go his own way. comprehends all who devote themselves It is in general most prudent to lei to the cultivation of their minds: litthings take their own course: in the erary societies have for their object the education of youth, the greatest art diffusion of general information learned hes in leaving them to follow the nat- societies propose to themselves the ural bent of their minds and turn of higher object of extending the bounds the disposition, and at the same time of science and increasing the sum of not suffering them to do anything prej- human knowledge. Men of letters have udicial to their character or future in- a passport for admittance into the highest circles; literary men can always find resources for themselves in their LETHARGIC. See Sleepy. LETTER, Epistle. According to own society: learned men, or men of the origin of these words, letter, in Latin learning, are more the objects of respect is

—

:

any dociunent com- and admiration than of imitation. LEVEL. See Aim; Even; Flat. letters; and epistle, LEVITY. See Lightness. Greek kmaToKr], from kitiaTiXXto, to

literae,

signifies

posed of written in

send, signifies a

letter

sent or addressed

LEXICON.

See Dictionary.

xnT LIABLE. See Subject. LIBERAL. See Beneficent; Fkeb.

LIBERATE.

See

Emancipate;

Free.

LIBERTY. See Freedom; Leave. LICENSE. See Leave. LICENTIOUS. See Loose. LICIT. See Lawful. LIE, Lay. By a vulgar

error these verbs have been so confounded as to deserve some notice. To lie is neuter, and designates a state: to lay is active, and denotes an action on an object; it is properly to cause to lie; a thing lies on the table; some one lays it on the table; he lies with his fathers; they laid him with his fathers. In the same manner, when used idiomatically, we say a thing lies by us untd we bring it

into use;

we

481

a Scandinavian word associated with German luft, air, meaning to raise in the air. Heave is an AngloSaxon word from the root found also in Latin capere, to take. Hoist is a Dutch word, from Middle Dutch hy»sen, to Uft up. The idea of making high is common to all these words, but they differ in the objects and the circumstances of the action; we lift with or without an effort: we heave and hoist alwavs with liften, is

an

we lift a child up to let him anything more distinctly; work-

effort;

see

men

heave the stones or beams which are used in a building; sailors hoist the long-boat into the water. To lift and hoist are transitive verbs; they require an agent and an object: heave is in-

it by for some future transitive; it may have an inanimate down in order to re- object for an agent: a person lifts his we lay money down hand to his head; when whales are

lay

purpose: we lie pose ourselves;

by way

killed,

the

the

of deposit: the disorder lies in constitution; we lay a burden

upon our

friends.

See also Untruth. LIFE. See Animation.

LIFELESS, Dead, Inanimate.

Ldfe-

they are hoisted into vessels; heaves when it is oppressed with sorrow; the waves of the sea heave when they are agitated by the wind.

bosom

Lift,

Raise, Erect, Elevate, Exalt.

—

idea of making a thing higher than it was before is common to these verbs. To lift (see Lift) is to take up from a given spot by a direct apparted is said to be lifeless or dead; lication of force. To raise, a Scandithe material world consists of objects navian word, meaning to cause to rise, which are by nature inanimate. Life- to erect, from the Latm ereclum, supine less is negative it signifies simply with- of erigo; to elevate, from elevaius, parout life or the vital spark: dead is ticiple of elevare, based on e, out, and positive; it denotes an actual and com- levare, to raise, signify to make higher We may by a variety of means, but not necessarplete change in the object. speak of a lifeless corpse when speak- ily by moving the object from the spot

and dead suppose the absence of life where it has once been; inanimate supposes its absence where it has never been; a person from whom life has deless

The

:

We

lift a stool with our body which sinks from a state where it rests. of animation into that of inanimation; hands, we raise a stool by giving it we speak of dead bodies to designate longer legs; we erect a monument by such as have undergone an entire heaping one stone upon another; a person, therefore, in whom mountain is elevated so many feet above change. animation is suspended is, for the time the surface of the sea. Whatever is to being, in appearance at least, lifeless, be carried is lifted; whatever is to be situated higher is to be raised; whatalthough we should not say dead. In the moral acceptation, lifeless and ever is to be constructed above other inanimate denote the want of that life objects is to be erected; and when the or animation which is requisite or perpendicular height is to be described, ladder is proper; dead implies the total vyant of It is said to be elevated. lifted upon the shoulders: a standard moral feehng which ought to exist. ladder is raised against a wall; a scafSee also i&ioGENic. LIFT, Heave, Hoist. These are folding is erected; a pillar is elevated all Teutonic words that have come into above the houses. Lift and raise may sometimes be apmodem Enghsh through different Teumay tonic languages. Lift, Middle Enghsh pUed to the same objects: a stone

ing of a

A

A

31

LIGHTNESS

482 either be lifted or raised, but

lift is

the toward vice;

when

there

is levity

in her

more ordinary term so when raise and conduct, she exposes herself to pubhc Volatility, flightiness, and erect are apphed to the same objects, criticism. raise is the more famihar expression. giddiness are degrees of lightness which Elevate is most usual in scientific lan- rise in signification on one another; volguage. All these terms, except erect, atility being more than lightness, and have likewise a moral application; the others more than volatility: lightness exalt, from altiis, high, has no other. and volatility are defects as they relate ;

In this case lift is seldom used in a good sense; to raise is used in a good or an indifferent sense; to elevate is mostly, and exalt always, used in the best sense. person is seldom lifted up for any good purpose, or from any merit in himself; it is commonly to suit the ends of party that people are lifted into notice or lifted into office; a person may be raised for his merits, or raise himself by his industry, in both of which cases he is entitled to esteem; so likewise one may be lifted up by pride, or raised in one's mind or estimation; one is elevated by circumstances, but still more so by one's character and moral qualities; one is rarely exalted but by means of superior endowments.

A

In modern building construction the term elevator is synonymous with lift.

LIGHTNESS, Levity, Flightiness, Volatility, Giddiness. lAghtness, from Anglo-Saxon leoht, light, signifies an abstract quahty. Levity, in Latin levitas,

same.

from

from

light,

levis,

Volatility,

signifies

the

in Latin volatilitas,

volare, to fly, signifies flitting, or fly swiftly on. Flightiness,

ready to

horn flighty and fly,

signifies a readiness Giddiness is from Anglo-Saxon gidig, insane, possibly from AngloSaxon god, God, meaning possessed by a god, in which case it has the same origin as enthusiasm, from Greek lyOiog, a god within. Lightness and giddiness are taken either in the natural or metaphorical sense; the rest only in the moral sense; lightness is said of the outward carriage or the inward temper; levity is said only of the outward carriage: a lightminded man treats everything lightly, be it ever so serious; the lightness of his mind is evident by the lightness of his motions. Lightness is common to

to

fly.

both sexes;

pecuharly striking in respect to them, they are both exceptional qualities in the highest degree: when a woman has lightness hf mind, she may easily tend

in

levity is

women; and

to age; those only who ought to be serious or grave are said to be light or volatile. When we treat that as light

which

is

weighty,

when we

suffer noth-

ing to sink into the mind, or make any impression, this is p, defective lightness of character; when the spirits are of a buoyant nature, and the thoughts fly from one object to another, without resting on any for a moment, this lightness becomes volatility: a light-minded person sets care at a distance a volatile person catches pleasure from every passing object. Flightiness and giddiness are the defects of youth; they bespeak that entire want of command over the feelings and animal spirits which is inseparable from a state of childhood; a flighty child, however, fails only from a want of attention; but a giddy child, hke one whose head is in the natural sense giddy, is unable to collect itself so as to have any consciousness of what passes: a flighty person makes mistakes; a giddy person commits extravagances. ;

See also Ease. See Equal.

LIKE.

LIKENESS, Resemblance, Similarity, SiMiLiTCTDE. Likeness denotes the quahty of being alike (see Equal). Resemblance, from resemble, compounded of re and semble, in French sembler, Latin simulo, from similis, hke, signifies putting on the form of another thing. Similarity, from a hypothetical Latin similaritas, extended from similis, and allied to English same, denotes the abstract property of likeness. Likeness is the most general, and at the same time the most famfliar, term of the three; it implies either external or internal properties: resemblance implies only the external properties: similarity the circumstances or prop-

we speak

between a resemblance in the cast of the eye; of a resemblance in the form or figure; of a similarity in age and disposition. Likeness is said erties:

two persons;

of

of a likeness

LIMIT only of that which

is

actual; resem-

may be said of that which is apparent: a likeness consists of something specific; a resemblance may be only partial and contingent. A thing is said to be, but not to appear, like another; it may, however, have the blance

shadow

of a resemblance: whatever things are alike are alike in their essential properties; but they may resemble one another in a partial degree or in certain particulars, but are otherare most wise essentially different. like the Divine Being in the act of doing good; there is nothing existing in natiu-e which has not certain points of resemblance with something else. Similarity or similitude, which is a higher term, is in the moral appUcation, in regard to likeness, what resemblance is in the physical sense: what is cdike has the same nature; what is similar has certain features of similarity: in this sense feeUngs are alike, sentiments are alike, persons are alike; but cases are similar, circumstances are similar, Likeness exconditions are similar. cludes the idea of difference; similarity includes only the idea of casual

We

likeness.

—

In Likeness, Picture, Image, Effigy. the former article likeness is considered as an abstract term, but in connection with the words picture and image it signifies the representation of likeness. Picture, in Latin pidura, from pingere, to paint, signifies the thing painted. Image, in Latin imago, from the root im, found also in imitari, Efiglish imi-

483

most usually employed in regard to works of art, as to sketch a picture, to finish a picture, and the like. As a likeness may be given by other means besides that of painting, it may be taken for any likeness conveyed; as parents may be said to stamp or impress a likeness on their children. Pictpicture is

ure

may be figuratively taken

for

what-

ever serves as a picture, as a picture of happiness. Image, as appears from its derivation, signifies nothing more than likeness, but has been usually applied to such likenesses as are taken, or intended to represent spiritual objects, whether on paper or in wood or stone, such as the graven images which were the objects of idolatrous worship: it has, however, been extended in its application to any likeness of one object represented by another; as chimren are sometimes the image of their parents. A likeness and a picture contain actual likenesses of the things which they are intended to represent; but an effigy may be only an arbitrary likeness, as where a human figure is made to stand for the figure of any particular man without any likeness of the inThis term is applied to the dividual. rude or fictitious pictures of persons in books, and also to the figiu-es of persons on tombstones or on coins, which contain but few traces of likeness. Or to the still ruder representations of individuals who are held up to public odium by the populace. LIKEWISE. See Also.

LIMB. See Member. an imitation. Effigy, in LIMIT, Extent. Limit is a more from ex, from, and firigere, to fashion, signifies that which is specific and definite term than extent: fashioned from or after the image of by the former we are directed to the point where anything ends; by the another thing. Likeness and picture, as terms of art, latter we are led to no particular point, are both apphed to painting; but the but to the whole space included: limits term likeness refers us to the object of are in their nature something finite;

tate,

signifies

Latin

effi^es,

the art, namely, to get the likeness; extent is either finite or infinite: we and the picture to the mode of the therefore speak of that which exceeds art, namely, by painting; whence in limits or comes within the limits; and famihar language an artist is said to of that which comprehends the extent take likenesses who takes or paints or is according to the extent: a plenithe portraits of persons; or in general potentiary or minister must not exterms an artist may be said to be ceed the limits of his instruction; when happy in taking a likeness who can we think of the immense extent of this represent on paper the likeness of any globe, and that it is among the smallest object, but particularly that of per- of an infinite number of worlds, the sons. In other connections the word mind is lost in admiration and amaze-

484

LIMITED

ment: it does not fall within the limits of a periodical work to enter into historical details; a complete history of any country is a work of great extent. See also Bound; Fix; Term. LIMITED. See Finite. LINEAGE. See Family. LINGER, Tarry, Loiter, Lag, Saunter. Linger is a frequentative of Middle EngUsh lengen, from AngloSaxon lang, Modern English long, meaning to keep lengthening the time it takes to do something. Tarry comes from Middle English tarien, to irritate, worry, or vex; hence to hinder or delay.

quently their richest parts; water is the simplest of all liquids; wine is the most inviting of all liquors; the orange produces the most agreeable juice. LIQUIDATE. See Fluid. LIQUOR. See Liquid.

LIST, Roll, Catalogue, Register. French liste, from Old High German lista, a border, hence a strip, a long strip on which names were written. Roll, from Latin List is derived through

a httle wheel, signifies in general anything rolled up, particularly paper with its written contents. Catalogue, in Latin catalogus, Greek KaraXoyof, from Loiter comes from Middle Dutch leu- KaraXsyw, to write down, signifies a Lag is a Celtic word written enumeration. Register, from teren, to trifle. meaning late or sluggish. Saunter is a re, back, gerere (past participle gestum), word of uncertain origin, perhaps con- to bring, signifies something brought nected with adventure, indicating idle, back, a record returned by a messenger rotula,

planless going. or official. Suspension of action or slow movecollection of objects brought into ment enters into the meaning of all some kind of order is the common idea these terms: to linger is to stop alto- included in the signification of these gether, or to move but slowly forward; terms. The contents and disposition to tarry is properly to suspend one's of a list is the most simple; it consists movement: the former proceeds from of httle more than names arranged reluctance to leave the spot on which under one another in a long, narrow we stand; the latter from motives of line, as a list of words, a list of plants discretion: one will naturally linger who and flowers, a list of voters, a list of is going to leave the place of his nativ- visits, a list of deaths, of births, of ity for an indefinite period; those who marriages: roll, which is figuratively have much business to transact will be put for the contents of a roU, is a list led to tarry long in a place: to loiter rolled up for convenience, as a long roll is to move slowly and reluctantly; but, of saints: catalogue involves more defrom a bad cause, a child loiters who is tails than a simple list; it specifies not im willing to go to school: to lag is to only names, but dates, qualities, and move slower than others, to stop while circumstances. list of books conthey are going on; this is seldom done tains their titles; a catalogue of books for a good purpose; those who lag contains an enumeration of their size, have generally some sinister and pri- price, number of volumes, edition, etc. vate end to answer: to saunter is alto- a roll of saints simply specifies their gether the act of an idler; those who names; a catalogue of saints enters into have no object in moving either back- particulars of their ages, deaths, etc.: ward or forward will saunter if they a register contains more than either, move at all. for it contains events, with dates, actLIQUID, Liquor, Juice. Liquid ors, etc., in aU matters of public in(see Fluid) is the generic term: liquor, terest. which is but a variation from the same See also Enroll. Latin verb, liquere, to be moist, whence LISTEN. See Attend. liquid is derived, is a liquid which is LISTLESS. See Indolent. inade to be drunk: juice, in French LITERATURE. See Letters. jus, Latin ius, broth, soup, is a liquid LITTLE, Small, Diminutive. that issues from bodies. All natural Little comes from Anglo-Saxon lytel, bodies consist of liquids or soUds, or a from a Teutonic base meaning to stoop. combination of both: liquor serves to For small see Atomic. Diminutive quench the thirst as food satisfies the comes from Latin minus, and signifies hunger; the juices of bodies are fre- made less. What is little is so in the

A

A

LIVELY ordinary sense in respect to size; it is properly opposed to great: the smaU is that which is less than others in point of bulk; it is opposed to the large: the diminutive is that which is less than it ought to be; as a person is said to be diminviive in stature who is below the ordinary statm-e. In the moral appUcation, little is frequently used in a bad sense, small and diminutive may be extended to other than physical objects without any

change in their

signification.

LIVE.

See Abide; Be; Exist. LIVELIHOOD, Living, Subsistence, Maintenance, Support, Sustenance. The means of living or supporting Ufe is the idea common to all these terms, which vary according to the circumstances of the individual and the nature of the object which constitutes the means. Livelihood was origi-

485

of sickness and distre&s, to all who are legal parishioners. Maintenance and

support are always granted; but sustenance is that which is taken or received the former comprehend the means of obtaining food; sustenance comprehends that which sustains the body and supplies the place of food.

LIVELY, Sprightly, Vivacious, Sportive, Merry, Jocund. The activity of the heart when it beats high with a sentiment of gayety is strongly depicted by all these terms: the lively is the most general and literal in its signification; life, as a moving or active principle, is supposed to be inherent in spiritual as well as material bodies; the feehng, as well as the body which

has a power of moving arbitrarily of itself, is said to have life; and in whatever object this is wanting, this object is said to be dead: in Uke manner, nally livelode, literally life-leading according to the degree or circumfrom Anglo-Saxon lif, life, and lad, a stances under which this moving way, literally a leading. Subsistence principle displays itself, the object is comes from Latin sub, under, and sis- denominated lively, that is, having life. meaning that Sprightly, originally spritely, from Latin tere, to cause to stand which bears one up. Support, from sub spiritus, spirit, signifies full of spirit or and portare, to bear, and sustenance, the active breath of life; and vivacious, from sub and tenere, to hold, have simi- in Latin vivax, from vivere, to live, is Maintenance comes from the same as lively. Liveliness is the lar origins. manus, hand, and tenere, to hold, and property of childhood, youth, or even signifies to hold ia hand, to control maturer age; sprightliness is the peculand support. A livelihood is that which iar property of youth; vivacity is a is sought after by the day; a laborer quahty compatible with the sobriety earns a livelihood by the sweat of his of years: an iafant shows itself to be brow: a subsistence is obtained by ir- lively or otherwise in a few months regular efforts of various descriptions; after its birth; a girl, particularly in beggars meet with so much that they her early years, affords often a pleasobtain something better than a pre- ing picture of sprightliness; a vivacious carious and scanty subsistence: living companion recommends himself wherSportiveness, that is, is obtained by more respectable and ever he goes. less severe efforts than the former two; fondness of or readiness for sport, is tradesmenobtain a good living by keep- an accompaniment of liveliness or ing shops^ artists procure a living by sprightliness; a sprightly child will show the exercise of their talents; mainte- its sprightliness by its sportive humor; nance, support, and sustenance differ mirth, i. e., merriness (see CnEERFtrL), frojn the other three, inasmuch as they and jocundity, from jocundus or jucundo not comprehend what one gains by dus, and juvo, to delight or please, sigone's own efforts, but by the efforts nifying the state of being delighted, of others: maintenance is that which is are the forms of liveliness whicn dispermanent: it supplies the place of play themselves in social life; the forliving: support may be casual and vary mer is a familiar quality, more frein de^ee: the object of most public quently to be discovered in vulgar than charities is to afford a maintenance to in poUshed society: jocundity is a form such as cannot obtain a livelihood or of liveliness which poets have ascribed living for themselves; it is the business to nymphs and goddesses and other of the parish to give support, in time aerial creatures of the imagination.

—

—

LIVING

486

The terms preserve the same sense when appUed to the characteristics or actions of persons as when apphed to the persons themselves: imagination, wit, conception, representation, and the like are lively; a person's air, manner, look, tone, dance, are sprightly; a conversation, a tmTi of mind, a society, is vivadovs; the muse, the pen, the imagination, are sportive; the meeting, the laugh, the song, the conceit, are merry; the train, the dance, are jocund. LIVING, Benefice. Living signifies, literally, the pecimiary resource by

which one

lives.

Benefice,

from Late

Latin benefidum, based on classical benefacio, signifies whatever one obtains as a benefit: the former is appUcable to any situation of life, but particularly to that resource which a parish affords to the clergyman; the latter is applicable to no other object: we speak of a living as a resource immediately derived from the parish, in distinction from a curacy, which is derived from an individual; we speak of a benefice in respect to the terms by which it is held, according to the ecclesiastical law: there are many livings which are not benefices, although not vice versd. See also Livelihood. LOAD. See Clog; Freight;

Weight.

LOATH. See Averse. LOATHE. See Abhor. LOATHING. See Disgust. LOCALIZE.

See Segregate. See Close.

LOCKOUT. LODGE. See Harbor. LODGINGS, Apartments.

For the derivation of lodging see Harbor. A lodging, or a place to lodge or dwell in, comprehends single rooms, or many rooms, or in fact any place which can be made to serve the purpose; apartments only suites of rooms: apartments, therefore, are, in the strict sense, lodgings; but all lodgings are not apartments: on the other hand, the word lodgings is mostly used for rooms that are let out to hire or that serve a temporary purpose; but the word apartments may be applied to the suites of rooms in any large house: hence the word lodging becomes on one ground restricted in its use, and apartments on

the other: aU apartments to let out for hire are lodgings, but apartments not to let out for hire are not lodgings.

LOFTINESS. See Pride. LOFTY. See High. LOITER. See Linger.

LONELY. See Alone. LONG. See Desire. LONGING. See Yearn. LOOK, Glance. Look (see

Air) is the generic, and glance (see Glance) the specific term; that is to say, a casual or momentary look: a look may be characterized as severe or mild, fierce or gentle, angry or kind: a glance as hasty or sudden, imperfect or sUght; so hkewise we speak of taking a look or catching a glance. Look, See, Behold, View, Eye. Look,

—

from Anglo-Saxon locian, signified originally to peep through a hole. See is in Anglo-Saxon seon, to perceive by the Behold, compounded of the ineye. tensive be and hold, signifies to hold or fix the eye on an object. View, from Middle French vetie, participle of veoir,

based on the Latin

video, signifies sim-

To

ply what

is

noun

Anglo-Saxon

eye, from the cage, allied to Latin oculus, eye, naturally signifies to examine with the eye. look voluntarily; we see involuntarily: the eye sees; the person looks: absent-minded people often see things before they are fully conscious that they are at hand we look without seeing, and we see without looking: neareye,

seen.

We

:

may

may

sighted people often look at that which is too distant to strike the visual organ. To behold is to look at for a continuance; to view is to look at in all directions; to eye is to look at earnestly and by side glances; that which is seen may disappear in an instant; it may strike the eye and be gone; but what is looked at must make some stay; consequently lightning, and things equally fugitive and rapid in their flight, may be seen, but cannot be looked at. To look at is the famiUar as well as the general term, in regard to the others; we look at things in general which we wish to see, that is, to see clearly, fuUy, and in all their parts; but we behold that which excites a moral or intellectual interest; we view that which demands intellectual attention; we eye that which gratifies any particular passion:

LOOK

487

an inqmsitive child looks at things Look is always employed for what is which are new to it, but does not behold real; what a thing looks is that which them; we look at plants or finery or it really is: appear, however, sometimes whatever gratifies the senses, but we refers not only to what is external, but do not behold them: on the other hand, to what is superficial. K we say a we behold any spectacle which excites person looks ill, it supposes some posiour admiration, our astonishment, oiu* tive and unequivocal evidence of illpity, or our love: we look at objects in ness: if we say he appears to be ill, order to observe their external propn it is a less positive assertion than the erties; but we view them in order to former; it leaves room for doubt and find out their component parts, their allows the possibility of a mistake. internal properties, their powers of We are at hberty to judge of things by motion and action, etc.: we look at their, looks, without being accused things to gratify the curiosity of the of want of judgment; but as apmoment or for mere amusement; but pearances are said to be deceitful, it the jealous man eyes his rival in order becomes necessary to admit them with to mark his movements, his designs, caution as the rule of our judgment. and his successes; the envious man Look is employed mostly in regard to

him who is in prosperity, with a malignant desire to see him humbled. Look, Appear. Look is here taken in the neuter sense: in the preceding article it denotes the action of persons eyes

—

striving to see; in the pr^ent case it denotes the action of things figuratively striving to be seen. Appear, from the Latin ad, to, and parere, to come in sight, signifies to be present or at hand, within sight. The look of a thing implies the impressions which it makes on the senses, that is, the manner in which it looks; its appearance imphes the simple act of its coming into sight; the look of anji;hing is therefore characterized as

objects of sense; appearance concerns natural and moral objects indifferently: the sky looks dark; an object appears through a microscope greater

than it really is; a f)erson s conduct appears in a more culpable Ught when interpreted by an enemy. Looker-on, Spectator, server.

Beholder,

—The looker-on and the

Ob-

spectator

are both opposed to the agents or actors any scene; but the former is still more abstracted from the objects he sees than the latter. looker-on is careless; he has no part, and takes no part, in what he sees; he looks on because the thing is before him and he has nothing else to good or bad, mean or handsome, ugly do: a spectator may likewise be imor beautiful; the appearance is char- concemed, but id general he derives acterized as early or late, sudden or amusement, if nothing else, from what clown may be a looker-on unexpected: there is something very he sees. unseemly in the look of a clergyman who with open mouth gapes at all that affecting the airs of a fine gentleman; is before mm, without understanding the appearance of the stars in an even- any part of it, but he who looks on to ing presents an interesting view even draw a moral lesson from the whole to the ordinary beholder. As what ap- is in the moral sense not an uninterested pears must appear in some form, the spectator. The beholder has a nearer signification of the term has been ex- interest than the spectator; and the tended to the manner of the appear- observer has an interest not less near ance, and brought still nearer to look than that of the beholder, but somein its application: in this case the term what different: the beholder has his look is rather more famiUar than that fecUngs roused by what he sees; the of appearance: we may speak either of observer has his imderstanding emregarding the look or the appearance of ployed in that which passes before a thing, as far as it may impress others; him: the beholder indulges himself in but the latter is less colloquial than the contemplation; the observer is busy in former: a man's conduct is said to look making it subservient to some proposed rather than to appear bad; but on the object: every beholder of our Savnour's other hand, we say a thing assumes an sufferings and patience was struck with appearance, or has a certain appearance. the conviction of His divine character. in

A

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LOOSE

488

LORDLY. See Imperious. not excepting even some of those who LORD'S DAY. See Sabbath. were His most prejudiced adversaries; LORD'S - SUPPER, Eucharist, every calm observer of our Saviour's words and actions was convinced of Communion, Sacrament. The Lord'sSupper is a term of f amiUar and general His divine mission. LOOSE, Vague, Lax, Dissolute, use among Christians, as designating Licentious. Loose is a Scandinavian in hteral terms the supper of our Lord, word. Vague, in Latin vagus, signifies that is, either the last solemn supper wandering. Lax, in Latin laxv^, is al- which He took with His disciples preDissolvie, in Latin disso- vious to His crucifixion or the comlied to lack. lutu^, participle of dissolvere, signifies memoration of that event which condissolved or set free. Licentious signi- formably to His commands has been fies having the license or power to do observed by the professors of Christianity. Eucharist is a term of pecuhar as one pleases (see Leave). Loose is the generic, the rest are spe- use among the Roman CathoUcs, from cific terms; they are all opposed to the Greek evxapi^ofxai, I give thanks, that which is bound or adheres closely: because personal adoration, by way of loose is employed either for physical, returning thanks, constitutes in their moral, or intellectual objects; vague estimation the chief part of the cereAs the social sentiments are only for intellectual objects; lax some- mony. times for what is intellectual, but kept alive mostly by the common oftener for the moral; dissolute and participation of meals, so is brotherly licentious only for moral matters: what- love, the essence of Christian fellowever wants a proper connection, or ship, cherished and warmed in the hnking together of the parts, is loose; highest degree by the common particiwhatever is scattered and remotely sep)- pation in this holy festival: hence, by arated is vagv£: a style is loose where distinction, it has been denominated As the vows which the words and sentences are not made the communion. to coalesce so as to form a regularly are made at the altar of oiu- Lord are connected series; assertions are vagv^ the most solemn which a Christian which have but a remote connection can make, comprehending in them the with the subject referred to: by the entire devotion of himself to Christ, same rule, loose hints thrown out at the general term sacrament, signifying random may give rise to speculation an oath, has been employed by way of and conjectm-e, but cannot serve as distinction for this ordinance. The the ground of any conclusion; igno- Roman CathoMcs have employed the rant people are apt to credit every same term for six other ordinances; vague rumor and to communicate it but the Protestants, who attach a simias a certainty. Opinions are loose, lar degree of sacredness to no other either inasmuch as they want logical than baptism, apply this appellation precision or as they fail in moral strict- only to these two. LOSE, Miss. Lose is in Middle Engness; suggestions and surmises are induced by the wanderings of the imagi- Ush lesen. Miss comes from Anglonation; opinions are lax, inasmuch as Saxon missan, to fail to hit, from a base they have a tendency to lessen the meaning to escape, avoid, etc., allied to moral obhgation or to loosen moral- Latin mittere, to send. To miss, probities. A loose man injures himself, but ably from the participle mis, wrong, a lax man injures society at large. signifies to put wrong. What is lost is supposed to be enDissolvieness is the excess of looseness; licentiousness is the consequence of tirely and irrevocably gone; but what laxity or the freedom from external is missed may be only out of sight or constraint. Looseness of character, if not at hand at the time when it is indulged, soon sinks into dissoluiev^ss of wanted; health or property may be morals and laxity of discipUne is quickly lost; one misses a coach, or one misses what has been mislaid. Things may followed by licentiousness of manners. be lost in a variety of ways independSee also Slack. LOQUACIOUS. See Talkative; ent of the person losing; but missing is mostly by the instrumentality of the Voluble. ;

LOVE person who misses. We lose an opportunity which it is not in our power to use; we miss an opportunity when we suffer it to pass without using. LOSS, Damage, Detriment. Loss signifies the act of losing or the thing

from Anglo-Saxon los, destruction. Damage, in French dommage, Latin lost,

damnum,

loss, signifies

away. Detriment geous). Loss

is

here

the thing taken

(see

the

Disadvantageneric

term;

damage and detriment are species or loss. The person sustains the the thing suffers the damage or detriment. Whatever is gone from us which we wish to retain is a loss; hence we may sustain a loss in our property, in our reputation, in our influence, in our intellect, and every other object of possession: whatever renders an object less serviceable or valuable, by any external violence, is a damage; as a vessel suffers a damage in a storm: whatever is calculated to cross a man's purpose is a detriment; the bare want of a good name may be a detriment to a young tradesman; the want of prudence is always a great detriment to the prosperity of a famUy. LOT. See Destiny.

modes of loss,

489

sounding in their eulogiums of princes: children will be damarous for what they want if they expect to get it by dint of noise; they will be turbulent in case of refusal if not under proper discipline. In the improper application lovd is taken in as bad a sense as the rest; the loudest praises are the least to be regarded: the applause of a mob is always noisy; high-sounding titles serve only to excite contempt where there is not some corresponding quality: it is the business of a party to be clamorous, as that serves the purpose of exciting the ignorant. LOVE, Friendship. Love (see Affection) is a term of very extensive import; it may be taken either in the most general sense for every strong and passionate attachment or only for such as exist between the sexes, in either of which cases it has features

by which

it is

modem

easily distinguished from Anglo-Saxon freond,

—from

friendship-

English

frieivi,

from the verb

freogan, to love.

Love exists between members of the it springs out of their natural relationship, and is kept alive by their close intercourse and constant interchange of kindnesses: friendship LOUD, Noisy, High - sounding. excludes the idea of any tender and Clamorous. Lovd comes from Anglo- natural relationship; nor is it, like children, but is Saxon hltid, heard from afar. Noisy, love, to be found from noise, is derived from Old French confined to maturer years; it is formed noise, a debate or quarrel (something by time, by circumstances, by conthat gives rise to noise in our sense), gruity of character and mutual symperhaps from nausea. High-sounding pathy. Love always operates with signifies the same as pitched upon an ardor; friendship is remarkable for elevated key, so as to make a great firmness and constancy. Love is penoise, to be heard at a distance. Clam- culiar to no station; it is to be found orous, from the Latin damare, to cry, equally among the high and the low, the learned and the unJeamed: friendrsignifies crying with a loud voice. Loud is here the generic term, since ship is of nobler growth; it finds adit signifies a great sound, which is the mittance only into minds of a loftier idea common to them all. As an epi- make: it cannot be felt by men of an Both love and friendthet for persons, lovd is mostly taken ordinary stamp. in an indifferent sense; all the others ship are gratined by seeking the good are taken for being lo^id beyond meas- of the object; but love is more selfish ure; noisy is to be lawlessly and un- in its nature than friendship; in inseasonably lovd; high-sounding is to dulging another it seeks its own gratibe lovd only from the bigness of one's fication, and when this is not to be words; clamorous is to be disagreeablv obtained it will change into the conand painfully lovd. We must speak trary passion of hatred; friendship, on loudly to a deaf person in order to the other hand, is altogether disinmake ourselves heard: children will terested, it makes sacrifices of every be noisy at all times if not kept under description, and knows no limits to its flatterers are always high- sacrifice. control:

same family;

m

LOVELY

490 Lover, Suitor, Wooer. —Lover literally

signifies

who loves, and is applicable

any object;

there are lovers of of wine, lovers of things individually and things collectively, that is, lovers of particular women in the good sense, or lovers of women in the bad sense. The suitor (from French suite, based ultimately on Latin sequi, to foUow) is one who sues and strives after a thing; the word is equally undefined as to the object, but may be employed for such as sue for favors from their superiors, or sue for the affections and person of a woman. The wooer (from Anglo-Saxon wogian, to court, of obscure origin) is only a species of lover, who woos or solicits the kind regards of a female. When apphed to the same object, namely, the female sex, the term lover is employed for persons of all ranks, who are equally ahve to the tender passion of love: suitor is a title adapted to that class of hfe where all the genuine affections of human nature are adulterated by a false refinement or entirely lost in other passions of a Wooer is a tender and guilty natin"e. passionate title, which is adapted to that class of beings that Uve only in poetry and romance. There is most sincerity in the lover, he simply proffers his love; there is most ceremony in the suitor, he proffers his suit; there is most ardor in the wooer, he makes his vows. to

"

one

money and

lovers

LOVELY. See Amiable. LOVING. See AMOROtrs. LOW, Mean, Abject. Low

(see

Humble). Mean comes from AngloSaxon gemcene, German gemein, common. Abject, in French abject, Latin abjectus, from ab, down, and jacere, to cast, signifies, literally, cast

down

or

brought very low. Low is a much stronger term than mean; for what is low stands more directly opposed to what is high, but what is mean is intermediate: the low

is

appUed only to a certain number or out mean, Uke common,

description;

apphcable to the great bulk of manA man of low extraction falls below the ordinary level; he is opposed to a noble man: a man of mean' birth does not rise above the ordinary level; he is upon a level with the majority. Abject expresses more than either of the others, for it denotes the lowest depression in a person's outis

kind.

ward condition or

position,

as abject

poverty.

When employed

to designate char-

acter, they preserve the same distinction; the low is that which is positively sunk in itself; but the mean is that which is comparatively low, in

regard to the outward circumstances and relative condition of the individSwearing and drunkenness are ual. low vices; boxing and cudgelling are low games; a misplaced economy in people of property is mean; a condescension for our own petty advantages to those who are beneath us is meanness. A man is commonly low by birth, education, or habits; but meanness is a defect of nature which debases a person in spite of every external advantage. Abject, as a characteristic,

the

is

spirit.

appUed particularly to is most apt to pro-

Slavery

abject spirit by depriving a man the use of those faculties which elevate him above the brutes; poverty, fear, or any base passion may have the same effect.

duce an of

LOWER. LOWLY.

See Reduce; Strike. See Humble. LUCID. See Clear. LUCKLESS. See Hapless. LUCKY. See Fortunate. LUCRE. See Gain. LUDICROUS. See Laughable. LULL. See Quell. LUNACY. See Derangement. LUSTRE. See Brightness. LUSTY. See Corpulent. LUXURIANT. See Exuberant.

MAGISTERIAL

491

M MADNESS, Madness in

(see

Latin

from

Frenzy, Eage, Fury. a person may be choked with rage, but Derangement). Frenzy, his fury finds a vent an enraged man

phrenesis,

:

Greek

erson.

Execration, from the Latin execror, that is, e sacris excludere, signifies the same as to excommunicate, with every form Anathema, in of solemn imprecation. Greek avd9i/ta, signifies a setting up, hence a devotion, a curse, and thus

MALEFACTOR

494

a putting out of a religious community as a penance. The malediction is the most indefinite and general term, signifying simply the declaration of evU; curse is a solemn denunciation of evil: the former is employed mostly by men; the latter by some superior bemg as well as by men: the rest are species of the curse pronoxmced only by men. The malediction is caused by simple anger; the curse is occasioned by some grievous offence: men, in the heat of their passions, will utter maledictions against any object that offends them; God pro-

Adam and

nounced a curse upon

all

his posterity, after the fall. The term curse differs in the degree

of evil pronounced or wished; imprecation and execration always imply some positive great evil, and, in fact, as much evil as can be conceived by man in his anger; the anathema concerns the evil which is pronounced according to the canon law, by which a man is not only put out of the Church, but held up as an object of offence. The malediction is altogether an imallowed expression of private resentment; the curse was admitted, in some cases, according to the Mosaic law; and that, as well as the anathema, at one time formed a part of the ecclesiastical discipline of the Christian Church; the imprecation formed a part of the heathen ceremony of religion; but the execration is always the informal expression of the most violent personal anger.

MALEFACTOR. MALEVOLENT,

See Criminal.

Malicious,

Malignant.

These words have all their derivation from malu^, bad, that is,

malevolent,

wishing

ill;

malicious

Malice), having malice; and malignant, from malus and gignere, to be born, having an inborn disposition (see

that is bad. Malevolence has a deep root in the heart and is a settled part of the character; we denominate the person malevolent to designate the ruUng temper of his mind: malidou-sness may be applied as an epithet to particular parts of a man's character or conduct; one may have a malicious joy or pleasure in seeing the distresses of another: malignity is not so often employed to characterize the person as the thing;

the malignity of a design is estimated of mischief which was intended to be done. Malice, Rancor, Spite, Grudge, Pique. Malice, in Latin malitia, from malv^, bad, signifies the very essence of badness lying in the heart; rancor (see Hatred) is only continued hatred; the former requires no external cause to provoke it, it is inherent in the mind; the latter must be caused by some personal offence. Malice is properly the love of evil for evil's sake, and is, therefore, confined to no number or quality of objects, and limited by no circumstance; rancor depends upon external objects for its existence, and is confined to such objects only as are Uable to cause displeasure or anger; matice will impel a man to do mischief to those who have not injured him and are perhaps strangers to him; rancor can subsist only between those who have had siifficient connection to be at variance.

by the degree

—

from Old French despit, from down, and a weakened form

Spite,

Latin

de,

—

of specere, to look to look down on, to despise denotes a petty kind of malice, or disposition to offend another in trifling matters; it may be in the temper of the person, or it may have its source in some external provocation: children often show their spite to one

—

another. Grudge, from Old French grcmcher, to murmur, from an imitative base gru; and pique, from pike, denoting the prick of a pointed instrument, are employed for that particular state of rancorous or spiteful feeUng which is occasioned by personal offences: the grudge is that which has long existed; the pique is that which is of recent date; a person is said to owe another a grudge for having done him an injury; or he is said to show pique to

another

who has made him an affront. See Malevolent;

MALICIOUS. Satanic.

MALIGNANT.

See Malevolent;

Virulent.

MANAGE.

See

Concert;

Con-

duct; Wield.

MANAGEMENT.

See

Care;

Economy.

MANGLE. MANIA.

See Mutilate. See Derangement.

MARK MANLY,

495

Manful.

Manly, or like officers, naval tactics, and the like. a man, is opposed to juvenile, and of NaiUical is a scientific term concourse applied properly to youths; but nected with the science of navigamanfid, or full of mannood, is opposed tion or the management of vessels: to effeminate and is applicable more properly to grown persons: a prematiu"e manliness in young persons is hardly less unseemly than a want of

manfidness in one

who

is

called

upon

to display his courage.

MANNER.

See

Air;

Custom;

Way.

MANNERS,

Morals.

Manners

concern the minor" forms of acting with others and toward others; morals include the important duties of life: manners have therefore been denomiBy attention nated minor morals. to good manners we render ourselves good companions; by an observance of good morals we become good memin the former instance bers of society we gain the good-will of others, in the latter their esteem. The manners of a child are of more or less importance, according to his station in life; his morals cannot be attended to too early, let his station be what it may. See also Etiquette. MANOEUVRING. See Tactics. MARGIN. See Border. MARINE. See Maritime. MARINER. See Seaman.

we talk of nautical instruction, of nautical calculations. The maritime laws of England are essential for the preservation of the naval power which it has so justly acquired. The marine of England is one of its glories. The naval administration is one of the most important branches of our government in the time of war. Nautical tables and a nautical almanac have been expressly formed for the benefit of all who apply themselves to natUiccU subjects. hence

MARK,

Print, Impression, Stamp.

Mark comes from Anglo-Saxon

mearc, Eossibly allied to mearc, signifying a oundarj' or limit, though this seems to be a different word. Print and impression, both from the Latin premere, to press, signify the visible effect produced by printing or pressing. Stamp signifies the effect produced by stamping, from Anglo-Saxon stempan, to stamp on with the feet. The word Tnark is the most general in sense: whatever alters the external face of an object is a mark; a print is some specific mark, or a figure drawn upon the surface of an object; an imMARITIME, Marine, Naval, pression is the mark pressed either Maritime and marine, upon or into a body; a stamp is the Nautical. from the Latin mare, sea, cognate mark that is stamped in or upon the with English mere, signifies belonging body. The mark is confineci to no to the sea; naval, from navis, a ship, size, shape, or form; the print is a signifies belonging to a ship; and nau- mark that represents an object: the tical, from nauta, a sailor, signifies be- mark may consist of a spot, a line, a longing to a sailor or to navigation. stain, or a smear; but a print describes Countries and places are denominated a given object, as a house, a man, etc. mark is either a protuberance or a maritime from their proximity to the sea or their great intercourse by sea; depression; an impression is always a hence England is called the most mari- sinking in of the object: a hillock or time nation in Europe. Marine is a a hole are both marks; but the latter technical term, employed by persons in is properly the impression: the stamp specific office, to denote that which is officially is an impression made in a transacted with regard to the sea in manner and for a specific object, as distinction from what passes on land; the stamp of a seal on wax. The mark hence we speak of the marines as a is- occasioned by every sort of action, species of soldiers acting by sea, as con- gentle or violent, artificial or natural; trasted with the maritime society: or by the voluntary act of a person, or Naval is another the xmconscious act of inanimate of marine stores. term of art as opposed to military, bodies, by means of compression or and used in regard to the arrange- friction, by a touch or a blow, and the ments of government or commerce: like: all the others are occasioned by The print hence we Bf>eak of naval affairs, naval one or more of these modes. :

A

MARK

496

is occasioned by artificial means of compression, as when the 'print of letters or pictures is made on paper; or by

accidental and natural compression, as when the Tprinl of the hand is made on the wall, or the 'print of the foot is made on the ground. The impression is made by means more or less violent, as when an impression is made upon wood by the axe or hammer; or by gradual and natural means, as by the dripping of water on stone. The

stamp

is

made by means

pressure with an

of

direct

instrument. Mark is of such universal appHcation that it is confined to no objects whatever, either in the natural or moral world; print is mostly applied to material objects, the face of which imdergoes a lasting change, as the printing Tna,de on paper or wood; impression is more commonly appUed to such natural objects as are particularly soMd; stamp is generally applied to Eaper or stiU softer and more yielding odies. Impression and stamp have both a moral apphcation: events or speeches make an impression on the mind; things bear a certain stamp artificial

which bespeaks their

origin.

Where

tertainment, or to shops. Marks are arbitrary; every one chooses his mark at pleasure: signs have commonly a connection with the object that is to be observed: a house, a tree, a letter, or any external object may be chosen as a mark: but a tobacconist chooses the sign of a redman; the innkeeper chooses the head of the reigning prince. Marks serve in general simply to aid the memory in distinguishing the situation of objects or the particular circumstances of persons or things, as the marks which are set up in a garden to distinguish the ground that is occupied; they may, therefore, be private and known only to the individual that makes them, as the private marks by which a tradesman distinguishes his prices: they may Hkewise be changeable and fluctuating, according to the humor and convenience of the maker, as the private marks which are employed by the mihtary on guard. Signs, on the contrary, serve to direct the imderstanding; they have either a natural or an artificial resemblance to the object to be represented; they are consequently chosen, not by the wiU of one, but by the universal consent of a body; they are not chosen for the moment, but for a permanency, as in the case of language, either oral or written, in the case of the zodiacal signs, or the signs of the cross, the algebraical signs, and the Uke. It is clear, therefore, that many objects

the passions have obtained an ascendency, the occasional good im-pressions which are produced by reUgious observances but too frequently die away; the Christian rehgion carries with itself the stamp of truth. Mark, Sign, Note, S'ymptom, Token, Indication. Mark (see above). Sign, may be both a mark and a sign, acin Latin signum, signifies the thing that cording to the above illustration: the points out. Symptom, in Latin symp- cross which is employed in books, by toma, Greek avpi-nTi>)fia, from iriwritv, way of reference to notes, is a mark to fall out in accordance, signifies what only, because it serves merely to guide presents itself to confirm one's opinion. the eye or assist the memory; but the Token (see Betoken). Indication, in figure of the cross, when employed in Latin indicatio, from indicare, to point reference to the cross of our Saviour, is out, signifies the thing which points out. a sign, inasmuch as it conveys a disThe idea of an external object which tinct idea of something else to the mind; serves to direct the observer is com- so Ukewise little strokes over letters, or mon to all these terms; the difi'erence even letters themselves, may merely be consists in the objects that are em- -marks, while they point out only a difployed. Anything may serve as a ference between this or that letter, mark, a stroke, a dot, a stick set up, this or that object; but this same stroke and the hke; it serves simply to guide becomes a sign if, as in the first dethe senses; the sign is something more clension of Latin nouns, it is a sign of complex; it consists of a figure or the ablative case; and a single letter afrepresentation of some object, as the fixed to different parcels is merely a twelve signs of the zodiac, or the signs mark so long as it simply serves this which are affixed to houses of enter- purpose; but the same letter, or suppose

—

MARK were a word, is a sign when it is used mark may be something as a sign. accidental, and mean nothing; but a sign is that to which a meaning is always given: there may be marks on a wall occasioned by the elements or otherwise, but a sign is always the sign of something a mark, if it consist of a sensible object, is only visible, but signs may be the object of hearing, smell, or any other sense: many things, therefore, may be signs which are not marks; when words are spoken and not written they are signs and not marks; and in like manner, the cross made on the forehead of a child in baptism is a sign, but not a mark. When mark and sign are both taken to denote something by which one forms a judgment, the former serves either to denote that which has been or which is, the latter to designate that which is or wiU be, as persons bear the marks of age, or the marks of violence; or we may judge by the marks of a person's foot that some one has been walking in a particular place; hoarseness is a sign that a person has a cold when mariners meet with certain birds at sea, they consider them as a sign that land is near at hand. So likewise in appUcation to moral objects or matters of a purely intellectual nature; as a mark of honor, or a mark of distinction; an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace. So Ukewise in appUcation to objects which serve as characteristics of the person, the mark illustrates the spring of the action the sign shows the state of the or sentiments; it is a Tnark of foUy or weakness in a man to yield himself implicitly to the guidance of an interested friend; tears are not always a sign of repentance. Note is rather a sign than a mark; but it is properly the sign which consists of marks, as a note of admiration ( !) or, in the moral sense, the sign by which the object is knowTi; as persons of note, that is, which have a note upon them, or that by which they are known. Symptom is rather a mark than a sign; it explains the cause or origin of complaints by the appearances they assimie, and is employed as a technical it

A

:

;

mmd I

;

497

term only in the science of medicine: as a foaming at the mouth and an abhorrence of drink are symptoms of canine madness; motion and respiration are signs of life; but it may likewise be used figuratively in appUcar tion to moral objects. Token is a species of mark in the moral sense, indication a species of sign: a mark shows what is, a token serves to keep in mind what has been: a gift to a friend is a mark of one's affection and esteem: if it be permanent in its nature it becomes a token; friends

who

are in close intercourse

have perpetual opportunities of showing each other marks of their regard by reciprocal acts of comtesy and kindness; when they separate for any length of time they commonly leave some token of their tender sentiments in each other's hands, as a pledge of what shall be as well as an evidence of what has been. Sign, as it respects indication, is said in abstract and general propositions: indication itself is employed only for the sign given by any individual; it bespeaks the act of the persons: but the sign is only the face or appearance of the thing. When a man does not hve consistently with the profession which he holds, it is a sign that his reUgion is built on a wrong foundation; parents are gratified when they obeerve the slightest indications of genius or goodness in their children. Mark, Trace, Vestige, Footstep, Track. The word mark has already been considered at large in the preceding article, but it will admit of further illustration when taken in the sense of that which is visible, and serves to show the existing state of things; mark is here, as before, the most general and unqualified term; the other terms varjnng in the circumstances Trace, Middle or manner of the mark. French tracer, to follow, comes ultimately from Latin trahere, to drag. Vestige, in Latin vestigium, signifies, Footstep literally, a print of the foot. is taken for the place in which the foot has stepped, or the mark made by that step. Track, French trac, a

—

beaten way, comes from a Teutonic verb meaning to scrape or shove. The mark is said of a fresh and un-

\

MARK

498

the trace is said of

interrupted line: that which is broken by time: a carriage in driving along the sand leaves marks of the wheels, but in a short time all traces of its having been there will be lost; a mark is produced by the action of bodies on one another in every possible form; the spilling of a Uquid may leave a mark on the floor; the blow of a stick leaves a Tnark on the body; but the trace is a mark produced only by bodies making a progress or proceeding in a continued course: the ship that cuts the waves and the bird that cuts the air leave no trace of their course behind; so men pass their Hves, and after death leave no traces that they ever were. The vestige is a species of mark or trace caused by the feet of men, or, which is the same thing, by the works of active industry; as the vestige of buildings: there are traces of the Roman roads still visible in England; there are many vestiges of

Roman

temples in Italy. In an extended and moral apphcation they are similarly distinguished. The mark serves to denote as well that which is as that which has been; as marks of desolation, or marks of antiquity: trace and vestige show the remains of something that has been; the former in reference to matters of intellectual research generally, the latter in reference to that which has been built

up or pulled down, as there are

traces

of a universal affinity in all known languages; there are vestiges of ancient customs in different parts of England. Footstep is employed only for the steps of an individual the track is made by the steps of many; it is the line :

which has been beaten out or made by stamping: the footstep is now commonand properly employed only for men and brutes; but the track is appUed to inanimate objects, as the wheel of a carriage. When Cacus took away the oxen of Hercules, he dragged them backward that they might not be ly

traced

by

their footsteps:

a

track of

blood from the body of a murdered man may sometimes lead to the detection of the murderer. In the metaphorical apphcation they do not signify a mark, but a course of conduct; the former implies one's moral feehngs or mode of deahng; the

latter one's mechanical and habitual manner of acting: the former is the consequence of having the same principles; the latter proceeds from imitation or constant repetition. good son will walk in the footsteps of a good father. In the management of business, it is rarely wise in a young man to leave the track which has been marked out for him by his superiors in

A

age and experience. Mark, Badge, Stigma. Mark is still the general and the two others specific terms; they are employed for whatever serves to characterize persons externally, or betoken any part either of their character or circimistances: mark is employed either in a good, bad, or indifferent sense; badge in an indifferent one; stigma in a bad sense: a thing may either be a mark of honor, of disgrace, or of simple distinction; a badge is a mark simply of distinction the stigma is a mark of disgrace. The mark is that which is conferred upon a person for his merits, as medals, stars, and ribbons are bestowed by princes upon meritorious officers and soldiers; or the Tnark attaches to a person, or is affixed to him, in consequence of his demerits; as a low situation in his class is a mark of disgrace to a scholar; or a fool's cap is a mark of ignominy affixed to idlers and dunces; or a brand in the forehead is a mark of ignominy for criminals: the badge is that which is voluntarily assiuned by one's self according to established custom; it consists of dress by which the office, station, and even religion of a particular community is distinguished: as the gown and wig are the badge of the legal profession; the gown and surphce that of clerical men the imiform of charity children is the badge of their condition; the peculiar habit of the Quakers, or the Friends, is the badge of their religion the stigma consists not so much of what is openly imposed upon a person as what falls upon him in the judgment of others; it is the black mark which is set upon a person by the pubhc, and is consequently the strongest of all marks, and one which every one most dreads and every good man seeks least to deserve. Mark, Butt. The word mark has this additional meaning in common with

—

:

—

MARRIAGE the word

499

unplies an object person notices a particular road when aimed at: the mark is hterally a mark he wishes to return by the same way. that is said to be shot at by the marksSee also Show. man with a gun or a bow. See Shabpshooteb. It is also metaphorically employed MARRIAGE, Wedding, Nuptials. for the man who by his peculiar char- Marriage, from to marry, denotes the acteristics makes himself the object of act of marrying; wedding and nuptials notice; he is the mark at which every denote the ceremony of being married. one's looks and thoughts are directed: To marry is based on Latin maritus, the butt, derived through French from from a root found also in masculine, sigan Old Low German word meaning to nifying a man, and means to be joined beat, allied to EngUsh beat, is a species to a male; hence marriage compreof mark in this metaphorical sense; but hends the act of choosing and being the former calls forth only general legally bound to a man or a woman; observation, the latter provokes the wedding, from wed, and the Anglolaughter and jokes of every one. Who- Saxon weddian, to promise or betroth, ever renders himself conspicuous by implies the ceremony of marrying, inhis eccentricities, either in his opinions asmuch as it is binding upon the or his actions, must not complain if he parties. Nuptials comes ultimately become a mark for the derision of the from nupta, participle of the Latin pubUc it is a man's misfortvme rather nubere, to veil, because the Roman than his fault if he become the butt ladies were veiled at the time of marof a company who are rude and unfeel- riage: hence it has been put for the ing enough to draw their pleasures from whole ceremony itself. Marriage is an institution which, by those who have another's pain. Mark, Note, Notice. Mark is here been blessed with the hght of Divine taken in the intellectual sense, fixing Revelation, has always been considered as it were a mark upon a thing so as as sacred: with some persons, particuto keep it in mind, which is in fact to larly among the lower orders of society, fix one's attention upon it in such a the day of their wedding is converted manner as to be able to distinguish it into a day of riot and intemperance: by its characteristic quahties: to mark among the Roman CathoUcs in Engis therefore altogether an intellectual land it has been the practice to have act: to note has the same end as that their nuptials solemmzed by a priest of marking, namely, to aid the mem- of their own persuasion as well as by ory, but one notes a thing by making the Protestant clergyman. It is customary among many Itahans a written note of it; this is therefore a mechanical act: to notice, on the in the United States to have a civil other hand, from notitia, knowledge, marriage first and a rehgious one later, is a conscious operation, signifying to the couple hving apart in the interval. Marriage, Matrimony, Wedlock. bring to one's Imowledge, perception, or understanding by the use of our Marriage is oftener an act than a state: mark and note that which matrimony and wedlock both describe senses. particularly interests us: the former states. Marriage is taken in the sense of an is that which serves a present purp>ose; notice that which may be of use in act when we speak of the laws of marfuture. The impatient lover marks the riage, the day of one's marriage, the hours imtil the time arrives for meet- congratulations upon one's Tnarriage, ing his mistress: travellers note what- a happy or unhappy marriage, the ever strikes them of importance to be fruits of one's marriage, and the like; remembered when they return home: it is taken in the sense of a state when of notice, which is a species of noting in we speak of the pleasures or pains this latter case but small matters, may serve either for the marriage; present or the future; we may notice matrimony, which signifies a married things merely by way of amusement, life abstractedly from all agents ot as a child will notice the actions of acting persons, is preferable; so likeanimals; or we may notice a thing for wise, to think of matrimony, and to the sake of bearing it in mind, as a enter into the holy state of matrimony, btUt,

that

it

MARKSMAN.

:

—

—

We

m

500

MARTIAL

are expressions foiinded upon the signification of the tenn. As matrimony is derived from mater, a mother, because married women are in general mothers, it has particular reference to the domestic state of the two parties; broils are but too frequently the fruits of matrimony, yet there are few cases in which they might not be obviated by the good sense of those who are

a soldier {soldier being derived from Late Latin soldum, pay, from solidus, originally an adjective meaning hard; then "hard cash" or soldier-like, like

money, and signifying originally one who fights for money). Military, in comparison with martial, is a term of particular import, martial having always a reference to war in general: and military to the proceedings conengaged in them. Hasty mnrriages sequent upon that hence we speak of cannot be expected to produce happi- military in distinction from naval, as ness; young people who are eager for military expeditions, military movematrimony before they are fully aware ments, and the Uke; but in character:

of its consequences will purchase their izing the men we should say that they experience at the expense of their had a martial appearance; but of a peace. Wedlock is the Old EngHsh particular place that it had a military word for matrimony, and is in con- appearance, if there were many solsequence admitted in law, when one diers. Military, compared with solspeaks of children bom in wedlock; dier-like, is used for the body, and the conformably to its derivation, it has a latter for the individual. The whole reference to the bond of union which army is termed the military: the confollows the marriage: hence one speaks duct of an individual is soldier-like of hving happily in a state of wedlock, or otherwise. of being joined in holy wedlock. See Wonder.

MARTIAL, Warfare, Warlike, Military, Soldier -like. Martial, from Mars, the god of war, is the Latin term for belonging to war: warlike signifies, hterally, like war (Old French werre. Modem French giierre, from Old High German werra, broil, confusion, aUied to EngHsh worse). In sense these terms approach so near to each other that they may be easily admitted to supply each other's place; but custom, the lawgiver of language, has assigned an office to each that makes it not altogether indifferent how they are used. Warfare, from war and the AngloSaxon verb faran, modern fare, to go, means an expedition of war; hence is the carrying on of war, either by land or sea or both. It is also improperly appUed to strife between poUtical and other factions. Martial is both a technical and a more comprehensive term than warlike; on the other hand, warlike designates the temper of the individual more than martial: we speak of martial array, martial preparations, martial law, a court martial; but of a warlike nation, meaning a nation which is fond of war; a warlike spirit or temper, also a warlike appearance, inasmuch as the temper is visible in the air and carriage of a man. Military, from miles, signifies belonging to a soldier, and

MARVEL. MASK. See Cloak. MASSACRE. See Carnage. MASSAGE. See Press.

'

MASSIVE.

See Bulky. MASTER. See Possessor. MATCH. See Tally. MATERIAL. See Corporal; Tangible.

MATRIMONY. See Marriage. MATTER, Materials, Subject. Matter and materials are both derived from the same source, namely, the Latin materia, stuff for building. Subject, in Latin subjectum, participle of svbicere, to he under, signifies the thing lying under and forming the foundation.

Matter, in the physical appMcation, is all that composes the sensible world, in distinction from that which is spiritual or discernible only by the thinking faculty; hence matter is always opposed to mind. In regard to materials, it is taken in an indivisible as weU as a general sense; the whole universe is said to be composed of matter, though not of materials: on the other hand, materials consist of those particular parts of matter which serve for the artificial production of objects; and matter is said of those things which are the natural parts of the universe: a house, a table, and a chair consist

taken for

MEAN of materials, because they are works of art; but a plant, a tree, an animal body, consist of matter, because they are the productions of nature. The distinction of these terms in their

moral appUcation

is

very similar;

the matter which composes a moral discourse is what emanates from the author; but the materials are those with which one is furnished by others. The style of some writers is so indifferent that it disgraces the matter by the maimer; periodical writers are fiunished with materials for their productions by the daily occurrences in the poUtical and moral world. Writers of dictionaries endeavor to compress as much matter as possible into a small space; they draw their materials from everv other writer. ilfo/ier seems to bear the same relation to subject as the whole does to any particular part: the svbject is the groimdwork of the matter; the matter is that which derives from the subject: the matter is that which we get by the force of invention; the subject is that which offprs itself to notice: many persons may, therefore, have a svbject who have no matter, that is, nothing in their

501

them a decided

superiority over everything else: the rule acquires a worth

from

its fitness for guiding us in our proceeding: the law, which is a species of rvie; derives its weight from the sanction of power. Maxims are often precepts, inasmuch as they are communicated to us by our parents; they are rules, inasmuch as they serve as a rule for our conduct; they are laws, inasmuch as they have the sanction of conscience. We respect the maxims of antiquity as containing the essence of human wisdom; we reverence the precepts of religion as the foundation of all happiness; we regard the rules of prudence as preserving us from errors and misfortunes; we respect the laws aa they are the support of civil society.

MAY. See Can. MAZE. See Labyrinth. MEAGRE, See Lean. MEAN, PITIFUL, Sordid. derivation of these words see

For the Low, for

mean; Pity for pitiful; and Bare for sordid. The moral application of these terms to the characters of men, in their transactions with one another, is what constitutes their

common

signification.

Whatever a man does in common with own minds which they can offer by those below him is mean; it evinces a way of illustrating this subject: but it temper that is prone to sink rather than is not possible to have matter without to rise in the scale of society: whatever a subject; hence the word matter is makes him an object of pity, and contaken for the substance and for that sequently of contempt for his dewhich is substantial; the subject is graded character, makes him pitiful: taken for that which engages the at- whatever makes him grovel and crawl, tention: we OT)eak of a svbject of con- intent on low, vile aims, is sordid, versation and matter for deUberation; from the Latin sorde^, dirty. Meana subject of inquiry, a matter of curiosity. ness is in many cases only relatively Nations in a barbarous state afford bad as it respects the disposal of our but httle matter worthy to be recorded property: for instance, what is meanin history; people who Uve a secluded ness in one might be generosity or life and in a contracted sphere have prudence in another: the due estimate but few svbjects to occupy their atten- of circumstances is allowable in all, but it is meanness for any one to attion. tempt to save, at the expense of others, MATURE. See Ripe. MAXIM, Precept, Rule, Law. that which he can conveniently afford Maxim (see Axiom) is a moral truth either to give or pay: hence an undue that carries its Precept (see

own weight with

itself.

Command), rule Guide), and law (see Lawful),

(see sig-

nifying the thing laid down, all borrow their weight from some external circumstance: the precept derives its authority from the individual delivering it; in this manner the precepts of our Saviour have a weight which gives

spirit of seeking gain or advantage for one's self to the detriment of others

denominated a mean temper: it is for a gentleman to do that for himself which according to his circumstances he might get another to do for him. Piiifidness goes farther than meanness: it is not merely that which d^rades, but unmans the person; it is is

mean

MEAN

502

MEDIUM. See Mean. that which is weak as well as low: when MEDLEY. See Difference; Mixtthe fear of evil or the love of gain prompts a man to sacrifice his char- ure. MEEK. See Soft. acter and forfeit his veracity he becomes truly pitifui; BUfil in Tom MEET. See Fit. MEETING, Interview. Meeting, Jones is the character whom all pronounce to be pitiful. Sordidness is pe- from to meet, is the act of meeting or culiarly apphcable to one's love of coming into the company of any one: gain; although of a more corrupt, yet interview, compounded of inter, beit is not of so degrading a nature as tween, and view, to view, is a personal the former two: the sordid man does view of each other. A meeting is an not deal in trifles like the mean man; ordinary concern, and its purpose faand has nothing so low and weak in miUar; meetings are daily taking place him as the pitiful man. A continual between friends: an interview is exhabit of getting money will engender traordinary and formal; its object a sordid love of it in the hvunan is commonly business; an interview mind; but nothing short of a degraded sometimes takes place between princes character leads a man to be pitifvJ. or commanders of armies. We dislike a mean man: we hold a See also Assembly. MELANCHOLIC. See Hypochonpitiful man in profound contempt: we hate a sordid man. Meanness de- driacal. scends to that which is insignificant MELANCHOLY. See Dejection; and worthless: pilifulness sinks into Splenetic. MELODY, Harmony, Accordance. that which is despicable sordidness contaminates the mind with what is foul. Melody, from Greek fieXtfjcia, from See also Base; Common; Design; Greek /xeXoc, a song, and vSi), a song, Low. signifies something intended to be sung. MEAN, Medium. Mean, as here Harmony, in Latin harmonta, Greek used, is but a contraction of medium, apfiovia, concord, from ap/xoc, a joining, which signifies in Latin the middle signifies the agreement of sounds. Acpath. The term mean is used ab- cordance denotes the act or state of acstractedly in all speculative matters: cording (see Agree). Melody signifies any measured or there is a mean in opinions between the two extremes: this mean is doubtless modulated sounds measured after the the point nearest to truth. Medium is manner of verse into distinct members employed in practical matters; com- or parts; harmony signifies the suiting putations are often erroneous from be- or adapting different modulated sounds ing too high or too low; the medium is to one another; melody is therefore to in this case the one most to be preferred. harmony as a part to the whole: we The moralist will always recommend must first produce melody by the rules the mean in all opinions that widely of art; the harmony which follows differ from each other: our passions must be regulated by the ear: there always recommend to us some ex- may be melody without harmony, but travagant conduct either of insolent there cannot be harmony without resistance or mean comphance; but melody: we speak of simple melody discretion recommends the medium or where the modes of music are not very middle course in such matters. much diversified; but we cannot speak MEANING. See Signification. of harmony unless there be a variety MEANS. See Way. of notes to fall in with one another. A MECHANIC. See Artist. voice is melodious, inasmuch as it is MEDDLE. See Intermeddle, un- capable of producing a regularly modulated note; it is harmonious, inasmuch der Intercede. MEDDLESOME. See Pragmati- as it strikes agreeably on the ear and produces no discordant sounds. The cal. MEDIATE. See Arbitrate; In- song of a bird is melodious or has melody in it, inasmuch as there is a combinatercede. MEDIOCRITY. See Moderation. tion of sounds in it which are admitted MEDITATE. See Contemplate. to be regular, and consequently agree:

,

MEMORY able to the musical ear; there is harmony in a concert of voices and instruments. Accordance is, strictly speaking, the property on which both melody and harmony are founded; for the whole of music depends on an accordance of soimds. The same distinction marks accordance and harmony in the moral appUcation. There may be occasional accordance of opinion or feeling; but harmony is an entire accordance in

503

but we do not say that we have any remembrance or recollection of objects. Remembrance is the exercise of memory in a conscious agent; it may be the effect of repetition or habit, aa in the case of a child who remembers his lesson after having learned it several times; or of a horse who remembers the road which he has been continually passing; or it may be the effect of self,

association

and

circumstances,

by

every point.

which images are casually brought MEMBER, Limb. Member is the back to the mind, as happens to inLatin term, from membrum, and limb telligent beings continually as they the corresponding native EngUsh term exercise their thinking faculties. In from a root signifying a joint. these cases remembrance is an involunMember is a general term applied tary act; for things return to the mind either to the animal body or to other before one is aware of it, as in the case bodies, as a member of a family, or a of one who hears a particular name member of a community: limb is ap- and remembers that he has to call on pKcable to animal bodies; Zimi is there- a person of the same name; or of one fore a species of member; for every limb who, on seeing a- particular tree, reis a member, but every member is not a members all the circumstances of his limb. The members of the body com- youth which were connected with a prehend every part which is capable similar tree. Remembrarux is, however, of performing a distinct office; but likewise a volimtary act, ana the conthe limbs are those jointed members that sequence of a direct determination, as are distinguished from the head and in the case of a child who strives to the body: the nose and the eyes are remember what it has been told by its members, but not limbs; the arms and parent, or of a friend who remembers the hour of meeting another friend in legs are properly denominated limbs. consequence of the interest which it MEMOIRS. See Anecdotes. has excited in his mind: experience MEMORABLE. See Signal. teaches us, indeed, that scarcely anyMEMORIAL. See Monument. MEMORY, Remembrance, Recol- thing in ordinary cases is more under LEcnoN, Reminiscence. The same the subservience of the will than the root, in Latin memor, mindful, memini, memory; for it is now become almost a I remember, etc., is found in three of maxim to say that one may remember these words memory, remember, and whatever one wishes. The power of memory, and the aimreminiscence. Re, in remember and

—to

call to

mind again being the meaning

of the

reminiscence, signifies again

words. Recollection, from re and collect (Latin con and legere, to bring together), signifies to bring together in the mind again. Memory is the power of recalling images once made on the mind; remernbrance, recollection, and reminiscence are operations or exertions of this

pie exercise of that f)ower in the act of remembering, are possessed in common, though in different degrees, by

man and

animal; but recollection and

reminiscence are exercises of the mevir ory that are connected with the higher faculties

of

man,

his

judgment and

understanding. To remernber is to call to mind that which has once been presented to the mind; but to recollect

power which vary in their mode. The IS to remember afresh, to remember what memory is a power which exerts itself has been remembered before, to recall either, independently of the will or with an effort what may have been Remembrarux busies itself in conformity with the will; but all forgotten. the other temis express the acts of with objects that are at hand; recolconscious agents, and consequently lection carries us back to distant periare more or less connected with the ods: simple remembrance is engaged in will. In dreams the memory exerts it- things that have but just left the mind, I

MENACE

504

which are more or less easily recalled, and more or less faithfiUly represented; but recollection tries to re-

MENACE. See Thkeat. MEND. See Amend.

trace the faint images of things that have been so long imthought of as to be almost obUterated from the memory. In this manner we are said to remember in one half-hour what was told us in the preceding half-hour, or to remember what passes from one day to another; but we recollect the incidents of childhood; we recollect what happened in our native place after

MENTAL,

many

years' absence

from

it.

Remem-

that homely, every-day exercise of the memory which renders it of essential service in the acquirement of knowledge or in the performance of one's duties; recollection is that exalted exercise of the memxyry which affords us the purest of enjoyments and serves the noblest of purposes; the recollection of all the minute incidents of childhood is a more sincere pleasure than any which the present moment can brance

is

MENIAL,

See Servant. Intellectual, Intelli-

gent. There is the same difference between mental and intellectual as between mind and intellect: the mind comprehends the thinking faculty in general, with aU its operations; the intellect

includes only that part of

it

which consists of understanding and judgment: mental is therefore opposed to corporeal; intellectual is opposed to sensual or physical: mental exertions are not to be expected from all; intellectual enjoyments fall to the lot of comparatively few. Objects, pleasures, pains, operations, gifts, etc., are denominated mental; subjects, conversation, pursuits, and the Uke are entitled intellectual. It is not always easy to distinguish our mental pleasm-es

from those corporeal pleasm-es which

we enjoy

common with

animals; the however, greatly heightafford. ened by the former in whatever degree Reminiscence is altogether an ab- they are blended: in a society of wellstract exercise of the memory, which is informed persons, the conversation employed on purely intellectual ideas wiU timi principally on intelleduxd subin

distinction

awakened by

from those which are

latter

in

are,

jects.

Intelligent, from intelligens, imderstanding or knowing, is a characteristic mathematician makes cence in deducing unknown truths from of the person: an intelligent being or those which he already knows. Remi- an inteUigence denotes a being purely niscence among the disciples of Socrates spiritual or abstracted from matter. When appHed to individuals, it dewas the remembrance of things purely intellectual, or of that natural knowl- notes having a quick understanding of edge which the souls had had before things, as an intelligent child. MENTION, Notice. Mention, from their union with the body; while the memory was exercised upon sensible mens, mind, signifies here to bring to These Notice (see Mark). things, or that knowledge which was mind. acquired through the medium of the terms are synonymous only inasmuch Reminiscence, in its familiar as they imply the act of calling things senses. We menapplication, signifies any event or cir- to another person's mind. cumstance long past, which is brought tion a thing in direct terms: we notice or comes to the mind, and which is it indirectly or in a casual manner; we mention that which may serve as usually of a pleasurable nature. The Latins said that reminiscence be- information; we notice that which may longed exclusively to man because it be merely of a personal or incidental was purely intellectual, but that mem- nature. One friend mentions to anory was common to all animals because other what has passed at a particular it was merely the terminal point of meeting: in the course of conversation the senses. That divine, though pagan he notices or calls to the notice of his philosopher, the high-winged Plato, fan- companion the badness of the road, cied that our souls were at the first in- the wideness of the street, or the hke. MERCANTILE, Commercial. fusion abrasce tabulce, and that all our future knowledge was but a reminis- Both mercantile and commercial come from Latin merx, pay, salable goods. cence.

objects: the use of reminis-

sensible

MINDFUL Mercantile, from the same source, signifies the actual transaction of business, or a transfer of merchandise by sale or

505

may be

the errand, and the errand include the message: when that which is sent consists of a notice or purchase; commercial comprehends the intimation to another, it is a message; theory and practice of commerce: hence and if that causes any one to go to a we speak in a pecuUar manner of a place, it is an errand: thus it is that mercantile house, a mercantile town, the greater part of errands consists of a mercantile situation, and the like; but sending messages from one person to of a commercial education, a commercial another. people, cowmeroaZ speculations, and the See TransMke. figure. sage

may

METAMORPHOSE.

MERCENARY.

See

Hireling;

Venal,.

MERCIFUL.

MERCY. MERGE,

See Gracious. See Clemency; Pity. Combine, Include,

METAPHOR. See Figure. METHOD. See Order; System; Way.

MILITARISM, Militancy, Military, Militant. Militarism and miliUnite. These words all signify the tancy both come from Latin miles, a union of two or more things, but they soldier, but they differ in their appUdiffer in the closeness of the union and cation. Militarism, and its correthe character of the image under which sponding adjective, signify the state it is suggested. Merge, from Latin of being under arms and prepared to mergere, to sink into water, to dip, engage in war. It refers to formal signifies the closest union the absolute and governmental preparation for war. swallowing up of one thing by another. Militancy, and its adjective militant, Include suggests a similar idea from signify merely the general disposition Latin in, in, and clavdere, to close to fight for a cause, and may have signifying to enclose. Merge, however, nothing to do with the actual science of suggests more clearly the loss of iden- warfare. A militant individual is one tity of the thing merged or swallowed who is ready to fight, either physically up, and is a stronger word. Unite, or with the pen or the tongue, for his from Latin unire, based on units, one, cause; a military man is a man who is signifies to make one; it differs in the or has been a part of a regularly conrelation impKed between the two or stituted army. more objects. The lesser can only be See also PnEPARErxESS. MIMIC. See Imii vte. included or merged in the greater. Two MINARET. See 1'urret. equal things may be united. Combine MIND. See Attend; Soul. (see Association and Connect) signiMINDFUL, Regardful, Observfies a relation that is not so close as Mindful signifies that which that indicated in unite as is explained ant. in the article oir Connect. we wish from others; regardful that which in itself demands regard or MERRIMENT. See Glee. serious thought, particularly what reMERRY. See Lively. MERRY-ANDREW, See Zany. gards the interests and feelings of MESSAGE, Errand. Message, others; observant implies both that from the Latin missus, participle of which is communicated by others and mittere, to send, and a suffix, signifies that which carries its own obligations the thing sent. Errand comes from with itself: a child should always be mindful of its parents' instructions; Anglo-Saxon aerende, a message. The message is properly any commu- they should never be forgotten: every nication which is conveyed; the errand one should be regardful of his several on which one person sends another is duties and obligations; they ought that which causes one to go: servants never to be neglected: one ought to are the bearers of messages, and are sent be observant of the reUgious duties on various errands. A message may be which one's profession enjoins upon either verbal or written; an errand is him; they cannot with propriety be limited to no form and to no circum- passed over. By being mindful of what stance: one dehvers the message, and one hears from the wise ancf good, one goes the errand. Sometimes the mes- learns to be wise and good; oy being

—

—

—

MINGLE

506

regardful of what is due to one's self and to society at large, one learns to

pass through the world with satisfaction to one's own mind and esteem from others; by being observant of all rule and order, we afford to others a salutary example for their imitation.

MINGLE. See Mix. MINISTER, Agent.

either a good or bad sense; we may contribute to the relief of the indigent or we may contribuie to the foUies and Princes are sometimes vices of others. placed in the unfortunate situation that those who should direct them in early Hfe only minister to their vices by every means in their power: it is the part of the Christian to administer comfort to those who are in want,

Minister comes from miniis, less, as magister comes from magis, more, the one being consolation to the afflicted, advice to less, and the other more, than others: those who are feeble, and support to the minister, therefore, is hteraUy one who acts in a subordinate capacity; and the agent (from ago, to act) is the one who takes the acting part: they both perform the will of another, but the minister performs a higher part than the agent: the minister gives his counsel and exerts his intellectual powers in the service of another, but the agent executes the orders or commissions given him: a minister is employed by government in pohtical

an agent is employed by individuals in commercial and pecuniary affairs, or by government in subordinate matters: a minister is received at court and serves as a representative for his government; an agent generally acts under the directions of the minister or some office of government: ambassadors or plenipotentiaries or the first officers of the state are ministers; but those who regulate the affairs respecting prisoners, the poUce, and the hke minister always are termed agents. holds a pubhc character and is in the service of the state; the agent may be acting only for another individual, as a affairs;

A

commercial agent. See also Clergyman.

—

who cannot uphold themselves: the part of aU who are in high stations to contribute to the dissemination of rehgion and morality among their dependents; but there are, on the contrary, many who contribute to the spread of immorahty and a contempt of aU sacred things by the most pernicious example of irreligion in themselves. those

it

is

MINUTE.

See Atomic;

Circum-

stantial.

MIRACLE. See Wonder. MIRTH, Merriment, Joviality, Jollity, Hilarity. These terms all express that species of gayety or joy which belongs to company, or to men in their social intercourse. Mirth refers to the f eeHng displayed in the out-

ward conduct merriment and the other :

terms refer rather to the external expressions of the feeling, or the causes of the feeUng, than to the feehng itself: mirth shows itself in laughter, in dancing, singing, and noise; merriment consists of such things as are apt to excite the more we are disposed to laugh the greater is our mirth; the more there is to create laughter the greater is the merriment: the tricks of Punch and his wife and the jokes of a clown cause much mirth among the gaping crowd of rustics; the amusements with the swing or the merrygo-roimd afford much merriment to the visitants of a fair. Mirth is confined to no age or station; but merriment belongs more particularly to yoimg people or those of the lower station; mirth may be provoked wherever any number of persons is assembled; merriment cannot go forward anywhere so properly as at fairs or pubhc places. mirth:

Administer, Contribute. from the noun minister, in the sense of a servant, signifies to act in subservience to another, and may be taken either in a good, bad, or indifferent sense, as to minister to the spiritual wants or to minister to another's caprices and indulgences when we encourage them imnecessarily. Administer, that is^ to minister for a specific pm-pose, is taken in the good sense of serving another to his advantage: thus the Good Samaritan administered to the comfort of the Joviality or jollity, and hilarity, are man who had fallen among thieves. species of merriment which belong to ContribiUe (see Conduce) is taken in the convivial hoard: joviality or jollity Minister,

To

minister,

MIX may accompany

the pleasures of the entertainments; hilarity is the same thing qualified by cultivation and good the sense of the company; we may expect to find much joviality and joUity at a pubUc dinner of plain people; we may expect to find hilarity at a pubUc diimer of gentlemen: eating, drinking, and noise constitute the joviality; the conversation, the songs, the toasts, and the pubUc spirit of the company contribute to

507

See also Festivity; Glee; Joy.

These hkewise be employed in speaking of language in general; but the former implies the literal transmission of foreign ideas into our nar tive language; the latter the general sense which one affixes to any set of words, either in a native or foreign language: the learners of a language will imavoidably misconstrue it at times; in all languages there are ambiguous expressions which are liable to misinterpretations. Misconstruing is the consequence of ignorance; misin-

MISANTHROPICAL, Cynical.

terpretaiions

table

or

any

social

hilarity.

preted in favor of the crime.

words

may

of

particular

words are

Misanthropical and cynical both indi- oftener the consequence of prejudice cate a hostile attitude to mankind in and voluntary blindness, particularly general. Misanthropical, from Greek in the explanation of the law or of the to hate, and dvGpioirog, man, Scriptures. MISDEED. See Offence. means hating mankind Cynical comes MISDEMEANOR. See Crime; Opfrom Greek KvviKog, which originally meant doglike, currish, snappish, and fence. MISERABLE. See Unhappy. was the designation of a sect of Greek

fii(juv,

.

MISERLY. See Avaricious. who affected to disbeheve MISFORTUNE. See CAi^tMiTy; goodness. Misanthropical imphes a morbid psychological condi- Evil. MISHAP. See Calamfty. tion often a nervous horror or fear of MISINTERPRET. See Misconothers, which has some definite external cause. Cynical indicates an in- strue. MISMANAGE. See Bunqle. tellectual attitude a disbeUef in the MISS. See Lose. goodness of others, and a consequent MISTAKE. See Erroe. tendency to sneer. The misanthrope MISUSE. See Abuse. makes himself miserable; the cynic MITIGATE. See Allay. makes others miserable. MIX, Mingle, Blend, CoNiix>UND. The misanthropical man separates himself from the rest of human society; Mix is in Anglo-Saxon misdan, from the cynical man moves among men Latin miscere, to intermingle. Mingle sneering. Cynicism is often a char- comes from Anglo-Saxon mengan, to Blend is a acteristic of men of the world who mix, allied to among. have seen much of the shams and self- Scandinavian word meaning to mix ishness of society. The misanthropical together. Mix is here a general and indefinite man is often one who has suffered from some great shock to his belief in human term, signifying simply to put together: philosophers in

human

—

—

but we

nature.

may mix two

or several things;

we mingle several objects: things are MISCARRIAGE. See Failure. mixed so as to lose all distinction, but MISCELLANY. See Mixture. they may be mingled and yet retain a MISCHANCE. See Calamity. MISCHIEF. See Evil; Injury; distinction: hquids mix so as to beScathe.

MISCONSTRUE,

come one, and individuals mix in a Misinterpret. crowd so as to be lost; things of

Misconstrue and misinterpret signify to explain in a wrong way; but the former connotes the sense of one's words or the application of one's actions: those who indulge themselves in a hght mode of speech toward children are liable to be misconstrued; a too great tenderness to the criminal may be easily misinter-

different sizes are mingled together if they lie in the same spot, but they still may be distinguished. To blend is only partially to mix, as colors blend

which fall into each other: to confound is to mix in a wrong way, as objects of sight are confounded when they are erroneously taken to be joined. To

MOAN

508

mix and mingle are mostly applied to other young persons material objects, except in poetry; to blend and confound are mental operations, and principally employed on spiritual subjects: thus, events and circumstances are blended together in a narrative; the ideas of the ignorant are confounded in most cases, but particularly when they attempt to think for themselves. Mixture, Medley, Miscellany. MixtMedley comes v/re is the thing mixed. from Old French medler, to mix or confuse. Miscellany, in Latin miscellaneus, from miscere, to mix, signifies also a mixture. The term mixture is general; whatever objects can be mixed wiU form a mixture: a medley is a mixture of things not fit to be mixed; and a miscellany is a mixture of many different things. Flour, water, and eggs may form a mixture in the proper sense, but if to these were added aU sorts of spices Miscellany it would form a medley. is a species appUcable only to intellectual subjects: the miscellaneous is opposed to that which is systematically arranged; essays are miscellaneous in distinction from works on one particu-

—

MOAN.

See Groan; Wail. MOB. See People. MOBILITY. See People. MOCK. See Deride; Imitate. MODE. See Way. MODEL. See Copy.

MODERATION, Mediocrity. is

the char-

acteristic of persons; mediocrity (that

mean

look and a timid air: a modest deport-

ment is always commendable; Si bashful temper is not desirable. Modesty is a proper distrust of ourselves; diffidence is a culpable distrust. Modesty, though opposed to assurance, is not incompatible with a confidence in ourselves;

diffidence altogether

un-

mans a person and

disquaUfies him for his duty: a person is generally modest in the display of his talents to others;

but a

diffident

man

cannot turn his

talents to his own use. See also Humble.

Modesty, Moderation, Temperance, Modesty, in French modestie, Latin modestia, and moderation, in Latin moderatio, both come from modus, a measure, limit, or boundary, that is, forming a measure or rule. Temperance, in Latin temperantia, from tempus, time, signifies the observance of proper times and seasons propriety, self-

Sobriety.

—

—

Sobriety (see Abstinent). Modesty hes in the mind and in the

control.

quality of feeUng; moderation in the desires: modesty is a principle that acts discretionally; moderation is a rule or Une that acts as a restraint on the views

lar subject.

Moderation (see Modesty)

in the presence of their superiors: modesty discovers itself in the absence of everything assuming, whether in look, word, or action; bashfulness betrays itself by a downcast

is,

and the outward conduct: he who thinks modestly of his own acquirements, his own performances, and his own merits will be moderate in his expectations of praise, reward, and recompense; he, on the other hand, who overrates his own abilities and qualifications will equall}' overrate the use he makes of them, and consequently be immoderate in the price which he sets

or medium) characterizes their condition: moderation is a virtue of no small importance for beings who find excess in everything to be an evil; mediocrity in external circumstances is upon his services: in such cases, thereexempt from all the evils which attend fore, modesty and moderation are to each other as cause and effect; but either poverty or riches. there may be modesty without moderaSee New. MODEST, Bashful, Diffident. tion, and moderation without modesty. Modest, in Latin modestus, from modus, Modesty is a sentiment confined to one's a measure, signifies setting measm-e to seK as the object, and consisting solely Bashful of one's judgment of what one is and one's estimate of one's self. (see what one does; but moderation, as is signifies ready to be abashed Abash). Diffident (see Distrustfitl). evident from the above, extends to obModesty is a habit or principle of the jects that are external of ourselves: mind; bashfulness is a state of feeUng: modesty, rather than moderation, bemodesty is at all times becoming; 6as/i- longs to an author; moderation, rather fulness is observed only in young girls or than modesty, belongs to a tradesman

the

MODERN.

MOLLIFY man who has gains to make and purposes to answer. Modesty shields a man from mortifications and disappointments, which assail the self-conceited man in every direction: a modest man concihates the esteem even of an enemy and a rival. Moderation protects a man equally from injustice, on the one hand, and imposition, on the other: he who is moderate himself makes others so. Moderation is the measure of one's or a

mind

509

not only produce moderation but extend its influence to the whole conduct of a man in every relation and circumstance, to his internal sentiments and his external behavior: hence we speak of sobriety in one's mien or deportment, sobriety in one's dress and manners, sobriety in one's reUgious opinions and observances. Sober may also be apwill

and temperance,

plied figuratively.

MOISTURE, Humidity, Dampness. and Moisture is a word of disputed origin. the adapta- Humid comes from Latin humidtts, from

desires, one's habits, one's actions,

one's words; temperance is tion of the time or season for particular the verb humere, to be moist. DampfeeUngs, actions, or words: a man is ness comes from the same root as the said to be moderate in his principles German dampf, a vapor. who adopts the medium or middle Moisture is used in general to express course of thinking; it rather quahfies any small degree of infusion of a Uquid the thing than the person: he is said into a body; humidity is employed scito be temperate in his anger, if he does entifically to describe the state of havnot suffer it to break out into any ex- ing any portion of such Uquid: hence cesses; temperance characterizes the we speak of the moisture of a table, person rather than the thing. the moisture of paper, or the moisture moderaie man in pohtics endeavors to of a floor that has been wet; but of steer clear of all party spirit, and is the humidity of the air or of a wall consequently so temperate in his lan- that has contracted moisture of itself. guage as to provoke no animosity. Dampness is that species of moisture Moderation in the enjoyment of every- that arises from the gradual contracthing is essential in order to obtain tion of a Uquid in bodies capable of the purest pleasure: temperance in one's retaining it; in this manner a cellar indulgences is always attended with is damp, or Unen that has lain long the happiest effects to the constitu- may become damp. MOLEST. See Inconvenience; tion; as, on the contrary, any deviation from temperance, even in a single Trouble. Pacify, Appease,* MOLLIFY, instance, is always punished with Soothe. These words ail mean to bodily pain and sickness. Temperance and sobriety have already change from a state of wrath or disbeen considered in their proper appUca- turbed emotion to one of peace. Moltion (see Abstinent), which will serve lify comes from Latin moUis, soft, tento illustrate their improper apphcation. der, and a weak form of facere, to Temperance is an action; it is the tem- make. It signifies to make soft or pering of our words and actions to the mild. Appease comes from Old French circumstances: sobriety is a state in a pais, Latin ad pacem, at peace, or which one is exempt from every stimu- rather to a state of peace. Modify, lus to deviate from the right course; pacify (from Latin pax, peace, ana a as a man who is intoxicated with wine weak form of facere. to make), and apruns into excesses and loses that power pease differ from each other in t he degree of guiding himself which he has when of emotion suggested and the extent of he is sober or free from all intoxica- the peace produced. To mollify is not tion, so is he who is affected by any so strong a word as to pacify, and to passion, in like manner, hurried away pacify does not suggest such dangeroua into irregularities which a man in his wrath as appease. Appease is used eeright senses will not be guilty of: pecially witn reference to persons or Men sobriety is, therefore, the state of oeing powers greater than ourselves. in one's right or sober senses; and offered sacrifices in olden times to sobriety is, with regard to temperance, appease the gods; in the old fairy-talea as a cause to the effect; sobriety of beautiful maidens were offered as vio-

A

MOMENT

510

tims to appease the voracity of dragons sorb) goes further. It means not only to make one's own, but to swallow up entirely, so that the identity of the We appease the wrath that is dangerous thing absorbed is lost. Engross and to us; we pacify that which is merely- monopolize have similar meanings exannoying or vexatious as when we pressed under commercial figures. Enpacify a crying child. MoUify and gross is from the French en gros, in the

and sea-monsters, etc. Pacify suggests a less dangerovis anger or emotion.

—

soothe are more general expressions. To mollify is to make gentle that which was violent. To soothe, from AngloSaxon sooth, truth, meant to "say

gross,

and means to buy up by the

wholesale.

meaning.

Monopolize has a similar comes from Greek /jlovoq

It

and noATiv, to sell, and means to obagree with or say "yes" to. tain the exclusive right of seUing. In Soothe is more suggestive of physical ordinary usage there is httle difference action than mollify. may soothe between monopolize and engross. Moa wound by the apphcation of heaUng nopolize perhaps carries more of the sugsalves, for instance, as weU as soothe gestion of exclusiveness; engross more a ruffled temper with gentle words. of absorption. MONSTER. See Wonder. Mollify has only the moral application. MONSTROUS. See Enormous. Mollify impUes emotional excitement hostile to others which should be alMemorial. Monvr layed; soothe merely impUes any kind ment, in Latin monumentum or moniof disturbance. We mollify others for mentum, from moneo, to advise or reour own sakes; we soothe them for their •mind, and a suffix, signifies that which own. puts us in mind of something. MemoSee Importance; In- rial, from memory, signifies the thing stant. that helps the memory. MONAD, See Unit. From the above it is clear that these terms have, in their original derivaSee Prince. MONASTERY. See Cloister. tion, precisely the same signification, MONEY, Cash. Money comes from but differ in their collateral acceptathe Latin moneta, a surname of Juno, tions: monument is appUed to that in whose temple at Rome money was which is purposely set up to keep a coined. Cash, from the French casse, a thing in mind; memorials are any chest, signifies that which is put in a objects which are calculated to caU a chest. thing to mind: a monument is used to Money is apphed to everything preserve a public object of notice from which serves as a circulating medium; being forgotten; a memorial serves to cash is, in a strict sense, put for keep an individual in mind the monucoin only: bank-notes are money; ment is commonly understood to be a guineas and shillings are cash; all cash species of building, as a tomb which is therefore mxmey, but all maney is not preserves the memory of the dead, or a cash. The only money the Chinese pillar which preserves the memory of have are square bits of metal with a some pubUc event: the memorial alhole through the center by which ways consists of something which was they are strung upon a string: trav- the property, or in the possession, of ellers on the Continent must always another, as his picture, his handwritbe provided with letters of credit, which ing, his hair, and the like. The Monumay be turned into cash, as convenience ment at London was built to commemrequires. orate the dreadful fire of the city in MONOPLANE. See Aircraft. the year 1666: friends who are at & MONOPOLIZE, Absorb, Appro- distance are happy to have some token priate, Engross. These words all of each other's regard, which they hkemean to take complete or exclusive wise keep as a memorial of their former possession of something. Appropriate intercourse. is the least emphatic. It comes from The monument, in its proper sense, is Latin ad, to, and proprius, one's own, always made of wood or stone for some and means to make completely one's specific purpose; but in the improper own. Absorb (for derivation see Ab- sense anything may be termed a sooth"

—

^to

We

MONUMENT,

MOMENT.

MONARCH.

:

MOVING PICTURE

511

monument when

it serves the purpose MOTOR. See Automobilb. of reminding the public of any circumSee Form. stance: thus, the pyramids are mounSee Arise. mcnts of antiquity; the actions of a See Grieve. good prince are more lasting monitSad. Mournful (from ments than either brass or marble. Anglo-Saxon mcoman, to grieve, ModMemorials are mostly of a private em English mourn) signifies full of what nature, and at the same time such as causes mourning; sad (see Dull) sigremind us naturally of the object to nifies either a painful sentiment or what which they have belonged; this object causes this painful sentiment. The is generally some person. difference in the sentiment is what conBut it may likewise refer to some stitutes the difference between these thing, if it be of a personal nature, or epithets: the mournful awakens tender that by which persons are individually and sympathetic feeUngs: the sad opaffected: our Saviour instituted the presses the spirits and makes one Sacrament of the Lord's-Supper as a heavy at heart; a mmimful tale conmemorial of His death. tains an account of others' distress; See Humor. a sad story contains an account of one's

MOULD. MOUNT. MOURN. MOURNFUL,

MOOD. MORAL. See Virtuous/ MORALLY. See Ethical. MORALS. See Manners, a MORATORIUM. See Delay. morbid: See Sick. MOREOVER. See Besides. mortal. See Deadly. MORTIFICATION.

See

Vexa-

tion.

mortify.

See Abash; Snub. See Necropolis.

MORTUARY.

MOTION, Movement. These are both abstract terms to denote the act of moving, but motion is taken generally and abstractedly from the thing that moves; movement, on the other hand, is taken in connection with the agent or thing that moves: hence we speak of a state of motion as opposed to a state

own

distress; a mournful event befalb our friends and relatives; a sad mis-

fortune befalls ourselves.

Selfish peo-

ple find nothing moumfid, but many things sad: tender-hearted people are always affected by what is mournful, and are less troubled about what is sad.

MOVABLE. MOVABLES. MOVE. See

See Kinetic. See Goods. Go; Stir; Thrill. MOVEMENT. See Motion. MOVIES. See Moving Picture. MOVING, Affecting, Pathetic. The moving is in general whatever moves the affections or the passions;

the affecting and pathetic are what move the affections in aifferent d^jrees. The good or bad feeUngs may be moved; the tender feelings only are affected. of rest, of perpetual motion, the laws field of battle is a moving spectacle: the of motion, and the hke; on the other death of a friend is an affecting spechand, we say, to make a movement, tacle. The affecting acts Dy means of when speaking of an army, a general the scenes as well as the understanding; movement when speaking of an as- the pathetic applies only to what is sembly. addressed to the heart: hence, a sight When motion is quaUfied by the thing or a description is affecting; but an that maves it denotes continued mo- address is jxithdic. PICTURE, Motion Picttion; but movement impUes only a particular motion: hence we say, the ure, Cinematograph, Photoplay, As is the case with most motion of the heavenly bodies; the Movie. motion of the earth; a person is in con- names of recent inventions, these terms tinual motion, or an army is in motion; differ not in meaning, but in applicabut a person who rises or sits down or tion and usage. They all indicate the goes from one chair to another makes invention whereby figures in motion a movement; the different movements of are photographed, so that the movethe springs and wheels of any instru- ment is reproduced when the picture Moving picture is thrown on a screen. ment. PICTURE. See Mov- was the name first used for this inpicture has also vention, but motion INQ Picture. MOTIVE. See Cause; Principle. come into general usage and has been

A

MOVING

MOTION

MULCT

512

adopted by many of the corporations producing these pictures. Moving picture seems to a purist a more desirable term, because moving is an adjective form, whereas in the case of motion picture a substantive is made to do dut3' as

an

adjective.

But some people

contend that motion picture is a more accurate word, since the pictures themselves do not move; they are merely photographs of motion. The two terms, however, are used interchangeably. Movie is a popular abbreviation of moving picture, and one which, perhaps, deserves to receive general recognition as a new word, inasmuch as it is a spontaneous popular coinage to indicate a new invention, rather than a scientific name laboriously patched together out of Greek and Latin. Cinematograph is the technical term corresponding to moving picture, from Greek k'ivuv, to move, and ypdcpsiv, to mark or write. This is frequently shortened to cinema,

becoming a popular term for the moving picture, and is used among educated people sometimes as a more elegant substitute for movie. Photoplay differs somewhat from the other terms in its appUcation. It is applied to a particular moving-picture drama, a play in pictures. The other words are rather indiscriminately used which

is

also

a throng may be busy and active, but not always pressing or incommodious: it is always inconvenient, sometimes dangerous, to go into a crowd; it is amusing to see the throng that is perpetually passing in the streets of the city: the swarm is more active than either of the two others; it is commonly applied to bees which fly together in numbers, but sometimes to human beings, to denote their very great numbers when scattered about; thus the children of the poor in low neighborhoods swarm in the streets. MUMBLE. See Jabber. MUNIFICENT. See Beneficent. MUNITIONS. See Ammunition. MURDER. See Kill. See Complaint. MUSE. See Contemplate; Think. MUSTER. See Assemble. MUTABLE. See Changeable. MUTE. See Silent.

MURMUR.

MUTILATE, Maim, Mangle. Muin Latin mutilatus, from muiilus, /ivriXoc, curtailed, docked, signifies to take off any necessary part. Maim, in Anglo-French mahaym, is a word of unknown origin. Mangle, in tilate,

Greek

Anglo-French mahangler, tative of

Mutilate

meaning;

is

a frequen-

it.

has

the

most

extended

implies the total or partial to indicate individual moving-picture loss of any limb: mangle is applied to plays, moving-picture houses, or the rep- irregular wounds in any part of the resentations of the moving picture. body: maim is confined to wounds in MULCT. See Fine. the limbs, particularly the hands. Men MULTIPLANE. See Aircraft. are exposed to the danger of mutilation MULTITUDE, Crowd, Throng, by means of cannon-balls; they run the Swarm. The idea of many is common risk of being mangled when attacked to all these terms, and pecuhar to that with the sword; they frequently get of multitude, from the Latin rriuUus; maimed when boarding vessels or stormcrowd comes from Anglo-Saxon crvdan, ing places. to push; and throng from Anglo-Saxon Mutilate and mangle are appUcable thringan, to press; and swarm, like the to moral objects; maim is employed German schwdrmen, to fly about, sig- in the natural or figurative sense. In nifies running together in numbers. this case mangle is a much stronger These terms vary, either in regard to term than mutilate; the latter signifies the object or the circumstance: multi- to lop off an essential part; to mangle tude is applicable to any object; crowd, is to mutilate a thing to such degree throng, and swarm are in the proper as to render it useless or worthless. sense applicable only to animate ob- Every sect of Christians is fond of jects: the first two in regard to persons; mutilating the Bible by setting aside the last to animals. A multitude may be such parts as do not favor its own either in a stagnant or a moving state; scheme; and among them all the all the rest denote a multituJde in a sacred literaUy Scriptures become moving state: a crowd is 'always press- mangled and stripped of all their most ing, generally eager and tumultuous; important doctrines. it

MYTHICAL MUTINOUS. See Tumultuous. MUTUAL, Reciprocal. Mutiuil, from mvio, to change, exchanged so as to be equal, or the same, on both sides. Reciprocal, in Latin reciprocus, meant, literally, back and forth, from reco, back, and. proco, forward. Mutual supposes a samein Latin mutuus, signifies

513

for each other's comfort, a mutvxd concern to avoid that which interest

—

will displease the other

these are the sentiments which render the marriage state

happy: reciprocal

bonds,

—

reciprocal

ties,

rights,

reciproail reciprocal

^these are what every one ought to bear in mind as a member of ness in condition at the same time: society, that he may expect of no man reciprocal supposes an alternation or more than what in equity he is dissuccession of returns. Exchange is posed to return. free and volimtary; we give in exMuiual applies to nothing but what

duties

change, and this action is mutual: is personal; reciprocal is applied to return is made either according to law things remote from the idea of F>eror equity; it is obUgatory, and when sonahty, as reciprocal verbs, recivrocal equally obligatory on each in turn it terms, reciprocal relations, ana the

Voluntary disinterested like. by one person to anMYSTERIOUS, Myotic. Mystenother are muiual: imposed or merited ous and mystic are but variations of the services, returned from one to the same original, Greek (ivtrnjC; one who other, are reciprocal: friends render is initiated into a secret religious order; one another mutual services: the ser- the former, however^ is more commonly vices between servants and masters appUed to that which is supernatural are reciprocal. The husband and wife or veiled in an impenetrable obscurity; pledge their faith to' each other mutu- the latter to that which is natural, but ally; they are reciprocally boimd to concealed by an artificial or fantastical keep their vow of fidelity. The senti- veil; hence we speak of the mysterious plans of Providence: myshc schemes of ment is mulualj the tie is reciprocal. MutuM apphes mostly to matters of theology or mystic principles. will and opinion: a muiual affection, a See also Secret. MYTHICAL. See Legendaby. mutual inclination to oblige, a mutual is

reciprocal.

services rendered

Si

NAB

514

N NAB, Appropriate, Clutch, Grasp, Seize.

Nab

a Scandinavian word signifying to snatch at. Although the term has a wide range of usage and has long been recognized in pohte language, in itself it is very near slang. A person by cunning, deceit, sharp practice may nab or appropriate from another credit for an achievement, is

some property, or other possession-con-

the colors of the rainbow.

from Greek

matic,

iroXv,

Polyct-x)-

much, and

xpw/ia, color, has a similar hteial meaning less metaphorically expressed. But iridescent suggests both changefulness and hght as well as color an interplay of colors like light. Polychro-

—

matic

is

a more prosaic word;

means having many

it

merely

Opalescent (from Latin opalus, EngUsh opal, the name of a precious stone) means resembling an opal that is, having an interplay of soft mUky-hued colors shot with flashes and gleams of fiery hght. Pearly, from pearl (French perle, a word of unknown origin), means resembling the lustrous sUvery white or silvery gray of the'pearl which is somecolors.

quering nations appropriate, seize, take possession of territory belonging to a defeated opponent as a spoil of war, and this has heretofore been considered right and proper. To appropriate may be a slow action, one resulting from a more or less prolonged parley or negotiation, but to seize imphes the real meaning of to times touched with the faintest glow of nab. To didch also impUes a swift color... NAIVE, iNGENtrous, Artless. These action, as a drowning person wiU clutch at anything hkely to save his words all refer to an absence of prelife, a falling person wiU clutch, seize, tence and sophistication, and are used, lay hold of any near-by object that will in a good sense, to describe naturalness save a complete fall. To grasp impMes and simphcity. Of these three words actions both good and indefensible. It naMe is the most inclusive and the most is a delight to grasp the hand of a difficult to define. It is an imperfriend; it is a great accomplishment fectly naturaUzed French word (from to possess the intellectual capacity to Latin naiivxis, native, inborn) which grasp the spirit, truth, intent of a sub- is almost always used in English with ject readily; but it is not justifiable to a feeUng that it expresses something grasp, lay hold of greedily, take sudden that cannot be described in blunt Engpossession of that which belong to lish terms. Ingenuous (from Latin root gen, inanother without warrant or justificadicating birth) meant originally the tion. NACREOUS, Iridescent, Opales- simphcity and frankness of a weU-bom cent, Pearly, Polychromatic. These youth, and indicates a quality of words all signify characterized by an character. Artless means without art, and ininterplay of colors, and derive their names and their respective differences dicates primarily a mental characterfrom various substances. Nacreous, istic. say that a child is artless, from nacre, mother-of-pearl (probably that a young girl is artless, but that a an Oriental word), takes its name from youth is ingenuous. Artless conveys the inner covering of an oyster-shell the impression of a certain innocence and of certain other shells. It indi- and ignorance of the world; ingenvxyus, cates a shining substance of the silvery the impression of an inborn disposition. gray color of the pearl, but shimmering Naive expresses the idea involyed in with iridescent colors that appear and artless with a certain subtlety. It vanish as the light strikes it. Irides- really differs from artless mainly in cent, from Latin iris, Greek Ipic, the indicating a difference in the perceiver, rainbow, signifies, Uterally, having all rather than the quality perceived. It

—

We

NAME is

faintly suggestive of that slight shade

of tender-hearted

amusement

—

of that

complete sympathy of the heart, combined with a certain intellectual superiority and detachment with which the educated or experienced man views an expression of artlessness. There are only a few words in English whose effectiveness depends so entirely upon an atmosphere imdefinable and untranslatable; the other words of this character are also French. NAKED. See Bare. NAMBY-PAMBY. See Simple. NAME, Call. Name comes from Anglo-Saxon nama. a name, aUied to Latin rwmen, a name. CaJl is a Scandinavian word. To (ujJl signijQes properly to address one loudly, consequently we may name without calling, when we only mention a name in conversation; and we may call without naming. The terms may, however, be employed in the sense of assigning a name. In this case a person is named by his name, whether by the proper patronymic or by some habitual variant; he is caUed according to the characteristics by which he is distinguished.

—

The Emperor Tiberius was namxd Tiberius; he was caUed a monster.

515

a species of appellation, not drawn from anything personal, but conferred as a groimd of pohtical distinction An appellation may be often a term oi reproach; but a title is always a mark is

of honor.

An

appellation

is

given to

animate or inanimate; a title is given mostly to persons, sometimes to things. A particular house may have the appellation of "the Cottage," or "the Hall," as a particular person may have the title of Duke, Lord, or Marquis. Denomination is to particular bodies what appellation is to an individual, namely, a term of distinction, drawn from their peculiar characters and circimistances. The Christian world is spUt into a number of different bodies or communities, under- the denominaall

olajects,

tions of Catholics, Protestants, Calvinists, Presbyterians, etc., which have their origin the peculiar form of faith and discipline adopted by these

m

bodies.

Name, Denominate,

Style,

—

Entitle,

Designate, Characterize. To name signifies simply to give a name to, or to address or specify by the given name; to denominate (from Latin nomen, name) is to give a specific name upon specific ground, to distinguish by the name; to style, from the noun style or manner (see Diction), signifies to address by a specific name; to entitle is to give the specific or appropriate

William the First of England is najned WilUam; he is called the Conqueror. Name, Appellation, Title, Denominai ion Name (see above) A ppellation, in French appellation, Latin appellatio, comes from Latin ad, to, and a stem title. Adam named everything; we meaning to speak, aUied to Anglo- denominate the man who drinks ex-

—

.

and Modem Enghsh spell. cessively "a dnmkard"; subjects «/ufe French tilre, comes from Latin their monarch "His Majesty '; books tituLus, a superscription on a tomb. are entitled according to the judgment Denomination signifies that which de- of the author. To name, denominate, style, and ennominates or distinguishes. Saxon

Title, in

Name

a generic term, the rest are is employed to distinguish one thing from another is a name; therefore, an appellation and a title are a name, but not vice versd. A specific.

is

Whatever word

title are the acts of conscious agents only. To designate, signifying to mark out, and characterize, signifying to form a characteristic, are usually said only of things, and agree with the former only inasmuch as words may either detignate or characterize: thus the word "capacity" is said to designate the power of holding; and "finesse" char-

an is either conmaon or projjer; appellation is generally a common name given for some specific purpose as characteristic. Several kings of France had the names of Charles, Louis, PhiUp; acterizes the people but one was distinguished by the ap- adopted.

name

by whom

it

was

See also Nominate. pellation of Stammerer, another by Name, Reputation, Repute, Credit. that of the Simple, and a third by that of the Hardy, arising from particular Name is here taken in another sense A title for a name acquired in public by any characters or circumstances.

—

NAP

516

or quality in an object. Reputation and repute, from repulo, or re, back, and putare, to think, signifies the thinking of or the state of being thought of, or esteemed by, by the pubhc. Credit signifies the state of being beheved or trusted in general, from Latin credere, to beheve or trust. peculiarity

Name impMes

something more spethan reputation; and reputation something more substantial than name; a name may be acquired by some casualty or by some quahty that has more show than worth; reputation is acquired only by time and built only on merit: a name may be arbitrarily given, simply by way of distinction; reputation is not given, but acquired, or follows as a consequence of one's honorable exertions. A physician sometimes gets a name by a single instance of professional sklU, which by a combination of favorable circumstances he may convert to his own advantage in forming an extensive practice; but imless he have a commensurate degree of talent, this name will never ripen into a solid reputation. Name and reputation are of a more extended nature than repute and credit. cific

The name and reputation are given by the public at large; the repute and credit are acquired within a narrow circle. Strangers, or it may be distant coimtries, hear of the name and the reputation oi anything; but only neighbors and those who have the means of personal observation can know its repute

and

credit.

It is possible, there-

or the state of being reputed, repute signifies only the state of being reputed. Name and repute are taken either in a good or bad sense; reputation mostly, and credit always, are taken in the good sense only: a person or thing may get a good or an ill name; a person or thing may be in good or ill repute; reputation may rise to different degrees of height, or it may sink again into nothing; credit may likewise be high or low, but both reputation and credit, absolutely taken, imply that which is good.

NAP.

See Sleep. See Relation. See Accoxjnt; Re-

NARRATION. NARRATIVE. lation.

NARROW.

See Contracted. Native, Indigenous. Natal, in Latin natalis, from natus,

NATAL,

born, signifies belonging to one's birth, or the act of one's being bom; but native, in Latin nativtis, hkewise from naiv^, signifies having an origin or beginning. Indigenous, in Latin indi-

genus, from indu.

and

genitu^, given place.

bom,

The epithet ruUal is applied only to the circumstances of a man's birth, as his natal day; his natal hour; a natal song; a natal star. Native has a more extensive meaning, as it comprehends the idea of one's relationship by origin to an object; as one's native country, one's native soil, native village, or native place, native language, and the hke. Indigenous is a particular term used to denote the country where races of men are supposed to have first existed. It is also apphed to plants in the same

have a name and reputation without having repute and credit, and vice versa, for the objects which constitute the former are sometimes different from those which produce the sense. latter. A manufacturer has a name Native, Natural. fore, to

for the excellence of a particular article of his own manufacture a book has a

name among would-be

connoisseurs and pretenders to Uterature a good writer, however, seeks to estabUsh his reputation for genius, learning, industry, or some praiseworthy characteristic a preacher is in high repute among those who attend him: a master gains great credit from the good performances of his :

Old Latin, within, signifies born in a

—

Native is to natural as a species to the genus: everything native is, according to its strict signification, natural; but many things are natural which are not native. Of a person we may say that his worth is native, to designate that it is some

valuable property which is bom with him, not foreign to him, or ingrafted upon his character; but we may say of his disposition that it is natural, as opscholars. There is also this distinction posed to that which is acquired or between reputation and repute, that otherwise. The former is mostly emreputation signifies the act of reputing ployed in a good sense, in opposition :

NECESSARY to what is artful, assumed, and unreal; the other is used in an indifferent sense, as opposed to whatever is the effect of habit or circmnstances. When children display themselves with all their naiive simplicity, they are interesting objects of notice: when they display their natural turn of mind, it is not always that which tends to raise human nature in our esteem. See also Intrinsic. Naturally, In Course, Consequently, Of Course. The connection between events, actions, and things is expressed by all these terms. Naturally signifies according to the nature of things, and applies, therefore, to the connection which exists between events according to the original constitution or inherent properties of things: in course signifies in the course of things, that is, in the regular order that things ought to follow: consequently signifies by a consequence, that is, by a necessary law of dependence, which makes one thing follow another: of course signifies on account of the course which things most commonly or even necessarily take. Whatever happens naturaliy happens as it should do; whatever happens in course, or in due course, happens as we establish it: whatever follows consequently follows as we judge it logical; whatever follows of course follows as we expect it. Children naturally imitate their parents: people naiurally fall into the habits of those they associate with: both these circumstances result from the nature of things: whoever is made a peer of the realm takes his seat in the uppec house in course; he requires no other quaUfications to entitle him to this privilege, he goes thither according to the established course of things; consequently, as a peer, he is admitted without question; this is a decision of the judgment by which the question is at once determined: of course none are admitted who are not peers; this results necessarily from the constituted law of the land.

—

NATION. See People. NATIONAL. See Public. NATURALIZE, Acclimate, Orient.

These words

all

mean

to be-

But at home in a new country. naturalize, from the very beginning when it was coined as French natural-

come

517

has meant to acquire the standing a naturai-hom citizen, to be placed on the same footing before law as a naiive of the country. It is sometimes used with an extended application iser,

of

to refer to the adaptation of plants, etc., to a new country. Acclimate means to become accustomed to the climate of a new country. It may also be used figuratively in an extended sense to mean simply to become accustomed to. Orient is used as a verb to mean to adjust to new conditions from French [s']orienter. It referred originally to the placing of churches so that the altar was at the east (Latin oriens, the place of the rising sun) hence it came to mean to place with reference to the points of the compass; to get one's bearings.

NAUGHT.

See Zero.

NAUSEA. See Disgust. NAUTICAL. See Maritime. NAVAL. See Maritime. NEAR. See Close. NEAT. See Tidy. NECESSARIES. See Necessities. NECESSARY, Expedient, Essential, Requisite.

For necessary see comes from out, and pedem (accusative),

Necessiti'.

Latin

ex,

Expedient

and

signified originally taking the foot out, hence aiding movement and Essential means containing action. that essence or property which cannot be omitted, from Latin essentia, being, derived from a 8upp>osititious stem from esse, the infinitive of the verb to be. Requisite signifies literally required foot,

(see

Demand).

Necessary is a general and indefinite term; things may be necessary in the course of nature; it is necessary for all men once to die; or things may be necessary according to the circumstances of the case, or our views of necessity; in this manner we conceive Exit necessary to call upon another. pedient, essential, and requisite are modes of relative necessity: the expediency of a thing is a matter of discretion

and

calculation,

and therefore

not so sclf-evidently necessary as many things which we so denominate: it may be expedient for a person to consult another, or it may not, according as circumstances may present themThe. requisite and the essential selves.

i

'

NECESSITATE

518

are more obviously necessary than the expedient; but the former is less so

may than the latter: what be requisite only in part or entirely; it requisite complete may be to a thing when begim, but not to begin it; the contrary, essential, on the is that which constitutes the essence, and without which a thing cannot exist. It is requisite for one who would have a good hbrary to select only the best authors; is requisite

exercise is essential for the preservation of good health. In aU matters of dispute it is expedient to be guided by some impartial judge; it is requisite for every member of the community to contribute his share to the pubhc expenditure as far as he is able: it is essential to a

teacher to

know more than

teaches.

those he

—

Necessities, Necessaries. Necessity, in Latin necessitas, and necessary, in Latin necessarius, from necesse, signify that which is indispensable. Necessity is the mode or state of cir-

cumstances or the thing which circumstances render necessary; the necessary is that which is absolutely and unconditionally necessary. Art has ever been busy in inventing things to supply the various necessities of our natm*e, and yet there are always numbers who want even the first necessaries Habit and desire create necesof life. sities; nature only requires necessaries: a voluptuary has necessities which are unknown to a temperate man; the poor have in general httle more than necessaries. Necessity,

—

From these two nouns arise two epithets for each, which are worthy of observation, namely, necessary and needful, necessitous and needy. Necessary and needful are both applicable to thing wanted; the necessitous sioA. needy to the person wanting: necessary is applied to every object indiscriminately; needful only to such objects as supply temporary or partial wants. Exercise is necessary to preserve the health of the body; restraint is necessary to preserve that of the mind; assistance is needful for one who has not sufficient resources in himself: it is necessary to go by water to the Continent: money is needful for one who is traveUing. The dissemination of knowledge is necessary to dispel the ignorance which would otherwise prevail in the world; it is needful for a young person to attend to the instructions of his teacher, if he wishes to improve. Necessitous and needy are both applied to persons in want of something important;

but necessitous

may

be

employed to denote an occasional want, as to be in a necessitous condition in a foreign country for want of remit-

tances from home;

needy denotes a

permanent state of want, as to be needy either from extravagance or misfortune.

NECESSITATE. See Compel. NECROPOLIS, Burial - ground. Cemetery, Graveyard, Mortuary. These words all indicate places where the dead are laid away. Burial-ground and graveyard are the native English

Need. Necessity (see terms; of these two graveyard is the Necessary). Need is in Anglo-Saxon more familiar word. It has more innied, and is the native English word timate and solemn associations than corresponding to the Latin word the analogous term burial-ground. necessitas. We speak of the burial-ground of the Necessity implies the thing wanted; Indians, for instance, in indicating need the condition of the person want- an object of merely archaeological ining. There would be no necessity for terest. We speak of an Enghsh gravepunishments if there were not evil- ijard with some sympathetic realization doers; he is peculiarly fortunate who of what it has meant to a community finds a friend in time of need. Neces- of people hke ourselves. Cemetery, from sity is more pressing than need: the Latin coemeterium, Greek Koifi-qrijpiov, a former places one in a positive state of sleeping-place, is a term which has largecompulsion to act it is said to have no ly replaced the older term graveyard in law, it prescribes the law for itself; the ordinary speech now. Being a more latter yields to circumstances and leaves modem and sophisticated term, it natuin a state of deprivation. We are fre- ralty has somewhat different connotaquently under the necessity of going with- tions. We should speak of an old burialout that of which we stand most in need. ground in a little town as a graveyard; of ;

NEGOTIATE the park-like buriao-grounds in or near our cities as cemeteries. But this distinction is not always observed. Necropolis, from Greek v««fp6f, dead, and TToXtc, a city, means literally a city of the dead. It is a term applied to large and elaborate cemeteries near cities, or to burial-places of special dignity. Mortuary, from Latin mortuus, dead, is the term applied to a building or a room where dead bodies are kept for a time. NEFARIOUS. See Wicked. NEGLECT, Omit. Neglect (see Dishegard). Omit, in Latin omiito, or ob and mitto, signifies to put aside. The idea of letting pass or sUp, or of not using, is comprehended in the signification of both these terms; the former is, however, a culpable, the

J519

interest renders a jjerson remiss: one is negligent in regard to business, and the performance of bodily labor; one is remiss in duty, or in such things as require mental exertion. Servants are commonly negligent in what concerns their naaster's interest; teachers are remiss in not correcting the faults of their pupils. Negligence, therefore, is the fault of persons of all descriptions, but particularly those in low condition; remissness is a fault peculiar to those in a more elevated station: a clerk in an office is negligent in not making

proper memorandums; a magistrate, or the head of an institution, is remiss in the exercise of his authority to

check

irregularities.

Careless denotes the want of care in the manner of doing things; thoughtlatter an indifferent action. What we less denotes the want of thought or neglect ought not to be neglected: but reflection about things; heedless dewhat we omit may be omitted or other- notes the want of heeding or r^arding wise, as convenience requires. things^ inattentive denotes the want of These terms differ Ukewise in the attention to things. One is careless objects to which thejr are applied; that only in trivial matters of behavior; one is neglected which is practicable or is thoughtless in matters of greater moserves for action; that is omitted which ment, in what concerns the conduct. serves for intellectual purposes: we Carelessness leads children to make misneglect an opportunity, we neglect the takes in their mechanical exercises, in means, the time, the use, and the like; whatever they commit to memory or we omit a word, a sentence, a figure, a to paper; thoughtlessness leads many who are not children into serious errors stroke, a circumstance, and the like. Negligent, Remiss, Careless, Thought- of conduct, when they do not think of, Negligence or bear in mind, the consequences of less, Heedless, Inattentive. Thoughtless is applied (see Disregard) and remissness con- their actions. cern the outward action: careless, heed- to things past, present, or to come; less, thoughtless, and inattentive the state careless to things present or to come. Careless is apphed to such things as of mind. Negligence and remissness consist in require permanent care; thoughtless to not doing what ought to be done; such as require permanent thought; carelessness and the other mental de- heedless and inattentive are applied to fects may show themselves in doing passing objects that engage the senses wrong, as well as in not doing at all; or the thoughts of the moment. One negligence and remissness are, therefore, is careless in business, thoughtless in conto carelessness and the others as the duct, heedless in walking or running, effect to the cause; for no one is so apt inattentive in listening heedless children

—

:

to be negligent and remiss as he careless,

is

although negligence and remiss-

from other causes, and carethoughtlessness, etc., produce

ness arise lessness,

who

are unfit to go by themselves; inattentive children are unfit to be led by others.

NEGOTIATE,

Treat, Transact.

Negligent is a The idea of conducting business with likewise other effects. stronger term than remiss: one is negli- others is included in the signification of the gent in neglecting the thing that is ex- all these terms; but they differ in nature pressly before one's eyes; one is remiss mode of conducting it and the Negoin forgetting that which was enjoined of the business to be conducted. some time previously: the want of will tiate, from Latin negotium (from nef signifyrenders a person negligent; the want of for ne not, and otium, leisure,

—

—

NEIGHBORHOOD

52a

ing that which one does when one is not at leisure i. e., business), is apphed in the original mostly to merchandise or traffic, but it is more commonly employed in the comphcated concerns of governments and nations. Treat, from the Latin tractare, frequentative of irahere, to draw, signifies to turn over and over or set forth in all ways: these two verbs, therefore, suppose deliberation; but transact, from transactus, participle of transago, to carry forward or bring to an end, supposes more direct agency than consultation or deliberation; this latter is therefore adapted to the more ordinary and less entangled concerns of commerce. congress carries on negotiations for the establishment of good order among different states; individual states treat with each other to settle their particular differTo negotiate mostly applies to ences. political concerns, except in the case of negotiating bills: to treat, as well as transact, is said of domestic and private concerns we treat with a person about the purchase of a house, and transact our business with him by making good the purchase and paying down the

A

:

money. As nouns,

negotiation expresses rather

the act of dehberating than the thing deUberated: treatT/ includes the ideas of the terms proposed and the arrangement of those terms: transaction expresses the idea of something actually done and finished. Negotiations are sometimes very long pending before the preliminary terms are even proposed or any basis is defined; treaties of commerce are entered into by all civilized countries, in order to obviate misunderstandings and enable them to preserve an amicable intercourse; the transactions which daily pass in a great metropolis hke that of London are of so multifarious a nature, and so infinitely numerous, that the bare contemplation of them fills the mind Negotiations are with astonishment. long or short; treaties are advantageous transactions are or the contrary; honorable or dishonorable. See also Treat.

Dutch

Boer, English

originally the place near farmers hve. Vicinity, village, signifies

boor),

signified

by where

other

from vicus, a the place which does

not exceed in distance the extent of a village.

which is of Saxon employed in reference to the

Neighborhood, origin, is

inhabitants, or in regard to inhabited places, to denote nearness of persons to each other or to objects in general: but vicinity, which in Latin bears the same acceptation as neighborhood, is employed in Enghsh to denote nearness of one object to another, whether person or thing; hence the propriety of saying a populous neighborhood, a quiet neighborhood, a respectable neighborhood, a pleasant neighborhood, and to be in the neighborhood, either as it signifies the people or the country; but to live in the vicinity of a manufactory, to be in the vicinity of the metropolis or of the sea.

NEOPHYTE. See Tyro. NEUTRAL, Impartial, IndifferThese words all indicate a disposition not to take sides in a quarrel, but they differ in the amount of syment.

pathy for the combatants implied in them. Indifferent signified originally not making a distinction or difference between things implying such a lack of sympathy or interest that one thing seems much hke another. Here it indicates a lack of interest in either combatant. Neutral, from Latin ne, not, and uter, which of two, means not asking which is right. It imphes complete intellectual detachment, but not necessarily lack of sympathy for one or both of the parties. It is the term apphed to the non-combatant nations

—

Impartial means not taking the part of either side. By derivation it has the same meaning as the other words, but it implies distinct sympathy with one or both combatants, which is not allowed to influence judgment. NEVERTHELESS. See However.

in time of war.

NEW,

Novel, Modern, Fresh, Re-

cent. New, from Anglo-Saxon neowe, is the native English word correspondNEIGHBORHOOD, Vicinity. ing to Latin nomis, whence novel is deNeighborhood, from neighbor (Anglo- rived. Modem signifies belonging to Saxon neah, nigh, near, and gebur or the present mode, from Latin modus, Fresh is derived from a bur, a husbandman, the same word as manner.

NOBLE

521

Teutonic root which appears in Anglo- simply anything that happened; but Saxon fersc, fresh; but its form is due it acquired the Scandinavian sense of to the feminine form of this same news, especially news that arrived in word in Old French freis, masculine, due time and season, that is timely. fresche, feminine.

iVews is unexpected; it serves to gratify All these epithets are applied to what idle curiosity: tidings are expected; has not long existed; new expresses this they serve to allay anxiety, time idea simply without any qualification; of war the public are eager for news; novel is something strange or imex- and they who have relatives in the pected; the modem is the thing of to- army are anxious to have tidings of day as distinguished from that which ex- them. isted in former time; the fresh is that NICE. See Exact; Fine. which is so new as not to be the worse NIGGARDLY. See Avaricious; for use, or that which has not been Economical.

m

before used or employed; the recent that which is so new as to appear as if it were just made or done. According to this distinction, new is most aptly appUed to such things as may be permanent or durable, as new houses, new buildings, new clothes, and the like; in such cases it is properly opposed to the old; the term may, however, be applied generally to whatever arises or comes first into existence or notice, as new scenes, new sights, new sounds. Novel may be applied to whatever is either never or but rarely seen; the freezing of the river Thames is a novelty; but the frost in every winter is something new when it first comes. Modem is applied to that which is new, or springs up in the day or age in which we hve; as modem books, modis

i

em

writers, modem science; a book is new which is just formed into a book and has not been used; it is modem at the time when it is first published; so likewise principles are new which have

never been broached before; they are modem if they have been pubhshed lately or within a given period: the modem is opposed to the ancient. Fresh is said of that which may lose its color, vigor, or other perfection; as a fresh flower, the freshness of youth, etc.

So pleasures or passions are fresh which have not lost their power by satiety; they are new\i they have but just sprung mto activity. Recent is appUed to those events or circumstances which have just happened, as a recent transaction, or an occurrence of recent date.

News, Tidings. thing new that tidings, in its

is

—News

implies anyrelated or circulated;

Anglo-Saxon form, meant

NIGH.

See Close.

NIGHTLY, NocTUKNAL.

NighUy. immediately from the word night, ana noctumcU, from nox, night, signify belonging to the night, or the night season; the former is therefore more famiUar than the latter: we speak of nightly depredations to express what passes every night, or nighily disturbnocturnal dreams, nocturnal ances, visits.

NIHILIST.

See Intransigent.

NIMBLE. See Active. NINNY, Nincompoop.

These are slang or colloquial terms meaning a simpleton, and are not clearly disUnNinny guished Irom one another. comes probably from Italian ninna, a lullaby to put a child to sleep, based on ninno, child. The origin of nincompoop is supposed to be due to a vitiation of the Latin phrase non compos These words have been in the Tnentis. English language for centuries, but are so little dilferentiated from one another that it would be pedantry to make a distinction. Possibly ninny suggests more of silliness; nincompoop more of obtuseness, dulness. NIP, Bite, Pinch. A nip is something between a bite and a pinch. In bUing the substance taken between the teeth is cut; in pinching, which usually refers to a pressure upon a substance caught between two fingers or an instrument acting like the two fingers, i^ To nip is to give a is simply bruised. sharp, quick pinch. NOBLE, Grand. Noble, in Latin nobilis, from nosco, to know, signifying knowable, or worth knowing, is a term of general import: it simply implies the quality by which a thing ia distinguished for excellence above other

NOCTURNAL

522

the grand (see Grandeuk) is, properly speaking, one of those quaUties by which an object acquires the name of noble; but there are many noble objects which are not denominated grand. A building may be dethings:

nominated noble for its beauty as well as its size; but a grand building is rather so called for the expense which is

displayed upon

A

it

building. family noble or grand; but it

in the style of either is noble by birth;

may be

These terms may all be taken in an improper as well as a proper sense. Whatever is obtruded upon the public notice, so as to become the universal subject of conversation and writing, is said colloquially to make a noise; in this manner a new and good performer at the theatre makes a noise on his first appearance. noise may be either for or against; but a cry, outcry, and clamor are always against the object, varying in the degree and manner in which they display themselves: cry implies less than outcry, and this less than clamor. When the pubHc voice is raised in an

A

grand by wealth and an expensive Nobleness of acting or thinking comprehends all moral excellence that rises to a high pitch; but grandeur of mind is pecuharly appU- audible manner against any particular cable to such actions or traits as de- matter it is a cry; if it be mingled with note an elevation of character, rising intemperate language it is an outcry; above all that is common. if it be vehement and exceedingly NOCTURNAL. See Nightly. noisy it is a clamor: partisans raise NOISE, Cry, Outcry, Clamor. a cry in order to form a body in their Noise is any loud sound; cry, outcry, favor; the discontented are ever ready and clamor are particular kinds of to set up an outcry against men in noises, differing either in the cause or power; a clamor for peace in time the nature of the sounds. A noise pro- of war is easily raised by those who ceeds either from animate or inanimate wish to thwart the government. NOISOME. See Hurtful. objects; the cry proceeds only from NOISY. See Loud. animate objects. The report of a canNOMENCLATURE. See Dictionnon and the loud sounds occasioned by a high wind are noises, but not cries; ary. it is

style of hving.

from birds, beasts, and men. NOMINATE, Name. Nominate produced often by accident; comes from Latin nomen, name; a cry is always occasioned by some name (see Name). To nominate and particular circumstance: when many to name are both to mention by horses and carriages are going together name; but the former is to mention for they make a great noise; hunger and a specific purpose; the latter is to menpain cause cries to proceed both from tion for a general purpose persons only animals and himian beings. Noise, are nominated; things as well as perwhen compared with cry, is sometimes sons are named: one nominates a peronly an audible sound; the cry is a son in order to propose him, or apvery loud noise; whatever disturbs si- point him, to an office; but one names cries issue

A noise

is

:

lence, as the proverbial falling of a pin in a perfectly stiU assembly, is denominated a noise; but a cry is that which

may

often drown other noises, as the people selling things about the

cries of

streets.

a person casually, in the course of conversation, or one names him in order to make some inquiry respecting him. To be nominated is a public act; to be named is generally private: one is nominated before an assembly; one is named in any place: to be nominated is always an honor; to be nam^d is either honorable or the contrary, according to the circumstances under

A cry is in general a definite sound, but outcry and clamor are irregular sounds; the former may proceed from one or many, the latter from many in conjunction. A cry after a thief be- which it is mentioned: a person is comes an ouicry when set up by many nominated for an office; he is named at a time; it becomes a clamor if ac- whenever he is spoken of. companied with shouting, bawling, NON-CONFORMIST. See Hereand noises of a mixed and tumultuous tic. nature. NON-PUTREFYING. SeeAsEpnft.

NOTICE NONSENSE.

See Twaddle. NORMAL, Typical. Normal and typical are both words which are commonly misxised. They are taken to mean average, ordinary, whereas they really mean the reverse. The normal person is one that conforms to the norm,, Latin norma, a carpenter's rule; that is to say, to the standard •£ humanity in any or all respects. This standard, however, is not obtained by taking the av'erage of aU people. As is shown by the medical standard in accordance with which the candidates for the army are tested, only one in four or five men corresponds sufficiently to the standard. Normal indicates what people would be if their development were not in any way hindered. Typical, from Greek rvxog, a mark, blow, stamp, has the same meaning as normal, with a sUght difference of connotation in ordinary usage. A typical man is one who represents the standard to which others approximate more or less. The typical American is not the average or ordinary American. He is the one who represents the distinctive

same to another; to mark

523 is

to rnark

a thing once, but to remark is to mark it ^ain. Observe (see Looker-on) signifies either to keep a thing present before one's own view or to communicate one's view to another. In the first sense of these words, as the actioti concerns ourselves, to notice and remark require simple attention, to observe requires examination. To notice is a more cursory action than to remark: we may notice a thing by a single glance, or on merely turning our head; but to remark supjXNKS a reaction of the mind on an object; we notice a person passing at any time; but we remark that he goes past every day at the same hour: we notice that the sun sets this evening under a cloud, and we remark that it has done so for several evenings successively: we notice the state of a person's health or his

manners in company; we remark his habits and peculiarities in domestic life. What is noticed and reinarked strikes on the senses and awakens the mind; what is observed is looked after and sought for: the former are often involuntary acts; we see, hear, and

characteristics of Americans in their most characteristic form. Normal is think

because the objects obtrude generally used with reference to a par- themselves imcalled for; but the latter ticular standard a standard of health, is intentional as well as voluntary; we for instance. Typical is used with ref- see, hear, and think of that which we erence to distinguishing characteristics. have watched. We remark things as A normal physique, for instance, is one matters of fact; we observe them in order that corTesp>onds to the general stand- to judge of them or draw conclusions ard, one that every one ought to have. from them: we remark that the wind A typical soldier's physique is one that lies for a lonr time in a certain quarter; represents the characteristics of the we (A}serve that whenever it lies in a soldier unmodified by other influences. certain quarter it brings rain with it. People who have no particular curiosity NOTE. See Mark. NOTED. NoTOMous. Noted (see may be sometimes attracted to notice Distinguished) may be employed the stars or planets when they are pareither in a good or a bad sense; notori- ticularly bright; those who look freous is never used but in a bad sense: auently will remark that the same star men may be noted for their talents or oes not rise exactly in the same place their eccentricities; they are notorious for two successive nights; but the for their vices: noted characters excite astronomer goes further and obseryea many and divers remarks from their all the motions of the heavenly bodies, friends and their enemies; notorious in order to discover the scheme of the universe. characters are imiversally shunned. In the latter sense of these words, as NOTHING. See Zero. NOTICE, Remark, Observe. To concerns the communications to others minds, to notice (see Attend) is either to take or of what passes in our own to give notice: to remark, compoimded notice is to make known our sentiments observe of re and mark (see Mark), signifies by various waj^; to remark and means to reflect or bring back any mark to are to make them known only by own mind, or communicate the of words: to notice is a personal act

—

our

NOTION

624"

toward an individual, in which we direct our attention to him, as may happen either by a bow, a nod, a word, or even a look; but to remark and observe are said only of the thoughts which pass in our own minds and are

Now

expressed to others: friends notice each other when they meet; they remark to others the impression which passing objects make upon their minds: the observations which intelligent people make are always entitled to notice from young persons. See also Information; Mention. NOTION. See Conception; Opinion; Perception. NOTORIOUS. See Noted; Public. NOTWITHSTANDING. See How-

way has the same meaning as immedi-

To tention of the mother nurtures. nurture is a physical act; to cherish is a mental as well as a physical act: a mother nurtures her infant while it is she entirely dependent upon her; cherishes her child in her bosom and protects it from every misfortune, or affords consolation in the midst of all its troubles when it is no longer an

by any strong

is

the general term, meaning at

this present moment. Immediately suggests more of emphasis and action. It means in the moment following a given moment. is static; immediately suggests action, movement. Straight-

Now

but a slightly different connotaIt is a somewhat archaic word associated with Biblical phraseology, and suggestive of poetry or a distinctly ately,

tion.

Uterary style.

NOXIOUS.

See Hurtful. Torpid. Numb and benumbed come from the past participle of Anglo-Saxon niman, Middle Enghsh nomen, to take, and signify overtaken, hence overpowered, unable to move. There are but few ever. NOURISH, Nurture, Cherish. To things numb by nature, but there may nourish and nurture are but variations be many things which may be befrom the same verb nutrio. Cherish numbed. Torpvd, in Latin torpidus, Things nourish, persons from torpere, to languish, is most com(see Foster). nurture and cherish: to nourish is to monly employed to express the perbuild up bodily strength to supply the manent state of being benumbed, as physical necessities of the body; to in the case of some animals, which he nurture is to extend one's care to the in a torpid state all the winter; or, in the supply of all its physical necessities, to moral sense, to depict the benumbed state preserve life, occasion growth, and in- of the thinking faculty; in this manner crease vigor: the breast of the mother we speak of the torpor of persons who nourishes; the fostering care and at- are benumbed by any strong affection or

infant.

NOVEL, NOVICE.

NOW,

See Fable; See Tyro.

New.

Immediately, Straightway.

NUMB, Benumbed,

external action.

NUMBER. See Reckon. NUMERAL, Numerical. Numeral, or belonging to number, is apphed to a class of words in grammar, as a numeral adjective or a numeral noun: numerical, or containing number, is applied to whatever may concern number; as a numerical difference, where the difference consists between any two numbers or is expressed by numbers.

NUPTIALS.

NURTURE.

See Marriage. See Nourish.

OBJECT

625

o OBEDIENT,

Submissive, Obsequious. Obedient (see Dutiful). Submissive denotes the disposition to submit (see Yield). Obsequious, in Latin obseguius, from obseqtior, or the

a desire of gaining favor: a love of God is followed by obedience to His will; they are coincident sentiments that reciprocally act on each other so as to serve the cause of virtue: a subintensive of ob, near, and sequi, to missive conduct is at the worst an infollow, signifies follovring diligently and voluntary sacrifice of our indepenwith a fixed intention to please. dence to our fears or necessities, the evil One is obedient to command, sub- of which is confined principally to the missive to power or the will, obsequious individual who makes the sacrifice; to persons. Obedience is always taken obsequiousness is a voluntary sacrifice in a good sense; one ought always to of ourselves to others for interested be obedient where obedience is due: purposes. submission is relatively good; it may, OBJECT, Subject. Object, in Latin however, be indifferent or bad: one objedxis, participle of ohicere, to lie in may be submissive from interested the way, signifies the thing that Ues in motives or meanness of spirit, which one's way. Subject, in Latin subjectus, is a base kind of submission; but to be participle of subicere, to lie under, signisubmissive for conscience' sake, is the fies the thing forming the groundwork. bounden duty of a Christian: obseThe object puts itself forward; the guumsness is never good; it is an ex- subject is in the background: we notice cessive concern about the will of an- the object; we observe..or reflect on the other which has always interest for its subject: objects are sensible; the subject end. Obedience is a course of conduct is altogether intellectual: the eye, the conformable either, to some specific ear, and all the senses are occupied rule or the express will of another; with the surrounding objects; the memsubmission is often a personal act ory, the judgment, and the imaginaimmediately directed to the individual. tion are supplied with subjects suitable We show our obedience to the law by to the nature of the operations. When object is taken for that which avoiding the breach of it; we show our obedience to the will of God, or of is intellectual, it retains a similar sigour parent, by making that will the nification; it is the thing that presents rule of our life: on the other hand, we itself to the mind; it is seen by the show submission to the person of the mind's eye: the subject, on the conmagistrate; we adopt a submissive de- trary, is that which must be sought for. portment by a downcast look and a and when foimd it engages the mental bent body. Obedience is founded upon powers: hence we say an object of principle and cannot be feigned; sub- consideration, an object of delight, an mission is a partial bending to another, ob/ecf of concern; & subiect of reneciion, which is easily affected in our outward a subject of mature deliberation, the behavior: the understanding and the subject of a poem, the subject of grief, heart produce obedience; but force or of lamentation, and the like. When the necessity of circumstances gives rise the mind becomes distracted by too great a multiplicity of (Ejects, it can to submission. Obedience and submission suppose a fix itself on no one individual object restraint on one's own will, in order with sufficient steadiness to take a to bring it into accordance with that survey of it; in like manner, if a child of another; but obsequiousness is the have too many objects set before it consulting the will or pleasure of an- for the exercise of its powers, it will other: we are obedient from a sense of acquire a familiarity wnth none: such right; we are submissive from a sense things are not fit subjects of discussioii. See also Aim; Find Fault. of necessity; we are obsequious from

OBJECTIVE

526 Object, Oppose.

—To

object is to cast

the way, to oppose, from French opposer (Latin ob, against, and Late Latin pausare, to place, formed on Greek irdvcfig, pause), is to place in the way; there is, therefore, very little original difference, except that casting is a more momentary and sudden proceeding, placing is a more premeditated action; which distinction, at the same time, corresponds with the use of the terms in ordinary life: to object to a thing is to propose or start something against it; but to oppose it is to set one's self steadily against it: one objects to ordinary matters that require no reflection; one opposes matters that call for dehberatlon and afford serious reasons for and against: a parent objects to his child's learning the classics or to his running about the streets; he opposes his marriage when he thinks the connection or the circumstances in

not desirable.

—

ObObjection, Difficulty, Exception. jection (see Demur) is here a general

term; it comprehends both the diffi/mlty and the exception, which are but species of the objection: an objection and a are started; an exception is the objection to a thing is in general that which renders it less desirable; but the difficulty is that which renders it less practicable; there is an objection against every scheme which incurs a serious risk: the want of means to begin or resources to carry difficulty

made:

on a scheme is a serious difficulty. Objection and exception both concern the nature, the moral tendency, or moral conocc^uence of a thing; but an objection mr.y be frivolous or serious; an exception is something serious: the objection is positive; the exception is relatively considered, that is, the thing excepted from other things, as not good, and consequently objected to.

longing to that which

is presented to consciousness, as opposed to consciousness itseK. Actual, based on actv^, past participle of Latin agere, to do or act, signifies really existing as distinguished from an idea in the mind that which is as compared with what we should hke to have it. According to these definitions, the two terms seem to have

—

the same meaning, but objective

is

much

more Hmited in its appUcation than actual. That which is objective is simply outside of ourselves; that which is actual is that which really exists. Though, in one sense, actual implies that contrast between the thing beheld and the mind beholding indicated in objective, that which is within the mind may

We

also be thought of as actual. speajk of "my actual thought," actual feeling implying a contrast between reality and unreality within the mind

"my

—

Again that which is objective not necessarily actual or really existent—as a whole school of philosophers' have pointed out. In common speech actual is a word of frequent and various uses; objective is a rather special and scientific term. OBLATION. See Offering. OBLIGATION. See Duty. OBLIGE. See Bind; CoMPEii. OBLIGED. See Indebted. OBLIGING. See Civil. OBLITERATE. See Blot. OBLIVION. See Forgetfulness. OBLONG, Oval. Oblong, in Latin oblongus, from the intensive syllable ob, across, or over, signifies very long, longer than it is broad. Oval, from the Latin ovum, an egg, signifies eggshaped. The oval is a species of the itself.

is

.

oblong:

what

is

what

oblong

is

oval is oblong; but not always oval. Oblong is pecuharly appUed to figures formed by right lines, that is, all rectangular parallelograms, except squares, Objections are made sometimes to pro- are oblong; but the oval is applied to posals for the mere sake of getting rid curvilinear oblong figures, as ellipses, of an engagement: those who do not which are distinguished from the circle: wish to give themselves trouble find tables are oftener oblong than oval; garan easy method of disengaging them- den beds are as frequently oval as they selves, by making objections to every are oblong. proposition. We take exception at the OBLOQUY. See Reproach. OBNOXIOUS, Offensive. Ob-,oxconduct of others when we think it iou^, from ob, against, or in the way of, not sufficiently respectful. OBJECTIVE, Actual. Objective and noxious, signifies either being in signifies outside of consciousness, be- the way of what is noxious or being is

OBSTINATE

527

very noxious or hateful. Offensive, commotion; we observe a thing in from 06, against, and a stem fend, order to draw an inference from it: meaning to dash, signifies apt to give we vxitch anything in order to discover offeLce or displeasure. The obnoxious what may happen: we observe with conveys more than the offensive, im- coolness; we uxUch with eagerness: we plying (though this use is now obso- observe carefully; we tcatch narrowly: lete) to receive as well as to give the conduct of mankind in general is offence; a man may be obnoxious to observed; the conduct of suspicious evils as well as obnoxious to persons. In the sense of giving offence, ob-

noxious implies as

much

but they

may

be

offensive,

individuals

is

watched.

See also Keep;

Notice; See. See Looker-on. See Old. See Difficultt. OBSTINATE.CoNTUMACious, Stubborn, Headstrong, Heady. Ob^ir note, in Latin obstinatus, participle of obstino, from 06 and the stem found in stare, to stand, signifies standing in the though not way of another. Contumacious (see

as hateful, offensive Uttle more than displeasing: a man is obnoxious to a party to whose interests or principles he is opposed* he may be offensive to an individual merely on account of his manners or any particular actions. Men are obnoxious only to their fellow-creatures,

OBSERVER. OBSOLETE. OBSTACLE.

obnoxious, to their Maker. Contumacy). Stubborn, Middle EngPersons only are obnoxious to others, lish stobum, comes from Anglo-vSaxon thin^ as well as persons are offensive; stybb. Modem English stub, and sigdust is offensive to the eye; soimds are nified originally like a stick or stub reoffensive to the ear; advice, or even maining in the ground; hence not easione's own thoughts, may be offensive ly moved. Headstrong signifies strong to the mind. in the head or the mind; and heady, See also Subject. incUned, so to speak, to follow one s OBSCURE. See Dark; Eclipse. own head. OBSEQUIES. See Funeral. Obstinacy is a habit of the mind; OBSEQUIOUS. See Obedient. contumacy is either a particular state OBSERVANCE. See Form; Ob- of feeling or a mode of action; obstinacy consists in an attachment to servation. OBSERVANT. See Mindful. one's own mode of acting; contumacy OBSERVATION, Observance. consists in contempt of others: the These terms derive their use from the obstinate man adheres tenaciously to different, significations of the verb ob- his own ways, and opposes reason to servation is the act of observing ob- reason; the contumacious man disjects with the view to examine them putes the right of another to control (see Notice): observance is the act of his actions, and opposes force to force. observing in the sense of keeping or Obstinacy interferes with a man's priholding sacred (see Keep). From a vate conduct and makes him bUnd to minute observation of the human body, reason; contumacy is an offenct* against anatomists have discovered the circu- lawful authority; the contumacious man lation of the blood and the soiu-ce of sets himself against his superiors: when all the humors; by a strict observance young people are obstinate they are reof truth and justice a man acquires calcitrant to education; when grown people are contumacious they are trouthe title of an upright man. olesome subjects to the king. See also Remark. The stubborn and the headstrong are Observe (see Observe, Watch. species of the obstinate: the formej lies Guard). Watch (see Notice). These terms agree in expressing the altogether in the perversion of the act of looking at an object; but to will; the latter in the porvorsion of the observe is not to look after so strictly judgment: the stubborn person wills as is impUed by to tvatch; a general what he wills; the headstrong person Stubbomttees is observes the motions of an enemy when thinks what he thinks. they are in no particular state of ac- mostly inherent in a person's nature; tivity; he uxUches the motions of an a headstrong temper is commonly assoenemy when they are in a state of ciated with violence and impetuosity :

—

OBSTRUCT

628

We

Obstinacy discovers itof character. self in persons of all ages and stations; a stvbbom and headstrong disposition betrays itself mostly in those who are expected to conform to the will of an-

choice or alternative. are regulated by the occasion, and can exercise our own discretion; we yield or submit to the necessity, without even the exercise of the wUl. On the death of Heady may be said of any a relative we have occasion to go into other. who are fuU of conceit and bent upon mourning if we do not wish to offer an affront to the family; but there is no following their own desires. OBSTRUCT. See Hinder. express necessity: in case of an attack OBTAIN. See Acquire; Get. on our persons there is a necessity of self-defence for the preservation of OBTRUDE. See Intrude. OBTUSE, Blunt, Dull. All these hfe. Occasional, Casiud. These are both words have the same original meaning; they are aU opposed to sharp. Obtuse opposed to what is fixed or stated; but is the opposite of the sharp point of an occasional carries with it more the idea angle of less than forty-five degrees; of infrequency, and casual that of unblunt (of imknown origin) is the oppo- fixedness, or the absence of all design. minister is termed an occasional site of a sharp point; dull is the opposite of a sharp edge, such as the blade of a preacher who preaches only on cerknife. Dull and obtuse are also given a tain occasions; his preaching at a parmental apphcation (see Dull), obtuse ticular place or on a certain day may referring to particular cases of didness, be casual. Our acts of charity may not to the general character indicated be occasional, but they ought not to by dtdl. Blunt has a moral application, be casual. referring to the manners and disposiOCCULT. See Secret, OCCUPANCY, Occupation. These tion of one who is not finely responsive or adaptable to the feelings and con- words derive their meaning from the ditions of those around him, who of- different acceptations of the primitive fends by rude telling of unsavory truth, verb occupy, the former being used to express the state of holding or posetc. OBVIATE. See Prevent. sessing any object, the latter to express OBVIOUS. See Apparent; Tan- the act of taking possession of, or the gible. state of being in possession. He who OCCASION, Opportunitt. Occon has the occupancy of land enjoys the sion, in Latin occasio, from obcasio, fruits of it: the occupation of a covmtry from ob, in the way of, and cadere, to by force of arms is of Httle avail unfall, signifies that which falls in the way less one has an adequate force to mainso as to produce some change. Op- tain one's ground. Both words are portunity, in Latin opportunitas, from employed in regard to houses and lands, opportunus {ob, near, and portus, har- but when the term occupation is taken bor) signifies near the harbor or in ac- in the sense of a business it is sufficiently distinguished to need no illuscoraance with the desires or needs. These terms are applied to the tration. events of life; but the occasion is that See also Business.

—

A

,

which determines our conduct and leaves us no choice; it amounts to a

OCCUPY. OCCUR.

the step. We do things, therefore, as the occasion requires, or as the opportunity offers. There are many occasions on which a man is called upon to uphold his opinions. There are but few opportunities for men in general to distinguish themselves. Occasion inOccasion, Necessity. cludes, necessity excludes, the idea of

and German

See Hold. See Transpire. degree of necessity: the opportunity is OCCURRENCE. See Event. that which invites to action; it tempts ODD, Uneven. Odd, in Swedish us to embrace the moment for taking udda, connected with the Dutch oed,

—

I

oede, empty, deserted, signifying something wanted to match, seems to be a mode of the uneven; both are opposed to the even, but odd is said only of that which has no fellow; the uneven is said of that which does not square or come to an even point: of numbers we say that they are either odd or uneven; but of gloves, shoes,

OFFENCE and everything which

is

made

529

to cor- de, Latin de, intensive, and French mener, to conduct ultimately from Late Latin minare, to drive cattle, from minaii, to threaten so that the word meant successively to drive with threats, to lead or conduct, to conduct one's self, and hence came to refer to manners and action. Misdemeanor is prop>erly a private offence, although improperly applied for an offence against public law, for it signifies a wrong demeanor or an offence in one's demeanor against propriety; a

respond we say that they are odd when they are single; but that they are uneven when they are both different: in like manner, a plank is uneven which has an unequal surface or disproportionate dimensions; but a piece of wood is odd which will not match or suit with any other piece. See also Particular. ODIOUS. See Hateful. ODOR. See Smell. OFFENCE, Trespass, Transgression, Misdemeanor, Misdeed, Affront. Offence is here the general term, signifying merely the act that offends (see Displease) or runs counter to something else.

—

—

misdeed

\s always private, it signifies a wrong deed, or a deed which offends against one's duty. Riotous and dis-

m

company are serious misdemeanors; every act of drunkproperly indefinite; it enness, lying, fraud, or immoraUty of merely impUes an object without the every kind, is a misdeed. least suggestion of the nature of the An offence is that which affects perobject; trespass and transgression have sons or principles, communities or ina positive reference to an object tres- dividuals, and is committed either dipassed upon or transgressed; trespass is rectly or indirectly against the person; contracted from trans and pa^s (from an affront (from ad, to, and Jrontem, Latin passus, step), that is, a stepping brow) is altogether personal, and is beyond; and transgress, from trans and made directly in the presence of the g'-essu^ (participle of gredi), a going 'person affronted; it is an offence eyond. The offence, therefore, which against another to speak disrespectconstitutes a trespass arises out of the fully of him in his absence; it is an laws of property; a passing over or affront to push past him with violence treading upon the property of another and rudeness. In this sense, whatever is a trespass: the offence which con- offence is committed against our Maker stitutes a transgression derives from is properly an affront; and whatever the laws of society in general, which offends Him indirectly may also be fix the boundaries of right and wrong: denominated an affront, as far as His whoever, therefore, goes beyond or will is opposed and His laws violated. breaks through these bounds is guilty The offender Offender, Delinquent. of a transgression. The trespass is a is he who offends in anything, either by species of offence which peculiarly ap- commission or omission the ddinquenl pU^ to the land or premises of (from delinquere, to fail) signifies propindividuals; transgression is a species erly he who fails by omission, but it is of moral as well as political evil. extended to signify failing by the violaHimters are apt to commit trespcLjSs tion of a law. Tliose who go into a in the eagerness of their pursuit; wrong place are offenders; those who the passions of men are perpetually stay away when they ought to go are misleading them and causing them delinquents: there are many offenders to commit various transgressions; the against the Sabbath who commit vioterm trespass is sometimes employed lent and open breaches of decorum; improperly as regards time and other there are still more delinquents who objects; transgression is always used in never attend a pubUc place of worship. Offending, Offensive. Offending sigone uniform sense as regards rule and law; we trespass upon the time or nifies either actually offending or calpatience of another; we transgress the culated to offend; offensive signifies calculated to offend at all times; a |>erson moral or civil law. An offence is either pubUc or private; may be offending in his manners to a a misdemeanor, the negative of de- particular individual, or use an offendmeanor, is a coined word from French ing expression on a particular occasion Offence

orderly behavior

is

— ;

—

OFFER

530

without any imputation on his charac-

—

Oblation. Offering, from and oblation, from oblatio and oblatus, come both from offero, the See also Obnoxious; Umbrage. one from the infinitive, the other OFFER, Bid, Tender, Propose. from the past participle. The former Offer (see Give) is employed for that is, however, a term of much more which is hteraUy transferable, or for general and famihar use than the latter. that which is indirectly communicable Offerings are both moral and bid (see Ask) and tender, Kke the word reUgious; oblation is rehgious only; the tend, from tendere, to stretch, signifying money which is put into the sacrato stretch forth by way of offering, be- mental plate is an offering; the conlong to offer in the first sense. Propose, secrated bread and wine at the sacrafrom French proposer, Latin pro, be- ment are an oblation. The offering in a fore, and French poser, to place (from religious sense is whatever one offers Late Latin pausare, Greek iravmc, not as a gift by way of reverence to a from Latin ponere), to place or set superior; the oblation is the offering before, hkewise characterizes a mode which is accompanied with some parof offering, and belongs to offer in the ticular ceremony. The wise men made latter sense. To offer is a voluntary an offering to our Saviour, but not propand discretionary act; an offer may erly an oblation; the Jewish sacrifices, be accepted or rejected at pleasure; as in general all religious sacrifices, to bid and tender are specific modes were in the proper sense oblations. of offering which depend on circumOFF-HAND. See Unpremeditated. stances: one bids with the hope that OFFICE, Place, Charge, Funcone's offer will be accepted; one tenders tion. Office, in Latin, officium, from from a prudential motive and in order officio, signifies either the duty perto serve specific purposes. We offer formed or the situation in which the money to a poor person as an act duty is performed. Place compreof charity or good-nature; we bid a hends no idea of duty, for there may price for the purchase of a house, as be sinecure places which are only a commercial dealing subject to the nominal offices and designate merely a rules of commerce; we tender a sum relationship with the government: of money by way of payment, as a every office, therefore, of a public nature ter; but if bas manners are offensive, it reflects both on his temper and education.

matter of discretion in order to

Offering,

offer,

in reaUty a place, yet every place not an office. The place of secretary of state is likewise an office, but that of ranger of a park is a place only, and not always an office. An office is held; a place is filled: the office is given or intrusted to a person; the pUice is granted or conferred the office reposes a confidence and imposes a responsibility; the place gives credit and influence: the office is bestowed on a Sentiments man from his qualification; the place deliberation of others. which differ widely from the major is granted to him by favor or as a repart of those present ought to be of- ward for past services; the office is fered with modesty and caution; we more or less honorable; the place is should not propose to another what we more or less profitable. In an extended appU cation of the would be unwilling to do ourselves. We commonly offer by way of obliging; terms office and place, the latter has a we conunonly propose by way of ar- much lower signification than that ranging or accommodating. It is an of the former, since the office is always act of puerility to offer to do more than connected with the state or is someone is enabled to perform; it does not thing responsible; but the place may evince a sincere disposition for peace be a place for menial labor: the offices to propose such terms as we know can- are multipUed in time of war; the places for domestic service are more not be accepted. fulfil

is

the same rule one offers a person the use of one's horse; one bids a sum at an auction; one tenders one's services to the government. To offer and propose are both employed in matters of practice or speculation; but the former is a less definite and decisive act than the latter; we offer an opinion by way of promoting a discussion; we propose a plan for the

is

an obhgation.

By

:

OLD numerous

531

a state of peace and prosperity. The office is frequently taken not with any reference to the place occupied, but simply to the thing oone; in

or proceeds from; all used in relation to the family or generation of the human species. Offspring is a familiar term applicable to one or many chilthis brings it nearer in signification to dren; progeny is employed only as the term charge (see Care). An office a collective noim for a number; issue imposes a task or some performance: a is used in an indefinite manner withcharge imposes a responsibility; we out particular regard to number. have always something to do in an When we speak of the children themoffi^x, always something to look after selves we denominate them the offin a charge; the offi/x is either public spring; when we speak of the parents, or private, the charge is always of a we denominate the children their private and personal nature: a per- progeny. child is said to be the only son performs the offi^x of a magistrate offspring of his parents, or he is said or of a minister; he undertakes the to be the offspring of low parents; a charge of instructing youth or of being man is said to have a numerous or a a guardian, or of conveying a person's healthy progeny, or to leave his progeny property from one place to another. in circumstances of honor and prosThe office is that which is assigned by perity. The issue is said only in regard another; function is properly the act of to a man that is deceased: he dies with discharging or completing an offi/x or male or female issue, with or without business, from functus, participle of issue; his property descends to his fungor, viz.,finem and ago, to put an end male issue in a direct Une. to or bring to a conclusion; it is exOFTEN, Frequently. Often, or its tended in its acceptation to the office contracted form oft, is an English word itself or the thing done. In its strict of unknown origm. Frequently, from sense, therefore, the offixx is performed Latin frequens, crowded or numerous, only by conscious or intelligent agents signifies a plurality or number of who act according to their instructions; objects. the function, on the other hand, is an An ignorant man often uses a word operation either of unconscious or of without knowing what it means; ignoconscious agents acting according to rant people frequently mistake the a given rule. The office of a herald meaning of the words they hear. A is to proclaim public events or to person goes out very often in the course communicate circumstances from one of a week; he has frequently six or public body to another: a minister seven persons to visit him in the course performs lus functions, or the body of that time. By doing a thing often it becomes habitual: we frequently luc^ performs its functions. The word office is sometimes em- the same persons in the route which we ployed in the same application by the often take. OLD, Ancient, Antiqite, Antipersonification of nature, which assigns an offixx to the ear, to the tongue, quated, Old-fashioned. Obsolete. to the eye, and the hke. In this case Old, in Anglo-Saxon eald, is perhaps the word office is applied to what is from a root signifying to nourishj found occasional or partial; function to that in the word alma, fostering, in our which is habitual and essential. When phrase aima mater. Ancient, in French the frame becomes overpowered by a ancien. Late Latin antianus and ansudden shock, the tongue will fre- tique, antiquated, all come from the quently refuse to perform its office; Latin ante, before, signifying in general when the animal functions are impeded before our time. Old-fashioned signifor a length of time, the vital power fies after an old fashion. Obsolete oomes from the Latin verb obsolucere, to ceases to exist.

A

See also Business. OFFICIOUS. See Active.

Old signifies what has long existed Issue. and still exists; ancient, what existed at Progeny, Offspring is that which springs from; a distant period, but does not necesprogeny, that which is brought forth sarily exist at present; antique, that or out of; issue, that which issues which has been long ancient, and of

OFFSPRING,

OLDER

532

which there remain but faint traces; OMEN, Prognostic, Presage. All and obsolete, these terms express some token or that which has ceased to be any longer sign of what is to come. Omen, in used or esteemed. A fashion is old Latin omen, prognostic, in Greek when it has been long in use; a custom TrpoyvuxTTiKov, from irpo, before, and is ancient when its use has long been yvoffTiKog, good at knowing, signifies past a bust or statue is antique when the sign by which one judges a thing the model of it only remains; a per- beforehand, because a prognostic is son looks antiquated whose dress and rather a deduction by the use of the appearance are out of date; manners understanding. Presage (see Augur). The omen and prognostic are both which have gone quite out oi fashion are old-fashioned; a word or custom is drawn from external objects; the presage is drawn from one's own feelings. obsolete which has grown out of use. The old is opposed to the new; some The omen is drawn from objects that things are the worse for being old, have no necessary connection with the other things are the better. Ancient thing they are made to represent it is and antique are opposed to modern: the fruit of the imagination and rests all things are valued the more for being on superstition: the prognostic, on the ancient or antique; hence we esteem contrary, is a sign which partakes in the writings of the ancients above those some degree of the quaUty of the thing of the moderns. The antiquated is op- denoted. Omens were drawn by the posed to the customary and established; heathens from the flight of birds or the it is that which we cannot Uke, because entrails of beasts "Aves dant omina we cannot esteem it: the old-fashioned dira," Tibullus and often from difis opposed to the fashionable: there is ferent incidents; thus Ulysses, when much in the old-fashioned to Uke and landed on his native island, prayed to esteem; there is much that is ridicu- Jupiter that he would give him a lous in the fashion: the obsolete is double sign by which he might know opposed to the current; the obsolete that he should be permitted to slay may be good; the current may be the suitors of his wife; and when he heard the thunder and saw a maiden vulgar and mean. supplicating the gods in the temple See also Elderly. OLDER. See Senior. he took these for omens that he should OLD TIMES. See Formerly. immediately proceed to put in execuOLIO, Farrago, Hodge - podge. tion his designs. Prognostics are disThese are terms borrowed from various covered only by an acquaintance with languages signifying a mixed food of the objects in which they exist, as the some sort, and hence, figuratively, any prognostics of a mortal disease are jumble or mixture. They differ from known to none so well as the physician; each other in the exact character of the the prognostics of a storm or tempest mixed dish indicated and in the fre- are best known to the mariner. quency and extent of their use as In an extended sense, the word omen figurative terms. Olio, a mistaken is also applied to objects which serve as form for olia, is intended to represent a sign, so as to enable a person to draw Spanish olla, Latin olla, a round earthen a rational inference, which brings it pot or dish, and hence that which is nearer in sense to the prognostic and frequently served in the dish i. e., a presage; but the omen may be said of mixture of different kinds of meat and that which is either good or bad; the vegetables. Farrago is a mixed food prognostic and presage, when it exserved to cattle. Hodge-podge is a presses a sentiment, mostly of that corruption of hotch-pot, from French which is unfavorable. It is an omen hocher, to shake, and pot (Anglo-Saxon of our success if we find those of whom pott). The Scotch form of hodge-podge, we have to ask a favor in a good besides implying a mixture of various humor; the spirit of discontent which ingredients, means a thick broth of pervades the countenances and dismeat and vegetables. Of these three course of a people is a prognostic of some terms hodge-podge is the only one which popular commotion. The imagination antiquated, old-fashioned,

;

;

—

has come into general colloquial use.

is

often

filled

with strange presages.

OPAQUE When ward

presage

sign,

it

is

is taken for the outunderstood favorably,

or in an indifferent sense. OMIT. See Neglect.

OMNIPRESENT. See Ubiquitous. OMNISCIENT, All -KNOWING, All-seeing,

All-wise,

Omniscient, a Latin

Infallible.

ONE, common

533 Single, Only.

Unity is the idea of aU these terms; and at the same time the whole signification of one, which is opposed to none; single, in Latin singiUus, each or one by itself, probably contracted from sine angvlo, without an angle, because

compound of omnis, what

is entirely by itself cannot form and sciens, knowing, from sdo, to an angle, signifies that one which is know, in French omniscient, Spanish abstracted from others, and is paromnisciente, is the adjective form of ticularly opposed to two, or a double all,

omniscience, one of three attributes of Grod, the others being omnipresence, everywhere, and omnipotence, infinite Cower: it signifies universal, un-

ounded, infinite knowledge and inwisdom. In the application of the terms to God, the only proper one, all-wise, implies the quaUty we accord Him of possessing all the wisdom that has ever existed or ever can exist; all-knowing, the quaUty of possession of the fullest possible knowledge of all things; all-seeing, Uterally, the quaUty of seeing every person and thing; as a substantive, the Being who alone can God; and see all persons and things infallible, the quaUty of being supremely perfect, incapable of erring or faiUng in anything, of being at all times and under all conditions certain, finite

which may form a pair; only, contracted from Anglo-Saxon an-lic, Uterally onelike, signifying in the form of unity, is employed for that of which there is no more. A person has one child is a that bespeaks its person has a sirigle

positive expression

own meaning: a

child conveys the idea that there ought to be or might be more, that more were expected, or that once there were more: a person has an only chUd impUes that

he never had more. See also Solitary. ONSET. See Attack.

ONWARD,

—

Forward,

Progres-

Onward is taken in the Uteral sive. sense of going nearer to an object: forward is taken in the sense of going from an object, or going farther in the line before one: progressive, from pro, forward, and gressus, past participle sure, and indisputable. of grede, itself from gradtis, a step, has See also Infallible. ON, Upon. There is now Uttle dif- the sense of going gradually, or step person goes ference between these two words; by step, before one. euphony and rhythm generally deter- onward who does not stand stiU; he

A

mine the choice between them on the goes forward who does not recede he part of a good writer. Upon is pre- goes progressively who goes forward at ferred when motion into position is certain intervals. Onward is taken ;

indicated, as in the sentence "Place the book upon the table"; on is preferred when merely rest or supp>ort is to be indicated, as in the sentence, "The book is on the table." ONCE, Erst, Formerly. Once, from Anglo-Saxon an, one, means literally at one time, referring to a particular time in the past. Erst is the superlative corresponding to the reposition and conjunction ere, AngloE axon oer, before, and also means at a

in the proper acceptation of travelling; the traveller who has lost his way feels it necessary to go onward with the hope of arriving at some ix>int; forward is employed in the improper

only

as

weU

as the proper appUcation;

a

traveller goes forward in order to reach his point of destination as quickly as possible; a learner uses his utmost endeavors in order to get forward in his learning: progressively is employed only in the improper application to what requires time and labor in order to bring

time before this. It is now used only goes on in poetry or in poetic prose. Formerly it to a conclusion; every man art, until he arrives is from the comparative form answer- progressively in his attainable It means before this time. at the point of perfection from once in emphasizing not by him. OPALESCENT. See Nacreous. the one time in the past, but the rela-

ing to

erst.

It differs

tion of that time to the present.

OPAQUE, Dark.

Opaque, in Latin

OPEN

534

apacus, corresponds in meaning to the

English dark (Anglo-Saxon deorc); the word opaque is to dark as the species to the genus, for it expresses that species of darkness which is inherent in soUd bodies, in distinction from those which emit light from themnative

selves or admit of hght into themselves; it is therefore employed scientifically for the more vulgar and familiar term dark. On this groimd the earth is termed an opaque body in distinction from the sun, moon, and other

luminouq bodies: any soUd substance, as a tree or a stone, is an opaque body, in distinction from glass, which is a clear or transparent body. OPEN. See Candid; Fkank; Public; Tangible. OPENING, Aperture, Cavity. Opening signifies in general any place left open without defining any circumstances; the aperture is generally a specific kind of opening which is

profit in forming their own opinions. conceited man has a conceit or a fond opinion of his own talent; it is not only high in comparison with others, but it is so high as to be set above others. The conceited ipan does

A

not want to follow the ordinary means of acquiring knowledge: his conceit suggests to

him that

his talent will

supply labor, apphcation, reading, and study, and every other contrivance

which

men have commonly employed

for their improvement; he sees by intuition what another learns by experience and observation; he knows in a

day what others want years to acquire; he learns of himself what others are

contented to get by means of instrucThe egotistical man makes himself the darUng theme of his own contemplation; he admires and loves himself to that degree that he can talk and think of nothing else; his children, his house, his garden, his are rooms, and the Uke, are the incessant

considered scientifically: there openings in a wood when the trees are partly cut away; openings in streets by the removal of houses; or openings in a fence that has been broken down; but anatomists speak of apertures in the skull or in the heart, and the naturalist describes the apertures in the nests of bees, ants, beavers, and the Uke; the opening or aperture is the commencement of an enclosure; the cavity is the whole enclosure: hence they are frequently as a part to the whole: many animals make a cavity in the earth for their nests, with only a small aper-

and

tion.

of his conversation, and become invaluable from the mere circumstance of belonging to him. An opinionated man is the most unfit for conversation, which affords pleasure only by an alternate and equable commum-! conceited ^Sa^^ cation of sentiment. co-operation, is the most unfit for where a junction of talent and effort is essential to bring things to a conclusion; an egotistical i^lIS-is the most linfit to be a companion or friend, forSfls t|ICdoes not kno\5i kow tQjyalue or hke

theme

A

anything out of Hy^elf VA» o^'^ .

'Hft./

—

,

Opinion, Sentiment, Notion. OpinOPERATE. See Act. ion, in Latin from opinor, think or OPINIONATED, Opinionative, judge, is the work of the head. Sentir Conceited, Egotistical. A fondness ment, from sentio, feel, is the work of the for one's opinion bespeaks the opinion- heart. Notion, in Latin notio, from ated man: a fond conceit of one's self nosco, to know, is a simple operation bespeaks the conceited man: a fond of the thinking faculty. We fQjm opinions, we have sentiattachment to himself bespeaks the Opinions are egotistical jnan: a Uking for one's self ments: we get notions. or one's own is evidently the common formed on speculative matters; they idea that runs through these terms; are the result of reading, experience, they differ in the mode and in the and reflection: sentiments are entertained on matters of practice; they object. AA opinionated P^ msii is not oiJr fond are the consequence of habits and cirof owji^pinion, but full of am own cumstances: notions are gathered from opinion; t>^ has an opinion on every- sensible objects and arise out of the thing, which is the best possible casualties of hearing and seeing. One opinion, and is therefore delivered forms opinions on religion as respects freely to every one, that they may its doctrines; one has sentiments on

ture for their egress

Wf

ingress.

OPPOSE

535

religion as respects its practice and its precepts. The heathens formed opinions respecting the immortality of the soul, but they amoimted to nothing more than opinions. Christians entertain sentiments of reverence toward God as their creator, and of dependence upon Him as their preserver. Opinions are more liable to error than sentiments. The opinion often spriags from the imagination, and in all cases

to sow, signifying the right time for sowing the seed), that which occurs or is done in a good or proper time, and so is specially welcome, that which belongs to a particular period of time, a benefit received in the time of need, in the nick of time; and timely, that which comes to pass at the right time, when most needed, when expected or promised. Differences between the terms seasonable and timely are critiis but an inference or deduction which cally considered in the article on falls short of certain knowledge: opin- Timely. ions, therefore, as individual opinions, OPPORTUNITY. See Occasion. may be false: sentiments, on the other OPPOSE, Resist, Withstand, hand, depend upon the moral consti- Thwart. The action of setting one tution or habits; they may, there- thing up against another is obviously fore, be good or bad, according to expressed by ail these terms, but they the character or temper of the p>erson. differ in the manner and the circumNotions are still more liable to error stances. To oppose (see Contradict) than either; they are the immatured is the most general and unqualified decisions of the iminformed mind on term; it simply denotes the relative the appearances of things. The differ- position of two objects, and when apence of opinion among men on the plied to persons it, does not necessarily most important questions of human imply any personal characteristic: we Ufe is a sufficient evidence that the may oppose reason or force to force; mind of man is very easily led astray or things may be opposed to each other in matters of opinion: whatever dif- which are in an opposite direction, as Resist, signifyference of opinion there may be among a house to a church. Christians, there is but one sentiment ing, literally, to stand back, away from, of love and good-will among those who or against, is always an act of more follow the example of Christ rather or less force when applied to persons; than their own passions: the notions it is mostly a culpable action, as when of a Deity are so imperfect among men resist lawful authority; resistance savages in general that they seem to is, in fact, always bad, unless in case amount to Httle more than an indistinct of actual self-defence. Opposition may be made in any form, as when we opidea of some superior invisible agent. gose a person's admittance into a house OPPONENT. See Enemy. Auspicious, Favory our personal efforts: or oppose his able, Seasonable, Timely. Oppor- admission into a society by a declaraResistance is altune, the adjective form of opportunity, tion of our opinions. from the Latin opportunus, signifies ways a direct action, as when we resist that which is fit or convenient, either an invading army by the sword, or as to a time, place, or occasion. At*- resist the evidence of our senses by spicious is a term appUed only to den)ring our assent; or, in relation to things, and such as are casual or only things, when wood or any hard subindicative of good, those having prom- stance resists the violent efforts of ise of success or happiness, that are steel or iron to make an impression. With in tvithsland has the force of the term being derived f>ropitious, rom auspicium, an augury from birds, against, re in resist the force of back, from aids, a bird, and: specere, to in- but stand corresponds to siat, from Latin sistere, to stand. Thtoart is a spect, hence, omens of success. Favorable impUes a condition that is Scandinavian word originally an ad-

OPPORTUNE,

propitious, advantageous, friendly, one verb (compare a/Auwrt, meaning across), that is wholly acceptable, as & favorable signifying across, in the contrary direcinto a verb reply, a favorable day or time; season- tion, and thence developing against. able (from Late Latm satio, a sowing, meaning to cross, to work from satus, past participle of serere, These words are modes of resistance ap-

OPPOSITE

536

To

plicable only to conscious agents.

withstand is negative; it implies not to yiM to any foreign agency: thus, a person withstands the entreaties of another to comply with a request. To thwart is positive; it is actively to cross the will of another: thus humorsome people are perpetually thwarting the wishes of those with whom they are in connection. It is a happy thing when a young man can withstand the allurements of pleasm-e. It is a part of a Christian's duty to bear with patience the imtoward events of life that thwart his purposes.

See also Combat; Object. OPPOSITE. See Adverse. OPPROBRIUM. See Infamy. OPPUGN. See Confute.

OPTIMISTIC, AU these

guine.

Cheerful,

San-

terms mean in gen-

eral hopeful, inclined to look on the bright side of things, but they differ in the suggested source of the hopefulOptimistic expresses an intelness. lectual attitude, cheerfvl a moral attitude, and sanguine a quality of temper having a physical basis. Optimistic comes from Latin optimus, best, and means seeing the best in everything. For cheerfvl see Cheer. Sanguine, from Latin sanguis, blood, meant originally

or

it is

left to

own option, or the option ia him, in order to designate his

his

freedom of choice more strongly than is

expressed

by the word

choice itself.

OPULENCE. See Riches. ORACULAR, Authoritative, Dogmatical, Prophetic. Oracular, in Latin oraadaris, from oraculum, an oracle, and that from oro, to speak, imphed in its ancient sense that which related to an announcement from the gods in answer to some inquiry, a prophetic declaration, also to the places where such announcements were made, and to the deities making them. Such responses were closely allied to augury, but with this difference, that auguries could be taken anywhere, while the oracular places were defined and hmited. From the common beUef that the responses or answers were given by or through the influence of a certain divine afflatus, the people came to look upon them as authoritative, as proceeding from a source that could not be questioned, and, consequently, placed implicit confidence in them. Now, in ordinary language, that is avihoritaiive which proceeds from a source that has the power to act, command, determine, and this source may be beneficial to aU imder its jurisdiction. Authoritative, therefore, has in general a good significance. Dogmatical, from Greek S6y}ia (Enghsh dogma) ^ an opinion, indicates an attempt to be authoritative to express opinions with a show and assumption of authority not recognized by others; it has in general a somewhat derogatory im-

blooded, and describes the attitude to Ufe of the full-blooded people, of abounding animal spirits, who find easy what is hard for others, and are self-confident and bold, being conscious of their own capacity to face life and make the best of a situation. Sanguine, being founded on a physical condition, indicates a hopefulness that is pUcation. These words are allied to really less enduring and stable than oracular through the common idea of that indicated in optimistic or cheerful. expressing a judgment with a show of OPTION, Choice. Option is im- authority. Prophetic impUes an occurrence foremediately of Latin derivation (from optare, to wish), and is consequently told, predicted, or presaged, and here a term of less frequent use than the again we revert to the ancient oracles, word choice, for the derivation of which as their chief announcements were see Choose. The former term im- declarations of what was about to plies an uncontrolled act of the mind; happen and what the inquirers should the latter a simple leaning of the will. and should not do. The prophets of speak of option only as regards Holy Writ were men divinely inspired, one's freedom from external constraint who frequently uttered predictions of in the act of choosing: one speaks of coming events, both as warnings and choice only as the simple act itself. encouragement to the people. ORAL. See Verbal. The option or the power of choosing is given; the choice itself is made: hence ORATION. See Address. ORATORY. See Elocution. we say a thing is at a person's option, full

—

We

ORDINANCE ORB.

See Circle. ORDAIN. See Appoint.

537

however, as respects intellectual obRule is said either of mechaniRule. Order cal and physical actions or moral conapplied in general to duct. The term nde is, however, as jects.

ORDER, Method, (see

Dispose)

is

everything that

is

disposed;

method,

French methode, Latin methodus, Greek fikQoSdc, from /itm and 6Wc, or a way after, signifying the ready or right way to do a thing; and ride, from Latin regula, a rule, and regere, to govern, direct, or make straight (the former expressing the act of making a thing straight or that by which it is made in

before observed, employed distinctly from either order or method, for it applies to the moral conduct of the incfividual. The Christian reUgion contains rides for the guidance of our conduct in all the relations of human society.

As epithets, orderly, methodical, and regular are appUed to persons and even to things according to the above so, the latter the abstract quality of distinction of the nouns: an orderly being so), are applied only to that man, or an orderly society, is one who which is done; the order lies in con- adheres to the established order of sulting the time, the place, and the things; the former in his domestic object, so as to make them accord; habits, the latter in their public capacthe method consists in the right choice ity, their social meetings, and their methodical man is of means to an end; the rule consists social measures. in that which wiU keep us in the right one who adopts method in all he sets way. Where there are a number of about; such a one may sometimes run objects there must be order in the dis- into the extreme of formality, by position of them; where there is work being precise where precision is not we cannot "speak of a to carry on, or any object to obtain, necessary: or any art to follow, there must be methodical society, for method is altoman is method in the pursuit; a tradesman or gether a personsd quality. merchant' must have method in keeping regular, inasmuch as he follows a cerhis accounts; a teacher must have a tain ride in his moral actions, and method for the communication of in- thereby preserves a uniformity of construction: the nde is the part of the duct: a regular society is one founded method; it is that on which the method by a certain prescribed rule. So we rests; there cannot be method without say, an orderly proceeding, or an orderly ride, but there may be rule without course, for what is done in due order: method; the method varies with the a regular proceeding, or a regular course, thing that is to be done; the rule is which goes on according to a prethat which is permanent and serves as scribed nde: a methodical grammar, a methodical delineation, and the like, for a guide under all circumstances. adopt the method and follow the rule. what is done according to a given method. See also Appoint; Class; Compainter adopts a cert&m method of preparing his colors according to the mand; Direction; Dispose; Place; Succession. rules laid down by his art. Decree, Edict, Order is said of every complicated machine, either of a physical or a moral Law, Rule. Ordinance, in Old French kind: the order of the universe, by ordenance, from the Latin ordo, order, which every part is made to har- signifies a rule of action, an observ-

A

A

We

A

ORDINANCE,

monize with the other part, and all in- ance commanded, a religious rite or dividually with the whole collectively, ceremony, a canon of the church,^ an bodv. Speis that which constitutes its principal enactment by a legislative beauty: as rational beings, we aim at cifically, the term means an orderly disintroducing the same order into the position or arrangement, hence, a rule, moral scheme of society: order is, there- custom, rite, ceremony, or observance authority having fore, that which is founded upon the established by an nature of things, and seems in its ex- jurisdiction over whatever may be afhigh tensive sense to comprehend all the fected by its action. Sovereigns, Method is the work of the political bodies, and courts issue decreet, rest. produce understanding, mostly as it is employed which are simply orders to in the

mechanical process; sometimes, specified

results.

ORDINARY

538

The term

(from Latin e for ex, participle of dicere, to speak, signifying a formal "speaking out," to be heard by many people) is also apphed to rules and laws promulgated in the same manner as a decree, but with this difference a decree (from Latin de, from, and cretum, past participle of cemere, to separate, meaning to separate truth from falsehood, good from bad, hence to judge) may be the award of an umpire, an arbitration, or a special authority designated to determine a question in controversy, and may be the subject of review by a higher -authority, while an edict is the proclamation of that which takes on the form and force of a law, a mandate, a command. law emanates from a regularly constituted authority, and has a power behind it to insure its respect and observance, as a law or act of the United States Congress can be sustained, if necessary,^by the entire army and navy of the country. The relation of the term law to other synonymous terms is discussed in the articles on Lawful and Maxim. ride differs from the preceding terms in that it is a direction, a standard or guide; in law, an order by a court on a motion affecting parties to a suit, to regulate the practice of a court, or to establish a principle by a decision. This term is also further out,

:

V

A

A

discussed in the article on

ORDINARY. ORGIES.

ORIFICE, Perforation.

edict

and dictum,

See

Order.

Common.

See Saturnalia.

ORIENT, Eastern.

Orient is the Latin term; eastern, the Anglo-Saxon word. The former comes from the present participle of the verb oriri, to rise, signifying the quarter where the sun rises. Eastern also signifies the quarter where the sun rises; it may be allied to the stem of the Latin aurora, signifying the dawn. Orient differs from eastern in the poetic and imaginative connotations that it has acquired. Eastern is the hteral term, signifying from the east as a quarter of the heavens or of the earth. Orient signifies characteristic of the east suggesting either the light and splendor of the sunrise or the rich lands of the east, whence came pearls and gold and spice and gorgeous fabrics in the old days.

Orifice,

Latin orifidum or orifacium, from

in

mouth, and facere, to make, signia made mouth, that is, an opening made, as it were. Perforation, in Latin from per, through, and perforatio, forare, cognate with EngUsh bore, to pierce, signifies a piercing through. These terms are both scientifically employed to designate certain cavities in the human body; but the former signifies that which is natural, the latter that which is artificial: all the vessels of the human body have their orifices, which are so constructed as to open or close of themselves. Surgeons OS,

fies

are frequently obliged to make perforations into the bones: sometimes perforation may describe what comes from a natural process, but it denotes

made through a solid subbut the orifice is particularly appUcable to such openings as most resemble the mouth in form and use. In this manner the words may be extended in their application to other bodies besides animal substances, and a cavity stance;

applied to other sciences besides anathence we speak of the orifice of a tube, the orifice of any flower, and the like; or the perforation of a tree by means of a cannon-ball or an iron instrument.

omy

:

ORIGIN,

Original,

Beginning,

Rise, Source. Origin and original are both derived from the Latin oriri, to rise, the former designating the abstract property of rising, the latter the thing that is risen; the first of its kind from which others rise. Origin refers us to the cause as well as the period of beginning; original is said of those things which give an origin to another: the origin serves to date the existence of a thing; the term original serves to show the author of a thing, and is opposed to the copy. The origin of the world is described in the first chapter of Genesis; Adam was the original from whom all the human race has sprimg. Origin has regard to the cause, beginning simply to the period, of existence: everything owes its existence to the origin; it dates its existence from the beginning; there cannot be an origin without a beginning; but there may be a beginning where we do not

OUTWARD speak of an origin. We look to the origin of a thing in order to learn its nature:

we

look to the beginning in

539

bellished; ornate is, as }t were in meaning, if not in form, the superlative of

these words.

Moreover, ornate sug-

order to learn its duration. When we gests gorgeousness and elaborateness have discovered the origin of a quarrel, inherent in the very desigii or material, we are in a fair way of becoming ac- not simply apphed from without. quainted with the aggressors; when we ORNITHOPTER. See Aircrapt. trace a quarrel to the beginning, we ORTHODOX. See Evangelical.

may

easily ascertain lasted.

how

long

it

has

Origin and rise are both employed for the primary state of existence, but the latter is a much more famiUar term than the former: we speak of the origin of an empire, the origin of a family, the origin of a dispute, and the like; but we say that a river takes its rise from a certain mountain, that certain disorders take their rise from particular circumstances which happen in early hfe: it is, moreover, observable that the term origin is confined solely to the first commencement of a thing's existence; but rise comprehendfs its gradual progress in the first stages of its existence; the origin of the noblest families is in the first instance sometimes ignoble; the largest rivers take their rise in small streams. look to the origin as to the cause of existence: we look to the rise as to the situation in which the thing com-

We

OSCILLATE.

See

Waq.

OSCULATION. See Kiss. OSTENSIBLE. See Colorable. OSTENTATION. See Show. OSTRACIZE. See Proscribe. OUT, Abroad, Bbtond. All of these terms signify external to something. Out, Anglo-Saxon ut, signifies external to something enclosed. speak of being oui of the house, out of the city; of taking valuables out of a

We

chest, etc. Beyond, from Anglo-Saxon geond, modem English yond, compounded with the prefix be, means external to some line or limit on the other side of. Abroad, from AngloSaxon a (on) and brad, broad, means It in the whole breadth of the land. means out in the open, and suggests not the definite bounds, but the free-

—

dom and

space beyond the bounds. See Noise. See Exceed. OUTLINE. See Syllabus. OUTLINES. See Sketch.

OUTCRY. OUTDO.

mences to exist, or the process by which OUTLIVE, Survive. To outliiye is grows up into existence. The origin and rise are said of only literally to live out the life of another, one object; the source is said of that to five longer: to survive, in French which produces a succession of objects: stimwe, Latin simper, beyond, and trivere, the origin of evil in general has given to hve, is to live beyond any given the former is employed to rise to much idle speculation; the love period; of pleasure is the source of incalculable express the comparison between two mischief to individuals, as well as to Uves; the latter to denote a prosociety at large: the origin exists but tracted existence beyond any given one person is said properly to once; the source is lasting: the origin term of every family is to be traced to our outlive another who enjoys a longer life; first parent, Adam; we have a never- but we speak of surinving porsoiw or failing source of consolation in religion. things, in an indefinite or unqualified manner: it is not an unqualified blessSee also^iRSx; Germ; Primary. ORNATE, Adorned, Decorated, ing to outlive all our nearest relatives Embellished. For the distinction be- and friends; no man can be happy in tween adorned, decorated, and embel- surviving his honor. OUTRAGE. See Affront. lished see the article on Adorn where OUTSIDE. See Show. the verbs of which these are participles OUTWARD, External, Exterior. are critically discussjd. Ornate differs from these words in intensity, and Outward, or inclined to the out, after dein not so distinctly suggesting the ap- the manner of the out, indefinitely plication of something external in order scribes the situation; external, from That which is ornate is the Latin extemus and extra^ is more to beautify. very much adorned, decorated, or em- definite in its sense, since it is em-

it

:

OVAL

540

scare him;

to intimidate (from Latin one is to

ployed only in regard to such objects as are conceived to be independent of man as a thinking being: hence, we may speak of the outward part of a building, of a board, of a table, a box, and the hke; but of external objects acting on the mind, or of an external agency. Exterior is still more definite than either, as it expresses a higher degree of the outward or external, the former being in the comparative and the latter two in the positive degree: when we speak of anything which has

actions that may affect him in his business and social relations, and on its application serves to restrain or check him in his regular course.

two

by others

coats,

it is

usual to designate the

outermost by the name of the exterior; when we speak simply of the surface, without reference to anything behind, it is denominated external: as the exterior coat of a walnut, or the external surface of things. In the moral apphcation, the external or outward is that which comes simply to the view; but the exterior is that which is prominent and which consequently may conceal something: a man may sometimes neglect the outside who is altogether mindful of the inward: a man with a pleasing exterior will sometimes gain more friends than he who has more sohd merit. OVAL, See Oblong. OVER. See Above; Yonder. OVERAWE, Daunt, Frighten, Intimidate. Overawe, a compound of the English over and the verb awe (see Awe), signifies, as a transitive, to re-

timeo, I fear, timidu^, fearful) put him into a state of fear,

and this term appUes not only to an act that frightens a person, but to a series of

The last term has had a very frequent apphcation of late to certain workmen who have been intimidated from pursuing their regular occupation striving to force them to join in a labor strike or some disturbing

labor proceeding, the importunities to

do so usually being backed up by

vari-

ous threats in case of a refusal.

Thus

operators in an industrial plant may be restrained from continuing at work by intimidations, threats, insinuations, and other acts that cause a fear of consequences, and by these acts are overawed into doing what is demanded of them.

OVERBALANCE, Outweigh, Preponderate. To overbalance is to throw the balance over on one side. To outis to exceed in weight. To preponderate, from pro?, before, and pondv^, a weight, signifies also to exceed in weight. Although these terms approach so near to each other in their original meaning, yet they have now a different apphcation: in the proper sense, a person overbalances himself who loses his balance and goes on one side;

weigh

by fear or by superior influence. a heavy body ouiweighs one that is Awe, as a substantive, imphes a fear light when they are put into the same that is reverential, or a feeling of emo- pair of scales. Overbalance and ouition inspired by the contemplation of weigh are hkewise used in the impropsomething subHme, and, as a transitive, er application; preponderate is never strain

to strike, inspire, or impress with feelings of reverential respect, or to hold one back or restrain him from some improper act by fear or respect. Overawe, in contradistinction, imphes not only the usual quality of awe, .but it assumes also the quaUty of a threat, an action that produces apprehension of something serious to come if something else is or is not done previously. To daunt (see Dismay) a person is to check him in some proceeding by alarming him, to thwart, deter, or prevent him in a purpose, and, in an extreme sense, to appall, dismay, cow, and subdue him; to frighten one is to affright, terrify,

shock with sudden

fear,

and

used otherwise:

things are said to overbalance which are supposed to turn the scale to one side or the other; they are said to outweigh when they are to be weighed against each other; they are said to preponderate when one

weighs down everything else: the evils which arise from innovations in society commonly overbalance the good; the will of a parent should outweigh every personal consideration in the mind, which will always be the case where the power of religion preponderates.

OVERBEAR, Bear Down, Overpower,

Overwhelm,

Subdue.

To

overbear is to bear one's self over another, that is, to make another bear

OVERFLOW one's weight; to hear down is literally to bring down by hearing upon; to overpower is to get the jHrwer ever an object; to overwhelm, from whelm, a Scandinavian word signifying to overturn, to cover with water, meant Uterally to drown, to submerge entirely;

to subdve (see Conqxtek) is, literally, to lead imdemeath, in the elliptical sense of leading beneath a yoke. A man overhears by carrying himself higher than others, and putting to silence those who might claim an equality with him; an overhearing demeanor is most conspicuous in narrow circles,

where an individual, from certain casual advantages, affects a superiority over the members of the same community. To bear down is an act of greater violence: one hears down opposition; it is properly the opposing force to force until one side yields, as when one party bears another down. Over-power, as the term imphes, belongs to the exercise of power which may be either physical or moral: one may be overpowered by another who in a struggle gets one into his power, or one may be overpowered in an argument when the argument of one's antagonist is such as to bring one to silence. One is overhome o** borne down by the exertion of individuals; overpowered by the active efforts of individuals, or by the force of circumstances; overwhelmed by circumstances or thing^ only overhome by another of superior influence; borne down by the force of his attack; overpowered by numbers, by entreaties, by looks, and the like; and overwhelrned by the torrent of words or the impetuosity of the attack. :

541

even more than the former: one passion may be said to overhear another, or to overhear reason. carries all before

Whatever

bears

down

it.

To overbear, overwhelm, and subdue are likewise appUed to the moral feelings, as well as to the external relations of things; but the former two are the effects of external circumstances; the latter follows from the exercise of the reasoning powers: the tender feehngs are overpowered; the mind is overwhelmed with painful feelings; the unruly passions are subdued by the force of rehgious contemplation: a p>erson may be so overpowered on seeing a dying friend as to be unable to speak; a person may be so overwhelrned with grief, upon the death of a near and dear relative, as to be imable to attend to his customary duties; the passion of anger has been so completely subdued by the influence of rehgion on the heart that instances have been known of the most irascible tempers being converted into the most mild and forbearing. See also Imperious. See

OVERCOME.

Conquer;

Quell.

OVERFLOW, What

overflows

Inundate, Deluge. simply

flows

over;

what inundates (from in and undo, a via,ve)fl/yws into; what de/r^jres (through French from de, for dis, apart, awaj', and luere, to wash) washes away. The term overflow bespeaks abundance; whatever exceeds the measure of contents must flxnv over, because it is more than can be held: to inundate bespeaks not only abundance, but vehe-

mence; when it inundates it .^oi»s in Overpower and overwhelm denote a faster than is desired, it fills to an inpartial superiority; suftdi^e denotes that convenient height: to deluge bespeaks which is permanent and positive: we impetuosity; a deluge irresistibly carmay overpower or overwhelm for a time ries away all before it. This explanaor to a certain degree; but to svbdtie is tion of those terms in their proper to get an entire and lasting superiority. sense will illustrate their improper apOverpower and overwhelm are said of plication: the heart is said to overflow what passes between persons nearly on with joy, with grief, with bittemeas, an equality; but subdue is said of those and the like, in order to denote the who are, or may be, reduced to a low superabundance of the thing; a counstate of inferiority individuals or armies try is said to be inutuialed by swarms are overpowered or overwhelmed; indi- of inhabitants when speaking of numbers who intrude themselves to the viduals or nations are subdued. In the moral or extended applica- annoyance of the natives; the town is tion, overhear and hear down both im- said to be deluged with publications of ply force or violence, but the latter different kinds when they appear in such :

OVERHEAR

542

profusion and in such quick succession as to supersede others of more value. OVERHEAR. See Hear.

that on

head which should rest on These terms differ accordingly in their appUcation and circumits

its

feet.

OVERPOWER.

See Beat; Over- stances: things are overturned by contrivance and gradual means; infidels OVERRULE, Supersede. To over- attempt to overturn Christianity by rule is, Mterally, to get the superiority means of ridicule and falsehood governof rule; and to supersede (from super ments are overthrown by violence. To and sedere), is to get the upper or overturn is said of small matters; to superior seat; but the former is em- subvert only of national or large conployed only as the act of persons; cerns: domestic economy may be overthe latter is appUed to things as the turned; rehgious or political estabhshagents: a man may be overruled in ments may be subverted: that may be his domestic government, or he may oferfwmed which is simply set up that be overruled in a pubhc assembly, or he is subverted which has been established may be overruled in the cabinet; large an assertion may be overturned; the works in general supersede the necessity best sanctioned principles may by artifice be subverted. •of smaller ones, by containing that which To overturn, overthrow, and subvert is superior both in quantity and quahty OVERRULING. See Prevailing. generally involve the destruction of the OVERRUN. See Overspread. thing so overturned, overthrown, or subOVERSIGHT. See Inadvertency; verted, or at least render it for the time Inspection. useless, and are, therefore, mostly unOVERSPREAD, Overrun, Ravage. allowed acts; but reverse and invert, To overspread signifies simply to cover which have a more particular applicathe whole surface of a body; but to tion, have a less specific character of overrun is a mode of spreading, namely, propriety: we may reverse a proposition by running; things in general, there- by taking the negative instead of the fore, are said to overspread which admit affirmative; a decree may be reversed of extension; nothing can be said to so as to render it nugatory; but both overrun but what Uterally or figuratively of these acts may be right or wrong, runs: the face is overspread with spots; according to circumstances: likewise, the ground is overrun with weeds. To the order of particular things may be overrun and to ravage (based on French inverted to suit the convenience of ravir, Late Latin rapire, for rapere) are parties; but the order of society canboth employed to imply the active and not be inverted without subverting all the extended destruction of an enemy; but principles on which civil society is built. the former expresses more than the See also Beat. latter: a small body may ravage in parOVERWHELM, Crush. To overticular parts; but immense numbers whelm (see also under Overbear) is to are said to overrun, as they run into cover with a heavy body, so that one every part; the Barbarians overran all should sink under it: to crush (see Europe and settled in different coun- Break) is to destroy the consistency of tries; detachments are sent out to a thing by violent pressure: a thing ravage the country or neighborhood. may be crushed by being overwhelmed, OVERTHROW. See Beat; Over- but it may be overwhelmed without beturn. ing crushed; and it may be crushed withOVERTURN, Overthrow, Sub- out being overwhelmed: the girl Tarvert, Invert, Reverse. To overturn is peia, who betrayed the Capitoline Hill simply to turn over, an act which may to the Sabines, is said to have been be more or less gradual but to overthrow overwhelmed with their arms, by which is to throw over, which will be more or she was crushed to death: when many less violent. To overturn is to turn a persons fall on one he may be overthing either with its side or its bottom whelmed, but not necessarily crushed: upward; but to subvert is to turn that when a wagon goes over a body, it under which should be upward: to re- may be crushed, but not overwhelmed. verse is to turn that before which should OWN. See Acknowledge. OWNER, See Possessor. be behind; and to invert is to place

bear.

:

;

;

PAINT

PACE, Step. Pace, derived from Latin passus, step, is the Latin term corresponding to the native English step (from Anglo-Saxon step-pan), signifying a stretch of the legs. As regards the act, the pace expresses the general manner of passing on or moving the body; the step implies the manner of setting or extending the foot: the pace is distinguished by being either a walk or a run, and in regard to horses a trot or a gallop: the step is distinguished by being long or short, to the right or left, forward or backward. The same pace may be modified so as to be more or less easy, more or less quick; the step may vary as it is hght or heavy, graceful or vmgraceful, long or short: we may go a slow pace with long steps, or we may go a quick pa4x with short steps: a slow pace is best suited to the solemnity of a funeral; a long step must be taken by soldiers in a slow march. As regards the space passed or stepped over, the pace is a measured distance, formed by a long step; the step, on the other hand, is indefinitely employed for any space stepped over, but particularly that ordinary space which one steps over without an effort: a thousand paxxs was the Roman measurement for a mile; a step or two designates almost the shortest possible distance.

PACIFIST,

Conscientious

Ob-

jector, Slacker. These are words which the European war brought into

543

world, believe that war is morallv' for them and refuse to fight, ft referred primarily to members of such religious sects as the Quakers. The two terms are practically interchangeable. Conscientious objector, being the more inclusive term, now seems to be gaining ground. Slacker is a slang term describing a man who refuses to do his share of the fighting, who is slack in his duty. It is a term of contempt often applied by others to those who cifi£

wrong

would call themselves conscientious objectors or pacifists.

PACIFY.

See Appease; Mollify;

Quell.

PAGAN. PAIN, Pain

See Gentile.

Pang,

Agony,

Anguish.

connected with the Latin pcena, a penalty. Pang is a word of unceris

Agony comes fi^om the dyuvia, a contest, signifjing the labor or pain of a struggle. Anguish, from the Latin angere, to choke (whence anger and anxiety are also derived), signifies the pain arising from choking. Pain, which expresses the feeling that is most repugnant to the nature of all sensible bemgs, is here the generic, and the rest specific, terms: pain and agony are applied indiscriminately to what is physical and mental; pang and anguish mostly signify that which ia mental: pain signifies either an individual feehng or a permanent state; pang is only a particular feeling: agony IS sometimes employed for the individual feehng, but more commonly for tain

origin.

Greek

prominence in England and America. Pacifist and conscientiotcs the state; anguish is always employed Pain is indefinite with objector signify one who does not believe for the state. in war, but pacifist puts the attitude regard to the degree; it may rise to special

in fjositive terms, conscientious objector the highest or sink to the lowest posthe rest are positively in negative terms. pacifist is one sible degree; who beUeves in the establishment of high degrees of pain: the pang is a world peace with some provision for sharp pain; the agony is a severe and an international court of arbitration, a permanent pain; the anguish is an league of nations to support the de- overwhelming pain, PAINT, Depict. Paint and depict crees of such a court, etc. Conscientious objector was coined to describe those per- both come from the Latin pingere, to sons who, without having any theory represent forms and figures: as a verb, concerning the establishment of a pa- to paint is employe*! either literally to

A

PAIR

544

represent figures on paper or to represent circumstances and events by means of words; to depict is used only in this latter sense, but the former word expresses a greater exercise of the imagination than the latter: it is the art of the poet to paint nature in lively colors; it is the art of the historian or narrator to depict a real scene of misery in strong colors. As nouns, painting describes rather the action or operation, and picture the result. When we speak of a good painting, we think particularly of its execution as to drapery, disposition of colors, and the like; but when we speak of a fine picture, we refer immediately to the object represented, and the impression which it is capable of producing on the beholder: paintings are confined either to oil-paintings or paintings in colors: but every drawing, whether in pencil, in crayon, or in India ink,

may

produce a picture; and we have

likewise pictures in embroidery, pictures in tapestry, and pictures in

mosaic. Painting is employed only in the proper sense; picture is often used figm-atively: old paintings derive a value from the master by whom they were executed a well-regulated family, bound together by the ties of affection, presents the truest picture of human happiness. PAIR. See Both; Couple. ;

PALATE,

Taste. Palate, in Latin Taste, palatum, signifies the roof of the

Middle English tauten, Old from a Late Latin taxi(ultimately from Latin tangere, to

mouth. French tare

tcerson may be more or less polished and yet not free from rudeness. Refined rises in sense, both in regard to polite and polished: a man

POLYCHROMATIC.

See Nacbk-

ous.

POMP. See MAONincENCB. See Magisterial; POMPOUS. Theatkical.

PONDER. See PONDEROUS.

Think. See Heavy. POOR, Pauper. Poor and pauper are both derived from the Latin pauPoor is a per. Old French povre, poor. term is indebted to nature, rather than to term of general use; pauper is a art, for his refinement; but his politeness of particular use: a pauper is a poor or his polish is entirely the fruit of edu- man who lives upon alms or the relief cation. Politeness and polish do not ex- of the parish: the former is, therefore,

POPULACE

562

meaning; the latter conveys a reproachful idea. The word poar is used as a substantive only in the plural number; pauper is a substantive both in the singular and plural the poor of the parish are, in general, a heavy burden upon the inhabitants: there are some persons who are not indefinite in its

I

ashamed to hve and

POPULACE.

PORTEND. PORTION.

die as paupers.

See People. See Auguk. See Deal; Part.

or

command,

to

make an

absolute

promise; peremptory is applied to the natm-e of the action or the manner of performing it; a command may be peremptory, and a tone peremptory. A positive assertion will

remove doubt

if

made by one

entitled to credit; an absolute promise wQl admit of no reservation on the part of the person

making it. A peremptory command admits of no demur or remonstrance; a

peremptory answer satisfies or puts to Position (see silence. also Place) is here the general term, Categorical; See also Actual; posture the particular term. The posi- Confident; Definite; Infallible. tion is that in which a body is placed POSSESS. See Hold. in respect to other bodies: as the POSSESSIONS. See Goods. standing with one's face or back to an POSSESSOR, Proprietor, Owner, object is a position; but a posture is Master. The possessor has the full that position which a body assumes in power, if not the right, of the present respect to itself, as a sitting or reclin- disposal over the object of possession; ing posture. the proprietor and owner have the unSee also Tenet. Umited right of transfer, but not alPOSITIVE, Absolute, Peremp- ways the power of immediate disposal. tory. Positive, in Latin positivu^, from The proprietor and the oumer are the jtositUrS, past participle of pono, to put same in signification, though not in

POSITION, Posture.

or place, and a suffix, signifies placed appUcation, the first term being used or fixed, that is, fixed or established principally in regard to matters of in the mind. Absolute, from Latin ab, importance; the latter on famiUar ocaway, and solutus, participle of solvere, casions: the proprietor of an estate to loosen, signifies uncontrolled by any is a more suitable expression than the external circumstances. Peremptory, in oum£r of an estate: the oumer of a book Latin peremptorius, from peremptor, a is more becoming than the proprietor. destroyer, per, utterly, and emere, to The possessor and the master are comtake, signifying to take away utterly, monly the same person when those means removing all further question. things are in question which are subPositive and absolute are employed ject to possession; but the terms are for either things or persons; peremptory otherwise so different in their original for persons only, or for that which is meaning that they can scarcely admit personal. What is positive has a de- of comparison: the possessor of a house terminate existence; it is opposed to is naturally the master of the house; what is negative, indeterminate, or and, in general, whatever a man posprecarious; as positive good, positive sesses that he has in his power and is pleasure or pain; what is absolute is consequently master of; but we may without dependence or connection, it have, legally, the right of possessing a is opposed mostly to the relative or thing over 'which we have actually no conditional, as absolute existence, abso- power of control: in this case, we are Ivie justice. nominally possessor, but virtually not In regard to persons or what is per- master. A minor, or insane person, sonal, positive apphes either to the as- may be both possessor and proprietor of sm-ance of a man or to the manner that over which he has no control; a of his expressing that assixrance; a man is, therefore, on the other hand, person may be positive in his own appropriately denominated master, not mind (see Confident), or he may possessor, of his actions. make a positive assertion; absolute apPOSSIBLE, Practicable, Pracplies either to the mode of acting or tical. Possible, from the Latin posse, the circumstances under which one to be able, and a suffix, signifies propacts, as to have an absolute possession erly able to be done: practicable.

POWER compounded

of Latin practicus, Greek TpaKTiKog, from the verb signifying to

563

f)art; hence trees are said to shed their eaves, animals their hair, or human

do, and a suffix, signifies to be able beings to shed tears. to put in practice: hence the differ- tinction between these ence between possible and practicable moral application.

Hence the diswords in their

the same as between doing a thing POVERTY, Want, Penubt, Inall or doing it as a rule. There are digence, Need. Poverty, through many things possible which cannot be French from Latin faupertatem, based called practicable; but what is prac- on pauper, poor, which marks the conticable must, in its nature, be possible. dition of bemg poor, is a general state The possible depends solely on the of fortune opposed to that of riches. power of the agent; the practicable Poverty admits of different states or depends on circumstances: a child degrees which are expressed by the cannot say how much it is possible for other terms. Want, from the verb to him to learn until he has tried; schemes toant, denotes, when taken absolutely, have sometimes everything apparently the ivant of the first necessaries, which to recommend them to notice, but that is a permanent state, and a low state which is of the first importance, namely, of poverty; but it may sometimes detheir practicability. note an occasional vxint, as a traveller The practicable is that which may or in a desert may be exposed to vxint; can be practiced; the practical is that or it may imply the want of particular which is intended for practice: the things, as when we speak of our vxints. former, therefore, apphes to that which Penury, in Latin penuria, aUied to men devise to carry into practice: the Greek ireiva, hunger, signifying exlatter to that which they have to prac- treme want, is poverty in its most abject tice: projectors ought to consider what state, which is always supposed to be is practicable; divines and moralists as permanent as it is wretched, to have to consider what is practical. The which those who are already poor are practicable is opposed to the imprac- brought, either by misfortune or imticable; the practical to the theoretical prudence. or speculative. Indigence, in Latin indigentia, from POST. See Place. indigere, from ind, for, and egere, to be in POSTPONE. See Delay. need, to u)ant, signifies the state of POSTURE. See Action; Position. wanting such things as one has been POTENT. See Powerful. habituated to or which are suited to POTENTATE. See Prince. one's station, and is properly applied POUND. See Break. to persons in the superior walks of life. is

at

POUR,

Pour meant

Need (see Necessity) implies a present vxmt, or the state of wanting such things as the immediate occasion calls for: a temporary state to which Scandinavian word meaning to destroy persons of all conditions are exposed. POWER, Strength, Force, Auor shed. Shed comes from Anglothority, Dominion. Power, from Saxon sceadan. pour with design; we spill by Anglo-French poer, which in Middle accident: we pour water over a plant English developed a w'. Late Latin or a bed; we spill it on the ground. potere, to be able, is the generic and To pour is an act of convenience; to universal term, comprehending in it spUl and shed are acts more or less hurt- that simple principle of nature which Strength, or the ful; the former is to cause to run in exists in all subjects. small quantities, the latter in large abstract quality of strong, and force quantities: we pour wine out of a (see Energy) are modes of power. bottle into a glass; but the blood of a These terms are all used either in a person is said to be spilled or shed when physical or a moral application. Power, his life is violently taken away: what in a physical sense, signifies whatever is poured is commonly no part of the causes motion: strength that species of body whence it is poured; but what pouxr that lies in the vital and muscular Strength is thereis shed is no other than a component parts of the body. Spill, Shed.

originally to purify or clarify by pressure, or pouring out, from Late Latin purare, Latin purus, pure. Spill is a

We

PRACTICABLE

564

fore internal, and depends on the internal organization of the frame; power on the external circumstances. man may have strength to move, but not the power, if he be bound with cords. Our strength is proportioned to the health of the body and the firmness of its make: our power may be increased by the help of instruments. Power may be exerted or otherwise; force is power exerted or active; bodies have a power of resistance while in a state of rest, but they are moved by a certain force from other bodies. The word power is used technically for the moving force. In a moral acceptation, power, strength, and force may be applied to the same objects with a similar distinction: thus we may speak of the power of language generally; the strength of a person's expressions to convey the state of his own mind and the force of terms, as to the extent of their meaning and fitness to convey the ideas of those who use them. Power is either public or private, which brings it into aUiance with authorCivil power inity (see Influence).

A

;

being able or having power, and mighty signifies having might. Powerfvl is appHcable to strength as well as power: a powerful man is one who by size and build can easily overpower another; and a powerfvl person is one who has much in his power: potent is used only in this latter sense, in which it expresses a larger extent of power: a potent monarch is much more than a powerfvl prince: mighty expresses a still higher degree of power; might is power unlimited by any consideration or circumstance; a giant is called mighty in the physical sense, and genius is said to be mighty which takes everything within its grasp; the Supreme Being is entitled either Omnipotent or Almighty; but the latter term seems to convey the idea of boundless extent more forcibly than the former. nifies, literally,

See also Herculean.

PRACTICABLE, See Possible. PRACTICE. See Custom; Exercise.

PRAGMATISM, Practicalism, Humanism.

These words all refer to a recent philosophy, "the most recent cludes in it aU that which enables us and (philosophically speaking) fashionto have any influence or control over able 'ism' that the new century has the actions, persons, property, etc., of produced, knowTi by some as Humanothers; avihority is confined to that ism, and by others as Pragmatism^ The species of power which is derived from {Academy, August 4, 1906). some legitimate source. Power exists philosophy teaches that the whole independently of all right; avihority meaning of a conception expresses itis founded only on right. A king has self in practical consequences, either often the power to be cruel, but he in the shape of conduct to be recomhas never the authority to be so. Sub- mended or 6f experiences to be exjects have sometimes the power of pected, if it is true. In short, "if it overturning the government, but they works, it is true." This was called can in no case have the avihority. practicalism by some because the test Power is indefinite as to degree; one of truth is its results in practice (ulmay have httle or much power: do- timately from Greek TrparTuv, to do; minion is a positive degree of power. but William James, the American exA monarch's power may be hmited by ponent of the philosophy, gave it the various circumstances; a despot exer- name pragmatism, from the same Greek cises dominion over aU his subjects, verb irpdrrtiv, which has the same high and low. One is not said to get meaning as practicalism but is a trifle Humanism, from power over any object, but to get more euphonious. an object into one's power: on the Latin humxinus, pertaining to man, other hand, we get a dominion over an from homo, man, is applied to the object thus some men have a dominion philosophy because it judges truth not over the conscience of others. by abstract or theoretical principles, PowerfvJ, Potent, Mighty. Powerful but simply by its practical outcome in But the objection to the is fuU of power; potent, from the Latin human life. potens, the present participle of the verb title humanism is that the word has posse (whence possible is derived), sig- already been applied to the work of the ;

—

PREARRANGE

565

scholars of the Renaissance who revived entreaty (see Beg) suit, from sue, in the ideal of a perfect "human" life, on Anglo-French siter, Latin sequi, to folthe basis of the Greek and Roman art, low after, denote different modes of as contrasted with the spiritual ideal prayer, varying in the circumstances of of the mediaeval theologians. Hence, the action and the object acted upon. when humanism is used for -pragmatism, The prayer is made more commonly there is confusion. As is the case to the Supreme Being; the petition is with most new words, the difference made more generally to one's fellowbetween the synonymes is not one of creatures; we may, however, pray our meaning, but of customary usage. fellow-creatures, and petition our CreaPRAISE, Commend, Applaud, Ex- tor: the prayer is made for everything tol. Praise, through French preis, is which is of the first importance to us connected with our own word jrrice as hving beings; the petition is made (Latin pretium), signifying to give a for that which may satisfy our desires: value to a thing. Commend, in Latin hence our prayers to the Almighty concomtnendo, compounded of con, to- cern all our circumstances as moral gether, and mandare, to put into the and responsible agents; our petitions hands, signifies to commit to the the temporary circumstances of our good opinion of others. Applaud (see present existence. Applause). Extol, in Latin ex, beWhen the term prayer is apphed to yond, and tollere, to lift, signifies to Uft men, it carries with it the idea of earup very high. nestness and submission; the petition All these terms denote the act of is a pubhc act, in which many express expressing approbation. To praise is their wishes to the Supreme Authority: the most general and indefinite; it the request and entreaty are individual may rise to a high degree, but it gen- acts between men in their private reerally impUes a lower degree: we praise lations: the people petition the king a person generally; we commend him or the parhament; a child makes particularly: we praise him for his a request to its parent; one friend dihgence, sobriety, and the Uke; we makes a request to another. The recommend him for his performances, or quest marks an equality, but the enfor any particular instance of prudence treaty defines no condition; it differs, or good conduct. To applaud is an however, from the former in the ardent mode of praising; we applaud nature of the object and the mode of a person for his nobility of spirit: preferring; the request is but a simple to exon the laws of civil society: a person makes high pretensions who estimates his merits and consequent deserts at a high rate; he judges of his daims according as they are suppKjrted by the laws of his country or the circumstances of the case: the pretension when denied can never be proved; the daim, when with His favor by interposing so as to proved, can be enforced. direct his purposes to the right object. PRETEXT. See Pretence. So also a man may prevent what is to PRETTY. See BEAUTiFtTL. happen by causing it to happen before PREVAILING, Prevalent, Rul- the time. ing, Overruling, Predominant. PreWe anticipate the happiness which vailing and prevalent both come from weare to enjoy in future; we anticipate the Latin prcevalere, to be strong above what a person is going to say by saying Ruling, overruling, and pre- the same thing before him. others. dominant (from dominari, itself dePrevent, in its modem use, is always rived from dominus, lord) signify ruling taken in the sense of causing a thing or bearing greater sway than others. not to be done: anticipate may also be Prevailing expresses the actual state so used, but with this distinction, that or quahty of a particular object: prev- to prevent is to cause a thing not to alent marks the quahty of prevailing, be done or happen at all, and anticipate as it affects objects in general. The is to prevent another from doing it by same distinction exists between over- doing it one's self. ruling and predominant. A person has Prevent, Obviate, Predvde. All these a prevailing sense of reUgion; rehgious terms imply the causing something not feehng is prevalent in a coimtry or in to take place or exist. To prevent (see a community. There is always some Hinder) is to cause something to happrevailing fashion which some persons pen before, so as to render another thing are ever ready to follow. The idea has impracticable. To obviate, from 06, before, opposite, and via, way, signifies of late years become prevalent. Prevailing and prevalent mark simply coming in the way so as to render the the existing state of superiority: ruling thing unnecessary or of no value. Preand predominant express this state in vent applies to events or circumstances relation to some other which it has in life; obviate to mental acts or objects: superseded or reduced to a state of bad weather prevents a person setting inferiority. An opinion is said to be out according to a certain arrangeprevailing as respects the number of ment; a change of plan obviates every persons by whom it is maintained: a difficulty. To predude, from Latin vrce and principle is said to be ruling as respects the superior influence which it has cluderej based on datidere, to shut, and over the conduct of men more than signifying to shut out a possibiUty by any other. Particular disorders are the intervention of something else, is, prevalent at certain seasons of the year, like obviate, appUed to mental objects. To prevent and predude are rather when they affect the generahty of persons: a particular taste or fashion is the act of the thing than of the person; predominant which supersedes all other to obviate is rather the act of the person than of the thing. Circumstances tastes or fashions.

—

PREVIOUS

570

may

prevent or prednde anything

happening:

from

a person obviates a

culty or objection;

so,

diffi-

according to

this distinction, we may say either to obviate a necessity or to jpredude a necessity for anything, according as this is effected by any person or by

any circmnstance.

PREVIOUS, Preliminary, Preparatory, Introductory. Previous, in Latin prcevitcs, compounded of prce, before, and via, way, signifies leading the way or going before. Preliminary, from proB and limen, a threshold, signifies belonging to the threshold or entrance. Preparatory and introdvctory signify belonging to a preparation or introduction. Previotis denotes simply the order of succession: the other terms, in addition to this, convey the idea of connection between the objects which succeed each other. Previotis appUes to actions and proceedings in general; as a previous question, a previous inquiry, a previous determination: preliminary is employed only for matters of contract: a preliminary article, a preliminary condition, are what precede the final settlement of any question: preparatory is employed for matters of arrangement; the disposing of men in battle is preparatory to an engagement; the making of marriage deeds and contracts is preparatory to the final solemnization of the marriage:

introductory

is

employed

for

matters of science or discussion; as remarks are introductory to the main

compendiums of grammar, geography, and the like, as subject in question:

introductory to larger works, are useful to young people. Prudent people are careful to make every previous inquiry before they seriously enter into engagements with strangers: it is impolitic to enter into details until all

preliminary matters are fuUy adjusted: one ought never to imdertake any important matter without first adopting every preparatory measure that can in complinecessary to have

facilitate its prosecution:

cated matters

something

it is

introdiictory

by way

planation.

See also Antecedent. PREY. See Booty. PRICE. See Cost; Value.

of ex-

PRIDE, Vanity, Conceit. Pride comes from Anglo^axon pryte, from pnd, proud, valiant, notable, which seems to be of French origin. It meant valiant, not9,ble; hence a consciousness of bieing valiant and notable. Vanity, Latin vanitas, comes from vanu^, empty, signifying a pride that has no basis in reahty. Conceit (see that word). The valuing of one's

self for the posis the idea comterms, but mon to these they differ either in regard to the object or the manner of the action. Pride is the term of most extensive import and appUcation, and comprehends in its signification not only that of the other two terms, but hkewise ideas pecuUar to itself. Pride is appUcable to every object, good or bad, high or low, small or great; vanity is appUcable only to small objects: pride is therefore good or bad: vanity is always bad, it is always emptiness or nothingness. man is proud who values himself for his possession of Hterary or scientific talent, for his wealth, his rank, his power, his acquirements, or his superiority over his competitors; he is vain of his person, his dress, his walk, or anything that is frivolous. Pride is the inherent quahty in man; and, while it rests on noble objects, it is his noblest characteristic; vanity is the distortion of one's nature resulting from inherent tendency or an injudicious education: pride shows itself variously, according to the nature of the object on which it is fixed; a noble pride seeks to display itself in all that can command the respect or admiration of mankind the pride of wealth, of power, or of other adventitious properties, commonly displays itself in unseemly deportment toward others; vanity shows itself in false pretensions. Pride, in the hmited and bad sense, is always associated with strength and produces more or less violence; vanity is coupled with weakness. Conceit is that species of self-valuation that respects one's talents only; in so far, therefore, it is closely allied to pride; a man is said to be proud of that which he really has, but to be conceited of that which he really has not a man may be proud to an excess

session of

any property

A

;

:

PRINCE of merits

which he actually possesses;

but when he

is conceited,

his merits are the latter is

all in his own conceit; therefore obviously founded on falsehood altogether. As self-concet< is the offspring of ignorance and vanity, it is most frequently foimd in youth, but as it is the greatest obstacle to improve-

ment, it may grow up with a person and go on with him through life. Pride, Haughtiness, Loftiness, DigPride is employed principally as nity. respects the temper of the mind: haugh-

—

Haughty) and loftiness (see High) concerns either the temper of mind or the external behavior. Digtiness (see

(see Honor) only the external behavior. Prid£ is, as before, the general term; the others are modes Pride, inasmuch as it conof pride. sists purely of self-esteem, is a positive sentiment which one may entertain independently of other persons: it Ues in the inmost recesses of the human

nity

.

heart, and mingles itself insensibly with our affections and passions. Haughti-

mode

of pride which springs out of comparison of one's self with others; the haughty man dwells on the inferiority of others: the proud man, in the strict sense, dwells on his own perfections. Loftiness is a mode of jnride which raises the spirit above objects supposed to be inferior; it does not set man so much above others as above himself, or that which concerns himself. As respects the exterior, pride in the ness

is

that

behavior is always bad. But it is taken in an indifferent sense in apphcation to animals or unconscious agents. Haughtiness in one's carriage, and loftiness in one's tone or air, are mostly unbecoming and seldom warranted. Dignity, which arises from a proper consciousness of what is due to one's self, is always taken in a good sense. It is natural to some men, and shows itself at all times; on other occasions it requires to be assumed. PRIMARY, Primitive, Pristine. Original. Primary, from primus and the suffix arius, signifies belonging to or Uke the first. Primitive, from the same ordinal, signifies being the first. Pristine, in Latin pristinus, from prius, Original sigsignifies in former times. nifies containing the origin, from the verb oriri, to rise or begin.

571

The primary denotes simply the order of succession, and is therefore the generic term; primitive, pristine, and original include also the idea of some other relation to the thing that succeeds, and are therefore modes of the primary. The primary has nothing to come before it; in this manner we speak of the vrimary cause as the cause which precedes secondary causes: the primitive is that after which other things are formed; in this manner a primitive word is that after which, or from which, the derivatives are formed; the pristine is that which follows the primitive, so as to become customary; there are but few specimens of the pristine purity of life among the professors of Christianity: the original is that which either gives birth to the thing or belongs to that which gives birth to the thing; the original meaning of a word is that which was given to it by the makers of the word. See also First.

PRINCE, Monarch,

Sovereign,

Potentate.

Prince, in French prince, Latin princeps, from primus and dapere, to take, signifies the man who takes the Monarch, from Latin monfirst place.

archa (built on Greek iiovdpvqc, from fiovoc, alone,

and

apxttv, to rule), signi-

one having sole authority. Potentate, from potens, p)owerful, signifies one having supreme power. Sovereign is derived from Latin superanus. Prince is the generic term, the rest are specific terms; every monarch, sovereign, and potentate is a prince, but not vice versd. The term prince is indefinite as to the degree of power: a prince may have a hmited or despotic p>ower; but in its restricted sense it denotes a smaller degree of power than any of the other terms: the term monarch does not define the extent of the power, but simply that it is undivided, as opposed to that species of power which is lodged in the hands of many: fies

and potentate indicate the highest degree of power; but the former is employed only as respects the nation that is governed, the latter in respect to other nations: a sovereign is supreme over his subjects; a poteyitate is power-

sovereign

ful

by means

man

of his subjects.

Every

having independent p)Ower is a prince', let his territory be ever so in-

PRINCIPAL

572

•

considerable: Germany was divided ing more eminent or elevated than into a number of small states, governed others: preference signifies being put by their petty princes. Every one before others. Priority implies simreigning by himself in a state of some ply the order of succession, and is apconsiderable magnitude, and having plied to objects either in a state of moindependent authority over his sub- tion or rest; precedence sigm&es priority jects, is a monarch; kings and emperors, in going, and depends upon a right or therefore, are all monarchs. Every privilege; pre-eminence signifies prior-' monarch is a sovereign whose extent of ity in being, and depends upon merit; dominion and number of subjects rises preference signifies priority in placing, above the ordinary level; he is a po- and depends upon favor. The priority tentate if his influence either in the is applicable rather to the thing than cabinet or in the field extends very the person; it is not that which is considerably over the affairs of other sought for, but that which is to be had: age frequently gives priority where nations.

PRINCIPAL. See Chief; Supreme.

PRINCIPALLY. See Especially. PRINCIPLE, Motive. The prinrciple (see Doctrine) may sometimes be the motive; but often there is a principle where there is no motive, and there is a motive where there is no principle. The principle lies in conscious and unconscious agents; the motive only in conscious agents; all nature is guided

by

certain principles;

its

movements

every other claim is wanting. The immoderate desire for precedence is often nothing but a childish vanity; it is a distinction that results from rank and power; a nobleman claims a precedence on all occasions of ceremony. The love of pre-eminence is laudable inasmuch as it requires a degree of moral worth which exceeds that of others; a general aims at pre-eminence in his profession. Those who are anxious to obtain the best for themselves are eager to have

go f6rward upon certain principles: the preference: we seek for the preferman is put into action by certain mo- ence in matters of choice. PRISTINE. See Primary. tives; the principle is the prime moving PRIVACY, Retirement, Seclucause of everything that is set in motion; the motive is the prime moving sion. Privacy Literally denotes the abcause that sets the human machine into stract quahty of private (from the Latin action. The principle in its restricted adjective privatus, based on jrrivare); sense comes stiU nearer to the motive, but when taken by itself it signifies the when it refers to the opinions which we state of bemg private: retirement Mterform: the principle in this case is that idea which we form of things so as to regulate our conduct; the motive is that idea which simply impels to action: the former is therefore something permanent, and grounded upon the exercise of our reasoning powers; the latter is momentary and arises simply from our capacity of willing and think-

aUy and

the abstract act of retiring: seclusion that of secluding one's self: but retirement by itself frequently denotes a state of being retired or a Elace of retirement; seclusion, a state of eing secluded: hence we say a person fives in privacy, in retirement, in secluMon: privacy is opposed to pubhcity he who fives in privacy, therefore, is signifies

bad principles lead a man into a one who foUows no pubhc line, who bad course of hfe; but a man may be fives so as to be fittle known: retireled by bad motives to do what is good ment is opposed to openness or freedom of access; he, therefore, who fives in as well as what is bad. retirement withdraws from the society See also Chief. of others, he fives by himself: seclusion PRINT. See Mark; Picture. is the excess of retirement; he who lives PRIOR. See Antecedent. PRIORITY, Precedence, Pre-emi- in seclusion bars aU access to himself; nence, Preference. Priority denotes he shuts himself from the world. the abstract quality of being before Privacy is most svutable for such as others: precedence, from proe, before, are in circumstances of humifiation, and cedere, to go, signifies the act of whether from their misfortune or their ing:

going before: pre-eminence signifies be- fault

;

retirement

is

peculiarly agreeable

PROCEEDING who are of a reflective turn, but seclusion is chosen only by those who labor under some strong affection of the mind, whether of a reUgious or

573

to those

prerogative is confined to the case of

a physical nature.

making one's election or exercising any special power; exemption is apphcable to cases in which one is exempted from any tribute or payment;

PRIVATE-CARRIER. mon-carrier.

PRIVATE MEETING. cus.

See Com- immunity, because of its derivation above explained, is pecuharly applicaSee Cau- ble to cases in which one is freed from a service: all chartered towns or cor-

PRIVILEGE, Prerogative, Exemption, Immunity. Privilege, in Latin privilegium, compounded of privies and lex, signifies a law made for any individual or set Prerogative, from Latin

of individuals. prcerogativa (sc,

triims or centuria), based on prce, before, and rogare, to ask, was applied to the tribe or century to it fell by lot to vote first in the Comitia, which was asked first it would have for consul: hence applied in our language

whom

whom

porations have privileges, exemptions, and immunities: it is the privilege of the city of London to shut its gates against the king.

See also Risht. PRIZE. See Capture; Value. PROBABILITY. See Chance. PROBITY. See Honesty. PROCEED. See Advance; Arise;

Go.

PROCEEDING,

Process, Progtwo of these words are to the right of determining or choosing based on Latin pro, forward, and the first

in

many particulars.

made

The

first

Exemption, verb cedere, in the sense of go; the last on progredior, to advance. The manner of performing actions for the attainment of a given end is the com-

from the verb to exempt, and immunity, from the Latin immunis, free of public service, from in, not, and munis, not ready to serve, based on munu^, a pubUc office, are both employed for the object from which one is exempt or free. Privilege and prerogative consist of exemption and positive advantages; immunity of those which are negative: by the former we obtain an actual good, by the latter the removal of an Privilege, in its most extended evil. sense, comprehends all the rest: for prerogative, exemption, and im,munity are privileges, inasmuch as they rest upon certain laws or customs which for the benefit of certain individuals. In the restricted sense,

are

ress.

mon idea comprehended in these terms. Proceeding is the most general, as it simply expresses the general idea of the manner of going on; the rest are specific terms, denoting some particularity in the action, object, or circumstance. Proceeding is said commonly of such things as happen in the ordmary way of doin§ business; process is said of such things as are done by rule: the former is considered from a moral point of view; the latter from a scientific

Freemasons have bound themselves by a law of secrecy not to reveal any part of their proceedings; the process by which paper is made has undergone considerable improvements since its first invention. Proceeding and progress both refer to the moral actions of men; but the proceeding simply denotes the act of going on or doing something; the progress denotes an approximation to the end: the proceeding may be only a partial action comprehending both the beginning and the end; but the progress is applied to that which requires time and a regular succession or technical standpoint:

the privilege may be enjoyed by many; the prerogative, which is a pecuhar and distinguished privilege, can be enjoyed only by a few. As they concern the public, privileges belong to the subject or are granted to him; preroga^ It is the tives belong to the crown. privilege of a member of Parliament to escape arrest for debt; it is the prerogative of the crown to be irresponsible for the conduct of its ministers; as respects private cases, it is the privilege of women to have the best places assigned to them; it is the prerogative of action to bring it to completion: that is a proceeding in which every man of the man to address the woman. Privileges are applied to every ob- is tried in a court of law; that is a ject which it is desirable to have; progress which one makes in learning.

PROCESS

574

by the addition to one's knowledge: the latter only in regard to the hence we do not talk of the proceeding vants or attendants on the great. of

life,

but of the progress of

—

Proceeding, Transaction. Proceeding signifies, Uterally, the thing that proceeds; and transaction the thing transacted: the former, therefore, is used of something that is going forward; the latter of something that is already done we are witnesses to the whole proceeding; we inquire into the whole transaction. The term proceeding is said of every event or circumstance which goes forward through the agency of men; transaction comprehends only those

matters which have been dehberately transacted or brought to a conclusion: in this sense we use the word proceeding in apphcation to a disturbance in the street; and the word transaction to some commercial negotiation that has

been carried on between certain persons. The term proceeding marks the

manner

ser-

At

is frequently a long train of coaches belonging to the friends of the deceased, which close the procession; princes and nobles never go out on state or pubhc occasions without a nmnerous retinue: the beauty of every procession consists in the order with which every one keeps his place and

funerals there

life.

proceeding; as when we speak of the proceedings in a court of law: transaction marks the business transacted; as the transactions on the Exchange. proceeding may be characterized as disgraceful; a transaction as iniquitous. Procession, Train, ProRetinue. cession, from the verb proceed, signifies the act of going forward or before, that is, in the present instance, of going before others, or one before another. Train, from Old French troiin, Low Latin trahinare, a derivative of classical trahere, to draw, signifies the thing drawn after another, as in the modern train, a succession of cars; and in the present instance the persons who are led after, or follow, any object. Retinue, from French rctenue, past participle of retenir (from Latin re and tenere, to hold back, retain), signifies those who are retained as attendants. All these terms are said of any number of persons who follow in a certain order; but this, which is the leading idea in the word procession, is but collateral in the terms train and retinue: on the other hand, the procession may consist of persons of all ranks and stations; but train and retinue apply only to such as follow some person or thing in a subordinate capacity: the former in regard to such as make up the concluding part of some procession, of

A

—

the regularity with which the whole goes forward; the length of a train is what renders it most worthy of notice; the number of a retinue in eastern nations is one criterion by which the wealth of the individual is estimated. PROCESS. See Proceeding. PROCLAIM. See Announce; De-

clare.

PROCLAMATION. See Decree. PROCRASTINATE. See Delay. PROCURE. See Get; Provide. PRODIGAL. See Extravagant. PRODIGIOUS. See Enormous. PRODIGY. See Wonder.

PRODUCTION,

Produce, Prod-

The term

production expresses either the act of producing or the thing prodiLced; product and produce express only the thing produced: the produce tion of a tree from a seed is one of the wonders of nature; the product will not be considerable. In the sense of the thing produced, production is ajv plied to every individual thing that is produced, whether by nature or art, as a tree is a production or a painting is a production of art or skill: produce and product are properly apphcable to those productions of nature which are made to turn to account; the former in a collective sense, and in reference to some particular object, the latter in an abstract and general sense: the aggregate quantity of grain drawn from a field is termed the produce of the field; but corn, hay, vegetables, and fruits in general are termed products of the earth: the naturaUst examines aU the productions of nature; the husbandman looks to the produce of his lands; the topographer and traveller inquire about the produ^^ of

uct.

different countries.

There is the same distinction between these terms in their improper as in their proper acceptation; the production is whatever results from

PROFLIGATE an

physical

or mental, as a production of genius, a production of art, and the hke; the produce is the aggregate result from physical or mental labor: thus, whatever the husbandman reaps from the cultivation of his land is termed the prodiux of his labor; whatever results from any pubUc subscription or collection is, in Uke manner, the produce: the product is employed properly in regard to the mental operation of figures, as the product from multiplication, but may be extended to anything which is the fruit of the brain. Production, Performance, Work. When we speak of anything as resulting from any specified operation, we term it a production: as the production of an author, signifying what he has produced by the effort of his mind: Homer's Iliad is esteemed as one of the finest productions of the imagination. When we speak of anything as executed or performed by some person, we term it a performance, as a drawing or a painting is denominated the performance of a particular artist. The term production cannot be employed without specifying or referring to the source from which it is produced or the means by which it is produced; as the qrroduction of art, the production of the inventive faculty, the production of the mind, etc. but a perforrmnce may be spoken of without referring to the individual by whom it has been performed; hence we speak of this or that person's performance; but we may also say, a good performance. When we wish to specify anything that results from vxrrk or labor, it is termed a uxrrk: in this manner we speak either of the rjDork of one's hands or of a unxrk of the imagination, a work of time, a vxfrk of magnitude. See also Afford; Effect; Make. effort,

—

:

PROFANE.

575

well as in the object: one professes by words or by actions; one declares by words only: a man professes to believe that on which he acts; but he declares his beUef in it either with his lips or in his writings. profession may be

A

general and partial; it may amount to little more than an intimation: a declaration is positive and exphcit; it leaves no one in doubt: a -profession

may,

sometimes be hypohe who professes may wish to imply that which is untrue: a dedaralion must be either directly true or false; he who declares expressly comtherefore,

critical;

mits himself upon his veracity.

One

professes either as respects single actions or a regular course of conduct; one declares either passing thoughts or settled principles. person professes to have walked to a certain distance, to have taken a certain route, and the like: a Christian professes to follow the doctrine and precepts of Christianity; a person declares that a thing is true or false, or he declares his firm belief in a thing. To profess is employed only for what concerns one's self; to declare is also employed for what concerns others: one professes the motives and principles by which one is guided: one declares facts and circmnstances with which one is acquainted one pro-

A

:

but what one thinks may be creditable and fit to be known; but one declares whatever may have fallen imder one's notice or passed through one's mind, as the case requires; there is always a particular and private motive for profession; there are frequently pubUc grounds for making a declaration. See also Business. PROFESSION. See Business; Vocation. PROFICIENCY. See Progress. PROFIT. See Advantage; Gain. See Irreligious; Sac-

rilegious.

PROFESS, Declare.

Profess, in Latin professus, participle of profiteor, compounded of pro and faieri, to speak, sigmfies to set forth or present to pubDeclare (see that word). lic view. An exposition of one's thoughts or opinions is the common idea in the sigbut they nification of these terms; differ in the manner of the action, as

fesses nothing

PROFLIGATE, Abandoned, Reprobate.

These words have

connection.

Profligate, in

all

a close

Latin proHi-

gatus, participle of profligo, compounded of the prefix pro, forward, down, and fligare, to dash, signifies properly one dashed down and destroyed; nence, by extension, wretched and then vile, used

as a term of extreme reproach: ao Cicero called Catiline " most profligate

PROFUNDITY

576

and abandoned of all mortals." Aban- one stage of learning to another is not doned (see Abandon). Reprobate (see always perceptible; it is not always Reprove) signifies one thoroughly hard- possible to overtake one who is in ened to reproof.

A

man

one completely overcome and ruined by his vices: an abandoned man is one abandoned to his passions: the reprobate man is one who has been reproved until he becomes insensible to reproof and cannot be diverted from following his evil course. PROFUNDITY. See Depth. PROFUSE. See Extravagant. PROFUSION, Profuseness. Profitsion, from the Latin profundo, to pour forth, ia taken in relation to unconscious objects, which pour forth in great plenty; profxiseness is taken from the same, in relation to conscious agents, who likewise pour forth in great plenty: the term pro/imon, therefore, is put for plenty itself, and the term profuseness as a characteristic of profligate

is

jjersons in the sense of extravagance. At the hospitable board of the rich there wiU naturally be a profusion of everything which can gratify the ap>petite; when men see an unusual degree of profusion, they are apt to indulge themselves in profuseness.

PROGENITORS.

See Forefath-

ers.

advance; sometimes a person's advancement is retarded by circumstances than are altogether contingent: the first step in any destructive course prepares for the second, and the second for the third, after which there is no stop, but the progress is infinite.

See also Proceeding. Progress, Proficiency, Improvement. Progress is a generic term, the rest are specific; proficiency, from the Latin

—

profido,

compounded

and a weakened form

of pro, forward, of facere, to do^

—

signifies a state of progression that is to say, a progress already made; and improvement, from the verb improve (see Amend), signifies an improved condition that is, progress in that which improves. The term progress here, as in the former paragraph, marks the stei) or motion onward, and the two others the point already reached: but progress is apphed either in the proper or improper sense: that is, either to those travelling forward or to those going on stepwise in any work; proficiency is apphed, in the improper sense, to the ground gained in an art, and improvement to what is gained in knowledge, or imderstanding, or abihties;

—

PROGENY. See Offspring. PROGNOSTIC. See Omen. when idle people set about any work PROGNOSTICATE. See Fore- it is difficult to perceive that they make tell.

PROGRESS,

Progression, Advancement. A forward motion is designated by these terms: but progress and progression simply imply this sort of motion; advance and advancement also imply an approximation to object: we may make progress in that which has no specific termination, as progress in learning, which may cease only with Ufe; but the ad-

some

vance is made only to some hmited point or object in view; as an advance in wealth or honor, which may find a termination within the Ufetime. Progress and advance are said of that which has been attained; but progression and advancement may be said of that which one is attaining: the progress or the advance has been made, or the person is in the act of progression or advancement: a child makes progress in learning by daily attention; the progression from

any

progress in

those

it

from time to time;

who have a thorough

taste for

drawing will show a which is astonishing to those who are unacquainted with either music or proficiency in it

the circumstances; the improvement of the mind can never be so effectually and easily obtained as in the period of childhood. Progress and proficiency are applied to the acts of persons, but improvement denotes also the act or state of things; one must make progress or show proficiency, but things admit of improvement. PROGRESSIVE. See Onward. PROHIBIT. See Ban. PROHIBITION. See Embargo. PROJECT. See Design. PROJECTING. See Salient.

PROLETARIAT, The PoLLOi. letarius,

Proletariat,

Masses, Hoi from Latin pro-

one who helped the state by

PROMISE his children only (from proles, offspring), is a word which has come into general usage as a result of the popular interest in poUtical economy during the later nineteenth century. It refers to the lowest class in an organized society, the laborers who have no capital and are dependent on the work of their hands from day to day for subsistence.

The term the masses (from mass, a lump imorganized,

of

unmolded

matter,

—

from Greek lidavtiv, to knead that which may be or should be kneaded) is also a comparatively recent phrase. It has the same meaning as proletariat, but a slightly different meaning, emphasizing not the existence of the lower order, as a distinct order, but as a great multitude outside of the distinct

Having been used somewhat contemptuously, it has been adopted as a name of honor by some of the leaders among "the masses," as the title of one of their organs in America, The Masses, shows. Hoi polloi is the Greek phrase ol ttoXXoi, transliterated with Roman letters. It means, hterally, "the many," and among the Greeks was opposed to "the few," as "the masses" were opposed by GladIt has much stone to "the classes. the same connotations as the masses, but is generally used in a somewhat flippant and frivolous tone, whereas the phrase the masses is becoming a word to conjure with, to be uttered in classes.

Massage under I*ress. PROLIFIC. See Fertile. PROLIX. See Diffuse. See also

fies

signifies hanging over; arn(see Distinguished) sigm-

easy to be beheld: the former

is,

therefore, to the latter, in some measure, as the species to the genus; what is prominent is, in general, on that

very account conspiciums; but many things may be conspicuous which are not expressly prominent: nothing is prominent but what projects beyond a certain line: everything is conspicuous which mav be seen by many the nose on a man s face is a prominent feature, owing to its projecting situation; and it is sometimes conspicuous, according to the position of the person: a figiu-e :

37

it

termed indiscriminate, as characterizing the person: things become promiscuous by the want of design in anyone; they ax^ indiscrimiruite hy the express intention of some one: plants of all descriptions are to be found promiscuously situated in the beds of a garden: it is folly to level any charge indiscriminaiely against all the members of any community or profession. is

PROMISE, Engagement, Word. mitto,

PROLONG. See Delay. PROMINENT, Conspicuous. Prominent

a painting is said to be prominent if appears to stand forward or before the others; but it is not properly conspicuous unless there be something in it which attracts the general notice and distinguishes it from all other things; on the contrary, it is conspicuous, but not expressly prominent, when the colors are vivid. PROMISCUOUS, Indiscriminate. Promiscuous, in Latin promiscuus, compounded of the prefix pro and miscere, to mingle, signifies thoroughly mingled. Indiscriminate, from the Latin in, privative, and discrimen, a difference, signifies without any difference. Promiscuous is appUed to any number of different objects mingled together; indiscriminate is applied only to the action in which one does not discriminate different objects: a multitude is termed promiscuous, as characterizing the thing; the use of different things for the same purpose, or of the same things for different purposes, in

Promise, in Latin rrromissus, from pro-

all seriousness.

spiciums

577

compoundea

of pro, before,

and

the past participle of mittere, to send; that is, in this application, to pledge beforehand, is specific, and consequently more binding than the engagement {ae& Business): we promise a thing in aset form of words that are clearly and strictly understood; we engage in general terms that may admit of alteration: a promise is mostly unconditional; an engagement is frequently conditional. In promises the faith of an individual is accepted upon his word and relied upon as if it were a^ deed: in engagements the intentions of an individual for the future are all that are either impUed or imderstood: on the fulfilment of promises often depend the most important interests of individuals; an attention to engagements is a matter of mutual conven-

PROMOTE

578

life: a of many, even if they had not had such a promise of payment, and numerous and miraculous proofs of his upon his promise it may happen that power. One friend makes a present many others depend for the fulfihnent to another in testimony of his regard: of their promises: when engagements the proof and the testimony are someare made to visit or meet others, the thing external, or some outward mark failm-e to observe such engagements or indication; the evidence may be in-

ience in the ordinary concerns of

man makes

ternal or lie in the thing itself, as causes great trouble. As a promise and engagement can be the internal evidences of Christianity. See also Experience. made only by words, the word is often PROP. See Staff. put for either, or for both, as the case PROPAGANDA. See Spread. requires: he who breaks his word in PROPENSITY. See Inclination. small matters cannot be trusted when PROPER. See Right. he gives his word in matters of consePROPERTY. See Estate; Goods; quence. Quality. PROMOTE. See Encourage.

PROMPT. See Diligent; Ready. PROMULGATE. See Publish. PRONENESS. See Inclination. PRONOUNCE. See Utter. PROOF,

Evidence,

Testimont.

PROPHESY. PROPHETIC. PROPITIOUS.

See Foretell. See Oracular. See Auspicious;

Favorable.

PROPORTION.

See Rate;

Sym-

(see Argument) is that which simpty proves; the evidence is that which makes evident (see Clear)

metry.

which distinguishes

participle of adoeqitare, from ad, to, and cequus, equal, signifies made level with

The

proof

PROPORTIONATE,

Commensu-

rate, Adequate. Proportion, from the testimony, from testis, a witness, is the Latin proportio, compounded of pro, a species of evidence by means of wit- suitable to, in ratio with, and portio, a nesses. In the legal acceptation of the share, signifies having a portion, suitterms proofs are commonly denomi- able to, or in agreement with, some nated evidence, becau.se nothing can other object. Commensurate, from the be admitted as proof which does not Latin prefix com, based on cum, with, tend to make evident; but as what is and mensuratus, the past participle of proved is made more certain or in- the post-classical mensurare, to measdubitable than what is made evident, ure, I measure, signifies measiiring in proof is more than evidence. Proof is accordance with some other thing, belikewise taken for the act of proving ing suitable in measure to something as well as for the thing that proves, else. Adequate, in Latin adoeqitattis, ;

it still

further from

evidence.

Evidence comprehends whatever is some other body. Proportionate is here a term of generemployed to make evident, be it words or deeds, be it writing or discourse; al use; the others are particular terms, testimony is properly evidence by words employed in a similar sense, in regard spoken, and more strictly understood to particular objects: that is proportionate which rises as a thing rises and by the person giving the evidence. In an extended application of these falls as a thing falls; that is commensuterms they are employed with a similar rate which is made to rise to the same distinction the proof is the mark or sign measure or degree; that is adequate which proves: the evidence is the mark or which is made to come up to the height sign which makes evident: the testimony of another thing. Proportionate is emis that which is offered or given by ployed either in the proper or imthings personified in proof of anything. proper sense; in recipes and preThe proof is employed for facts or scriptions of every kind proportionate physical objects: the evidence is ap- quantities must always be taken; when phed to that which is moral testimony the task increases in difficulty and regards that which is personal. All compUcation, a proportionate degree of that our Saviour did and said were labor and talent must be employed evidences of his divine character, which upon it. Commensurate and adequate might have produced faith in the minds are employed only in the moral sense, :

;

PROVE the former to denote suitability of things in point of measure, the latter to denote the equahzing of powers: a person's recompense should in some measure be commensurate with his labor

and

deserts:

a

person's

resources

should be adequate to the work he

engaged

is

in.

PROPOSAL,

Proposition.

Pro-

comes from propose, based on Latin pro and ponere, meaning to put posal

forward, in the sense of offer: proposition comes from propose, in the sense of setting down in a distinct form of words. We make a proposal to a person to enter into a partnership with him; we make a proposition to one who is at variance with us to settle the difference by arbitration. PROPOSE. See Offer; Premedi-

tate; Purpose.

579

general, but often informal, withdrawing of favor on the part of a whole group or community. Reject is to discard, cast aside, all of which is applicable ahke to persons and things. In old Roman history, to proscribe a person was to publish his name as one doomed to death and forfeiture of property; in ancient Athens to banish a citizen was to throw a shell, inscribed with the name of the person, into an urn.

PROSECUTE. See Continue. PROSELYTE. See Convert. PROSPECT. See View. PROSPER. See Flourish. PROSPERITY. See Weli^beino. PROSPEROUS. See Fortunate. PROTECT. See Defend; Sav^. PROTEST, Expostulate, Remon-

strate. These words all indicate the Proposal; statement of an objection on the part Sentence. of some one to the acts or statements PROPRIETOR. See Possessor. of another. Protest, from Latin pro, PROROGUE, Adjourn. Prorogue, publicly, and* testor, I bear witness, is from the Latin prorogare, from pro, a more solemn and formal act than pubUcly, and rogare, to ask, means to expostulate and remonstrate. In busipropose an extension of office, to defer. ness, for instance, a protest is a formal Adjourn, from ad, to or until, and the declaration by the holder of a bill of French joumie, the day, signifies only exchange of its non-payment or nonto put off for a day, or some short acceptance. Rerhonstrate, from Latin period: the former is apphed to na- re, against, and monslrare, to show, is a tional assemblies only, the latter is mild form of protest in which the protesting party brings up arguments applied to any meeting. PROSCRIBE, B.\NiSH, Condemn, against a proposed course. To expostDenounce, Exile, Expel, Ostracize, ulate is a friendly form of remonstratReject. Proscribe, in Latin proscribere, ing. from pro, before, openly, and scribere, See also Ultimatum. PROTRACT. See Delay. to write, is virtually to put beyond PROUD. See High-flown. the protection of the law bv a written PROVE, Demonstr.\te, Evince, order. Banish, expel, ana exile are closely allied applications signifjang Manifest. Prove, in Latin probare, sigthe act of driving or forcing a person nifies to make good, i. e., to make good from his country as a pimishment by by proofs, which is here the general authority. Corvdemn is to censure, term; the other terms imply different blame, declare to be forfeited, pro- modes of proving: we prove in differnounce or judge guilty. Denounce is ent ways and in different degrees. to threaten or accuse publicly; in To demonstrate, from monslrare, to diplomacy it is the act of abrogating show, and the intensive sj'llable de, a treaty. Ostracize meant originally signifies to prove in a specific manner, to banish by a vote written on a pot- that is, in a clear and undeniable mansherd, from Greek 6ect to meet with rebuffs,

a refusal as a rebuff. See also Dregs; Garnish. REFUTE. See Confute. REGAL. See Royal. REGARD. See Attend;

Care; from CoNsiDEn; Esteem. Latin pour REGARDFUL. See Mindful. back that is, to send back which ia REGARDLESS. See Indifferent. the common idea of all these terms. REGIMEN. See Food. pel,

Rebuff. Refuse

(see Deny), refundere, signifies simply to

—

—

in Latin declinare, signifies, REGION. See District. to turn aside; reject, from jacREGISTER. See Enroll; List; tare, to throw, to cast back; repel, from Record. pellere, to drive, to drive back. REGRET. See Complain. Rebuff comes from Latin re, back, and &u/REGULATE. See Direct; Gavr Jare, a word of onomatopoeic or imita- ern. REHEARSE. See Repeat. tive origin, like English puff. REIGN. See Empire. Refuse is an unqualified action: it of REIMBURSE. See Indemnify. is accompanied by no expression opinion; decline is a gentle and indirect REJECT. See Proscribe Refuse. mode of refusal; reject is a direct mode, REJOINDER. See Answer. and conveys a p>ositive sentiment of (see Refer), Recount, disapprobation: we refuse what is Describe. Relate, in Latin relatus, asked of us for want of inchnation to participle of referre, signifies to bring comply; we decline what is proposed that to the notice of others which has from motives of discretion; we reject before been brought to our own notice. what is offered to us because it does Recount is properly to count again or not fall in with our views: we r^use to count over again. Describe, from the listen to the suggestions of our friends; Latin scribere, to write, is literally to we decline an offer of service; we reject write down. The idea of gi\'ing an accoimt of the insinuations of the interested and events or circumstances is common to evil-minded. To refuse is said only of that which all these terms, which differ in the obpasses between individuals; to reject ject and circumstances of the action. IS said of that which comes from any Relate is said generally of all events, quarter: requests and petitions are re- both of those which concern others as Jused by those who are sohcited; opin- well as ourselves; recount is said parions, propositions, and counsels are re- ticularly of those things in which the jected by particular communities: the recountcr has a special interest: those Decline,

literally,

;

RELATE

RELATIONSHIP

594

who relate all they hear often

that interests of some individual: the pages of the journalist are filled with the relation of daily occurrences which simply amuse in the reading: but the recital of another's woes often draws tears from the audience to whom it is made. Relation and recital are seldom employed without connection with the object related or recited; narrative is in recounting, the memory reverts to mostly used by itself: hence we say past scenes and counts over all that the relation of any particular circmnhas deeply interested the mind. Trav- stance; the recital of any one's calamiellers are pleased to relate to their ties; but an affecting narrative, or a friends the noteworthy or remarkable simple narrative. things they have seen in other coimSee also Connection. tries; the recounting of our adventures Relation, Relative, Kinsman, Kinin distant regions of the globe has a pe- dred. Relation is here taken to express culiar interest for all who hear them. the person related; it is, as in the forWe may relate either by writing or by mer paragraph, the general term both word of mouth; we recount mostly by in sense and application; relative is word of mouth. Relate is said properly employed only as respects the particuof events or that which passes describe lar individual to whom one is related; is said of that which exists: we relate kinsman designates the particular kind the particulars of our journey, and of relation, and kindred is a collective we describe the country we pass term comprehending all one's relations through. Personal adventure is always or those who are one's kin. In abstract the subject of a relation; the quality propositions the word relations is used and condition of things are the subject in a more extended and universal of the description. We relate what hap- sense: a man who is without relations pened on meeting a friend; we describe feels himseK an outcast from society; the dress of the parties or the cere- in designating one's close and intimate monies which are usual on particular connection with persons we use the occasions. term relative; our near and dear relaRelation, Recital, Narration, Narra- tives are the first objects of our regard: tive. Relation, from the verb relate, in designating one's relationship and denotes the act of relating or the thing connection with persons, kinsman is related. Recital, from recite (Latin re, preferable; when a man has no chilagain, and citare, to quote), denotes the dren, he frequently adopts one of his act of reciting or the thing recited. kinsmen as his heir: when the ties of Narration, from narrate (from Latin relationship are to be specified in the narus, gnarus, knowing), denotes either persons of any particular family, they the act of narrating or the thing nar- are denominated kindred; a man canrated. Narrative, from the same verb, not abstract himself from his kindred denotes the thing narrated. Relation is while he retains any spark of human here, as in the former paragraphs, the feeling. general, and the others the particular RELATIONSHIP. See Affinity; terms. Relation applies to every ob- Kindred. ject which is related, whether of a pubRELAX, Remit. The general idea lic or private, a national or an individ- of lessening is that which allies these ual nature, history is the relation of words to each other; but they differ national events; biography is the rcla^ very widely in their original meaning tion of particular lives; recital is the and somewhat in their ordinary aprelation or repetition of actual or exist- plication; relax, from re, again, and ing circumstances; we listen to the laxare, to loosen, signifies to make loose, recital of misfortunes, distresses, and and in its moral use to lessen anything the like. The relation may concern in its degree of tightness or rigor; to matters of indifference: the recital is remit, from re, again, and mittere, to always of something that affects the send, signifies to take off in part or relate

which never happened; it is gratification to an old soldier to recount all the events in which he had a part during the miUtary career of his early youth. We relate events that have happened at any period of time immediate or remote; we recount mostly those things which have been long past:

—

:

—

REMEMBRANCER

595

entirely that which has been imposed, in the eyes of its most zealous votaries; that is, to lessen in quantity. In regara the veneration of genius, or the deto our own attempts to act, we may votedness of friendship, has in like speak oirelaonng in our endeavors and manner transferred itself from the inremitting OMT labors or exertions, though dividual himself to some object which the latter in this sense is now very rare- has been his property or in his possesly used: in regard to our dealings with sion, and thus acquired relics equally others, we may speak of relaxing in dis- precious. cipline, relaxing in the severity or strictSometimes the term relics is used to ness of our conduct, of remitting a pun- denote what remains after the decay or ishment or remitting a sentence. The loss of the rest, which further disdiscretionary power of shomng mercy tinguishes it from the word remains, when placed in the hands of the sov- which simply signifies what is left. ereign serves to relax the rigor of the See also Leavings. law; when the punishment seems to be Observation, Comdisproportionate to the magnitude of the ment, Note, Annotation, Commenoffence, it is but equitable to remit it. tary. Remark (see Notice), observa-

REMARK,

RELENTLESS. See Implacable. RELIANCE. See Dependence. RELICS. See Remains. RELIEF. See Redress.

RELIEVE. See Alleviate; Help. RELIGIOUS. See Holy. RELINQUISH. See Abandon; Leave; Waive.

RELISH.

See Taste.

RELUCTANT. See Averse. REMAIN. See Continue. REMAINDER. See Rest. REMAINS, Relics. Remains nifies,

literally,

what remains:

sig-

relics,

from relictus, the past participle of the Latin relinquere, to leave, signifies

what

is

left.

The former

is

a term

of general and familiar application; the latter Ls specific. What remains after the use or consumption of anything is termed the remains; what is left of anything after a lapse of years There are remains is the relic or relics. of buildings mostly after a conflagration; there are relics of antiquity in most monasteries and old churches. Remains are of value, or not, according to the circumstances of the case; relics always derive a value from the person to whom they were supposed originally to belong. The rem/iins of a person that is, what corporeally remains of a p>erson after the extinction of life will be respected by his friend a bit of a garment that belonged, or was supix)sed to belong, to some saint will be a precious relic in the eyes of many devout Roman Catholics. All nations have agreed to respect the remains of the dead; rebgion, under most forms, has given a sacredness to relics

— —

and comment,

in Latin commentum, participle of cotnminisce (from latin com, a prefix based on cum, intensive, and the root found in Latin memini, memoria, EngUsh memory, signifying to remember), are either sp>oken or written: note, annotation (see Note), commentary, a variation of comment, are always written. Remark and observor' tion, admitting of the same distinction in both cases, have been sufficiently explained in the articles referred to: comment is a species of remark which often loses in good-nature what it gains in seriousness; it is mostly applied to particular persons or cases, ana more commonly employed as a mode of censure than of commendation; pubUc speakers and public performers are exposed to all tion,

East

the comments which the vanity, the envy, and ill-nature of self-constituted critics can suggest; but when not employed in personal cases, it serves for explanation: the other terms are used in this sense only, but with certain modifications; the note is most general, and serves to call the attention to particular passages in the text and to illustrate them annotations and comtnenthe former taries are more minute; being that which is added by way of appendage; the latter being employed in a general form; as the annotations of the Greek scholiasts, and the com^mentaries on the sacrea writings. :

REMARKABLE.

See Extraordi-

nary.

REMEDY. See Cure. REMEMBRANCE. See Memory. REMEMBRANCER. See Monument.

REMINISCENCE

596

REMINISCENCE.

See Memoby. REMISS. See Negligent. REMISSNESS. See L.\xness.

before a company; we rehearse the piece in private which we are going to recite in public; we recapitulate the REMIT. See Abate; Forgive; general heads of that which we have Relax; Waive. already spoken in detail. master See Rest. must always repeat to his scholars the REMONSTRATE. See Expostu- instruction which he wishes them to late. remember; Homer is said to have REMORSE. See Repentance. recited his verses in different parts; REMOTE. See Distant. players rehearse their different parts REMOVE. See Transfer; Un- before they perform in pubhc; minisveil. ters recapitulate the leading points in

A

REMNANT.

REMUNERATION.

To repeat is commonly to use the same words; to recite, to rehearse, and to recapitulate do not

See Compen- their discourse.

sation.

REND. See Break. RENEGADE. See Recreant. RENEW. See Revive. RENOUNCE. See Abandon. RENOVATE. See Revive.

necessarily require any verbal samerepeat Uterally what we hear

ness.

We

spoken by another; but we

recite

and

rehearse events, and we recapitulate in See Fame. a concise manner what has been uttered REPAIR. See Recover. in a particular manner. An echo reREPARATION. See Restoration. peats with the greatest possible preREPARTEE. See Retort. cision; Homer recites the names of all REPAY. See Restore. the Grecian and Trojan leaders, toREPEAL. See Abolish. gether with the names and account of REPEAT, Recite, Rehearse, Re- their coimtries and the number of the capitulate. The idea of going over forces which they commanded; Virgil any words or actions is common to makes .^neas rehearse before Dido and all these terms. Repeat, from the her courtiers the story of the capture Latin re, again, and pelere, to seek, or of Troy and his own adventures; a judge go over again, is the general term, in- recapitulates evidence to a jury. cluding only the common idea. To reREPEL. See Refuse. cite, rehearse, and recapitulate are modes Penitence, Conof repetition, conveying each some ac- trition, Compunction, Remorse. Reces.sory idea. To recite is to repeat in a pentance, from re, back, and pcenitere, formal manner; to rehearse (from Latin to be sorry, aUied to Greek irtiva, re, again, and Old French hercer, to har- hunger, signifies thinking one's self row, from herce, derived from Latin hir- wrong for something past: penitence, pex, a harrow) is to repeat or recite by from the same source, signifies simply way of preparation ; to recapitulate, from sorrow for what is amiss. Contrition, capitulum, a chapter, is to repeat the from the past participle of conterere, chapters or principal heads of any dis- to rub together, is to bruise, as it were, course. repeat both actions and with sorrow; compunction, from comwords; we recite only words: we repeat pungere, to pvick thoroughly; and single words or even sounds; we recite remorse, from remorstis, the past paralways a form of words: we repeat our ticiple of remordere, to have a gnawown words or the words of another; we ing pain; and hence to vex, to torment. recite only the words of another; we AU express modes of penitence differing Repentrepeat a name; we recite an ode or a in degree and circumstance. ance refers more to the change of one's set of verses. repeat for purposes of general con- mind with regard to an object, and is venience; we recite for the convenience properly confined to the time when this we, therefore, or amusement of others; we rehearse change takes place; for some specific purpose, either for the strictly speaking, repent of a thing but amusement or instruction of others we once; we may, however, have penitence Reof for the same thing all our lives. recapitulate for the instruction others. repeat that which we wish pentance supposes a change of conduct, to be heard ; we recite a piece of poetry at least as long as the sorrow lasts;

RENOWN.

REPENTANCE,

We

We

:

We

REPRIEVE

597

but the term penitence is confined to less frequent use. By reprehension the the sorrow which the sense of guilt personal independence is not so sensibly occasions to the offender. Repentance is a term of more general apphcation than penitence, being employed in respect to offences against men as well as against God; penitence, on the other hand, is applicable only Repentance has to spiritual guilt. application to our interests here, pen~ Hence to our interests hereafter. Penitence is a general sentiment which belongs to all men as offending creatures; but contrition, compunction, and remorse are awakened by reflecting

on

affected as in the case of reproof: people of all ages and stations, whose conduct is exposed to the investigation of others, are liable to reprehension; but children only, or such as are in a subordinate capacity, are exposed to reproof. Reprehension amounts to httle more than

passing an unfavorable sentence upon the conduct of another: reproof adds to this words more or less severe. The master of a school may be exposed to the reprehension of the parents for any supposed impropriety: his scholai^ are subject to his reproof.

particular offences: contrition is a continued and severe sorrow, approSee also Reproach; Blame. priate to one who has been in a conREPRESENTATION. See Radiotinued state of pecuUar sinfulness: graph; Show. compunction is rather an occasional but REPRESS, Restrain, Suppress. sharp sorrow, provoked by a single To repress is to press back or down: to offence or a moment's reflection; re- restrain is to strain back or down: the morse may be temporary, but it is a former is the general, the latter the still sharper pain awakened by some specific, term we always repress when particular offence of pecuhar magni- we restrain, but not vice versd. Repress tude and atrocity. The prodigal son is used mostly for pressing down, so was a contrite sinner; the brethren of as to keep that inward which wants Joseph felt ^eat compunction when to make its appearance: restraint ia an they were carried back with their sacks habitual repression by which a thing to Egypt; David was struck with re- is kept in a state of lowness: a person is said to repress his feehngs when he morse for the mm-der of Uriah. REPETITION, Tautology. Repe- does not give them vent either by his tition is to tautology as the genus to the words or actions; he is said to restrain species, the latter being a species of his feehngs when he never lets them repetition. There may be frequent rise beyond a certain pitch: good repetition which is warranted by ne- morals as well as good manners call cessity or convenience; but tautology upon us to repress every unseemly exis that which nowise adds to either the pression of joy in the company of sense or the sound. A repetition may those who are not in a condition to or may not consist of hterally the same partake of our joy; it is prudence as words; but tautology, from the Greek well as virtue to restrain our appetites ravTo, the same, and Xoyia, saying, sup- by a systematic inhibition, that they poses such a sameness in expression as may not gain the ascendency. To restrain is the act of the individual renders the signification the same. In the hturgj' of the Church of England toward himself; repress may be an act there are some repetitions which add directed to others, as to repress the to the solemnity of the worship; in ardor and impetuosity of youth; to most extemporary prayers there is suppress, which is to keep under, or much tautology that destroys the re- keep from appearing or being perceptible, is also said in respect to ourUgious effect of the whole. selves or others: as to repress one's feelREPINE. See Complain. ing; to suppress laughter, sighs, etc. REPLY. See Aivswer. So likewise when applied to external REPORT. See Fame. objects, as to repress the impetuosity REPOSE. See Ease; Recline. REPREHENSION, Reproof. Per- of the combatants, to suppress a resonal blame or censure is implied by bellion, information, etc. REPRIEVE, Respite". Reprieve ia both these terms, but the former is much milder than the latter, and is of a doublet of reprofe, from reprobaref :

REPRIMAND

598

to try a case a second time, with the impUcation of rejection, and hence to disallow a sentence. Respite comes through French from Latin respectum, English respect, and refers to the respect had to a suit. The idea of a release from any press-

ure or biu-den is common to these terms; but the reprieve is that which is granted; the respite sometimes comes to us in the course of things: we gain a reprieve from any punishment or trouble which threatens us; we gain a respite from any labor or weight that presses upon us. A criminal gains a reprieve when the punishment of death is commuted for that of imprisonment for life; a debtor may be said to obtain a reprieve when, with a prison before his eyes, he gets such indulgence from his creditors as sets him free: there is frequently no respite for persons in a subordinate station, when they fall into the hands of a hard taskmaster; Sisyphus is feigned by the poets to have been condemned to the toil of perpetually rolling a stone up a hill as fast as it rolled back, from

he had no respite. See Check. REPRISAL. See Retaliation.

which

toil

REPRIMAND.

REPROACH, Contumely,

Oblo-

quy. The idea of contemptuous or angry treatment of others is common to all these terms; but reproach is the general, contumely and obloquy are the particular, terms: the last two terms are of infrequent use to-day. Reproach (see Blame) is either deserved or undeserved; the name of Puritan is apphed as a term of reproach to such as affect greater purity than others; the name of Christian is a name of reproach in Turkey: contumely, of uncertain origin, but probably connected with contumacious, from Latin contumax (proud, stubborn, perverse, offensive), self-sup>posedly from contemnere,to despise, condemn, is always undeserved; it is the

and contemptuous rejection by

dered them objects of general censure, and whose name, therefore, has almost become a reproach. A man who uses his power only to oppress those who are connected with him wiU naturally and deservedly bring upon himseK much obloquy. See also Discredit. Reproachful, Ab^isive, Scurrilmcs. Reproachful, or full of reproach, when apphed to persons, signifies full of reproaches; when to things, deserving of reproach: abusive, or full of abuse, is apphed only to the person, signifying using abuse: scurrilous, in Latin scurrilis, from scurra, signifying a buffoon or saucy jester, is employed as an epithet either for persons or things in the sense of using scurrility. The conduct of a person is reproachful inasmuch as it provokes or is entitled to the reproaches of others; the language of a

—

person

is

reproachful

when

it

abounds

in reproaches or partakes of the nature of a reproach: a person is abusive who indulges himseK in abuse or abusive language: and he is scurrilous who adopts scurrility or scurrilous language. When applied to the same object, whether to the person or to the thing, they rise in sense; the reproachful is less than the abusive, and this less than the scurrilous; the reproachful is sometimes

;

may

and generally is, consistent with decency and propriety of speech: abusive and scurrilous language is an be,

outrage against the laws of good-breeding, if not of morahty. A parent may sometimes find it necessary to address an unruly son in reproachful terms; or one friend may adopt a reproachful tone to another; none, however, but the lowest orders of men, and those only when their anger is awakened, will descend to abusive or scurrilous language.

REPROBATE, Condemn. To much

rep-

stronger than to cona worthless person of merit in distress; demn, but of less frequent application: our Saviour was exposed to the coiv- we always condemn when we reprobate, tumely of the Jews: obloquy, from ob, but not vice versa: to reprobate is to conagainst, and loqui, to speak, signifying demn in strong and reproachful lanreprobate all measures to speak against or to the disparage- guage. ment of any one, is always supposed to which tend to sow discord in society be deserved or otherwise; it is applica- and to loosen the ties by which men ble to those whose conduct has ren- are bound to each other; we condemn insolent

.

warranted by the provocation; but the abusive and scurrilous are always unwarrantable reproachful language

robate is

We

.

REST language toward sn" periors. We reprobate only the thing; we condemn the person also: any act of disobedience in a child cannot be too strongly reprobated; a person must exEect to be condemned when he involves imself in embarrassments through his own imprudence. See also Profligate. REPROOF. See Reprehension. REPROVE. See Blame; Check. REPUBLIC. See Empire. REPUGNANCE. See Aversion. REPUTATION. See Character; all disrespectful

Fame; Name.

REQUEST. REQUIRE.

599

improper application, is employed only as the act of a conscious agent; to retain is often the act of an unconscious agent: we reserve what we have to say on a subject until a more suitable opportunity offers; the mind retains the impressions of external objects by its peculiar faculty, the memory; certain substances are said to retain the color

with which they have been dyed. RESIDE. See Abide. RESIDENCE. See Domicile. RESIGN. See Abandon; Give Up. RESIGNATION. See Patience. RESIST. See Oppose. RESOLUTE. See Decided; Stai/-

See Ask; Prayer. wart; Unswerving. See Demand. REQUISITE. See Necessary. RESOLUTION. See Courage. REQUITAL. See Compensation; RESOLVE. See Determine; Solve. RESORT. See Frequent. Retribution. RESOURCE. See Expedient. RESCUE. See Salvation. RESPECT. See Esteem; Honor; RESEARCH, See Examination. RESEMBLANCE. See Likeness. Refer. RESPECTFUL. See Dutiful. RESENTMENT. See Anger; RESPITE. See Interval; ReUmbrage. RESERVE, Reservation. Reserve prieve. RESPONSE. See Answer. and reservation, from servare, to keep, RESPONSIBLE. See Answerable; and re, back, both signify a keeping back, but differ as to the object and the Guarantee. REST, Remainder, ReJmnant, circumstances of the action. Reserve is appUed in a good sense to anything Residue. Rest is the substantive based natural or moral which is kept back on the Latin restare, compounded of to be employed for a better purpose on re and stare, to stand behind, in this a future occasion reservation is an art- case, though not in the former (see ful keeping back for selfish purposes: Ease), signifying what stands or reRemainder literally sigthere is a prudent reserve which every mains back. man ought to keep in his discourse with nifies what remains after the first part a stranger; equivocators deal alto- is gone. Remnant is but a variation of remainder; it comes from the present gether in mental reservation. Reserve, from the participle of remanere, whence remainReserve, Retain. Latin prefix re and servare, to keep, der is derived. Residue, from the neuter Retain, from of the Latin adiective residuus, based signifies to keep back. tenere, to hold, signifies to hold back: on re back, ana sedere. to sit, signifies they in some measure, therefore, have likewise what remains back. All these terms express that part the same distinction as keep ana hold. To reserve is an act of more specific which is separated from the other and ;

—

J

we reserve that which is the left distinct: re«i is the most general, particular object of our choice: to retain both in sense and application; the IS a simple exertion of our power; we others have a more specmc meaning and retain that which has once come in our use: the rest may be either that which possession. To reserve is employed only is left behind by itself or that which tor that which is allowable; we reserve is set apart as a distinct portion: the a thing, that is, keep it back with care remainder, remnant, and residue are for some future purpose: to retain is the quantities which remain when the often an unlawful act; a debtor fre- other parts are gone. The rest is said quently retains in his hands the money of any part, large or small; but the remainder commonly regards the smallwhich he has borrowed. To reserve, whether in the proper or er part which has been left after the desi^;

600

RESTITUTION

greater part has been taken. A per- person, has it not in his power so easily son may be said to sell some and give to make reparation.

away the rest: when a number of Reparation and amends (see Comhearty persons sit down to a meal, the pensation) are both employed in cases remainder of the provisions, after all where some mischief or loss is sustained have been satisfied, will not be con- but the term reparation comprehends siderable. Rest is appUed either to the idea of the act of repairing, as well persons or things; remainder only to as the thing by which we repair; amends things: some were of that opinion, but is employed only for the thing that the rest did not agree to it: the re- will amend or make better: hence we mainder of the paper was not worth speak of the reparation of an injury; preserving. but of the amends by itself. The term Remnant, from the Latin participle reparation comprehends all kinds of stem remanent, remaining, is a species injuries, particularly those of a serious of remainder after the greater part has nature; the amends is appUed only to been consmned or wasted: it is, there- matters of inferior importance. It is fore, properly a small remainder, as a impossible to make reparation for takremnant of cloth; and metaphorically ing away the hfe of another. It is appUed to persons, as a remnant of Is- easy to make amends to any one for rael. A residue is another species of re- the loss of a day's pleasure. mainder, which resides or keeps back See also Recovery. after a distribution or division of anyRestore, Return, Repay. Restore thing has taken place; as the residue comes from Latin restaurare, to set up of a person's property, that which re- again. Return comes from Latin re, mains undisposed of. again, and Low Latin tomare, to turn See also Cessation; Stand. a lathe. For repay see Pay. RESTITUTION. See RestoraThe common idea of all these terms tion. is that of giving back. What we restore RESTORATION, Restitution, to another may or may not be the same Reparation, Amends. Restoration is as what we have taken; justice reemployed in the ordinary apphcation quires that it should be an equivalent of the verb restore: restitution, from the in value, so as to prevent the individLatin verb restituere, is employed sim- ual from being in any degree a sufferer; ply in the sense of making good that what we return and repay ought to be which has been im justly taken or precisely the same as we have received which ought to be restored. Restoration the former in application to general of property may be made by any one, objects, the latter in application only whether it be the person taking it or to pecuniary matters. We restore upon not restitution is supposed to be made a principle of equity: we return upon by him who has been guilty of the a principle of justice and honor; we injustice. The dethronement of a repay upon a principle of undeniable king may be the work of one set of right. We cannot always claim that men and his restoration that of an- which ought to be restored; but we other; it is the moral duty of every cannot only claim, but enforce the individual who has committed any claim in regard to what is to be sort of injustice to another to make returned or repaid: an honest man will restitution to the utmost of his power. be scrupulous not to take anything from Restitution and reparation are both another without restoring to him its employed in the sense of imdoing that full value. Whatever we have borwhich has been done to the injury of rowed we ought to return; and when another; but the former connotes only it is money which we have obtained, injuries that affect the property, and we ought to repay it with pvmctuality. reparation those which affect a person We restore to many as well as to one, in various ways. He who is guilty of to communities as well as to individtheft or fraud must make restitution by uals; a king is restored to his crown; either restoring the stolen article or its or one nation restores a territory to full value: he who robs another of his another; we return and repay not only good name, or does any injury to his individually, but personally and par-

—

:

RETORT we return a book to we repay a sum of money

601

ticularly:

its

mostly in regard to a state of war-

owner;

to

fare or to active hostiUties.

A

trick

practiced upon another in return for him from whom it was borrowed. Restore and return may be employed a trick is a retaliation; but a reprisal alin their improper applications as re- ways extends to the capture of somespects the moral state of persons and thing from another, m return for things; as a king restores a courtier to what has been taken. Retaliation is or a physician restores his patient to health: we return a favor; we return an answer or a compliment. Repay may be figuratively employed in regard to moral objects, as an ungrateful person repays kindnesses with reproaches. RESTRAIN, Restrict. Restrain (see Coeboe) and restrict are but variations of the same Latin verb restringere: the first from the infinitive, the second from its past participle, rehis favor,

strictu^;

but they have acquired a

A

others from doing mischief: he is restricted in the use of his money. To restrain is an act of power; but to restrict is an act of authority or law: the will or the actions of a child are restrained by the parent, but a patient is restricted in his diet by a physician, or any body of people may be restricted laws.

See also Repress. RESTRAINT. See

tween friends: reprisal has always an unfavorable sense. Goldsmith's poem, entitled "Retaliation," was written for the purpose of retaliating on his friends the joke that they had played upon him; when the quarrels of individuals break through the restraints of the law and lead to acts of violence to each

made

Constrain;

Embargo.

RESTRICT, See Bound; Restrain.

RESULT. See Consequence. RETAIN. See Hold; Reserve. RETALIATION, Reprisal. Re-

other's property, reprisals alternately by both parties.

RETARD,

dis-

tinct acceptation: the former apphes to the desires as well as the outward conduct: the latter only to the outward person restrains his inordiconduct. nate appetite; or he is restrained by

by

very frequently employed in the good sense for what passes innocently be-

are

Hinder. To retard, from

the Latin tardus, slow, signifying to make slow, is apphed to the movements of any object forward, as in the Latin "Impetum inimici tardare": to hinder (see that word) is apphed to the person moving or acting: we retard or make slow the progress of any scheme toward completion; we hirider or keep back the person who is completing the scheme: we retard a fhing, therefore, often by hindering the person; but we frequently hinder a person without expressly retarding, and, on the contrary, the thing is retarded without the person being hiri-

The pubUcation of a work is sometimes retarded by the hindratuxs which an author meets with in bringing it to a conclusion; but a work may be retarded through the idleness

dered.

printers, and a variety of other causes which are independent of any taliation, from retaliate, in Latin re- hindrance. So in like manner a pertaliatum, participle of retaliare, com- son may be hindered in going to his pounded of re and taliare, to requite in place of destination; but we do not kind (the etymology of talis is far from say that he is retarded, because it is certain), signifies so much again, or hke only the execution of an object and for Uke. Reprisal, a word much used not the simple movements of the perin connection with the European war, son which are retarded. To retard stops the completion of an is a verbal substantive based on repris, past participle of the French verb re- object only for a time, but to hinder is prendre, in Latin reprehendere, to take to stop it altogether. See also Delay. again, signifies to take in return for RETINUE. See Procession. what has been taken. The idea of RETIRE. See Recede. making another suffer in return for the RETIREMENT. See Privacy. suffering he has occasioned is common RETORT, Repartee. Retort, from to these terms; but the former is employed in ordinary cases; the latter re, back, and torquere, to turn, signify-

of

RETRACT

602

ing to twist or turn back, is an illnatured reply: repartee, a misspelling o£ reparlie, feminine of the past participle of the French reparlir, from Latin re, again, and partire, to divide, hence to lunge, is to answer thrust with The retort is thrust, cut with cut. always in answer to a censure, for which one returns a hke censure; the repartee is commonly in answer to the wit of another, where one returns wit In the acrimony of disputes for wit. it is common to hear retort upon retort to an endless extent the liveliness of discourse is sometimes greatly increased by the quick repartee of those who take part in it. ;

RETRACT. See Abjure. RETREAT. See Asylum; Recede. RETRIBUTION, Requital. Retri-

ing within the time in which he is Uving. The review may be said of the past as well as the present; it is a view not

only of what is, but what has been: the survey, which is a looking over at once, from the French sur, upon, and

Old French veer, for voir, to see,

is entirely confined to the present; it is a view only of that which is, and is taken for

some

We

particular purpose. take a review of what we have already viewed, in order to get a more correct insight into it; we take a survey of a thing in all its parts, in order to get a comprehensive view of it, in order to examine it in all its bearings. general occasionally takes a review of all his army; he takes a survey of the fortress which he is going to besiege or attack.

A

bution, from relrihuere, to bestow, signiRETURN, Revert. Return is the fying a bestowing back or giving in Enghsh, and revert the Latin: return is return, is a particular term; requital therefore used in ordinary cases to de(see Reward) is general the retribution note the coming back to any point of comes from Providence; requital is the time or place; as to return home, or act of man: retribution is by way of to return at a certain hoiu", or to apply pimishment; requital is mostly by way one's self again to the same business or of reward: retribution is not always employment; as to return to one's writdealt out to every man according to ing: to revert is to throw back with one's his deeds; it is a poor requital for one mind to any object; we may, therefore, who has done a kindness to be abused. say, to return or revert to any intellectRETRIEVE. See Recover. ual object, with this distinction, that RETROSPECT, RE\aEW, Survey. to return is to go back to the point retrospect, which signifies, literally, here one left off treating of any sublooking back, from retro, behind, and ject; to revert is simply to carry one's spicere, to behold or cast an eye upon, mind back to the same object. As an is always taken of that which is past act of an unconscious agent, return is and distant review, which is a view re- used as before. peated, may be taken of that which Revert signifies either to fall back into every the same state or to return by reflecis present and before us; retrospect is a species of review, but tion to the same object; all things reevery review is not a retrospect. vert to their primitive order and regutake a retrospect of our past hfe in larity. order to draw salutary reflections from See also Restore. all that we have done and suffered; REVEAL. See Publish; Unveil. REVELS. See Saturnalia. we take a review or a second view of any particular circumstance which is REVENGE. See Avenge. REVERBERATE. See Rebound. passing before us, in order to regulate our present conduct. The retrospect REVERE. See Adore. REVERENCE. See Adore; Awe; goes farther by virtue of the mind's power to reflect on itself and to recall Honor. all past images to itself; the review may REVERSE. See 0\'ERTURN. go forward by the exercise of the REVERT. See Return. senses on external objects. The hisREVERY. See Dream. torian takes a retrospect of all the REVIEW. See Retrospect; Rbevents which have happened within visal. REVILE, Vilify. Revile, from the a given period; the journalist takes a review of all the events that are pass- Latin prefix re and old French aviler, :

A

;

We

RICHES make

on the Latin

603

affected by the heat. Revive and reworthless, signifies to reflect fresh connote only the temporary state retort upon him that of a body; renovate the permanent which is vile to vilify signifies to make state, that is, the health or powers of a thing vile, that is, to set it forth as a body; one is revived and refreshed vile. To retnle is a personal act; it is after partial exhaustion; one's health addressed directly to the object of is renovated after having been conoffence, and is addressed for the pur- siderably impaired. pose of making the person vile in his Revive is appUed hkewise in th^ moral own eyes to vilify is an indirect attack sense; refresh and renovate mostly in the which serves to make the object appear proper sense; renew only in the applied vile in the eyes of others. Revile is said sense. discussion is said to be reonly of persons, for persons only are vived or a report to be revived; a clamor reviled; but to vilify is said of persons is said to be renewed or entreaties to be as well as things.' To revile is unchari- renewed: customs are revived which have table to vilify is seldom justifiable, long lain dormant and, as it were, for we cannot vilify without using im- dead; practices are renewed that have proper language it is seldom resorted to ceased for a time. REVOKE. See Abjure; Abolish. except as a manifestation of iU-nature. to

vile, built

vilis,

is

cheap,

upon a person, or :

:

A

:

;

REVISAL, RE\asioN, Review. tinal, revision,

and review

REVOLT.

Re-

See Defection; Insub-

come from RECTION. REWARD. and signify

all

See Compensation. See Elocution. RICHES, Wealth, Opulence, Affluence. Riches comes from Old French richesse, wealth, from Middle High German riche, which is the same word as Anglo-Saxon ric. Wealth, Middle Enghsh welthe, extended from weal, prosperity, which is allied to well. Opxdmce, from the stem of the Latin ofcs, riches, denotes the state of having riches. Affluence, from the Latin ad, to, and fluere, to flow, denotes either the act of riches flowing in to a person or the state of having things flo^^^ng in. Riches is a general term denoting any considerable share of property, but without immediate reference to a possessor; whatever serves to make one rich is denominated riches, inasmuch as profound erudition. it supplies us with the means of getting See also Retrospect. REVIVE, Refresh, Renovate, Re- what is really good; wealth and the new. Revive, from the Ijatin vivere, to other terms refer to outward possesthe Latin videre, to see, looking back upon a thing or looking at it again: the terms revised and revision are, however, mostly employed in regard to what is WTitten; review is used for things in general. The revised of a book is the work of the author, or of a reviser, for the purposes of correction: the review of a book is the work of the critic, for the purpose of estimating its value. Revisal and revision differ neither in sense nor application, that except the former is more frequently employed abstractedly from the object revised and revision mostly in conjunction: whoever wishes his work to be correct will not spare a revisal; the revision of classical books ought to be intrusted only to men of

hve, signifies to bring to life again; to refresh, to make fresh again; to renew and renovate, to make new again. The restoration of things to their primitive state is the common idea included in these terms; the difference consists in their application. Revive, refresh, and renovate are applied to animal bodies; revive ejcpressing the return of motion and spirits to one who was for the time lifeless; refresh expressing the return of vigor to one in whom it has been di-

minished; the air revives one who is faint; a cool breeze refreshes one who

RHETORIC.

sions.

Riches is a condition opposed to povertv; the whole world is divided into rich and poor, and riches are distributed in different degrees; but wealth, opur lence, and affluence all denote a considerable share of riches: wealth is a positive and substantial share of this world's goods, but particularly of

money

or the precious commodities; taken in the abstract or in appHcation to individuals: opulence consists of any large share in possessions or property generally, as it

may be

RIDICULE

604

houses, lands, goods, and chattels, and is applicable to the present and actual condition of the individual. Affluence is a term pecuharly applicable to the fluctuating condition of things which flow in in great quantities to a person. speak of riches as to their effects.

Between the right and the wrong there are no gradations a thing cannot be more n^/if or more wrong; whatever :

not wrong, and whatever is not right: the just and unjust, proper and improper, fit and unfit, on the contrary, have various shades and We upon men's minds and manners; it degrees that are not so easily definable is not every one who knows how to by any forms of speech or written use them: we speak of wealth as it rules. raises a man in the scale of society The right and wrong depend upon no and contributes to his weal or well- circumstances; what is once right or being: we speak of opulence as the wrong is always right or wrong, but present actually flourishing state of the just or unjust, proper or improper, the individuals; and of affluence as are relatively so according to the cirthe temporary condition. Wealth and cumstances of the case: it is a,jv^t rule opulence are appUed to communities for every man to have that which is his own; but what is jusi to the individas well as individuals. RIDICULE, Satire, Irony, Sar- ual may be unjust to societ3\ It is casm. Ridicule (see Deride) has sim- proper for every man to take charge ple laughter in it; satire comes from of his own concerns; but it would be satura lanx, a full dish, a dish of mixed improper for a man in an unsound ingredients, indicating a poem full of state of mind to undertake such a topical and personal hits: the former charge. Right is appKcable to all is employed in matters of a trifling matters, important or otherwise; just nature; 'but satire is employed either is employed mostly in matters of essenIrony, tial interest proper is rather applicable in personal or grave matters. in Greek dpojvfia, from clpwv, a dis- to the minor concerns of life. Everysembler who says less than he thinks thing that is done may be characterized or means, is disguised satire; an ironist as right or wrong: everj'thing done to seems to praise that which he really others may be measured by the rule means to condemn. Sarcasm, from the of just or unjust: in our social interGreek oapKaafxoQ, a sneer, and vapicdl^uv, course, as well as in our private transto sneer, both based on crdp^, flesh, sig- actions, fitness and propriety must alnifying biting or nipping satire, so, as ways be consulted. As Christians, we it were, to tear the flesh, is bitter and desire to do that which is right in the personal satire; aU the others may be sight of God and man; as members successfully and properly employed to of society, we wish to be just in expose folly and vice; but sarcasm, our deahngs; as rational and intelhwhich is the indulgence only of per- gent beings, we wish to do what is fit sonal resentment, is never justifiable. and proper in every action, however trivial. See also Laugh. RIGHT, Just, Fit, Proper. Right, See also Straight. Right, Claim., Privilege. from Anglo-Saxon riht, signifying upRight sigright, not leaning to one side or the nifies in this sense what it is right for other, standing as it ought, is here the one to possess, which is, in fact, a word general term the others express modes of large meaning: for since the right of right. The right and wrong are de- and the wrong depend upon indeterfined by the written will of God, or are minable questions, the right of having written in our hearts according to the is equally indeterminable in some cases original disposition of our nature: the with every other species of right. A just, in Latin Justus, from jus, law, sig- claim (see Ask) is a species of right to nif^Ting according to a rule of right, and have that which is in the hands of the unjust, are determined by the writ- another; the right to ask another for ten laws of men; the fit and projmr, in it. The privilege is a species of right Latin proj/rius, signifying belonging to EecuUar to particular individuals or odies. a given specific rule, are determined by Right, in its full sense, is altogether the estabhshed principles of society. is right is

wrong

is

;

—

:

ROT

605

an abstract thing which is independent least, as it is attainable, is marked by of human laws and regulations; daims the latter: fruit is ripe when it requires and privileges are altogether connected no more sustenance from the parent with the laws of society. liberty, in stock; a judgment is mature which rethe general sense, is an inaUenable right quires no more time and knowledge to which belongs to man as a rational and render it perfect or fitted for exercise: responsible agent; it is not a daim, for in the same manner a project may be it is set above all question and all con- said to be ripe for execution or a people dition: nor is it a privilege, for it can- ripe for revolt; and, on the contrary, not be exclusively granted to one be- reflection may be said to be mature to ing nor unconditionally be taken away which sufficiency of time has been from another. given, and age may be said to be Between right and power there is mature which has attained the highest often as wide a distinction as be- pitch of perfection. Ripeness is, howtween truth and falsehood; we have ever, not always a good quaUty; but often a right to do that which we have maturity is always a perfection: the no power to do; and the p>ower to do ripeness of some fruit diminishes the that which we have no right to do: excellence of its flavor: there are some slaves have a right to the freedom which fruits which have no flavor imtil they is enjoyed by creatures of the same come to maturity. species as themselves, but they have RISE, Issue, Emerge. To rise (see not the power to use this freedom as Arise) may either refer to open or others do. In England men have the enclosed spaces; issu^ and emerge (see power of thinking for themselves as Emergency) have both a reference to they please; but by the abuse which some confined body a thing may either they make of this power we see that rise in a body, without a body, or out in many cases they have not the right, of a body; but it issues and: emerges unless we admit the contradiction that out of a body. A thing may either men have a right to do what is wrong; rise in a plain or a wood; it issues out they have the power, therefore, of of a wood: it may either rise in water exercising this right only because no or out of the water; it emerges from the other person has the power of con- water; that which rises out of a thing trolling them. We have often a daim comes into view by becoming higher: to a thing which is not in our power to in this manner an air balloon might substantiate; and, on the other hand, rise out of a wood; that which issues daims are set up in cases which are comes from the very depths of a thing, totally unfounded on any right. Privi- and, as it were, eomes out as a part leges are rights granted to individuals, of it; but that which emeiges proceeds depending either upon the will of the from the thing in which it has been, :

grantor, or the circumstances of the receiver, or both; privileges are therefore partial rights transferable at the discretion of persons individually or collectively.

RIGHTEOUS.

Hence, in the it were, concealed. moral application, a person is said to rise in life without a reference to his former condition; but he emerges from obscurity: color rises in the face; but words issue from the mouth. See also Origin. RISK. See Hazard. RITE. See Form. ROAD. See Route. ROAM. See Wander. ROBBERY. See Depredation. ROBUST. See Strong. ROLL. See List. ROMANCE. See Fable. ROOM. See Space. as

See Godly. See Ascetic; Austere. RIGOROUS. See Austere; Harsh. RIM. See Border. RIND. See Skin. RIPE, Mature. Ripe is the English (from Anglo-Saxon ripe, fit for reaping), mature the Latin word: the former has a universal apphcation both proper and improper; the latter has mostly an improper apphcation. ROT, Putrefy', Corrupt. The disThe idea of completion in growth is simply designated by the former term; solution of bodies by an internal procthe idea of moral p^ection, as far, at ess is implied by all these terms: but

RIGID.

ROUGH

606

the first two are applied to natural bodies only; the last to aU bodies, natural and moral. Rot is the strongest of all these terms; it denotes the last stage in the progress of dissolution putrefy (the modern variant of putrefy, based on putrid) expresses the progress toward rottenness; and corruption the commencement. After fruit has arrived at its maturity or proper state of ripeness it rots: meat which is kept too long putrefies: there is a tendency in all bodies to corruption; iron and wood corrupt with time; whatever is made, or done, or wished by men is equally liable to be corrupt or to grow corrupt. ROUGH. See Abrupt; Harsh. ROUND. See Circuit.

beaten track: an armj' or a company go a certain route, foot-passengers are seen to take a certain course over fields: course often implies circular completion, as, the sun runs its course. ROVE. See Wander. ROYAL, Regal, Kingly. Royal and regal, both from the adjective regalis, based on Latin rex, a king, though of foreign origin, have obtained more general apphcation than the corresponding Enghsh term kingly. Royal signifies belonging to a king, in

most general sense; regal signifi.es appertaining to a king, in its particular application; kingly signifies properly Uke a king. A royal carriage, a royal residence, a royal couple, a royal salute, ROUNDNESS, Rotundity. Round- royal authority, all designate the general ness and rotundity both come from the and ordinary appurtenances to a king: Latin rotundus and rota, a wheel, which regal government, regal state, regal is a perfectly round body the former power, regal dignity, denote the peculterm is. however, applied to all objects iar properties of a king: kingly always in general the latter only to solid bodies imphes what is becoming a king, or which are round in all directions: one after the manner of a king; a kingly speaks of the roundness of a circle, the crown is such as a king ought to wear; roundness of the moon, the roundness a kingly mien that which is after the of a tree; but the rotundity of a man's manner of a king. its

:

;

RUB, Chafe, Fret, Gall. body which projects in a round form in all directions, and the rotundity of a Middle English ruhhen, is of full

cheek or the rotundity of a turnip.

ROUSE. See Awaken. ROUSING. See Electric. ROUT. See Beat.

ROUTE, Road, Course. Route comes through the French from the adjective of the Latin phrase, via rupta, or "broken road." Road comes from the Anglo-Saxon ridan, to ride, signifj'ing the place where one rides, as course, from the Latin cursus (see Course), signifies the place where one walks or runs. Route is to road as the species to the genus: a route is a circular kind of road; it is chosen as the circuitous direction toward a certain point, and may consist of more than one road successively: the road may be either in a direct or indirect line; the route is always indirect: the route is chosen only by horsemen or those who go to a considerable distance, as those who choose the ^^ route to India"; the road may be chosen for the shortest distance; the route and road are pursued in their beaten and frequented track; the course is often chosen in the un-

Rub, Celtic

origin; it is not allied to German reiben, from which rive is taken; it is the

generic term, expressing simply the act of bodies moving in contact with and against others; to chafe (from Old French chaufer, from Low Latin calefcare, a late form of the classical calfacere, to make hot) signifies to rub a thing until it is heated to fret comes from Anglo-Saxon fretan, compounded of for, intensive prefix, and etan, meaning to eat away; to gall is a different word from the noun gall, and corre:

sponds

probably

to

—

Latin

galla,

a

gall-nut, oak-apple hence a tumor, a skin affection; hence to rub or itch. Things are rubbed sometimes for purposes of convenience; but they are chafed, fretted, and galled injuriously: the skin is liable to chafe from any violence; leather will fret from the motion of a carriage; when the skin is once broken animals will become galled by a continuance of the friction. These terms are likewise used in the moral sense, to denote the actions of things on the mind, where the distinction is clearly

kept up:

we meet with

rubs from the

RURAL

607

opposing sentiments of others; the similarly derived from frangere, to angry humors are chafed; the mind is break, denote different kinds of breakfretted and made sore by the frequent ing, according to the objects to which repetition of small troubles and vexa^ the action is appUed. Soft substances tions; pride is galled by humiliations may suffer a rupture; as the rupture and severe degradations; of a blood-vessel; hard substances a RUDE. See Impertinent. fracture, as the fracture of a bone. RUDIMENTARY. See Element- Fraction is used only in respect to ary. broken numbers) as the fraction of a RUEFUL. See Piteous. unit. RUGGED. See Abrupt. Rupture is also used in an improper RUIN. See Bane; Destruction; appUcation; as the rupture of a treaty. Fall. RURAL, Rustic. Although both RULE. See Govern; Guide; these terms, from the Latin rus,

Maxim; Order.

RULING.

See Prevailing.

RUMMAGE, Ransack. These two words both signify to look for something. Rummage, compounded of French suffix age and Dutch ruim, a ship's hold, alhed to room. It meant to stow away and then to search among things stowed away. Ransack comes from Scandinavian rann, a house, and a root allied to seek, signifying to search a house thoroughly and carry

sak,

away. Ransack signifies a thorough rummaging. The difference between the two words is mainly one of degree.

RUMOR.

See Fame.

RUPTURE,

Fracture, Fraction.

Rupture, from ruptura, the feminine of the future participle of rumpere, to break or burst, ana fracture or fraction,

country, signify belonging to the country, yet the former, from the genitive stem ruris, is used in a good, and the latter in a bad or an mdifferent, sense. Rural appUes to all country objects except man; it is, therefore, always connected with the charms of nature: rustic applies only to persons or what is personal, in the coimtry, and is, therefore, always associated with the want of culture. Rural scenery is always interesting; but the rustic manners of the peasants have frequentlv too much that is uncultivated and. rude in them to be agreeable; a rural habitation may; be fitted for persons in a higher station; but a rustic cottage is adapted only for the poorer inhabitants of the country.

See also Countryman.

SABBATH

608

SABBATH,

Sunday.

Sabbath, from the rest,

Hebrew

The

term

shabbdih, to

through French snbbat, impUes a

sacred day of rest from customary occupations, the institution of which, under the name of the seventh day, is first mentioned in Genesis 11:2-3. Always in the Gospels and as a rule in the other books, Sabbath means the seventh day of the week. Distinctions between the Sabbath

and Sunday were

of individuals. An unscrupulous lawyer may despoil a widow of the property But sack is applied left to her, etc. specifically to the treatment of captured territory in warfare. See also Rapine;

Ravage.

SACRAMENT.

See

Lord's-Sup-

PER.

SACRED. See Holt. SACRILEGIOUS, Irreverent, Desecrating.

Sacrilegious,

from Latin

sacrilegium (based on the crude stem sharply drawn, the Sabbaih being con- sacri and legere, to gather up and steal sidered a purely Jewish term, and sacred things), the robbing of a temSunday, otherwise called the Lord's ple, is a much more positive word Day, a Christian one; but most of the than irreverent, which simply means old contentions were long ago aban- not reverent (for the derivation see doned. The elder DisraeU is author- Adore) but it is a less positive word ity for the statement that the term than desecrating, from Latin de, not, Sabbath meant Saturday in the Middle and sacer, sacred, which means deAges, and that it was first used in priving of sacredness, and has a England for Sunday in 1554. more extended apphcation. Sacrilegious Both Jews and Christians observe means positively irreverent, implying the seventh day of the week, but from a an irreverence that reveals itself in a difFei*ent start, the former recognizing distinct speech or act which shows a Saturday as their Sabbath and the latter lack of regard for things held holy. the following day as their Sunday. Desecrating means not merely a positive SACK, Despoil, Devastate. Sack, expression of the disregard for things in French sac, waste or ruin, may be sacred, but an expression of such derived from Latin saccus, a bag or violence that it destroys the sacred sack for carrying away things. Despoil character. Irreverent applies to an atcomes from Latin spoliare, based on titude of mind, sacrilegious to manner spolium, a skin stripped off, referring and speech, desecrating to action, to the dress of a dead warrior. Dev- though these distinctions are not astate, from devastate, based on Latin clearly observed. (Sacrilegious is often vastus, signifying large, empty space, mispronounced, even by educated permeans to lay waste. Sack is a strong- sons, as sacrilegious.) See also Irreer word than despoil. It means ligious. to go through a conquered territory SAD. See Dull; Mournful. and carry off everything of value. SAFE, Secure. Safe, in Latin salDespoil means to strip off something vus, to be tranquil, ur plies exemption valuable, but it does not imply such from harm or the danger of harm; thorough and wholesale destruction. secure (see Certain) the exemption Devastate means literally to lay waste, from danger: a person may be safe or and refers not merelv to the carrying saved in the midst of a fire, if he be away of valuables, but to the utter untouched by the fire but he is, in such destruction of everything. may a case, the reverse of secure. In the speak of a city devastated by fire, or a sense of exemption from danger, safety coimtry devastated by storm so that expresses much less than security: we the word has a wider application than may be safe without using any particusack and does not refer merely to war- lar measures; but none can reckon on fare. Despoil may refer to the action any degree of security without great at one time very

;

;

We

—

SALUTE

609

precaution a person may be very safe person's character and principles: reaon the top of a coach in the daytime; son and end are appUed to things only: but if he wishes to secure himself, at we speak of the reason as the thing night, from falling off, he must be that justifies: we explain why we do a thing when we say we do it for this or SAFE-CONDUCT. See Pass. that reason; we speak of the end by way SAFEGUARD. See Pass. of explaining the nature of the thing: SAGACIOUS. See Sage. the propriety of a measure cannot he SAGACITY. See Penetration. known unless we know what end it will SAGE, Sagacious, Sapient. Sage answer. and sagacious come from different SALARY. See Allowance. Latin words, despite their similarity of SALIENT, Outstanding. Both of form and meaning, sage being derived these words indicate that which is a ultimately from Latin sapere, to be noticeable or prominent feature of wise; sagacious from sagax, connected something. Ouislanding is really just with sagire, to perceive by the senses. an English translation of salient, from Sapient is derived from the present Latin salire, to leap, hence to stand out; participle of sapere. and the difference between them is The first of these terms has a good mainly the difference usually found sense, in application to men, to denote between words of English and Latin the faculty of discerning immediately, derivation. Outstanding suggests the which is the fruit of exp>erience, and picture more clearly. The outstanding very similar to that sagacity in aniinals feature of an occurrence is that which which instinctively perceives a thing strikes the attention most vividly, without the deductions of reason; sa- which stands out from the rest. Salient pient is now employed only in regard does not so clearly suggest the image, to animals which are trained to par- but it is a somewhat more pohshed ticular arts; its use, therefore, in re- word. SALLY, Issue. Sally, from Latin spect to human beings, is mostly in salire, to leap, is a particular kind of the lofty or burlesque style. SAILOR. See Seaman. issuing. (For issue see Arise.) It SAINTLY. See Holy. referred to the going forth of a detachSAINT-SIMONIANISM. See So- ment of soldiers from a besieged place to attack the besiegers. Issue means, cialism. :

SAKE, Account, Reason, Purpose. End.

These terms are all employed adverbially, to modify or connect propositions; hence one says, for his sake, on his account, for this reason, for this purpose, and to this end. Sake, from Anglo-Saxon sacu, strife, a side in a strife, hence a cause, is mostly said of person:^; what is done for a person's sake is the same as in behalf of his cause; one may, however, say in regard to things, for the sake of good order, implying what good order requires: account is indifferently employed for persons or things; what is done on a person's account is done in his behalf

and

for his interest;

what

is

done on

account of indisposition is done in consequence of it, the indisposition being the cause: purpose is properly personal and refers to that which a person purposes to himself; if we ask, therefore, for what purpose a thing is done, it may be to know something of some other

39

in general, to go forth. Sally means to go forth \fith a certain spirit and gallantry, with an attitude of ad-

Snlly is apphed figuventurousness. ratively to a humorous thrust, a witticism or jest; in this sense it is used mainly as a noim. Here, too, it keeps its fundamental implication of a spirited

and unexpected attack.

SALUBRIOUS. See Healthy. SALUTARY. See Healthy. SALUTE, Salutation, Greeting. Salute (see Accost) concerns the thing; and salutation, which is a variation of salute, the person giving the salute: a salute may consist either of a word or an action; salutations pass from one friend to another: the salute may be either direct or indirect; the salutation is a.\wa,ys direct and personal; guns are fired by way of a salute: bows are given as a salutation. The salutation is a familiar and ordinary form of courtesy between individ-

SALVATION

610

greeting is frequently a particof salutation adopted on extraordinary occasions, indicative of great joy or satisfaction in those who uals;

ular

mode

greet.

SALVATION, Deliverance, Preservation, Saving, Redemption, ResSalvation, in French salvation, cue. from Latin salvationem, from salvus, whole, has both a physical and a moral application. In the physical appUcation we seek or receive deliverance from impending or present peril from some power beyond our own. We gain preservation from something destructive by some act of our own or of others, and we may be the subject or object of a rescue from danger, restraint, or violence. In the moral application we are taught that salvation is the spiritual deliverance from sin and death, through the saving mercy of Jesus Christ, who offered himself as a ransom for mankind, his death being the final act of man's redemption', or the releasing and setting free of all hving in sin. SANATIVE. See Sanitary. SANATORY. See Sanitary. SANCTIFY, Cleanse, Consecrate, Devote, Hallow, Purify. Sanctify, in French sanctifier, from Latin sanctificere, compound of sanctus, holy, and a weakened form of facere, to make, signifies literally to make holy or sacred, and apphes both to persons and objects of a rehgious character. In the personal application, to sanctify is to make holy, to have one's heart and fife made to conform to the wiU of God. Prior to this act comes that to cleanse or purify from sin, to convert from a former state, to regenerate or make anew. To consecrate is to set a person or object apart from that which is ordinary This is done for some sacred purpose. by others, as the consecration of a relig-

SANCTITY. See Holiness. SANE. See Sound.

SANGUINARY,

Bloody, Blood-

Sanguinary, from sanguis, is employed both in the sense of bloody, or having blood, and bloody thirsty, or thirsting after blood; sanguinary, in the first case, relates only to blood shed, as a sanguinary engagement or a sanguinary conflict; bloody is used in the familiar appMcation, to denote the simple presence of blood, as a bloody coat or a bloody sword. In the second case, sanguinary is employed to characterize the tempers of persons only; bloodthirsty to characterize the tempers of persons to any other thirsty.

beings: revolutionists will be frequently sanguinary, because they are abandoned to their passions and follow a lawless course of violence: tigers are by natvu-e the most bloodthirsty of all creatures.

SANGUINE, Ardent, Buoyant, Cheerful, Confident, Elated, EnSanthusiastic, Hopeful, Warm. guine, from the Latin sanguis, meaning blood. One who aboimds in blood is said to have a sanguine temperament, and that gives birth to the conditions

indicated by the other terms. The ardent person is warm, glowing, passionate, eager, and zealous; the buoyant one is in a state of mental uplift and is seldom depressed; the cheerfxd one is abounding in good spirits, is happy himself, and strives to make others happy; the confident one feels assured of his own power and future; the elated one is exultant, apt to be excitable, and is easily raised in spirits. Enthusiastic persons are generally ardent, frequently visionary, sometimes fanatical, and always zealous in their undertakings. Hopefvl ones always look on the bright side of things, see the silver fining of clouds, and are ious edifice or some part thereof, and full of anticipation, expectation, and the consecration of a person to the call- trust; warm ones are full of zeal, ardor, affection, and welcome, and are apt to ing of the ministry. To devote one's self to a sacred pur- be easily irritated. pose is the act of the individual, to See also Optimistic. SANITARY, Sanatory. Sanitary, devote an object is for one or others to give or apply it. To hallow a place or in French sanitaire, a coined word from object is to consecrate or set it apart Latin sanitc^s, sanity, and sanatory, exfor a sacred purpose. tended from sanator, a healer (hence SANCTION. See Countenance; sanatorium), are terms commonly used indiscriminately, but having different Uphold.

SATURNALIA applications.

Sanitary specifically

sig-

something pertaining to health, sanatory something conducive to health. Whatever is conducive to health, such as curing or healing applications or treatment, is sanatory; whatever pertains to or is connected with the nifies

611

Eerson, but does not please him when e is not hungry; social enjoyments please, but they are very far from satisfying those who do not restrict their indulgences. To gratify is to please in a high degree, to produce keen pleasure: we may be pleased with trifles, but we are commonly gratified with such things as act strongly either on the senses or the affections: an epicure is gratified with those delicacies which suit his taste; an amateur in

preservation of health is sanitary. Allied to these terms are sanitation, or the system of promoting healthful reforms, and sanitarium or sanatorium, a resort for hygienic, restful, or curative treatment. music will be gratified by hearing a SAP, Undermine. Sap, Anglo- piece of Handel's composition finely Saxon seep, signifies the juice which performed. springs from the root of a tree; but See also Compensation. sap, in the sense of undermine, is probSatisfy, Satiate, Glvi, Cloy. To satably derived from Latin sappa, a spade isfy is to make enough satiate is a freor mattock; hence signifies to come at quentative, formed similarly from satis, the root of anything by digging: to un^ enough, but simifying to have more dermine signifies to form a mine under than enough. Glut, in Latin glutire, althe groimd or imder whatever is upon lied to guia, the throat, signifies to take the ground we may sap, therefore, with- down the throat. Satisfaction brings out undermining; and undermine with- pleasure; it is what nature demands; out sapping: we may sap the founda- and nature, therefore, makes a suitable tion of a house without making any return satiety, meaning that which exmine underneath; and in fortifications ceeds the desire, is attended with diswe may undermine either a mound, a gust; glutting is an act of intemperance; ditch, or a wall without striking im- it is what the inordinate appetite demediately at the foimdation: hence, mands; it greatly exceeds the former in in the moral application, to sap is a degree both of the cause and the consemore direct and decisive mode of quence: cloying is the consequence of destruction; to undermine is a gradual, glutting. Every healthy person satisfies and may be a partial, action. Infidelity himself with a regular portion of food; saps the morals of a nation; courtiers children, if unrestrained, seek to satiate undermine one another's interests at their appetites, and cloy themselves by their excesses; brutes, or men sunk to court. the level of brutes, glut themselves with SAPIENT. See Sage. that which is agreeable to their appeSARCASM. See Ridicule. tites. So, in the moral application, we SARCASTIC. See Trenchant. satisfy desires in general or any particSATANIC. See Diabolic. ular desire; we satiate the appetite for SATIATE. See Satisfy. pleasure; one gluts the eyes or the ears SATIRE. See Ridicule; Wit. SATISFACTION. See Compensa- by anything that is horrible or painful or cloys the mind. tion; Contentment.

—

:

:

:

.

SATURNALIA, Carnival, Orgies. SATISFY, Please, Gratify. To (see Contentment) is rather These words all indicate particular

satisfy

and hence, by extension, unrestrained license and riotous selfindulgence. Sntumalia, in Latin the neuter plural of satiimali.t, pertaining to sire is accompanied by more or less Saturn, was an ancient Roman festival pain, satisfaction, which is the removal in honor of the god Saturn, in which of desire, is itself to a certain extent all classes, including slaves, took part. pleasure; but what satisfies is not al- It was celebrated in December and ways calculated to please; nor is that was regarded as a period of unrestrained which pleases that which will always license. Carnival (not, as commonly misunsatisfy: plain food satisfies a hungry

produce pleasure indirectly; to please (see Agreeable) is to produce it directly: the former is negative, the latter positive, pleasure: as every de-

to

festivals,

SAUCY

612

derstood, from Italian came, vale! or may be preserved from infection or "Farewell, oh flesh! nor, as Lord Byron protected from an attack. To save may tried to explain it, 'Farewell to flesh' ") be the effect of accident or design; to is derived from Latin camis, flesh, and spare is always the effect of intentional Latin levare, to lift, remove, take away, forbearance; to preserve and protect are and is the festival immediately preced- the effect of a special exertion of power, ing Lent in Italy, celebrating the begin- the latter in a still higher degree than ning of fleshless and fasting days by a the former: we may be preserved, by riot of self-indulgence. Orgy, Latin ordinary means, from the evils of orgia, from Greek opyia, secret rites, human life; but we are protected by refers to the secret festivals in honor of the government or by Divine ProviBacchus, the god of wine, celebrated dence from the active attacks of those by extravagant revels; the word is who aim to do us harm. usually employed in the plural orgies. To spare and protect refer mostly to In the figurative application of these personal injuries; save and preserve are words there is little difference. All in- said of whatever one keeps from injury dicate unrestrained riot; but there is on account of its value; as to save one s more of harmless gayety in carnival, good name, to preserve one's honor. perhaps, and more of extravagance, See also Deliver; Keep. violence, and shamelessness in orgies. SAVING. See Economical; Sal-

SAUCY.

See Impertinent.

vation.

SAUNTER. See Linger. SAVAGE. See Cruel; Ferocious. SAVE, Spare, Preserve, Protect. To save is to keep or make safe. Spare comes from Anglo-Saxon spcer. Precompounded of proe, before, and servare, keep (cf. German hiiten serve,

.

.

.

SAVOR. See Taste. SAW. See Axiom. SAY.

See Speak. See Axiom. See Arise. SCANDAL. See Discredit. SCANDALOUS. See Infamous. SCANTY. See Bare. SCARCE. See Rare. SCARCELY. See Hardly.

SAYING. SCALE.

VOR.), signifies to keep away from. Protect (see Defend). The idea of keeping free from evil is the common idea of aU these terms, SCARCITY, Dearth. Scarcity (see and the pecuUar signification of the Rare) is a generic term to denote the term save; they differ either in the circumstance of a thing being scarce. nature of the evil kept off or the cir- Dearth, which is the same as deamess cimistances of the agent: we may be (Middle EngUsh derthe, formed from saved from every kind of evil; but we the adjective as warmth, health, wealth are spared only from those which it is are formed), is a mode of scarcity apin the power of another to inflict: plied in the fiteral sense to provisions we may be saved from falling or saved mostly, as provisions are mostly dear from an illness; a criminal is spared when they are scarce; the word dearth, from punishment, or we may be spared therefore, denotes scarcity in a high deby Divine Providence in the midst of gree: whenever men want something some calamity. and find it difficult to procure, they may be saved and spared from complain of its scarcity: when a country any evils, great or small; we are pre- has the misfortune to be visited with served and protected only from evils of a famine, it experiences the frightfulest magnitude: we may be saved either of all dearths. from the inclemency of the weather or Dearth is figuratively appUed to the fatal vicissitudes of life: we may moral objects; as a dearth of intellibe spared the pain of a disagreeable gence, of talent, and the fike. meeting or we may be spared our fives; SCATHE, Damage, Harm, Inwe are preserved from ruin or protected jury, Mischief. Scathe is from a from oppression. To save and spare Teutonic root meaning to harm. These apply to evils that are actual and tem- terms apply both to the body and porary; preserve and protect to those material objects and to the individual which are possible or permanent: we mind. SCATTER. See Spread. may be saved from drowning; a person

We

SCHOLAR SCEPTICISM, Agnosticism, Athe-

SCHEMING,

613

Artful, Contriving,

ism. These words are all used to in- Designing, Intriguing, Planning. dicate a disbelief in the articles of a Scheming, in Latin schema, Greek religion, especially of the Christian (rxrif^a, form, from (ncvam, future of, religion, but they differ considerably from the verb txuv, to hold, signiin the degree and kind of unbelief fies holding in one's hands or one's that they indicate. Scepticism, from mind the plan and means of future Greek aKkirrofiai, I consider, means action. As acts of contriving, designthe disposition to doubt all things, to ing, and planning, the term may be come to no intellectual conclasion, used both in a proper or praiseworthy because of an insufficiency of evidence. sense and in an improper and repreIt has a wider apphcation than the hensible one. other two words and refers to a general These terms in the proper sense intellectual attitude in respect to all imply acts intended to result in benethings and not merely to an attitude fits to ourselves or others on material to religious questions. Agnosticism lines, in which we devise, invent, prohas a similar meaning. It was a word ject, outline, or sketch that which is coined by Huxley in a heated con- necessary to the accomplishment of troversy between the theologians of the purpose in mind. In the improper the old school and the evolutionary sense these operations may be to the scientists of the new to express his own disadvantage or injury of others. attitude that of simple open-mindedIn being artful and in intriguing we ness on the subject of all questions become cunning, crafty, engaged in concerning which he had no scientific secret and underhand plots. may evidence, especially concerning articles be artful solely, or all by ourselves, of religious faith. The doctrines of the but when we are intriguing we usually Church could not be proved, he said. need confederates, as the plot or scheme They cannot therefore be declared a in mind is generally of a more or less true gnosis a matter of intellectual complicated nature, and, as more than knowledge. Agnostic he coined by pre- one person is involved, the intriguer fixing the privative a to the Greek cannot hold all the strings in his hajads. See also Design. gnosis to signify one who refused to SCHISMATIC. See Heretic. consider statements not based, like the SCHOLAR, Disciple. Scholar (see facts of natural science, on the evidence of the senses as matters of scientific School, below) and disciple are both fact. He wished to proclaim himself applied to such as learn from others: open to correction, however, ready to but the former is said only of those examine all evidence. Agnosticism has who learn the rudiments of knowltherefore the same fundamental mean- edge; the latter of one who acquires ing as scepticism. The agnostic, like any art or science from the instructhe sceptic, says, "I will consider,' but, tion of another: the scholar is opEractically and historically, the words posed to the teacher; the disciple to ave had a different meaning. The the master: children are always scholsceptic doubts all evidence; the agnos- ars; adult persons may be disciples. the vaUdity of a certain Scholars chiefly employ themselves in tic admits kind of evidence the evidence of the the study of words; disciples, as Scepticism, as applied to re- the disciples of our Saviour, in the senses. ligion, has generally indicated positive study of things: we are the scholars of disbelief; agnosticism, the position of any one imder whose care we are Atheism, placed or from whom we learn anythe open-minded inquirer. while often confused with the other thing, good or bad we are the disciples terms, has an entirely different meaning^ only of those who are distinguished, It signifies a disbelief in the existence of and for the most part in the good sense, a God, or at least of a personal God. though not always so: children are The consistent agnostic cannot be an sometimes too apt scholars in learning Philosophers atheist, because, if he cannot prove the evil from one another. existence of a God, he is equally unable of old had their disciples, and nowadays there are many who have been exalted to prove His non-existence.

'

—

We

—

—

;

^

SCHOLASTIC

614 into that character who ciples and followers.

have

their dis-

SCHOLASTIC. See Academic. SCHOOL, Academy. The Latin

derives

its

meaning from the Uteral act

of sneering: the scoffer speaks lightly of that which deserves serious attention the sneerer speaks either actually :

a loitering-place, a with a sneer or as it were by implicaplace for desultory conversation or tion with a sneer: the scoffers at religion instruction, from the Greek ax°^V> set at naught all thoughts of decorum, leisure; hence it has been extended they openly avow the Uttle estimation to any place where instruction is given, in which they hold it; the sneerers at particularly that which is communi- reUgion are more sly; but not less maUgcated to youth. Academy derives its nant; they wish to treat reUgion with name from the Greek uKaifj^ua, the contempt, but not to bring themselves name of a gjonnasium near Athens (so into the contempt they deserve. SCOPE, See Tendency. named for the hero Academusj, where SCORN. See Contemn. the philosopher Plato first gave his SCORNFUL. See Contemptuous. lectures, and which afterward became a SCOUT. See Spy. place of resort for learned men; hence SCREAM. See Cry. societies of learned men have since SCREEN. See Cover. been termed academies. The leading SCRIBE. See Writer. idea in the word school is that of inSCRUPLE, Hesitate, Waver. To struction given and doctrine received; in the word academy is that of associa- scruple (see Conscientious) simply tion among those who have already keeps us from deciding; the terms /lesilearned: hence we speak in the Uteral tate (see Demur) and waver, from sense of the school where young per- Anglo-Saxon wcefre, restless, wandering, sons meet to be taught, cr in the ex- bespeak a fluctuating or variable state tended and moral sense of the old and of the mind. We scruple simply from new school, the Pythagorean school, motives of doubt as to the propriety of the philosophical school, and the like; a thing; we hesitate and waver from but the academy of arts or sciences, the various motives, particularly such as French Academy, being members of affect our interests. Conscience produces scruples, fear produces hesitation, any academy, and the Hke. irresolution produces wavering: a perSCIENCE. See Knowledge. SCOFF, Gibe, Jeer, Sneer. Scoff son scruples to do an action which may is from an Old Low German word hurt his neighbor or offend his Maker; which may have meant originally a he hesitates to do a thing which he fears playful shove. Gibe (also spelled jibe) may not prove advantageous to him; Jeer is a he wavers in his mind between going or is from the Scandinavian.

tema schola

signified

Sneer, Mid- staying, according as his inclinations of doubtfvd origin. impel him to the one or the other: a dle English snererij is allied to snarl. Scoffing is a general term for express- man who does not scruple to say or ing contempt; we may scoff either by do as he pleases will be an offensive gibes, jeers, or sneers; or we may scoff companion, if not a dangerous member by opprobrious language and contempt- of society: he who hesitates only when uous looks, with gibing, jeering, or the doing of good is proposed shows sneering: to gibe, jeer, and sneer are himself a worthless member of society; personal acts; the gibe and jeer consist he who wavers between his duty and of words addressed to an individual: his inclination will seldom maintain a the former has most of Hi-nature and long or doubtful contest. SCRUTINIZE. See Pry. reproach in it; the latter has more SCRUTINY. See Examination. of ridicule or satire in it; they are both, SCUM. See Dregs. however, appUed to the actions of vulSCURRILOUS. See Reproachful. gar or unseemly people who practice SEAL, Stamp. Seal is a specific, their coarse jokes on others. Scoff and sneer are directed either to stamp a general, term: there cannot be persons or things as the object; gibe a seal without a stamp; but there may and jeer only toward persons; scoff is be many stamps where there is no seal. taken only in the proper sense; sneer The seal, in Latin sigillum, the diminu-

word

SECRET tive of signum, signifies a signet or little consisting of any one's coat of arms or any device; the stamp is, in general, any impression whatever which sign,

has been made by stamping (from stamp, meaning to step heavily, Greek (TTBfx^eiv, to stamp), that is, any impression which IS not easily to be effaced. In the improper sense, the seal is the authority; thus, to set one's seal is the same as to authorize, and the seal of truth is any outward mark which characterizes it: but the stamp is the impression by which we distinguish the thing; thus a thing is said to bear the stamp of truth, of sincerity, of veracity, and the Uke. SEAMAN, Waterman, Sailor, Mariner. All these words denote persons occupied in navigation; the sea7mm, as the word implies, follows his business on the sea; the waterman is one who gets his Uvelihood on fresh water: the sailor and the mariner are both specific terms to designate the

seaman: every sailor and mariner is a seaman; although every seaman is not a sailor or mariner; the former is one who is employed about the laborious part of the vessel; the latter is one who traverses the ocean to and fro, who is attached to the water and passes his life upon it. Men of all ranks are denominated seamen, whether officers or men, whether in a merchantman or a king's ship: sailor is used only for the common men, or, in the sea phrase, for those before the mast, particularly in vessels of war; hence our sailors and soldiers are spoken of as the defenders of our country; a mariner is an independent kind of seaman who manages his own vessel and goes on an expedition on his own account; fishermen

and those who trade along the coast are in a particular manner distinguished by the name of mariners. SEARCH. See Examine; Rummage; Seek.

SEASON. See Time. SEASONABLE. See Opportune;

so

615

much

as to support:

we

second only

by our presence or our word; but we support by our influence and all the means that are in our power: we second a motion by a simple declaration of our assent to it we support a motion by the force of jjersuasions: so likewise we are said always to second a person's views when we give him openly our coimtenance by declaring our approbation of his measures; and we are said to support him when we give the ;

assistance of our purse, our influence, or any other thing essential for the attainment of an end. Second, Secondary, Inferior. Second

—

and secondary both come from the Latin secundum, changed from sequundus and sequi, to follow, signifying the order of succession the former simply expresses this order; but the latter mcludes the accessory idea of comparative demerit: a person stands second in a list, or a letter is second which immediately succeeds the first: but a consideration is secondary, or oi secorwiary importance, which is opposed to that which holds the first rank. Secondary and inferior both designate some lower degree of a quality: but secondary is applied only to the importance or value of things; inferior IS applied generally to all qualities: a man of business reckons everj-thing as secondary which does not forward the object he has in view; men of inferior abilities are disqualified by nature for high and important stations, although they may be more fitted for lower stations than those of greater :

abilities.

SECRECY. See Concealment. SECRET, Hidden, Latent, Occult, Mysterious. What is secret (see Clandestine) is so far removed as to be out of observation; what is hidden (see Conceal) is so covered over as to be altogether concealed: as a comer may be secret; a hole underground is hidden.

What

is secret is known to some one; hidden may be known to no one: it rests in the breast of an individual SECEDE. See Recede. to keep a thing secret; it depends on SECLUSION. See Privacy. SECOND, Support. To second is to the course of things if anything remains give the assistance of a second p>erson; hidden: everv man has more or less of to support is to bear up on one's own that which he wishes to keep secret; shoulders. To second does not express the talent of many lies hidden for

Timely.

what

is

SECRET AGENT

616

want

of opportunity to bring it into many treasures lie hidden in the earth for want of being dissecret covered and brought to light. exercise, as

A

may

concern only the individual or individuals who hold it, and those from whom it is kept; but that which is hidden may concern all the world: sometimes the success of a transaction depends upon its being kept secret; the stores of knowledge which yet remain hidden may be much greater than those which have been laid open. The latent, from the stem of Latin latens, lying hid, is the secret or concealed in cases where it ought to be open a latent motive is that which a person intentionally, though not justifiably, keeps to himself; the latent cause for any proceeding is that which is not revealed. Occult, in Latin occultus, participle :

of occulere,

compounded

the stem found

of oh, over, and in celare, to hide, sig-

nifying that which is covered over; and mysterious (see Dark) are species of the hidden: the former connotes that which has a veil naturally thrown over it; the latter that mostly which is covered with a supernatural veil: an occult science is one that is hidden from the view of persons in general, which is attainable but by few; occult causes or quaUties are those which lie too remote to be discovered by the inquirer: the operations of Providence are said to be mysterious, as they are altogether past our finding out; many points of doctrine in our reHgion are equally mysterious, as connected with and dependent upon the attributes of the Deity. AGENT. See Spy.

SECRET

SECRETE. See Conceal. SECTARIAN. See Heretic. SECULAR, Temporal, Worldly. Secular, in Latin scecularis, from soeculum, an age or division of time, signifies

belonging to time or this fife. TempoLatin temporalis, from tempus, time, signifies lasting only for a time. Worldly signifies after the manner of the world (from Anglo-Saxon weoruld,

ral, in

which is compoimded of wer, a man, and eld, an age, signifying the age of a man, a man's life, the scene of a man's life).

Secular is opposed to ecclesiastical; temporal and worldly are opposed to

The idea of the world or the outward objects and pursuits of the world, in distinction from that which is set above the world, is implied in common by all the terms; but secular is an indifferent term, applicable to the legitimate pursuits and concerns of men; temporal is used either in an indifferent or a bad sense; and worldly mostly in a bad sense, as contrasted with things of more value. spiritual or eternal.

The

a clergyman is ecclesiastibut that of a school-master is secular, which is frequently vested in the same hands; the Upper House of office of

cal,

ParUament consi-sts of lords spiritual and temporal; worldly interest has a more powerful sway over the minds of the great bulk of mankind than their spiritual interests.

SECURE. See Certain; Preparedness; Safe. SECURITY. See Deposit; Fence; Guarantee.

SEDATE. See Composed. SEDIMENT. See Dregs. SEDITION. See Insurrection. SEDITIOUS.

See Factious;

Tu-

multuous.

SEDUCE. See Allure. SEDULOUS, Diligent, Assiduous. The

idea of application is expressed by these epithets; but sedulous, from the Latin sedulus, probably from sedere, to sit (the etymology se, apart, and dolus, guile, free from guile, working honestly, is

an error), Active)

(see

is is

a particular, diligent a general, term: one

sedulous by habit; one is diligent habitually or occasionally: a sedulous scholar pursues his studies with regular and close appUcation; a scholar may be diligent at a certain period, though not invariably so. One is sedulous from a conviction of the importance of the thing; one may be diligent by fits and starts, according to the humor of the moment. Assidu/)us (Latin ad, near, and sedere, to sit) and sedulous both express the quahty of sitting or sticking close to a thing, but the former may, like diligent, be employed on a partial occasion; the latter is always permanent: we may be assiduous in our attentions to a person but we are sedulous in the important concerns of life. Sedulous peculiarly concerns the quiet employis

either

;

SEEM

617

ments of life, but may be applied to purely mental; perceive and observe any pursuit requiring persevering at- are apphed to such objects as are seen tention; a teacher may be entitled by the senses as well as the mind. We diligent implies the active see the light with our eyes, or we see employments: one is diligent at work: the truth of a proposition with our as^uity holds a middle rank; it may mind's eyes; but we perceive the difbe employed equally for that which ference of climate, or we perceive the seditious:

requires active exertion or otherwise: we may be assiduous in the pursuits of

difference in the comfort of our situar tion; we observe the motions of the heavenly bodies. See also Look.

literature, or we may be assiduous in our attendance upon a person or the performance of any office. SEED. See Germ. SEE, Perceive, Observe. See, SEEK, Search. To seek and search Anglo-Saxon sedn, may be either a (see Examine) are both employed voluntary or involuntary action: per- in the sense of looking after something ceive, through French from the Latin that is not in sight: seek applies to percipere, based on per, thoroughly, that which is near at hand and easily and a weakened form of capere, to found; search, to that which is remote, take into the mind, is always a vol- hidden, or not to be found without difuntary action; and observe (see No- ficulty to search, therefore, is properly tice) is an intentional action. The to seek laboriously; we seek a person eye sees when the mind is absent; by simply going to the place where he the mind and the eye or other senses is supposed to be; search is made from perceive in conjimction: hence, we may place to place when it is not known say that a person sees, but does not per- where he is: a school-boy seeks birds' ceive: we observe not merely by a simple nests; the botanist searches for plants. act of the mind, but by its positive and These terms may also be applied to fixed exertion. We see a thing without moral objects with the same distincknowing what it is; we perceive a thing, tion: as to seek peace, knowledge; to and know what it is, but the impression search the thoughts, to search into passes away; we observe a thing, and mysteries. afterward retrace the image of it in SEEM, Appear. The idea of comour mind. We see a star when the eye ing to the view is expressed by both is directed toward it; we perceive it these terms; but the word seem rises move if we look at it attentively; we upon that of appear. Seem, from observe its position in different parts of Ajiglo-Saxon seman, to satisfy, conthe heavens. The blind cannot see, the ciliate, signifies Uterally to appear like, absent cannot perceive, the dull cannot and is therefore a species of appearance; observe. Seeing, as a corporeal action, appear, from the Latin ad, to, and is the act only of the eye; perceiving parere, to come in sight, signifies to be and observing are actions in which all present or before the eye. Every obthe senses are concerned. We see ject may appear; but nothing seems, colors, we perceive the state of the at- except that which the mind admits to mosphere and observe its changes. appear in any given form. To seem Seeing sometimes extends further in requires some reflection and compariits application to the mind's operations, son of objects in the mind one with in which it has an indefinite sense; but another; it is, therefore, pecuharly apperceive and observe have both a definite f>licable to matters that may be diferent from what they appear, or of an sense; we may see a thing distinctly and clearly or otherwise; we perceive indeterminate kind: that the sun seems it always with a certain degree of dis- to move is a conclusion which we draw tinctness, and observe it with a positive from the exercise of our senses and degree of minuteness: we see the truth comparing this case with others of a of a remark; wt perceive the force of an similar nature; it is only by a further objection; we observe the reluctance of research into the operation of nature a person. It is further to be remarked, that we discover this to be no conclusive however, that, when see expresses a proof of its motion. To appear, on the mental operation, it expresses what is contrary, is the express act of thiags :

SEEMLY

618

on us; it is, peculiarly applicable to such objects make an impression on us: to appear as the is the same as to present itself: stars appear in the firmament, but we themselves

therefore,

do not say that they seem;

the sun appears dark through the clouds. They are equally appHcable to moral as well as natiu-al objects with the

a vicious habit of the mind which superinduced on the original charit is that which determines in matters of judgment: a self-willed person thinks nothing of right or wrong; whatever the impulse of the moment suggests is the motive to action: the self-conceited person is always much concerned about right and wrong, but it is only that which he conceives to be right and wrong; self-suffix^iency is a is is

acter;

above-mentioned distinction. Seem is said of that which is dubious, contingent, or future; appear, of that which species of self-con,ceit appUed to action: is actual, positive, and past. A thing as a self-conceited person thinks of no seems strange which we are led to con- opinion but his own; a self-sufficient clude as strange from what we see person refuses the assistance of every of it: a thing appears clear when we one in whatever he is called upon have a clear conception of it: a plan to do. seems practicable or impracticable; an SEMBLANCE. See Show. author appeals to understand his subSENIOR, Elder, Older. These are ject or the contrary. It seems as if all comparatives expressive of the same aU efforts to reform the bulk of man- quality, and differ, therefore, less in kind will be found inefficient; it ap- sense than in apphcation. Senior is pears, from the long catalogue of vices employed not only in regard to the which are still very prevalent, that extent of age, but also to duration little progress has hitherto been made either in office or any given situation: in the work of reformation. elder is employed only in regard to SEEMLY. See Becoming. age: an oflBcer in the army is a senior SEGREGATE, Separate. Segregate by virtue of having served longer than and separate both mean to divide from another; a boy is a senior in a school something, to set apart.

But

segregate,

from Latin se, meaning apart, away, and gregare, from gregem, accusative, meaning flock, herd, signifies to set apart in a group by itself. It means not merely to separate (see Separate) but, after separation, to keep in a separate group. It is therefore a word of more specific meaning and narrower apphcation.

SEIZE.

See Nab.

either by virtue of his age, his standing in the school, or his situation in the class; when, therefore, age alone is to be expressed, elder is more suitable than senior; the elder children or the elder branches of a family are clearly imderstood to include those who have

priority of age.

Senior and elder are both employed as substantives, older only as an adjective:

hence we speak of the seniors in a

SEIZURE. See Capture. school, or the elders in an assembly; SELECT. See Segregate. but an older inhabitant, an older family. SELF-CONCEIT. See Self-will. Elder has only a partial use; older is SELFISH. See Greedy. employed in general cases: in speakSELF-WILL, Self-conceit, Self- ing of children in the same family we sufficiency. Self-mil signifies the may say the elder son is heir to the will in one's self: self-conceit, conceit of one's self: self-s^ifficiency, sufficiency in

estate; he is older ten years.

than his brother by

self. As characteristics they come SENSATION. See Feeling; Senvery near to each other, but that dis- timent. SENSE, Judgment. Sense (see position of the will which refuses to submit to every control either within Feeling) signifies in general the or without is bom with a person, and faculty of feehng corporeally or per-

one's

among the

earhest indications of ceiving mentally; in the latter case in some it is less predomi- it is synonymous with judgment, which nant than in others, but, if not early is a special operation of the mind. checked, it is that defect in our natures The sense is that primitive portion of which will always prevail; self-conceit the understanding which renders an

is

character;

SENSE

619

account of things; and the judgment The words sense and judgment are that portion of the reason which selects frequently employed without any epior rejects from this account. The thets to denote a positively large share sense is, so to speak, the reporter which of these faculties. collects the details and exposes the As epithets, sensible and judicious facts; the judgment is the judge that both denote the possession of these passes sentence upon them. Accord- faculties in a high degree, but in their mg to the strict import of the terms, application they are distinguished aa the judgment depends upon the sense, above. A writer or a speaker is said and varies with it in degree. He to be sensible; a friend, or an adviser, who has no sense has no judgment; and to be judicums. Sense displays itself he who loses sense loses judgment: in the conversation or the communicasince sense suppUes the knowledge of tion of one's ideas; judgment in the things, and judgment pronounces upon propriety of one's actions. A sensible them, it is evident that there must be man may be an entertaining compansense before there can be judgment. ion, but a judicious man in any post of On the other hand, sense may be so command is an inestimable treasure. distinguished from judgment that there Sensible remarks are always calcumay be sense without judgment, and lated to please and interest sensible judgment without sense: sense is the people; judicious measures have a faculty of perceiving in general; it is sterling value in themselves that is apappUed to abstract science as well as preciated according to the importance general knowledge: judgment is the of the object. Hence it is obvious that faculty of determining, that is, of to be sensible is a desirable thing, but determining mostly in matters of prac- to be judicious is an indispensable reqtice. By sense the mind perceives by uisite in those who have to act a part. an immediate act, by the judgment it See also Signification. arrives at conclusions by a process. Sensible, Sensitive, Sentient. All It is the lot of many, therefore, to these epithets, which are derived from have sense in matters of theory who the same source, have obviously a have no judgment in matters of prac- great sameness of meaning, though not tice; while others, on the contrary, of application. Sensible and sensitive who have nothing above common sense both denote the capacity of being will have a soundness of judgment moved to feeUng: sentient implies the that is not to be surpassed. Nay, very act of feeling. Sensible expresses further, it is possible for a man to have either a habit of the body and mind good sense and yet not solid judgment: or only a particular state referring to as they are both natural faculties, some particular object: a person may men are gifted with them as variously be sensible of things in general, or senBy good sible of cold, sensible of injuries, senas with every other faculty. sense a man is enabled to discern, as sible of the kindnesses which he has

—

Sensiwere, intuitively, that which requires received from an individual. another of less sense to ponder over and tive signifies always an habitual or study; by sohd judgment a man is permanent Quality; it is the charenabled to avoid those errors in con- acteristic of ODJects a sensitive creature duct which one of weak judgment is implies one whose sense is quickly to always faUing into. There is, how- be acted upon; a sensitive plant is a ever, this distinction between sense peculiar species of plants, marked for and judgment, that the deficiencies of the property of having sense or being the former may be supplied by dili- sensible of the touch. Sensible and sensitive have always a gence and attention; but a defect in the latter is not so easily to be sup- reference to external objects; but senA man tient expresses simply the possession of plied by efforts of one's own. may improve his sense in proportion as feeling or the power of feeling, and exhe has the means of information; but cludes the idea of the cause. Hence, the judgment once matured rarely the terms sensible and sensitive are apmakes any advances toward improve- plied only to persons or corporeal objects: but sentient, which conveys the ment afterward. it

:

^

SENSIBILITY

620

most abstract meaning, is applicable Opinion). Proposition (see Propoto men and spirits; sentient beings, sal). Period, in Latin periodus, Greek taken absolutely, may include angels irepioSog, from irepi, about, and uSog, as well as men; it is restricted in its way, signifies the circuit or round of meaning by the context only. words which renders the sense comSensible, Perceptible. These epithets plete. Phrase, from the Greek oints; or, in the second case, by the use of stronger expressions or epithets. The strain or accent may be employed to designate the tone or manner in which we express ourselves, that is, the spirit of our discourse: in familiar language, we talk of a person's proceeding in a strain of panegyric or of censure; but, in poetry, persons are said to pour forth theu" complaints of love in tender accents.

STRETCH. STRICT,

See Extend.

Severe.

Strict,

from

bound or

confined, characterizes the thing which binds or keeps in control: severe (see Austere) characterizes in the proper sense the disposition of the person to inflict pain, and in an extended appUcation the

stricttis,

pam. The term taken always in the good sense; severe is good or bad, according to circumstances: he who has authority over others must be strict in enforcing obedience, in keeping good order, and in requiring a proper attention to their duties; but it is possible to be very severe in punishing those who are under us and yet very lax in all matters that our duty demands of us. Strict may with propriety be applied

thing which

inflicts

strict is, therefore,

to one's

self as well as others:

severe is

contention, strive

provoking expressions; contention is used for an angry striving with others, either in respect to matters of opinion or matters of claim, in which each party seeks to get the better of the other. Strife is the result of a quarrelsome hu-

mor; contention, of a restless, selfish, and greedy humor: strife is most commonly to be found in private life; contention but too frequently mingles itself in all the affairs of men. See also Discord. STRIKE, Hit, Knock, Smite, Rap, Cuff, Slap. These words all signify to give a blow to something, but they differ in respect to the kind of blow Strike, from Anglo-Saxon indicated. strican, to go, proceed, allied to German streichen, to strokej means to give a

m

which the length smooth, swift blow of something hits another thing. Hit, on the other hand, is a Scandinavian word meaning to light on to touch quickly and sharply with a point of something. The arrow hits the mark; the peasant strikes his horse with a stick. These distinctions are not generally observed, but they are certainly implied in the use of the two words. To knock, Anglo-Saxon cnucian, is to strike one thing against another so as to make a sound; it implies the use of something hard and knobby. To rap, from Danish rap, is to knock lightly. To smile, from Anglo-Saxon smitan, meant originally to smear or to rub, and was a sarcastic

—

It implies the expression for strike. use of the flat surface of something in delivering the blow. It is a slightly archaic word in English, with a Biblical flavor, and is the strongest and most energetic of these terms. It implies the overcoming of another with blows. To slap, is

perhaps an onomatopoeic word,

to strike with the flat surface of the

hand.

To

cuff,

from the Scandinavian,

656

STRIP

to strike with the doubled fist, or bustus, from robur, signifies, literally, perhaps with the palm of the hand, im- having the strength of oak. Sturdy plying random, sidelong blows. The comes through Middle English sturdi, distinctions here suggested are not ab- from Old French estourdi, amazed, of solute distinctions carefully observed. unknown origin. It meant rash, hence The words are in many circumstances the physical frame of one capable of an interchangeable, and the adventurous deed. well-nigh meaning of one readily merges into anStrong is here the generic term; the other; but the differences mentioned others are specific, or specify strength seem to be imphed in the general use of under different circumstances; robust the several terms when they are used is a positive and high degree of strength arising from a peculiar bodily most carefully. make: a man may be strong from the See also Beat. STRIP. See Bereave. strength of his constitution, from the STRIVE, Contend, Vie. Strive power which is inherent in his frame; comes through Old French estriver, but a robust man has strength from from the Scandinavian. For contend both the size and texture of his body, see Contend. Vie is derived from Old in. bone and nerve he is endowed with French envier, Latin invitare, meaning great power. A Uttle man may be to invite to a game, hence to contend in strong, although not robust; a tall, stout a game. man, in full health, may be termed roTo strive is the act of individuals bust. A man may he strong in one part without regard to others; as when a of his body and not in another; he may person strives to get a living or to im- be stronger at one time, from particular prove himself; to contend and vie both circumstances, than he is at another: denote the act of an individual in ref- but a robust man is strong in his whole erence to others; as to contend in a body; and, as he is robust by nature, lawsuit, to vie in dress. To strive may he will cease to be so only from disease. Slurdiness lies both in the make of sometimes be applied where there is more than one party, as to strive for the the body and the temper of the mind: mastery; but in this case the efforts a sturdy man is capable of making of the individual are more distinctly resistance, and ready to make it; he considered than when we speak of mast be naturally strong, and not of contending for a prize; for this reason slender make, but he need not be robust: these words may be applied in precisely a sturdy peasant presents us with a the same connection, but still with man who, both by nature and habit, is this distinction. formed for withstanding the inroads Striving consists always of some ac- of an enemy. Things as well as persons may be said tive effort, as when persons strive at the oar; contending may proceed ver- to be strong, as opposed to the weak as bally, as when men contend for their a strong rope, a strong staff robust and opinions; and vying may be indicated sturdy are said only of persons or things by any expression of the wish to put personal; as a robust make, a robust one's self in a state of competition habit; a sturdy air, a sturdy stroke. with another; as persons vie with each See also Cogent; Herculean, STRUCTURE. See Edifice. other in the grandeur of their houses STRUGGLE. See Endeavor. or equipages. STUBBORN. See Obstinate. Contend may be used in a moral apSTUDY. See Attention. plication, as to contend with difficulties STUPID, Dull. Stupid, in Latin and vie may be used figuratively, as one flower may be said to vie with stupidus, from stupere, to be amazed another in the beauty of its colors. or bewildered, expresses an amazement which is equivalent to a deprivation See also Endeavor. STROKE. See Blow. of understanding: dull, Anglo-Saxon with the dol, foolish, is connected STROLL. See Wander. STRONG, Robust, Sturdy. Strong German toll, and denotes a simple deStupidity in its proper sense is in Anglo-Saxon strong, answering to ficiency. German streng. Robust, in Latin ro- is natural to a man, although a paris

;

:

SUBJECT ticular circumstance

may have a similar

657

we

are likely to encoimter ^ood effect upon the understanding; he who fortune, but are liable to incur disasis questioned in the presence of others ters: we may suffer that which we are may appear very stupid in that which liable to, but we may also escape the very famiUar to him. evil if we are careful: exposed conveys is otherwise Dull is an incidental quaUty, arising the idea of a passive state, into which principally from the state of the anim^ we may be brought either through our spirits: a writer may sometimes be own means or through the instrudull in a large circle, while he is very mentality of others; we are exposed to Uvely in private intercoiuse. that which we are not in a condition See also Dull. to keep off from ourselves; it is freSTURDY. See Strong. quently not in our power to guard STUTTER. See Hesitate. against the evil: obnoxious signifies STYLE. See Diction; Name. properly exposed to the harm of anySUAVITY, Urbanity. Suamly is, thing; as obnoxious to the multitude, literally, sweetness; and urbanity the that is, exposed to their resentment: a refinement of the city, in distinction person may avoid bringing himself into from the country: inasmuch, there- this state, but he cannot avoid the confore, as a poUte education tends to sequences which will ensue from being soften the mind and the manners, it thus involved. We are subject to produces siuwity; but suavity may some- disease or subject to death; this is the times arise from natiu'al temper, and irrevocable law of our nature: deUcate exist, therefore, without urbanity; al- people are liable to catch cold; all though there cannot be urbanity with- persons are liable to make mistakes: a out suavity. By the suavity of our person is exposed to insults who promanners we gam the love of those vokes the anger of a low-bred man: around us; by the urbanity of our man- a minister sometimes renders himself ners we render ourselves agreeable obnoxious to the jieople. companions: hence also arises another Subject, liable, ana exposed may be distinction, that the term stmvity may applied to things as well as persons, be applied to other things, as the voice with a similar distinction: thmgs are or the style; but urbanity to manners subject by nature, as subject to dfecay; only. liable by accident, as liable to be broken; SUBDUE. See Conquer; Over- exposed by situation, or for want of bear; Quell; Subject. protection, as exposed to the cutting SUBJECT, Liable, Likely, Ex- winds. Obnoxious is said onlv of perposed, Obnoxious. Subject, in Latin sons or that which is personal. subjeclus, participle of subicere, to cast To subject and expose, as verbs, are imder, signifies thrown underneath. taken in the same sense: a person subLiable is compounded with the suffix jects himself to impertinent freedom by able, from Old French Iter, to tie, Latin descending to unseemly famiUarities ligare. Exposed is the participle of the with his inferiors; he exposes himself verb expose, from Latin ex, and French to the derision of his equals by an poser, for the derivation of which see affectation of superiority. Subject, Subordinate, Inferior, SubCompose. Obnoxious, in Latin obnoxiSubject (see above). Suboru^, compoimded of ob, on accoimt of, servient. and noxius, hurtful, signifies in the way dinate, compounded of sub and ordinem, signifies to be in an order that is under of hurting. All these terms are applied to those others. Inferior, in Latin inferior, is the circumstances in human life by which comparative of inferus, low, which has we are affected independently of our no relation to ihfero, to cast into. Subown choice. Direct necessity is in- servient, compounded of sub and servio, cluded in the term subject; whatever signifies servmg under something else. These terms may express either the we are obliged to suffer, that we are subject to; we may apply remedies to relation of persons to persons or things remove the evil, but often in vain: or of things to things. Subject in the liable conveys more the idea of casu- first case respects the exercise of power; alties; and likely that of mere proba- subordinate is said of the station and bility;

—

SUBJECTION

658

inferior, either of a man's out- either individuals or nations; but we ward circumstances or of his merits subjugate only nations. We subject and qualifications; svbserment, of one's ourselves to reproof, to inconvenience, oflBce;

relative services to another, but al- or to the influence of our passions; one ways in a bad sense. According to the nation subjugates another: subjugate law of nature, a child should be subject and subdue are both employed with to his parents: according to the law regard to nations that are compelled of a realm, he must be subject to to submit to the conqueror: but subhis prince: the good order of society jugate expresses even more than subdue, cannot be rightly maintained unless for it implies to bring into a state of there be some to act in a subordinate permanent submission; whereas to capacity: men of inferior talent have subdu£ may be only a nominal and tema part to act which, in the aggregate, porary subjection: Csesar subjugated is of no less importance than that the Gauls, for he made them subjects which is sustained by men of the high- of the Roman Empire: but Alexander est endowments: men of no principle subdued the Indian nations, who reor character wiU be most subservient to volted after his departure. the base purposes of those who pay See also Matter; Object; Topic. them best. It is the part of the ruler SUBJECTION. See Thraldom. to protect the subject, and of the subSUBJOIN. See Affix. ject to love and honor the ruler: it SUBJUGATE. See Subject. is the part of the exalted to treat the SUBLIME. See Gorgeous; Gransubordinate with indulgence, and of the deur; Great; Magnificence; Malatter to show respect to those imder jestic; Splendor; Superb; Thrill.

whom

they are placed:

it is

the part

SUBMARINE, Submersible,.

These words do not differ in meaning, but there is a slight variation They in their usage and application. all indicate a boat propelled entirely In the hands of the imder water. Grermans, in the European war, the submarine became an exceedingly danto another. In the second instance subject has gerous and lawless mode of offence, the same sense as in the preceding and the source of an infinite complicaarticle, when taken in the relation of tion of international relations which things to things; subordirmte designates eventually brought the United States the degree of relative importance be- into the war and necessitated a recontween things: tn/enor designates every sideration of aU the laws of honorable circumstance which can render things warfare and international usage. Subcomparatively higher or lower; sub- marine is the most general term. It servient designates the relative utility means, Uterally, "under-sea" craft, of things under certain circumstances, from Latin sub, under, and mare, sea. but not always in the bad sense. All Submersible is a descriptive term things in this world are subject to sometimes substituted for submarine, change: matters of subordinate con- especially by newspaper reporters anxsideration ought to be entirely elimi- iously in search of something to break nated when any great object is to be the monotony of the endless repetition attained: things of inferior value must of a term to which the war gave such a necessarily sell for an inferior price: general currency. It means a boat that there is nothing so insignificant that it submerges or dips under the water, may not be made subservient to some from Latin sxjib, under, and mergere, to purpose. dip. U-boat, a semi-transcription, semiSubject, Subjugate, Subdue. Subject translation of the German U or Unterof the superior to instruct, assist,

and U-BOAT.

encourage the inferior; it is the part of the latter to be willing to learn, ready to obey, and prompt to execute. It is not necessary for any one to act the degrading part of being subservient

—

make

Subjugate, seeboote, was originally apphed to from jugum, a yoke, signifies to bring German submarines of the type of under the yoke. Subdue (see Conquer) the U-53 which visited the shores of Subject is here the generic, the two the United States in the autumn of other specific terms: we may subject 1916, and attacked ships of the Allies signifies to

subject.

.

SUCCESSION

659

beyond the three-mile line. So in the moral application, the stibIn popular usage it was soon applied stantial is opposed to that which exists to all German submarines armed to in the mind only and which is freattack the ships of the Allies. quently fictitious; as a substantial SUBMISSIVE. See Compliant; benefit, as distinguished from that Humble; Obedient; Patient. which gratifies the mind: the solid is SUBMIT. See Comply. that which rests on reason and has SUBORDINATE. See Subject. the properties of durability and reality, SUBORN. See Forswear. as a solid reputation. SUBSERVIENT. See Subject. SUBSTANTIATE. See Ratot. SUBSIDE, Abate, Intermit. SubSUBSTITUTE. See Change. side, from the Latin sub and sedeo, sigSUBTERFUGE. See Evasion. nifies to settle to the bottom. Abate SUBTLE. See Cunning. (see that word). Intermit, from the SUBTRACT. See Deduct. Latin inter and mitto, signifies to leave SUBVERT. See Overturn. a space or interval between. SUCCEED. See Follow. A settlement after agitation is the SUCCESS. See Triumph. peculiar meaning of subside. That SUCCESSFUL. See Fortunate. which has been put into commotion SUCCESSION, Series, Order. subsides: heavy particles subside in a Succession, signifying the act or state fluid that is at rest, and tiunults are of succeeding (see Follow), is a matsaid to subside: a diminution of ter of necessity or casualty: things strength characterizes the meaning of succeed each other, or they are taken abate; that which has been high in in succession either arbitrarily or by action may abate; the rain abates after design: the series (see that word) is it has been heavj', and a man's anger a connected succession; the order (see abates: alternate action and rest is Place), the ordered or arranged' sucimpUed in the word intermit; whatever cession. We observe the succession of is in action may sometimes cease from events as a matter of curiosity; we action; labor without intermission is trace the series of events as a matter out of the power of man. of intelligence; we follow the order SUBSIST. See Be. which the historian has pursued as a SUBSISTENCE. See Livelihood. matter of judgment; the succession SUBSTANTIAL. Solid. Substan- may be slow or quick; the series may the order may be tial, based on sub, under and stare, to be long or short; stand, signifies to be present, to exist, correct or incorrect. The present age and hence having a substance: solid, has afforded a quick succession of from Latin solidus, based on solum, events, and presented us with a series the groimd (which meant originally of atrocious attempts to disturb the that which is whole, entire), signifies peace of society under the pretence pf having a firm foundation. The sub- self-protection. The lustorian of these stantial is opposed to that which is times needs only pursue the order which thin and has no consistency: the solid the events themselves point out. What is sucSruxe^sive, Alternate. is opposed to the liquid or that which is what is alterof loose consistency. All objects which cessive follows directly A minister admit of being handled are in their nat- nate follows indirectly. ure substantici; those which are of so preaches successively who preaches every hard a texture as to require to be cut Sunday uninterruptedly at the same are solid. Substantial i(K>d is that which hour; but he preaches aliemalely if he has a consistency in itself and is preaches every other Sunday, or on capable of giving f uln^ to the empty one Sunday in the morning and the stomach: solid food is meat in dis- other Sunciay in the afternoon, at the so subsUintial same place. The stuxessive may be actinction from drink: beings are such as consist of flesh and cidental or intentional; the alternate is blood, and may be touched, in dis- always intentional; it may rain for tinction from those which are airy or three stuxessive days or a fair may be spiritual: the earth is solid which is so held for thi^ stuxessive days: trees are placed sometimes in alternate order hardened as not to yield to pressure. lying just

I

—

;

SUCCINCT

660

when every other size

tree

is

of the

of large bodies, as by a piece of food lodging in the throat. To choke, in an extended and figurative sense, is to interrupt the action of any body by the intervention of any

same by means

and kind.

SUCCINCT. See Short. SUCCOR. See Help.

SUDDEN, Abrupt, Precipitate. Sudden, from Old French sodain, Low Latin svbitanus (for subitaneus), Latin subitus, is derived ultimately from Latin subire, past participle sidntus, meaning to come upon one by stealth, to arrive or go unexpectedly. It denotes that which happens quickly and unexpectedly. Abrupt and precipitate express the same idea under a metaphor. Abrupt (see Abrupt) means literally "broken off" something so unrelated to other things that it seems

—

foreign substance, as a garden is choked with weeds; to stifle is altogether to put a stop or end to a thing by keeping it down, as to stifle resentment, sighs, etc.: to smother is to choke or prevent free action by covering or surrounding, as good resolutions are smothered by unruly desires or appetites.

SUFFOCATION. See Asphyxia. SUFFRAGETTE. See Vote. SUGGEST. See Allude; Hint. SUGGESTION. See Dictate.

hke something suddenly broken off. SUIT. See Agree; Fit; Prater; An abrupt movement is a sudden move- Tally. SUIT.^VBLE. See Becoming; Conment with a certain sharpness and decisiveness in the suddenness. Precipi- formable; Convenient; Correspontate, from Latin proe, before, and cipili, dent. SUITOR. See Lover. the stem of proeceps, based on caput, head,

means

literally

head-foremost.

It

something that is not merely sudden, but is a httle ahead of time. refers to

SUFFER. See Admit; Bear; Leave Tolerate Undergo. SUFFICIENT. See Enough.

SULLY.

See Stain. See Abridgment;

SUMMARY. SUMMON.

See Call; Cite. See Saebath. See Different. SUPERB, August, Stately. These SUFFOCATE, Stifle, Smother, Choke. Suffocate, in Latin suffocatu^, words have in common the idea of ;

;

,

participle of suffocare, compounded of sit6 and faux, throat, signifies to constrain or tighten the throat. For stifle and smother see Stifle. Choke, from Middle English choken, is allied to Icelandic koka, to gulp, and kok, the throat. These terms express the act of stopping the breath, l)ut under various cir-

SUNDAY. SUNDRY.

pride and dignity and external splenSuperb, from Latin superbu^, proud, is often used simply as a general

dor.

superlative. It means excellent, with a special emphasis upon that which is externally striking and complete. August is derived from the name of the Roman Cajsars, Au^ustu^. It denotes

that which is impressive and awecumstances and by various means; inspiring in the last degree a union suffocation is produced by every kind of dignity and power both unlimited. of means, external or internal, and is In this sense we speak of the august therefore the most general of these power of God, etc. Stately means full terms; stifling proceeds by internal of state, something full of dignity, with means, that is, by the admission of special emphasis upon the idea of It does not foreign bodies into the passages which stability and endurance. lead to the respiratory organs: we denote the complete and striking irnmay be suffocated by excluding the air pression produced by that which is externally, as by gagging, confining superb nor the awe inspired by that closely, or pressing violently: we may which is august, but lays a greater embe suffocated or stifled by means of phasis upon the single impression of To external and stable dignity. vapors, close air, or smoke. smother is to suffocate by the exclusion SUPERFICIAL, Shallow, Flimsy. of air externally, as by means of any The superficial is that which lies only substance with which one is covered at the surface; it is therefore by imor surrounded, as smoke, dust, and plication the same as the shallow, which Hence a the like: to choke is a mode of stifling has nothing underneath.

—

SURROUND person

may be

called either superficial

661

dominant one of action. At the same time pre-eminent is a stronger word than predominant. That which is predominant asserts its power over others, that which is pre-eminent stands out

or shallow to indicate that he has not of knowledge; but, othervnse, superficiality is applied to the exercise of the thinking faculty and shallowness to its extent. Men of freely so that all see and recognize the suexpressed sentiments may be super- periority. Pre-eminent implies a more ficial thinkers, although they may not lasting superiority than predominant, have understandings more sfmllow than which implies a state of struggle in others. Superficial and shallow are which the first place may be yielded applicable to things as well as persons: to another. Supreme, from Latin flimsy is applicable to things only. supremus, means holding the first Flimsy (from Welsh llymsif of. the place of all, beyond rivalry and comAmerican dialect word limsy; or per- parison, possessing neither a superior haps connected with film) is a mooem nor an equal. It expresses the highest word. In the proper sense we may possible degree of pre-eminence. speak of giving a superficial covering SURE. See Certain; Infallible. of paint or color to a body; of a river SURFACE, Superficies. Surface, or piece of water being shallow; of cot- compounded of French sur, for super, ton or cloth being flim^. and /oce, from faciem, is a variation of In the improper sense, a survey or a the Latin term superficies; and yet they glance may be superficial which does have acquired this distinction, that the not extend beyond the superficies of former is the current and the latter the things; a conversation or a discourse scientific term; of course the former may be shallow which does not contain has a more indefinite and general ai>a basis of sentiment; and a work or plication than the latter. A surface is performance may be flimsy which has either even or uneven, smooth or rough; nothing soUd in it to engage the at- but the mathematician always conceives of a plane superficies on which tention. SUPERFICIES. See Surface. he founds his operations. SUPERFLUITY. See Excess. Surface, in its moral application, is See In- extended to whatever presents itself first to the mind of the observer. spection. Superficies may be applied in its SUPERIORITY. See Excellence. SUPERSCRIPTION. See Direc- proper and definite sense to other objects than those which relate to science. tion.

a profundity

SUPERINTENDENCY.

SUPERSEDE.

See Overrxtle.

SUPINE. See Indolent. SUPPLE. See Flexible. SUPPLICATE. See Beg. SUPPLY. See Provide.

SURGE. See Wave. SURMISE. See Conjecture.

SURMOUNT. SURPASS. SURPRISE.

See Conquer. See Exceed. See Sudden; Won-

SUPPORT. See Bear; Counte- der. SURRENDER. See Give Up. nance; Espouse; Hold; Livelihood; SURROUND, Encompass, EnSecond; Staff; Sustain; Uphold. SUPPOSE. See Apprehend; Think. viron, Encircle. Surround, from Old SUPPOSITION. See Conjecture. French suronder, meant originally to SUPPOSITITIOUS. See Spurious. overflow, from super, over, and uiuia, a SUPPRESS. See Quell; Repress; wave. Encompass is compounded of French en, in, and compos, from Low Stifle. SUPREME, Predominant, Pre- Latin compassus, a circle or circuit, and eminent. All these words mean sur- meaning a going around in a circle till passing in power or in importance. the last step ends where the first began. Predominant, from Latin pra, above, To encompass is to enclose in a circle. before, and dominari, to rule, meant Environ comes from Old French en, in, Pre-eminent, from and virer, to turn, whence veerh derived. ruling over others. Latin pree, and eminere, to project, Encircle means to enclose within a cirmeans projecting beyond others. Pre- cle. Blockade is formed, with the suffix eminent indicates a state of being, pre- ade, from block, derived through Old

662

SURVEY

French from Dutch. It now means a blocking of the coasts of a hostile country by encompassing it with ships which prevent merchant-vessels from getting through with supplies; but it has been used to signify any blocking

SUSTAIN,

Support,

Maintain.

Sustain, from Old French sustenir, compounded of sus or sub and tenere, to hold, signifies to hold or keep up. 5u2J-

pori (see CJountenance). Maintain {see Assert). The idea of keeping up or preventing up of all exit or entrance by surrounding from falling is common to these terms, troops or fortifications. Surround is the most hteral and gen- which vary either in the mode or oberal of all these ttrms, which signify ject of the action. To sustain and supto enclose any object either directly or port are frequently passive, maintain is indirectly. We may surround an ob- always active. To sustain and support ject by standing at certain distances all both imply the bearing or receiving the round it; in this manner a person may weight of any object, the former in be surrounded by other persons, and a reference to any great weight, the house surrounded with trees, or an ob- latter to any weight however small. Sustain and support may also imply ject may be surrounded by enclosing it in every direction and at every an active exercise of power or means point; in this manner a garden is sur- which brings them still nearer to mainrounded by a wall. To encomjxiss is to tain; in this case sustain is an act of surround in the latter sense, and applies the highest power, support of any orto objects of a great or indefinite ex- dinary power. tent: the earth is encompassed by the So in bearing up against any opposair, which we term the atmosphere; ing force; but support is here an act towns are encompassed by walls. To for the benefit of others; mairdain surround is to go round an object of is an act for one's own benefit, as to any form, whether square or circular, sustain a shock, to support one another long or short; but to environ and to in battle; to maintain one's self in a encircle carry with them the idea of contest. forming a circle round an object; thus Existence is said to be sustained a town or valley may be environed by under circumstances of weakness or hiUs, a basin of water may be encircled pressure; it is supported by natural by trees, or the head may be encircled means, as the milk of the mother supports the babe; or indirectly by what by a wreath of flowers. In an extended or moral sense we are supplies the means, as to support one's said to be surrounded by objects which family by labor: what is maintained are in great numbers and in different is upheld by pnecuniary means, as to directions about us: thus a person Uv- maintain a family, a fleet, etc. ing in a particular spot where he has In the moral application, what many friends may say he is surrounded presses on the mind is sustained, or by his friends, or environed by objects supported, with the like distinction: in such manner that he cannot escape grievous losses or injuries are sustained; from them; so likewise a particular afflictions and disappointments supEerson may say that he is surrounded ported. Things are supported and maintained y dangers and difficulties: but, in speaking of man in a general sense, we voluntarily; the former in respect to should rather say he is encompassed by what is foreign to us, as to support an dangers, which expresses in a much assumed character, the latter in respect stronger manner our peculiarly ex- to what belongs to us, as to maintain one's own character. posed condition. SUSTENANCE. See Lfvelihgod. Blockade may be figuratively applied SWAIN. See Countryman. to any cutting off of supplies. SWALLOW. See Absorb. SURVEY. See Retrospect; View. SURVIVE. See Outlive. SWAY. See Influence; Will. SWEAR, Take Oath, Testify. SUSCEPTIBILITY. See Feeling. Swear, from Anglo-Saxon swerian, SUSPENSE. See Doubts. SUSPICION. See Distrust; Jeal- originally meant simply to speak OUSTloudly; it is the stem found in answer.

SYMPATHY It now means to affirm by an appeal to the powers recognized as holy, to assert in the name of God. To take oath (from Anglo-Saxon ath) means to swear formally by going through the ceremony of taking an oath or making an appeal to God. To take oath is a somewhat more exact and specific term than swear, but it means the same thing. To testify, from Latin testes, a witness, and a weakened form oifacere, to

make, means hterally to make, or

bear witness. It is associated with swear and take oath through the fact that a formal bearing of witness is preceded by an oath. SWELL. See Heave. SWERVE. See Deflect; Deviate. SWIFTNESS. See Quickness. SWING. See Wag. SWOLLEN. See High-flown. SYCOPHANT: See Flatferer. SYLLABUS, Stnopsis. A syllabus, from Late Latin syllaims. Late Greek ffvWal3oQy a list, aUied to avXKafifi, a syllable, hterally "that which holds together," from Greek avv, together, aorist stem of Xafi^dvuv, to take, is an outline or summary of the main points of a subject, course, lecture, or treatise. synopsis, from Greek tion of the parts fTience wig speak of symmetry of feature; but proportion of hmbs, the proportion of the head to the body. SYMPATHY, Compassion, Commiseration, Condolence. Sympathy. from the Greek mifi for trnv, with, and iraOua, feeling, has the hteral meaning of fellow-feeling, that is, a kindred or like feeling or feeling in company with another. Compassion (see PiTv) commiseration, from the Latin cum, with, and miserari, to pity; condolence, from the Latin con ana dolere, to grieve, signify a like suffering or a suffering nicelj^ fitting

;

m

company.

Hence

it

is

obvious^^t,

according to the derivation of the words, the sympathy may be said either of pleasure or pain, the rest only of that which is painful. Sympathy preserves its

for

original

meaning

we laugh

or cry

in its application, this

by sympathy;

may, however, be a merely physical operation.

Compassion is altogether a moral feeling which makes us enter into the distresses of others: we may, therefore, sympathize with others, without essentially serving them; but if we feel compassion we naturally turn our

thoughts toward reUeving them Sympathy, indeed, may sometimes be taken for a secret alliance or kindred feeling between two objects. Compassion is awakened by various kinds of suffering, but particularly by those which are attributable to our miswith syllabus, though syllabus cannot fortimes; commt«era/um is awakened by suffering arising from our faults; conalways take the place of synopsis. dolence IS awakened by the troubles of SYMBOL. See Figure. SYMMETRY, Proportion. Sym- life, to which all are equally liable. metry, in Latin symmetria, Greek Poverty and want excite our comffvfififTpia, from avv and ^rpov, signi- passion; we endeavor to relieve them: Propor- a poor criminal suffering the penalty fies a measure that accords. tion, in Latin proportio, compounded of of the law excites our commiseration; pro, as regards or in relation to, and we endeavor, if possible, to mitigate the loss which a portio, a part, signifies every portion his punishment: or part according with the other or friend sustains produces condolence; we take the best means of testifying with the whole. The signification of these terms is it to him. Compassion is the sentiment of one obviously the same, namely, a due

A

SYMPTOM

664

mortal toward another; commiseration is represented as the feeUng which our wretchedness excites in the Supreme Being. Compassion may be awakened in persons of any condition commiseration is awakened toward those who are conin an abject state of misery; dolence, supposes an entire equahty and is often produced by some com;

mon calamity.

SYMPTOM. See Mark. SYNCHRONOUS, Simultaneous, Contemporaneous.

These words

all

mean

occurring at the same time. Simultaneous, from Late Latin simultim, at the same time, contaminated by Latin mament-aneov^, means occurring at exactly the same instant. Synchronous, from Greek (tvv, together, and KpovoQ, time, means happening within the same period of time, but not necessarily at exactly the same instant. Synchronous and simultaneous are applied to occm-rences; contemporaneous Contempoto both events and people. raneous comes from Latin con, for tempus, time; it cum, together, and means hving or happening within the same period, the period being thought of not merely as a division of time, as in the case of synchronous, but as an age, a generation, a period marked by certain characteristics distinguishing it from other periods. SYNOD. See Assembly.

SYNTHETIC, Constructive.

Syn-

with, and OtTiKOQ, skilled in putting together, from avvOsrtjQ, a putter-together, and constructive, from Latin con, together, and stradus, the past participle of struere, a heaping up, both mean putting together. Synthetic is opposed to anor lytic, and constructive to destructive. Synthetic refers merely to an intellectthetic,

from

Greek

aiv,

ual process, constructive to moral attitude and practical buUding up. Synthetic is more hmited in its application, but more exact within its own field. It means putting together the constituent elements of a conception in such a way as to form an intellectual whole, a single idea. Constructive means in general bmlding up. Constructive criticism is that which not merely destroys an old method or standard, but builds up a new one. Constructive social work is that which builds up a new order of society instead of merely destroying what was bad in the old regime. It implies active creation, which is not necessarily purely intellectual, and is often consciously opposed to the idea of destructive. SYSTEM, Method. System, in Latin systema, Greek avarrifia, from avartifii, or avv and 'Larqfii, to stand together, signifies that which is put together so as to form a whole. Method, in Latin methodus, is from the Greek fttO',

for, fifrd, after,

literal

a

and

6S6q,

sense thus being a

way by which anything

a way, the

way

after, or

is eflFected.

System expresses more than method, which is but a part of system: systein is an arrangement of many single or individual objects according to some given rule, so as to make them coalesce; method is the manner of this arrangement, or the principle upon which this arrangement takes place. The term system, however, applies to a complexity of objects, but arrangement, and consequently method, may be appUed to everything that is to be put into execution. All sciences must be reduced to system; and without system there is no science: all business requires method; and without method little can be done to any good purpose^

TALKATIVE

TACIT.

See Silent. See Silence.

an

so in an engagement one be said to receive the enemy, who ready to receive his attack; on the insult:

TACITURNITY.

may

TACTICS, Generalship, Man(eu-

is

VRiNG, Strategy.

665

from Greek other hand, we accept apologies. ra/crticof, fit for arranging, means the Some things are both received and art of handling troops on the field of accepted, but with the same distinction. Strategy, from Greek arpaTrtyia, What is given as a present may be battle. signifies the art of projecting and both received and accepted, but the inplanning a military movement. Strai- ferior receives and the superior accepts. egy represents an intellectual achieve- What is received comes to a person ment; tactics, a practical carrying out either by indirect means or, if by diof that which has been directed by strat- rect means, it comes as a matter of Manoeuvring, through French, right; but what is accepted is a matter egy. from Late Latin man{u) opera, a work- of favor either on the part of the giver ing with the hand {mamis, hand, and or receiver. Rent in law may be Doth it is received opera, work), means the making of received and accepted; adroit or artful moves on the field of when it is due from the tenant after battle, the control of the troops in such he has broken his contract with his a way as to bring about a desired re- landlord. A challenge may be result. It differs from tactics in empha- ceived contrary to the wishes of the receiver, but it rests with himself sizing simply skilful movement. whether he will accept it or not. TACTILE. See Tangible. Animals and things, as well as perTAINT. See Attaint; ContamiTactics,

nate.

TAKE,

sons,

Accept. Take, Middle English taken, is a Scandinavian word signifying to lay hold of. Receive, in Old French recever, Latin recipere, from re, back, and a weakened form of capere, to take, signifies to take back; and accept, from accipere, of a similar derivation (oc = ad, for), signifies to take for a special purpose.

Receive,

To

may

take;

things

may

receive;

but persons only accept. An animal may take what is offered to it; things take whatever attaches to them, but they receive that which by an express effort is given to them. The chameleon is said to take its hue from the surrounding objects; marble receives its polish from the hands of the workman. TAKE OATH. See Swear. TALE. See Fable; Story.

take is the general tenn, receive TALENT. See Abiltty; Gibt; InTo accept are modes of taking. take is an imqualified action; we taJce tellect. TALK. See Speak. whatever comes in the way; we receive TALKATIVE, Loquacious, Garonly that which is offered or sent: we Talkative, ready or prone to take a book from a table; we receive rulous. a parcel which has been sent; we take talk, from Middle English talken, to

and

either with or without consent;

we

with the consent, or according to the wishes, of another: a robber takes money from a traveller: a person receives a letter from a friend. To receive is frequently a passive act; whatever is offered or done to another is received; but to accept is an

receive

many

things, therefore, may be received which cannot be accepted; as a, p>erson receives a blow or

act of choice:

from talen, to tell tales, AngloSaxon talian, to reckon or compute. LoquacicnAS, from loquarij to speak or talk, has the same origmal meaning. GarnUous, in Latin garriUus, from gartalk,

rire,

to blab, signifies prone to

tell

or

make known. These reproachful epithets differ the degree. To talk is principally allowable, and consequently it is not altogether so unbecoming to be oc-

m

TALL

666

casionally talkative; but loquacity, which implies an immoderate protalk, is always pensity to bad, whether springing from affection or an idle

TARRY. See TARTNESS.

Linger. See Acrimony.

TASK. See Work. TASTE, Flavor, Relish, Savor.

temper: and garrulity, which arises from the excessive desire of communicating, is a failing that is pardonable only in the aged, who have generally

much

to

tell.

See Voluble. TALL. See High.

TALLY, Match.

A

tally

was

Taste comes from the Teutonic tasten, to touch lightly, and signifies either the organs which are easily affected or the act of discriminating by a hght touch of the organ or the quality of the object which affects the organs; in this latter sense it is closely allied to Flavor most probably orig- the other terms.

a piece of wood (Low Latin talea, French taille) on which notches were cut to indicate number; it was a way of keeping a reckoning. Match comes from the stem found in AngloSaxon gemcecca, a companion. To tally means to correspond exactly with something that serves as a standard of measiu-ement. To match is to be like another thing, to fit something so that the result is a harmonious whole. It is therefore less specific than tally.

comes through Old French fleiir, flaiir, from the Latin ^re, to blow, to breathe,

TdUy

inite of all these;

inally

indicates

an exact correspond-

ence, one that satisfies the desire for acciurate knowledge. Match may refer to a correspondence that merely satisfies

the taste.

TAME. See Gentle. TANGIBLE, Obvious, gible

means

literally

Real. Tan-

touchable,

that

which can be handled, from Latin Obvious, from Latin tangere, to touch. ob, opposite, and via, way, means lying A tangible object is not in the way of. necessarily obvious nor an obvious one tangible, but the two words have in

common

signifying the rarefied essence of bodies which affect the organ of taste. Relish was originally an after-taste, from Old

French reles, that which is left behind, from relaxare, to loosen, to allow to Savor comes rest, to leave behind. through French from Latin sapor, smell,

from

taste, savor.

the

being analogical

v

the most general and indefit is applicable to every object that can be applied to the organs of taste, and to every degree and manner in which the organs can be affected: some things are tasteless, other things have a strong taste, and others a mixed taste. The flavor is the predominating taste and consequently IS appUed to such objects as may have a different kind or degree of taste; an apple may have not only the general taste of apple, but also a flavor peculiar to itself; the flavor is commonly said as a fine flavor, of that which is good a delicious fl/ivor; but it may designate that which is not always agreeable; as the flxivor of fish, which is unpleasant in things that do not admit of such a Taste

is

;

the idea of easily perceived. In the one case the means of perception is the sense of touch; in the other case it may be any of the senses, but especially the sense of sight. Tangible is taste. The relish is also a particular used figuratively to denote anything taste; but it is that which is artificial, that may be readily grasped by the in distinction from the flavor, which We find this sense may be the natural property. mind and proved to exist; we speak of a tangible reason, of tan- the ^yor such as it is we give the relish gible evidence, etc. Real, from Low such as it should be or as we wish it to Latin realis, derived from res, thing, be: milk and butter receive a flavor and a suffix, is applied to those things from the nature of the food with which which have an actual existence. Where the cow is supplied: sauces are used the proof of existence is thought to in order to give a relish to the food be demonstrable by the senses, real that is dressed with them. means having a physical form. Savor is a term in less frequent use TANTALIZE. See Aqgeavate; than the others, but, conforming to Teasf the Latin derivation, it is employed to TARDY. See Slow. designate that which smells as well as tastes, a sweet-^meUing savor; so likeTARNISH. See Stain.

m

;

TAX wise, in the moral application, a man's actions or expressions may be said to savor of vanity. Taste and relish may be, moreover, compared as the act or pKJwer of tasting

or relishing: we taste whatever affects our ta^te, but we relish that only which pleases our taste: we taste fruits in order to determine whether they are good or bad; we relish fruits as a dessert or at certain seasons of the day. So in the extended or moral apphcation, the words are distinguished in the

same manner.

—

Taste, Genius. Taste, in another sense, designates the capacity to derive pleasure from an object: genius designates the power we have for accomplishing any object. He who derives particular pleasure from music may be said to have a taste for music; he who makes very great proficiency in the theory and practice of music may be said to have a genius for it. It is obvious, therefore, that we may have

a ta^te without having genius; but it would not be possible to have genius for a thing without having a taste for it: for nothing can so effectually give a taste for any accomplishment as that capacity to learn it and that susceptibility to all its beauties, which are circumstances inseparable from genius. TAUBE. See Aircraft. TAUNT. See Tease; Twit. TAUTOLOGY. See Repetition. TAX, Duty, Custom, Toll, ImThe post, Tribute, Contribution. idea of something given by the people to the government is expressed oy all these terms. Tax comes through French from the substantive based on Late Latin taxare (ultimately from tangere), to touch, to handle, also to rate, value, appraise, whence Low Latin taxa, a tax, signifying the handling and Custom sigappraising of valuables.

667

terms, and applies to or implies whatever is paid by the people to the government, according to a certain estimate: the customs are a species of tax which are less specific than other taxes, being regulated by custom rather than any definite law; the customs apply particularly to what was customarily given by merchants for the goods which they imported from abroad: the duty is a species of tax more positive and binding than the custom, being a specific estimate of what is due upon goods, according to their value; hence it is not only applied to goods that are imported, but also to many other articles inland: toll is that species of tax which serves for the repair of roads and havens, or the liberty to buy or sell at fairs or other places. The preceding terms refer to that which is levied by authority on the people; but they do not directly express the idea of levying or paying: impost, on the contrary, signifies, literally, that which is imposed; and tribute that which is paid or yielded; the former, therefore, exclude that idea of coercion which is included in the latter. The tax is levied by the consent of many, the impost is imposed by the will of one, and the tribute is paid at the demand of one or a few: the tax serves for the support of the nation; the impost and the tribute serve to enrich a government. Conquerors lay heavy imposts upon the conquered countries; distant provinces pay a frifrvJte to the princes to whom they owe Contribution signifies the allegiance. tribute of many in unison or for the same end; in this general sense it includes all the other terms; for taxes and imposts are paid alike by many for the same purpose; but, as the predominant idea in contribution is that of common consent, it supposes a degree of freedom in the agent which is incompatible with the exercise of authority expressed by the other terms: hence the term is with more propriety applied to those cases in which men voluntarily unite in giving towajxl any particular object, as charitable contributions, or

is given under certain according to custom, from Old French costume, based on an assumed neuter plural, consuetumina, derived from classical consuetudo, custom. Duty signifies that which is given ToU, in Anglo-Saxon LS a due or debt. contributions in support of a war; but toll, etc.. Low Latin iolonium, classical teUmeum, Greek rsXof a custom, signifies it may be taken in the general sense of a forced payment, as in speaking of a particular kind of custom or due. Tax is the most general of these military contrtoution.

nifies that

which

circumstances,

,

TEACH

668

These words, tax, tribute, and con- is the repetition of unpleasant trifles have an extended application which teases; it is the crossness and to other objects besides those which are perversity of persons and things which pecimiary: tax, in the sense of what vex; it is the contemptuous and proit is IS laid on without the consent of the voking behavior which taunts; person on whom it is imposed; tribute, the disappointment of awakened exthat which is given to another as his pectations which tantalizes; it is the due; and contribution, that which is repetition of grievous troubles which We are tormented by that , given by one in common with others torments. which produces bodily or mental pain; for some common object. Tax, Rate, AssessTuent. Tax, ac- we are teased, vexed, taunted, and tancording to the above explanation, and talized only in the mind. Irritable and rate, from the Latin ratits and reor, to nervous people are most easily teased; thiiik or estimate, both derive their captious and fretful people are most principal meaning from the valuation easily vexed or taunted; sanguine and or proportion, according to which any eager people are most easily tantalized: sum is demanded from the people; in aU these cases the imagination or but the tax is imposed directly by the the bodily state of the individual serves * government for public purposes, as to increase the pain: but persons are the land-/aa; and the window-tax; and tormented by such things as inflict posithe rate is imposed indirectly for the tive pain. local purposes of each parish, as the TEDIOUS. See Slow; Wearichurch-raies, and the poor-raplication to a person or object, that which is not pleasing to the eye or appropriate to its particular use. person is ungraceful who is awkward, climisy, bimghng, imhandy, rough, who leads a vicious life: miserable and uncouth in manners, imrefined, un- wretched are more hmited in their appoUshed; undignified, uncouth in plication; a child may be both miserspeech, clownish, gawky, slouchy in able and wretched if it has some serious action: inelegant, in the choice of cause, either in its own mind or in its

compound term,

A

UNPRECEDENTED

691

circumstances, to make it so: a man is central government without merging miserable who is tormented by his con- their separate identities in one. Coaliscience; a mother will be wretched whose tion is derived from the past participle child is taken from her. of the Latin word coalescere, found in UNIFORM. See Equal. English coalesce, and meaning to grow UNIMPORTANT, Insignificant, together. It signifies a temporary Immaterial, Inconsiderable. The union of representatives of political want of importance, of consideration, of parties for the purpose of carrying signification, and of matter or substance, through some project in which they are They dif- all interested. A coalition cabinet is a is expressed by these terms. fer, therefore, principally according to cabinet com|X)sed of leaders of various the meaning of the primitives but they p)olitical parties united in a common are so closely allied that they may be cause. Fusion, from the past partiemployed sometimes indifferently. Un- ciple fusus of Latin fundrre, to pour important regards the consequences of (meaning something poured together, our actions: it is unimportant whether so that separate identities are lost), we use this or that word in certain refers to a union of poUtical parties in' cases: inconsiderable and insignificant support of a single candidate or platrespects those things which may attract form. UNIQUE. See Unprecedented. notice: the former is more adapted to UNITE. See Add; Connect; the grave style, to designate the comparative low value of things; the latter Merge. UNITED. See Synthetic. IS a famihar term which seems to con;

UNIVERSAL. See Cosmos; Genin a that the eral; Public; Ubiquitous. UNLEARNED. See Ignorant. number, the size, the quantity, etc., is UNLESS, Except. Unless, which inconsiderable; in speaking of persons, we may say they are insignificant in is equivalent to in less than, on a less stature, look, talent, station, and the supposition, is employed only for the like; or, speaking of things, an insig- particular case; but except has always nificant production or an insignificant a reference to some general rule, of word: immaterial is a species of the which an exception is hereby signified: unimportant which is applied only to I shall not do it unless he ask me; no immaterial one can enter except those who are is it familiar subjects; whether we go to-day or to-morrow; provided with tickets. See also But. it is immaterial whether we have a UNLETTERED. See Ignorant. few or many. UNINTERRUPTEDLY. See In- UNLIKE. See Different. UNLIMITED. See Boundless. cessantly. vey a contemptuous meaning:

description,

we may say

UNION, CONPEDERATION,

COALI-

These are all words TION, Fusion. used to signify a governmental or Uriion is the political combination. most general word. It signifies a making d&ferent entities one, from Latin unus, one, and may refer to any combination. Confederation, coalition, and fuMon are different forms of political union. Confederation, from Latin con,

UNMERCIFUL. See

Hard-

HEARTED.

UNOFFENDING,

Inoffensive.

of these words indicate the negative of offending or offensive, and mean not offending. But inoffensive refers to a general disposition unoffending, to a An inoffensive person particular case. IS in the nature of thin^ unoffending;

Both

;

one who is unoffending in one matter Inoftogether, and fcedv^, league, means a may not always be inoffensive. the faintest joining together, a union in which dif- fensive often carries with it condescenferent groups surrender part of their implication of contemptuous It may individual rights or powers to a cen- sion on the part of the speaker. able to offend, not having tral authority, but without entirely mean not In a capacity or energy enough to offend. losing their separate identities. not suggest this idea. confederation such as that of the Unoffending does See Virgin. United States, for example, the states Exceptiondelegate certain of their powers to the

UNPOLLUTED. UNPRECEDENTED,

,

UNPREMEDITATED

692 AL,

Unexampled, Unrivalled,

Unprecedented, a compound of the English un, not, and precedented, antecedent, previous, former, or prior, signifies that which is so rare that there is nothing to be compounded with it, something that is sui generis, of its own kind, standing alone, wholly by itself. It is a stronger term than exceptional, which implies that which is unusual,

Unique.

and it is more closely allied with unexampled and unrivalled, each implying something without a counterpart or anything parallel with or equal to it. The distinction is seen, for instance, in a formal address. An excep-

tional address may be one of unusual cleverness, interest, and brilliancy,

without being so rare as to reach the acme of intellectual effort, yet it may not be an unexampled one,

much just

less

an unrivalled one, as the

application of

those terins de-

Extemporaneous, from the Latin phrase ex tempore, at the moment, and impromptu, from the phrase in promptu, in readiness, from promere, to bring forward, are most generally appUed to a spoken address that is called forth by an unexpected invitation, permitting the person called upon no opportunity for preparation. Off-hand is a less dignified term, as it implies a certain degree of carelessness, an indifferent fitting of language to occasion, a feeling that "anything will answer." Unstudied is most akin to unpremeditated, yet it implies a different effort, as an unpremeditated act may be one not previously thought of, while an unstudied act may be one that would ordinarily be studied or planned beforehand, but in its special application was done without any previous preparation. UNQUESTIONABLE. See ±nduBITABLE. UNRAVEL. See Unfold. UNRELENTING. See Implacable.

pends on the varying viewpoints of the hearers. Strictly, unexampled implies that which is without the same UNRIVALLED. See Unprecelikeness in its essentials, and unrivalled, that which is of the best, of dented. UNRUFFLED, Calm, Peaceful, the first water; but in common usage the terms are frequently erroneously Smooth, Tranquil. Unruffled, a comapplied to several objects or degrees pound of the English un, not, and of objects when in truth they belong ruffled, parallel with Old Dutch ruyffelto one only, as only one can be su- en, to wrinkle, and allied to ruff, rumple, preme. Unique expresses the same etc., is applied both to objects and idea in positive rather than negative persons, implying that which is not terms. That which is unique is the agitated, not stirred up, not changed only one of its kind (from Latin unus, from a normal condition. The surface one). It is the superlative expression of a stream remains unruffled when of the idea common to all these terms, it is not forced into ripples by the and should not be compared; a thing wind; a person, when under exciting is unique; it cannot be more or most conditions, displays neither agitation, nervousness, apprehension, nor fear. unique. UNPREMEDITATED, Extempo- The sea, the atmosphere, a person, are BANEOtrs, Impromptu, Off-hand, Un- calm when undisturbed by abnormal studied. Unpremeditated, a compound conditions; they are then said to be Peaceof the English un, not, and premedi- serene, placid, imperturbable. tated, from the Latin prasmeditatus, prce, ful and peaceable are terms frequently before, and meditari, to meditate, im- misapplied. The former signifies freeplying to think of before, in advance dom from agitation or commotion, This term is a very com- and thus belongs to the present group, of an action. mon one in criminology, signifying the while the latter signifies freedom from commission of an act on the spur of the strife or contest. Smooth and even, too, are likewise moment, on a sudden provocation, without previous cause, plan, or used erroneously, to imply a level but they really signify thought, as a felonious attack upon condition; another that may result in a charge of more than that. Smooth, as distinassault and battery or of some degree guished from even, means that which is free from every degree of roughness. of homicide, justifiable or otherwise.

UNSWERVING

603

however small, while whatever is even UNSEARCHABLE, Inscrutable. may be free only from unusual rough- These terms are both applied to ness or irregularities. Smooth, there- things set above the imderstanding of fore, in its truest application is in full man, but not altogether indifferently; accord with unruffled. Tranquil, how- for that which is unsearchable is not set ever, admits of but one condition, that at so great a distance from us as that is, freedom from agitation, physical or which is inscrutable: for that which is mental, from disturbance, roughness searched is in common concerns easier of any character or degree, or from to be found than that which requires anything that would interfere with a scrutiny. The ways of God are to quietude, repose. us finite creatures more or less un-

UNRULY,

Ungovernable, Re- searchable; but the mysterious plans of Unruly marks the want of Providence, as frequently evinced in disposition to be ruled; ungovernable, the affairs of men, are altogether inan absolute incapacity to be governed scrviahle. the former is a temporary or partial UNSETTLED. See Undetererror, the latter is an habitual defect mined. in the temper: a high-spirited child UNSHACKLE. See Emancipatb. will be occasionally unruly; any child of UNSIGHTLY. See Ugly. strong passions will become ungovernUNSPEAKABLE, Ineffable, Unable by excessive indulgence: we say utterable, Inexpressible. Unspeakthat our wills are unruly and our tem- able and ineffable, from the Latin tnpers are ungovernable. Refractory, from effabilis, based on in, not, and effabilis, refractus, past participle of the Latin utterable, from effari, to speak out, refrangere, to break open, marks the have precisely the same meaning; but disposition to break everything down the unspeakable is said of objects in before it: it is the excess of the un- general, particularly of that which is ruly \yith regard to children: the un- above human conception, and surruly is, however, negative; but the passes the power of langiiage to derefractory is positive: an unruly child scribe; as the unspeakable goodness of objects to be ruled; a refractory child God: ineffable is said of such objects sets up a positive resistance to all rule; as cannot be painted in words with an unruly child may be altogether adequate force; as the ineffable sweetsilent and passive; a refractory child ness of a p>erson'8 look: unutterable and always commits himself by some act inexpressible are extended in their sigof insubordination in word or deed: nification to that which is incommumhe is unruly if in any degree he gives cable by signs from one being to antrouble in the ruling; he is refractory if other; thus grief is unutterable which it is not in the power of the sufferer he actively resists being ruled. UNSATISFACTORY, Dissatisfy- by any sounds to bring home to the ing, Insufficient. All these terms feelings of another; ^cl \a inexpressible mean not meeting the wishes or ex- which is not to be expressed by looks, Untitterable is pectations. Unsatisfactory, however, is or words, or any signs. a less positive term than dissatisfying. therefore appUed only to the individual That which is unsatisfactory fails to who wishes to give utterance; inexsatisfy; that which is dissatisfying pro- pressible may be said of that which duces a positive emotional reaction IS to be expressed concerning others: which is the opposite to satisfaction. our own pains are untttterable; the One fails to meet the conditions; the sweetness of a person's countenance is other definitely opposes them. Insuf- inexpressible. UNSPOTTED, See Blameless. It ficient means uterally not enough. UNSTEADY. See Undetermined. indicates a special kind of unsatisfacUNSTUDIED, See Unpremeditoriness. That which is insufficient is lacking in quantity; that which is un- tated. UNSWERVING, Constant, Desatisfactory may be lacking in quality as well. That which is insufficient is un- termined, Re-solute. In the moral satisfactory; that which is unsatisfactory sense, unswerving implies the quality that makes a person steadfast in his may be much more than insufficient. fractory.

UNTOUCHED

694

course of life, in his friendships, in his particular person's assertion may be varied dealings with others, always re- proved by the evidence of others. UNUSED. See Virgin. solved, faithful, persevering, unhesitatUNUTTERABLE. See Unspeaking, unwavering, wholly dependable. He is constant whose course of action is able. UNVEIL, Disclose, Remove, Reincessant, uninterrupted, regular, who remains true through all contingencies. veal, Show. Unveil, a compound of Determined is a more vigorous term, as the English un, not, and veil, a coverit implies a consideration of certain ing, the latter in Old French veile, conditions, a decision as to a proper French voile, from the Latin velum, a course to follow, and a persistent ad- sail, from vehere, to carry (i. e., that herence to that course, despite allure- which carries or moves the boat), and ments or seeming advantages to the hence any piece of cloth, or a covering, contrary. A resolvie person is one signifies, as a transitive, to remove a possessing the quality of more than covering from something, to make ordinarjr firmness of purpose, one hav- clear something that was previously ing a fixed, unalterable purpose, one hidden or but slightly visible; as an constant in the pursuit of an aim, one intransitive, to come to light or bewho is imshaken on all occasions, un- come known. The term has many daunted, inflexible, stout-hearted un- apphcations among them: we unveil der trying or adverse circumstances. a memorial, statue, or painting by reThe terms determined and resolute have moving its temporary covering; we various shades of meaning, which are unveil a secret, conspiracy, plot, purmore critically considered under the pose, by making it known; we unveil a mental burden by confiding it to term Decided. another. UNTOUCHED. See Virgin. 'Disclose, from the Latin discludere, to See Awkward. UNTRUTH, Falsehood, Falsity, open, signifies the act of making knowTi Lie. Untruth is an untrue saying; or public something that is concealed, falsehood and lie are false sayings: to bring to light something not genuntruth of itself reflects no disgrace erally known, and reveal, from the on the agent; it may be unintentional Latin revelare, to draw back a cover, or not: a falsehood and a lie are in- in French reveler, signifies to divulge tentional false sayings, differing only something known to ourselves but in degree as to the guilt of the offender not to others, to lay bare a mystery a falsehood is not always spoken for or a secret purpose, in a special sense, the express intention of deceiving, but to make knowTi something which a lie is uttered only for the worst of could not become known without dipurposes. Some persons have a habit vine or supernatural instruction. Reof telling falsehoods from the mere love move signifies to take away, put aside, of talking: those who are guilty of disassociate, separate, as to displace bad actions endeavor to conceal them something that covers or conceals by lies. Children are apt to speak something else; and show implies an untruths for want of understanding the exhibition, a display, a presentation value of words travellers, from a love to the view, of something that has of exaggeration, are apt to introduce not been generally seen, by an action falsehoods into their narrations: it is that makes it visible. UNWILLING. See Averse. the nature of a lie to increase itself to Worthless. a tenfold degree; one lie must be Unworthy is a term of less reproach than backed by many more. Falsehood is also used in the abstract worthless; for the former signifies not sense for what is false. Falsity is to be loorthy of praise or honor; the never used but in the abstract sense, latter signifies to be without any worth, for the property of the false. The and consequently in the fullest sense former is general, the latter particular, bad. It may be a mark of modesty or in the application the truth or false- humility to say that I am an unworhood of an assertion is not always to be thy recipient of your kindness; but it distinctly proved; the falsity of any would be folly and extravagance to

—

UNTOWARD.

:

UNWORTHY,

:

UTOPIAN say that I am a worthless recipient of your kindness. There are many unworthy members in every religious community; but every society that is conducted upon proper principles will take care to exclude worthless members. In regard to one another, we are often unworthy of the distinctions or privileges

we

enjoy;

in

regard to

our Maker, we are all unworthy of His goodness, though not worthless in His eyes.

UPBRAID. See Blame. UPHOLD, Aid, Maintain,

Sanc-

tion, Support, Vindicate. Uphold, a compound of the English up and hold, from a widely distributed Germanic root, hal, signifying to raise, hence to grasp and keep, means to keep raised or elevated. The term is equally apphcable to persons and objects. We uphold a person when we agree with him, stand by him, make his attitude our own, on some controversy, proposition, or position he has assumed we aid him by helping, assisting him to retain the position or attitude he has taken; we maintain his actions or declarations by affirming or defending them, adopting them as consistent with our own judgment; we sanction what he does or says by confirming, assenting to, coinciding with, the act or saying; we support him by favoring^ seconding, consenting' to, or vouching for, his ;

position; and we vindicate him when we corroborate, estabUsh the validity, or defend successfully that which he has said or done. In a material sense, uphold and support are applied to one object set beneath another, to bear it up, sustain it, or keep it from falling, as a pillar, base, foundation, or any

object on which another object rests, and maintain is applied to the province or duty of the object so used.

UPON. See Above; Qn. UPRIGHT. See Virtuous. UPRIGHTNESS. See Honestt; Rectitude.

UPROAR. See Bustle. UPSIDE-DOWN. See Topsyturvy.

USAGE, is

used to do; custom

is

what one gener-

ally does; prescription is what is prescribed by usage to be done. The usage

acquires force and sanction by dint of time; the custom acquires sanction by the frequency of its being done or the numbers doing it; the prescription acquires force by the authority which prescribes. Hence it arises that customs vary in every age, but that usage and prescription supply the place of written law.

See also Treatment. USE. See Employ; Utility. USUALLY. See Commonly. USURP. See Appropriate. UTILITY, Use, Service, Avail. Utility and use both come ultimately from utor. Service, from the Latin to employ or make use of. from a or ad and French valoir, Latin valere, signifies strength for a given purpose or to a given end. All these terms imply fitness to be employed to advantage (see Advantage). Utility is apphed in a general sense to what may be usefully employed: use to that which is actually so employed; things are said to be of general uiility, or a thing is said to be servire,

Avail,

of a particular use. The word use refers us to the employment of things generally and the advantage derived from such use; service, the particular state or capacity of a thing to be usefully employed. It is proper, therefore, to say that prayers and entreaties are of use; but in speaking of tools, weapons, and the

Prulike, to say they are of^ service. dence forbids us to destroy anything enjoins that may be of use; economy upon us not to throw aside anything it is fit for service. All the preceding terms are taken absolutely; avail is a term of relative

as long as

import;

it

respects the circumstances

under which a thing ma>[ be fit or otherwise to be employed with efficacy. When entreaties are found to be of no avail, females sometimes try the force of tears.

Chimerical, Yahcivw, Utopian was^ derived from the Greek ov, not, and rorot, a place, literallv nowhere, and has the Custom, Prescription. sense of a good or happy place. The what one has been long term Utopia was coined by Sir Thomas

URBANITY. See Suavity. URGE. See Encourage. URGENT. See Pressing. The usage

695

UTOPIAN,

Ideal, Visionary.

UTTER

696

More for his famous work,

published in 1513, describing an imaginary island, where the most nearly perfect system of laws and institutions existed; hence Utopian, as an adjective, has come to apply to anything foimded on or involving ideal perfection, and, as a substantive, to a person enthusiastic in efforts to promote schemes for imalloyed social happiness. The term has had a general acceptance ever since Sir Thomas coined it, as it seemed to apply admirably to a class of political and aimed at fectibility.

social

propagandists

impracticable,

ideal

who per-

UTTER,

Speak, Articulate. ProMiddle English outen, a verb formed from the adverb

nounce.

Utter, hova out,

corresponding to the colloquial expression "out with it," signifies to send forth a sound: this, therefore, is a more general term than speak, which is to viler an inteUigible sound. may utter a groan; we speak words only or that which is intended to serve as words. To speak, therefore, is only a species of vlterance; a dumb man has utterance, but not speech. Articulate and pronounce are modes of speaking; to articulate, from articulation, a joint, is to pronounce distinctly the letters or syllables of words; which is the first effort of a child beginning to speak. It is of great importance to out,

We

The term chimerical, from the Latin chinuEra and Greek xifuupa, takes us back to the annals of mythology, wherein the chimera is described as a fire- make a child articulate everj' letter spouting monster with a lion's head, a when he first begins to speak or read. serpent's tail, and a goat's body, that To pronounce, from the Latin pronunwas killed by Bellerophon. Hesiod dare, to speak out loud, is a formal child must first narrates that the monster was the mode of speaking. daughter of Typhaon and Echidna. articulate the letters and the syllables, When the term was introduced into then he pronounces or sets forth the common English language, it was used whole word; this is necessary before he to imply an unreal creature of the can speak to be understood. See also Announce; imagination, and hence any vain or Declabe; idle fancy. As fancy (for derivation see UTTERMOST, Extreme, FarFanciful) signifies a notion, caprice, Uttermost, from Angloidea, creative imagination, or that thest, Last. which does not really exist, but is hoped Saxon vior, signifies the extreme outer to exist, so fanciful signifies whatever edge of anything. It therefore is a one would like to see, do, or possess, more limited application of the idea yet is incapable of in any of these re- contained in extreme. The same is spects. So, too, is the ideal a visionary true of its relation to fartheM and last. condition impossible of reaUzation, Farthest and last have a meaning simhowever desirable or beneficial that ilar to that of extreme, but they emstate might be, because existing only phasize the utmost limit suggested in in the imagination, a mental image, a extreme from different points of view. conception of what ought to be. This Farthest lays the stress on distance; term is also appUed to a person or ob- last expresses the idea in terms o| numject regarded as a standard of perfec- bers, or rather from the standpoint of Last is that which tion, as possessing quahties far above some one counting. comes at the end of a series. the ordinary.

A

VALUABLE

VACANCY, Vacuity, Inanity.

697

"tune" or

"air," hence a fancy or a usually a fancy made especially noticeable by the tenacity with which its possessor clings to and displays it, a thought or idea out of the ordinary, a bit of imagination, groundless but conjured up; and a whim may be a sudden flash of the mind, a more or less ridiculous impression, or the result of a progressive aberration.

Vacancy and vacuity both denote the space unoccupied, or the abstract quality of being unoccupied. Inanity, from the Latin inanis, denotes the atetract quality of emptiness or of not containing anything: hence the former terms vacancy and vacuity are used in an indifferent sense; inanity always in a bad sense: there may be a vacancy in the mind, or a vacancy in life, which we may or may not fill up as we please; but inanity of character denotes the want of the essentials that constitute

whim,

is

VAGRANT. See Truant. VAGUE. See Loose.

VAIN, Ineffectual, Fruitless. These epithets arc all applied to our VACANT. See Empty; Idle. endeavors; bi the term vain (see VACILLATE, Waver. VacUlate, Idle) is the most general and indeffrom Latin vacUlare, to waver, is the inite; the other terms are particular Latin word corresponding to the native and definite. What we aim at, as English waver, a frequentative of wave. well as what we strive for, may be Waver is used with a literal as well as a vain; but neff dual, that is, not figurative significance. Vacillate is now effectual (see Effective), &nd fruitless, used only figuratively to indicate men- that is, without fruit, signifying not tal indecision, an inability to deter- Eroducing the desired fruit of one's mine upon a course of action or an ibor, refer only to the termination or opinion and to stick to it. It has a value of our labors. When the object more limited application than waver, aimed at is general in its import it but is more specific within its narrower is common to term the endeavor vain field. when it cannot attain this object: it VAGARY, Crotchet, Fancy, Whim. is vain to attempt to reform a person's Vagary, in Latin vagari, French vaguer, character until he is convinced that Italian vagare, as a transitive signifies he stands in need of reformation; to roam, stroll, wander; as a sub- when the means employed are inadestantive, a wandering of the thoughts, quate for the attainment of the para wild freak, a whim, an unsubstantial ticular end, it is usual to call the enpurpose, an imaginary concept, a ca- deavor ineffectual; cool arguments will pricious frolic; as a verb, to wander be ineffectual in convincing any one inflamed with a particular passion; about or wind, as a river. A vagary, in whatever form it may when labor is specinoally employed for assume, is an outgrowth of an un- the attainment of a particular object, steady mind, in most instances harm- it is usual to term it fruitless if it fail: less, though often annoying to others; peace-makers will often find themin some instances a consequence of selves in this condition, that their labors will be rendered fruitless by the imbecility, delirium, or insanity. A caprice (derived through French violent passions of angry opponents. VALOR. See Bravery. from Italian capriccio, from caprio, VALUABLE, Precious. Costly. goat, meaning a sudden leap of the mind like the leap of a goat compare Valuable signifies fit to be valued; caper), or sudden impulse of the mind, precious, having a high price; cosily, may take the form of an innocent costing much money. Valuable exa presses directly the idea of value; prefrolic or of a questionable act; crotchet, originally a musical term, cious and costly express the same idea a character.

-

—

i

1

VANJSH indirectly: on the other hand, that which is valuable is said only to be fit or deserving of value; but precious and

denote that which is highly according to the ordinary measure of valuing objects, that is, by the price they bear; hence, the latter two express the idea much more strongly than the former. costly

valuable,

They are similarly distinguished in their moral appHcation: a book is valuable according to its contents, or according to the estimate which men set upon it, either individually or collectively. The Bible is the only precious book in the world that has intrinsic value, that is, set above aU price. '

many costly things, which are valuable only to the individuals who are disposed to expend money upon them. Value, Worth, Rate, Price. Value, from the feminine past participle of the French valoir, Latin valere, to be strong, implies those essential qualities which constitute its strength. Worth, in Anglo-Saxon weorth, valuable, a Germanic word from the root war, to guard or keep, foimd in wary, ward, etc., signifies that which deserves to be kept and guarded, hence the good experienced or felt to exist in a thing. Rate (see Proportion). Price, through Old French from Latin pretium, signifies what a thing is sold for. Value is a general and indefinite term, applied to whatever is conceived to be good in a thing: the worth is that good only which is conceived or known as such. The value, therefore, of a thing is as variable as the humors and circumstances of men; it may be nothing or something very great in the same object at the same time in the eyes of different men. The worth is, however, that value which is acknowledged; it is therefore something more fixed and permanent: we speak of the value of external objects which are determined by taste; hut the worth of things as determined by rule. The value of a book that is out of print is fluctuating and uncertain; but its real worth may not be more than what it would fetch for waste paper. The rate and price are the measures of that value or worth; the former in a general, the latter in a particular, application to mercantile transactions. Whatever There are

—

M'*

..V./v

we

give in exchange for another thing, whether according to a definite or an indefinite estimation, is said to be done at a certain rate; thus we purchase pleasure at a dear rate when it is at the expense of our health: price is the rate of exchange estimated by coin or any othc' medium hence price is a fixed rate, and may be figuratively appUed in that sense to moral objects; :

as when health is expressly sacrificed to pleasure, it may be termed the price of pleasure. Value, Prize, Esteem. To value is in the literal sense to fix a value on a thing. Prize, signifying to fix a price, and esteem are both modes of valuing. To value is to set any value, real or supposititious, relative or absolute, on a thing: in this sense men value gold above silver, or an appraiser values goods. To value may be appUed to either material or spiritual subjects, to corporeal or mental actions prize and esteem are taken only as mental actions ; the former in reference to sensible or moral objects, the latter only to moral objects: we may value books according to their market price, or we may, value them according to their contents; we prise books only for their contents, in which sense prize is a much stronger term than value; we also prize men for their usefulness to society; we esteem their moral char-

—

:

9,otprs

VANISH. See Disappear. VANITY. See Pride. VANQUISH. See Conquer. VARIABLE. See Changeable. VARIATION, Variety. Variation denotes

act of varying (see variety denotes the quality The of varying, or the thing varied. astronomer observes the variations in

the

Change);

the heavens; the philosopher observes the variations in the climate from year Variety is pleasing to all perto year. sons, but to none so much as the young and the fickle: there is an infinite variety in every species of objects, animate or inanimate. VARIOUS. See Different. VARNISH. See Gloss. VARY. See Change; Differ. VASSALAGE. See Thraldom. VAST. See Enormous. VAUNT. See Gasconade; Glory.

VffiW

VEHEMENT. VEIL.

See Violent.

See Cloak.

VELOCITY. See Quickness. VENAL, Mercenary. VenaLJxam

^

the Latin venalis. signifips nr jjf, "ready to be sold, which. ar)nl|erson or who bear the burden expect to reap the animal born of a good breed, stock, or fruit of their labor; he who carries loads race, or one well-bom. The term has a must be contented to take such as are broad application in the personal sense, given him. as it implies refinement and cultivation In the moral application these terms in either sex. A courteous person {i.e., mark the pain which is produced by a one who has courtly manners) is always pressure; but the weight and load polite and obliging: a cultivated one exrather describe the positive severity hibits the training or refining of the inof the pressure; the burden respects tellectual and socin,! faculties a polished the temper and incUnations of the one possesses elegance and suavity and a refined one displays sufferer; the load is in this case a very of manners great weight: a minister of state has an unvarying good taste and an instinca weight on his mind at all times, from tive aversion to anything that is coarse the heavy responsibility which attaches or extreme in thought or expression. These qualities are not always to be to his station; one who labors under strong apprehensions or dread of an found in one person, for a courteous evil has a load on his mind; any sort of one may be such from cultivation, not employment is a burden to one who from nature, education, or association; wishes to be idle; and time unem- a polished one is not necessarily cottrployed is a burden to him who wishes teous, for he may be such from study, association, or imitation and still lack to be always in action. WELCOME. See Acceptable; Ac- many of the qualities of good-breeding; but a adtivated one is apt to exhibit the cost. best and most attractive features of a WELFARE. See Weal. WELL-BEING, Welfare, Pros- broad and universal training, a wide perity, Happiness. Well-being may knowledge of both books and men, and be said of one or many, but more of a a high regard for the niceties of polite body; the well-^eing of society depends society. WHEEDLE. See Coax. upon a due subordination of the difWHIM. See Freak; Vagart. ferent ranks of which it is composed. WHIMSICAL. See Fanciful. Welfare, or faring well, respects the WHINING. See Querulous. good condition of an individual; a WHIP. See Lash. parent is naturally anxious for the WHIRL. See Turn. Well-being and welfare of his child. •

;

:

WHOLE, Entire. Complete, Towelfare consist of such things as more immediately affect our existence: pros- tal, Ln'Teural. Whole excludes subentire excludes division; perity, which comprehends both well- traction;

WHOLESOME

TIO

a whole orange has had nothing taken from it; an entire orange is not yet cut; and a complete orange is grown to its full complete excludes deficiency:

size:

it

is

possible,

therefore,

for

be done by fraud and circumvention, and nefarious if it involves any breach of trust; any undue influence over another, in the making of his will, to

a the detriment of the rightful heir, iniquitous; any underhand deahng a servant to defraud his master

thing to be whole and not entire: and to be both, and yet not complete: an orange cut into parts is whole while all the parts remain together, but it is not entire; it may be whole as distinguished from a part, entire as far as it has no wound or incision in it; but it may not be a complete orange Whole if it is defective in its growth. is applied to everything of which there may be a part actually or in imagination; as the whole line, the whole day, the whole world: entire is applied only to such things as may be damaged or injm-ed, or is already damaged to its fullest extent; as an entire building, or entire ruin: complete is applied to that which does not require anything further to be done to it; as a complete house, a complete circle, and the like. Total, from Low Latin totalis, extended from totus, the whole, has the same significance, but only a Umited application; as a total amount or a total darkness, as distinguished from a partial amount or a partial degree of darkness. Integral, from integer, literally untouched, from in (not) and the root tag which appears in the Latin tangere, to touch, has the same signification, but is applied now to parts or nimibers not broken. See also All. WHOLESOME. See Healthy. WHOLLY. See Quite. WICKED, Iniquitous, Nefarious. Wicked (see Bad) is here the generic term; iniquitous, from iniquus, incequus, not equal, signifies that species of wickedness which consists in violating the law of right between man and man; nefarious, from the Latin nefas, not according to the law (from fari, to speak, a law being something spoken, decreed, either by man or a power above man. Compare fatum, The term fate, the thing spoken). wicked, being indefinite, is commonly apphed in a milder sense than iniquitous; and iniquitous than nefarious: it is wicked to deprive another of his property unlawfully, under any circumstances; but it is iniquitous if it

is

of is

nefarious.

WIDE. WIELD,

See Large.

Brandish. Wield, from Anglo-Saxon wealdan, to have power, means to exercise with skill and effect. It is used with reference to the skilful handling of a weapon to uneld a sword, to uneld an axe and, figuratively, of the exercising of any power, as when we say "He wields a great influence." Brandish resembles urield in its physical appHcation. It meant, Uterally, to wield a sword, from Ola French brand, sword, of Germanic origin. However, it does not imply such a skilful handling as wield; there

— —

more show and

flourish in brandish. is to wave it in the air so that every one may see and fear; to uneld a sword is to exercise it skilfully in the work for which it waa intended. In its figurative application is

To brandish a sword

brandish means to make a great show power and authority, to flourish threateningly.

of

WILFUL.

See Wayward. WILL, Wish. The will is that faculty of the soul which is the most prompt and decisive; it immediately impels to' action the msh is but a gentle motion of the soul toward a thing. We can will nothing but what we can effect; :

we may

urish for many things which above our reach. The will must be under the entire control of reason or it will lead a person into every mischief: unshes ought to be under the direction of reason or otherwise they may greatly disturb our happiness. lie

Willingly, Voluntarily, SpontaneousTo do a thing unllingly is to do it with a good will; to do a thing voluntarily is to do it of one's own accord: the former implies one's willingness to comply with the wishes of another; we do what is asked of us; it is a mark of good-nature: the latter implies our freedom from foreign influence; we do that which we like to do; it is a mark of our sincerity. It is pleasant to see a child do his task ly.

—

WONDER willingly; it is pleasant to see a man voluntarily engage in any service of

public good. Spontaneously (from a lost Latin substantive spans) is but a mode of the voluntary, applied, however, more commonly to inanimate objects than to the will of persons: the groimd produces spontaneously when it produces without culture; and words flow spontaneously which require no effort on the part of the speaker to produce them. If, however, applied to the will, it bespeaks in a stronger degree the totally unbiassed state of the agent's mind: the spontaneous effusions of the heart are more than the voluntary services of benevolence. The willing is opposed to the unwilling, the voluntary to the mechanical or involuntary, the spontaneous to the reluctant or the artificial.

WILY. WIN.

See Cunning. See Acquire. See Turn.

WIND. WISDOM,

Prudence.

Wisdom,

alUed to German vxissen, to know, is the general term it embraces the whole of practical knowledge: prudence (see Prudent) is a branch of urisdom. Wisdom directs all matters present or to come. Prudence, which acts by foresight, directs what is to come. Rules of conduct are framed by wisdom, and it is the part of prudence to apply these rules to the business of life. WISH. See Desire; Will. WIT, Humor, Satire, Irony, Burlesque. Wit, like wisdom, according to its original, from Anglo-Saxon witan, to know (compare German udssen), signifies knowledge, but it has so extended its meaning as to signify that faculty of the mind by which knowledge or truth is perceived, and in a more limited sense the faculty of discovering the agreements or disagree;

ments

Wit, in this of different ideas. latter sense, is properly a spontaneous faculty, arid is, as it were, a natural gift: labored or forced vrit is no uril. 5^flection and experience supply us with wisdom; stuav and labor supply us with learning; but urit seizes with an eagle eye that which escapes the notice of the deep thinker ana elicits truths which are in vain sought for with any severe effort. Humor is a species of wit which flows

711

out of the humor of a person. Wit, as distinguished from humor, may consist of a single brilliant thought; but humor runs in a vein; it is not a striking, but an equable and pleasing flow of

u)it.

Of

Addison, plain

this description of unt

who knew

what

unt

best

and humor

by

Mr.

how

to exwere, and to

his practice, has given us the most admirable specimens his illustrate it

m

writings.

Humor may

likewise display itself in actions as well as words, whereby it is more strikingly distinguished from wit, which displays itself only in the happy expression of happy thoughts. Satire (from satura lanx, a full dish, a dish of mixed ingredients, applied figuratively to a species of poetry full of animadversions on different persons and events) and irony, from the Greek tlpojvtia, simulation and dissimulation, are personal and censorious sorts of unt, the first of which openly points at the object and the second in a covert manner takes its aim. Burlesque (perhaps from Latin hurrula, diminutive of burrce, trifles, Italian burlesco, ludicrous) is rather a species of humor than direct wit, which consists in an assemblage of ideas extravagantly discordant. The satire and irony are the most ill-natured kinds of wit; burlesque stands in the lowest rank.

See also Ingenuity. WITHDRAW. See Recede; Wean. WITHSTAND. See Oppose. WITNESS. See Deponent, WOFUL. See Piteous. WONDER, Admire, Surprise, Astonish, Amaze. Wonder is a Germanic word whose ultimate derivation is unknown. Admire is derived from Latin admirari, to wonder at, and allied to miracle, a thing to be wonSurprise, compounded of dered at. French sur, on, and prise, taken, the feminine past participle of prendre, from Latin prehendere, signifies to take on a sudden. Astonish, Old French estoner, Latin ex and tonare, to thunder (compare the word thunderstruck, a forceful and colloquial sj'nonyme of a*tonished), signifies to strike as it were with the overpowering noise of thunder. Amaze signifies to be in a maze, so as not to be able to collect one's self. That particular feeling which any-

WOOD-ENGRAVING

712

thing unusual produces on our minds is expressed by all these terms, but under various modifications. Wonder is the most indefinite in its signification or apphcation, but it is still the least vivid sentiment of all it amounts to httle more than a pausing of the mind, a suspension of the thinking faculty, an incapacity to fix on a discernible point in an object that rouses our curiosity: it is that state which all must experience at times, but none so much as those who are ignorant: they wonder at everything, because they know nothing. Admiration is wonder mixed with esteem or veneration: the admirer suspends his thoughts, not from the vacancy, but the fulness, of his mind: he is riveted to an object which for a time absorbs his faculties: nothing but what is great and good excites admiration, and none but cultivated minds are susceptible of it: an ignorant person cannot admire, because he cannot appreciate the value of anything. Surprise and astonishment both arise from that which happens imexpectedly; they axe species of wonder differing in degree, and produced only by the events of life: the surprise, as its derivation implies, takes us unawares; we are surprised if that does not happen which we calculate upon, as the absence of a friend whom we looked for; or we are surprised if that happens which we did not calculate upon; thus we are surprised to see a friend re:

timied

whom we

supposed was on

—

Monster. Wonder is that which causes worder. Miracle, Latin miraculum, is allied to admire, which see above. Marvel is derived from Latin mirabilia, which has the same root signifying wonder. Prodigy, from Latin prod for pro, and a supposititious word, agium, a saying, which also appears in adage, means a saying beforehand, hence a sign, token, or portent, something extraordinary. Monster, in Latin monstrum, comes from moneo to warn, because among the Romans any unaccountable appearance was considered as an indication of some future event. Wonders are natural: miracles are supernatural. The whole universe is full of wonders; the Bible contains an account of the miracles which happened in those days. Wonders are real; marvels are often fictitious; prodigies are extravagant and imaginary. Natural history is full of wonders; travels abound in marvels or in marvellous stories, which are the inventions either of the artful or the ignorant and credulous: ancient history contains numberless accounts of prodigies. Wonders are fitting to the laws of nature; they are wonderful only as respects ourselves: monsters are violations of the laws of nature. The production of a tree from a grain of seed is a wonder; but the production of a calf with two heads is

—

a monster.

WOOD-ENGRAVING. WOOER. See WORD, Term,

his

astonishment may be awakened by similar events which are more unexpected and more unaccountable: thus we are astonished to find a friend at our house whom we had every reason to suppose was many hundred miles off; or we are astonished to hear that a person has got safely through a road which we conceived to be absolutely impassable. Surprise may for a moment startle; astonishment may stupefy and cause an entire suspension of the faculties; but amazement has also a mixture of perturbation. We may be surprised and astonished at things in which we have no particular interest: we are mostly amazed at that which immediately concerns us. Wonder, Miracle, Marvel, Prodigy,

See Xyl-

ography.

journey:

Lover. Expression.

Word

here the generic term, the other two are specific. Every term and exjyression is a word, but every word is not denominated a term or expression. Language consists of words; they are the connected sounds which serve for the communication of thought. Term, from terminus, a boundary, signifies any word that has a specific or hmited meaning; expression (see Express) signifies is

any word which conveys a meaning. Usage determines

forcible

words; science fixes terms; sentiment provides expressions. The purity of a style depends on the choice of words; the precision of a writer depends upon the choice of his terms; the force of a writer

depends upon the aptitude of pressions.

The grammarian

his extreats of

WRY

expressions. See also Promise.

713

WRETCHED.

the nature of words; the philosopher weighs the value of scientific terms; the rhetorician estimates the force of

See Unhappy.

WRING. See Turn. WRITER, Penman, Scribe. an

indefinite term; every writes is called a writer; but

is

WORK,

Writer

one who none are

Labor, Toil, Drudgery, penmen but such as are expert at their Work, in Saxon weorc, Greek pen. Many who profess to teach writipyov, is the general term, as including ing are themselves but sorry writers: that which calls for the exertion of the best penman are not always the best our strength labor (for derivation see teachers of writing. The scribe is one that term) differs from it in the de- who writes for the purpose of copying; gree of exertion required; it is hard he is, therefore, an official writer. work: toil, probably connected with Writer and penman have an extended nil, expresses a still higher degree of appUcation to one who writes his own painful exertion: drudgery (see Ser- compositions; the former is now used vant) implies a mean and degrading for an author or composer, as the work. Every member of society must writer of a letter or the vniter of a book work for his support, if he is not in in- the latter for one who pens anything dependent circumstances: the poor worthy of notice for the use of the public. are obUged to labor for their daily subScribe may be taken for one who persistence; some are compelled to toil in- forms, as it were, the oflfice of writing cessantly for the pittance which they for another. Task.

:

"

—

earn: drudgery falls to the lot of those Writer, Author. Writer refers us to who are the lowest in society. man the act of writing; author ('from Latin wishes to complete his work; he is de- auctor, an originator, literally one who sirous of resting from his labor; he makes a thing to grow, from au^re, seeks for a respite from his toil; he sub- to increase) lays emphasis on the act mits to drudgery. There are, therefore, of inventing. Task, from Latin tasca, a tax (