Britannica Book of the Year 2011 9781615355006

Table of contents :
Contents
Foreword
DATES OF 2010
Calendar
Disasters
PEOPLE OF 2010
Nobel Prizes
Biographies
Obituaries
SPECIAL REPORTS
The Persistent Economic Slump
BP’s Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
Freedom from Empire: An Assessment of Postcolonial Africa
Yemen’s Perilous State
Cyberwarfare: The Invisible Threat
The Tea Party: A New Force in U.S. Politics
Invasive Species: Exotic Intruders
Engineering for Earthquakes
Molecular Gastronomy: The Science Behind the Cuisine
The XXI Olympic Winter Games
EVENTS OF 2010
Anthropology and Archaeology
Architecture and Civil Engineering
Art and Art Exhibitions
Art
Art Exhibitions
Photography
Business Overview
Computers and Information Systems
Earth Sciences
Geology and Geochemistry
Geophysics
Meteorology and Climate
Education
Primary and Secondary Education
Higher Education
The Environment
International Activities
National Developments
Environmental Issues
Wildlife Conservation
Wind Turbines: A New Spin on Energy
Fashions
Health and Disease
The Provisions of the Landmark 2010 U.S. Health Care Reform Legislation
Life Sciences
Zoology
Botany
Molecular Biology and Genetics
Paleontology
Literature
English,
German
French
Italian
Spanish
Portuguese
Russian
Persian
Arabic
Chinese
Japanese
Military Affairs
WMD, Arms Control and Disarmament
Conflicts
Military Technology
Armed Forces and Politics
Military and Society
Performing Arts
Music
Dance
Theatre
Motion Pictures
Physical Sciences
Chemistry
Physics
Astronomy
Space Exploration
Religion
Sports and Games
Automobile Racing
Baseball
Basketball
Bobsleigh Skeleton and Luge
Boxing
Cricket
Curling
Cycling
Equestrian Sports
Football
FIFA WORLD CUP 2010
Golf
Gymnastics
Ice Hockey
Ice Skating
Sailing (Yachting)
Skiing
Squash
Swimming
THE YOUTH OLYMPIC GAMES OF 2010
Tennis
Track and Field Sports (Athletics)
Volleyball
Weightlifting
Wrestling
Sporting Record
THE WORLD IN 2010
World Affairs
United Nations
European Union
Multinational and Regional Organizations
Dependent States
Antarctica
Arctic Regions
Countries of the World
THE DEBT CRISIS IN THE EURO ZONE
AUSTRALIAN ELECTION OF 2010
THE SHANGHAI EXPO
HAITI’S CATASTROPHIC EARTHQUAKE
THE BRITISH ELECTION OF 2010
U.S. 2010 MIDTERM ELECTIONS
CONTRIBUTORS
WORLD DATA
Contents
Introduction
Glossary
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
Countries, Dependencies, and Territories
Afghanistan
Albania
Algeria
American Samoa
Andorra
Angola
Antigua and Barbuda
Argentina
Armenia
Aruba
Australia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Bahamas, The
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Barbados
Belarus
Belgium
Belize
Benin
Bermuda
Bhutan
Bolivia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
Brunei
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Cape Verde
Cayman Islands
Central African Republic
Chad
Chile
China
Colombia
Comoros
Congo, Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Republic of the
Costa Rica
Côte d’Ivoire
Croatia
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Djibouti
Dominica
Dominican Republic
East Timor
Ecuador
Egypt
El Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Estonia
Ethiopia
Faroe Islands
Fiji
Finland
France
French Guiana
French Polynesia
Gabon
Gambia, The
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Greenland
Grenada
Guadeloupe
Guam
Guatemala
Guernsey
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Hong Kong
Hungary
Iceland
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Ireland
Isle of Man
Israel
Italy
Jamaica
Japan
Jersey
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kenya
Kiribati
Korea, North
Korea, South
Kosovo
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Latvia
Lebanon
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macau
Macedonia
Madagascar
Malawi
Malaysia
Maldives
Mali
Malta
Marshall Islands
Martinique
Mauritania
Mauritius
Mayotte
Mexico
Micronesia, Federated States of
Moldova
Monaco
Mongolia
Montenegro
Morocco
Mozambique
Myanmar (Burma)
Namibia
Nauru
Nepal
Netherlands
Netherlands Antilles
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Nicaragua
Niger
Nigeria
Northern Mariana Islands
Norway
Oman
Pakistan
Palau
Panama
Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
Peru
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Puerto Rico
Qatar
Réunion
Romania
Russia
Rwanda
St. Kitts and Nevis
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
Samoa
San Marino
Sao Tome and Principe
Saudi Arabia
Senegal
Serbia
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Singapore
Slovakia
Slovenia
Solomon Islands
Somalia
South Africa
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Suriname
Swaziland
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Taiwan
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Thailand
Togo
Tonga
Trinidad and Tobago
Tunisia
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Tuvalu
Uganda
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
United States
Uruguay
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Venezuela
Vietnam
Virgin Islands (U.S.)
Yemen
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Comparative National Statistics
World and regional summaries
Government and international organizations
Area and population
Major cities and national capitals
Language
Religion
Vital statistics, marriage, family
National product and accounts
Employment and labour
Crops and livestock
Energy
Communications
Health services
Social protection and defense services (social security, crime, military)
Education
Bibliography and sources
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Index of Special Features in Britannica Book of the Year, 2002–2011

Citation preview

ENCYCLOPÆDIA

Britannica

2011

BOOK OF THE YEAR

®

Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Chicago

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London

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New Delhi

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ENCYCLOPÆDIA

Britannica

2011

BOOK OF THE YEAR DIRECTOR AND EDITOR Karen Jacobs Sparks

®

SUPERVISOR, COMPOSITION Carol A. Gaines

HEAD LIBRARIAN Henry Bolzon

SENIOR EDITOR Melinda C. Shepherd

COMPOSITION STAFF Cate Nichols

CURATOR/GEOGRAPHY Lars Mahinske

EDITORIAL STAFF Patricia Bauer Heather Campbell John C. Cunningham Robert Curley Brian Duignan Virginia Gorlinski Erik Gregersen Kathleen Kuiper J.E. Luebering Amy McKenna Lorraine Murray Jeannette L. Nolen Kenneth Pletcher John P. Rafferty Michael Ray Kara Rogers Matt Stefon Noah Tesch Jeffrey Wallenfeldt

ILLUSTRATION STAFF Christine McCabe

ASSISTANT LIBRARIAN Robert M. Lewis

MANAGER, MEDIA ASSET MANAGEMENT Jeannine Deubel

ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF Barbara A. Schreiber

DIRECTOR, STATISTICAL STAFF Rosaline Jackson-Keys SENIOR EDITOR, STATISTICAL STAFF Stephen Neher EDITOR, STATISTICAL STAFF Thad King MANAGER, MEDIA ACQUISITION Kathy Nakamura MEDIA EDITORS Kimberly L. Cleary Nicole DiGiacomo DIRECTOR, ART AND COMPOSITION Steven N. Kapusta

MEDIA ASSET MANAGEMENT STAFF Kurt Heintz CARTOGRAPHY STAFF Ken Chmielewski Michael Nutter

EDITORIAL TECHNOLOGIES Steven Bosco Lisa Braucher Bruce Walters Mark Wiechec DIRECTOR, MANUFACTURING Kim Gerber

DIRECTOR, COPY DEPARTMENT Sylvia Wallace COPY SUPERVISORS Dennis Skord Barbara Whitney COPY EDITORS Yvette Charboneau Alison Eldridge Robert E. Green Jennifer Sale SENIOR COORDINATOR, PRODUCTION CONTROL Marilyn L. Barton DIRECTOR, INFORMATION MANAGEMENT AND RETRIEVAL Carmen-Maria Hetrea INDEX SUPERVISOR Edward Paul Moragne CONTENT ANALYSTS John Higgins Stephen S. Seddon

ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, INC.

Chairman of the Board Jacob E. Safra President Jorge Aguilar-Cauz Senior Vice President, Product Development/Technology and Education Manager Michael Ross Senior Vice President and Editor Dale H. Hoiberg Executive Director, Media and Production Marsha Mackenzie Executive Editor Michael Levy

© 2011 ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Britannica Book of the Year, Encyclopædia Britannica, Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-500-6 No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Britannica.com may be accessed on the Internet at http://www.britannica.com. (Trademark Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.)

Foreword

I

n 2010 much of the world continued to be fraught with tension and uncertainty. Troubling economic news dominated headlines worldwide, while other events—including the explosion of the BP Deepwater Horizon oil rig, which resulted in the spewing of millions of gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico—added to the bad news. Worries also emerged about cyberwarfare attacks on governments and the prospect of invasive species’ thriving in temperatures that were getting warmer by the year. In Yemen al-Qaeda stirred up trouble and gained a foothold in the south of the country by encouraging secessionists to break away from the north, and the militant group established a base from which to coordinate terrorist activities. In the U.S. the grassroots Tea Party movement brewed up a tempest in the political arena with its credo to oppose excessive taxation, immigration, and government intervention in the private sector. In Africa 17 countries, 14 of them former French colonies, marked the 50th anniversary of their independence. The earthquakes in Haiti and Chile brought to the fore the need for smart engineering of buildings to sustain the shocks from massive temblors. On the bright side, the Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver, B.C., provided spills and chills early in the year, and epicureans everywhere savoured the new and interesting concoctions that resulted from the culinary applications of Molecular Gastronomy. All of these topics are covered in Special Reports. Significant elections took place in Australia, the U.K., and the U.S., where the midterm elections resulted in the Republicans’ taking majority control in most states and in the House of Representatives. Some believed that the new and unpopular U.S. health care bill initiated by the administration of Pres. Barack Obama was one factor that led to the Democrats’ defeat. The cataclysmic Haiti earthquake, which killed about 220,000 persons, led to billions of dollars in pledges from countries worldwide, but by year’s end that country had yet to receive many of the donations. Europe had its fair share of economic woes, especially the countries of the so-called PIIGS; Greece and Ireland had to accept massive bailouts to keep their economies afloat. Putting a positive spin on the news, wind turbines were helping to conserve energy, and China’s commercial wind farm began providing electricity to Expo 2010 Shanghai China, a world’s fair that attracted some 70 million visitors. In the realm of sports, the first Summer Youth Olympic Games were held in Singapore, and the association football (soccer) World Cup featured a final duel between Spain and the Netherlands, with the former emerging victorious. These stories appear as Sidebars. A number of sports legends died during the year, including basketball coach John Wooden and three baseball legends: New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner, longtime manager Sparky Anderson, and Cleveland Indians pitcher Bob (“Rapid Robert”) Feller. Hollywood had its share of losses, notably actors Tony Curtis, Dennis Hopper, and Lynn Redgrave. Other prominent deaths included those of Polish Pres. Lech Kaczynski, civil rights activist Dorothy Height, fashion designer Alexander McQueen, writers J.D. Salinger and José Saramago, opera singer Dame Joan Sutherland, and songstresses Lena Horne and Kate McGarrigle. The personalities of the year featured in biographies include WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange, Supreme Court Justice Elena Kagan, British Prime Minister David Cameron, film director Kathryn Bigelow, pop-culture icon Lady Gaga, golfer Phil Mickelson, and baseball pitcher Roy Halladay. In the Britannica family of authors, we salute longtime geology and geochemistry expert Peter J. Wylie, who is retiring after 34 years. Though the news was mostly bad in 2010, it was a year in which exciting discoveries were made, technology took greater strides forward, and people bid a final farewell to the decade. There are many more compelling stories to read between the pages of this volume, the Britannica Book of the Year 2011. I invite you to discover them. Karen Sparks Director and Editor

Contents

2011 DATES OF 2010

EVENTS OF 2010

Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Anthropology and Archaeology . . 200

Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Architecture and Civil Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

Sports and Games . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 Automobile Racing; Baseball; Basketball; Bobsleigh, Skeleton, and Luge; Boxing; Cricket; Curling; Cycling; Equestrian Sports; Football; FIFA WORLD CUP 2010; Golf; Gymnastics; Ice Hockey; Ice Skating; Sailing (Yachting); Skiing; Squash; Swimming; THE YOUTH OLYMPIC GAMES OF 2010; Tennis; Track and Field Sports (Athletics); Volleyball; Weightlifting; Wrestling; Sporting Record

PEOPLE OF 2010 Nobel Prizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Art and Art Exhibitions . . . . . . . . 209 Art, Art Exhibitions, Photography

Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Business Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Obituaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Computers and Information Systems . . . . . . . . . . 218

SPECIAL REPORTS The Persistent Economic Slump . . . . . . . . . . . . .170 By Joel Havemann

BP’s Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill . . . . . . . . . . . . .174 By Richard Pallardy

Freedom from Empire: An Assessment of Postcolonial Africa . . . . . . . . . . . .176 By Ebenezer Obadare

Yemen’s Perilous State . . . . . . . . .180 By Robert Burrowes

Cyberwarfare: The Invisible Threat . . . . . . . . . . .182 By John B. Sheldon

The Tea Party: A New Force in U.S. Politics . . . . . . . . . .184 By Michael Ray

Invasive Species: Exotic Intruders . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186 By John P. Rafferty

Engineering for Earthquakes . . . .190 By Robert Reitherman

Molecular Gastronomy: The Science Behind the Cuisine . . . . . . . . . . .192 By Hervé This

The XXI Olympic Winter Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 By Melinda C. Shepherd

Earth Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Geology and Geochemistry, Geophysics, Meteorology and Climate Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Primary and Secondary Education, Higher Education The Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 International Activities, National Developments, Environmental Issues, Wildlife Conservation, WIND TURBINES: A NEW SPIN ON ENERGY Fashions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

THE WORLD IN 2010 World Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 United Nations, European Union, Multinational and Regional Organizations, Dependent States, Antarctica, Arctic Regions Countries of the World . . . . . . . . 360 THE DEBT CRISIS IN THE EURO ZONE; AUSTRALIAN ELECTION OF 2010; THE SHANGHAI EXPO; HAITI’S CATASTROPHIC EARTHQUAKE; THE BRITISH ELECTION OF 2010; U.S. 2010 MIDTERM ELECTIONS

Health and Disease . . . . . . . . . . . 240 THE PROVISIONS OF THE LANDMARK 2010 U.S. HEALTH CARE REFORM LEGISLATION

CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . 493

Life Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Zoology, Botany, Molecular Biology and Genetics, Paleontology

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Persian, Arabic, Chinese, Japanese Military Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 WMD, Arms Control, and Disarmament; Conflicts; Military Technology; Armed Forces and Politics; Military and Society Performing Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Music, Dance, Theatre, Motion Pictures Physical Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Chemistry, Physics, Astronomy, Space Exploration

WORLD DATA

. . . . . . . . . 497

In 2010, as economies around the world struggled to recover from the Great Recession of 2008–09, continuing high unemployment, particularly in developed countries, triggered protests, including this banner in London’s Parliament Square depicting a long line of job seekers. Facundo Arrizabalaga—EPA/Landov

Dates of 2010

A few lone individuals wander amid the wreckage on a street in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, after the city and surrounding areas were severely damaged by a devastating earthquake and several aftershocks in January. Gregory Bull, File/AP

January Parliament has collapsed. The tax office has collapsed. Schools have collapsed. Hospitals have collapsed. Haitian Pres. René Préval, describing effects of the previous day’s earthquake, January 13

A suicide truck bomber attacks a crowd watching a volleyball match in the village of Shah Hasan Khel outside South Waziristan in Pakistan, killing some 91 people; it is thought that the assault is aimed against an anti-Taliban militia being organized in the village. • The yearlong celebration marking the bicentennial of composer Frédéric Chopin’s birth begins with a ceremony in his birthplace, Zelazowa Wola, Pol., and a concert in Warsaw.

Afghanistan’s legislature rejects 17 of the 24 people nominated for cabinet positions by Pres. Hamid Karzai for his second term of office. • A magnitude-5.3 earthquake in the eastern Pamir Mountains devastates the villages of Rog and Gishkon in Tajikistan; some 20,000 people are left homeless.

The United States and the United Kingdom close their embassies in Sanaa, the capital of Yemen, in view of apparent threats from the terrorist 8

organization al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula.

The price of a barrel of crude oil closes at $81.51, its highest price since October 2008. • The world’s tallest building is ceremonially opened in Dubai, U.A.E.; the 160-story, 828-m (2,717-ft)-high tower, which dwarfs the Taipei 101, the previous record holder, is given the name Burj Khalifa in honour of the leader of Abu Dhabi, which gave financial assistance to Dubayy at the end of 2009.

Pres. Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson of Iceland vetoes legislation passed in 2009 to compensate the governments of Britain and the Netherlands for funds they used to repay depositors who lost money when the Icelandic banking system collapsed in late 2008. • Beset by demands and intimidation from the Islamist militant group alShabaab, the UN World Food Programme announces the indefinite suspension of much of its program in southern Somalia.

Hirohisa Fujii resigns as Japan’s finance minister just before the presentation of the budget for the next fiscal year to the legislature; he is replaced by Deputy Prime Minister Naoto Kan. • In Turkmenistan, Turkmen Pres. Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov and Iranian Pres. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad ceremonially open a natural gas pipeline that runs from Turkmenistan to Iran. • A suicide car bomber detonates his weapon outside a traffic police station in Makhachkala, the capital of the Russian republic of Dagestan; seven police officers are killed.

China’s central bank raises its short-term interest rate slightly; the move is regarded as a significant one. • In southern Egypt thousands of Coptic Christians riot in response to an overnight drive-by shooting in Naj! Hammadi in which six Christians were killed. • The University of Alabama defeats the University of

Texas 37–21 in college football’s Bowl Championship Series title game in Pasadena, Calif., to win the NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision championship.

Switzerland’s Federal Administrative Court rules that the Financial Market Supervisory Authority overstepped its authority when it ordered the banking giant UBS to give U.S. investigators financial data on some 300 clients suspected of tax evasion. • Pres. Hugo Chávez of Venezuela announces a devaluation of the country’s currency; Venezuela’s economy shrank by 2.9% in 2009. • The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the unemployment rate in December 2009 remained at 10% but that the economy lost 85,000 jobs.

Togo withdraws from the African Cup of Nations association football (soccer) tournament after the team bus was ambushed and three of those aboard, including an

January

assistant coach, were killed en route to a match in Cabinda, Angola.

After three days of race riots in Rosarno, Italy, in southern Calabria, some 1,000 guest workers from sub-Saharan Africa have been evacuated to immigrant centres. • Ivo Josipovic of the opposition Social Democratic Party wins the runoff presidential election in Croatia. • Voters in the French overseas départements of Martinique and French Guiana both reject proposals for greater autonomy from France in referendums. • Solar physicist Jacob Heerikhuisen reports that the ribbon of energetic neutral particles found by NASA’s Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) spacecraft at the edge of the solar system in 2009 may indicate a galactic magnetic field reflecting solar particles back into the solar system.

Peter Robinson temporarily steps down as Northern Ireland’s first minister as a scandal unfolds involving loans taken by his wife for her lover. • Figures are released showing that China has passed the U.S. to become the largest automobile market in number of vehicles sold; data released a day earlier showed that it has also passed Germany to become the biggest exporter of manufactured goods. • Former St. Louis Cardinals slugger Mark McGwire, who holds the Major League Baseball record for home runs in a single season, publicly admits that he used steroids throughout the

1990s; his record of 70 home runs was set in 1998. • The Pak Institute for Peace Studies reports that 3,021 Pakistanis were killed in terrorist attacks in 2009, 33% more than in the previous year, and that 667 people were killed in air strikes from American drones.

The Internet company Google announces that it will cease cooperating with censorship of search results in China and that it may withdraw from China entirely; it cites cyberattacks that took place the previous month, many of which appeared to target Google e-mail accounts of Chinese human rights activists. • A devastating magnitude7.0 earthquake flattens Port-au-Prince, the capital of Haiti, and the death toll is feared to be enormous; among the buildings destroyed or heavily damaged are the national cathedral, the presidential palace (photo below), those housing the parliament, the tax office, and the Ministries of Commerce and Foreign Affairs, and the headquarters of the UN mission in the country.

• Hundreds of people march in Abuja, Nigeria, to protest the lengthy absence of Pres. Umaru Musa Yar’Adua, who has been in Saudi Arabia getting medical treatments since late November 2009. • Saudi Arabia announces that its forces have killed hundreds of al-Huthi insurgents in the border village of Al-Jabri, and fighting between Yemeni forces and al-Huthi rebels takes place in Sa!dah, Yemen.

The UN releases a report saying that in 2009 in Afghanistan 2,412 civilians were killed—a 14% increase from the previous year—and that 1,630 of them were killed by Taliban and other insurgent groups; the figure is the highest since the fall of the Taliban regime in late 2001. • The journal Nature publishes online a study led by Jennifer Hughes and David Page of the Whitehead Institute in Cambridge, Mass., in which it was found that the human Y chromosome, the male-determining chromosome, constantly renews itself and undergoes rapid evolutionary change; it had been thought that the chromosome was decaying.

Iraq’s Independent High Electoral Commission surprises observers by barring 499 candidates from running for office in upcoming legislative elections because of their ties to the outlawed Ba!th Party. • The European Central Bank leaves its benchmark interest rate at 1%, and its president, Jean-Claude Trichet, warns that Greece should not expect special treatment from the bank. • Aid begins to trickle in to the decimated city of Port-auPrince, where Haitian Pres. René Préval says that 7,000 people have been buried in a mass grave, and the death toll is thought to be in the neighbourhood of 200,000.

After three days of negotiations, Moussa Dadis Camara, leader of the ruling junta in Guinea, agrees to remain in exile in Burkina Faso and to allow the deputy leader, Sékouba Konaté, to oversee a transition back to democracy. • Russia’s legislature ratifies a protocol to reform the European Court of Human Rights; with this final ratification, the court may now

Logan Abassi—Minustah/Getty Images

9

January

commence implementing the procedures set forth in the protocol. • Radio Mashaal, a Pashtolanguage station of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, begins broadcasting in the border regions of Pakistan.

Iraq’s legislature rejects 10 of the new cabinet choices offered by Pres. Hamid Karzai and the following day begins its winter break. • The Dakar Rally concludes in Buenos Aires; the winners are Spanish driver Carlos Sainz in a Volkswagen automobile, French driver Cyril Despres on a KTM motorcycle, Russian driver Vladimir Chagin in a Kamaz truck, and Argentine driver Marcos Patronelli in a Yamaha ATV.

Violent fighting between Christians and Muslims breaks out in Jos, Nigeria; over the next three days, some 400 people, most of them Muslims, are killed. • Conservative candidate Sebastián Piñera wins the runoff presidential election in Chile, defeating Eduardo Frei of the ruling Concertación coalition, which has held power for some 20 years. • At the Golden Globe Awards in Beverly Hills, Calif., best picture honours go to Avatar and The Hangover; best director goes to James Cameron for Avatar.

An attack by a group of armed militants on the central bank in downtown Kabul is repulsed, leading to a street battle pitting the militants against Afghan soldiers and police that lasts for hours; all seven militants, 10

three soldiers, and two civilians are killed. • Jean-Marie Doré, head of the opposition coalition Forces Vives, is chosen to serve as prime minister of a transitional government in Guinea. • At Thoroughbred horse racing’s 2009 Eclipse Awards, the four-year-old filly Rachel Alexandra is named Horse of the Year. • Sylvie Kauffmann is named the first woman to become executive editor of Le Monde in the respected French newspaper’s 65-year history.

Japan Airlines, Japan’s flagship carrier, files for bankruptcy protection; the airline faces wrenching reorganization. • In Massachusetts, Republican candidate Scott Brown wins election over Democrat Martha Coakley to fill the seat in the U.S. Senate that was long held by Ted Kennedy. • After lengthy and contentious negotiations, the venerable British candy maker Cadbury agrees to be acquired by the Americanbased food and beverage giant Kraft Foods.

A riot between rival gangs breaks out in the prison in Parral in Mexico’s Durango state; 23 inmates die in the violence. • A magnitude-6.1 aftershock rattles Port-au-Prince, Haiti, where people continue to die for lack of medical attention; the dearth of infrastructure is one element hampering the efficient deployment of aid.

In a politically explosive ruling, the U.S.

Supreme Court overturns two previous decisions that were issued in 1990 and 2003 and rules that spending on political campaigns by corporations is protected free speech and cannot be curtailed by the government; Justice John Paul Stevens files a vigorous dissent. • Angola’s legislature approves a new constitution that, among other things, replaces the direct election of the president with a system in which the party that wins the majority of seats in legislative elections will choose the president. • NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies releases figures showing that the decade 2000–09 was the warmest on record, agreeing with conclusions earlier disseminated by the National Climatic Data Center. • The carmaker Toyota Motor Corp. issues a recall for 2.3 million cars from model years 2005–10 to fix a reported problem with accelerators’ becoming stuck, causing unintended acceleration; in November 2009 Toyota recalled 4.2 million vehicles to address a problem of accelerator pedals’ getting stuck under floor mats. • The American television network NBC agrees to pay The Tonight Show host Conan O’Brien $32.5 million to quit the network; it plans to return Jay Leno as host of the show, which he left in May 2009, undoing a plan that was put in place in 2004.

of 124 would-be migrants who had apparently been put ashore the previous night is found; many of the migrants are Kurds from Syria.

U.S. government figures reveal that unemployment rates rose in December 2009 in 43 states, reaching record highs in Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Florida. • On a beach of the French island of Corsica, a boatload

A far-reaching new constitution, the country’s 38th, is proclaimed in the Dominican Republic. • The carmaker General Motors announces that it has found a buyer for its Swedish unit Saab; Spyker Cars, a Dutch manufacturer

British officials say that the owner of ATSC Ltd. has been arrested on fraud charges; hundreds of bomb detectors the company supplied to the Iraqi government have been found to be useless. • Yokozuna Asashoryu defeats ozeki Harumafuji to win his 25th Emperor’s Cup at the New Year Grand Sumo Tournament in Tokyo.

Heavy rains cause mud slides in the area of Machu Picchu in Peru, killing some five people and cutting off road and rail access to the Inca site; hundreds of stranded visitors have to be airlifted to safety. • The Independent Election Commission of Afghanistan postpones the country’s legislative elections from May 22 to September 18, saying that the logistic challenges are too great to make the earlier date possible.

Bombs go off at each of three large hotels that cater largely to foreign journalists and businesspeople in Baghdad; at least 36 people are killed.

January Raveendran—AFP/Getty Images

cuts in an effort to decrease its budget deficit; unemployment in Spain in the last fiscal quarter of 2009 is reported at 18.8%.

of elite sports cars, has agreed to acquire the unit. • A military and cultural parade in New Delhi marks Republic Day on the 60th anniversary of India’s constitution. (Photo above.) • The ticket sales of the movie Avatar, directed by James Cameron, reach $1.86 billion, making it the highestgrossing film in history; the previous sales leader was the 1997 movie Titanic, also directed by Cameron.

Voters in Sri Lanka reelect Pres. Mahinda Rajapakse in a landslide in the country’s presidential election. • Deposed Honduran president Manuel Zelaya flies into voluntary exile in the Dominican Republic, and Porfirio Lobo is sworn in as Honduras’s new president. • U.S. Pres. Barack Obama delivers his first state of the union address; he focuses on initiatives to create more jobs and increase employment.

• In San Francisco, Apple CEO Steven P. Jobs introduces a tablet computer called the iPad; it combines features of laptops, smartphones, and electronic readers.

At an international conference on Afghanistan in London, Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai says that he plans to attempt reconciliation with Taliban members and that it could take as long as 10 years for the Afghan military to be able to take over responsibility from U.S.-led coalition forces. • Former French prime minister Dominique de Villepin is acquitted of charges that he was part of a conspiracy to besmirch the reputation of Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy in 2004 with false information; three other defendants are found guilty. • The U.S. Senate confirms Ben Bernanke to a second term as chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve.

• The Fall of Heaven, the first play written by crime novelist Walter Mosley, adapted from his novel The Tempest Tales, has its world premiere at the Cincinnati (Ohio) Playhouse in the Park. • A report in Science magazine online describes findings that the amount of water vapour in the stratosphere has decreased by about 10% over the past 10 years, reducing the rate of global warming by approximately 25%; in 1980–2000 increased water vapour from methane emitted in the industrial period likely increased the rate of warming.

The U.S. Commerce Department reveals that the country’s GDP in the last fiscal quarter of 2009 expanded at an annual rate of 5.7%, its fastest expansion since the third quarter of 2003, but that the economy shrank drastically for the year as a whole. • Spain’s government proposes broad and deep spending

A large group of masked gunmen attack a house in Juárez, Mex., where high school students are attending a party; at least 16 people are shot to death. • American Serena Williams defeats Justine Henin of Belgium to win the Australian Open women’s tennis championship; the following day Roger Federer of Switzerland defeats Briton Andy Murray to take the men’s title and extend his record string of Grand Slam victories to 16. • Top awards at the annual Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah, go to Winter’s Bone, Restrepo, Happythankyoumoreplease, and Waiting for Superman.

At the African Union’s annual summit meeting in Addis Ababa, Eth., Pres. Bingu wa Mutharika of Malawi succeeds Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi as chairman of the union. • Egypt wins the African Cup of Nations in association football (soccer) for a record seventh time when it defeats Ghana 1–0 in the final match in Angola. • At the Grammy Awards in Los Angeles, the top winner is Beyoncé, who wins six awards, including song of the year for “Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)”; the award for record of the year goes to the Kings of Leon for “Use Somebody”; the album of the year is Taylor Swift’s Fearless; and the best new artist is the Zac Brown Band. 11

February He had a dream to participate in the Olympic Games. He trained hard, and he had this fatal accident. I have no words to say what we feel. International Olympic Committee president Jacques Rogges after the accidental death of Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili hours before the opening ceremony of the Vancouver Winter Olympics, February 12

UN officials announce that 55 countries, representing 78% of global greenhouse gas emissions from energy use, submitted emission-reduction plans to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change by the deadline set by the Copenhagen Accord; the pledges, which do not include submissions from Russia or Mexico and are not enough to meet the goals of the agreement, are regarded as a positive step. • Outside Baghdad a female suicide bomber kills at least 38 Shi!ite pilgrims making their way to Karbala# for a religious observance.

In testimony before the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee, both Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and Adm. Mike Mullen, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, support the repeal of the “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy, in place since 1993, that prevents people who are openly gay from serving in the armed forces. 12

• The British medical journal The Lancet retracts a 1998 article that suggested that the combined measles, mumps, and rubella childhood vaccination is a cause of autism, in light of a finding by a medical panel that Andrew Wakefield, lead author of the paper, had been dishonest.

The European Commission approves Greece’s plan to reduce its deficit, currently 12.7% of GDP. • A bomb goes off in Karbala#, Iraq, killing at least 21 Shi!ite pilgrims. • Pres. Cristina Fernández de Kirchner of Argentina formally dismisses Martín Redrado as president of the country’s central bank and replaces him with Mercedes Marcó del Pont. • A report posted online by The New England Journal of Medicine describes a study in which MRI testing revealed that some persist-

ently unconscious patients show brain activity in response to instructions and are capable of using thoughts to signal answers to yes-or-no questions. • Walking Man I, a bronze sculpture by Alberto Giacometti, sells at Sotheby’s auction house for £65,001,250 (about $104.3 million), a new world record price for a work of art sold at auction.

The Democratic Unionist Party members of Northern Ireland’s legislature approve a government agreement negotiated with Sinn Fein to transfer police and justice functions to local control on April 12. • Indian linguist Anvita Abbi reports that with the January 26 death of Boa Sr, the last known speaker of the Andamanese language of Bo, the language, which is thought to be among the oldest in the world and is believed to have originated in Africa, is extinct.

• A team of paleontologists publishes in Science magazine online a full-colour portrait of the extravagant plumage of Anchiornis huxleyi, a 150-million-yearold theropod. (Illus. right.) • Yokozuna Asashoryu announces his retirement from sumo in the face of reports that he had attacked a man outside a nightclub in Tokyo the previous month.

At least two explosions take place in Karbala#, Iraq, among the crowd of Shi!ite pilgrims marching to the final resting place of Imam Hussein on the final day of a religious observance; a minimum of 27 people die. • In Karachi, a bomb mangles a bus carrying Shi!ites to a religious procession, and within a few hours another bomb explodes in a hospital where the wounded from the first attack were taken; at least 25 people are killed in the attacks.

February

• The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the unemployment rate in January fell to 9.7% although 20,000 jobs were lost from the economy during the same period.

In Northern Ireland, the Irish National Liberation Army declares that it has surrendered its weapons; of the groups that signed the 1997 truce bringing peace to the province, it is the last to lay down its arms. • A winter storm that began the previous day leaves the mid-Atlantic U.S. states buried in snow, with more than 51 cm (20 in) in Washington, D.C., and a record 76 cm (30 in) in Baltimore, Md.; the governors of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia declare states of emergency.

Former prime minister Viktor Yanukovych wins the runoff presidential election in Ukraine, though his opponent, Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko, does not concede. • Laura Chinchilla of the ruling National Liberation Party is elected president of Costa Rica. • In Miami Gardens, Fla., the New Orleans Saints defeat the Indianapolis Colts 31–17 to win the National Football League’s Super Bowl XLIV; it is the first time the Saints have won the championship.

• The Escogido Lions (Leones) of the Dominican Republic defeat the Caracas Lions (Leones) of Venezuela 7–4 to win baseball’s Caribbean Series.

Former opposition presidential candidate Sarath Fonseka is brutally arrested by the military police in Sri Lanka; the following day Pres. Mahinda Rajapakse dissolves the legislature to force early elections. • The space shuttle Endeavour blasts off from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida on a mission to the International Space Station; it carries a seven-windowed cupola and the Tranquility module, which is the last major U.S. component to be installed on the station. • Nielsen figures show that some 106.5 million people watched the Super Bowl on February 7, passing the 105.97 million people who watched the series finale of the television program M*A*S*H to make the football game the most-watched TV program in American history.

Nigeria’s legislature passes a motion to recognize Vice Pres. Goodluck Jonathan as the country’s acting president in view of the lengthy absence of its president; the constitution requires the president to transfer authority in the event of his absence or

incapacity, but he has not done so. • Pres. Omar al-Bashir of Sudan and Pres. Idriss Déby of Chad agree to stop supporting rebels in each other’s countries and to engage in direct talks and joint projects. • Haiti’s government raises the death toll from the earthquake that took place on January 12 to 230,000.

Civil servants in Greece engage in a one-day strike to protest austerity measures proposed by the government to reign in its budget deficit. • Iran slows Internet service and shuts down text messaging in an effort to prevent large opposition demonstrations for the following day’s celebration of the anniversary of the Islamic Revolution; it also blocks Gmail (Google’s e-mail service) in a stated effort to persuade people to use a recently announced national e-mail service.

At a summit meeting in Brussels called by European Council Pres. Herman Van Rompuy, EU leaders agree to aid Greece in order to safeguard the euro but, at the behest of Germany, offer

no specifics beyond monitoring the country’s austerity plan. • South Korean news organizations report that North Korean Prime Minister Kim Yong-Il the previous week apologized for the country’s currency reform, which had caused inflation and deprivation, and lifted the ban imposed under the reform on the use of foreign currency. • Pres. !Ali !Abdallah Salih of Yemen announces an immediate cease-fire with alHuthi rebels; a rebellion had flared up in late 2009.

Pres. Laurent Gbagbo of Côte d’Ivoire declares the government dissolved and asks Prime Minister Guillaume Soro to form a new government; Gbagbo also disbands the electoral commission. • The XXI Olympic Winter Games officially open in Vancouver, though the opening ceremony is overshadowed by the accidental death earlier in the day of Georgian athlete Nodar Kumaritashvili during a practice run for the luge competition. • Renowned chef Ferran Adrià announces that he will close his storied avant-garde restaurant, elBulli, in Roses, Spain, at the end of 2011.

Afghan, U.S., and British military forces begin a major offensive to take the town and area of Marjah in Afghanistan from the Taliban; Marjah is a Taliban stronghold. • Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai issues a decree giving the responsibility for appointing members of the Election Complaint Commission to the president; the commission, which documented

Lisa Dejong—The Plain Dealer/Landov

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February

irregularities in the 2009 presidential election, previously had membership appointed by the UN. • U Tin U, the deputy leader and cofounder of the National League for Democracy, is freed from house arrest in Myanmar (Burma); he had been under detention since 2003. • The first gold medal of the Vancouver Winter Olympics is awarded to Simon Ammann of Switzerland in the normal hill individual ski jump; a week later Ammann also wins gold in the large hill final.

Palestinian Authority Pres. Mahmoud Abbas suspends his chief of staff, Rafiq Husseini, and appoints a committee to investigate accusations, backed up by videotape, that Husseini attempted to trade political favours for sex. • During an intense battle in the offensive in Marjah, Afg., an American rocket strike misses its target and instead hits a civilian compound; at least 10 civilians are killed. • In Daytona Beach, Fla., the 52nd running of the Daytona 500 NASCAR race is won by Jamie McMurray. • After two and a half years of court battles, American challenger BMW Oracle, owned by Larry Ellison, wins the America’s Cup yacht race 2–0 in a head-to-head competition; its yacht, USA-17, comes in five minutes ahead of Swiss defender Alinghi 5 in the final race off the coast of Valencia, Spain.

A police camp in India’s West Bengal state is attacked by some 100 Maoist rebels, who kill at least 15 14

police officers before setting the camp on fire. • Gov. Felix Camacho of the U.S. territory of Guam issues an executive order to government agencies to henceforth in all official communications refer to the island territory as Guahan, which is believed to reflect the island’s original name in the Chamorro language.

The council of European Union finance ministers agrees that if Greece has not complied with austerity demands by the meeting of March 16, it will have spending cuts imposed. • The winners of the George Polk Awards for excellence in journalism are announced; they include a new award for videography, which this year honours the anonymous people responsible for recording and disseminating the video of the killing of a woman at a prodemocracy protest in Iran in June 2009. • The Journal of the American Medical Association publishes the results of a new genetic and medical study of the mummies buried in the pharoah Tutankhamen’s tomb in Egypt; among the findings are the identification of the mummy of Tutankhamen’s father and predecessor as pharoah, Akhenaton, and evidence that Tutankhamen died from the combination of a degenerative bone disease and malaria. • Roundtown Mercedes of Maryscot wins Best in Show at the Westminster Kennel Club’s 134th dog show; the Scottish terrier, known as Sadie, becomes the first dog to take the Triple Crown, having previously won at the National Dog Show and the AKC/Eukanuba National Championship.

Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev and Sergey V. Bagapsh, president of Georgia’s separatist republic of Abkhazia, announce an agreement for a Russian military base to be established in Abkhazia. • A three-judge panel in North Carolina rules that Gregory Taylor was wrongly convicted of a 1991 murder and frees him from prison after hearing the recommendation of the North Carolina Innocence Inquiry Commission; the state, which established the commission in 2006, is the only U.S. state to have such a panel.

A military coup d’état takes place in Niger, and the increasingly unpopular Pres. Mamadou Tandja is taken into military custody; the coup leader is named as Salou Djibo. • At a meeting of militants in a mosque in the Khyber region of Pakistan, a bomb explosion leaves at least 30 people dead. • Yvo de Boer, who leads UN climate change negotiations, announces his resignation as executive secretary of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. • The U.K. unexpectedly posts a budget deficit for January, the month in which its tax receipts are usually highest; it is the country’s first recorded January deficit. • In Vancouver, American Evan Lysacek wins the Olympic gold medal in men’s figure skating.

Officials in the Philippines say that the country is in the grip of a drought that has caused $61 million

in damage to crops and is threatening electrical power from hydroelectric dams; Filipinos are asked to recycle water within their homes. • Pope Benedict XVI approves sainthood for Sister Mary of the Cross (Mary Helen MacKillop), founder of the Congregation of the Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred Heart; she will be Australia’s first Roman Catholic saint.

The government of the Netherlands falls over bitter disagreement as to whether Dutch troops should continue to fight as part of the NATO forces in Afghanistan. • Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko of Ukraine withdraws her court challenge to the election of Viktor Yanukovych as president, saying that she does not believe that she would get a fair hearing. • Roslyn M. Brock is announced as the new chairperson of the board of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP); she will replace Julian Bond, who has held the position since 1998. • Short-track speed skater Apolo Anton Ohno becomes the most decorated American Winter Olympian in history with his seventh career medal, a bronze in the men’s 1,000-m final; on February 26 he adds an eighth Olympic medal, also bronze, in the men’s 5,000-m relay. • The Turkish-German film Bal (Honey), directed by Semih Kaplanoglu, wins the Golden Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival. (Photo right.)

Israel’s air force introduces a fleet of Heron TP

February

drones with wingspans of 26 m (86 ft) that are capable of remaining in the air for a full day and flying as far as the Persian Gulf. • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency administrator Lisa Jackson releases a detailed five-year plan for the restoration of the Great Lakes, the plan sets out specific goals and actions that are to be taken by federal agencies in concert with state, local, and tribal governments.

After opposition leaders refuse to join a proposed new government in Côte d’Ivoire, violent demonstrations take place in Abidjan in which at least two protesters are killed. • Afghan immigrant Najibullah Zazi pleads guilty to three charges of terrorism in New York City, admitting that he had intended to carry out a suicide bombing on the city’s subway system. • The publishing company Macmillan introduces DynamicBooks, an electronic textbook that professors can freely modify; the digital books, as edited by the professors, will be available for students to purchase.

Palestinian leader Mahmoud Abbas condemns an announcement by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu of a plan to recognize as an Israeli national heritage site the so-called Cave of the Patriarchs, known to Muslims as the Ibrahimi Mosque, in the West Bank city of Hebron, declaring that the action could lead to war. • Niger’s military junta appoints Mahamadou Danda prime minister of a transitional government. • Prime Minister Guillaume Soro announces the formation of a new unity government in Côte d’Ivoire. • Leaders of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) agree to join with Latin American countries to create a new regional grouping provisionally called the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States; details of the proposed new bloc are to be determined at a meeting in July 2011. • The Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of Government releases a report showing that state tax revenues in the U.S. shrank in the final quarter of 2009, which makes five consecutive quarters of falling state revenues.

A second 24hour strike against new austerity measures takes place in Greece, and thousands of aggrieved citizens march in Athens. • The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission issues new rules restricting certain short sales of stocks. • Carmaker General Motors announces that the withdrawal of China’s Sichuan Tengzhong Heavy Industrial Machinery Co. from a deal to purchase GM’s Hummer division means that the division must be shut down. • British Prime Minister Gordon Brown formally apologizes for a program that between the 1920s and the 1960s sent some 130,000 children, many living in orphanages and institutions, to other Commonwealth countries, often without their families’ knowledge.

In a ceremony attended by the governor of Helmand province, the flag of Afghanistan is raised over Marjah, symbolizing the reclaiming of the area from the Taliban. • In Vancouver, Kim Yu-Na of South Korea wins the Olympic gold medal in ladies’ figure skating with the highest score ever recorded in the event. • The U.S. National Medal of Arts is awarded to, among others, actor and director Clint Eastwood, musician Bob Dylan, architect Maya Lin, soprano Jessye Norman, and composer and conductor John Williams. • The foreign ministers of India and Pakistan meet for informal talks, the first between the countries since the terrorist attack that took

place in Mumbai (Bombay) in November 2008.

Colombia’s Constitutional Court strikes down a proposed referendum to ask voters to allow Pres. Álvaro Uribe to run for a third term of office; the constitution limits the president to two consecutive terms. • With the appointment of a new electoral commission, the opposition in Côte d’Ivoire agrees to join the new government.

A magnitude-8.8 earthquake strikes central Chile, causing major damage in the area around Concepción, and is followed by a tsunami, which devastates Talcahuano and Constitución; at least 562 people are killed, and more than a million are left homeless. • A court in Italy declines to suspend a corruption trial against Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi; a bribery charge against his lawyer had earlier been dropped, and Berlusconi is charged in the same crime. • On the island of Basilan in the Philippines, members of the Muslim militant organization Abu Sayyaf attack the town of Tubigan, leaving at least 11 people dead.

Legislative elections in Tajikistan result in a large win for the ruling People’s Democratic Party; the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe says the election failed to meet democratic standards. • On the final day of the Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Canada defeats the U.S. 3–2 in overtime to win the gold medal in men’s ice hockey.

Christian Charisius—Reuters/Landov

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March We have just now enshrined, as soon as I sign this bill, the core principle that everybody should have some basic security when it comes to their health care. U.S. Pres. Barack Obama, on signing health care reform into law, March 23

Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev visits Paris, where he and French Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy agree to negotiate the sale of four amphibious assault ships from France to Russia. • José Mujica takes office as president of Uruguay.

Guatemala’s national police chief and its antinarcotics unit leader are arrested on drugtrafficking charges stemming from a shootout the previous April between rival drug gangs over stolen cocaine.

Ukrainian Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko loses a no-confidence vote in the legislature. • After talks with the European Union commissioner for monetary affairs, Greece announces new austerity measures. • Car bombings at government and campaign offices, followed by a suicide bombing in a hospital emergency room, leave at least 33 people dead in Ba!qubah, Iraq. 16

U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announces that U.S. aid to Honduras, which was suspended after the overthrow of its president in 2009, will be resumed. • Faure Gnassingbé wins reelection as president of Togo.

9.7%; the number of jobs lost, 36,000, is lower than was anticipated. • The American car manufacturer General Motors announces plans to reopen 661 of the more than 1,000 dealerships that it shut down in 2009 as part of its bankruptcy reorganization. • A study published in the journal Science describes new research on Arctic undersea permafrost that has been found to be melting, causing the release of heat-trapping methane gas into the atmosphere. • Biologists in California’s Pinnacles National Monument confirm the presence of the first condor egg laid by wild condors within the park in more than 100 years.

Youssouf Saleh Abbas resigns as prime minister of Chad; he is replaced by Emmanuel Nadingar. • The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the unemployment rate in February remained steady at

Russia’s Federal Security Service reports that militant leader Aleksandr Tikhomirov (nom de guerre Said Buryatsky) was killed in a raid in the republic of Ingushetiya several days previously and that proof had been found that Tikhomirov’s organization

• Meeting in Cairo, the foreign ministers of the Arab League endorse a plan for U.S.-mediated indirect peace talks between Israeli and Palestinian officials. • Leonid V. Tyagachev resigns as head of Russia’s Olympic Committee because of Russia’s poor showing in the Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver.

was behind several recent attacks, including the bombing of the Nevsky Express train in November 2009. • American musician Stevie Wonder accepts an award as Commander of Arts and Letters from France; the honour was originally announced in 1981. (Photo right.)

Closely contested, pivotal legislative elections take place in Iraq; it is expected to take weeks to tally the vote. • Near Jos, Nigeria, attacks on the primarily Christian villages of Dogo na Hauwa, Ratsat, and Zot leave as many as 500 people dead; the attacks appear to be revenge for violence that occurred in January against Muslims. • At the 82nd Academy Awards presentation, hosted by Steve Martin and Alec Baldwin, Oscars are won by, among others, The Hurt Locker (best picture) and its director, Kathryn Bigelow (the first woman to win the award for best director), and

March

actors Jeff Bridges, Sandra Bullock, Christoph Waltz, and Mo’Nique. • The synagogue and office of the 12th-century Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides is quietly unveiled after a major restoration in Cairo.

The government of Myanmar (Burma) declares that it has completed an election law; the law sets draconian limits on political participation, including conditions that would bar the candidacy of opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi. • Guinea’s interim government announces that a presidential election will be held on June 27.

China and India formally agree to join the Copenhagen Accord, the nonbinding international agreement to attempt to ameliorate global warming that was arrived at in December 2009. • The Central and Southern Andes GPS Project reports that the February 27 earthquake in Chile caused Santiago to move 28 cm (11 in) and Concepción 3 m (10 ft) to the west.

• The United Nations holds a memorial service to honour the 101 UN employees who died in the earthquake in Haiti in January. • The $250,000 A.M. Turing Award for excellence in computer science is granted to Chuck Thacker for his pioneering work as a cocreator of the early Alto personal computer and of Ethernet networking.

Shortly after a visit to Afghanistan by U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, Pres. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad of Iran meets with Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai in Kabul. • China reports a 46% yearon-year increase in its exports in February; this is a much larger increase than was expected. • The board of the troubled school district of Kansas City, Mo., votes to close 28 of the city’s 61 schools.

Two strong aftershocks of the February 27 earthquake in Chile, the first measured at 7.2 magnitude and the second at 6.9, startle dignitaries attending the

inauguration of Sebastián Piñera as president of Chile. • Mykola Azarov takes office as prime minister of Ukraine. • At the Laureus World Sports Awards in Abu Dhabi, U.A.E., Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt is named sportsman of the year, while American tennis star Serena Williams wins sportswoman of the year; South African swimmer Natalie du Toit takes the award for sportsperson of the year with a disability.

At a market in Lahore, Pak., two suicide bombers leave at least 45 people dead, about a dozen of whom are Pakistani soldiers. • Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin meets in New Delhi with Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh; the leaders sign agreements to cooperate on nuclear, military, and space projects.

At least four bombings take place in Kandahar, Afg.; one explosion causes buildings to collapse near the prison, and at least 35 people are killed. • An employee of the U.S. consulate and her husband are shot to death in an attack in Juárez, Mex., and the husband of another consular worker is also killed; in addition, some 50 people die in drug-related violence throughout Mexico over the weekend.

Tens of thousands of supporters of former Thai prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra, known as redshirts, march in Bangkok to demand the resignation of Thailand’s government.

• Katie Spotz, age 22, lands in Georgetown, Guyana, after having left Dakar, Senegal, on January 3 and rowed for 4,533.5 km (2,817 mi) across the Atlantic Ocean to become the youngest person and first American to row solo across an entire ocean.

Somalia’s transitional government agrees to give government posts, including five ministries, to leaders of the militia Ahlu Sunna Wal Jama’a in return for their military support against Islamist insurgents. • Peter Hullermann, the Roman Catholic priest at the centre of a child molestation controversy in Germany that dates to 1980, is for the first time suspended from duty. • In a ceremony in New York City, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inducts musician Jimmy Cliff, the groups Abba, Genesis, the Hollies, and the Stooges, songwriters Barry Mann, Cynthia Weil, Ellie Greenwich, Jeff Barry, Jesse Stone, Mort Shuman, and Otis Blackwell, and producer David Geffen.

The Tombs of Buganda Kings at Kasubi, a UNESCO World Heritage site in Uganda comprising the burial places of four kings of the historic kingdom of Buganda, is destroyed by fire; the cause of the fire is unknown. • Lance Mackey wins the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race for a record fourth consecutive year, passing under the Burled Arch in Nome, Alaska, after a journey of 8 days 23 hours 59 minutes 9 seconds.

Goodluck Jonathan, acting president of

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March

Nigeria, dissolves the cabinet; he had earlier dismissed the national security adviser in the wake of mass killings near Jos. • A U.S. Court of Appeals upholds an injunction barring the prosecution of minor children for “sexting”—transmitting sexually suggestive text messages and images by cell phone or over the Internet—in a case in which parents of children whose images were found on cell phones objected to the prosecution. • The Dresden Historians’ Commission publishes a report after five years of research on the 1945 Allied bombings of Dresden, Ger., during World War II; it concluded that about 25,000 people were killed, fewer than had been widely believed.

According to unverified news reports in South Korea, North Korea’s chief financial official, Pak NamGi, appears to have been arrested and may have been executed. • In an effort to balance its budget during a time of fiscal crisis, Arizona eliminates its Children’s Health Insurance Program, which covered about 47,000 children in the state. • At a meeting in Doha, Qatar, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora rejects U.S.-backed proposals to ban international trade in the severely depleted bluefin tuna and to protect polar bears.

India’s central bank raises its benchmark repurchase interest rate to 5% from 4.75% after having not raised its rates for almost two years; both Aus18

tralia and Malaysia previously raised rates in March.

Pope Benedict XVI sends a pastoral letter to Roman Catholics in Ireland, offering a passionately worded apology for decades of abuse of children at the hands of Irish clergy and condemning church leaders for having allowed the abuse to go on. • With its 12–10 defeat of England, France wins the Six Nations Rugby Union championship, having achieved a record of 5–0; the previous day the women’s championship had gone to England for the fifth consecutive year.

Both Prime Minister Nuri alMaliki and Pres. Jalal Talabani of Iraq express support for calls for a recount of the country’s parliamentary election held on March 7; the election commission, which has not yet released the complete results, rejects the calls. • In London Spring Awakening wins four Laurence Olivier Awards: best new musical, best actor in a musical or entertainment (Aneurin Barnard), best supporting performance in a musical or entertainment (Iwan Rheon), and best sound design.

The Internet company Google closes its online search service in mainland China, directing users there to its service in Hong Kong, where search results are not censored, as they were in mainland China. • Former British cabinet members Stephen Byers, Geoff Hoon, and Patricia Hewitt—having been caught in a televised sting in which they offered to sell access to

government contacts—are suspended from the Labour Party. • The ruling Justice and Development Party in Turkey proposes changes to the constitution that would weaken the independence of the judiciary. • Air pollution in Hong Kong reaches a record level, exceeding 400; a level above 200 is considered severe, and the previous record, set in July 2008, was 202.

After a long and bruising legislative battle, a sweeping and complex health care reform bill, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, is signed into law by U.S. Pres. Barack Obama. • At New York City’s Museum of Modern Art, French architect Jean Nouvel unveils his Bedouin-inspired design for the National Museum of Qatar. • The winner of the PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction is announced as Sherman Alexie for his story and poem collection War Dances.

Japan’s legislature approves a record ¥92.3 trillion (about $1 trillion) budget intended to stimulate the economy; the government also announces a reversal of a plan started by former prime minister Junichiro Koizumi to privatize the postal banking system. • A small island in the Bay of Bengal claimed by both India (which called it New Moore Island) and Bangladesh (which called it South Talpatti Island) is reported by the School of Oceanographic Studies in Kolkata (Calcutta) to have disappeared, a victim of rising sea levels.

• The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters awards its annual Abel Prize for outstanding work in mathematics to American mathematician John T. Tate for his contributions to the theory of numbers.

The countries of the euro zone agree on a rescue package for Greece that includes bilateral loans from the members of the grouping and from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), to be used if Greece cannot find funding in the commercial markets; in addition, the European Central Bank announces that it will not tighten lending rules until 2011. • Francisco J. Ayala, a Spanish-born American evolutionary biologist and geneticist, is named the winner of the Templeton Prize for his contributions to affirming the roles of both science and religious faith in advancing human understanding. • Pakistan makes air strikes on two Taliban targets in the northwest of the country, killing nearly 50 people, 38 of whom are militants, according to the government. • In the U.A.E., the emirate of Dubayy announces plans to recapitalize and restructure the investment company Dubai World and to take over its real-estate arm, Nakheel. • The journal Nature publishes online a study of the DNA of a fossil finger bone found in Siberia’s Altai Mountains in 2008; the analysis indicates that the bone may belong to a previously unknown hominin species whose lineage diverged from that of Neanderthals and modern humans about a million years ago.

March

The results of the March 7 election in Iraq are announced: the alIraqiyyah bloc, headed by former prime minister Ayad !Allawi, wins 91 seats—the highest number won by any party—while the State of Law coalition, led by Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki, wins 89 seats; in order to form a government, a coalition must control 163 seats. • Two bombs explode near a cafe and a restaurant in Khalis, Iraq, in Diyala province; at least 59 people are killed. • A South Korean navy patrol ship near disputed waters west of the Korean peninsula is sunk by what is believed to be a torpedo attack from North Korea; 46 crew members are killed.

Pres. Hosni Mubarak of Egypt returns to the country after having undergone an operation to remove his gallbladder and convalesced for three weeks in Germany. • Gloria de Campeao wins the Dubai World Cup, the world’s richest horse race, in a photo finish with Lizard’s Desire.

• Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev orders that the Pacific Far East time zone be eliminated and drops a second time zone in central Russia, reducing the number of time zones in the country to nine. • Thieves make off with at least £22 million (about $32.8 million) in cash and jewelry from safe-deposit boxes in the vault of a Crédit Lyonnais bank in Paris that was closed for renovations; the thieves had tunneled in through walls from a neighbouring basement the previous night. • Japanese architects Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa of the Tokyo-based firm SANAA are named winners of the 2010 Pritzker Architecture Prize; among their works are the 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art in Kanazawa, Japan, the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York City, and the Serpentine Gallery Pavilion in Kensington Gardens in London. (Photo below.)

Moscow subway line during the morning rush hour; 40 commuters are killed. • In Myanmar (Burma), the opposition National League for Democracy, led by Aung San Suu Kyi, announces that it will boycott the asyet-unscheduled election; under new election laws, this means that the party must be dissolved. • Human Rights Watch reports that in the northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, the brutal Ugandan militia the Lord’s Resistance Army in December 2009 rounded up and kidnapped hundreds of people from villages outside Niangara, killing at least 320 of them. • After FBI raids in the U.S. states of Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, indictments are unsealed against nine members of a Michigan-based apocalyptic Christian militia called the Hutaree; the militia is said to have planned to kill police officers in hopes of triggering an antigovernment revolution.

Two female suicide bombers blow themselves up at two stations on a

Pakistan’s Supreme Court orders the arrest of Ahmad Riaz Sheikh,

the head of the white-collarcrime division of the country’s Federal Investigation Agency, who is under investigation for corruption. • For the first time, physicists succeed in creating collisions between subatomic particles in the Large Hadron Collider near Geneva.

The opposition Sudan People’s Liberation Movement announces that its candidate for president, Yasir Arman, will not take part in national elections in Sudan that are to begin April 11; Arman was widely considered to have been the principal challenger to Pres. Omar al-Bashir. • U.S. Pres. Barack Obama and Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar unveil proposals to open much of the Atlantic coastline, parts of the eastern Gulf of Mexico, and Alaska’s north coast to offshore oil and natural gas drilling. • The U.S. Federal Reserve ends its program, begun in November 2008, of buying mortgage-backed securities; the program was, to date, the Fed’s largest single effort to stabilize the economy.

U.S. Pres. Barack Obama makes an unannounced visit to Afghanistan (his first as president), where he meets with troops and sits down with Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai; Obama asks Karzai for greater progress on a number of fronts—in particular, the fight against corruption in the Afghan government. • The American car company Ford Motor agrees to sell its Swedish-based subsidiary Volvo to the Chinese conglomerate Zhejiang Geely Holding Group. Zak Hussein—PA Photos/Landov

19

April We drew up a plan. We took difficult and painful measures. But the markets did not respond. Prime Minister Georgios Papandreou of Greece, requesting financial aid from the other euro zone countries, April 23

A law making universal primary education both compulsory and free goes into effect in India. • Several opposition parties announce that they intend to boycott upcoming elections in Sudan. • The U.S. government announces new fuel-efficiency standards for cars and trucks that will require vehicles to reach an average of 35.5 mi per gallon of gas by the 2016 model year, which is about 10 mi per gallon more efficient than the current requirements.

In the Iraqi village of Hawr Rajab, near Baghdad, men claiming to be part of a joint American-Iraqi military unit go from house to house rounding up members of a prominent family that was active in the Awakening Council movement; 25 adult family members are then slaughtered. • The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the unemployment rate in March remained steady at 9.7% and that the economy added 162,000 nonfarm jobs. 20

• Artist, playwright, director, and choreographer Robert Wilson is announced as the recipient of the $100,000 Jerome Robbins Award.

Tens of thousands of antigovernment redshirt protesters block

the main commercial district in Bangkok, vowing to continue the protest until new elections have been scheduled. • Shortly after departing from the port of Gladstone, the Shen Neng 1, a Chinese freighter carrying tons of coal and bunker fuel and Rebecca Blackwell/AP

traveling 14.5 km (9 mi) outside its shipping lane, runs aground on the Great Barrier Reef off Australia in what is feared to be an ecological catastrophe. • As part of the celebration of the 50th anniversary of Senegal’s independence, a 50-m (164-ft) copper-clad statue of a man, woman, and child, intended as a monument to Africa’s renaissance, is unveiled. (Photo left.) • Cambridge comes from behind to defeat Oxford in the 156th University Boat Race; Cambridge now leads the series 80–75.

Three suicide car bombings in Baghdad’s diplomatic quarter kill at least 30 people and injure scores.

At least six Pakistanis are killed in a massive but unsuccessful assault by militants on the U.S. consulate in Peshawar, Pak. • Thousands of people march in downtown Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia,

April

demanding that the legislature be dissolved and that promises made in 2008 to share profits from the country’s mineral wealth with the citizens be honoured. • Apple Inc. reports that more than 300,000 iPads were sold on the initial day of sale of the device. • The NCAA championship in men’s basketball is won by Duke University, which defeats Butler University 61–59; the following day the University of Connecticut defeats Stanford University 53–47 to win the women’s title and become the first team in women’s college basketball to have two consecutive undefeated seasons.

Goodluck Jonathan, Nigeria’s acting president, installs a new cabinet and fires the head of the national oil company. • In the Indian state of Chhattisgarh, Naxalite (Maoist) insurgents ambush a paramilitary unit returning to base after a two-day patrol in the forest; at least 73 officers are killed. • Seven bombings, including five from bombs placed in apartment buildings, leave at least 35 people dead in Baghdad. • It is reported that a team of Russian and American scientists working at the Dubna cyclotron particle accelerator on the Volga River in Russia believe that by means of smashing isotopes of calcium into radioactive berkelium, they have produced six atoms of the previously unknown element 117.

After a day of fighting in Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan, between antigovernment protesters and police in which at least 85 people

are killed, opposition politicians succeed in forcing Pres. Kurmanbek Bakiyev to flee the city; former foreign minister Roza Otunbayeva is said to be in charge. • A ceremony is held in Russia to mark the 70th anniversary of the Katyn Massacre of some 22,000 Poles by the Soviet secret police; for the first time Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin has invited Polish officials to join in the ceremony, and Polish Prime Minister Donald Tusk takes part in the observations.

Pakistan’s National Assembly unanimously approves a change to the constitution that repeals many of the changes put in by previous military governments, transfers most authority from the president to the legislature, and gives the North-West Frontier Province a new name: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. • In legislative elections in Sri Lanka, the ruling United People’s Freedom Alliance wins 60.3% of the vote. • In a ceremony in Prague, Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev and U.S. Pres. Barack Obama sign the New START nuclear arms control treaty. • Thai Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva cancels plans to attend a meeting of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), scheduled to take place in Hanoi, because of the crisis caused by increasingly vehement antigovernment redshirt protests.

Russia suspends adoptions of Russian children by Americans the day after a sevenyear-old boy who had been adopted by an American woman in Shelbyville, Tenn.,

arrived alone in Russia carrying a note from his adoptive mother saying that for reasons of safety she no longer wants to be the child’s parent. • U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Paul Stevens announces that he plans to retire at the end of the present term of the court, of which he has been a member since 1975.

A Tupolev Tu-154 plane carrying Polish Pres. Lech Kaczynski to a Polish memorial for the 70th anniversary of the Katyn Massacre crashes near Smolensk, Russia, in bad weather, killing all 97 people aboard, among them Kaczynski, several legislators, the chiefs of the army and the navy, and the national bank head. • Thai military forces attempt to break up the antigovernment red-shirt occupation of the commercial centre of Bangkok and are repulsed by the protesters; 25 people are killed in the violence. • Favourite jumper Don’t Push It, ridden by jockey Tony McCoy, wins the Grand National steeplechase horse race at the Aintree course in Liverpool, Eng., by five lengths.

Three days (later extended to five) of state, regional, and national elections get under way in Sudan. • Leaders of the 16 countries of the euro zone announce that they can offer Greece as much as >30 billion ($40.5 billion) at 5% interest, in addition to money that the IMF might be able to offer, to help the country meet its debt obligations. • Phil Mickelson of the U.S. wins the Masters golf tour-

nament in Augusta, Ga., finishing three strokes ahead of British golfer Lee Westwood.

The Dow Jones Industrial Average rises 8.62 points to finish at 11,005.97, its first close above 11,000 points in 19 months. • A study of maternal deaths from pregnancy and childbirth is published in the medical journal The Lancet; among its findings is that the number of such deaths worldwide decreased from an annual figure of 526,300 in 1980 to 342,900 in 2008. • In New York City the winners of the 2010 Pulitzer Prizes are announced: four awards go to the Washington Post, which wins for international reporting, feature writing, commentary, and criticism; winners in letters include Liaquat Ahamed in history and Rae Armantrout in poetry.

The day after the freighter Shen Neng 1, which ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef off Australia on April 3, was refloated, an Australian government scientist estimates that it could take up to 20 years for the coral reef to recover from the damage; the ship left a scar 3 km (1.9 mi) long and as much as 250 m (820 ft) wide. • The magazine Consumer Reports warns that the 2010 Lexus GX 460 SUV has a handling problem that can cause a rollover; the manufacturer, Toyota, quickly suspends sales of the vehicle. • The winner of the 2010 Ruth Lilly Poetry Prize is named as Eleanor Ross Taylor.

China’s Qinghai province, near its border with 21

April U.S. Coast Guard—Reuters/Landov

Sichuan province, is struck by a magnitude-6.9 earthquake, whose epicentre is in Yushu county; the town of Jiegu on the Plateau of Tibet is largely destroyed, and at least 2,260 people perish. • The U.S. Library of Congress announces an agreement to add the public content of the microblogging service Twitter to its archives.

Airspace over the British Isles and some airports in France and Germany are closed because of the cloud of silicate ash drifting over Europe from the previous day’s eruption of the glacial volcano Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland. • The first-ever televised debate between candidates for prime minister of the U.K. takes place in Manchester, Eng., as incumbent Gordon Brown of the Labour Party, Conservative Party leader David Cameron, and Nick Clegg of the Liberal Democrats answer questions from a moderator on ITV1. • Kurmanbek Bakiyev resigns as president of Kyrgyzstan and goes into exile. • Rallies of generally conservative libertarian Tea Party groups take place in several cities in the U.S.

The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission files suit against the investment firm Goldman Sachs, accusing it of having created and sold a mortgage investment vehicle that was intended to fail, causing investors to lose money to a hedge fund that the company also created; stocks drop precipitously in response. • Volcanic ash from the continuing eruption of the volcano Eyjafjallajökull in Ice22

land spreads eastward across northern Europe, expanding the area closed to air travel and thus stranding thousands of passengers and disrupting trade, business, and performance schedules. • The major American bank Bank of America reports a profit in the first fiscal quarter of the year, following two successive losing quarters; its CEO, Brian T. Moynihan, says that trading revenue from its subsidiary Merrill Lynch covered losses from home loans in the parent bank.

The UN endorses Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai’s appointment of former Supreme Court justice Fazel Ahmed Manawi to head the country’s discredited election commission and agrees to a plan to let the UN appoint two (rather than the previous three) members of the five-member Electoral Complaints Commission, with those members given veto power.

Dervis Eroglu is elected president of the unilaterally

declared Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. • The last working sardine cannery in the U.S., owned by Bumble Bee Foods since 2004 but open for several decades, shuts down in Prospect Harbor, Maine.

Pakistani Pres. Asif Ali Zardari signs into law an amendment to the constitution that makes Pakistan a parliamentary democracy, with more power belonging to the prime minister than to the president. • Arizona’s state legislature passes a bill that requires police to ask for documentation from people whom they suspect of being illegal immigrants and to arrest those who fail to produce proof of legality and that makes failure to carry such documents a crime; Gov. Jan Brewer signs it into law on April 23. • The 114th Boston Marathon is won by Robert Kiprono Cheruiyot of Kenya with a time of 2 hr 5 min 52 sec; the fastest woman is Teyba Erkesso of Ethiopia, who posts a time of 2 hr 26 min 11 sec.

Brazil’s electrical regulatory authority grants a consortium of companies the right to build a controversial hydroelectric dam that will be the third largest ever built; the deal to construct the Belo Monte dam, on the Xingu River, a tributary of the Amazon, is approved just a day after a federal judge suspended bidding on the project. • The deep-sea oil-drilling rig Deepwater Horizon, leased by energy company BP and working in the Gulf of Mexico some 80 km (50 mi) off the coast of the U.S. state of Louisiana, suddenly explodes in what is thought to be an unprecedented accident; 17 crew members are injured, and 11 are lost, and the platform continues to burn the next day. (Photo above.) • The musical American Idiot, with music by punk rock band Green Day and based on its 2004 album American Idiot, opens in New York City to rapturous reviews.

Algeria, Mauritania, Mali, and Niger open a

April

joint military headquarters in Tamanrasset, Alg., in order to coordinate responses to terrorism and crime related to drug trafficking.

The oil-drilling rig Deepwater Horizon, which exploded two days previously, suffers more explosions and sinks in the Gulf of Mexico, raising the spectre of ecological catastrophe. • In Belgium the Liberal Party leaves the five-party ruling coalition during a dispute over language rights in a bilingual district, and the government falls. • Eurostat revises its estimate of Greece’s budget deficit in 2009 to 13.6% of GDP, higher than the Greek government’s estimate of 12.9%, and the rating agency Moody’s downgrades its rating for Greek bonds. • Pope Benedict XVI accepts the resignation of Bishop James Moriarty of Kildare and Leighlin in Ireland in more fallout from the sex abuse scandal there. • In Bangkok’s business district, near an area where progovernment demonstrators are gathered to shout at a much larger antigovernment red-shirt protest, five grenades explode; one person is killed, and 75 are injured. • At the National Magazine Awards in New York City, Glamour wins the inaugural Magazine of the Year award, for which both print and online publications are eligible; general excellence award winners are National Geographic, Men’s Health, GQ, New York, Mother Jones, and San Francisco.

Greek Prime Minister Georgios Papandreou formally requests financial

aid from his country’s euro zone partners and the IMF. • Three bombs explode near the headquarters of Shi!ite cleric Muqtada al-Sadr in Baghdad, and other bombings take place elsewhere in Baghdad; at least 58 people are killed. • Fighting between the Sudan People’s Liberation Army and an Arab militia leaves at least 58 people dead in the Darfur area of Sudan. • Five federal police officers and a city policeman are ambushed by a large number of gunmen and killed in a hail of bullets in Juárez, Mex.

The front half of the South Korean warship that sank on March 26 after an explosion believed to have resulted from a missile attack is lifted from the water; the rear half of the ship was salvaged earlier. • An election in Nauru fails to break the deadlock between rival parties, as all 18 of the legislators running for office are reelected.

Runoff elections are held in several legislative districts in Hungary two weeks after the first-round elections; the conservative opposition Fidesz–Hungarian Civic Alliance wins a convincing majority of seats. • Heinz Fischer wins election to a second term of office as president of Austria. • Officials reveal that it has been found that the deepwater well drilled by the nowsunken oil rig Deepwater Horizon is leaking 159,000 litres (42,000 gal) of oil a day into the Gulf of Mexico; BP is attempting to activate a blowout preventer to seal the well 1,525 m (5,000 ft)

below the ocean’s surface and is using chemical dispersants to break up the oil. • Tsegaye Kebede of Ethiopia wins the London Marathon with a time of 2 hr 5 min 19 sec, and Liliya Shobukhova of Russia is the fastest woman in the race, with a time of 2 hr 22 min 0 sec.

Pres. Omar alBashir is announced as the winner of presidential elections held in Sudan on April 11–15; international observers say that the elections fell short of democratic standards. • King Albert II of Belgium accepts the resignation of Prime Minister Yves Leterme, though Leterme will remain as the head of a caretaker government. • The Audit Bureau of Circulations reports that in the six-month period ended March 31, American newspaper weekday circulation fell 8.7% from the same period the previous year.

The rating agency Standard & Poor’s downgrades Greece’s government bonds to junk status. • In spite of brawling and the throwing of eggs and smoke bombs, Ukraine’s legislature agrees to extend Russia’s lease on a naval base in Sevastapol, Ukr., for 25 years in return for lower prices on natural gas from Russia. • Germany opens an offshore wind farm some 45 km (28 mi) off the coast in the North Sea with a test field of 12 wind turbines; it is the country’s first offshore wind farm.

The U.S. Department of the Interior

authorizes the construction of the Cape Wind project, which is anticipated to be the country’s first offshore wind farm; it is to be built in Nantucket Sound some eight kilometres (five miles) off the coast of Massachusetts. • A man enters a primary school in China’s Guangdong province and stabs 15 children and a teacher; all victims survive. • Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater announces that choreographer Robert Battle will succeed Judith Jamison as the company’s artistic director upon Jamison’s retirement in June 2011.

The day after an announcement that oil from the undersea well drilled by the sunken oil rig Deepwater Horizon is spilling at a rate of 5,000 bbl, or 757,080 litres (200,000 gal), a day—five times the previous estimate—the U.S. government adds resources from the U.S. Navy to the Coast Guard and BP personnel trying to stop the spread of oil. • In China’s Jiangsu province an unemployed man enters a school in Taixing and stabs 3 adults and 28 kindergarten students, critically injuring at least 5 of them.

Tens of thousands of protesters rally in Tirana, the capital of Albania, to demand a partial recount of the votes in the election that took place on June 28, 2009; the opposition believes that there was vote rigging. • Opening ceremonies for the six-month World Expo, expected to be attended by as many as 70 million people, are held in Shanghai. 23

May The government cannot turn back. Ending the rally is the only way to prevent calamity. Thai Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva, in a televised address to the country, as the military and red-shirt protesters clash, May 15

A smoke-filled Nissan Pathfinder is reported to police by two street vendors who noticed it parked with its engine running near New York City’s Times Square; it proves to contain a failed car bomb that would have caused a massive explosion if it had succeeded. • Two bomb explosions take place in a mosque that is frequented by leaders of the al-Shabaab rebel group in Mogadishu, Som.; at least 39 people are killed in the blasts. • Super Saver, ridden by Calvin Borel, wins the Kentucky Derby by two and a half lengths.

Greece signs an agreement with the European Union and the International Monetary Fund that commits it to deep cuts in the public sector, tax increases, and tax reform in return for bailout funds. • The Islamist militant organization Hizbul Islam seizes the pirate stronghold port city of Xarardheere, Som.; the pirates flee. 24

Thai Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva offers antigovernment red-shirt protesters a reconciliation plan that, in return for concessions from the protesters, calls for elections to be held in November, well before the end of Abhisit’s term of office. • United Airlines announces its purchase of Continental Airlines; the combined company will be the world’s largest airline. • The U.S. Supreme Court announces that as a security measure, it will no longer permit those seeking access to the courthouse to use the front door of the building; instead, they must enter through lower-level side doors.

Transportation ministers from the member countries of the EU, meeting in Belgium, agree to accelerate plans for unified control over EU airspace and to develop guidelines for determining what conditions make it unsafe to fly and rules for responding to such conditions.

Pres. Umaru Musa Yar’Adua, who left Nigeria in political crisis when he departed from the country for emergency medical treatment in November 2009 without transferring executive power, dies in Abuja; the following day Goodluck Jonathan is sworn in as president. • During a demonstration in Athens by tens of thousands of people against announced austerity measures, groups of people identified as anarchists engage in violent behaviour, throwing rocks and gasoline bombs; a firebomb thrown into a bank kills three people. • The Washington Post Co. puts the weekly newsmagazine Newsweek, which it has owned since 1961 and which has been published since 1933, up for sale.

In legislative elections in the U.K., no single party wins a ruling majority, with the Conservatives taking 306 seats, Labour 258, and the Liberal Democrats 57; this result makes a coalition government necessary for the first time since World War II.

• The Dow Jones Industrial Average falls nearly 1,000 point in minutes in a “flash crash,” though the market rebounds to close with a less-drastic loss. • A containment dome is lowered into the Gulf of Mexico by the energy company BP; the company hopes the dome will capture most of the estimated 794,900 litres (210,000 gal) of oil spewing daily from the well drilled by the Deepwater Horizon before the rig exploded and sank in April.

The legislature of Turkey passes a package of constitutional changes; they must be approved in a referendum in order to become law. • The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the unemployment rate in April rose to 9.9%, although the economy added 290,000 nonfarm jobs, the biggest increase in job creation in four years. • The Maoist party ends its indefinite strike in Nepal; the strike caused hardship, but it failed to topple the government.

May

Near the encampment of antigovernment red-shirt protesters in Bangkok, shooting and explosions kill one police officer and injure five other police officers and two civilians.

The U.S. government announces that the first round of agreedto indirect talks between Israeli and Palestinian negotiators, with U.S. special envoy George J. Mitchell shuttling between them, has taken place. • Dallas Braden of the Oakland Athletics pitches the 19th perfect game in Major League Baseball history when he dismisses 27 consecutive batters in his team’s 4–0 victory over the Tampa Bay Rays.

Finance ministers of the member countries of the European Union agree to provide $560 billion in new loans and $76 billion under an existing program to shore up countries suffering debt crises; stock markets in Europe, Asia, and the U.S. react positively. • Benigno Aquino III handily wins election to the presidency of the Philippines; in addition, boxing star Manny Pacquiao wins a seat in the country’s legislature. • Two car bombs in the parking lot of a newly renovated textile factory in Al-Hillah, Iraq, kill at least 41 people; other bombings and attacks by gunmen that take place in cities throughout Iraq bring the total death toll above 100. • U.S. Pres. Barack Obama nominates Solicitor General Elena Kagan to replace Justice John Paul Stevens on the Supreme Court. (Photo right.)

• As the containment dome intended to capture most of the escaping oil from the oil well under the Gulf of Mexico is stymied by a buildup of gas hydrates, executives of the oil company BP declare that they will attempt to place a smaller containment cap on the spewing well. • Violent storms that spawn several tornadoes leave destruction in their wake in Oklahoma; at least two people are killed.

Conservative leader David Cameron takes office as British prime minister in a Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government; Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg is to serve as deputy prime minister. • In the Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE) world chess championship in Sofia, Bulg., reigning champion Viswanathan Anand of India defeats challenger Veselin Topalov of Bulgaria in the 12th and final game to take the match 6.5–5.5 and retain the title.

Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero announces a series of austerity measures,

including decreases in public pay, that are intended to reduce the country’s deficit. • A man armed with a meat cleaver attacks a small kindergarten in the village of Linchang in China’s Shaanxi province, killing at least seven children between the ages of two and four as well as the school’s teacher and her elderly mother; he later kills himself. • The price of gold reaches record heights, selling for more than $1,240 a troy ounce in London and trading for >982. • The Spanish association football (soccer) team Club Atlético de Madrid defeats Fulham FC of Britain 2–1 in extra time to win the inaugural UEFA Europa League title in Hamburg.

The Thai military announces a blockade of the encampment of antigovernment red-shirt protesters in Bangkok, and hours later Maj. Gen. Khattiya Sawasdipol, who joined the protesters, is shot in the head and fatally wounded while being interviewed by a reporter. • In Kyrgyzstan protesters storm government buildings in the three regional capitals

of the southern part of the country and restore the former governor and seize the airport in Osh, one of the capitals; the following day supporters of the government retake the government buildings in several violent confrontations.

Thai troops move against antigovernment red-shirt protesters in Bangkok, and demonstrators fight back; at least 16 people are killed in the confrontation. • After some 13 years of negotiations, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda sign the Cooperative Framework Agreement in Entebbe, Ugan.; the agreement, which Egypt and Sudan declined to sign, is intended to replace treaties from 1929 and 1959 governing the use and sharing of the waters of the Nile River system.

The Thai military continues to press against the antigovernment red-shirt protesters in Bangkok as the death toll in the three days of confrontation rises to 24; Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva appears on television to explain the government crackdown. • Lookin at Lucky, under jockey Martin Garcia, wins the Preakness Stakes, the second event in U.S. Thoroughbred horse racing’s Triple Crown, by three-quarters of a length; Kentucky Derby winner Super Saver finishes eighth.

Iraq’s election commission declares that at the conclusion of the partial recount of votes from the March 7 election, the results remain the same, with a very narrow victory for the coalition led by former interim prime minister Ayad !Allawi. Larry Downing—Reuters/Landov

25

May

Iran announces that it has reached an agreement with Brazil and Turkey to ship about half of its lowenriched uranium to Turkey in return for high-enriched uranium for medical uses. • In India’s Chhattisgarh state, a bus carrying Indian police officers and civilians hits a bomb near the Dantewada district, and at least 23 people are killed; police believe that Naxalite (Maoist) insurgents are to blame. • Sweden’s Polar Music Prize Foundation announces that the winners of the Polar Music Prize are Icelandic singer-songwriter Björk and Italian composer Ennio Morricone.

The U.S. announces that it has reached agreement with Britain, France, Russia, China, and Germany on a new set of proposed sanctions against Iran for its continued uranium enrichment; the sanctions must be voted on by the UN Security Council. • A suicide bomber kills at least five U.S. soldiers in Kabul, bringing the number of U.S. troops killed in the conflict in Afghanistan since the beginning of the war in 2001 above 1,000; three of the Americans were high-ranking NATO officers, and a Canadian NATO officer also perishes. • The Dream Lives On: A Portrait of the Kennedy Brothers, a musical piece composed by Peter Boyer with lyrics by Lynn Ahrens, has its world premiere in Boston, performed by the Boston Pops Orchestra and the Tanglewood Festival Chorus conducted by Keith Lockhart (second from left), with celebrity narrators Robert De Niro, Ed Harris, and Morgan Freeman. (Photo right.)

The Thai military moves in to put an end to what remains of the encampment of antigovernment red-shirt protesters, and leaders of the protest are arrested; 12 people are killed in the crackdown, and rioting and arson take place in response elsewhere in Bangkok and in provinces in northeastern Thailand. • The U.S. Department of Labor reports that in April consumer prices fell 0.1% from the previous month and that the core index for consumer prices for the 12month period that ended in April was 0.9%, the lowest rate of increase since the 1960s.

Japanese Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama announces that he has decided to honour a 2006 agreement to move the U.S. air base on Okinawa to a less-populated part of that island, in spite of widespread support in Japan for Hatoyama’s previous promise to insist that the base be moved off Okinawa entirely. • South Korean officials publicly present the results of an

investigation, based on forensic evidence, that they say proves that North Korea was responsible for the March sinking of the South Korean warship Cheonan in international waters near the border between the two countries. • The journal Science publishes a report by a team led by J. Craig Venter that describes the creation of what Venter calls the first “synthetic cell”—a procedure in which the genetic code of one species of bacterium was synthesized and then placed into another species of bacterium, where the synthetic DNA began operating. • Stocks in the U.S. and Europe drop in value, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average losing 376.36 points, or 3.6% of its value; the price of a barrel of sweet crude oil falls to $68.01.

Germany’s legislature narrowly passes an agreement to pay the German contribution to a package intended to stabilize the euro. • Salva Kiir, leader of the Sudan People’s Liberation

Movement, is sworn in as the first president of the semiautonomous region of southern Sudan; a referendum on independence for the region is to be held in 2011. • Workers at the Honda car parts factory in Foshan, China, begin a strike that leads to the shutdown of four automobile factories that depend on the parts factory for supplies.

U.S. Pres. Barack Obama, in an address at the U.S. Military Academy in West Point, N.Y., lays out a new national security strategy that is more modest than the previous strategy, outlined in 2002; the new strategy emphasizes alliances and diplomacy. • In association football (soccer), Inter Milan of Italy defeats the German team Bayern Munich 2–0 to win the UEFA Champions League title in Madrid.

Insurgents attack areas of Mogadishu, Som., that are under the control of the transitional national government and

Michael Lutch—Boston Symphony/AP

26

May

African Union peacekeepers; at least 14 people are killed in the fighting. • Legislative elections take place in Ethiopia; as expected, the ruling Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front wins an overwhelming victory in elections that fail to meet international standards. • The finale of the six-year science-fiction mystery television series Lost, which has caught the imagination of a large audience, is broadcast; the following day sees the final episode of the influential political thriller 24, which debuted in 2001.

• After a three-day standoff, police storm the Tivoli Gardens slum in Kingston, Jam., in an attempt to arrest the gang leader Christopher Coke, whom the government has agreed to extradite to the U.S., where he is wanted for drug and firearms trafficking; residents of the neighbourhood, who regard Coke as a benefactor, resist, and at least 70 people die in the fighting. • A Malaysian oil tanker suffers a collision with a merchant ship in the Singapore Strait; its hull is punctured, and some 18,000 bbl of oil are spilled into the strait.

Four regional savings banks in Spain agree to merge some of their operations in a joint banking group in an effort to strengthen their assets; two days earlier the Spanish government had taken control of another savings bank, CajaSur, when its merger negotiations with Unicaja fell through. • Prime Minister Patrick Manning’s People’s National Movement party loses a snap election in Trinidad and Tobago to the People’s Partnership coalition; Kamla Persad-Bissessar is sworn in as prime minister two days later. • The final episode of the television series Law & Order is broadcast; the police procedural, which debuted in 1990, won a large and loyal audience and spawned several spin-offs.

The energy company BP begins an attempt to fill the drill pipes of the leaking oil well in the Gulf of Mexico with heavy drilling fluid; the maneuver, known as “top kill,” has never been tried on a well at such an extreme depth as this one, and the attempt is halted the next day. • Apple Inc. overtakes Microsoft Corp. to become the world’s most valuable technology company. • After late-day losses, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closes at 9974.45, its first close below 10,000 since February 8. • The space shuttle Atlantis lands in Florida, having completed its final planned mission; Atlantis first took wing on Oct. 3, 1985.

A large group of armed men gain entrance to what was considered a secure area of Baghdad, prevail in a firefight against Iraqi police officers and soldiers, and violently rob several jewelry stores, killing at least 14 people.

U.S. federal officials raise their estimate of the rate at which oil has been flowing into the ocean daily since the collapse of the Deepwater Horizon oil platform in April to between 12,000 and 19,000 bbl a day; the previous estimate,

released on April 27, was 5,000 bbl a day. • Spain’s legislature passes by a single vote a package of spending cuts proposed by Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero.

The leaders of the three major parties in Nepal reach an 11th-hour agreement to extend the term of the constituent assembly, extending the peace process for a further year; as part of the agreement, Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal will eventually resign. • Two mosques at which members of the minority Ahmadi sect worship in Lahore, Pak., are attacked by suicide bombers and by fusillades of bullets and grenades; more than 80 people are killed. • An express train in the Indian state of West Bengal derails, apparently as a result of sabotage, between the stations of Khemasuli and Sardiha, and 13 cars that have fallen onto an adjacent track are then struck by a freight train; at least 135 passengers perish.

Two days of legislative elections in the Czech Republic lead to a narrow victory for the Social Democratic Party, with 22.1% of the vote as against 20.2% for the conservative Civic Democratic Party, but 27.6% of the vote goes to two smaller conservative parties. • Roy Halladay of the Philadelphia Phillies pitches the 20th perfect game in Major League Baseball history in his team’s 1–0 victory over the Florida Marlins only 20 days after the previous perfect game. • In Oslo, German singer Lena Meyer-Landrut wins the

Eurovision Song Contest with her song “Satellite.”

A presidential election in Colombia results in the need for a runoff, to be held in June. • The Social Democratic Party drops out of the three-party coalition governing Japan because it disagrees with Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama’s decision to keep the U.S. air base on Okinawa. • The 94th Indianapolis 500 automobile race is won by Dario Franchitti of Scotland.

As an aid flotilla organized by the Free Gaza Movement and a charitable Turkish organization heads toward Gaza, Israeli commandos descend from a helicopter and board one of the ships in international waters; when activists on the ship resist, the commandos open fire, and nine passengers, most Turkish, are killed. • Horst Köhler resigns as president of Germany after having said that German soldiers in Afghanistan and on other peacekeeping missions are deployed to protect German economic interests. • The carmaker Honda Motor announces a 24% pay raise for striking workers at a Honda parts factory in China; the strike shut down all Honda automobile manufacture in China. • An acclaimed and popular retrospective of the work of performance artist Marina Abramovic, “The Artist Is Present,” closes at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City; in the retrospective’s best-known component, Abramovic sits silently and still, looking at an audience member sitting across from her. 27

June This is a siege across the entire gulf. This spill is holding everybody hostage, not only economically but physically. U.S. Coast Guard Adm. Thad Allen, describing the effects of the continuing oil spill catastrophe in the Gulf of Mexico, June 6

Iraq’s highest court ratifies the results of the March 7 election, making it necessary for the legislature to convene to choose a president and prime minister. • The U.S. Supreme Court rules that suspects who wish to invoke their right to remain silent must explicitly state that they are invoking that right; otherwise, any statement they make may be construed as waiving the right. • Five presidential candidates in Burundi announce their intention to boycott the upcoming presidential election, saying that local elections the previous month were rigged.

Yukio Hatoyama resigns as prime minister of Japan; his popularity had waned as a result of his failure to move a U.S. air base from Okinawa. • Foxconn Technology, a Taiwan-based company whose factories manufacture components for computers sold by companies that include Apple, Dell, and HewlettPackard, announces a 33% 28

pay raise for many of its workers in China; there has been a well-publicized rash of suicides at Foxconn factories in southern China. • American automobile company Ford Motor announces that it will discontinue the manufacture of the 71-yearold Mercury brand by fall; the original Mercury Eight went on sale in 1939. • In a crime that shocks Britain, a cab driver in England’s Lake District shoots down three other drivers and then drives through the district, shooting passers-by; at least 12 people are murdered and 25 injured before the gunman turns his weapon on himself.

The energy company BP successfully places a containment dome over the gushing oil well in the Gulf of Mexico; the device allows BP to collect some of the oil and send it to a ship on the surface to be processed. • A gala celebration of the life and career of National Ballet of Cuba founder Alicia Alonso is hosted by the American Ballet Theatre, where Alonso danced in 1941 and 1943–48;

the occasion is part of the 2010 celebration of Alonso’s 90th birthday and the company’s 70th anniversary.

Former finance minister Naoto Kan takes office as prime minister of Japan. • The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the unemployment rate in May fell to 9.7% and that the economy added 431,000 nonfarm jobs; the vast majority of those jobs are temporary hiring by the Census Bureau, however, and the stock markets fall on the news. • The Space Exploration Technologies Corp. (SpaceX) makes its first successful test launch of its Falcon 9 rocket at Cape Canaveral, Florida. • The 83rd Scripps National Spelling Bee is won by Anamika Veeramani of Incarnate Word Academy in Parma Heights, Ohio, when she correctly spells stromuhr.

Francesca Schiavone of Italy defeats Australian Samantha Stosur to win the women’s

French Open tennis title; the following day Rafael Nadal of Spain defeats Robin Söderling of Sweden to capture the men’s championship for the fifth time. • Long shot Drosselmeyer, with jockey Mike Smith aboard, wins the Belmont Stakes, the last event in Thoroughbred horse racing’s U.S. Triple Crown. • The Derby at Epsom Downs in Surrey, Eng., is won by an astonishing seven lengths by Workforce, ridden by Ryan Moore.

Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai ousts the head of Afghanistan’s intelligence agency, Amrullah Saleh, and Minister of the Interior Hanif Atmar, to the surprise of NATO leaders. • The energy company BP finds that it must limit the amount of oil it is capturing from the gushing oil well under the Gulf of Mexico lest it overwhelm the company’s processing capacity on hand, and Coast Guard Adm. Thad Allen warns that the oil will continue to be a problem long after the well has been capped.

June

At a legislative session attended by leader Kim Jong Il, North Korea’s cabinet undergoes a major reshuffle, with a number of technocrats demoted; Kim YongIl is replaced as prime minister by Choe Yong-Rim. • The first criminal convictions stemming from the 1984 chemical leak at a Union Carbide plant that left some 5,000 people dead in Bhopal, India, occur in a courtroom in Bhopal: eight former executives of Union Carbide’s Indian subsidiary are found guilty of negligence, and the seven still living are sentenced to two years in prison. • After two and a half years at the head of a UN commission for fighting corruption in Guatemala, Carlos Castresana resigns in frustration. • German Chancellor Angela Merkel presents an austerity package intended to reduce the country’s budget deficit. • Helen Thomas, a groundbreaking journalist known as the unofficial dean of the White House press corps, of which she has been an increasingly famous member since the early 1960s, abruptly retires in the face of a furor over impolitic remarks she made about Israel.

In legislative elections in the Netherlands, the ruling Christian Democratic Appeal comes in fourth, with just 13.7% of the vote; the top vote getters are the centre-right People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy, with 20.4%, and the centre-left Labour Party, with 19.6%. • In Afghanistan’s Kandahar province, a bomb goes off at the wedding celebration of a man who was a member of a recently formed anti-Taliban militia; at least 40 wedding guests are killed. • Barbara Kingsolver wins the Orange Prize, an award for fiction written by women and published in the U.K., for her novel The Lacuna. (Photo below.) • The Chicago Blackhawks defeat the Philadelphia Flyers 4–3 in sudden-death overtime to win the Stanley Cup, the National Hockey League championship trophy, for the first time since 1961.

Researchers for a U.S. government panel raise the estimate of the amount of oil that has been flowing from the oil well under the Gulf of Mexico since the explosion

A spokeswoman for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees says that the agency has been told that it must leave Libya, where it has operated since 1991 and serves as the country’s only asylum system. • It is reported that a cache of 75 silent films that have been found in the New Zealand Film Archive will be sent to the U.S. for restoration; the films include the only copy of Upstream (1927), directed by John Ford, and the earliest Mabel Normand film.

and sinking of the Deepwater Horizon oil platform in April to 25,000–30,000 bbl a day, nearly double the previous estimate. • Guatemala’s constitutional court removes Conrado Reyes as attorney general, a position he was appointed to on May 25 despite his suspected links to organized crime.

Attacks that began the previous night involving rival drug-trafficking organizations leave some 85 people dead throughout Mexico.

U.S. officials reveal that geologists have found in Afghanistan many previously unknown mineral deposits, including iron, copper, gold, cobalt, and lithium, worth an estimated $1 trillion, enough to become a major component of the country’s economy, which is presently based largely on opium production. • Abby Sunderland, a 16-yearold girl from California who is attempting to sail solo around the world, is rescued some 3,200 km (2,000 mi) west of Australia after losing a mast in heavy seas in the Indian Ocean.

In legislative elections in Belgium, the largest percentage of the vote goes to the New Flemish Alliance, a Flemish separatist party, followed by the French Socialist Party; no party wins an absolute majority. • Kyrgyzstan’s national news agency reports that three days of ethnic violence in southern Kyrgyzstan, largely in and around Osh, has killed at least 114 people and that tens of thousands of ethnic Uzbeks have fled.

• In the 78th running of the 24 Hours of Le Mans endurance automobile race, the Audi team consisting of Mike Rockenfeller of Germany, Romain Dumas of France, and Timo Bernhard of Germany takes the victory, completing 397 laps, a new distance record. • The filly Zenyatta comes from behind to win the Vanity Handicap in Inglewood, Calif., her 17th consecutive victory, which is a new record in top-tier Thoroughbred horse racing; Citation and Cigar achieved 16 straight wins in 1948–50 and 1994–96, respectively. • The 64th annual Tony Awards are presented in New York City; winners include Red (which takes six awards), Memphis, Fences, and La Cage aux Folles and the actors Denzel Washington, Catherine Zeta-Jones, Douglas Hodge, and Scarlett Johansson. • The Golden Ticket, an opera based on Roald Dahl’s novel Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, has its world premiere with the Opera Theater of Saint Louis in Missouri; the score is by Peter Ash, and the libretto is by Donald Sturrock. • For the second consecutive year, the Ibrahim Prize for Achievement in African Leadership will not be awarded; its administrators say no worthy candidates have emerged.

Iraq’s new legislature convenes, takes the oath of allegiance, and is immediately suspended, as no new government has been agreed on and no bloc commands a majority. • Scientists head to South Australia for the capsule of the Japanese space explorer

Alastair Grant/AP

29

June

Hayabusa, which landed there overnight after a sevenyear journey to collect samples from an asteroid and return them to Earth.

The office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights asserts that the ethnic violence in southern Kyrgyzstan was deliberately orchestrated; it is thought that at least 100 people were killed. • Speaking before the House of Commons, British Prime Minister David Cameron apologizes for the “Bloody Sunday” killings in 1972 in which 14 unarmed demonstrators in Londonderry, N.Ire., were killed by British soldiers; Cameron asserts that the shootings had no justification.

National Basketball Association championship.

Six member countries of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States sign an agreement in Castries, St. Lucia, to form an economic union; the remaining three members are expected to sign on within a few weeks. • The U.S. Department of Labor reports that in May unemployment rates fell in 37 states and rose in 6 others; the highest rate, 14%, was in Nevada. • The 2010 winners of the Kyoto Prize are announced: medical scientist Shinya Yamanaka (advanced technology), mathematician Laszlo Lovasz (basic sci-

ences), and visual artist William Kentridge (arts and philosophy). • The Wizarding World of Harry Potter, a new theme park within the Universal Orlando entertainment complex, opens to the public in Orlando, Fla.; at opening there is a six-hour wait to enter. (Photo below.)

China announces that it will allow its currency, the renminbi, to move a little more freely in relation to the U.S. dollar; in later days it is seen that the change is quite small. • Kurdish militants attack a Turkish military post near the Iraqi border, killing 8 soldiers and triggering an attack by Turkish warplanes

A Russian Soyuz rocket blasts off from Kazakhstan, carrying two American astronauts and a Russian cosmonaut to the International Space Station, where they will remain for six months. • Bob King is elected president of the United Automobile Workers union, replacing Ron Gettelfinger.

Estonia becomes the 17th country to become a member of the euro zone. • Switzerland’s legislature agrees to adhere to the terms of an agreement made in August 2009 for the bank UBS to disclose information on 4,450 accounts held by Americans suspected of tax evasion. • The Los Angeles Lakers defeat the Boston Celtics 83–79 in game seven of the best-of-seven tournament to secure the team’s 16th overall and 2nd consecutive

Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announces an easing of Israel’s land blockade of Gaza, including plans to facilitate the passage of larger amounts of civilian goods and plans to issue a list of prohibited items to replace the currently used list of permitted items. • Conservative economist Juan Manuel Santos convincingly wins election as president of Colombia, defeating Antanas Mockus of the Green Party in a runoff. • Two simultaneous car bombs outside the Bank of Trade in Baghdad kill at least 26 people. • Kyrgyz soldiers begin bulldozing the makeshift barriers ethnic Uzbeks used to defend themselves from ethnic violence in Osh, Kyrgyz. • Graeme McDowell of Northern Ireland secures a onestroke victory over Gregory Havret of France to win the U.S. Open golf tournament in Pebble Beach, Calif.

Faisal Shahzad pleads guilty in a U.S. federal court to having created the failed car bomb found on May 1 in Times Square in New York City, explaining in detail how and why he engineered the attempted attack. • After two large demonstrations by people angry about Red Huber—MCT/Landov

30

that leaves 12 Kurdish insurgents dead. • Gunmen thought to be associated with al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula storm a jail used by Yemeni intelligence services in Aden, Yemen, killing at least 11 people and escaping with several prisoners.

June

the lack of services, especially the chronic shortage of electricity, Karim Wahid resigns as the minister of electricity in Iraq’s caretaker government.

Mari Kiviniemi becomes prime minister of Finland, replacing Matti Vanhanen, who resigned on June 18. • George Osborne, British chancellor of the Exchequer, unveils an austerity budget of deep spending cuts and tax increases. • A bighead Asian carp is caught in a fishing net in Lake Calumet, about 9.7 km (6 mi) from Lake Michigan and beyond the electric fence designed to keep the voracious invasive species out of the Great Lakes system.

U.S. Pres. Barack Obama fires Gen. Stanley McChrystal and replaces him as top commander in the war in Afghanistan with Gen. David Petraeus; the dismissal follows an interview published in the magazine Rolling Stone in which McChrystal and his staff had criticized administration officials. • At a meeting of the International Whaling Commission, compromise talks aimed at controlling commercial whaling by Japan, Norway, and Iceland collapse. • The U.S. Census Bureau releases statistics that show that the sales of new homes in May fell to the lowest level since 1963, when reporting began; sales plunged 32.7% from the previous month.

Jamaican gang leader Christopher Coke, after

having been arrested outside the U.S. embassy, is extradited to the U.S., where he is wanted on charges of drug trafficking and on weapons charges. • Kevin Rudd resigns as prime minister of Australia; he is replaced by Julia Gillard, who is Australia’s first female prime minister. • Five American Muslim men who were arrested in Pakistan are found guilty in a court in Sargodha, Pak., of having conspired to carry out terrorist attacks and are sentenced to 10 years in prison. • At Wimbledon the longest match in the history of professional tennis concludes— after three days and 182 games—with a victory by American John Isner over Nicolas Mahut of France in five sets: 6–4, 3–6, 6–7, 7–6, 70–68.

Hong Kong’s Legislative Council approves a plan to expand the legislature by 10 seats beginning in 2012 and for the first time makes most of the seats subject to direct popular election; the committee that chooses the chief executive is enlarged to 1,200 members.

A presidential election is held in Somalia’s self-declared independent enclave of Somaliland; on July 1 opposition candidate Ahmed Silanyo is declared the winner of the race.

Free elections take place in Guinea for the first time in the country’s history; they result in the need for a presidential runoff.

• A referendum on a proposed new constitution that reduces the power of the president and makes the country a parliamentary democracy takes place in Kyrgyzstan; the document is overwhelmingly approved. • Darci Kistler, who is the last working ballet dancer to have been trained by the legendary choreographer George Balanchine, makes her farewell performance with the New York City Ballet after a 30-year career. • Cristie Kerr of the U.S. wins the Ladies Professional Golf Association Championship tournament by 12 strokes over Kim Song-Hee of South Korea.

Pres. Vaclav Klaus of the Czech Republic names Petr Necas, the leader of the centre-right Civic Democratic Party, prime minister. • Five couples who were arrested in New York, Massachusetts, and Virginia the previous day are charged with conspiracy to act as unlawful agents of a foreign government as part of a Russian espionage ring; an 11th person is also charged but has not been apprehended. • In a presidential election in Burundi, Pres. Pierre Nkurunziza is the sole candidate as opposition parties boycott the polls; the parties later denounce the election as a farce. • Rodolfo Torre Cantú, a front-running candidate for governor of Mexico’s Tamaulipas state, is gunned down together with at least four other people near Ciudad Victoria; it is believed that drug cartels are responsible for the assassination.

• Sen. Robert C. Byrd, who served a record 51 years in the U.S. Senate and was also the longest-serving member of Congress, having spent an additional 6 years in the House of Representatives, dies at the age of 92 in Virginia.

In Chongqing, China, representatives of China and Taiwan sign a framework trade agreement that will, among other things, remove tariffs from hundreds of goods exported from Taiwan to China as well as some goods exported from China to Taiwan. • Larry King, host of the once-essential cable television talk show Larry King Live since 1985, announces his retirement. • Ukraine’s minister of the interior announces that a Caravaggio painting known as The Taking of Christ or The Kiss of Judas, which was stolen from a museum in Odessa in 2008, has been recovered in Germany, where the thieves were attempting to sell it.

In accordance with an agreement with the Maoist party in Nepal, Madhav Kumar Nepal resigns as prime minister. • The World Trade Organization releases a ruling that the European airplane manufacturer Airbus has for some 40 years received improper subsidies in the form of low-interest and interest-free loans from European governments— subsidies that gave it an unfair advantage over its American rival Boeing. • Christian Wulff is chosen to replace Horst Köhler as president of Germany. 31

July We can’t rule anything out. This was obviously terrorism, from the way it was targeted at World Cup watchers in public places. Ugandan police inspector Kale Kayihura, after bombs killed dozens of World Cup spectators in Kampala, July 11

Two suicide bombers attack the Data Ganj Baksh, a major Sufi shrine, in Lahore, Pak.; at least 42 worshippers are killed. • The East African Community, consisting of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, and Burundi, launches a common market for products, capital, and workers. • China’s state-run news service, the Xinhua News Agency, publicly introduces CNC World, a 24-hour English-language news channel; it also announces plans to open a newsroom in New York City. • James H. Billington, the American librarian of Congress, names W.S. Merwin the country’s 17th poet laureate; Merwin succeeds Kay Ryan.

The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the unemployment rate in June fell to 9.5% and that the private sector added 83,000 jobs, though the economy as a whole lost 125,000 nonfarm jobs as

temporary Census Bureau jobs ended. • The UN General Assembly approves the creation of a new umbrella agency, the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, to be called UN Women.

American Serena Williams defeats Vera Zvonareva of Russia to take her fourth All-England (Wimbledon) women’s tennis championship; the following day Rafael Nadal of Spain wins the men’s title for the second time when he defeats Tomas Berdych of the Czech Republic. • Roza Otunbayeva is sworn in as Kyrgyzstan’s transitional president under the country’s new constitution; she will also serve as prime minister until legislative elections take place in October. (Photo right.)

defeats Jaroslaw Kaczynski, twin brother of Lech Kaczynski, whose death in a plane crash in April left the office vacant.

A one-day strike accompanied by large protests against an increase in the cost of fuel takes place across India. • The leaders of Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan sign an agreement forming a customs union of the three countries.

• A new and controversial law allowing an unrestricted right to abortion within the first 14 weeks of pregnancy goes into effect in Spain.

In Indian-administered Kashmir, three civilians are killed when Indian police fire on protesters throwing stones; at least 14 people, mostly protesters, have been killed in the past three weeks, and this has led to a rise in violent anti-Indian demonstrations.

In Poland’s runoff presidential election, acting president Bronislaw Komorowski of the ruling Civic Platform party Igor Kovalenko—EPA/Landov

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July

• China’s first full-size commercial offshore wind farm, the 102-MW Donghai Bridge Wind Farm in the East China Sea, begins transmitting power; it initially is providing electricity to the Shanghai Expo but is expected eventually to generate enough power for 200,000 households in Shanghai. • The automobile manufacturer Chrysler announces that it plans to open about 200 dealerships in 2010 in the U.S. to sell the subcompact Fiat 500; they will be the first Fiat dealerships in the country in 26 years.

As hundreds of thousands of Shi!ite worshippers head toward the Imam Musa alKadhim mosque in Baghdad for a religious observation, a suicide bomber at a checkpoint kills nearly 60 people. • Turkey’s Constitutional Court strikes down parts of the country’s proposed new constitution, including provisions that increase the authority of the president over the Supreme Board of Judges and Prosecutors and that allow people without legal backgrounds to serve on the board; a referendum on the document is to be held in September. • British researchers announce the discovery near Norfolk, Eng., of 78 flint tools that date to some 800,000 years ago, suggesting the earliest-yet-discovered hominin occupation in northern Europe.

The European Parliament agrees to reactivate a program that allows the U.S. to monitor banking and financial transfers in Europe for possible financing of terrorist activity; the program was suspended in February.

• The U.S. and Russia agree that the 10 people recently arrested as unregistered Russian spies in the U.S. will be released to Russia in exchange for the release of 4 men held in Russian prisons for their contacts with Western intelligence agencies. • Bombs targeting Shi!ites taking part in the final day of a religious observance in Baghdad leave at least 15 people dead. • In Boston, U.S. District Court Judge Joseph Tauro rules that the federal Defense of Marriage Act, which allows only oppositesex couples to marry, violates the Constitution in that it interferes with the rights of states to define marriage. • Striking union members at a nickel mining and processing plant in Sudbury, Ont., agree to a new contract though it gives them less than they had sought, ending a strike that began on July 13, 2009.

In Mohmand agency of Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas, a suicide bomber on a motorbike kills at least 102 people outside the headquarters of the agency’s civilian government. • The conservation organization WWF announces that the global population of wild tigers has fallen to as low as 3,200. • The last Chrysler PT Cruiser rolls off an assembly line in Mexico; the retro-style car model was a major hit when it was introduced a decade earlier and inspired many imitators, but sales had stagnated more recently.

The energy company BP removes a cap that partially contained the gushing of

oil from the broken oil well under the Gulf of Mexico in order to be able to attach a tighter cap. • The first performance of The Demons, a 12-hour Italian theatrical adaptation of the Dostoyevsky novel also known as The Possessed, takes place on Governors Island in New York City.

Bombs explode in a restaurant and a rugby club in Kampala, Ugan., both crowded with fans watching the association football (soccer) World Cup final; at least 76 people are killed, and suspicion falls on the al-Shabaab militants of Somalia. • In elections for the House of Councillors, the upper house of Japan’s legislature, the ruling Democratic Party wins only 44 seats, leaving it short of a majority. • In Johannesburg, Spain defeats the Netherlands 1–0 with a goal in the 116th minute by Spanish striker Andrés Iniesta to win the country’s first association football (soccer) World Cup. • Paula Creamer of the U.S. scores a four-stroke victory over Choi Na-Yeon of South Korea and Suzann Pettersen of Norway to win the U.S. Women’s Open golf tournament in Oakmont, Pa.

Britain’s Office for National Statistics releases revised figures showing that the recession in 2008–09 in the country cut deeper into the economy than previously thought and that economic growth in the first quarter of 2010 was only 0.3%. • Switzerland rejects a U.S. request to extradite film director Roman Polanski to face charges in a 1977 case involving sex with an under-

age girl and sets Polanski free; he was arrested in Zürich in September 2009.

The Russian Grain Union, an industry lobbying group, declares that amid the heat wave engulfing Russia, the country is also suffering its worst drought in 130 years and has lost about a fifth of the total planted grain area. • The first 7 of the 52 political prisoners that Cuba has agreed to release arrive in Madrid, together with members of their families. • Éric Woerth, France’s labour minister, announces his resignation as treasurer of the ruling party due to his suspected connection to a burgeoning scandal that involves an illegal campaign donation from Liliane Bettencourt, the L’Oréal cosmetics heiress.

Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai, after several days of negotiations with NATO military leaders, agrees to a program to create local defense forces to bolster military and police forces.

The U.S. Congress passes a major bill to increase government oversight of financial companies and markets in an effort to remedy the causes of the severe recession that began in 2008; Pres. Barack Obama signs it into law on July 21. • The energy company BP successfully tests a new containment cap on the gushing well in the Gulf of Mexico, completely stopping the flow of oil for the first time in 86 days. • The U.S. military in a ceremony cedes control of 33

July

detainment facilities in Iraq to the Iraqi government. • A double suicide bombing leaves at least 26 people dead at a gathering of Revolutionary Guards outside a mosque in Zahedan, Iran. • Rioting in Roman Catholic areas of Belfast, N.Ire., continues for a fourth night. • An explosives-laden car is detonated in Juárez, Mex., by a cell phone call, and four people, among them two federal police officers, are killed; it is believed to be the first car bomb in Mexico’s drug wars. • Argentina’s legislature legalizes same-sex marriage on an equal basis with conventional marriage. • The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration releases a report that says, among other things, that June 2010 surpassed June 2005 as the warmest June on record worldwide and that the month also recorded a record low in Arctic sea ice.

Two oil pipelines in Dalian, China, explode after an oil tanker unloaded its cargo into the pipelines; a fire and a large oil spill follow.

Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard sets the national legislative election for August 21. • Talks on a financial rescue package for Hungary between the IMF, the EU, and Hungary break off.

As Awakening Council members await paychecks at an Iraqi army base in Baghdad, a suicide bomber detonates his weapon, leaving at least 45 people dead. 34

• Gunmen invade a birthday celebration in Torreón, Mex., and open fire, killing at least 17 people, including the celebrant. • A strike against government policies in Tehran’s Grand Bazaar comes to an end after 12 days. • Louis Oosthuizen of South Africa defeats England’s Lee Westwood by seven strokes to win the British Open golf tournament on the Old Course at St. Andrews in Fife, Scot.

Hungary’s minister of the economy, Gyorgy Matolcsy, responds to pressure from the IMF and the European Union with a declaration that the country will not undertake further austerity measures. • Russia’s Ministry of Emergency Situations reports that 77 people trying to cool off during the country’s ongoing heat wave have drowned over the past two days, adding to July’s total of more than 400; the numbers are similar to those in most summers, however, and most drowning victims are deemed likely to have been drunk. • Syria’s Ministry of Education issues a ban on the wearing of the niqab, a veil that covers the face and leaves only the eyes visible, by students and faculty at schools and universities at all levels. • The online bookseller Amazon.com announces that for the past three months its sales of e-books have been greater than its sales of hardcover books.

A conference of international leaders takes place in Kabul; the confer-

ees agree to grant a larger portion of foreign aid to the Afghan government rather than to individual ministries or nongovernmental organizations and approve a timetable proposed by Pres. Hamid Karzai for a transition to Afghan-led security. • A firefight that began the previous night with an attack by militants from the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) on Turkish soldiers near the border with Iraq leaves six of the soldiers dead.

Five days after the explosion of an oil pipeline in Dalian, China, the oil has spread over 427 sq km (165 sq mi) of the Yellow Sea; it is the largest oil spill ever reported in China. • The IMF cancels Haiti’s debt of $268 million and approves a loan of an additional $60 million. • In the Shi!ite village of Abe Sayeda, Iraq, a car bomb explodes in a crowd, killing at least 13 people.

In response to Colombia’s presentation to the Organization of American States of evidence of what it says are 1,500 Colombian insurgents taking refuge in Venezuela, Venezuelan Pres. Hugo Chávez publicly severs diplomatic ties with Colombia. • The International Court of Justice rules, in response to a complaint lodged by Serbia, that Kosovo did not violate international law when it declared itself independent in February 2008. • In a cricket Test match in which Sri Lanka defeats India, Sri Lankan spin bowler Muttiah Muralitharan, in his final Test cricket match, becomes the first

cricketer ever to take 800 Test wickets.

During an African Union summit meeting in Kampala, Ugan., Guinea agrees to send a battalion to join African Union peacekeepers in Somalia; together with a force from Djibouti, these will be the first African Union peacekeepers in Somalia from predominately Muslim countries. • Financial regulators report that all but 7 of the 91 European banks subjected to stress tests passed the tests; those that failed included 5 small Spanish savings banks, a Greek bank, and a German bank.

In Duisburg, Ger., the Love Parade, an annual techno music festival that originated as a peace demonstration in Berlin in 1989, takes place in an old freight railway station, but overcrowding in a tunnel that is the only entrance to the venue leads to a panic in which 21 concertgoers are crushed to death.

The organization WikiLeaks.org posts on its Web site tens of thousands of pages of classified U.S. military field reports on the war in Afghanistan. • The U.S. and South Korea begin joint war games in the Sea of Japan, mobilizing 20 ships, led by the nuclearpowered aircraft carrier George Washington, and more than 200 warplanes. • Tony Hayward is removed as CEO of the energy company BP; his replacement is announced two days later as Robert Dudley, who will be the first American to head the company.

July

• Spanish cyclist Alberto Contador wins the Tour de France for the second year in a row. • Brazil wins the FIVB World League championship in volleyball in Córdoba, Arg., defeating Russia to take a record ninth World League title. • Yokozuna Hakuho defeats ozeki Baruto to win the Nagoya Grand Sumo Tournament, becoming the first wrestler in the history of sumo to win three consecutive meets without a single defeat. • The National Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, N.Y., inducts slugger Andre Dawson, manager Whitey Herzog, and umpire Doug Harvey.

Afghan officials declare that 52 civilians in a house where women and children were taking refuge from a firefight between NATO and Taliban forces in Helmand province on July 23 were killed by a rocket fired by NATO troops. • Bomb attacks kill some 20 Shi!ite pilgrims traveling from Al-Najaf to Karbala# in Iraq; also, a car bomb explodes in front of the Baghdad offices of the news channel Al-Arabiyah, and six people, none of them journalists, die. • In Cambodia’s UN-backed war crimes tribunal’s first verdict, Kaing Guek Eav, known as Duch, who oversaw the torture and executions of thousands of prisoners at the Tuol Sleng prison under the Khmer Rouge regime, is found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity and sentenced to 35 years in prison; his sentence is lessened to 19 years for time served and

for a period of illegal military detention. • The U.S. Library of Congress grants an exception to a copyright law; the exception gives owners of smartphones, such as Apple’s iPhone, the right to engage in “jailbreaking”— that is, to install software that has not been approved by the phone’s creator. • In Jerusalem the Israel Museum reopens after a three-year renovation, expansion, and redesign under the direction of James S. Snyder.

Heavy rains continue in China, and a resultant landslide in Sichuan leaves 21 people missing, while waters threaten to overtop the Three Gorges Dam; China’s State Flood Control and Drought Prevention department reports that at least 823 people have died in flooding in 2010. • The U.S. Forest Service announces that caves on federal land in Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, South

Dakota, and Wyoming will be closed to explorers for a year in an effort to contain the spread of white-nose syndrome, a disease that has killed more than one million bats.

Michigan Gov. Jennifer Granholm calls on the U.S. federal government for additional help in cleaning up an oil spill of more than 3,028,330 litres (800,000 gal) that resulted from a broken pipeline on July 26 on Talmadge Creek, a tributary of the Kalamazoo River; Granholm calls the effort so far by the pipeline’s owner, Enbridge Energy Partners, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency “wholly inadequate.” • In Spain the legislature of Catalonia votes to ban the Spanish tradition of bullfighting in the region.

South African Pres. Jacob Zuma announces that 6 of the 13 black ethnic monarchies

within the country are to be abolished. • Pres. !Ali !Abdallah Salih of Yemen invites leaders of the al-Huthi rebels to join talks between the Yemeni government and assorted opposition parties. • Mexican soldiers in a firefight kill Ignacio (“Nacho”) Coronel, one of the top leaders of the Sinaloa drug cartel, in what is viewed as a major victory in the Mexican government’s fight against the cartels. • Shipping officials in the United Arab Emirates attempt to ascertain the cause of damage, including a dented hull and broken windows, sustained by the Japanese oil tanker M. Star the previous day in the Strait of Hormuz.

Violent fighting between those who support and those who oppose ongoing peace talks with the Sudanese government break out in a refugee camp in the Darfur region of Sudan, and some 10 people are killed; UN reports indicate that about 600 people have died in violence in Darfur in the past few months. • American marine conservationist Rick Steiner declares that the oil spill into the Yellow Sea following a pipeline explosion in Dalian, China, two weeks earlier was likely to have spilled more than 430,000 bbl of oil, rather than the 11,000 bbl reported by China.

Chelsea Clinton, daughter of U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and former U.S. president Bill Clinton, weds Marc Mezvinsky in a ceremony in Rhinebeck, N.Y. (Photo left.) Genevieve De Manio—UPI/Landov

35

August The 33 of us in the shelter are well. Note from miners trapped 17 days earlier in the collapse of a gold and copper mine in Chile, found attached to a rescuer’s drill, August 22

A government official in Pakistan declares that flooding in the country has cost 1,100 lives thus far; some 10,000 people are thought to be stranded in the Swat valley and Dir Ismail Khan. • The Netherlands withdraws its forces from Afghanistan; it is the first NATO member to end its mission there. • Taiwanese golfer Yani Tseng captures the Women’s British Open golf tournament.

Raza Haidar, the head of the Muttahida Qaumi Movement political party, is assassinated in Karachi; violent antiPashtun rioting breaks out within hours and continues for two days, leaving at least 78 people dead. • In Indian-administered Kashmir, officials say that two days of violent clashes between armed security forces and stone-throwing protesters have raised the number killed so far to 33 people. • A rocket strikes near the InterContinental resort hotel in Al-!Aqabah, Jordan, killing a taxi driver, and the remains of another rocket 36

are found on the grounds of the Eilat resort in Israel; the provenance of the rockets is unknown. • A U.S. federal team of scientists and engineers estimates that the amount of oil that flowed into the Gulf of Mexico following the explosion of the energy company BP’s Deepwater Horizon oil rig on April 20 is roughly 4,900,000 bbl, about 800,000 bbl of which was captured, making it the largest-ever accidental release of oil into marine waters; the previous record was 3,300,000 bbl in the Bay of Campeche, where a well dug by the Ixtoc I oil platform blew out in 1979.

Israeli and Lebanese troops stationed at the border between the countries exchange gunfire, reportedly leaving four Lebanese and at least one Israeli dead; each side blames the other for starting the incident. • New York City zoning officials clear the way for the building of a community centre and mosque to be constructed two blocks north of the site of the World Trade Center, commonly referred to since the

terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001, as “ground zero”; opposition to the planned centre, often fanned by right-wing commentators, has appeared in much of the country and frequently takes on an anti-Islam tone.

A new constitution that decreases the power of the presidency and includes a bill of rights is resoundingly approved by the electorate in Kenya; it is signed into law on August 27. • The U.S. government says that the energy company BP’s use of a so-called static kill to seal the broken oil well in the Gulf of Mexico by filling it with mud is a success and that there should be no further leaking from the well; the following day cement is used to plug the pipe for the first time. • Naxalite rebels ambush a police patrol in India’s Chhattisgarh state; some 70 police officers are missing after the attack.

Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin signs a decree banning the export of grain from August 15 through the

end of the year because of the continuing drought, which has decimated the wheat harvest. • An iceberg covering at least 251 sq km (97 sq mi) breaks off from Greenland’s Petermann Glacier; it is the largest ice island to break free in the Northern Hemisphere since 1962.

In the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan, 10 members of a medical aid group—6 Americans, 2 Afghans, 1 Briton, and 1 German—are lined up and executed. • Pal Schmitt is sworn in as president of Hungary. • The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the unemployment rate in July remained steady at 9.5% and that, though the private sector added 71,000 jobs, the economy as a whole lost 131,000 jobs. • Investigators for the United Arab Emirates report that the damage suffered by the Japanese oil tanker M. Star on July 28 as it traveled through the Strait of Hormuz was caused by a terrorist attack involving homemade explosives.

August

At least 43 people are killed by an explosion in a marketplace in Basra, Iraq. • Elena Kagan is sworn in as a U.S. Supreme Court justice. • The Pro Football Hall of Fame in Canton, Ohio, inducts running backs Emmitt Smith and Floyd Little, wide receiver Jerry Rice, cornerback Dick LeBeau, linebacker Rickey Jackson, guard Russ Grimm, and defensive tackle John Randle.

South Korean Pres. Lee Myung-Bak carries out a cabinet shuffle; he names Kim TaeHo to replace Chung UnChan as prime minister, but Kim withdraws his name on August 29.

Pres. Paul Kagame is overwhelmingly elected to a new sevenyear term as president of Rwanda. • The head of Russia’s weather service declares that the heat wave engulfing the area around Moscow is the worst the country has ever experienced; tens of thousands of people flee the heat, which has doubled the city’s death rate, and 557 fires are burning, with 747,722 ha (1,847,661 ac) having been consumed by fires.

China reports a slowing of its economy’s growth, the Bank of England reduces its forecast for the country’s economy, and the U.S. reports decreased exports; in response, the Dow Jones Industrial Average falls 265 points. • Russia announces that it has deployed an advanced air defense missile system in the separatist Georgian enclave Abkhazia. • The Mecca Clock Tower, with four faces 46 m (151 ft) in diameter and illuminated by LED lights, begins marking time in Saudi Arabia; it runs on Arabia Standard Time and is intended to challenge Greenwich Mean Time as the world standard. (Photo below.)

Dési Bouterse, who twice led the country at the

The U.S. Federal Reserve announces that it intends to buy long-term government debt in hopes of preventing a slowing of the tenuous economic recovery. • Venezuelan Pres. Hugo Chávez and Colombian Pres. Juan Manuel Santos meet in Santa Marta, Colom., and agree to exchange ambassadors.

head of a military junta and was on trial for murder at the time of his election by the legislature, takes office as president of Suriname. • French Minister of the Interior Brice Hortefeux declares that the government has dismantled some 40 illegal Roma camps over the past two weeks and will deport 700 camp residents to Bulgaria and Romania; the day of the announcement a Roma camp in Choisy-le-Roi is shut down.

In Sri Lanka retired general Sarath Fonseka, who led the military campaign that defeated the rebel Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and who later unsuccessfully ran against Pres. Mahinda Rajapakse for president, is convicted in a courtmartial of having engaged in politics while in uniform and is dishonourably discharged.

• The ruling junta of Myanmar (Burma) announces that elections will take place on November 7. • Patrice Trovoada of the opposition Independent Democratic Action party is named as prime minister of Sao Tome and Principe after elections on August 1; his government is sworn in the following day. • The Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Mass., inducts as members NBA players Scottie Pippen, Karl Malone, Dennis Johnson, and Gus Johnson, WNBA star Cynthia Cooper, Brazilian player Maciel Pereira, owner Jerry Buss, and high school coach Bob Hurley, Sr., as well as the U.S. Olympic teams from the Games of 1960 and 1992.

In California’s Mojave Desert, at the California 200, a popular 80-km (50mi) off-road nighttime race attended by hundreds of spectators, a modified Ford Ranger going over a steep hill spins and rolls over into the crowd; eight spectators are killed. • The opening ceremonies for the inaugural Youth Olympic Games take place in Singapore, where some 3,600 athletes 14 to 18 years of age from 204 countries will compete in two dozen summer sports over the next 12 days.

In a speech marking the 65th anniversary of the end of Japanese rule in Korea, South Korean Pres. Lee Myung-Bak suggests that the time has come to consider a special tax to finance the eventual reunification of South and North Korea. • At the Whistling Straits golf club in Kohler, Wis., Martin Kaymer of Germany defeats Essa Mohammad/AP

37

August

Bubba Watson of the U.S. in a three-hole playoff to win the PGA championship tournament. • Danielle Kang of California wins the U.S. women’s amateur golf title in Charlotte, N.C. • The 51st Edward MacDowell Medal for outstanding contributions to the arts is awarded to American jazz composer and musician Sonny Rollins at the MacDowell Colony in Peterborough, N.H.

Japanese government figures are released showing that the country’s economy in the second fiscal quarter was valued at $1.28 trillion, thus resulting in China (which posted $1.33 trillion in the same quarter) surpassing Japan to become the second biggest economy in the world. • Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago sign an agreement regarding the sharing of the Loran-Manatee gas field, which straddles the maritime border between the two countries.

At an Iraqi army recruiting centre in Baghdad, a suicide bomber detonates his weapon among a crowd of applicants, killing at least 61 people. • Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai orders that all private security companies, both domestic and foreign, be phased out within four months, a deadline that is widely regarded as impossibly short. • Lebanon passes a law granting Palestinians in the country, of whom there are an estimated 400,000, the same rights to work that other foreigners enjoy. 38

• It is reported that 51 people died in drug-related violence August 13–15 in Juárez, Mex.

and Cédric Villani; also, the inaugural Chern Medal for lifetime achievement goes to Louis Nirenberg.

The body of Edelmiro Cavazos, the kidnapped mayor of Santiago, Mex., is found on the side of a road; five police officers, one of whom was part of the mayor’s security detail, and a transit officer are later arrested in connection with the crime. • Wright County Egg of Galt, Iowa, recalls 380 million eggs that have been sold throughout the country; an outbreak of salmonella was traced to some of the company’s facilities. • The New England Journal of Medicine publishes online a study that found that cancer patients who received palliative care beginning at the time of diagnosis outlived those who received standard cancer treatment without palliative care.

U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announces that Palestinian leader Mahmoud Abbas will engage in direct talks with Israel in hopes of finding a way to return to the peace process. • Aleksey Savinov is fired as head of Russia’s forestry service for his handling of the forest fires that burned 809,370 ha (2,000,000 ac) of land and left at least 54 people dead.

Taliban fighters attack sleeping private security guards hired to safeguard a road-construction project in the Helmand River valley in Afghanistan; at least 21 of the guards are slaughtered. • North Korea acknowledges that it is holding a South Korean squidding boat and its seven crew members, saying that they were fishing in North Korean waters. • The computer chip maker Intel announces an agreement to acquire the computer security company McAfee. • The Fields Medals, awarded every four years to mathematicians aged 40 or younger, are presented to Elon Lindenstrauss, Ngo Bao Chau, Stanislav Smirnov,

Legislative elections in Australia result in no clear majority for any party, with the ruling Labor Party taking 38% of the vote and the conservative Liberal-National coalition winning 43.6%. • Near Bushehr, Iran, officials from Iran and Russia ceremonially open Iran’s first nuclear power plant; it will be jointly operated with Russian technicians.

Officials from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs and from the International Medical Corps report that they have learned that hundreds of members of the Hutu rebel group Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda attacked and gang-raped at least 150 women July 30–August 3 in and around the village of Ruvungi in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. • Seventeen days after the collapse of a gold and copper mine in northern Chile, 33 miners trapped 700 m (2,300 ft) underground tie a note to a rescuers’ drill that

has penetrated the area in which they have taken refuge, notifying those above of their survival; plans for their rescue begin.

A suicide bomber kills at least 26 people worshipping at a mosque in the South Waziristan region of Pakistan. • A former police officer who was fired in 2009 takes over a tour bus in Manila, holding the passengers hostage in an apparent bid to regain his job; there is a televised standoff for the next 12 hours before police commandos storm the bus, and the gunman and eight tourists from Hong Kong are killed. • Nepal’s legislature fails in its fifth attempt to choose a prime minister; the next vote is scheduled for September 5. • U.S. District Court Judge Royce C. Lamberth, to the shock of the scientific community, overturns an executive order allowing limited federal funding of stem cell research.

Al-Shabaab fighters wearing Somali government military uniforms invade a hotel in Mogadishu, methodically shooting from room to room; at least 33 people, including 4 members of the country’s legislature, are killed. • Peace talks between Yemen’s government and al-Huthi rebels begin in Qatar. • The bodies of 72 migrants from Central and South America, the victims of a massacre, are discovered in San Fernando, Tamaulipas state, Mex. • The National Association of Realtors in the U.S. reports that home sales in July were

August

25.5% lower than in the previous July, in spite of historically low mortgage interest rates and falling prices. • A small turboprop airplane carrying passengers to Lukla, Nepal, a popular starting point for the trek to Mt. Everest, crashes near the village of Shikharpur; all 14 aboard perish.

A car bomb goes off at a police station in Baghdad, marking the beginning of a day of attacks that strike 12 other Iraqi cities, including Al-Fallujah, AlRamadi, Tikrit, Kirkuk, Basra, Karbala#, and Mosul; at least 51 people die in the attacks, including 19 people killed by a car bomb in Kut. • The final unit of the 4.2million-kW Xiaowan Hydropower Station in China’s Yunnan province begins operating; the project, the second largest in China, gives the country the highest hydropower capacity in the world. • Danny Philip is chosen to be prime minister of the Solomon Islands.

France deports 300 Roma over the protests of the Roman Catholic archbishop of Paris and the EU justice commissioner. • Brazilian Pres. Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva ceremonially signs the contract for the building of the massive Belo Monte hydroelectric dam on the Xingu River; it is planned to be the third largest dam in the world and to supply electricity to 23 million homes. • The winners of the inaugural Horton Foote Prize for playwriting are announced: Ruined by Lynn Nottage wins the award for outstanding new American play, and

the prize for promising new American play goes to Middletown by Will Eno.

Than Shwe, Muang Aye, and Thura Shwe Man resign from the military in Myanmar (Burma); the move makes the men, the top three rulers in the country’s military junta, eligible to run for office under the new constitution. • Mexico’s largest airline, Grupo Mexicana, suspends operations. • The North American Lutheran Church is created in Grove City, Ohio, by 199 congregations that opposed the more accepting stance toward gay clergy recently adopted by the Evangelical Lutheran Church of America.

Fazel Ahmed Faqiryar, whom Pres. Hamid Karzai fired as deputy attorney general of Afghanistan on August 26, declares that he was sacked for pursuing corruption cases against high officials in the government; Western officials bear out his story about highlevel interference with corruption investigations.

• Conservative broadcaster Glenn Beck leads a rally of tens of thousands of people, many of them Tea Party partisans or libertarians, at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.; he calls for Christian religious revival.

Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin ceremonially opens a new oil pipeline that runs 67 km (42 mi) from Skovorodino, Russia, to northeastern China. • The volcano Mt. Sinabung on the Indonesian island of Sumatra erupts for the first time in four centuries; another eruption takes place the following day. (Photo below.) • The Emmy Awards are presented in Los Angeles; winners include the television shows Modern Family and Mad Men and the actors Jim Parsons, Bryan Cranston, Edie Falco, Kyra Sedgwick, Eric Stonestreet, Aaron Paul, Jane Lynch, and Archie Panjabi. • At a meet in Rieti, Italy, Kenyan runner David Rudisha sets a new 800-m world record of 1 min 41.01 sec, breaking his own record time

set on August 22 by 0.08 sec; the previous record, 1 min 41.11 sec, was set in 1997 by Wilson Kipketer of Denmark. • In University Place, Wash., Peter Uihlein is the winner of the U.S. men’s amateur golf championship. • The Edogawa Minami team from Tokyo defeats the Waipio team from Waipahu, Hawaii, 4–1 to win baseball’s 64th Little League World Series.

After a long debate, India’s legislature ratifies the final legislation necessary to complete the implementation of a nuclear agreement made with the U.S. in 2005.

In a nationally televised address, U.S. Pres. Barack Obama announces an end to the country’s combat mission in Iraq, though 49,700 troops will remain in a supporting capacity for another year; the war began in 2003. • The much-anticipated, wellreviewed novel Freedom by Jonathan Franzen arrives in American bookstores.

Roone Patikawa/AP

39

September This is the first time in memory that an entire decade has produced essentially no economic growth for the typical American household. Harvard University economist Lawrence Katz, commenting on newly released Census Bureau information, September 16

After 10 days of battles in the streets of Mogadishu, Som., that have left at least 100 people dead, the city is calm. • Three suicide bombers attack Shi!ites observing an annual day of mourning in Lahore, Pak., killing at least 31 people; rioting breaks out in response. • In Washington, D.C., U.S. Pres. Barack Obama, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, Palestinian Authority Pres. Mahmoud Abbas, Egyptian Pres. Hosni Mubarak, and King !Abdullah II of Jordan meet to begin a push to achieve agreement between Israel and Palestine.

The International Medical Corps says that the number of women and girls in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo who were raped during attacks on July 30–August 3 by the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda and the Mai Mai has been found to be more than 240, and it is expected that the number will rise with further investigation. 40

• The IMF declares that it will provide Pakistan with $450 million in emergency aid to help with the flooding disaster the country is experiencing. • The American fast-food chain Burger King agrees to be bought by the Brazilianbacked investment firm 3G Capital.

A suicide bomber kills at least 53 people in Quetta, Pak., when he detonates his weapon among a parade of Shi!ites who are marching to demonstrate their solidarity with Palestinians. • A magnitude-7.0 earthquake with its epicentre about 45 km (28 mi) west of Christchurch strikes in New Zealand; most major buildings in Christchurch are built to withstand earthquakes, though some $1.4 billion in damage, largely to infrastructure, does result.

The U.S. and Afghanistan reach a deal on bailing out Kabul

Bank, Afghanistan’s largest bank, as a run on the institution by worried depositors continues.

A referendum in Moldova on a constitutional amendment to allow direct popular election of the president fails to attract enough voters to be considered legally valid; the country’s legislature has not agreed on a successor to Pres. Vladimir Voronin, whose term ended in 2009. • The Basque militant organization ETA publicly declares a cease-fire in Spain.

Trade unions in South Africa suspend a strike by hundreds of thousands of public-sector workers that has gone on for nearly three weeks, though the government’s offer has not yet been accepted. • A suicide car bomber attacks a police station in the town of Lakki Marwat in Pakistan’s KhyberPakhtunkhwa province; at

least 19 people, including 9 police officers, are killed. • A 24-hour public-sector strike to protest pensionreform proposals that include raising the minimum retirement age begins in France, and a 24-hour transit strike in London opposes layoffs.

Julia Gillard forms a coalition that allows her to retain her position as Australia’s prime minister. • A bomb explosion kills at least 18 people in a residential compound in Kohat in Pakistan’s KhyberPakhtunkhwa province. • A government minister in Mozambique announces that the price of bread will be rolled back to its earlier level after a major increase in the cost caused riots. • Israel, the newest member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, signs the OECD Convention, pledging its dedication to the organization’s goals.

September

• A British parliamentary committee announces plans to hold an inquiry into the issue of phone hacking after reports surfaced that the tabloid The News of the World had intercepted cell phone messages of politicians and celebrities. • Mayor Richard M. Daley of Chicago announces that he will not seek a seventh term of office in 2011; observers are dumbfounded.

Sri Lanka’s legislature approves a constitutional amendment that allows the president to seek an unlimited number of terms of office and that in addition increases the president’s power of appointment. • China’s Foreign Ministry summons Japan’s ambassador to China for the second time to complain about Japan’s seizure the previous day of a Chinese fishing boat’s captain in the waters around islands called Diaoyu in China and Senkaku in Japan that are claimed by both countries. • The government of Ireland declares that it will break the troubled Anglo Irish Bank into two entities, one of which it intends to shut down.

U.S. District Court Judge Virginia Phillips rules that the “don’t ask, don’t tell” policy, which prohibits the military from seeking to learn the sexual orientation of service members but permits the discharge of service members who are found through their own actions to be homosexual, is unconstitutional. • In Russia’s North Ossetia–Alania republic, a suicide car bomb explodes in the central market of

• Violent demonstrations take place in eastern Afghanistan over a widely publicized plan by Terry Jones, pastor of a small independent church in Gainesville, Fla., to burn copies of the Qur#an on September 11, despite the fact that Jones eventually canceled the plan; police fire into the unruly crowd, killing two.

Javier Velásquez resigns as prime minister of Peru; he is replaced the following day by José Antonio Chang. • Cuba announces plans to lay off 500,000 people from the government payroll by March 2011 in a major turn toward the private sector.

Fredrik Von Erichsen—EPA/Landov

Vladikavkaz; at least 17 people are killed. • India’s cabinet ratifies a plan to include data on caste status in the census scheduled for 2011; caste information was last collected in the 1931 census. • An enormous gas-line explosion destroys about 50 houses in San Bruno, Calif., and at least eight people are killed.

A report by a commission set up by the Roman Catholic Church in Belgium issues a report on its findings that sexual abuse of children by priests occurred throughout the country and involved hundreds of victims, with the most abuse occurring from the 1950s through the late 1980s. • The U.S. government announces that Staff Sgt. Salvatore A. Giunta will be granted the Medal of Honor for conspicuous bravery during a battle in eastern Afghanistan in 2007; he will be the first living service member since the Vietnam War to receive the honour.

During the holiday of !Id al-Fitr, thousands of Muslims who had been given permission to march in Srinagar, the summer capital of Indian-administered Kashmir, engage in violent protests. • North Korea proposes the resumption of reunions of families that were divided by the Korean War; it is the first time that North Korea has proposed such meetings. • Kim Clijsters of Belgium defeats Russian Vera Zvonareva to win the women’s U.S. Open tennis championship for the third time; two days later in a final postponed by rain, Rafael Nadal of Spain defeats Novak Djokovic of Serbia to take the men’s title for the first time in his career.

Turkish voters resoundingly approve 26 amendments to the country’s constitution that increase civil rights, make the military responsible to civilian courts, and increase the control of the president and legislature over judicial appointments.

India’s government cancels all flights into and out of Srinagar, the summer capital of Indian-administered Kashmir, in response to continued bloodshed; two days earlier a round-theclock curfew was imposed. • UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon announces that former Chilean president Michelle Bachelet will head the new agency UN Women. • Sarah Shourd, one of three American hikers who apparently wandered into Iran in July 2009 and were held there on espionage charges, is released on bail and permitted to leave the country.

The Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology publishes a study of a recently discovered skeleton of a bony-toothed bird with a wingspan of 5 m (17 ft) and sharp toothlike projections in its beak; the bird, which lived some 5 million–10 million years ago, is dubbed Pelagornis chilensis. (Photo above.) 41

September

• Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev signs a treaty with Norwegian Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg that settles a border dispute over a region of the Barents Sea in the Arctic Ocean that has undeveloped petroleum reserves. • The electoral commission in Guinea announces that the runoff presidential election that is scheduled to take place on September 19 will be postponed.

The U.S. Census Bureau reveals that the poverty rate in 2009 rose sharply to 14.3%, a 15-year high, that the median household income, which had experienced a big drop in 2008, remained steady in 2009, and that the number of those without health insurance rose from 46 million in 2008 to 51 million in 2009. • Kim Hwang-Sik is named prime minister of South Korea. • Seven people connected with the French nuclear engineering company Areva, five of them from France and one each from Togo and Madagascar, are kidnapped in Arlit, Niger. • The winners of the Automotive X Prize, a competition to create a usable vehicle that can achieve at least 100 mpg (miles per gallon), are announced in Washington, D.C.; Oliver Kuttner’s Edison2 Very Light Car, a fourseater that reaches a combined 102.5 mpg, is awarded the $5 million prize, and the runners-up are the Li-Ion Motors Wave II and the E-Tracer.

The Taliban in Afghanistan declare, apparently accurately, that they 42

have kidnapped 30 election officials and campaign workers, including one candidate, just before the country’s legislative elections. • Former Nepali prime minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal, known as Prachanda, head of the Maoist party, withdraws his name from consideration for the office of prime minister. • Rioting nearly shuts down Karachi; the violence is in response to the stabbing death in London of Imran Farooq, an exiled leader of the Muttahida Qaumi Movement, the major political party in Karachi.

Sweden Democrats win 20 seats, the first time they have gained enough votes to reach the legislature. • A military convoy traveling through the Rasht Valley in Tajikistan is attacked in an ambush in which at least 23 and possibly as many as 40 servicemen are killed. • A bomb explodes near a branch office of Iraq’s Ministry of National Security in northern Baghdad, killing at least 19 people, and a car bomb outside the offices of the cell phone company Asiacell elsewhere in the city leaves 10 or more people dead.

Legislative elections take place in Afghanistan in spite of Taliban efforts to disrupt the polling; turnout is reported to be light, and complaints of irregularities begin within days. • An antinuclear demonstration takes place in Berlin with a crowd that numbers tens of thousands; protesters who oppose plans to extend the life of nuclear power generators surround the office of Chancellor Angela Merkel.

The Business Cycle Dating Committee declares that the recession in the U.S. ended in June 2009; it was the longest recession the country had experienced since World War II. • Authorities in Italy impound $30 million from the Vatican Bank and open a moneylaundering inquiry into actions engaged in by its top two officials. • The British minister for overseas territories announces that elections scheduled for the Turks and Caicos Islands in July 2011 will be postponed and that direct rule from the U.K. will continue.

The gushing oil well in the Gulf of Mexico is declared permanently sealed and the spill over after the completion of a relief well allowed the sealing of the broken well from the bottom on September 17 and testing showed that the seal will hold; the well ruptured with the collapse of the energy company BP’s Deepwater Horizon platform in April. • In legislative elections in Sweden, the alliance of parties led by Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt falls two seats short of a majority, and the anti-immigration

Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke resigns as prime minister of the transitional federal government of Somalia; Abdiwahid Elmi Gonjeh becomes interim prime minister. • Hundreds of people attend a two-day seminar in Rosemont, Ill., in talks dealing with the growing scourge of bedbugs in the U.S.

In the Iranian city of Mahabad, a bomb goes off along the route of a parade marking the anniversary of the start of the Iran-Iraq War; at least 10 people are killed. • Fighting takes place between Israeli security forces and Palestinians in East Jerusalem after a Palestinian man is killed by an Israeli guard; peace talks continue.

Financial data shows that Ireland’s economy, which expanded 2.2% in the first fiscal quarter of the year, shrank 1.2% in the second quarter. • Authorities in Colombia report that a multiday operation has resulted in a bomb raid against the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) in which the militant organization’s second in command, known as Mono Jojoy, was killed. • In a speech at the opening of the annual meeting of the UN General Assembly, Iranian Pres. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad says that it is widely believed that the U.S. government orchestrated the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001; 33 delegations respond by walking out. • The Thanet wind farm opens in the North Sea off the southeast coast of England; with 100 turbines (planned to be 341 in four years) expected to produce 300 MW of electricity, it is the world’s largest offshore wind farm. • The Prado Museum in Madrid announces that its curators have found that The Wine of Saint Martin’s Day, a painting that was brought in for cleaning and restoration, was painted by the Flemish master Pieter Bruegel, the Elder, only some 40 of whose paintings are known.

September

• In Ohio the Little Brown Jug, the second event of the pacing Triple Crown in harness racing, is won by Rock N Roll Heaven.

In the face of unrelenting pressure from China, Japan releases the captain of a Chinese trawler whom it had held since his boat collided with Japanese patrol vessels two weeks earlier near islands that both countries claim. • On its 12th attempt Nepal’s legislature elects as the country’s new president Sushil Koirala; a decisive vote on prime minister continues to elude it. • On The Oprah Winfrey Show, Mark Zuckerberg, CEO of the social-networking site Facebook, New Jersey Gov. Chris Christie, and Newark Mayor Cory Booker announce that Zuckerberg is donating $100 million to improve Newark’s public school system.

India announces a new approach to the unrest in Kashmir, including the relaxing of curfew, the release from jail of student protesters, the reopening of schools and universities, and opening of dialogue with various groups in Kashmir. • Ed Miliband is chosen as the new leader of the Labour Party in the U.K.

NATO military officials divulge that a battle to win Kandahar province from the Taliban in Afghanistan began five or six days earlier. • The Israeli freeze on construction in Jewish settlements in the West Bank expires.

• China announces the imposition of high tariffs on poultry imported from the U.S. • Patrick Makau of Kenya wins the Berlin Marathon with a time of 2 hr 5 min 8 sec; Aberu Kebede of Ethiopia is the fastest woman, with a time of 2 hr 23 min 58 sec.

In legislative elections in Venezuela, the opposition Democratic Unity Table coalition wins nearly half the votes and about one-third of the seats in the National Assembly, which is a significant increase. • Fatmir Sejdiu resigns as president of Kosovo after the Constitutional Court rules that he may not serve as head of state and leader of his political party simultaneously; Jakup Krasniqi becomes acting president. • Colombia’s inspector general, Alejandro Ordóñez, dismisses Sen. Piedad Córdoba and bars her from public service for 18 years, citing alleged ties with the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). • The low-cost carrier Southwest Airlines announces its purchase of the smaller lowcost airline AirTran Airways.

• Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev dismisses political rival Yury Luzhkov as mayor of Moscow. • Banri Kaieda, Japan’s minister of economic and fiscal policy, declares that a weeklong de facto halt in the export of rare earth minerals from China to Japan, which China denies, is threatening Japan’s economy; the minerals are crucial in the manufacture of myriad products.

Public-sector strikes and demonstrations against government austerity measures take place in Madrid, Barcelona, Brussels, Athens, and other European cities. • Maatia Toafa replaces Apisai Ielemia as prime minister of Tuvalu following legislative elections on September 16. • A spokesman for Alberto Contador, the winner of the 2010 Tour de France, reveals that Contador tested positive for the banned musclebuilding drug clenbuterol on the final rest day of the race.

A three-judge panel in India’s state of Uttar Pradesh issues a ruling in a

case that was originally filed in 1950 over the rights to a place in Ayodhya believed by Hindus to be the birthplace of the god Ram and where the Babri Masjid mosque was built in the 16th century and burned down in 1992; it is ruled that two-thirds of the site belongs to Hindus and one-third to Muslims. • Pres. Rafael Correa of Ecuador is shaken up, teargassed, and briefly trapped in a hospital by police officers and military service members during a large and angry protest against a reduction in pay increases and benefits; it is unclear whether the protest also encompasses a coup attempt, and a state of emergency is declared. (Photo below.) • The U.S. government says that it has reached an agreement with the American International Group (AIG) for the firm to begin repaying the funds given to it under the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), which will expire on October 3. • The Dow Jones Industrial Average finishes the month 7.7% higher than it started, posting its best September in 71 years; the Standard & Poor’s 500-stock index gains 8.7% for the month, and the NASDAQ is up 12%.

North Korea’s official news agency reports that Kim Jong-Eun, the youngest son of North Korean leader Kim Jong Il, along with Kim Jong Il’s sister and four other people, have been made four-star generals; it is widely assumed that Kim Jong-Eun has been made heir to the leadership of the country. • Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai appoints 70 people to a peace council that will be given considerable autonomy. Freddy Navas—dpa/Landov

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October They do give us bags of money—yes, yes, it is done. Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai, acknowledging receiving cash from Iran, October 25

Ukraine’s Constitutional Court overturns changes to the government structure made in 2004, thereby returning a greater proportion of power to the president. • At a parade in Abuja to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Nigeria’s independence, two bombs explode, killing at least 12 people and possibly many more; the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta claims responsibility. • The U.S. government formally apologizes for a recently uncovered American program in which some 700 Guatemalan prisoners and mental patients were deliberately infected with gonorrhea and syphilis in order to study the effects of penicillin in 1946–48. • Kim Hwang-Sik takes office as prime minister of South Korea. • California Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger signs into law a bill that reduces the penalty for possession of up to an ounce of marijuana to a fine of $100; offenders may not be arrested and will not have a criminal record. • The 2010 Lasker Awards for medical research are pre44

sented: winners are Douglas Coleman and Jeffrey Friedman, for their discovery of the appetite-regulating hormone leptin; Napoleone Ferrara, for his discoveries leading to a treatment for the wet form of macular degeneration, a major cause of blindness in the elderly; and David Weatherall, for his career in biomedical research, including research on thalassemia.

Iranian Intelligence Minister Heydar Moslehi announces that arrests have been made in connection with the ongoing infection of computers in the country’s nuclear operations by the destructive Stuxnet worm, which is believed to have been created by a government for the purpose of disrupting Iran’s nuclear program. • In legislative elections in Latvia, the ruling Unity coalition retains power. • With his eighth-place finish in the Indy 300 race in Homestead, Fla. (the winner is Scott Dixon of New Zealand), Scottish driver Dario Franchitti wins his third overall IndyCar drivers’ championship. • The Collingwood Magpies defeat the St. Kilda Saints

16.12 (108)–7.10 (52) in the Australian Football League Grand Final Replay after a tie in the Grand Final a week earlier, thus winning the AFL title.

In elections for the tripartite presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the moderate Bakir Izetbegovic wins the Muslim seat, Zeljko Komsic is reelected to the Croat seat, and separatist politician Milorad Dodik is elected to the Serb seat. • Presidential elections in Brazil result in the need for a runoff. • In spite of widely reported construction problems and delays as well as other difficulties in preparation, the 2010 Commonwealth Games begin on time with an opening ceremony in New Delhi. • Sébastien Loeb of France secures a record seventh successive world rally championship automobile racing drivers’ title with his firstplace finish in the Rallye de France.

At Ajka, Hung., a wall of a tailings dam of the Magyar

Aluminium plant collapses, sending a wall of highly alkaline and thus caustic red mud into nearby waterways and engulfing the nearby towns of Kolontar, Devecser, and Somlovasarhely; at least nine people are killed, as well as all life in the affected waterways, and some 1,000 ha (2,500 ac) of land is contaminated. • The Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine is awarded to British physiologist Robert Edwards for his development, with British physician Patrick Steptoe (1913–88), of in vitro fertilization; Edwards won the Lasker Award in 2001 for the same work. • In golf’s Ryder Cup competition in Newport, Wales, Europe defeats the U.S. with a 14½–13½ margin of victory.

Former French trader Jérôme Kerviel, whose illegal and risky trades in 2008 nearly led to the collapse of his employer, the bank Société Générale, is sentenced to three years in prison and ordered to pay back the entire amount of money (>4.9 billion [$7 billion]) lost by the bank; he appeals the decision.

October

• In Stockholm the Nobel Prize for Physics is awarded to Russian-born scientists Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov for their work on the creation of graphene, a one-atom-thick form of carbon with many possible applications. • It is reported that linguists on an expedition to the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh to research two little-known Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in a small area have found a third, previously unknown language, Koro, that is spoken by some 1,000 people and is not closely related to other Tibeto-Burman languages.

The aid group Doctors Without Borders declares that over the past six months more than 400 children in Nigeria’s Zamfara state have died of lead poisoning as a result of runoff from illegal gold mining that contaminated soil and water. • The Nobel Prize for Chemistry is awarded to Richard Heck of the U.S., Ei-ichi Negishi of Japan and the U.S., and Akira Suzuki of Japan for their independent advances in the use of palladium as a catalyst in linking carbon atoms to form complex structures that are widely used in pharmaceutical manufacturing.

• The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the unemployment rate in September remained at 9.6% (to which it had risen in August) and that, though the private sector added 64,000 jobs, the economy as a whole lost 95,000 nonfarm jobs. • A bomb at a mosque in Taliqan, the capital of Afghanistan’s Takhar province, kills at least 12 people, among them Muhammad Omar, the governor of neighbouring Kunduz province and the target of the attack. • The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes at 11,006.48, its first close above 11,000 since May.

Pakistan announces that it will reopen its main border crossing with Afghanistan; the crossing was closed after NATO helicopters killed two Pakistani soldiers in a strike on a Pakistani border post on September 30 and dozens of

NATO and American supply trucks stranded at the closed crossing had been torched.

The first legislative elections under the constitution adopted in June are held in Kyrgyzstan; though the vote is fairly evenly split among five parties, the party with the largest percentage is the nationalist Ata-Zhurt party, which is opposed to the new constitution. • Liu Xia, wife of Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo, is permitted to visit her husband in prison but is then escorted to her home in Beijing and placed under house arrest. • The Netherlands Antilles ceases to exist as a legal entity; it is replaced by the autonomous states Sint Maarten and Curaçao, which join Aruba as part of the Netherlands, and the Dutch overseas special municipalities of Bonaire, St. Eustatius, and Saba.

• Hanoi celebrates 1,000 years of history with a huge procession and other festivities. • The Chicago Marathon is won by Sammy Wanjiru of Kenya with a time of 2 hr 6 min 24 sec; the women’s victor is Liliya Shobukhova of Russia with a time of 2 hr 20 min 25 sec.

The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences goes to American economists Peter Diamond and Dale Mortensen and Cyprus-born British economist Christopher Pissarides for their work on search theory, describing circumstances in markets in which buyers and sellers do not easily find each other.

The head of Armando Flores Villegas, Tamaulipas state police commander, is delivered to a military base in Mexico; he had been investigating the September 30 shooting of American tourist David Hartley on Falcon Lake on the border between Zapata, Texas, and Guerrero Viejo, Mex. • The Man Booker Prize goes to British writer Howard Jacobson for his comic novel The Finkler Question.

Iranian Pres. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad makes his first state visit to Lebanon, where he also addresses a large Hezbollah rally. • In a dramatic rescue, the 33 Chilean miners who have been trapped underground since an August 5 explosion in the San José gold and copper mine are lifted to the surface, one by one, over 22½ hours in a specially designed capsule. (Photo left.)

Two explosions seconds apart kill at least seven people at a major Sufi shrine in Karachi. • The Nobel Prize for Literature is awarded to Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa.

The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded to imprisoned Chinese democracy advocate Liu Xiaobo. Cezaro De Luca—EPA/Landov

45

October

• The UN Security Council agrees to extend for a year the authorization for the NATOled mission in Afghanistan. • In Tokyo the Japan Art Association awards the Praemium Imperiale to Italian pianist Maurizio Pollini, German sculptor Rebecca Horn, Italian painter Enrico Castellani, Italian actress Sophia Loren, and Japanese architect Toyo Ito.

Gotthard Base Tunnel, is drilled through under the Swiss Alps; a high-speed railroad through the 57-km (35-mi) tunnel is planned to open in 2017.

Mark Rutte is sworn in as prime minister of the Netherlands at the head of a minority government. • Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed is named to replace Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke as prime minister of Somalia’s transitional national government; he is approved by the country’s legislature on October 31. • The UN Food and Agriculture Organization announces that the virus rinderpest, which for millennia was a worldwide scourge of livestock, with an 80% mortality rate, but was last reported in Kenya in 2001, has been eradicated; this is the second disease ever declared eliminated.

Shootings that began the previous day leave at least 25 people dead in Karachi; the violence is believed to be in connection with the election to replace a member of the provincial legislature who was killed in August. • Afghanistan’s Independent Election Commission postpones the announcement of the results of the September 18 legislative election hours before it was expected; the reason is thought to be the pervasive fraud associated with the balloting.

Georgia’s legislature approves constitutional amendments that will increase the power of the prime minister after the presidential election scheduled for 2013 takes place. • Israel announces plans to build 238 housing units in Jewish neighbourhoods in East Jerusalem, which Palestinians hope to make the capital of a future country; this ends an unofficial suspension of construction there. • The final section of the world’s longest tunnel, the 46

Hundreds of U.S. and Afghan troops begin an air assault on an area of Afghanistan from which Taliban forces have launched attacks on Kandahar.

Chinese Vice Pres. Xi Jinping is named vice-chairman of the Central Military Commission; Xi is on track to succeed Pres. Hu Jintao. • The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation says that Lake Mead, impounded by the Hoover Dam to provide water to people across the Southwest, has fallen to the record low level of 330.13 m (1,083.09 ft) above sea level. • The journal The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences publishes findings that Paleolithic humans some 30,000 years ago ground plant roots to make flour used for flatbread; this is 10,000 years earlier than the previous earliest evidence for flour making.

China’s central bank raises its key interest rate 0.25%; markets around the world drop in response. • It is revealed that China’s unofficial embargo on shipping rare-earth minerals to Japan has spread to Europe and the U.S. • At a meeting in Ilo, Peru, Pres. Alan García of Peru and Pres. Evo Morales of Bolivia add to a 1992 agreement giving Bolivia 163 ha (403 ac) of land, including 5 km (3.1 mi) along the coast; the new agreement allows Bolivia to build facilities for import and export in Ilo. • The winner of the annual $100,000 TED Prize is announced as French guerrilla artist J R, who pastes large photographs of ordinary people on building walls in slums in cities throughout the world.

The British government announces a 19% reduction in public spending, the deepest cut in six decades; the plan includes the elimination of 490,000 public-sector jobs and cutbacks in social welfare programs. • Pope Benedict XVI names 24 new cardinals.

Rioting takes place in the Italian towns of Terzigno and Boscoreale, near Naples, as residents object to the opening there of waste-disposal sites. • The government of Myanmar (Burma) changes the country’s official designation from Union of Myanmar to Republic of the Union of Myanmar; it also introduces a new flag. • Col. David Russell Williams, a decorated military pilot

and former commander of the largest air base in Canada, pleads guilty to two counts of murder and 84 other sexually related crimes, ranging from the stealing of underwear to sadistic sexual attacks; he is given sentences that will keep him in prison for a minimum of 25 years. • NASA scientists report that the LCROSS mission, in which a spacecraft was deliberately crashed into the Moon’s Cabeus Crater to send data on the dust thus dislodged, has revealed a multitude of minerals reflecting the history of objects that have struck the Moon and also a surprisingly large amount of water ice, perhaps as much as 8.5% of the mixture.

The World Health Organization reports that at least 150 people have succumbed in an outbreak of cholera centred in northwestern Haiti; it is the first appearance of the disease in the Caribbean region in some 50 years. • Gunmen attack a house party in Juárez, Mex., slaughtering at least 13 people. • The Web site WikiLeaks posts hundreds of thousands of documents from U.S. military archives about the Iraq War from 2004 to 2009.

The death toll in the cholera outbreak in Haiti rises to 208. • Prime Minister David Thompson of Barbados dies in St. Philip; Freundel Stuart is sworn in to replace him.

Iraq’s Federal Supreme Court rules that the legislature, which has not met since an 18-minute

October Reuters/Landov

session in March, must resume holding sessions. • A geologic study of the earthquake that occurred in Haiti in January reveals a previously unknown fault as the source of the quake; the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault, originally thought to be the source, remains dangerously stressed. • In a drug-rehabilitation centre in Tijuana, Mex., 13 people are gunned down.

A 7.7-magnitude earthquake off South Pagai in the Mentawai Islands of Indonesia triggers a tsunami that destroys several villages and leaves at least 500 people dead or missing. • Afghan Pres. Hamid Karzai publicly acknowledges that his government does regularly receive infusions of cash from Iran. • For the first time since early 2008, a shipment of food aid—5,000 tons of rice— departs South Korea for delivery to North Korea. • The European Union formally requests the European Commission to assess the suitability of Serbia for membership in the union, thereby beginning the process of Serbia’s joining the organization. • The Pyongyang University of Science and Technology, financed by American and South Korean evangelical Christians, opens in North Korea.

The British pharmaceutical giant GlaxoSmithKline settles for $750 million a U.S. lawsuit brought by a whistle-blower complaining that the company knowingly sold contaminated and substandard prod-

ucts made in a plant with quality-control problems. • Tariq Aziz, once Iraq’s foreign minister and deputy prime minister, who frequently represented Iraq at UN and other international meetings, is sentenced to death in Baghdad after having been convicted of persecuting members of the Shi!ite Dawa Party. • On Java in Indonesia on the outskirts of Yogyakarta, the volcano Mt. Merapi begins a major eruption; at least 34 people perish. • Water at China’s Three Gorges Dam reaches a level of 175 m (574 ft), achieving its maximum capacity for the first time. (Photo right.)

At least 15 people at a car wash in Tepic, Mex., are killed in the third mass shooting in Mexico in five days. • Néstor Kirchner, former president (2003–07) of Argentina and husband of current president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, unexpectedly dies in El Calafate, Arg. • The Dorothy and Lillian Gish Prize is awarded to Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe.

Strikes and demonstrations against pension reform in France take place in spite of the passage of the reform by the legislature, but the number of participants is smaller than in earlier rallies. • China’s undeclared embargo on the export of rare earth minerals appears to end.

Two packages of toner cartridges packed with

strong explosives are found in England and in Dubayy, U.A.E., after a tip from Saudi Arabia; the packages were shipped from Yemen and addressed to synagogues in Chicago. • The UN Convention on Biological Diversity agrees on the Nagoya Protocol, a set of 20 goals, among them to at least halve the rate of extinction of species by 2020; it is also agreed that profits from pharmaceutical and other products derived from genetic material will be shared with both advanced and lessdeveloped countries. • The U.S. Department of Commerce reveals that in the third fiscal quarter, the country’s economy grew by only 2%. • A suicide bomber kills at least 21 people at a café in Balad Ruz in Iraq’s Diyala province.

About 100 families separated by the Korean War (1950–53) begin a multiday reunion at the Diamond Mountain resort in North Korea; it is the first such meeting in more than a year. • On the National Mall in Washington, D.C., tens of

thousands of people attend the “Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear,” organized by satirists Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert.

In a runoff presidential election in Brazil, Dilma Rousseff, who was endorsed by Pres. Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, wins handily over José Serra. • A presidential election takes place in Côte d’Ivoire for the first time in 10 years; it results in a need for a runoff between Pres. Laurent Gbagbo, whose term of office ended in 2005, and Alassane Ouattara. • Gunmen, after attacking the stock exchange in Baghdad and killing two security guards, enter a Chaldean Catholic church and take the parishioners hostage; Iraqi forces later storm the church, and at least 58 people die in the siege. • A suicide bomber detonates his weapon in Taksim Square in central Istanbul; 15 police officers and 17 civilians are injured. • The Pontiac car brand, which began in 1926 in Pontiac, Mich., is retired by its owner, General Motors. 47

November We haven’t seen each other for so long. I have so much to tell you. Aung San Suu Kyi addressing her supporters on her release from house arrest in Myanmar (Burma), November 13

China’s decennial census gets under way; a change in method is expected to more accurately count city residents who have moved from their hometowns. • Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev makes a visit to the Kuril Islands (photo right), claimed by both Russia and Japan; it is the first time the islands have been visited by a Russian leader, and the following day Japan recalls its ambassador to Russia. • In the World Series, the San Francisco Giants defeat the Texas Rangers 3–1 in game five to win the Major League Baseball championship; it is the first championship for the Giants since 1954, when the franchise was in New York City.

• A small package bomb mailed from Athens to German Chancellor Angela Merkel is found in the chancellery’s mail room; package bombs are also sent to the Athens embassies of Switzerland, Bulgaria, Chile, and Germany, while the previous day package bombs were sent to the embassies of Mexico, Belgium, and the Netherlands, and one was addressed to French Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy.

• British Prime Minister David Cameron and French Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy sign an agreement creating a defense partnership between France and the U.K. • A no-confidence vote in Kosovo’s legislature brings down the government. • Voters in Niger approve a new constitution that restores term limits to the presidency and adds other

The U.S. Federal Reserve states that because of the “disappointingly slow” pace of the economic recovery, it will purchase $600 billion in long-term Treasury securities in hopes of speeding progress.

An engine on an Airbus A380 flown by the Australian carrier Qantas explodes over Indonesia, and the plane returns safely to Singapore, from which it had departed; Qantas, Singapore Airlines, and Lufthansa immediately ground their A380 fleets. • A small package bomb is delivered to the French embassy in Athens, and the Greek government charges two people in connection with the mailings. • Ireland announces plans to slash public spending and raise taxes to reduce its budget deficit; interest rates on Irish government bonds rise dramatically.

In legislative elections in the U.S., the Republican Party gains 63 seats to win control over the House of Representatives, and the Democratic Party retains a narrow majority in the Senate; many Republican victors are champions of the Tea Party movement. Mikhail Klimentyev—RIA Novosti Kremlin/AP

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limits to presidential power; the constitution is to be the first step in the country’s return to civilian rule.

November

Pres. Jakaya Kikwete is declared the winner of the October 31 presidential election in Tanzania; losing candidates complain of fraud in vote counting. • Two mosques are attacked near the town of Darra Adam Khel in Pakistan’s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province; in the worst assault a suicide bomber kills at least 60 people. • The U.S. Department of Labor reports that in October the unemployment rate was 9.6% for the third successive month and that after four months of losses, the economy added 151,000 nonfarm jobs. • Marine biologists report having found dead and dying coral reefs in an area of the Gulf of Mexico where plumes of oil from the BP oil spill were documented about 11 km (7 mi) southwest of the site of the broken well; it is considered almost certain that oil from the spill caused the damage. • The employees of the monthly newsmagazine U.S. News & World Report are told that the December issue will be its last regular printed issue; it will continue online and with printed issues on single topics and rankings of institutions.

Authorities in Mexico report that 18 of the bodies in a mass grave found a few days earlier outside Acapulco are those of some of the 20 men who were kidnapped in October when they went to the resort city for a vacation. • The famed House of the Gladiators located in the ancient Roman city and archaeological site Pompeii in Italy collapses.

Legislative elections take place in Myanmar (Burma) for the first time since 1990; as expected, the military-backed party wins by a large margin. • In legislative elections in Azerbaijan, the ruling party and independent parties affiliated with it win the vast majority of the seats; election monitors report widespread fraud. • The Chiba Lotte Marines defeat the Chunichi Dragons 8–7 in 12 innings to win baseball’s Japan Series. • Flavia Pennetta of Italy defeats CoCo Vandeweghe of the U.S. to clinch Italy’s victory in tennis’s Fed Cup. • Gebre Gebremariam of Ethiopia wins the New York City marathon with a time of 2 hr 8 min 14 sec, and Kenya’s Edna Kiplagat is the fastest woman, with a time of 2 hr 28 min 20 sec. • The Breeders’ Cup Classic Thoroughbred horse race is won by Blame at Churchill Downs in Louisville, Ky.; Blame defeats the previously undefeated Zenyatta by less than a head.

Pres. Raúl Castro of Cuba announces that the ruling Communist Party will hold a congress in April 2011; it will be the first party congress since 1997. • Hours before a meeting in Manhasset, N.Y., between representatives of Morocco and of the Polisario Front over Western Sahara’s future, a tent camp outside the territory’s capital, Laayoune, that is made up of thousands of protesters demanding economic equality is violently broken up by Moroccan security forces; at least 13 people are said to have been killed. • Ice hockey players Dino Ciccarelli, Cammi Granato, and

Angela James, manager Jim Devellano, and owner Daryl (“Doc”) Seaman are inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in Toronto.

Legislative elections, boycotted by the Islamist main opposition party, take place in Jordan for the first time since the legislature was dissolved in November 2009; candidates who support King !Abdullah II win the majority of seats. • It is reported that the cholera epidemic in Haiti has reached Port-au-Prince and that at least 583 people have died of the disease in the country. • The World Health Organization says that polio has broken out in the Republic of the Congo, with most cases in Pointe Noire; in the past two weeks, 104 people have died of the disease and 201 people have become paralyzed, and a state of emergency is declared. • Scientists using data from NASA’s Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope declare that they have found that there are two enormous bubbles containing a vast amount of energy near the centre of the Milky Way Galaxy; the finding is unexpected and unexplained. • The 13th annual Mark Twain Prize for American Humor is awarded to Tina Fey in a ceremony at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington, D.C.

Students protesting a proposal to nearly triple university tuition costs riot outside the Conservative Party headquarters in London, and tens of thousands of people also protest outside the Parliament building.

• Political leaders in Iraq tentatively agree on the composition of a new government; the agreement calls for Nuri al-Maliki to serve a second term as prime minister.

Armed men attack a heavily guarded area of Karachi and, in a firefight, succeed in detonating a car bomb at a building housing a counterterrorism office; at least 18 people are killed. • UNICEF and WHO declare a campaign to immunize some three million people in the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Angola against polio in response to the outbreak of the disease in the Republic of the Congo. • At the Latin Grammy Awards in Las Vegas, Mexican pop group Camila wins record of the year for “Mientes,” and the award for album of the year goes to Dominican merengue star Juan Luis Guerra for A son de Guerra.

A meeting in Seoul of the Group of 20 countries with industrialized and emerging economies agrees to increase the amount of capital banks must hold but defers other major decisions; U.S. Pres. Barack Obama flies from Seoul to Yokohama for a meeting of the Asia-Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) forum. • The Daily Beast, a Web site founded by Tina Brown, and the newsmagazine Newsweek announce a merger agreement; the new entity is to be called the Newsweek Daily Beast Co., and Brown will serve as editor in chief for both the magazine and the Web site. 49

November

Opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi is released from house arrest in Myanmar (Burma) and is greeted by a jubilant crowd; she has spent 15 of the past 21 years under house arrest, with her most recent detention beginning in 2003. • Final vote tallies are released in Arizona on a proposition that narrowly passed, making the state the 15th in the U.S. to approve the medical use of marijuana. • In Arlington, Texas, Manny Pacquiao, who was recently elected to the legislature in the Philippines, defeats Antonio Margarito of Mexico by unanimous decision to capture the vacant WBC junior-middleweight boxing title.

French Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy shuffles his cabinet, giving the body a rightward tilt; Éric Woerth, who was tainted by the complex scandal involving heiress Liliane Bettencourt, loses his position as minister of labour, and François Fillon is reappointed prime minister. • The APEC forum in Yokohama concludes with an agreement to work toward a free-trade zone. • With his win in the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, German driver Sebastian Vettel secures the Formula One automobile racing drivers’ championship.

The British government announces a settlement in which it will pay millions of dollars in compensation to 15 men who had been released from the U.S. military detention facility at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, and one person still detained there; the detainees say that they were tortured with the collusion of British intelligence agencies. • In Baltimore, Md., Archbishop Timothy Dolan of New York City is elected president of the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops; he replaces Francis Cardinal George of Chicago. • A panel of the U.S. House of Representatives finds Democratic Rep. Charles Rangel of New York guilty of 11 counts of ethics violations; two days later the House ethics committee recommends that Rangel be formally censured. • Phusion Projects, maker of the caffeinated malt beverage Four Loko, declares that it will stop using caffeine

and other ingredients common in energy drinks in making the beverage; the drinks, which were linked to several cases of alcohol poisoning, had come under fire from several state and local governments in the U.S. • Apple, Inc., announces that as a result of an agreement with the music company EMI, the music of the Beatles is now for the first time available on Apple’s online music store, iTunes. • The engagement of Prince William of Wales, son of Charles, prince of Wales, and Diana, princess of Wales, to his longtime girlfriend, Kate Middleton, is announced in London. (Photo below.)

On the day of a national referendum on a new constitution, several army officers declare that they have overthrown the government of Madagascar; they do not appear to have the backing of all of the army,

The National Independent Electoral Commission in Guinea declares that Alpha Condé won the runoff presidential election on November 7; supporters of his opponent, Cellou Dalein Diallo, violently protest the results. John Stillwell—PA/AP

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however, and the coup attempt fails. • In the first civilian trial of a former detainee at the Guantánamo Bay detention camp, Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani is found guilty of one count of conspiracy to destroy government buildings and property and acquitted on more than 280 other counts in a U.S. federal court; the judge had disallowed important parts of the prosecution’s case as being the fruit of torture. • The automobile manufacturer General Motors, bailed out by the U.S. government in 2008, returns to the stock market in an eagerly anticipated initial public offering that proves to be the largest American IPO in history and halves the government’s ownership of the company.

Hundreds of protesters in Port-auPrince, Haiti, throw stones at a UN peacekeeping patrol, and rioting against UN peacekeepers has taken place for several days in Cap-Haïtien; it has been reported that the source of cholera in the country, which has killed more than 1,110 people to date, was UN troops from Nepal. • NASA reports that a photograph taken by the spacecraft Deep Impact during its November 4 flyby of Comet Hartley 2 unexpectedly shows a cloud of particles and chunks of ice and snow being pushed upward by jets of carbon dioxide on the comet’s surface. • Activision, the publisher of the first-person shooter video game Call of Duty: Black Ops reports that it generated $650 million in sales worldwide in its first five days of release, breaking the introductory five-day sales record for a video game.

November

Meeting in Lisbon, the member countries of NATO agree on a common missile-defense system. • The U.S. Transportation Security Administration exempts uniformed airline pilots from new airline passenger screening procedures, including full-body scans and more intrusive pat-downs, which have raised objections from pilots and flight attendants in addition to passengers.

Incomplete results from the constitutional referendum held in Madagascar during an attempted coup on November 17 indicate that the document was approved; the new constitution allows Pres. Andry Rajoelina to remain in power until the next election and lowers the legal minimum age required for the presidency from 40 to 35.

Ireland formally applies for the financial rescue package put together by the European Union and the IMF. • U.S. officials state their belief that a recently revealed new uranium-enrichment facility at North Korea’s Yongbyon nuclear plant indicates an intention to build more nuclear weapons. • Blaise Compaoré is reelected president of Burkina Faso. • After the final auto race of the season, Jimmie Johnson is crowned winner of the NASCAR drivers’ championship for a record fifth consecutive year.

Jean-Pierre Bemba, a former vice president and presidential candi-

date in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, goes on trial before the International Criminal Court in The Hague, charged with having commanded a militia that committed war crimes in the Central African Republic in 2002–03. • The U.S. government issues new rules requiring medical insurance companies to spend a minimum of 80–85% of premiums collected on medical care.

Unexpected artillery shelling by North Korea kills two marines and two civilians on the South Korean island of Yeonpyeong; the attack causes international consternation. • The National Association of Realtors reports that sales of existing American homes in October were 26% lower than they had been in October 2009; the expiration of a tax credit for first-time home buyers is thought to be a major cause of the drop.

Irish Prime Minister Brian Cowen unveils an austerity plan that includes deep cuts in public spending as well as tax increases. • The final results of the September 18 legislative elections in Afghanistan are announced; though the UN endorses the results, Pres. Hamid Karzai challenges them.

Pres. Jalal Talabani of Iraq formally nominates Nuri al-Maliki to a second term as prime minister; Maliki has 30 days to form a new government. • South Korean Pres. Lee Myung-Bak accepts the resig-

nation of his defense minister and announces plans to put more troops and weapons on Yeongpyeong Island. • Ana Maria Matute of Spain is named the winner of the Cervantes Prize for literary achievement in the Spanish language.

Police and armed forces in Brazil declare that they have taken control of the favela Vila Cruzeiro in Rio de Janeiro, and they are fighting gang members in the Alemão favela complex; 41 people have died in violence in the favelas in the past six days. • Japan declares that its consumer prices fell for the 20th consecutive month in October, declining 0.6%.

Thousands of people march and rally in Dublin in protest against the government’s proposed austerity plan. • In Paris the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas votes to reduce the allowable catch of the dangerously overfished bluefin tuna in 2011 to 12,900 tons from 13,500 tons in 2010; conservationists believe a moratorium is necessary.

The WikiLeaks Web site posts the first installment of some 250,000 classified U.S. diplomatic cables from the past three years or so, exposing many private opinions and other secrets; some of the leaked cables are also made available to major news organizations. • A runoff presidential election takes place in Côte d’Ivoire; results are not expected quickly.

• In spite of logistic challenges, a presidential election takes place in Haiti; many of the candidates charge widespread fraud, and results are not expected to be released for several days. • Elections take place in Egypt for a legislature that has been expanded to 518 seats with the addition of 64 seats reserved for women. • In legislative elections in Moldova, the highest number of seats is won by the Communist Party. • The Montreal Alouettes capture the 98th Canadian Football League Grey Cup, defeating the Saskatchewan Roughriders 21–18.

Riots take place in several places in Egypt over accusations of widespread fraud in the previous day’s legislative elections. • Bomb attacks are carried out by men on motorcycles against two of Iran’s most important nuclear scientists, killing one of them and injuring the other. • The UN reports that militias and the armed forces in the Democratic Republic of the Congo have created criminal networks to steal mineral resources in the country and attempt to sell them for private gain.

Early results of the legislative elections in Egypt indicate that the opposition Muslim Brotherhood may have lost all of the 88 seats it held in the body. • Eurostat reports that in October the unemployment rate of the 16 member countries of the euro zone rose to 10.1%, its highest level since 1998. 51

December This is what’s at stake: Either we assist in the installation of democracy in Ivory Coast or we stand by indifferent and allow democracy to be assassinated. Guillaume Soro, appointed prime minister of Côte d’Ivoire by Alassane Ouatara, on Laurent Gbagbo’s refusal to leave office, December 31

The Muslim Brotherhood and the New Wafd Party, the two major opposition parties in Egypt, withdraw from future rounds of legislative elections, claiming widespread fraud in the first round, in which the Muslim Brotherhood lost all of its 88 seats and Wafd lost 4 of its 6 seats. • Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero introduces measures intended to reduce the country’s large public debt; they include selling stakes in assets and eliminating a new unemployment benefit. • At a European security summit meeting in Kazakhstan, Belarus agrees to give up its stocks of highly enriched uranium by 2012; the 220-kg (485-lb) stockpile will be shipped to Russia, which will convert it to lowenriched uranium. • The Health Ministry in Haiti reports the death toll from the cholera outbreak that began in October has reached 1,817. • Pres. Hugo Chávez of Venezuela opens the doors of 52

the presidential palace to 26 families who are among the more than 30,000 people who have been displaced by flooding in the past few weeks; 25 people have died because of flooding and landslides. • Astronomers Pieter van Dokkum and Charlie Conroy announce that they have found that elliptical galaxies have 10 times more dwarf stars per Sun-like star than the Milky Way does and that the universe may therefore contain three times as many stars as has been believed.

The electoral commission in Côte d’Ivoire announces that the winner of the runoff presidential election is opposition candidate Alassane Ouattara; the head of the Constitutional Council declares that the electoral commission lost the right to declare the winner because it missed the December 1 deadline to do so.

The Constitutional Council in Côte d’Ivoire, discounting votes in areas where opposi-

tion candidate Alassane Ouattara is favoured, declares Pres. Laurent Gbagbo the winner of the presidential election. • The UN International Atomic Energy Agency decides to create a bank for nuclear fuel that countries can use for nuclear reactors for energy production; it is hoped that this will free countries from the need to produce nuclear fuel on their own. • The U.S. and South Korea sign a far-reaching free-trade agreement that will eliminate tariffs on most exports; legislatures in both countries must ratify the deal, which is a revision of a 2007 agreement. • Chilean military personnel attempt to evict Rapa Nui activists occupying Chilean government buildings on their ancestral lands on Easter Island, and violent fighting breaks out; the native Rapa Nui now make up less than half of Easter Island’s population, and many feel that Chile, of which the island is a dependency, ignores their rights.

• The U.S. Department of Labor reports that the unemployment rate in November jumped to 9.8%, while only 39,000 nonfarm jobs were created in the private sector, not enough to offset public-sector layoffs.

The day after Spain approved an austerity package that includes the partial privatization of the country’s two major airports, sparking a wildcat strike by air traffic controllers, the government for the first time since its 1975 return to democracy declares a “state of alarm,” which puts air traffic control under military supervision. • In Côte d’Ivoire both Alassane Ouattara and Laurent Gbagbo are sworn in as president in rival ceremonies, and Ouattara reappoints Guillaume Soro prime minister, while the UN representative to the country affirms the organization’s recognition of Ouattara as the winner of the presidential election. • Seven bomb attacks against various Shi!ite targets in

December Dominic Lipinski—Press Association/AP

Baghdad leave at least 14 people dead.

Laurent Gbagbo appoints Gilbert Marie N’gbo Aké prime minister of Côte d’Ivoire, while Alassane Ouattara’s prime minister, Guillaume Soro, forms a government. • The annual Kennedy Center Honors are presented in Washington, D.C., to television talk show host Oprah Winfrey, country musician Merle Haggard, choreographer Bill T. Jones, musical theatre composer and lyricist Jerry Herman, and pop musician Sir Paul McCartney. • Serbia defeats France 3–2 to win its first Davis Cup in men’s international team tennis.

A campaign to use a newly developed vaccine to inoculate millions of people in western Africa against bacterial meningitis gets under way in Burkina Faso. • Suicide bombers kill more than 40 people at a meeting of tribal elders and government representatives who are working to devise antiTaliban strategies in the

Pakistani tribal agency Mohmand. • Britain’s Turner Prize is presented in London to Scottish artist Susan Philipsz; her winning entry, “Lowlands,” is a recording of her singing the 16th-century Scottish lament “Lowlands Away” under three bridges over the River Clyde in Glasgow. (Photo above.) • In a ceremony in Stockholm, the Right Livelihood Awards are presented to Nigerian environmental activist Nnimmo Bassey for his work exposing the ecological costs of oil production, to Erwin Kräutler for his work on behalf of indigenous peoples in Brazil, to Shrikrishna Upadhyay and his organization SAPROS for their work in Nepal helping communities improve their living conditions, and to the organization Physicians for Human Rights— Israel for providing access to health care to all people in Israel and Palestine.

Haiti’s electoral board announces that the November 28 presidential election resulted in the need for a runoff between Mirlande Manigat and ruling party candidate Jude Célestin;

supporters of Michel Martelly, who is said to have come in third, riot in response. • WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange turns himself in to British authorities in London and is detained; he is wanted in Sweden on charges of sexual misbehaviour. • A copy of Birds of America by John James Audobon sells at a Sotheby’s auction in London for £6.5 million ($10.3 million), a new record for a printed book. • Elizabeth Edwards, estranged wife of former senator and one-time vice presidential candidate John Edwards, dies of cancer at the age of 61 in her home in Chapel Hill, N.C.

Rioting over the announced election results in Haiti brings the country to a virtual halt; four people are reported killed. • Supporters of jailed WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange launch denial-ofservice attacks against Web sites that stopped hosting and that stopped facilitating donations to WikiLeaks. • Falcon 9, a rocket built by the private company SpaceX, takes off from Kennedy Space Center in Florida and places an empty capsule into Earth orbit in a successful demonstration for NASA.

In London, Parliament passes a steep increase in university tuition while violent student protests take place outside, including an attack on a car carrying Prince Charles and his wife, Lady Camilla, to the theatre. • The African Union suspends Côte d’Ivoire’s membership in the organization pending the yielding of power by

Laurent Gbagbo to Alassane Ouattara, who is internationally recognized as the winner of the November 28 presidential election. • In the face of widespread unrest, Haiti’s electoral council promises to review the preliminary results of the November presidential election.

At the ceremony to present the Nobel Peace Prize to imprisoned Chinese human rights activist Liu Xiaobo, the winner’s chair is vacant and no representative attends to accept the award on his behalf; this is the first time since 1935 that this has happened. • A law is passed in Bolivia that lowers the retirement age from 65 for men and 60 for women to 58 and that extends pensions to people working in the informal economy.

Thousands of ethnic Russians engage in antiCaucasian rioting in Moscow’s Manezhnaya Square after an ethnic Russian was killed in a brawl against migrants from the Caucasus. • A car bomb and a suicide bomber create two blasts in a shopping district in downtown Stockholm; the detonations largely fail, however, and there are no casualties beyond the attacker himself. • A UN climate change conference in Cancún, Mex., concludes with an agreement that, among other things, creates a fund to help lessdeveloped countries cope with climate change, funds preservation of tropical forests, and strengthens emission-reduction promises from the 2009 conference; it also allows a further year to 53

December

decide whether to extend the Kyoto Protocol. • Steer roper Trevor Brazile wins the all-around cowboy world championship for a record eighth time at the Wrangler National Finals Rodeo in Las Vegas; he also wins titles in team roping and tie-down roping.

In legislative elections in Kosovo, the Democratic Party, led by Prime Minister Hashim Thaci, wins the highest number of votes. • An attack on a government compound in Al-Ramadi, Iraq, leaves at least 13 people dead. • A high-speed rail link between Helsinki and St. Petersburg is inaugurated, with Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and Finnish Pres. Tarja Halonen taking part.

votes in each house of the country’s legislature, and violent protests against his government take place in Rome. • An Islamic party withdraws from the governing coalition of Pakistani Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gilani. • A government commission in Russia approves a controversial plan to build a highway to link Moscow and St. Petersburg through the Khimki Forest. • Officials in Mexico declare that the death toll from drugrelated violence in Juárez in 2010 has reached 3,000; in 2007 the figure was 300.

Iranian Pres. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad surprises observers by dismissing Foreign Minister Manouchehr Mottaki; Ali Akbar Salehi is named acting foreign minister. • American diplomat Richard Holbrooke, the U.S. special representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan, dies after heart surgery in Washington, D.C. • Scientists studying a massive eruption that covered a complete hemisphere of the Sun conclude that coronal events on the Sun are connected across vast distances, covering most of the body of the star, by magnetic fields.

Thousands of people riot in Athens, incensed over new austerity measures eroding workers’ rights and wages in public companies. • At least 39 people are killed when two suicide bombers detonate their weapons outside a Shi!ite mosque in Chabahar, Iran. • The International Committee of the Red Cross holds a news conference to express its dismay at the deteriorating security situation in Afghanistan, which is making it difficult for aid groups to assist victims of violence. • The Micex securities exchange in Moscow begins direct trading between the Russian ruble and the Chinese renminbi (yuan). • Pres. John Evans Atta Mills of Ghana ceremonially opens the Jubilee oil field, which is expected to produce initially 55,000 bbl and eventually 120,000 bbl per day of coveted light sweet crude oil.

Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi narrowly survives no-confidence

In Côte d’Ivoire, security forces loyal to Pres. Laurent Gbagbo, who refus-

54

es to give up power, fire on a march on the state television headquarters by supporters of winning presidential candidate Alassane Ouattara; some 15 people are killed. • A report prepared for the Council of Europe is released; it investigates criminal trafficking in human organs from executed Serbian prisoners during the 1999 conflict with Kosovo and names Prime Minister Hashim Thaci of Kosovo as the head of a criminal network involved in the organ trade. • Julian Assange, founder of the organization and Web site WikiLeaks, is released on bond in London, though his movements are severely circumscribed.

opposition protest is violently suppressed. • Five Afghan army training officers are killed in an attack in Kabul, and another assault in Kunduz leaves at least eight security force members dead.

The Pan American Health Organization says that because of a worldwide shortage of cholera vaccine, a pilot program to test vaccination strategies should be instituted in Haiti, where 2,405 people have died of the disease since its outbreak in October. • U.S. federal regulators shut down two banks in Georgia and one in Florida, bringing the number of failed banks in 2010 to 154. • Carine Roitfeld announces that she will retire as editor in chief of French Vogue in January 2011 after 10 successful years.

The U.S. Congress repeals the “don’t ask, don’t tell” rule, which prohibited openly gay people from serving in the U.S. military.

Nine months after the elections, Iraq’s legislature approves a new government headed by Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki. • Milo Djukanovic unexpectedly resigns as prime minister of Montenegro. • A report is published online by PLoS Biology of a genetic analysis that found that the savanna elephants and forest elephants of Africa, previously classified as a single species, in fact are two separate species. • The University of Connecticut Huskies women’s basketball team, coached by Geno Auriemma, defeats Florida State University 93–62 to win its 89th consecutive game, breaking the record for Division I college basketball set by the UCLA men’s team coached by John Wooden in 1971–74.

Alyaksandr Lukashenka is reelected president of Belarus, and an

U.S. Pres. Barack Obama overcomes political opposition in the U.S.

Mass arrests of opposition leaders and protesters, including at least six losing presidential candidates, are carried out in Belarus. • South Korea conducts a livefire military exercise on Yeonpyeong Island, which was shelled by North Korea in November; in spite of bellicose threats of retaliation from North Korea, it does not react to the exercise.

December

Senate, which ratifies the New START treaty reducing nuclear stockpiles that Obama signed with Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev in April. • Tens of thousands of students march in Rome and other cities in Italy to protest a proposed overhaul of the country’s university system. • Tu’ivakano, a member of the nobles, is sworn in as prime minister of Tonga. • Government officials in Afghanistan complain that for the past 10 days, Iran has stopped delivering fuel to Afghanistan; there has been no explanation.

Ireland takes majority control of Allied Irish Banks, once the country’s largest banking institution. • Parcel bombs explode when opened at the Rome embassies of Switzerland and Chile, injuring the employees who received the packages. • In a news conference in Mogadishu, Som., the rival Islamist militant groups alShabaab and Hizbul Islam announce that they are joining forces to fight for control of Somalia.

A major Taliban offensive takes place in the Mohmand tribal agency in Pakistan; at least 11 members of the paramilitary Frontier Corps are killed. • Bomb attacks at Christmas Eve celebrations in villages near Jos, Nigeria, leave at least 32 people dead. • At the women’s world chess championship in Hatay, Tur., Hou Yifan of China, aged 16, defeats Ruan Lufei, also of China, to become the

youngest world chess champion in history; the previous record was held by Maya Chiburdanidze of the Soviet Union, who was 17 when she won the title in 1978.

In the Bajaur tribal agency in Pakistan, a suicide bomber detonates her weapon at a checkpoint next to a World Food Programme distribution centre; at least 43 people are killed. • China’s central bank raises its benchmark lending interest rate for the second time in 2010, to 5.81%.

Thousands of people demonstrate in Moscow in favour of ethnic tolerance and an end to friction between Russians and migrants from the Caucasus.

A minibus bomb and an ensuing suicide bomber kill at least 14 people outside government offices in Al-Ramadi, Iraq. • The imprisoned former oil tycoon Mikhail Khodorkovsky is convicted of new counts of embezzlement in a court in Moscow; on December 30 he is sentenced to an additional six years in prison.

which in 2005 inflamed Muslim opinion with the publication of cartoons mocking the Prophet Muhammad. • Wild Oats XI is awarded line honours as the first boat to finish the 2010 Sydney Hobart Yacht Race in Australia; Secret Men’s Business 3.5 is later delcared the overall winner.

A major bomb explodes near downtown Athens; because of earlier warning calls, the area has been evacuated, and there are no casualties. • The utility Northern Ireland Water reports that water pipes that burst as a result of thawing after record cold temperatures have left at least 6,000 homes in Northern Ireland without running water since December 27; the utility says that it may be several more days before service is fully restored. • Moshe Katzav, who was in 2000–07 president of Israel, is convicted in a court in Tel Aviv of two counts of forcible rape. • The Vatican for the first time establishes a watchdog agency for the Vatican Bank and issues new rules prohibiting money laundering.

• U.S. Sen. Lisa Murkowski, who ran as a write-in candidate after she lost the Republican primary election to Joe Miller, is certified as the winner of the November 2 Senate election in Alaska after all legal challenges by Miller have been dismissed. • The Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern Art opens in Doha, Qatar; it will exhibit work that dates from the mid-19th century to the present.

At a beer garden at an army barracks in Abuja, Nigeria, a bomb goes off, and some 30 people are reportedly killed. • Several days after Cyclone Tasha made landfall on Australia’s northeastern coast, nearly half of Queensland is covered by floodwaters. (Photo below.) • In defiance of international attempts to persuade him to step down, Laurent Gbagbo declares that he will not cede power as president of Côte d’Ivoire. • At the last bell of the year at the New York Stock Exchange, the Dow Jones Industrial Average has risen 11% since the beginning of the year.

The Ministry of Commerce in China announces a 35% decrease in quotas of rare-earth minerals for export in the opening months of 2011.

Five men are arrested in Denmark and Sweden; authorities in Denmark say that they were planning a major terrorist assault on the newspaper Jyllands-Posten, Anthony Skerman/AP

55

Disasters Listed here are MAJOR disasters that occurred in 2010. The list includes NATURAL and NONMILITARY mechanical disasters that claimed more than 15 lives and/or resulted in significant damage to PROPERTY.

Aviation January 25, Near Beirut. Ethiopian Airlines Flight 409, bound for Addis Ababa, Eth., goes down in a storm shortly after taking off; all 90 aboard are presumed to have been killed. April 10, Near Smolensk, Russia. A Tupolev Tu-154 jet carrying Polish dignitaries to a memorial observation of the Katyn Massacre crashes in a forest in heavy fog; all 96 aboard—including Polish Pres. Lech Kaczynski, the chiefs of the army and the navy, several legislators, and heroes of Polish liberation from the Soviet Union—are killed. May 12, Libya. An Afriqiyah Airways Airbus A330-200 that took off from Johannesburg crashes on its approach into Tripoli; 103 of those aboard, 66 of whom are Dutch tourists, are killed, but one nine-year-old Dutch boy survives. May 17, Afghanistan. A Pamir Airlines Antonov An-24 flying from Kunduz to Kabul disappears in heavy fog; the wreckage of the plane, which broke

into four parts, is found three days later in the Hindu Kush mountain range, and it is clear that all 44 aboard perished. May 22, Mangalore, India. An Air India Boeing 737-800 arriving from Dubai, U.A.E., overshoots the runway when landing and crashes into a concrete navigational aid before falling into a valley; 158 of the 166 people aboard die. July 28, Pakistan. An Airblue Airbus A321 airplane flying from Karachi to Islamabad crashes into a hillside while trying to land in heavy rain; all 152 aboard perish in the worst aviation disaster in Pakistan’s history. August 24, Heilongjiang province, China. An Embraer 190LR aircraft operated by the Chinese regional carrier Henan Airlines crashes when attempting to land at Yichun; at least 42 of the 96 aboard are killed. August 25, Democratic Republic of the Congo. A Let L-410 twin turboprop passenger plane, which may have run out

Firefighters spray the wreckage of an Air India Boeing 737-800 that overshot the runway and crashed when landing at the airport in Mangalore, India, on May 22, killing 158 of the 166 people aboard.

UPI/Landov

56

of fuel, crashes while attempting to land at Bandundu; 20 of those aboard die. September 13, Venezuela. A Conviasa twin turboprop airplane crashes in Puerto Ordaz; 17 of the 51 on board the aircraft perish. November 4, Cuba. AeroCaribbean Flight 883 goes down and bursts into flames near the village of Guasimal; all 68 people aboard the turboprop plane, which was traveling from Santiago de Cuba to Havana, are killed. December 15, Nepal. A De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter aircraft that was flying from Lamidanda to Kathmandu crashes into the side of a mountain about 50 km (30 mi) west of Lamidanda, killing all 19 passengers and 3 crew members. Fires and Explosions February 9, South Africa. A fire kills 15 people, 13 of them children, at an orphanage in KwaZulu-Natal province. February 9, Arunachal Pradesh state, India. A fire breaks out in a school dormitory in the town of Palin; some 14 schoolchildren are believed to have been killed. February 25, Bangladesh. A fire breaks out at a clothing factory in Gazipur and burns for more than two hours; at least 21 people die in the conflagration. June 3, Dhaka, Bangladesh. The explosion of an electrical transformer ignites a fire that spreads quickly; at least 117 people, including 15 members of a wedding party, perish in the conflagration. July 2, Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. A fuel truck overturns on a highway and explodes in a fireball that engulfs homes and a market; at least 230 people in the area, including many who were attempting to siphon fuel from the disabled vehicle, are incinerated. July 15, Sulaimaniyah, Iraq. A fire breaks out and spreads quickly at a hotel in the northern Kurdish area; at least 28 people from several countries die.

Disasters Ulises Ruíz Basurto—EPA/Landov

December 13, Antarctic Ocean. A South Korean fishing boat sinks off Antarctica; five bodies are recovered, and 17 crewmen remain missing after rescue efforts end. December 15, Christmas Island. A boat carrying asylum seekers believed to be from Iraq and Iran crashes onto rocks; some 48 of the passengers are killed. December 16, Between Vietnam and China. A Vietnamese cargo ship capsizes in heavy seas; a Chinese maritime rescue team finds 2 seamen, but 25 are missing.

In San Martín Texmelucan, Mex., extensive destruction has resulted from a huge explosion of a state-owned oil pipeline on December 19; at least 28 people were burned to death. August 1, South Africa. A home for the elderly some 60 km (37 mi) outside Johannesburg is consumed by a fire; at least 18 residents perish. September 17, Karadiyanaru, Sri Lanka. Three trucks carrying explosives blow up in a police compound, and 25 people are killed; the military says the incident is an accident. October 12, Khorramabad, Iran. The spread of a fire of unknown cause is reported to be the source of an explosion in an ammunition depot in which 18 members of the Revolutionary Guard are killed. November 10, El Salvador. A fire, possibly caused by an electrical short circuit, breaks out at a prison in Ilobasco; at least 19 inmates lose their lives. November 15, Shanghai. A 28-story apartment building that is undergoing renovation catches fire and goes up in flames; at least 58 people die. December 8, Santiago. Fighting between rival gangs in the overcrowded San Miguel prison leads to a fire in which at least 81 of the inmates lose their lives. December 19, San Martín Texmelucan, Mex. Stealing of oil leads to a massive explosion in a state-owned oil pipeline; at least 28 people and many buildings are incinerated. Marine May 26, Peru. An immensely overloaded passenger ferry capsizes in the Amazon River near Santa Rosa; at least 21 passengers die, and 171 are rescued.

June 7, Northeastern Bangladesh. An overloaded ferry capsizes; at least 12 passengers lose their lives, and many more cannot be found. June 14, Northern India. A boat ferrying people to a temple across the Ganges River sinks under the weight of its passengers; at least 35 people are feared dead. July 28, Democratic Republic of the Congo. An overloaded boat carrying passengers and cargo hits a mud bank in the Kasai River and capsizes; at least 80 people die, and it is feared that the death toll may be as high as 140. July 31, Uganda. More than 70 people are thought to have lost their lives after an overloaded boat capsizes on Lake Albert. September 4, Democratic Republic of the Congo. A boat traveling at night without lights in Equateur province hits a rock and sinks, causing the drowning of at least 70 passengers; some 200 passengers are feared lost after an overcrowded boat on the Kasai River catches fire and capsizes. September 27, Gulf of Aden. As a U.S. Navy boat begins delivering aid to a skiff from Somalia carrying some 85 African migrants that was found adrift the previous day, passengers rush to one side of the skiff, which capsizes; at least 13 people drown, and 8 others are missing. October 7, Off Bangladesh. In the Bay of Bengal, 15 fishing boats are swamped in a storm; at least 200 fishermen are missing.

Mining and Construction March 28, Shanxi province, China. A flood in the Wangjialing coal mine traps some 153 miners; 108 others are airlifted to safety, and many of the remaining miners are rescued in the ensuing days, though at least 38 perish. April 5, Outside Montcoal, W.Va. A methane-gas explosion in the Upper Big Branch coal mine leaves 29 miners dead. May 8 and 9, Siberia, Russia. Two methane-gas explosions, four hours apart, collapse shafts, including the main air shaft, in the large Rapadskaya coal mine in the Kemerovo region; 90 miners and rescue workers are killed. May 17, Turkey. An explosion in the Karadon coal mine near Zonguldak traps 32 miners deep underground; none survive. June 16, Colombia. An explosion tears through the San Fernando coal mine in Amagá, killing 73 of the 163 miners working. June 21, Henan province, China. A powder magazine in a coal mine in Pingdingshan explodes, and at least 47 miners are killed. June 27, Ghana. An illegal gold mine in Dunkwa-on-Offin collapses after heavy rain; as many as 100 artisanal miners are thought to have lost their lives. July 17, China. The Xinhua news agency in China reports that a fire started by an electrical cable in the Xiaonangou coal mine in Shaanxi province has left 28 miners dead, an accident in a mine in Henan province has killed 8 miners, 2 miners have died in a mine in Hunan province, and 13 miners are trapped underground in a mine in Gansu province; the latter are later reported to have died. October 16, Henan province, China. An explosion in a coal mine in Yuzhou leaves 37 miners dead. November 19, New Zealand. A gas explosion in a coal mine near Atarau traps 29 miners; on November 24, following another explosion in the mine, the head 57

Disasters Octavio Passos/AP

of the rescue effort declares that the workers could not have survived. December 7, China. In Henan province a gas explosion in a coal mine kills 26 miners. Natural January 1, Brazil. Mud slides bury a resort on the island of Ilha Grande near Angra Dos Reis, killing at least 26 people; other mud slides on the mainland in southeastern Brazil, which follow days of torrential rain, leave at least 40 more people dead. January 12, Haiti. A devastating earthquake of magnitude 7.0 flattens Portau-Prince; more than 220,000 people are killed, and most buildings, among them the presidential palace, the parliament building, the national cathedral, and the headquarters of the UN mission, are destroyed. January 15, Cuba. The Ministry of Health declares that 26 of the patients of Havana’s psychiatric hospital died during a cold snap over the previous few days. February 8, Indian-administered Kashmir. In the Khelanmarg area, an avalanche sweeps away part of a military training camp, leaving at least 17 Indian soldiers dead. February 9, Afghanistan. A series of 17 avalanches that began the previous day in the Salang Pass in the Hindu Kush mountain range bury a more than three-kilometre (two-mile) stretch of the highway, block the Salang Tunnel, and leave at least 169 people dead; some 3,000 people are rescued. February 17, North-West Frontier Province, Pak. An avalanche buries the village of Bagaro Serai; at least 102 people perish. February 20, Madeira Islands. Torrential rains cause flash flooding and rock slides on the Portuguese island of Madeira in the Atlantic Ocean; at least 48 people are killed. February 23, Indonesia. A landslide caused by heavy rains destroys buildings housing workers at a tea plantation in Jawa Barat near Bandung; at least 19 people are killed, with an additional 53 feared dead. February 27, Chile. A magnitude-8.8 earthquake in the central part of the country shatters the area around Concepción and is followed by a tsunami, which causes devastation primarily in Talcahuano and Constitución; more than 500 people are killed, and more than a million are left homeless. February 28, Europe. Officials report that Atlantic storm Xynthia has since the 58

Onlookers survey cars swept down a hillside outside Funchal, the capital of Portugal’s Madeira Islands, after torrential rains caused flash floods in February. previous day battered the coasts of Portugal, Spain, and France, leaving more than 60 people dead; 51 people died, mostly of drowning, in France alone. March 1, Uganda. Mud slides following torrential rain sweep away buildings in villages on the slopes of Mt. Elgon; some 300 people are feared dead. March 8, Eastern Turkey. A magnitude6.0 earthquake levels homes in three villages; at least 57 people are killed. March 11, Southern Kazakhstan. Two dams give way under the pressure of heavy rains and snowmelt; the resultant flooding and mud slides leave some 43 people dead and thousands homeless. March 23, Afghanistan. Afghan officials report that it has been learned that an avalanche took place two weeks previously in the northern province of Badakhshan and that at least 35 people and some 500 cattle and other animals were killed. April 6–7, Brazil. A storm that dumps some 28 cm (11 in) of rain on Rio de Janeiro and the surrounding area causes flash flooding and mud slides in which at least 246 people perish and 150 people are missing. April 9, Peru. The Pan American Health Organization reports that heavy rains in the departments of Huánuco, Cajamarca, and Ancash have caused flooding that has left at least 30 people dead and an additional 38 people missing. April 13, Eastern India. A cyclone makes landfall in Bihar, West Bengal,

and Assam, causing great destruction and leaving at least 139 people dead and some 100,000 homeless. April 14, China. A magnitude-6.9 earthquake strikes Qinghai province on the Tibetan plateau; the city of Jiegu is left in ruins, and nearly 3,000 people lose their lives. May 7, Southern Tajikistan. Two days of flooding and mud slides brought on by heavy rain leave at least 40 people dead. May 16, Democratic Republic of the Congo. A landslide caused by overflowing rivers on the slopes of the volcano Mt. Nyiragongo near Goma destroys hundreds of homes and leaves at least 54 people dead or missing. May 20, Andhra Pradesh, India. Cyclone Laila makes landfall, causing great damage and the deaths of at least 23 people; in addition, 55 or more fishermen are reported missing. May 23, Poland. The Vistula River bursts its banks as flooding from days of heavy rains spreads northward; 15 people lose their lives in the floods. May 29, Central America. Tropical Storm Agatha roars through El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, leaving at least 205 people, nearly 200 of them in Guatemala, dead and opening a sinkhole 30 m (100 ft) in diameter and 60 m (200 ft) deep in Guatemala City. June 11, Arkansas. Flash flooding on the Caddo and Little Missouri rivers sweeps through campgrounds in the Ouachita National Forest; 20 campers perish.

Disasters

June 15, Bangladesh. Heavy rainfall causes landslides in the area around Cox’s Bazar, which destroy dozens of houses and an army camp and leave at least 58 people dead. June 15, Southeastern France. Flash flooding said to be the worst since 1827 takes place above the French Riviera in unusually heavy rain; the town of Draguignan is particularly hard hit, and at least 25 people perish. June 16, Indonesia. A magnitude-7.0 earthquake under the ocean floor of the northern coast of the province of Papua is followed by several strong aftershocks; at least 17 people are killed. June 20, Ghana. Flash flooding in the area around Accra leaves at least 23 people dead. June 20, Northeastern Brazil. Several days of heavy rain cause rivers to overflow their banks and trigger flooding that washes away whole villages in Alagoas and Pernambuco states; at least 41 people succumb, and there are hundreds reported missing. June 21, Myanmar (Burma). Officials report that flooding and landslides in the northwestern part of the country from rains that began on June 13 and continued for more than a week have swept away homes, schools, and bridges and left at least 63 people dead. June 21, Southern and central China. Authorities say that monsoon rains have inundated the previously droughtstricken area, sweeping away homes, drowning crops, and leaving at least 175 people dead. June 28, Southern and central China. As monsoon rains continue to fall, a landslide covers Dazhai village in Guizhou province, burying at least 100 people; the death toll from flooding, excluding this event, is said to have reached at least 235. June 30, Northeastern Romania. An official reports that at least 22 people have lost their lives in floods during the past week; heavy rains continue in the area. June–July, Ghana. At least 40 people perish in floods that also leave more than 25,000 people homeless. July 9, Northeastern Mexico. It is reported that the remnants of Hurricane Alex have caused flooding of the Rio Grande that has brought destruction and left at least 30 people dead. July 12, China. Chinese news media report that heavy rains have triggered landslides in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces that left at least 17 people dead and an additional 44 missing. July 13, Philippines. Typhoon Conson strikes the island of Luzon, flooding

parts of Manila and leaving at least 26 people dead and another 38 people, most of them fishermen, missing. July 16, Northwestern Yemen and southwestern Saudi Arabia. It is reported that heavy rains that led to flash floods and landslides have resulted in at least 23 deaths in Yemen and one in Saudi Arabia. July 16, China. The Ministry of Civil Affairs reports that at least 146 people have died owing to relentless rains and the resultant floods and landslides since the beginning of July. July 20, Bolivia and Paraguay. It is reported that at least 18 people have succumbed as a result of unusually cold weather in Bolivia; also, authorities in Paraguay say that at least 10 people and some 1,000 cattle have perished because of cold. July 22, China. The state news agency reports that flooding along the Yangtze River and other waterways since July 1 has left at least 273 people dead and an additional 218 people missing. July 23, Peru. The government declares a state of emergency in districts more than 3,000 m (9,900 ft) above sea level and three regions in the jungle; all have suffered exceptionally cold temperatures that have contributed to the deaths of some 400 people. July 27, Sichuan province, China. A landslide caused by relentless heavy rain leaves 21 people missing. July 30, Central Russia. It is reported that forest fires that have broken out as a result of a heat wave and a drought said to be the most severe in a century have destroyed hundreds of homes and left at least 23 people dead; by August 6 the death toll has risen to 52. July 31, Pakistan. Officials say that at least 800 people have lost their lives in the ongoing flooding disaster triggered by record rainfall in the northwestern part of the country. July 31, Afghanistan. Officials report that flooding in the northeastern part of the country has left at least 64 people dead and hundreds homeless, though NATO-led Afghan forces have flown rescue missions to the area that have saved more than 2,000 people from the floods. Late July, Cameroon. Storms leave some 5,000 people homeless and at least 15 people dead. August 5, Northwestern Pakistan. The UN estimates that at least 1,600 people have lost their lives in catastrophic flooding. August 6, Indian-administered Kashmir. A flash flood and mud slide deci-

mate the tourist city of Leh and the surrounding area; at least 165 people are killed, with another 500 missing. August 7, Central Europe. Heavy rains cause flash flooding that results in at least 15 deaths: 3 in Poland, 3 in Germany, 5 in the Czech Republic, and 4 in Lithuania. August 8, Gansu province, China. The Bailong River, blocked by debris from mud slides that also devastate Zhoukou county, escapes its banks and floods several villages; at least 1,254 people die in the disaster; with hundreds more reported missing. August 9, Sierra Leone. A mud slide caused by heavy rain sweeps away houses on a hillside in Freetown, leaving at least 16 people dead. August 16, China. Flooding and landslides in the city of Longnan in Gansu province leave at least 36 people dead and 23 missing; two days earlier mud slides in Wenchuan county in Sichuan province killed at least 15 people, with 38 others reported missing. August 18, Yunnan province, China. A landslide leaves dozens missing and presumed dead. August 18, Uttarakhand state, India. A school building in Bageshwar district is demolished by a landslide; at least 18 students and 2 teachers are thought to have perished. September 2, North Korea. North Korea’s state news agency reports that the country suffered flooding as a result of Typhoon Kompasu; later reports say that scores of people lost their lives. September 4, Guatemala. Landslides leave at least 36 people dead, including 12 people on a bus that is buried in mud. One mud slide inundates a group of volunteers who are attempting to dig out another bus that was buried; most of them are believed to have died. September 6, Pakistan. The leader of the National Disaster Management Authority says that the death toll from flooding that began in July has risen to 1,752. Mid-September, Yemen. Flooding resulting from heavy rainfall causes the deaths of some 56 people in the province of Hodeidah. September 20, Uttarakhand state, India. It is reported that three days of incessant rain have led to flooding and landslides that have left at least 41 people dead. September 23, Uttar Pradesh state, India. Officials declare that heavy rain has left much of the state under water, swept away thousands of houses, and resulted in at least 17 deaths. 59

Disasters

September 29, Chiapas state, Mex. Authorities report that 16 people died in a landslide in Amatán. September 30, Mexico. Rain causes a hillside to collapse in Villa Hidalgo Yalalag, crushing two people to death; this raises the death toll from landslides in southern Mexico for the week to 23. Early October, Benin. At least 60 people die in flooding resulting from weeks of high rainfall. October 11, West Papua province, Indon. It is reported that at least 145 people have died in flash flooding in the mountains. October 16, Southwestern Russia. Heavy rains in a mountainous area cause at least 13 deaths; 9 people are reported missing. October 18–19, Philippines. Typhoon Megi causes serious damage to the east coast of the island of Luzon and kills at least 28 people; some 200,000 are left homeless. October 22, Central Vietnam. It is reported that flooding in Ha Tinh province has left at least 74 people dead. October 23, Thailand. It is reported that the death toll from flooding that began on October 10 has reached 32; half a million households have lost homes and farmland to the floods. October 25, Indonesia. A magnitude7.7 earthquake off South Pagai in the Mentawai Islands triggers a tsunami that destroys several villages and brings about the deaths of more than 500 people. October 30, Caribbean. Hurricane Tomas swipes Saint Lucia, where at least 14 people perish, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; most of the crops in both countries are destroyed. November 2, Western Myanmar (Burma). The UN declares that a cyclone in October left at least 45 people dead and some 81,000 homeless. November 4, Indonesia. Eruptions from Mt. Merapi intensify; a series of explosions that began on October 26 have killed at least 56 people so far. By early December the death toll is said to have reached 353. November 4, Costa Rica. After two days of heavy rainfall, a hillside in San Antonio de Escazú gives way, burying several homes and killing at least 23 people. November 18, Colombia. Government officials say that weeks of heavy rain in the area of Bogotá have left at least 136 people dead, and hundreds of thousands have been made homeless.

December 1, Venezuela. It is reported that at least 25 people have died as a result of flooding and landslides in the past few weeks; some 30,000 people have been displaced. December 3, Europe. Deaths reported in the unusually severe winter weather include at least 30 people in Poland, 4 in the Czech Republic, 3 in Germany, and 2 in northern England. December 5, Colombia. A mud slide buries some 30 houses in Bello; at least 82 people are killed. December 16, Colombia. Colombian Pres. Juan Manuel Santos says that flooding has left more than 1 million ha (2.5 million ac) of farmland under water; some 300 people have lost their lives in floods and landslides in the past few weeks. Railroad February 15, Halle, Belg. Two passenger trains crash into each other headon, apparently because of a signal failure; at least 18 people are killed. May 23, Guangxi autonomous region, China. A passenger train en route from Shanghai to Guilin runs into debris from landslides and derails; at least 19 passengers are killed. June 21, Republic of the Congo. A train departing Pointe-Noire en route to Brazzaville goes off the tracks and falls into a ravine; at least 60 of the passengers perish. July 19, West Bengal state, India. As the Vananchal Express train is about to

pull out of the station in Sainthia, the speeding Uttarbanga Express train plows into it; at least 63 people are killed. September 20, Madhya Pradesh state, India. A freight train plows into a passenger train that is stopped at a station, pushing three of the passenger train’s cars on top of each other; at least 23 of those on board perish. October 2, Indonesia. A train traveling from Jakarta crashes into a train stopped at a station in Petarukan, knocking several cars from the tracks and killing at least 36 passengers. Traffic January 12, Papua New Guinea. At least 40 people die violently when two passenger buses collide head-on near the village of Ragiampum on the Highlands Highway. February 8, Uttar Pradesh state, India. In the town of Sitapur, a tractor that is pulling a trolley with some 70 passengers overturns on the road; at least 23 people are killed. February 13, Nigeria. An electrical cable falls on a bus during a storm; at least 20 people, not all of them passengers on the bus, are electrocuted. February 16, Uttar Pradesh state, India. A bus carrying guests from a wedding party goes off the road and plunges into a river in Jalaun district; at least 22 of the passengers expire. February 22, Peru. Two passenger buses traveling on the Pan-American

In July a crowd gathers around a crash site in Sainthia, West Bengal state, India, where a speeding passenger train smashed into another train already in the station, killing more than 60 people.

Reuters/Landov

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Disasters Emergency Situations Ministry/AP

A yellow bus demolished by a train blocks the track near Marhanets, Ukr., on October 12. The collision, in which at least 43 bus passengers died, occurred when the driver ignored warning signals and attempted to cross the tracks ahead of the oncoming train. Highway collide haed-on; at least 38 passengers perish. March 14, Rajasthan, India. A passenger bus hits a vehicle that is parked on a bridge and goes over the rail into a dry riverbed some 21 m (70 ft) below; at least 26 people are killed. March 26, Kentucky. On Interstate 65 near Munfordville, a truck crosses the median and crashes head-on with a van carrying a party of Mennonites on their way to a wedding; 10 people in the van, most of them members of one family, and the truck driver perish. May 5, Western Cape province, S.Af. The driver of a passenger bus heading toward Cape Town loses control of his vehicle, which goes through a barrier and overturns, causing the deaths of at least 24 of those on board. May 23, Liaoning province, China. On an expressway in Fuxin, a collision between a passenger bus and a truck leaves 32 people, all but 3 from the bus, dead. June 21, Khyber Pakhtunwa, Pak. A minibus on the Indus highway that is speeding while traveling from Islamabad to Bannu collides head-on with a truck; 17 of those on the minibus die. June 26, Bihar state, India. A bus hits a truck head-on; at least 23 passengers are killed, and another 25 are injured. July 18, Sichuan province, China. A bus goes off the side of a cliff and falls into the flooding Dadu River; 26 passengers perish. August 11, Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. A truck laden with

cargo, on top of which passengers ride, falls into Lake Tanganyika; at least 58 people lose their lives. September 16, Near Alrader, Sudan. A bus attempting to pass a truck hits a minibus head-on, and the minibus bursts into flames; at least 37 people perish. October 12, Central Ukraine. The operator of a passenger bus drives into the path of an oncoming train in spite of warning lights; at least 43 of the people riding on the bus are killed in the ensuing collision. October 23, Taiwan. Searchers find the wreckage of a tour bus that went over a cliff when traveling as Typhoon Megi struck the island country two days earlier, causing rock slides on the highway; some 20 tourists from China’s Guangdong province died in the accident. November 16, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The driver of a truck with a load of passengers is killed by Rwandan Hutu rebels, and the truck falls into a ravine; at least 23 passengers die. December 2, Israel. After the outbreak near Haifa of a forest fire that quickly consumes some 324 ha (800 ac), a bus carrying prison guard trainees sent to evacuate a prison bursts into flames; at least 38 trainees are immolated. December 25, Uttar Pradesh state, India. Outside Budaun a passenger bus and a vehicle carrying mourners from a funeral crash into each other; 36 people, including the bus driver, are killed.

Miscellaneous February 19, Meknès, Mor. At least 41 worshippers perish when the minaret of the 400-year-old Lalla Khenata Mosque collapses during Friday prayer. February 25, Timbuktu, Mali. As crowds try to reach the Djingareyber Mosque to celebrate a festival, they find access blocked by road construction; a stampede results in which 26 people are crushed to death. March 4, Mangarh, India. As some 10,000 people attend a religious ceremony at a popular ashram at which money and goods are to be distributed, the gate leading to the temple collapses, setting off a stampede in which at least 63 people, nearly all of them women and children, perish. April 23, Uganda. A health official declares that over the past three weeks in Kabale district some 80 people have succumbed after drinking a homemade banana gin known as waragi that contained methanol. June 2, Dhaka, Bangladesh. A fourstory building, constructed on top of a former canal and reportedly having a fifth floor added, collapses; 25 people are crushed to death. June 4, Zamfara state, Nigeria. Authorities report that attempts by poor villagers to leach gold from rock deposits have since the beginning of the year resulted in the deaths from lead poisoning of more than 160 people, most of them children. July 24, Duisburg, Ger. Overcrowding in the tunnel entrance to the old freight railway station where the techno music festival the Love Parade is being held leads the crowd to panic; 21 concertgoers are killed in the crush. July 25, Nairobi. Police report that at least 17 people have died and several others have been made blind as a result of drinking a home-distilled moonshine called changaa that is suspected of containing methanol. October 27, Northern Afghanistan. At a wedding celebration in a mud brick house, the roof collapses, and at least 65 people, mostly women and children, are crushed to death. November 15, New Delhi. In a poor neighbourhood near the Yamuna River, a five-story apartment building collapses to the ground, killing at least 66 people; shoddy construction is blamed. November 22, Phnom Penh, Camb. At a water festival a panic on a bridge leading to an island, possibly triggered by the swaying of the bridge, causes the deaths of at least 378 people, most of whom suffocate. 61

People of 2010

Dancers perform in Johannesburg on June 11 in the opening ceremony that kicked off the monthlong association football (soccer) FIFA World Cup finals. Martin Meissner/AP

Nobel Prizes Nobels were awarded to 11 men in 2010; recipients included a Chinese HUMAN RIGHTS activist who was serving a prison sentence for SUBVERSION, an acclaimed Peruvian author for his TRENCHANT IMAGES of individual resistance and defeat, three economists for their theories on LABOUR-MARKET analysis, scientists for isolating GRAPHENE and making new molecules with PALLADIUM, and a biomedical researcher for his work on IN VITRO FERTILIZATION.

PRIZE FOR PEACE

T

he Chinese teacher, writer, and human rights activist Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace for 2010. Liu was the first Chinese citizen to win a Nobel Prize. In making the award, the Norwegian Nobel Committee cited Liu’s “long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China.” The committee expressed its belief that there was “a close connection between human rights and peace” and, in a rebuke to China, said that the country’s “new [economic] status must entail increased responsibility.” When the announcement was made in October, the recipient was in prison, serving an 11-year sentence pronounced in 2009 for “inciting subversion of state power.” This sentence resulted from his role in the writing and promotion of Charter 08, a human rights manifesto that was issued in December 2008 on the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. As the committee noted, “Through the severe punishment meted out to him, Liu has become the foremost symbol of this wide-ranging struggle for human rights in China.” Two previous Nobel laureates had been imprisoned at the time they were awarded the Prize for Peace: the German peace advocate Carl von Ossietzky in 1935 and the Burmese political activist Aung San Suu Kyi in 1991. Liu was born on Dec. 28, 1955, in Changchun, Jilin province. As a youth he was sent with his family to the countryside to learn farming. Liu received a B.A. degree (1982) in literature from Jilin University and an M.A. degree (1984)

and a Ph.D. (1987) from Beijing Normal University. He began teaching at Beijing Normal University in 1984, and during 1988–89 he held visiting appointments in Europe and the U.S. When student protests broke out in Beijing in 1989, Liu returned to China from Columbia University, New York City, and participated in a three-day hunger strike. After the Tiananmen Square incident, in which government troops enforced a crackdown on protesters, Liu negotiated an agreement that allowed the remaining protesters to withdraw and thereby prevented further violence. For his role in the protest, he was arrested and detained for several months; he was also forbidden to teach again in Chinese universities, and his writings were banned. Liu Xiaobo

PRIZE FOR ECONOMICS The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded in 2010 to Americans Peter A. Diamond and Dale T. Mortensen and Cyprus-born Christopher A. Pissarides, who together developed a theory of search markets such as those in which employers seek to fill vacancies and job seekers search for employment. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the economists developed a Kyodo/AP

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Thus, despite Liu’s relative moderation, there began two decades of surveillance by the government and official curtailment of his activities. Liu was detained on two later occasions before he received the 11-year sentence that made him a cause célèbre among human rights activists around the world. As rumours began to circulate that Liu Xiaobo was the front-runner for the Prize for Peace, the Chinese government warned the Nobel Committee and the Norwegian government that it would be dangerous to honour him. When Liu was announced as the recipient, China denounced the committee’s action, calling it a “desecration” of the prize and claiming that Liu was a “criminal.” The government instituted a blackout of Western media, although the news reached individual Chinese citizens and spread quickly through less-formal channels. It was reported that his jailers informed Liu of the prize and that his wife, Liu Xia, was allowed to visit him, though she was believed to have been placed under house arrest. A number of Western leaders, including the 2009 laureate, U.S. Pres. Barack Obama, praised the committee’s decision, and once again there were calls for Liu’s release. Although Liu’s role as an activist came to overshadow his work as a writer and thinker, he published widely. Among his best-known books was his first, Criticism of the Choice: Dialogues with Li Zehou (1988), a critique of the ideas of a contemporary Confucian thinker. Liu also published literary criticism in periodicals, as well as poetry. Most of his writings after the 1980s were published abroad, but copies found their way to China. Honours include the Fondation de France Prize (2004), given by Reporters Without Borders to promote press freedom. (ROBERT RAUCH)

Nobel Prizes Ruth Fremson—The New York Times/Redux

theoretical framework known as the Diamond-Mortensen-Pissarides (DMP) model, which became widely used in labour-market analysis. The model describes the search activity of the unemployed, the methods by which firms recruit and formulate wages, and the effects of economic policies and regulation, such as levels of unemployment benefits and rules on hiring and firing, on labour markets. While their research analyzing the process of buying and selling could be applied to many other markets, including housing, their theory had a particular relevance in identifying and explaining the coexistence of high unemployment rates with many job vacancies, an apparent incongruity that could not be explained by earlier models. Diamond’s analysis of the frictions in markets—that is, external factors that prevent buyers or searchers from finding a suitable match—challenged the classical market view in which buyers and sellers are well informed and find each other simultaneously, without costs, ensuring that supply and demand are in balance. In a groundbreaking article in 1971, he demonstrated that when buyers sought the best possible price and sellers set their price after having taken into account the costs associated with the buyer’s search, the resulting price would be the same as that set by a monopolist in a corresponding market. His finding that the only equilibrium price was the monopoly became known as the Diamond paradox. Findings from Mortensen’s work on the search and matching theory of frictional unemployment led him to study labour turnover, research and development, and personal relationships. Among other findings, he determined that rigidities in the labour market, such as the level and length of unemployment benefits, can cause unemployment because of the length of time spent by the searcher seeking the best job with the highest pay. Conversely, Diamond demonstrated that the use of unemployment insurance gave job seekers more time for a more selective search that could facilitate a better match. Building on the DMP model, Pissarides pioneered a coherent theoretical analysis of the dynamics of unemployment, job vacancies, and real wages, and he helped to develop the concept of matching functions. He found that the more intensely job seekers looked for employment, the more jobs companies would offer because of the ease with which they could fill those positions.

Peter Arthur Diamond was born on April 29, 1940, in New York City and was educated at Yale University (B.A., 1960) and MIT (Ph.D., 1963). He joined (1963) the University of California, Berkeley, as an associate professor before returning to MIT, where he served as an associate professor (1966–70), professor (1970–88), John and Jennie S. MacDonald Professor (1989–91), Paul A. Samuelson Professor (1992–97), and Institute Professor (from 1997). He also acted as research associate of the National Bureau of Economic Research from 1991 and held several other academic and editorial positions. Diamond was awarded the Nemmers Prize in Economics (1994), the Jean-Jacques Laffont Prize (2005), and the Robert M. Ball Award (2008). Dale Thomas Mortensen was born on Feb. 2, 1939, in Enterprise, Ore., and attended Willamette University, Salem, Ore. (B.A., 1961), and Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh (Ph.D., 1967). In 1965 he joined the economics faculty at Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill., where in 1980 he became professor of managerial economics and decision sciences at the Kellogg School of Management. He also served as director of mathematical methods in Northwestern’s social sciences program (1982–84, 1992–2000) and was the Neils Bohr Visiting Professor of Economics (2006–10) at Århus (Den.) University. Mortensen was awarded the IZA Labor Economics Prize in 2005, jointly with Pissarides, and the Society of Labor Economists’ Jacob Mincer Award in 2007. Christopher Antoniou Pissarides was born on Feb. 20, 1948, in Nicosia, Cyprus, and was educated in England at the University of Essex (B.A., 1970; M.A., 1971) and the London School of Economics (LSE; Ph.D., 1973). After a brief period working as a researcher at the Central Bank of Cyprus, he returned to the U.K. to teach economics at the University of Southampton (1974–76) and then from 1976 at the LSE, where in 1986 he was made Norman Sosnow Professor of Economics. In addition to sharing the 2005 IZA Labor Economics Prize with Mortensen, Pissarides earned election to the British Academy in 2002. (JANET H. CLARK)

PRIZE FOR LITERATURE The 2010 Nobel Prize for Literature was awarded to Peruvian author Mario Vargas Llosa, cited by the Swedish Academy “for his cartography of structures of power and his trenchant im-

Mario Vargas Llosa ages of the individual’s resistance, revolt, and defeat.” Vargas Llosa belonged to the so-called boom generation of writers who emerged in the 1960s and focused international attention on modern Latin American literature. First and foremost a storyteller, he was a prolific and accomplished novelist, short-story writer, dramatist, journalist, and essayist. One of the preeminent writers of the Spanish-speaking world, he was the first Peruvian to be named a Nobel laureate in literature and the first Latin American writer to win the prize since Colombian Gabriel García Márquez and Mexican Octavio Paz, in 1982 and 1990, respectively. Vargas Llosa was born on March 28, 1936, in Arequipa, Peru. His parents separated at about the time of his birth; as a result, he spent part of his childhood with his mother in his maternal grandfather’s household in Cochabamba, Bol., and then in Piura, Peru. After his parents reconciled, the reunited family moved to Lima. At age 14 Vargas Llosa was sent by his father to the Leoncio Prado Military School, a traumatic and often painful experience that informed his debut novel, La ciudad y los perros (1963; The Time of the Hero, 1966), about coming of age. He completed his undergraduate education in Lima at the Main National University of San Marcos and continued his studies abroad at the Complutense University of Madrid. His first collection of short stories, Los jefes (1959; The Cubs and Other Stories, 1979), was published first in Spain and was awarded the Leopoldo Alas literary prize. Determined to pursue a career as a writer, Vargas Llosa left Madrid for 65

Nobel Prizes Tannen Maury—EPA/Landov

Paris, where he joined a community of Latin American writers that included Argentine Julio Cortázar, Chilean Jorge Edwards, Swiss-born Cuban Alejo Carpentier, and Mexican Carlos Fuentes. Published in 1966, his novel La casa verde (The Green House, 1968) received critical praise for its striking inventiveness—notably, its complex narrative of five independent stories that introduced what would become familiar themes in his body of work: the abuse of authority, disillusionment, the preponderance of violence and brutality, and the anguish of human suffering. He further enhanced his reputation with the publication of Conversación en la catedral (1969; Conversation in the Cathedral, 1975), a political exposé of contemporary Peruvian society; La tía Julia y el escribidor (1977; Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter, 1982), a semiautobiographical novel of improbable romance; the epic historical novel La guerra del fin del mundo (1981; The War of the End of the World, 1984); and Historia de Mayta (1984; The Real Life of Alejandro Mayta, 1986), a disjointed portrait of a failed revolutionary that explores the boundaries between fact and fiction. Later works include El hablador (1987; The Storyteller, 1989), a novel that underscores the plight of the marginalized indigenous populations of Peru; the erotically charged Elogio de la madrastra (1988; In Praise of the Stepmother, 1990); and the highly acclaimed La fiesta del chivo (2000; The Feast of the Goat, 2001), a searing condemnation of dictatorship. His major works of nonfiction include critical studies of García Márquez, Gustave Flaubert, Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, and Victor Hugo; El pez en el agua (1993; A Fish in the Water, 1994), a memoir written after his unsuccessful bid for the presidency of Peru in 1990; and the eloquent Cartas a un joven novelista (1997; Letters to a Young Novelist, 2002), a meditation on the craft of writing. Early in his career, Vargas Llosa posited literature as “a form of permanent insurrection.” Its mission, he proclaimed, was “to arouse, to disturb, to alarm, to keep men in a constant state of dissatisfaction with themselves.” As a writer, he merged literature and social commitment, and his youthful idealism defined his later literary persona. The product of a vibrant and impassioned cultural inheritance, he found it impossible for himself—or any Latin American writer—to avoid the subject of politics: “Literature is an expression of life, and you cannot eradicate politics from life.” (STEVEN R. SERAFIN)

PRIZE FOR CHEMISTRY The Nobel Prize for Chemistry for 2010 went to three organic chemists, Richard F. Heck of the University of Delaware, Ei-ichi Negishi of Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind., and Akira Suzuki of Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan, for finding and developing an ingenious way to link carbon atoms. The key to their discovery is the capability of palladium atoms, a relatively unreactive metal in bulk form, to join carbon atoms together. The process that brought them the award is known as palladium-catalyzed cross coupling. A palladium atom is attached to one of the two carbon atoms that one wants to bind together. With the host atom holding its palladium atom, the two carbons find each other and join, leaving the palladium atom behind. Heck, Negishi, and Suzuki each found different but related ways— which now bear their names—to accomplish the process. In the Heck reaction the carbon to be attached carries no activating atom or group. The Negishi reaction uses a zinc atom “tag” to transfer a carbon atom to the palladium atom. The Suzuki reaction uses boron, usually attached to a ring of eight carbons. This class of catalyzed reactions has become one of the most important ways to synthesize natural products and molecules with complex structures and is widely used in nanotechnology and medicine. Richard F. Heck was born on Aug. 15, 1931, in Springfield, Mass. He received a doctoral degree (1954) from the University of California, Los Angeles, and in 1957 he joined the American chemical

company Hercules Powder in Wilmington, Del. In 1968 Heck reported that palladium could catalyze formation of new carbon-carbon bonds, but at that time the starting materials, organic compounds of mercury, lead, or tin, were toxic, were difficult to prepare, and required problematic conditions for carrying out the reactions. Three years later three Japanese chemists—Tsutomu Mizoroki, Kunio Mori, and Atsumu Ozaki—carried out palladium-catalyzed attachment of benzenelike compounds containing iodine atoms (aryl iodides) to ethylene-like molecules under somewhat more practical but still difficult conditions. In 1972 Heck and J.P. Nolley published the paper that truly triggered the breakthrough, building on the work of Mizoroki and his colleagues,

Richard F. Heck

Akira Suzuki

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Ei-ichi Negishi

The Yomiuri Shimbun/AP

Nobel Prizes Jon Super/AP

opening the possibilities to carry out a wide range of specific carbon-carbon couplings under relatively mild conditions. Their approach provided a very efficient way to bind benzenelike molecules, so-called aromatics, to molecules with a double carbon-carbon bond, compounds known as alkenes, and in 1975 to molecules with a triple carboncarbon bond, such as acetylene. Ei-ichi Negishi was born on July 14, 1935, in Xinjing, Manchukuo (now Changchun, China). He received a doctorate from the University of Pennsylvania in 1963. Negishi and co-workers in 1977 showed how a catalytic process similar to that of Heck enabled coupling of two different alkenes. Negishi’s version of palladium-catalyzed cross coupling made possible the synthesis of discodermolide, a substance that protects a Caribbean marine sponge from its predators but may have great potential as a treatment for cancer. Only an efficient synthesis using the Negishi reaction can produce enough discodermolide to provide real treatment. Akira Suzuki was born on Sept. 12, 1930, in Mukawa-cho, Japan. He earned a Ph.D. from Hokkaido University in 1959. The Suzuki reaction links carbons of alkanes, molecules that have only single bonds. In the Heck, Negishi, and Suzuki reactions, the palladium atom slips between the hosting carbon and an iodine or bromine atom; at this stage this carbon is ready to react. The other carbon may just be one of two held by a double bond, or it may be activated by something special attached to it. The special advantage of the Suzuki reaction is the stability of its starting materials; they can be prepared and stored indefinitely, in contrast to the starting materials for the Heck and Negishi reactions, which must be prepared specifically for each reaction. Furthermore, boron is less toxic than the zinc tag of the Negishi reaction and thus is safer for large-scale operations. Consequently, the Suzuki reaction is usually the choice for industrial processes. (R. STEPHEN BERRY)

PRIZE FOR PHYSICS The 2010 Nobel Prize for Physics was awarded to two physicists from the University of Manchester, Eng., for the production of a new form of carbon— graphene, a sheet one atom thick with properties that could revolutionize many areas of electronics. Andre Konstantinovich Geim was born in October 1958 in Sochi, Russia,

Andre Geim (left) and Konstantin Novoselov U.S.S.R. In 1982 he received a firstclass M.Sc. degree from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, and in 1987 he obtained a Ph.D. degree at the Institute of Solid State Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences. He conducted research as a scientist at the Institute of Microelectronics Technology and High Purity Materials, Chernogolovka, and from 1990 as a postdoctoral fellow at the Universities of Nottingham, Bath, and Copenhagen before becoming an associate professor at Radboud University Nijmegen in the Netherlands. In 2001 he was appointed Langworthy Professor of Physics at the University of Manchester. Among other awards, he received the Mott Medal and Prize from the U.K. Institute of Physics in 2007 and the John J. Carty Award for the Advancement of Science from the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 2010. He also was named a Royal Society 2010 Anniversary Research Professor. Geim was a Dutch citizen. Konstantin Sergeyevich Novoselov was born on Aug. 23, 1974, in Nizhny Tagil, Russia, U.S.S.R. He received a diploma from the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology and began his Ph.D. studies at Radboud University Nijmegen before moving to the University of Manchester in 2001 with Geim, who was his doctoral adviser. In 2008 Novoselov was awarded the Europhysics Prize jointly with Geim. He held both Russian and British citizenship. The properties of a “two-dimensional” sheet of carbon one atom thick had been studied theoretically for some years, but its practical realization was thought to be impossible. In 2004 Geim and Novoselov produced the first frag-

ments of this material, known as graphene. At a time when cutting-edge physics usually required complex apparatuses costing millions of dollars, their technology was amazingly primitive. They peeled off a flake of graphene from a graphite block by using adhesive tape, which in principle is no different from what happens when an ordinary pencil draws a line on paper. Of course, investigation of the flake’s properties required more sophisticated equipment. Geim and Novoselov connected electrodes to the flake and examined it with an atomic force microscope. The properties of the two-dimensional graphene structure were fascinating to physicists, with their analogies to processes in particle physics, but graphene’s greatest importance was its possible use in a huge range of applications. Graphene is a one-atom-thick hexagonal lattice of carbon atoms, spaced every 0.142 nanometre, with remarkable mechanical and electrical properties. It is much stronger than an equivalent steel sheet, impermeable to gases and liquids, and flexible. Graphene is a better conductor than pure copper for both electricity and heat, and it is almost completely transparent for all optical wavelengths. Such properties gave graphene the potential to produce revolutionary developments in many fields, particularly electronics, promising transistors twice as fast as current silicon-based devices. Geim and Novoselov’s research produced only small flakes of graphene, but a number of laboratories worldwide had been working to overcome this problem. In 2010 a group from IBM’s T.J. Watson Research Center produced a 67

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graphene-based field effect transistor and a highly sensitive photodetector. Graphene also had the potential to produce nanometre-scale electronic devices by using standard semiconductor processing techniques, and a number of laboratories were working to develop such devices. At the other end of the size scale, researchers from Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, produced uniform graphene films tens of centimetres wide that were large enough to be used in touch screens, light panels, and solar cells. Finally, the development of graphene inspired the production of two-dimensional lattices in other materials such as bismuth telluride. The research for which this prize was awarded had been published only six years earlier, and Novoselov became the youngest physics Nobelist since Brian Josephson in 1973. The speed with which the new discovery was taken up around the world was a measure of its potential importance, not only in ultrahigh-speed electronic devices but also in everyday applications. (DAVID G.C. JONES)

in other mammals was applicable to humans. Much of Edwards’s early research focused on basic gaps in scientists’ understanding of mammalian fertilization and human reproduction. Many of his initial investigations centred on mouse embryos. For example, he determined ovulation time for mouse eggs and studied the fertilization of mouse eggs outside the body and the possibility of implanting fertilized eggs in the mouse uterus to produce viable offspring. In his studies of human eggs, Edwards investigated egg life cycle and identified molecules that control this cycle and the conditions that are conducive to egg fertilization by sperm. One of his first major breakthroughs concerned the timing of oocyte maturation (an oocyte is an immature egg), which he found to be much longer in humans than scientists had estimated on the basis of studies of oocyte maturation in rabbits. In the late 1960s Edwards carried out the first successful fertilization of a human egg in vitro. The significance of this breakthrough was dampened by the fact that the fertilized egg underwent only a single round of cell division, which rendered it nonviable for implantation. In 1968, however, at the University of Cambridge, Edwards partnered with British gynecologist Patrick Steptoe, who had developed a laparoscopic technique for removing eggs from a woman’s ovaries.

When Edwards used the eggs extracted by Steptoe’s approach, he found that after fertilization they could survive several rounds of division in vitro. Some of the first attempts to implant the eggs and produce pregnancies in infertile women failed, however, and Edwards soon realized that treating the mother with hormones, such as progesterone, and with medications, such as clomiphene, could improve the mother’s ability to sustain a pregnancy. In the early 1970s Edwards and Steptoe encountered intense ethical opposition to IVF. In 1971, for example, the Medical Research Council in the United Kingdom, which had funded the research, terminated its support. Edwards came to rely on private funding, which enabled him to continue the work that culminated in the birth on July 25, 1978, of the first “test-tube baby,” Louise Brown. In 1980 Edwards and Steptoe established the Bourn Hall Clinic, the first centre to offer IVF to infertile couples. In the decades following the initial success of IVF, modifications of the procedure gave rise to new assisted reproduction technologies, including gamete PRIZE FOR PHYSIOLOGY intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) and zyOR MEDICINE gote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT). AdThe 2010 Nobel Prize for Physiology or vances in cryopreservation allowed couMedicine was awarded to British medples to freeze embryos for implantation ical researcher Robert Edwards “for the years later. Ethical, religious, and social development of human in vitro fertilissues associated with IVF remained, ization (IVF).” The achievement marked however. For example, the destruction a milestone in the history of the of unused embryos, the freezing Nobel because it was the first Robert Edwards (left) and Louise Brown, the first of embryos, the high rate of mulaward to be bestowed in the area “test-tube baby” tiple births, and the potential for of human reproduction. The IVF fertilization by sperm from a process developed by Edwards, man who was not the husband in which an egg is removed from continued to generate religious a woman’s body, is fertilized in and moral opposition to IVF. vitro (outside the body), and is Edwards was born on Sept. then introduced into the 27, 1925, in Leeds, Eng. He woman’s uterus, had become a earned a B.S. degree in zoology routine procedure in many (1951) from the University of countries and thus far had been Wales and a Ph.D. in physiology used to produce some four mil(1955) from the University of lion babies. Edinburgh. Following brief In the 1950s, when Edwards stints at the National Institute began to investigate infertility for Medical Research, London, and encountered the notion of and the University of Glasgow fertilization outside the human in the early and mid-1960s, he body, there were no technolotook a faculty position at the gies available to help infertile University of Cambridge, where couples. In fact, at the time, far he was later made professor more was known about reproemeritus. Edwards and Steptoe duction in animals, such as rabco-wrote A Matter of Life: The bits and guinea pigs. Studies of Story of a Medical Breakthrough human reproduction frustrated (1980). Edwards also received biologists, particularly because the Albert Lasker Clinical Medvery little of what was known ical Research Award (2001). from research on fertilization (KARA ROGERS) Chris Radburn—Press Association/AP

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Biographies The SUBJECTS of these biographies are the people who in the editors’ opinions captured the IMAGINATION of the world in 2010—the most INTERESTING and/or IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES of the year.

Abdul Rauf, Feisal (b. Oct. 23, 1948, Kuwait) In 2010 Feisal Abdul Rauf, a New York City imam and interfaith leader, found himself at the centre of a national debate over religious tolerance because of his organization’s plans to build an Islamic community centre in Manhattan. The decision to construct the centre a few blocks from the World Trade Center site—one of the targets of the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks by Islamist extremists—drew protests from activists and politicians who argued that the location of the project was insensitive. Abdul Rauf, however, emphasized that the 13- to 15-story centre—which would house a Muslim prayer area, athletic facilities, a day-care centre, and a memorial to the victims of the September 11 attacks that would serve as a nondenominational space for prayer and meditation—would be open to nonMuslims as well as Muslims and that it would host interfaith programs and events. Abdul Rauf was the son of an Egyptian Islamic scholar who served in a series of posts at universities and Islamic institutions throughout the world. Abdul Rauf’s devout upbringing, extensive travels, and early exposure to theological debate did much to shape his later views on Islam and religious pluralism. He was educated in the U.K., Egypt, and Malaysia and then moved (1965) with his family to New York City, where he earned a bachelor’s degree in physics (1969) at Columbia University and a master’s degree in plasma physics (1972) from the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N.J. In 1983 he became the imam of Masjid al-Farah, a progressive Sufi mosque in Manhattan, and in 1997 he founded the American Society for Muslim Advancement in an effort to promote interfaith dialogue about Islam in the U.S. Following the September 11 attacks, Abdul Rauf wrote a book on the relationship be-

tween Islam and the West, provided cultural training to the FBI, and traveled to Muslim countries on outreach tours funded by the U.S. State Department during the administrations of Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama. In July 2009 a group of Muslim investors purchased a vacant building two blocks from the site of the World Trade Center and began to develop plans for an Islamic community centre to be headed by Abdul Rauf. Plans for the community centre were praised as a symbol of religious tolerance by some, including New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg, but they also met with significant opposition. At the proposed site, demonstrations for and against the Islamic community centre peaked in the summer of 2010, drawing heavy national media coverage to the controversy. Abdul Rauf defended the community centre, saying that if the project Imam Feisal Abdul Rauf

was moved to a different location, it would strengthen Islamist extremist groups by seeming to confirm their claims that Muslims were subject to discrimination in the U.S. (EB ED.) Abramovic, Marina (b. Nov. 30, 1946, Belgrade, Yugos. [now in Serbia]) In 2010 Marina Abramovic secured her status as one of the leading figures in performance art when a retrospective of her work opened in March at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. For the exhibition, which closed May 31, she enlisted a company of performers to reenact several of her most significant performance pieces. She also debuted a new piece, The Artist Is Present, which, like much of her previous work, dramatically tested the endurance and limitations of her own body and mind. Abramovic enrolled (1965) at the Academy of Fine Arts in Belgrade to study painting but later became interested in the possibilities of performance art—specifically, the ability to use her body as a site of artistic and spiritual exploration. After completing postgraduate studies in 1972 at the Academy of Fine Arts in Zagreb (now in Croatia), Abramovic conceived a series of visceral performance pieces that engaged her body as both subject and medium. In Rhythm 10 (1973), for instance, she methodically stabbed the spaces between her fingers with a knife, at times drawing blood. In Rhythm 0 (1974) she stood impassively in a room for six hours along with 72 objects; members of the audience were invited to interact with her by using these items, ranging from a rose to a bullet and a gun. These performance pieces provoked controversy not only for their perilousness but also for Abramovic’s occasional nudity, which became a regular element of her work. In 1975 Abramovic moved to Amsterdam, and a year later she began col-

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laborating with German artist Frank Uwe Laysiepen (byname Ulay). Much of their work together was concerned with gender identity, most notoriously Imponderabilia (1977), in which they stood naked while facing each other in a museum’s narrow entrance, forcing visitors to squeeze between them and, in so doing, to choose which of the two to face. Their Nightsea Crossing (1981–87), a prolonged act of mutual meditation and concentration, was performed in more than a dozen locations worldwide. They ended their relationship in 1988. In 1997 Abramovic won the Golden Lion for best artist at the Venice Biennale. Her exhibit, the brooding Balkan Baroque, used both video and live performance to investigate her cultural and familial identity. She also captured public attention for The House with the Ocean View (2002), a gallery installation in which she lived ascetically for 12 days. By 2005 she had begun to ruminate on the legacy of performance art, a genre in which individual works usually had no life beyond their original staging, apart from their occasional preservation on film. That year, in an attempt to counteract that tradition, Performance artist Marina Abramovic

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Abramovic presented Seven Easy Pieces, a series of “reperformances” of seminal works—two of her own and five by other performance artists, including Bruce Nauman and Joseph Beuys—at the Guggenheim Museum in New York City. She sought to continue her efforts to preserve performance art by establishing the Marina Abramovic Institute West, which opened in San Francisco in 2009. (JOHN M. CUNNINGHAM) Adrià, Ferran (b. May 14, 1962, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain) In early 2010 Catalan chef Ferran Adrià made waves when he announced that his famed restaurant, El Bulli, would close the following year and reopen in 2014 as a nonprofit foundation for culinary research. He also signed on to coteach a course on the science of cooking at Harvard University. These developments prompted much reflection on Adrià’s legacy as a pioneer in what had come to be commonly known as “molecular cooking”— the use of precise scientific techniques to create inventive and evocative highend cuisine. After dropping out of school in Barcelona at age 18, Adrià took a job as a dishwasher at a hotel restaurant, where he learned about classic gastronomic techniques. His training led to kitchen jobs at other restaurants in the area. He joined the navy in 1982 to fulfill his compulsory military service, and he eventually became chef to an admiral stationed at the naval base in Cartagena. At the end of his service, Adrià accepted a one-month internship at El Bulli, then a respected French restaurant in Roses, on the Costa Brava. In early 1984 he was hired there as a line cook, and eight months later, after the head chef departed, he and another cook were put in joint charge of the kitchen. By 1987 Adrià had become the restaurant’s sole chef de cuisine. In the mid-1980s El Bulli’s menu featured a combination of traditional French recipes and nouvelle cuisine, but Adrià, inspired by the notion that “creativity is not copying,” sought to explore other culinary avenues, including those introduced in the late 1980s under the name “molecular gastronomy.” By 1994, four years after becoming coowner of the restaurant, he had moved away from classical cookery altogether. In its place was what he called “technique-concept cuisine,” in which he subjected potential ingredients to rigorous experimentation and scientific analysis as a means of creating novel

dishes that produced unexpected sensations. One of the concoctions to emerge from Adrià’s kitchen was culinary foam, which ultimately involved spraying out of a nitrous-oxide canister the mixture of a main ingredient (such as raspberries or mushrooms) and a natural gelling agent. Such whimsical creations were emblematic of Adrià’s deconstructivist philosophy, by which he aimed to preserve the essence or flavour of a familiar dish even as its form or texture was radically altered. By the late 1990s El Bulli had earned a top three-star rating from the vaunted Guide Michelin, and Adrià’s innovations became widely imitated. In 2002 the British magazine Restaurant named El Bulli the best restaurant in the world, a distinction it also held in 2006–09. Though all this publicity created enormous demand, Adrià’s cuisine was so ambitious and exacting that he served only a limited number of diners during a six-month period each year (he closed the restaurant for the other six months while he conducted research and developed recipes), and El Bulli consistently operated at a loss. (JOHN M. CUNNINGHAM) Alexie, Sherman (b. Oct. 7, 1966, Wellpinit, Wash.) In 2010 Native American poet and novelist Sherman Alexie joined the ranks of prominent authors when he was awarded the PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction for his book War Dances (2009). Critics praised the work for its innovative composition of short stories interwoven with poetry, to which Alexie added his characteristic mix of humour and anger on such hot-button issues as racial conflict, divorce, sex, parenting, terrorism, alcohol and drug abuse, consumerism, and religion. Alexie also earned the Native Writers’ Circle of the Americas Lifetime Achievement Award in 2010. Sherman Joseph Alexie, Jr., who was a Spokane/Coeur d’Alene Indian, had a difficult childhood on the Spokane Indian Reservation. He was diagnosed with hydrocephalus at birth and underwent brain surgery at the age of six months. Although doctors did not expect him to survive and predicted that, at best, he would have severe developmental disabilities, Alexie made a miraculous recovery. He suffered from seizures, however, and his condition prevented him from participating in many physical activities with the other boys his age. He spent a great deal of time indoors reading and excelled in

Biographies Seth Wenig/AP

(1995) and the National Book Award for Young People’s Literature for his young adult novel The Absolutely True Diary of a Part-Time Indian (2007). (BARBARA A. SCHREIBER)

Prize-winning author Sherman Alexie school, but he was often ridiculed and harassed by his classmates. He transferred (1981) to a high school off the reservation, and though he was the only Native American student there, Alexie gained the respect of his peers and became an honour student, talented basketball player, and class president. He earned (1985) a scholarship to Gonzaga University, Spokane, Wash., with hopes of entering law or medical school. Disappointed when his plans fell through, Alexie struggled with alcoholism. He found consolation in poetry and enrolled at Washington State University (B.A., 1991), where he discovered that he had a talent for writing verse. In his works Alexie often dealt with his own painful experiences and feelings of being an outcast and touched on such issues as the realities of Native Americans and their frequent struggles with alcoholism and unemployment. His first volumes of verse, I Would Steal Horses and The Business of Fancydancing were published in 1992. They were followed by First Indian on the Moon (1993), Water Flowing Home (1996), The Man Who Loves Salmon (1998), and Face (2009). Alexie also penned numerous novels and collections of short stories, including Indian Killer (1996), The Toughest Indian in the World (2000), Ten Little Indians (2003), and Flight (2007). Additionally, he co-wrote and produced movies, notably Smoke Signals (1998), which was based on a story from his collection The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven (1993) and won two awards at the 1998 Sundance Film Festival. Alexie’s other honours include the Before Columbus Foundation’s American Book Award for Reservation Blues

Ambani, Mukesh (b. April 19, 1957, Aden, Yemen) In March 2010 Yemeni-born Indian business mogul Mukesh Ambani— chairman and managing director of the Indian conglomerate Reliance Industries Limited (RIL), the foremost company of the Indian energy and materials conglomerate Reliance Group—was identified by Forbes magazine as the fourth richest person in the world, with an estimated net worth of $29 billion. Ambani’s international prominence was further shown in August, when he was elected to serve as a member of the foundation board of the World Economic Forum (WEF), an international organization comprising some of the world’s most prominent business executives, politicians, and other nongovernmental leaders that convenes annually to discuss global commerce, economic development, political concerns, and important social issues. Mukesh Dhirubhai Ambani was the elder son of Dhirubhai Ambani, an Indian-born immigrant to Yemen who initially worked as a gas-station attendant. Owing to the increasingly unstable political climate in Aden, the family relocated in 1958 to the Bhuleshwar neighbourhood of Bombay (now Mumbai), where they lived in a chawl (a communal building that commonly features low-rent two-room apartments). In the same year, Ambani’s father and a cousin founded—with a stake of only 15,000 rupees (about $325)—the Reliance Commercial Corp., which grew from a commodities-trading business that they initially operated out of a oneroom rental space into RIL. Ambani earned a bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering from the University of Bombay (now the University of Mumbai) and subsequently pursued a master’s degree in business administration from Stanford University. He left that program in 1981, however, to join the family business, where he worked to diversify the company, venturing into a vast array of areas, including communications, infrastructure, petrochemicals, petroleum refining, polyester fibres, and gas and oil production. In 2004 he was named one of the world’s most respected business leaders by the professional-services company PricewaterhouseCoopers.

Following Dhirubhai’s death in 2002, Ambani and his brother, Anil, assumed joint leadership of the Reliance companies. Feuds between the brothers over control prompted their mother to divide Reliance’s assets via a noncompetition agreement (2006–10) under which Ambani assumed control of the gas, oil, and petrochemical units as RIL under the umbrella of the Reliance Group. Ambani was credited with creating the globe’s largest start-up petroleum refinery, as well as spearheading the creation of several state-of-the-art manufacturing facilities that vastly increased RIL’s production capabilities. In 2006 he was chosen to cochair the India Economic Summit of the WEF. In 2007 Ambani became India’s first rupee trillionaire. The same year, the Economic Times newspaper and the news agency Press Trust of India simultaneously named him the world’s richest man (based on the skyrocketing value of RIL stock), though Forbes ranked him only 14th at that time. When the Indian Premier League for Twenty20 cricket was founded in 2008, Ambani’s RIL bought the franchise for the Mumbai Indians. (JEANNETTE NOLEN) Ammann, Simon (b. June 25, 1981, Grabs, Switz.) At the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver, Swiss ski jumper Simon Ammann swept his sport’s individual Olympic events for the second time in his career, making him the first ski jumper in history to achieve the feat. After having won the gold medal in both the individual normal-hill and individual large-hill events at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, he dominated the competition in Vancouver and easily took both golds again. This achievement not only gave Ammann the record Olympic “doubledouble” but also made him the only ski jumper in history to win four career individual Olympic gold medals. Ammann began ski jumping at age 11, learning the sport at a 30-m (100ft.) hill near his family’s farm in Unterwasser, Switz. He first participated in the International Ski Federation (FIS) World Cup ski jumping competition during the 1997–98 season, and he was a member of the Swiss ski jumping team at the 1998 Olympic Winter Games in Nagano, Japan, where he finished in 35th and 39th place, respectively, in the individual normal-hill and individual large-hill events. His nondescript Olympic debut did little to pre71

Biographies Bullit Marquez/AP

pare observers for what he accomplished at the Salt Lake City Olympics. There Ammann—despite having never previously won a single event on the World Cup or FIS world championship level—became just the second ski jumper (after Finland’s Matti Nykänen in 1988) to win both the individual normal-hill and individual large-hill Olympic gold medals. His phenomenal success made him an overnight star in his native Switzerland, and the young sensation then embarked on an international tour of the television talk-show circuit. Ammann did not manage to sustain his momentum into the following skiing seasons, however. Between the close of the 2002 Games and the opening of the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, he won just a single World Cup event. Ammann’s post-Salt Lake City disappointments continued to mount in Turin, where his best individual finish was 15th place in the large-hill event (he was 38th in the normal hill). Consequently, he focused on refining his jumping technique, which eventually helped him capture the individual large-hill gold and normal-hill silver at the 2007 FIS world championships. He won five World Cup events during the 2008–09 skiing season to establish himself as one of the favourites heading into the 2010 Winter Olympics. Ammann capped off his remarkable 2009–10 season by winning his firstever World Cup overall title in March 2010 after having notched nine event victories over the course of the season. (ADAM AUGUSTYN) Aquino, Benigno, III (b. Feb. 8, 1960, Manila, Phil.) On June 30, 2010, Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III (popularly called “Noynoy”), the scion of a famed Filipino political family, took office as president of the Philippines. Aquino—the son of former president (1986–92) Corazon Aquino and political leader Benigno Simeon Aquino, Jr., whose assassination in 1983 galvanized popular opposition to the government of Pres. Ferdinand Marcos—was seen as the front-runner from the day he entered the race for president in September 2009. Eight months later, on May 10, 2010, he won the election by a wide margin. When Aquino was a child, his father, an opposition figure to President Marcos, was imprisoned and in 1977 was sentenced to death, but he was released in 1980 and was allowed to go to the U.S. for medical treatment. The follow72

2006 Aquino served as vice-chairman of the Liberal Party, and in 2007, at the end of his final term in the House of Representatives, he made a successful bid for a Senate seat. In August 2009, shortly before Aquino announced his candidacy for president, his mother died. To many she was a symbol of democratic rule in the Philippines, and her death heightened her son’s profile and served as a catalyst for his seeking higher office. Though his opponents included such seasoned politicians as former president Joseph Estrada, Aquino built his campaign on promises to eradicate corruption and fight poverty, as well as on his illustrious family’s repute, to win election to the presidency. (MELISSA ALBERT)

Philippine Pres. Benigno (“Noynoy”) Aquino III ing year the younger Aquino, after graduating from Ateneo de Manila University with a bachelor’s degree in economics, followed his family to Boston. His father returned to the Philippines in August 1983 intending to challenge Marcos for the presidency but was assassinated immediately upon arrival. The remainder of the family nevertheless returned soon afterward to the Philippines, where the young Aquino worked for such companies as the Philippine Business for Social Progress and Nike Philippines. He became vice president of his family’s Best Security Agency Corp. in 1986, the same year that his mother was named president of the Philippines after her opposition party successfully charged the incumbent Marcos with voting fraud. Aquino left the company in 1993 to work for another familyowned business, a sugar refinery. Finally, in 1998 he made the move to politics as a member of the Liberal Party, serving the constitutional maximum of three consecutive terms as a representative from Tarlac province in northcentral Luzon. During that time he also served as deputy speaker (2004–06) of the House of Representatives, but he resigned from that post in advance of joining other Liberal Party leaders in making a call for the resignation of then president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, who was accused of corrupt dealings, including the rigging of the presidential election held in 2004. From

Assange, Julian (b. July 3, 1971, Townsville, Queens., Australia) Australian computer programmer Julian Assange, the founder and public face of media organization WikiLeaks, made world headlines in 2010. On November 28 WikiLeaks published on the Internet a small sample of an estimated 250,000 confidential U.S. diplomatic cables. Those classified documents dated mostly from 2007–10, but they included some from as far back as 1966. Among the wide-ranging topics covered were behind-the-scenes U.S. efforts to politically and economically isolate Iran, primarily in response to fears of Iran’s development of nuclear weapons. Earlier in the year WikiLeaks had posted almost half a million documents—mainly relating to the U.S. wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. While much of the information was already in the public domain, Pres. Barack Obama’s administration criticized the leaks as a threat to U.S. national security. Reaction from other world governments also was swift, and many condemned the publication. Assange became the target of much of this ire, and some American politicians called for him to be pursued as a terrorist. Assange also faced prosecution in Sweden, where he was wanted in connection with sexual assault charges. (It was the second arrest warrant issued for Assange for those alleged crimes, the first having been dismissed in August owing to lack of evidence.) At year’s end he was in the U.K. awaiting possible extradition to Sweden. Branded both a hero and a villain for his views on what he called “scientific journalism,” Assange was runner-up in Time magazine’s 2010 Person of the Year honours.

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Assange’s family moved frequently when he was a child, and he was educated with a combination of homeschooling and correspondence courses. As a teenager he demonstrated an uncanny aptitude with computers, and using the hacking nickname “Mendax,” he infiltrated a number of secure systems, including those at NASA and the Pentagon. In 1991 Australian authorities charged him with 31 counts of cybercrime; he pleaded guilty to most of them. At sentencing, however, he received only a small fine as punishment, and the judge ruled that his actions were the result of youthful inquisitiveness. Over the next decade, Assange traveled, studied physics at the University of Melbourne (he withdrew before earning a degree), and worked as a “white hat” hacker, consulting on computer security issues. Assange created WikiLeaks in 2006. Its first publication, posted to the Web site in December 2006, was a message from a Somali rebel leader encouraging the use of hired gunmen to assassinate government officials. The document’s authenticity was never verified, but the story of WikiLeaks and questions regarding the ethics of its methods soon overshadowed it. WikiLeaks published a number of other scoops, including details about the U.S. military’s detention facility at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, a secret membership roster of the British National Party, internal documents from the Scientology movement, and private e-mails from the University of East Anglia’s Climatic Research Unit. Assange promised that more documents would be forthcoming, including some related to American banks. (MICHAEL RAY)

Audiard was the son of noted screenwriter Michel Audiard, who was best known for his scripts for crime films, particularly director Henri Verneuil’s Mélodie en sous-sol (1963; Any Number Can Win) and Claude Miller’s Garde à vue (1981). The younger Audiard studied literature at the Sorbonne but left without a degree. He entered the film industry in the late 1970s as an assistant editor on several movies, including Roman Polanski’s Le Locataire (1976; The Tenant). Audiard turned to screenwriting with the spy thriller Le Professionel (1981; The Professional). Audiard’s first film as a director was Regard les hommes tomber (1994; See How They Fall), which wove together two separate story lines—one about a man (played by Jean Yanne) searching for the killer of his friend and the other concerning the actions of the murderers (Jean-Louis Trintignant and Mathieu Kassovitz) prior to the crime. Audiard won the César for best first film, the first of many Césars to come his way. His next movie, Un Héros très discret (1996; A Self-Made Hero), won for Audiard the award for best screenplay at the Cannes film festival; it starred Kassovitz as a salesman who, after the end of World War II, concocts a new identity as a hero in the French Resistance. Sur mes lèvres (2001; Read My Lips) centres on the relationship between a deaf lip-reading secretary (Emanuelle Devos) and an ex-convict (Vincent Cassel), who rely on each other’s abilities. Audiard won the César for best screenplay. French filmmaker Jacques Audiard

Audiard, Jacques (b. April 30, 1952, Paris, France) French filmmaker Jacques Audiard in 2010 won three César awards (the French equivalent of the Academy Awards)—for best director, original screenplay, and film—for Un Prophète (2009; A Prophet), a gangster drama about a young French Arab convict (Tahar Rahim) who falls in with the leader (Niels Arestrup) of a Corsican prison gang. Like Audiard’s previous crime films, Un Prophète was acclaimed for its script and strong performances. It was also compared favourably with classics of the genre, notably Francis Ford Coppola’s The Godfather (1972). Un Prophète also won the Grand Prix at the 2009 Cannes film festival and received an Oscar nomination for best foreign-language film in 2010.

In 2005 Audiard remade American director James Toback’s film Fingers (1978) as De battre mon coeur s’est arrêté (The Beat That My Heart Skipped). For this movie, which features Romain Duris as a young man torn between either following his father (Arestrup) into the shady fringes of the real-estate business or following his dead mother into a career as a concert pianist, Audiard won three additional Césars—for best director, screenplay adaptation, and film. (ERIK GREGERSEN) Axelrod, David (b. Feb. 22, 1955, New York, N.Y.) In 2010 David Axelrod—the principal architect of Barack Obama’s successful campaign for the U.S. presidency in 2008 and, since 2009, one of President Obama’s senior White House advisers— focused on encouraging Obama to continue to do what he thought was right despite public approval ratings that by September 2010 had plummeted to 45% from 68% at his inauguration. In 2008 the astute Axelrod, mindful of the tough economic problems facing the country, had cautioned Obama to “enjoy these great poll numbers you have, because two years from now, they are not going to look anything like this.” In late 2010 Axelrod indicated that he would leave the White House in 2011 and return to Chicago to begin Obama’s 2012 reelection campaign. Axelrod grew up on Manhattan’s Lower East Side, and he was politically active as a teenager, selling campaign buttons for Robert Kennedy’s 1968 presidential bid. He left New York to attend the University of Chicago, where he earned (1977) a bachelor’s degree in political science. Having written for community newspapers in Lower Manhattan and Chicago’s Hyde Park neighbourhood, Axelrod launched a career as a journalist upon his graduation. He covered politics for the Chicago Tribune, and by age 27 he had become the youngest person ever to serve as that newspaper’s chief political writer. In 1984 Axelrod left the Tribune to work on the U.S. Senate campaign of Illinois Democratic politician Paul Simon. Although Simon was clearly an underdog, he defeated three-term Republican incumbent Charles Percy, and Axelrod’s reputation as a campaign adviser soared. He founded Axelrod and Associates (later AKPD Message and Media) in 1985, and two years later he served as media strategist for the reelection campaign of Chicago’s Mayor Harold Washington. In 1989 Axelrod

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U.S. White House senior adviser David Axelrod worked on the successful mayoral election bid of Richard M. Daley (who had followed in the footsteps of his father, the late mayor Richard J. Daley). Over the following years, Axelrod amassed a clientele that included Democratic politicians Carol Moseley Braun, Tom Vilsack, Christopher Dodd, Rahm Emanuel, and Hillary Clinton. In 2004 he worked on the presidential campaign of John Edwards, but a U.S. Senate race in Illinois that year would bear the richest fruit for Axelrod. He guided the campaign of a charismatic but relatively obscure state senator named Barack Obama through a crowded Democratic primary field and ultimately to victory against Republican nominee Alan Keyes. Obama had catapulted to national prominence after delivering a stirring keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in 2004, and many Democrats were quietly urging him to run for the 2008 Democratic presidential nomination. Some of Axelrod’s most noteworthy victories had involved helping African American candidates appeal to white voters, and lessons learned in the 1987 Washington mayoral campaign would prove invaluable in 2008. By promoting a message of hope and change, Obama emerged victorious over presumed Democratic front-runner Hillary Clinton, and Axelrod maintained the optimistic tone leading up to the general election. After Obama’s victory in November, Axelrod was named head of the presidentelect’s transition team, and he joined the White House staff. (MICHAEL RAY) 74

Ayala, Francisco José (b. March 12, 1934, Madrid, Spain) On March 25, 2010, it was announced that Francisco J. Ayala had been awarded the Templeton Prize, an honour given to those who have made extraordinary contributions in support of life’s spiritual dimension. Ayala, a Spanish-born American evolutionary geneticist and molecular biologist, was best known for expounding the philosophical perspective that Darwinism and religious faith are compatible. Ayala earned a degree in physics (B.S., 1955) from the University of Madrid before studying theology at the Pontifical Faculty of San Esteban in Salamanca, Spain. He was ordained a priest in the Dominican order in 1960, but he left the priesthood the same year. He received a Ph.D. (1964) in genetics from Columbia University, New York City, having carried out his doctoral work under the guidance of geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky. Ayala’s thesis examined the genetic fitness of fruit flies (Drosophila) and revealed that the pace of evolution was dependent on the amount of genetic variation in a population. After early appointments at Rockefeller University, New York City, and Providence (R.I.) College, Ayala became a professor of genetics in 1971 at the University of California, Davis. He then moved to the University of California, Irvine, as a professor of biological sciences (from 1987), philosophy (from 1989), logic and philosophy of science (from 2000), and from 2003 as University Professor, the only faculty member at Irvine to hold that title. In the 1970s Ayala investigated the process of genetic variation and natural selection at the molecular level. Later, he made significant contributions to public health through his research into the population structure, mode of reproduction, and evolution of parasitic protozoans. Throughout his career Ayala defended the teaching of evolution in public schools in the United States, and his efforts served to strengthen evolutionary theory. He served as an expert witness in McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education (1981), which overturned a state law that required the teaching of creationism alongside evolution in science classes. In 1984 and again in 1999, he was the principal author of Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences. In Darwin’s Gift to Science and Religion (2007), Ayala argued that creationist beliefs run counter to theological concepts. For ex-

ample, orthodox Christian beliefs posit the existence of an omnipotent, benevolent Creator despite the fact that the world is filled with predators, diseases, and other so-called evils. Ayala noted that attributing these defects to an “intelligent designer” called into question the Creator’s omnipotence and benevolence. By attributing these defects to the trial-and-error process of natural selection, however, the Creator is absolved of the responsibility for evil in the world. Ayala was a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, serving (1993–96) as chair of its board of directors. He was also an adviser to the Environmental Protection Agency, the National Science Foundation, and the National Institutes of Health. (JOHN P. RAFFERTY) Baan, Iwan (b. Feb. 8, 1975, Alkmaar, Neth.) Dutch architectural photographer Iwan Baan’s international profile continued to rise in 2010 as he captured striking images of structures, including Italy’s MAXXI Museum, which opened in May, and the pavilions at Shanghai Expo 2010. Baan used unexpected perspectives and the presence of people and movement to revive the traditionally static art of building photography. Baan received his first camera at the age of 12, and he went on to study photography at The Hague’s Royal Academy of Art. Though he was attracted to digital photography, he was initially uninterested in architecture as a subject, owing to the typically sedate style of such shots. By the late 1990s Baan, having left the Academy of Art without graduating, was living in New York City and providing the images for art books and children’s books. In 2004 Baan contacted Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas with an offer to help turn an exhibition of images produced by Koolhaas’s studio into an interactive Web site. Koolhaas was known for taking design inspiration from the cultural life of the cities where his buildings were constructed, and the influence of this ideology became apparent in Baan’s photography. Baan worked for the architect in such cities as Beijing, and his experience there played a key role in the development of his humanfocused aesthetic. Beijing’s booming construction industry allowed Baan to document not only the city’s rising and changing structures but also the liveliness of its construction sites, which were occupied constantly by hundreds or even thousands of workers.

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As Baan gained recognition for his ability to portray buildings in compelling and unusual ways, his client list expanded to include other architects as well as magazines and newspapers. He traveled around the world to work on commissions while keeping a base in Amsterdam, where he maintained a studio in which to develop his photographic techniques. Among the structures that he photographed was the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, U.A.E. Baan’s reputation as an artist in his own right was given a boost in late 2008 when a London architectural school hosted his first solo exhibition. It focused heavily on his Beijing images and offered a showcase for a 3-D technique he had developed for photographing both finished buildings and scale models; his images of these models were often effective in helping architects secure approval to build their designs. Baan’s stature was such that his photographs could enrich the reputations of the architects whose work he documented. In 2009 his images appeared in the books The SANAA Studios, which showcased the Japanese architectural firm founded by Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa (q.v.), and Porsche Museum, which featured the newly built German museum. (MELISSA ALBERT) Batista, Eike (b. Nov. 3, 1956, Governador Valadares, Minas Gerais, Braz.) In March 2010 Brazilian business magnate Eike Batista appeared at number 8 on Forbes magazine’s annual list of billionaires with an estimated wealth of some $27 billion, a huge gain of $19.5 billion over his net worth in 2009, when he stood at number 61. Batista, who made his fortune in mining and oil and natural gas exploration, had entered the Forbes list in 2008 at number 142 (net worth $6.6 billion), and just two years later he was one of the 10 wealthiest people in the world. Batista’s father, Eliezer Batista da Silva, was a prominent Brazilian businessman who served as the country’s minister of mines and energy in the 1960s. After spending his early childhood in Brazil, Batista gained his secondary education in Europe with the encouragement of his German-born mother. In the 1970s he studied metallurgy at the Rhenish-Westphalian Technical University in Aachen, Ger., before returning to Brazil. There, at the age of 23, he launched a company that mined and traded gold.

After making millions of dollars in mining ventures during the 1980s, Batista expanded his business over the following two decades. He invested in a number of industries, including energy generation, petroleum and natural gas exploration, logistics, shipbuilding, and real estate. By 2010 he had established a collection of corporations that operated under the rubric of EBX Group. Like EBX, each of those corporations had an X in its name, which for Batista symbolized the multiplication of wealth. He founded OGX, an oil and gas company, in 2007 and spent about $1 billion on licenses to explore a number of potentially oil-rich areas off the Brazilian coast. Sergio Moraes—Reuters/Landov

Brazilian business tycoon Eike Batista

Batista’s rapid rise to billionaire status attracted much attention from the media, which dubbed him “King Midas.” His elopement with model Luma de Oliveira in 1991 (and the couple’s expensive 2004 divorce) made headlines, as did his penchant for pricey speedboat racing and his unabashed vow to become the world’s richest man. Batista’s extravagance and boastfulness inevitably drew criticism, and some Brazilians questioned his integrity. His mining company, MMX, was fined several times for failing to follow environmental regulations, and in 2008 a group of Tupí-Guaraní Indians accused his logistics company, LLX, of using bribery and coercion to force the group off its land. In July 2008 police raided

Batista’s offices and home as part of an investigation into allegations of fraud, tax evasion, and gold smuggling; he later was cleared of wrongdoing. Many Brazilians, however, applauded Batista’s goal of making his country one of the world’s top economic powers. In 2009 his financial support helped Rio de Janeiro win its bid to host the 2016 Olympic Games, and in August 2010 Batista’s oil and gas company OGX reported the discovery of natural gas reserves that, if exploited, could provide more than one-quarter of Brazil’s requirements. (HEATHER CAMPBELL) Bertone, Tarcisio Cardinal (b. Dec. 2, 1934, Romano Canavese, Italy) In April 2010 Tarcisio Cardinal Bertone, Vatican secretary of state and an outspoken defender of Roman Catholic doctrine and tradition, issued a public statement in which he responded to criticism of the church hierarchy’s handling of an ongoing sexual abuse scandal. Recent revelations of decades of sexual abuse of parishioners, particularly of children, by priests in Ireland, Austria, and Germany had spurred some critics to call for an end to the long tradition of celibacy among priests. In his statement Bertone further stoked the controversy not only by defending celibacy among priests but also by generally linking pedophilia to male homosexuality. Bertone was ordained a priest in the Salesian order in 1960. He was professor of moral theology and canon law at Pontifical Salesian University in Rome from 1967 to 1991. Meanwhile, he contributed to the 1983 revision of the Code of Canon Law and served as consultant to several church bodies, including the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, the Vatican office responsible for preserving Catholic doctrine and evaluating according to canon law the warrant for disciplinary action against clergy. In 1995 Bertone was appointed secretary of the Congregation, a position in which he worked closely with the body’s prefect, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger. He also served as archbishop of Vercelli (1991–95) and of Genoa (2002–06). In 2003 he was created a cardinal by Pope John Paul II, and in June 2006 Ratzinger (who had been elected Pope Benedict XVI in 2005) appointed him secretary of state, the second highest position in the church hierarchy. In 2007 Bertone was also appointed camerlengo of the holy Roman church, a position that placed 75

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him in charge of church finances and property, and the following year he was named cardinal-bishop of Frascati. Even prior to becoming Vatican secretary, Bertone had repudiated what he perceived as outside attacks against the church, especially by the secular media and in popular culture. For example, in 2005 he denounced as “lies” Dan Brown’s best-selling novel The Da Vinci Code (2003), which had popularized a theory that Jesus Christ had survived crucifixion and had had a child with Mary Magdalen but that the Vatican had covered up the story. After he assumed the office of Vatican secretary in September 2006, Bertone continued to challenge secular critiques of Catholic tradition and church administration. His first task was to defuse rapidly mounting tension and prevent a backlash over comments Benedict had recently made in Germany that had been interpreted as being insensitive toward Islam. Later that year Aleksey II, patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church, charged that Roman Catholics had been proselytizing its members in Russia and Ukraine. Bertone rebutted Aleksey’s claims and affirmed that the churches had a “good relationship.” In 2007 he turned his focus to media coverage of the church sexual abuse scandal and denounced the reporting as being disproportionately negative and biased. (MATT STEFON) Bigelow, Kathryn Ann (b. Nov. 27, 1951, San Carlos, Calif.) In March 2010 Kathryn Bigelow, an American film director and screenwriter who was noted for thoughtful, intense action films that often featured protagonists struggling with inner conflict, became the first woman to win an Academy Award for best director, for her 2008 Iraq War drama The Hurt Locker, a low-budget movie that follows an elite squad of bomb detonators working in Iraq. The film, in which she explored the dangers of armed conflict and the attraction it holds for some soldiers, earned five other Academy Awards, including best picture. The awards presentation featured an unusual competition for the Oscar for best director: Bigelow’s chief rival was her former husband, James Cameron, a well-known director of big-budget blockbusters. Bigelow studied painting at the San Francisco Art Institute, and in the early 1970s she moved to New York City to participate in the Whitney Museum’s independent study program. She soon 76

thoughts and memories from one person to another. After the psychological thriller The Weight of Water (2000), Bigelow helmed K-19: The Widowmaker (2002). Based on a true event, it focuses on a Soviet nuclear submarine that suffers a radiation leak. The action film, though generally wellreviewed, failed to find an audience. The meticulously crafted The Hurt Locker began winning awards in 2009. It won six awards, including best film and best director, at the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) Awards presentation in 2010, prior to its Academy Awards triumph. (AMY TIKKANEN)

Award-winning film director Kathryn Bigelow became interested in filmmaking and eventually earned a scholarship to the graduate film school at Columbia University, New York City. There she made the short film The Set-Up (1978). After graduating from Columbia in 1979, Bigelow worked on her first featurelength movie, The Loveless, which she co-wrote and co-directed (with Monty Montgomery). The 1982 drama focused on a visit by a group of bikers to a small Southern town and the ensuing violence. Bigelow was subsequently sent a number of scripts, most of which were high-school comedies. Uninterested in the offers, she instead began teaching in 1983 at the California Institute of the Arts. In 1987 Bigelow returned to the big screen with Near Dark, a vampire flick that became a cult classic. She began her two-year marriage to Cameron in 1989, the same year she directed and co-wrote Blue Steel, which she described as a “woman’s action film.” The crime drama features a policewoman who is stalked by a serial killer. Bigelow’s next movie, Point Break (1991), centres on an FBI agent whose loyalty is tested when he infiltrates a charismatic gang of bank-robbing surfers. In addition to being a box-office success, the film solidified Bigelow’s place in the traditionally male-dominated world of action films. With the science-fiction movie Strange Days (1995), she created a stylish drama involving futuristic technology that enables the transmission of

Blankfein, Lloyd (b. Sept. 20, 1954, Bronx, N.Y.) On April 27, 2010, Lloyd Blankfein, chairman and CEO of the investment banking and securities company Goldman Sachs Group, Inc., testified regarding the company’s business practices before the U.S. Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission—a group that Congress had appointed to assess the causes of the global financial crisis. Earlier that month the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission sued Goldman Sachs for securities fraud for having allegedly misled investors when it marketed a subprime-mortgage-backed investment product known as Abacus. By July the firm had settled with the SEC by agreeing to pay a record $550 million in penalties and to reform its business practices. Lloyd Craig Blankfein was raised in the Brooklyn borough of New York City. His father was employed as a U.S. Postal Service clerk, and his mother worked as a receptionist. In 1971 he graduated from Thomas Jefferson High School as the valedictorian of his class, and he subsequently attended Harvard College on an academic scholarship, earning an A.B. in 1975; he earned a J.D. from Harvard Law School in 1978. Blankfein was later employed as a corporate tax attorney for the law firm Donovan, Leisure, Newton & Irvine before joining J. Aron & Co., a commodities-trading firm, as a preciousmetals trader in 1981. In the same year, the company was purchased by Goldman Sachs, and it thereafter operated as a subsidiary. Blankfein became a partner of Goldman Sachs in 1988, and in 1994 he was named cohead of the J. Aron subsidiary; by 2002 he was head of all sales and trading. In 2004 Blankfein was named president and chief operating

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officer of Goldman Sachs, and two years later he succeeded Henry Paulson as chairman and CEO after Paulson was nominated to serve as the secretary of the U.S. Department of the Treasury under Pres. George W. Bush. Blankfein quickly became one of the highest-earning chief executives on Wall Street, and in 2008—owing to a decrease in market liquidity resulting from the global economic crisis—he transformed Goldman Sachs from an investment bank into a bank holding company, thereby putting it under the respected regulatory oversight of the Federal Reserve and giving it access to Fed credit. Blankfein was named 2009 Person of the Year by the British business newspaper Financial Times, but owing to his controversial comments— such as that as a banker he was “doing God’s work”—and to his high compensation amid the economic downturn, he was also named Most Outrageous CEO of 2009 by the American business magazine Forbes. (JEANNETTE NOLEN) Brazile, Trevor (b. Nov. 16, 1976, Amarillo, Texas) In 2010 American rodeo cowboy Trevor Brazile once again led the Professional Rodeo Cowboys Association (PRCA) world standings by a healthy margin, and despite taking a month off because of an elbow injury, he secured a record eighth world all-around title (including five straight), surpassing the record of seven titles set by Ty Murray in 1998. Brazile had earned more than $200,000 in each of a record 10 consecutive seasons and finished 2010 with nearly $508,000, more than $300,000 ahead of second-place cowboy Curtis Cassidy. Brazile also ended atop the standings in team roping (with partner-heeler Patrick Smith) and tie-down roping, giving him his second Triple Crown in four years. Brazile’s father, Jimmy Brazile, was a professional rodeo cowboy who finished in the top 20 in steer roping three times (1979, 1980, 1982); his mother, Glenda, also competed in rodeos. Under their tutelage Brazile began riding and roping at an early age. He earned an associate’s degree in arts and sciences from Vernon (Texas) Regional Junior College, which he attended on a rodeo scholarship. He then attended West Texas A&M University in Canyon, but he left before graduation to join the PRCA in 1996. He first qualified for the National Finals Rodeo (NFR)—the rodeo season’s final event, in which only the best cowboys compete—in

1998, finishing in second place in steer roping and third behind Murray in the all-around standings. Brazile earned his first all-around title in 2002. For the next several years, he dominated rodeo through his strength in steer roping, team roping (as both header and heeler), and tiedown roping, in which a calf is roped. Such breadth allowed him to surpass other cowboys who tended to be more specialized. He won six more allaround titles (2003–04 and 2006–09) as well as titles in steer roping (2006 and 2007) and tie-down roping (2007 and 2009). In 2003 Brazile became the first man to qualify for the Wrangler NFR in four events: tie-down roping, steer roping, and team roping as header and as heeler. Three years later he set the single-season earnings record with more than $329,000 and became the youngest cowboy to win more than $2 million in his career. By winning the all-around, steer-roping, and tie-down roping titles in 2007, he became the first cowboy to capture the rodeo Triple Crown since 1983, when it was won by his father-in-law, Roy Cooper. By 2010 Brazile was the highest-earning cowboy in the sport, with the first $500,000 season and more than $3 million in lifetime winnings. (ERIK GREGERSEN) Brees, Drew (b. Jan. 15, 1979, Austin, Texas) On Feb. 7, 2010, American football quarterback Drew Brees led the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL) to the team’s first Super Bowl championship, in which the Saints defeated the Indianapolis Colts 31–17. Brees completed 32 passes (which tied Tom Brady’s Super Bowl record set in 2004) for 288 yd and two touchdowns, and he was named the game’s Most Valuable Player. Drew Christopher Brees grew up in Austin, where he was a standout highschool athlete in baseball and basketball as well as football. As a senior he led the football team to a state title and took Texas 5A (the division that features the state’s largest high schools) Offensive Player of the Year honours. Considered too short (standing 1.83 m [6 ft] tall) and too weak-armed by the major college programs in his home state, he attended Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind., earning a bachelor’s degree (2001) in industrial management. Brees was a three-year starting quarterback at Purdue, where he set school and Big Ten Conference records for almost every major career

passing statistic, including passing yards and touchdowns. In his senior season he led the Purdue Boilermakers to their first Rose Bowl berth in 34 years and finished third in the voting for the Heisman Trophy. Brees was selected by the San Diego Chargers with the first pick of the second round of the 2001 NFL draft. He became the team’s starting quarterback in his second season, but he failed to turn around the then-woeful Chargers quickly, and in his third year he lost playing time to 41-year-old Doug Flutie. When the Chargers acquired rookie quarterback Philip Rivers in 2004, it was assumed that Brees’s days in San Diego were numbered. Brees, however, remained the Chargers’ starting quarterback during the 2004 season and led the team to a surprising 12–4 record en route to earning the NFL’s Comeback Player of the Year award and Pro Bowl honours. He followed these achievements with a solid if unspectacular season in 2005, but a shoulder injury that he suffered in the season finale made the Chargers wary of signing him to a long-term contract, so Brees instead signed a free-agent deal with the Saints. In his first year in New Orleans, Brees reversed the fortunes of a team that had gone 3–13 the previous season, leading the Saints to a 10–6 record in 2006 and a berth in the National Football Conference championship game. He led the league in passing yards that year and was named first-team All-Pro for his efforts. In 2008 Brees threw for New Orleans Saints quarterback Drew Brees

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5,069 yd—only 15 fewer than Dan Marino’s single-season record—and was once again voted to the Pro Bowl. In 2009 Brees had another Pro Bowl season and set an NFL record by completing 70.6% of his passes. More significant, he led the Saints to a franchise-best 13–0 start and the franchise’s first Super Bowl berth. (ADAM AUGUSTYN) Bridges, Jeff (b. Dec. 4, 1949, Los Angeles, Calif.) Versatile actor Jeff Bridges—who received numerous Academy Award nominations for his performances as a conflicted high schooler (The Last Picture Show, 1971), an intinerant thief (Thunderbolt and Lightfoot, 1974), a warmhearted alien (Starman, 1984), and a U.S. president (The Contender, 2000)— laid claim to a 2010 Oscar for his role as a bedraggled country musician in Crazy Heart (2009). The handsome and likable Bridges also captured the Golden Globe Award and the Screen Actors Guild Award for best actor. Jeffrey Leon Bridges, the son of actor Lloyd Bridges, made his acting debut at age eight in Sea Hunt (1958–61), a television series in which his father starred and his older brother, Beau, also appeared. After graduating from University High School in Los Angeles, Bridges served in the Coast Guard reserves and later moved to New York City to study acting at the Herbert Berghof Studio. Following his breakout role in The Last Picture Show, Bridges played a paleontologist in King Kong (1976); a wealthy real-estate agent in Stay Hungry (1976), and a man obsessed with discovering his brother’s assassin in Winter Kills (1979). The 1980s and ’90s held a steady stream of film roles for Bridges. He starred as a hacker–arcade owner in the science-fiction classic TRON (1982), as a former athlete searching for a female fugitive in Against All Odds (1984), and as a suspect in the murder of his wife in the thriller Jagged Edge (1985). He also costarred with his brother in The Fabulous Baker Boys (1989), about a pair of piano-playing brothers who expand their failing lounge act to include a sexy female singer (played by Michelle Pfeiffer). The 1990s brought roles in Texasville (1990), a sequel to The Last Picture Show; The Fisher King (1991), about a despondent radio show host who embarks on a mystical journey to help a homeless man (played by Robin Williams); American Heart (1992), the touching story of an ex-con dad trying 78

to relate to his son; the thriller The Vanishing (1993); and The Mirror Has Two Faces (1996), a romantic comedy. Perhaps his best-known film from the 1990s, however, was the Coen brothers’ The Big Lebowski (1998). As the Dude, Bridges portrayed a lazy pot-smoking unemployed loafer who gets drawn into a crime ring in a case of mistaken identity. The film became a cult classic, and Bridges earned rave reviews for his convincing performance. His later films include Seabiscuit (2003) and Iron Man (2008), in which he played the hero’s nemesis. In 2009 Bridges starred with George Clooney in The Men Who Stare at Goats, a comedy that centres on a secret U.S. Army unit trained to use psychic powers. In 2010 he appeared in two films, starring as U.S. Marshal Reuben J. (“Rooster”) Cogburn in the Coen brothers’ remake of True Grit and reviving his TRON character in the sequel TRON: Legacy. (KAREN SPARKS) Burns, Ursula M. (b. Sept. 20, 1958, New York, N.Y.) In March 2010 Ursula M. Burns, the American CEO of the international document-management and businessservices company Xerox Corp., was appointed by U.S. Pres. Barack Obama to serve as vice-chair of the President’s Export Council (PEC), a group of labour, business, and government leaders who advise the president on methods to promote the growth of American exports. Two months later Burns added the title of Xerox chairman to her already impressive résumé. Burns was raised in a low-incomehousing project on Manhattan’s Lower East Side. Her single mother operated a home day-care centre and took ironing and cleaning jobs to pay for Burns to attend Cathedral High School, a Roman Catholic preparatory school. Excelling at math, Burns later earned a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering (1980) from the Polytechnic Institute of New York University, Brooklyn. In the same year, she began pursuing a master’s degree in mechanical engineering from Columbia University, New York City, and joined Xerox as a summer mechanical-engineering intern through the company’s graduate engineering program for minorities, which in turn paid a portion of her educational expenses. After completing her master’s degree in 1981, Burns joined Xerox as a fulltime employee and quickly began working in product development. From 1992 she progressed through various roles in

Xerox Corp. CEO Ursula Burns management and engineering, and in 2000 she became senior vice president of corporate strategic services, a position in which she oversaw production operations. The appointment eventually afforded Burns the opportunity to broaden her leadership in the areas of global research, product development, marketing, and delivery, and in 2007 she was named president of Xerox. Two years later she succeeded Anne Mulcahy as CEO, making Burns not only the first African American woman to serve as CEO of a Fortune 500 company but also the first woman to accede to the position of CEO of such a major public company from another female executive. Burns was widely credited with increasing the company’s development, production, and sales of colourcapable devices. In November 2009 Obama selected Burns to help lead the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Education Coalition, a national alliance of more than 1,000 technological organizations endeavouring to improve student participation and performance in the aforementioned subject areas through legislative advocacy. Earlier that year Burns was named to Ebony magazine’s Power 150 List and was number 14 on Forbes magazine’s list of the world’s 100 Most Powerful Women. (JEANNETTE NOLEN) Cable, Vince (b. May 9, 1943, York, Eng.) On May 12, 2010, Vince Cable, one of Britain’s most respected politicians, was appointed secretary of state for business, innovations and skills in the

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U.K.’s new Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition government. At the age of 67, Cable was a Liberal Democrat who had won praise for his leadership in his party and for his accurate warnings ahead of the 2008–09 banking crisis and recession. As business secretary he demanded, among other directives, that British banks curb their bonus payments to their highest-paid employees and that they revive lending to small businesses. He sparked criticism, however, when he broke his election campaign promises not to allow any increase in university tuition fees. He barely held on to his job in December after he “declared war” on media mogul Rupert Murdoch over a proposed takeover of British Sky Broadcasting by Murdoch’s News Corp. and then hinted that he might resign and bring down the government. John Vincent Cable studied economics at Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge (B.A., 1966), and the University of Glasgow (Ph.D., 1973). He served for two years as treasury finance officer in Kenya before returning to the U.K. in 1968 as an economics lecturer at the University of Glasgow. He served as an economist with the British government in the 1970s and with the Commonwealth Secretariat in the 1980s. From 1990 to 1997 he worked for Shell Oil Co., ending his career there as its chief economist. His political career was ignited in the 1970s in Glasgow, where he joined the Labour Party, served as a city councillor (1971–74), and became a close friend of and, briefly, adviser to John Smith, the future leader of the Labour Party. In 1982, appalled by the leftward lurch of the Labour Party, Cable joined the newly formed Social Democratic Party. When the SDP merged with the Liberal Party in 1988, he became a Liberal Democrat. In 1997 he was elected MP for Twickenham in West London, capturing the seat from the Conservatives. Cable’s long experience as an economist in both the private and public sectors made him a natural choice as a Liberal Democrat spokesman on finance. He used his position to secure a major switch in party policy, away from higher taxes and higher public spending. In 2006 his fellow MPs elected him deputy leader. (When Sir Menzies Campbell suddenly resigned in October 2007, Cable spent two months as acting party leader.) Cable’s wit, combined with his authoritative warnings that levels of personal debt were too high and that the banking systems of the

U.K. and the U.S. were heading for trouble, prompted many in his party to encourage him to run for leader, but he declined to stand and remained deputy leader under Nick Clegg. When the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition was formed after the May 2010 general election, Cable joined the cabinet and soon after resigned from his post as deputy leader. (PETER KELLNER) Cameron, David (b. Oct. 9, 1966, London, Eng.) On May 11, 2010, Conservative Party leader David Cameron was asked to form a government as the U.K.’s new prime minister. In the general election on May 6, voters gave his party its biggest seat gain since 1931, but the total fell short of an outright majority. After negotiations for a “Lib-Lab” coalition failed, Labour leader Gordon Brown resigned as prime minister and was replaced by Cameron at the head of a Conservative–Liberal Democratic Party coalition—Britain’s first coalition government since World War II. One of the cornerstones of the power-sharing agreement was a pledge to formulate a budget-reduction plan in short order. In October Cameron’s government announced a five-year austerity plan that included the country’s most extensive spending cuts in decades, notably reductions to welfare entitlements and layoffs of up to 500,000 public-sector employees. David William Donald Cameron, a descendant of King William IV, was born into a family with both wealth and an aristocratic pedigree. He attended Eton College and Brasenose College, Oxford, from which he graduated (1988) with a first-class degree in philosophy, politics, and economics. After Oxford he joined the Conservative Party Research Department. He became a special adviser to Norman Lamont, then chancellor of the Exchequer, in 1992, and the following year he undertook the same role for Michael Howard, then home secretary. In 1994 Cameron became director of corporate affairs at the media company Carlton Communications, where he remained until entering Parliament in 2001 as MP for Witney, northwest of London. Cameron quickly attracted attention as the leading member of a new generation of Conservatives: young, moderate, and charismatic, and in 2003 he was made a leading Conservative spokesman in the House of Commons. In 2004 Howard (then party leader) appointed Cameron to the post of head of policy

coordination, which put Cameron in charge of preparing the Conservatives’ manifesto for the 2005 general election. Although the Conservatives lost the election, Cameron’s self-assured speech at the party’s annual conference in October 2005 transformed his reputation, and he was subsequently elected to succeed Howard as Conservative leader. Under Cameron’s leadership the party shed its right-wing image and placed first in the 2006 local elections, its best showing at the polls in some 15 years. At the party conference in October 2007, Cameron made another impressive speech. He lambasted Brown, who had succeeded Tony Blair as prime minister in June, for ruling out a referendum on the EU’s Lisbon Treaty and criticized Labour’s performance on crime and with regard to the National Health Service. Most daringly, despite trailing in the polls, he goaded the new prime minister to call an election. By December of that year, the Conservatives were ahead of Labour by as much as 13% in the opinion polls—their biggest lead since 1989. The global economic crisis that began in 2008 helped Cameron solidify the Conservatives’ advantage, as did an internal revolt by Labour ministers. This and Labour’s poor showing in the 2009 European Parliament elections put Cameron and the party that he led well positioned for the election that Brown was compelled by law to call in early 2010. (PETER KELLNER) Carell, Steve (b. Aug. 16, 1962, Concord, Mass.) In 2010 American actor Steve Carell had moviegoers laughing with the release of three film comedies. He starred opposite Tina Fey in Date Night, a romantic comedy about mistaken identity; provided the voice of Gru, a supervillain who plots to steal the Moon, in the animated Despicable Me; and played a cheerfully oblivious misfit in Dinner for Schmucks. Television viewers, however, found little humour in Carell’s announcement that after the 2010–11 season he was leaving the popular TV situation comedy The Office, in which he starred as the clueless boss Michael Scott. Steven John Carell graduated (1984) from Denison University, Granville, Ohio, and moved to Chicago, where in 1989 he joined the improvisational troupe Second City. Two years later he made his motion picture debut in Curley Sue. Other film and television work followed, including various roles on the 79

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sitcom The Dana Carvey Show (1996), for which he also wrote. Carell’s big break came in 1999 when he began appearing on The Daily Show, a satiric news program hosted by Jon Stewart. Cast as a befuddled correspondent, he became popular for such segments as Even Stephven, in which he debated castmate Stephen Colbert. In 2005 Carell left The Daily Show to star in an American version of the British sitcom The Office, cocreated by British actor Ricky Gervais. Filmed as a mock documentary, the American series centred on the employees at a Scranton, Pa., branch of the fictional paper company Dunder Mifflin. For his portrayal of a delusional and socially challenged office manager, Carell received numerous Emmy Award nominations, and in 2006 he won a Golden Globe. In addition to his television work, Carell garnered attention for his film roles. He appeared in the box-office hits Bruce Almighty (2003), a comedy starring Jim Carrey, and Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy (2004), in which he portrayed Brick Tamland, a weatherman with an IQ of 48. Carell’s major film breakthrough came with The 40-Year-Old Virgin (2005), which he co-wrote and starred in as the title character. The comedy, directed by Judd Apatow, combined crude humour with touching moments and became a critical and commercial hit. Carell’s success continued with the dark comedy Little Miss Sunshine (2006), in which he portrayed a suicidal Marcel Proust scholar. After providing the voice of a squirrel in the animated Over the Hedge (2006), Carell appeared in such films as Evan Almighty (2007), a sequel to Bruce Almighty; Dan in Real Life (2007), a dramedy about a single father who unexpectedly falls in love; and Get Smart (2008), as the bumbling secret agent Maxwell Smart in a film adaptation of the 1960s TV series. (AMY TIKKANEN) Carlos, Roberto (b. April 19, 1941, Cachoeiro de Itapemirim, Espírito Santo state, Braz.) Enduring Brazilian singer-songwriter and pop icon Roberto Carlos enjoyed an especially fruitful year in 2010. In March an exhibition opened in São Paulo that looked back on his storied life and career; it encompassed his role at the forefront of the 1960s rock-and-roll movement in Brazil as well as his later popularity as a performer of romantic ballads and boleros. A month later Carlos set off on a 22-date tour of North and 80

South America commemorating his 50 years in the music industry. Roberto Carlos Braga was born into a lower-middle-class family and displayed an early affinity for music, making his vocal debut on a local radio station at age nine. As a teenager he moved to the Rio de Janeiro area and formed a band inspired by the music of such American rock-and-roll progenitors as Elvis Presley and Bill Haley. The band, originally called the Snacks and later the Sputniks, performed on television and at various local celebrations. In 1959 Carlos embarked on a solo career as a bossa nova musician in the vein of the widely popular Brazilian singer João Gilberto. Carlos failed to attain similar commercial success, however, and after releasing his first fulllength album, Louco por você (1961), he returned to rock music. Andres Cristaldo—EPA/Landov

Brazilian singer Roberto Carlos Collaborating with his former bandmate Erasmo Carlos, Roberto recorded covers of American pop hits such as Bobby Darin’s “Splish Splash” as well as original songs co-written with Erasmo. By 1964, when he released the album É proibido fumar, he had become recognized throughout Brazil as the leading exponent of a new musical style known as iê-iê-iê (“yeah-yeah-yeah”), which drew from the stylishly primitive upbeat sound of the Anglo-American rock of that era. Carlos was also, by correlation, the public face of the broader youthoriented cultural movement known as Jovem Guarda (“Young Guard”), and in 1965 he began cohosting a musical variety TV program by that name. Carlos’s

irrepressible popularity—bolstered by a top-selling album, Roberto Carlos canta para a juventude (1965), and a string of hit songs that tapped into the rebellious zeitgeist—swiftly earned him the nickname “the King.” Carlos frequently recorded Spanishlanguage versions of his songs, which became successful in neighbouring Argentina, and beginning in the late 1960s he sought to further expand his audience by adopting a more mature musical style. Still working with Erasmo Carlos, he co-wrote and recorded a number of sentimental ballads—including the softly romantic “Detalhes” (1971) and the lush “Proposta” (1973)—that made him an international celebrity. By the late 1970s Carlos had become the best-selling Brazilian musician in history. Often praised for his sensual baritone voice, he won a Grammy Award in 1988 for best Latin pop performance, as well as Latin Grammys in 2005 and 2006. By that time he had also sold more than 100 million albums worldwide. (JOHN M. CUNNINGHAM) Chinchilla Miranda, Laura (b. March 28, 1959, Desamparados, Costa Rica) Just over 60 years after Costa Rican women gained the right to vote, Laura Chinchilla Miranda became on Feb. 7, 2010, the first woman to be elected the country’s president. The protégée of outgoing president Óscar Arias Sánchez, Chinchilla won the election with 46.8% of the vote—more than 20 percentage points ahead of the runner-up, Ottón Solís Fallas, who had been Arias’s main challenger in 2006. Chinchilla took office in May. Chinchilla, the eldest of four children, was born in a suburb of the capital, San José. Her middle-class Roman Catholic family had a legacy of involvement in national politics: her father, Rafael Ángel Chinchilla, served as the country’s comptroller general in the 1970s and again in the ’80s. Chinchilla earned a bachelor’s degree in political science (1981) from the University of Costa Rica and a master’s degree in public policy (1989) from Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. Back in Costa Rica, Chinchilla launched a career as an international consultant, specializing in the areas of judicial reform and public security, for such organizations as the U.S. Agency for International Development, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the United Nations Development Programme. She also became affiliated

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ing for law enforcement and education, to combat illicit drug trafficking, and to create jobs, notably in environmentally friendly and technological enterprises. Her social conservatism, particularly her positions against abortion and same-sex marriage, also reassured many voters in the predominantly Roman Catholic country. (HEATHER CAMPBELL)

Costa Rican Pres. Laura Chinchilla Monica Quesada/AP

with a number of international committees and foundations that promoted public safety and human rights, and she lectured and wrote widely on those topics. Chinchilla gained her first public office in 1994, when she became viceminister of public security under Pres. José María Figueres Olsen of the National Liberation Party (PLN). She was promoted in 1996 to minister of public security, a post she held for two years. In 2002, as a member of the social-democratic PLN, Chinchilla won a four-year term in Costa Rica’s Legislative Assembly, where she represented the province of San José. Building on her established commitment to public security and justice, she focused her legislative efforts on combating organized crime, public corruption, domestic violence, and crimes affecting children. She also called for free-trade agreements with various global trading partners and the liberalization of state-controlled components of Costa Rica’s economy. At the end of her term in the Legislative Assembly, in 2006, Chinchilla became vice president and minister of justice under President Arias, also of the PLN. Ineligible to run for a consecutive term in 2010, Arias endorsed Chinchilla as his successor, and she resigned in 2008 to concentrate on her presidential campaign. Although some opponents likened Chinchilla to a mere puppet of the outgoing president, she wooed many voters with her pledges to increase spend-

Collette, Toni (b. Nov. 1, 1972, Sydney, Australia) Australian actress Toni Collette continued in 2010 to mine the fraught territory of mental illness for laughs in the second season of the darkly comic series United States of Tara on the Showtime cable television network. Her role as the central character, a Midwestern mother suffering from dissociative identity disorder, demanded that Collette evoke an ever-shifting array of personalities. Though the antics of her character’s “alters” often resulted in amusing situations, Collette managed to consistently reveal the pathos beneath the slapstick. For her portrayal she received an Emmy Award (2009) and a Golden Globe (2010) for best actress in a comedy series. Antonia Collette was raised in the Sydney suburb of Blacktown. At age 16 she was awarded (1989) a scholarship from the Australian Theatre for Young People, and she later briefly attended the National Institute of Dramatic Art. She dropped out to accept her first film role, in Spotswood (1992), opposite AnAustralian actress Toni Collette

thony Hopkins and Russell Crowe. She made her first significant foray into theatre as Sonya in the Sydney Theatre Company production of Anton Chekhov’s Uncle Vanya (1992). Her rollicking turn as the overweight, unhappy title character in Muriel’s Wedding (1994) brought Collette to international attention, and a spate of supporting roles in films, including Emma (1996), Clockwatchers (1997), and Velvet Goldmine (1998), followed. Her performance in The Sixth Sense (1999)—in which she evinced the distress of a mother whose troubled son can see ghosts—brought her an Academy Award nomination for best supporting actress. She received a Tony Award nomination for The Wild Party (2000), her Broadway debut. Though occasionally relegated to one-dimensional roles in thrillers such as Shaft (2000) and Changing Lanes (2002), Collette won accolades for the gravitas she brought to ancillary characters in About a Boy (2002) and The Hours (2002). Her musical talents were brought to the fore in Connie and Carla (2004), a comedy in which she played a woman hiding from the mob by impersonating a male drag performer. Though that film was panned, Collette eked positive notices for the ostensibly slight In Her Shoes (2005), in which she was featured as the dowdy sister to Cameron Diaz’s promiscuous wastrel. Her role in the ensemble comedy Little Miss Sunshine (2006), in which she played the matriarch of a dysfunctional clan attempting to shepherd its youngest member to a children’s beauty pageant, earned her a Golden Globe nomination for best supporting actress. She earned another Golden Globe nomination and an Emmy nomination for best supporting actress in a miniseries or television movie for Tsunami: The Aftermath (2006). Collette then joined the supporting cast of the dramas Towelhead (2007) and The Black Balloon (2008). (RICHARD PALLARDY) Defar, Meseret (b. Nov. 19, 1983, Addis Ababa, Eth.) In 2010 Ethiopian distance runner Meseret Defar continued her string of victories—both indoor and outdoor. At the IAAF world indoor championships in Doha, Qatar, in March, she won the 3,000 m, her signature event. Although her time was well short of the indoor world record (8 min 23.72 sec) that she had held since 2007, it was Defar’s record fourth consecutive 3,000-m title in the biennial competition. Then in early

Hubert Boesl—dpa/Landov

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September, at the quadrennial World Cup/Continental Cup in Split, Croatia, she easily won at the same distance. Two weeks later in Philadelphia, Defar clocked a winning time of 1 hr 7 min 44 sec in her first-ever half-marathon race. As a girl, Defar won several primaryand secondary-school track events in Ethiopia. At the 1999 world youth championships in Poland—her first international competition—she took second place in the 3,000 m. The following year she won two silver medals, both in the 5,000 m, at the African championships in Algiers and the world junior championships in Santiago. During the 2002 season she secured gold medals in the 3,000- and 5,000-m races at the world junior championships, making her the first woman to win the 3,000 m–5,000 m double. Defar began competing at the senior level in 2003, but she fell ill prior to the world championships in Paris that August and failed to qualify for the 5,000m final. Although she executed a strong indoor season in 2004—in March she won the first of her four 3,000-m world indoor championship titles—she struggled to gain a position on the Ethiopian team for the 2004 Athens Olympic Games. She was finally confirmed as a member of the team in mid-August and went on to capture the gold medal in the 5,000 m. In 2006 Defar took another 3,000-m gold at the world indoor championships, placed first in the World Cup 5,000 m, and set her first world record, in a 5,000-m race (14 min 24.53 sec) in June. In 2007 Defar seemed practically unstoppable. She finally conquered the 3,000-m indoor world record that had hitherto eluded her, set a world record in the outdoor 2 mi, and broke her own 2006 world record in the 5,000 m by almost eight seconds. In September she took first place in the 5,000 m at the world championships in Osaka, and shortly thereafter she set a new outdoor 2-mi record. These accomplishments earned her the honour of being named 2007 Female Athlete of the Year by both the IAAF and Track & Field News magazine. In January 2008 Defar added a world record in the indoor 2 mi to her outdoor 2-mi record. She ran a disappointing third in the 5,000 m at the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games and again at the 2009 world championships in Berlin, but over the 2009 season she scored two more world records: in the indoor 5,000 m and the indoor 2 mi. (EB ED.) 82

Demand, Thomas (b. 1964, Munich, W.Ger.) In May 2010 German photographer Thomas Demand took 25 images from his traveling exhibition “Nationalgalerie” to the Boymans–van Beuningen Museum, Rotterdam, Neth., to commemorate 70 years since the bombing of that city and 65 years since the end of World War II. Created in collaboration with the London architectural firm Caruso St. John, the exhibition called to mind major events in postwar German history, using Demand’s signature medium: to-scale photographs of paperand-cardboard fabrications of scenes from the real world. Through such displays of calculated illusion, Demand continued his quest to topple the notion of photography as an unquestionable vehicle of objectivity, or “truth.” Thomas Cyrill Demand attended the Academy of Fine Arts (1987–90) in Munich and the Düsseldorf Art Academy (1990–92) before receiving a master’s degree in fine arts from Goldsmiths College (1994), London. Though he initially focused on sculpture, using photography to document his paper-and-cardboard reconstructions, in 1993 photography and sculpture traded places in his artistic process. The photograph became the “end product,” with the sculpture providing a means to that end. Demand’s subsequent sculptures were created specifically to be photographed. Working in front of a camera, he built three-dimensional indoor scenes from coloured paper and cardboard, using as models images drawn from personal memories and, more often, photographs found in the mass media. Humans are absent from Demand’s photographs, but evidence of human activity abounds in them. Staircase (1995) represents the artist’s memory of the stairwell in his childhood school. Barn (1997), one of a number of works evoking artists’ workshops, was inspired by an image of the studio of American painter Jackson Pollock. The most prominent of Demand’s works were those based on media photographs representing politically charged or otherwise sensational events. Corridor (1995) depicts the hallway leading to the apartment of serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer. Poll (2001) makes reference to the disputed ballot count in the 2000 U.S. presidential election. Kitchen (2004) reconstructs that room in the hideout of former Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein prior to his 2003 capture. Demand’s provocative artworks, with their suggestion of human presence

and their realistic artificiality, aim not only to draw viewers into the illusion but also to underscore the role that photography plays in cultivating illusion. To reinforce the status of the photographic image as illusion, Demand destroys his paper-and-cardboard models after they have been photographed. After 1992, when he had his first solo exhibition at the Tanit Gallery in Munich, Demand showed his work in major museums and galleries worldwide, including the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain (2003–04); the Museum of Modern Art, New York City (2005); the National Museum of Modern Art, Kyoto, Japan (2006); and the Museum of Contemporary Canadian Art, Toronto (2007). In September 2009 “Nationalgalerie” was unveiled at Berlin’s New National Gallery, marking the anniversaries of the founding of the Federal Republic of Germany (1949) and the dismantling of the Berlin Wall (1989). (VIRGINIA GORLINSKI) Dyson, Sir James (b. May 2, 1947, Cromer, Norfolk, Eng.) British inventor Sir James Dyson’s unique product design and commercial success lent authority to his quest to revive the spirit of invention in Britain. In March 2010, in response to an invitation by the Conservative Party to propose policies to encourage innovation, he issued Ingenious Britain: Making the UK the Leading High Tech Exporter in Europe. Dyson’s report suggested, among other ideas, that universities be given the freedom to design unconventional engineering curricula and that they increase collaborative efforts with technology companies. As a boy, Dyson attended the prestigious Gresham’s schools in rural Holt, North Norfolk. After graduation he moved to London, where he attended (1965–66) the Byam Shaw School of Art before studying (1966–70) furniture and interior design at the Royal College of Art. At the latter institution he was introduced to the creative possibilities of uniting engineering with design. In 1970 he joined Rotork Controls Ltd., in Bath, where he and the company’s unconventional chairman, Jeremy Fry, designed and produced the Sea Truck, a small, fast, and versatile flat-bottomed fibreglass landing craft outfitted for use by military or civilian customers. In 1974 Dyson founded his own company to produce the Ballbarrow, a plastic wheelbarrow-like bin that rolled on a load-spreading ball instead of a narrow wheel.

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uninterrupted stream. His products won many design awards and were exhibited in art and design museums worldwide. In 1997 he published Against the Odds (co-written with Giles Coren), an autobiographical account of his persistence in the face of discouragement. The following year he was made CBE, and in 2006 he was awarded a knighthood. The James Dyson Foundation was established in 2002 with the aim of encouraging young people to enter engineering through the awarding of prizes and grants. (ROBERT CURLEY)

British inventor Sir James Dyson with his bladeless fan Having grown impatient with clogged air filters in his Ballbarrow factory, in 1978 Dyson built a cyclone particle collector similar to devices used in larger industrial plants, such as sawmills. Adapting this solution to the construction of home vacuum cleaners, he worked for the next five years, testing more than 5,000 prototypes, before he produced a satisfactory model that swirled incoming dirty air around a cylindrical container, where the dust was separated by centrifugal force and settled by gravity while the purified air escaped out the top. Makers of traditional bag-type vacuum cleaners showed no interest in Dyson’s bagless device, arousing in him a lasting antipathy toward conventional businesses. He sold the cleaner, known as the GForce, to a company in Japan, where it became a commercial success and won a design prize in 1991. In 1993 Dyson opened a plant in North Wiltshire, and within two years his Dual Cyclone model became the top-selling vacuum cleaner in Britain, despite a retail price that was considerably higher than that of competing brands. Dyson’s other elegant and practical inventions include the Airblade (2006; a distinctive-looking high-speed energy-efficient hand dryer for public restrooms) and the Air Multiplier bladeless fan, introduced in 2009, in which air drawn through the base unit is blown over the inner surface of an ethereal airfoil-shaped ring, inducing air surrounding the ring to flow in an

Eroglu, Dervis (b. 1938, Famagusta, Cyprus [now Gazi Magusa, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]) On April 23, 2010, Dervis Eroglu, a physician and 34-year veteran of Turkish Cyprus politics, was sworn in for a five-year term as the new president of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC). Eroglu’s election was seen by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots as pivotal in terms of the future of the island. He campaigned on a nationalist platform that stressed sovereignty for the two states in Cyprus, rather than the coalition that his predecessor, Pres. Mehmet Ali Talat, had sought. The new president also criticized the slow pace of the bilateral talks between the two Cyprus presidents over the previous 18 months. Despite his reputation as a hard-liner, Eroglu stated in his campaign and reiterated in his acceptance speech that he favoured continuing the talks, with the goal of a solution before the end of the year. The bilateral discussions resumed after a pause due to the elections and change of government in the TRNC and another pause at year’s end when Eroglu had coronary bypass surgery. After completing his secondary education in Cyprus, Eroglu matriculated in Turkey. He went to the Istanbul University Faculty of Medicine, graduating in 1963, and then trained as a urologist at Ankara General Hospital. He returned home from Turkey in 1972 and practiced medicine until 1976. Eroglu entered politics after the creation in 1975 of the self-proclaimed Turkish Federated State of Cyprus (renamed the TRNC in 1983), and in 1976 he was elected to the Legislative Assembly as a candidate for the National Unity Party (UBP). He later served on the Constituent Assembly. Also in 1976 he was appointed minister of education, culture, youth, and sport of Turkish Cyprus, a post he held for two years. Eroglu became head of the UBP

for Gazi Magusa in 1977, and in 1983 he was elected chairman of the party. He remained as leader of the UBP until 2005, when he stood down to allow for younger men to take over, but he resumed party leadership in 2008. Eroglu first assumed the office of TRNC prime minister in July 1985 under Pres. Rauf Denktas and held that position until the end of 1993, when the UBP lost its legislative majority and he reverted to opposition party leader. He resumed the premiership in August 1996 and continued in office with different coalition governments until early 2004. He became prime minister again in May 2009. In the presidential election held on April 18, 2010, he challenged the pro-reunification Talat, who had been president since 2005. Running in a field of seven candidates, Eroglu won a slim (50.38%) majority, but it was enough to avoid a secondround election runoff against Talat (42.85%). (GEORGE H. KELLING) Falco, Edie (b. July 5, 1963, Brooklyn, N.Y.) On Aug. 29, 2010, American actress Edie Falco became the first performer to have won an Emmy Award for outstanding lead actress in both the drama and comedy categories when she received the award for her starring role in the comedy series Nurse Jackie. Falco played a hospital nurse who balances her medical responsibilities with an array of personal problems, including prescription-drug addiction. She previously received three Emmys (and three additional nominations) for her performance as Carmela Soprano in the HBO cable drama The Sopranos (1999–2007). Edith Falco was the daughter of a jazz drummer and an actress, and she grew up in the blue-collar Long Island suburbs. She studied acting at the State University of New York at Purchase. After graduating in 1986, Falco moved to New York City to pursue an acting career. Director and fellow SUNY Purchase graduate Hal Hartley gave her two of her first professional roles, in his films The Unbelievable Truth (1989) and Trust (1990). Falco landed parts in such movies as the independent film Laws of Gravity (1992) and Woody Allen’s Bullets over Broadway (1994). Falco found greater success on television, guest starring on such programs as Homicide: Life on the Street and Law & Order. In 1997 she won a recurring role on the acclaimed HBO prison drama Oz, on which she played a sin83

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Emmy Award-winning actress Edie Falco gle mother and correctional officer for three seasons. Among those impressed by Falco’s performance was the writerproducer David Chase, who in 1998 cast her in a lead role on a pilot he was creating for HBO, The Sopranos. The Sopranos was an immediate phenomenon, its influence extending into pop culture at large. The show centred on a New Jersey crime family helmed by Mafia boss Tony Soprano (played by James Gandolfini). Falco’s turn as Soprano’s long-suffering wife was praised for its complexity, and she received three Emmys (1999, 2001, and 2003) and two Golden Globe Awards (2000 and 2003). Two years after The Sopranos ended its run, Falco was back on the small screen with Nurse Jackie. Falco continued to perform in films, including Sunshine State (2002) and Freedomland (2006), and onstage, appearing on Broadway in Side Man (1998–99) and in revivals of Frankie and Johnny in the Clair de Lune (2002–03) and ’night Mother (2004–05). In June 2010, just weeks before her success at the Emmys, Falco drew critical acclaim for her portrayal of an ex-convict in the two-character offBroadway drama This Wide Night. (MELISSA ALBERT) Falls, Robert (b. March 2, 1954, Springfield, Ill.) Taking a radical turn in 2010, veteran director Robert Falls of Chicago’s

renowned Goodman Theatre stripped to the bare minimum his production of Anton Chekhov’s The Seagull. Bereft of props, scenery, and the usual trappings of dramatic performance, it was, as Falls himself proclaimed, “purely about the actors and the text.” The actors performed their scenes on a wooden pier and then retired to seats at the rear of the stage in full view of the audience. It was a bold and risky experiment for the seasoned Falls. Robert Arthur Falls grew up in rural Illinois. Drawn to drama even as a boy, he began to school himself by putting on puppet shows and directing his friends in performances. When his father’s career took the family to Urbana, Ill., Falls, then in middle school, enriched his imagination with an orgy of moviegoing. He won his first stage role when he was a sophomore in high school. As a student, Falls fed his blossoming interest by making trips to Chicago to watch professional theatre. He began to write and direct plays in addition to acting, and in 1976 he graduated from the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana with a B.F.A. in playwriting and directing. Falls studied briefly with an acting coach in New York City, but he returned to the Midwest to become part of the burgeoning little theatre scene then springing up in Chicago. It was a heady time for regional theatre, and Falls eagerly embraced the dynamic climate, accepting a variety of acting and directing jobs. He worked initially with playwright David Mamet at the St. Nicholas Theatre. After staging an adaptation of John Steinbeck’s novella Of Mice and Men in 1977 at Wisdom Bridge Theatre (founded 1974), Falls was asked to become the ensemble’s artistic director, a position he held until 1985. Under Falls’s leadership, Wisdom Bridge became known for its innovative interpretations and made a significant contribution to “off-Loop” theatre. Among the plays Falls directed while at Wisdom Bridge were Arthur Kopit’s Wings (1979), Tom Stoppard’s Travesties (1980), Bertolt Brecht’s Mother Courage and Her Children (1981), Tennessee Williams’s A Streetcar Named Desire (1982), an adaptation of Jack Abbott’s letters, In the Belly of the Beast: Letters from Prison (1983), and Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1985). In 1986 Falls became artistic director of the Goodman Theatre. There he extended a reputation he had gained for shocking the audience with what some considered to be gratuitous violence,

nudity, and couplings. Nevertheless, during his tenure the Goodman won the Tony for outstanding regional theatre (1992). He directed a number of highly successful productions, notably all 10 of August Wilson’s plays, and transferred many to Broadway, including Horton Foote’s The Young Man from Atlanta (1997) and Wilson’s King Hedley II (2001). Falls collaborated with actor Brian Dennehy on several plays, notably Eugene O’Neill’s The Iceman Cometh (1990), which they remounted in 1992 at the Abbey Theatre in Dublin; Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman (1999); and O’Neill’s Long Day’s Journey into Night (2002). The latter two each won the Tony for best revival after moving to Broadway, with Falls also taking the best director Tony for Salesman. (KATHLEEN KUIPER) Ford, David (b. Feb. 24, 1951, Orpington, Kent, Eng.) On April 12, 2010, Northern Irish politician and Alliance Party leader David Ford was appointed justice minister for Northern Ireland as local justice and policing powers were returned to Northern Ireland after almost four decades under British control. Ford, who had been supported by both Sinn Fein and the Democratic Unionist Party as a compromise candidate, oversaw the devolved powers, and in October he introduced a comprehensive justice bill to the Northern Ireland Assembly. Northern Ireland Justice Minister David Ford

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Ford grew up in southeastern England and first dabbled in politics when he was just 11, passing out literature for the Liberal Party prior to a 1962 by-election. Although English by birth, Ford had extensive family ties to Northern Ireland, and he moved there permanently in 1969. He attended Queen’s University, Belfast, earning a degree in economics, and joined the fledgling Alliance Party while still a student. He became a social worker in 1973, and he remained active in the Alliance Party over the next two decades. Ford campaigned unsuccessfully for a seat on the Antrim borough council in 1989, and the following year he left his job to enter politics full-time as the Alliance Party’s general secretary. In 1993 he won the seat on the Antrim borough council that had eluded him four years earlier. In the 1997 general election, he unsuccessfully contested the South Antrim seat in the Brit- Uruguayan association football sensation Diego ish House of Commons. Ford’s Forlán stature within the Alliance Party continued to rise, however, and he represented the party at the multi- association football (soccer) career party talks that led to the signing of the when he was awarded the Golden Ball Good Friday Agreement (Belfast Agree- for the FIFA World Cup finals in South ment) in 1998. That accord led to the Africa as the tournament’s standout creation of a devolved government in player. Almost single-handedly he had Northern Ireland, and Ford was elected guided Uruguay to the semifinal round. to represent the constituency of South His ability and application, added to an Antrim in the newly created legislature. exemplary discipline, shone throughA poor showing for the Alliance Party out, and his all-around maturity was in the 2001 general election triggered never better displayed. (He was Man of the resignation of party leader Sean the Match three times.) Although Neeson, and Ford handily won the sub- Uruguay lost its semifinal, his volley against Germany in the third-place sequent leadership contest. As leader of the party, Ford embodied match—his 29th goal in 69 internaits pragmatic, centrist principles. He tional matches since 2002—was voted championed the devolved government, the tournament’s finest goal. Though going so far as to briefly designate him- primarily a striker, Forlán foraged in a self a unionist to prevent the collapse deeper, organizing role in midfield, of then first minister David Trimble’s took all the corner kicks, and showed government in November 2001. Ford unerring accuracy from other dead-ball also presided over a period of improv- situations. He was also the joint top ing electoral fortunes for the Alliance scorer of the tournament, with five Party as it preserved its six legislative goals. Two months earlier Forlán had seats in 2003 and picked up a seventh scored the winning goal in the Europa seat in 2007. In addition, in the U.K. League final for Club Atlético de general election of 2010, the Alliance Madrid against England’s Fulham FootParty won its first seat in the British ball Club. In late July he was honoured Parliament. (MICHAEL RAY) with the Golden Charrúa as Uruguay’s Sportsman of the Year. Forlán, Diego Diego Martín Forlán Corazo pos(b. May 19, 1979, Montevideo, sessed the perfect pedigree: his father, Uruguay) In July 2010 Diego Forlán Pablo Forlán, had played for Uruguay reached the pinnacle of his professional in the 1966 and 1974 World Cups, and

his maternal grandfather, Juan Carlos Corazo, had been a player with Club Atlético Independiente in Argentina. The latter became young Forlán’s first senior team after he played at home as a youth for Club Atlético Peñarol and Danubio Fútbol Club. He was also a skilled tennis player before he focused on football. Forlán’s progress with Independiente was such that England’s Manchester United paid the equivalent of £7.5 million (about $9.8 million) for him in early 2002, but in two seasons at Old Trafford he seldom scored and earned the nickname “Diego Forlorn.” Though Forlán was a popular figure, Manchester United traded him in 2004 to Spain’s Club Villarreal de Fútbol for >3.6 million (about $4.3 million). Suddenly he found the net, and he won the Pichichi Trophy as the leading marksman in Spain’s La Liga with 25 goals. He added 13 goals in 2005–06 and 19 in 2006–07. Villarreal traded Forlán to Atlético Madrid for >21 million (about $28 million) in 2007, and he won the Pichichi again in 2008–09, with 32 goals. In both 2004–05 and 2008–09, he added the Golden Shoe as Europe’s top scorer. By mid-2010 he had made 467 League and Cup appearances and had scored 204 goals. Standing 1.81 m (5 ft 11 in) tall and weighing 75 kg (165 lb), Forlán was known for his distinctive long blond hair, which was secured with a headband. Off the field he was a devoted activist for the Fundacion Alejandra Forlán, which was established to warn of the perils of dangerous driving after his sister Alejandra was paralyzed in a 1991 car crash in which her boyfriend was killed. Forlán was appointed UNICEF ambassador of Uruguay in March 2005. (JACK ROLLIN) Gillard, Julia (b. Sept. 29, 1961, Barry, Vale of Glamorgan, Wales) Australian politician Julia Gillard was sworn in on June 24, 2010, as the country’s first female prime minister after having successfully challenged the previous prime minister, Kevin Rudd, for the leadership of the ruling Australian Labor Party (ALP). Buoyed by positive poll numbers for both herself and the ALP, Gillard called for a snap election to be held on August 21. The race, however, 85

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was the tightest in decades, and neither the ALP nor its main opposition, the alliance of the Liberal Party and the Nationals, won an outright majority of seats in Parliament. Both the ALP and the Liberal-National bloc hoped to secure enough backing from independent and Green MPs to form a government. Gillard succeeded, which enabled her in early September to form Australia’s first minority government since 1940. After resolving one of the issues that had eroded Rudd’s base of support—a proposed “super tax” on mining company profits—Gillard spent much of her political capital in 2010 championing the National Broadband Network, a program that would provide households and businesses throughout Australia with a high-speed Internet connection. Julia Eileen Gillard was born in Wales, but in 1966 her family joined the wave of post-World War II emigration from Britain to Australia. She attended the University of Adelaide, where she was an active member of the student government. In 1983 Gillard moved to Melbourne, where she served as president of the Australian Union of Students and continued her studies at the University of Melbourne, earning degrees in law (1987) and arts (1990). She joined a private law practice in 1987 and was made a partner, specializing in industrial law, in 1990. Beginning in the mid-1980s, Gillard steadily advanced through the ranks of the ALP. She served as president of the party’s Carlton branch (1985–89) and was a member (1993–97) of the administrative committee of the ALP in Victoria. In 1996 she was appointed chief of staff for Victorian ALP leader John Brumby. She held that post until 1998, when she was elected to Parliament for Lalor, an industrial district west of Melbourne. After the ALP’s disappointing showing in the 2001 general elections, Gillard was elevated to the front bench and given the shadow portfolio of population and immigration. She crafted the ALP’s policy on refugees and asylum seekers, deftly addressing an issue that had cost the party dearly in the elections. Gillard served a short stint as shadow minister for reconciliation and indigenous affairs in 2003 before assuming the shadow health portfolio later that year. She easily won reelection in 2004, and two years later a party caucus elected her deputy leader under Rudd. After an overwhelming ALP victory in the 2007 federal elections,

Gillard became deputy prime minister. In addition, she received the portfolios of employment and workplace relations, education, and social inclusion. As minister of employment and workplace relations, she was instrumental in rolling back laws that had limited the power of labour unions. (MICHAEL RAY) Gormley, Antony (b. Aug. 30, 1950, London, Eng.) In 2010, visitors to Manhattan’s Flatiron district were confronted by British sculptor and draftsman Antony Gormley’s installation Event Horizon. Consisting of 31 sculptures of Gormley’s naked body, some placed at ground level and others perched on rooftops and ledges near Madison Square Park, the artwork gave many pause. The New York City Police Department considered the figures above street grade so disconcertingly lifelike that it saw fit to assure the public that the sculptures were not people about to jump. Gormley’s exploration of the spatial in his abstract drawings as well as his examination of the human relationship to environment had created a buzz in much of the art world at least since 1994, when he won the Turner Prize for his Field projects. Each of the Field installations was composed of tens of thousands of small staring terra-cotta figures, which were packed into a gallery room facing the entrance at which the gallerygoer stood. Antony Mark David Gormley attended (1968–71) Trinity College, Cambridge, taking a degree in art history, archae-

ology, and anthropology, and thereafter traveled in India and Sri Lanka for three years. Upon his return to London, he studied at the Central School of Arts and Crafts (now Central Saint Martins), Goldsmiths College, and the Slade School of Fine Art. Struck by the manner in which people he had seen on his travels had created a private space in public places by covering themselves with a piece of cloth, he made his first plaster casts involving the human form. Increasingly, in the early 1980s Gormley was drawn to examine questions of humanity in relation to the environment. He made (1981) his first wholebody casts for Three Ways: Mould, Hole and Passage. As he continued, he varied materials and positions (crouching, standing, kneeling, lying down), sometimes distorting the human figure (as by elongating the arms) or replacing human features with other objects (as by putting a cast beam where the head should be). Gormley’s gift for the unsettling took another turn when he moved his lifesize figures outdoors. Natural environments enhanced the fragility of the human form and somehow changed the philosophical questions that Gormley’s works evoked. For Another Place (1997; at Crosby in Merseyside, Eng.), for example, Gormley placed 100 cast-iron figures facing out to sea over a 3.2-km (2-mi) stretch of beach. For 6 Times (2010; in Edinburgh), he placed six figures along the Water of Leith, four of them partly submerged in the water,

British sculptor Antony Gormley flanked by his work

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one partly buried on land, and the sixth standing at the end of an old pier, facing the sea. His Horizon Field (2010; near Vorarlberg, Austria) featured 100 life-size figures dotting the slopes of the Alps. Until his provocative works of the 21st century, Gormley was perhaps best known for the enormous Angel of the North (1998; near Gateshead, Eng.), some 20 m (65 ft) high and having a 54-m (175-ft) span. Gormley was created OBE in 1997 and made a member of the Royal Academy in 2003. (KATHLEEN KUIPER) Gove, Michael (b. Aug. 26, 1967, Edinburgh, Scot.) On becoming the U.K.’s prime minister in May 2010, David Cameron (q.v.) appointed Michael Gove, one of his closest and most energetically reformminded colleagues, to the new cabinet as education secretary. Within weeks of his appointment, Gove had proved himself to be a radical reformer by submitting—and pushing through Parliament—plans for the biggest shake-up of England’s school system in a generation. Michael Andrew Gove’s birth mother was a student who gave him up for adoption, and he was adopted and brought up in Aberdeen, in northern Scotland, where he won a scholarship to a private school, Robert Gordon’s College. He studied English at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, and was elected president of the Oxford Union debating society. After graduating in 1988, he applied to work for the Conservative Research Department but was unsuccessful and turned to newspaper journalism. He returned to Aberdeen to work on the daily Press and Journal; as a member of the National Union of Journalists, he took part in a four-month strike when that paper’s management sought to derecognize the union (that is, bypass the union in negotiating pay and conditions). In 1996 Gove joined The Times newspaper in London as a columnist and leader (editorial) writer. This gave him a platform for his right-of-centre, independent-minded views. While generally critical of Prime Minister Tony Blair’s Labour government, he strongly backed Blair’s decision to invade Iraq in 2003. In London Gove became close friends with Cameron, who urged him to enter Conservative Party politics. Gove was selected as the Conservative candidate to fight the Surrey Heath constituency south of London and was elected MP in the 2005 general election. Later the same year, when Cameron stood in the

U.K. Education Secretary Michael Gove election for party leader, Gove was one of his most active supporters. After having been voted leader in December 2005, Cameron rewarded Gove, who had served as MP for just seven months, by appointing him shadow housing minister. In July 2007 Cameron promoted Gove to the full shadow cabinet, as shadow education secretary. In his new role Gove set out plans for state schools to apply to be independent “academies,” no longer controlled by local government. He also promoted new groups—which could comprise parents, charities, or private companies—to establish new academies. When the Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition was formed after the May 2010 general election, Gove was an automatic choice to become education secretary and put his plans into action. The Academies Act was one of the first of the new government’s bills to reach the statute book, in July. Gove had to postpone many capital projects to improve state schools, however, as part of the government’s wider cuts in public spending, an action that angered many head teachers who believed that they had been given firm assurances by Gove’s department that their projects could go ahead. (PETER KELLNER) Guisewite, Cathy (b. Sept. 5, 1950, Dayton, Ohio) On Oct. 3, 2010, the comics page mainstay Cathy—the brainchild of cartoonist Cathy Guisewite—came to an end

after a 34-year run. For most of that time, Guisewite’s comic strip dealt with the amusing side of issues facing a modern single career woman, such as dating, dieting, shopping for clothes, handling frustrations at work, buying a house, and dealing with doting parents, especially an adoring mother obsessed with her daughter’s ticking “biological clock.” Citing a desire to spend more time with her family and to explore other creative avenues, Guisewite chose to end Cathy in 2010. Cathy Lee Guisewite graduated from the University of Michigan with a B.A. in English in 1972. Both of her parents worked in the advertising business, and she initially followed them into that field. She found success as an ad writer, but she explored cartooning as an outlet for the frustration that she felt in her career and her personal life. She sent the simple stick-figure drawings to her parents, and her mother encouraged her to submit them for publication. To her surprise Guisewite was awarded a syndication contract with Universal Press Syndicate in 1976, and Cathy began running as a daily strip in November of that year. For nearly 30 years Cathy detailed the daily life of a single woman whose struggles with her weight, fashion, and romantic relationships were frequently resolved with a cry of “Aack!” and a binge shopping spree. Upon its debut Cathy was one of the few daily strips written by a woman, and it was the first to speak humorously and directly to a female audience. Although female protagonists such as Brenda Starr and Little Orphan Annie had appeared on the comics page for decades, such strips were generally written as soap operas or serial adventures. Cathy’s semiautobiographical content added a feminist voice to the comics world. The strip marked a major turning point in February 2005 when Cathy married her longtime boyfriend, Irving. This gave Guisewite new challenges for her nolonger-single character to face, including dealing with her meddling in-laws and Irving’s obsession with electronic gear. The final panel in 2010 featured the strip’s namesake finally announcing to her delighted parents that she was pregnant. At its height Cathy ran in some 1,400 newspapers worldwide, and the strip was collected in more than 25 books. Cathy merchandise, often depicting the namesake heroine coping with a towering mound of paperwork, struggling to shed a few more pounds, or engag87

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ing in therapeutic shopping, also became a multimillion-dollar business. Guisewite won an Emmy Award for a 1987 animated television adaptation of the strip, and in 1992 she was honoured with the National Cartoonists Society’s Reuben Award as cartoonist of the year. (MICHAEL RAY) Hague, William (b. March 26, 1961, Rotherham, Yorkshire, Eng.) On the evening of May 11, 2010, when the U.K.’s Conservative Party returned to government after having won a narrow victory in the general election, one of its former leaders, William Hague, was immediately appointed foreign secretary. He was still less than 50 years old—yet it had been fully 33 years since he first came to public attention with a combative speech, while still a schoolboy, at his party’s annual conference. William Jefferson Hague attended his local comprehensive school and became interested in politics at age 12. His confident public attack on the then Labour government as a 16-year-old boy with a pronounced northern accent captivated the media and Conservative leader Margaret Thatcher. Hague won a place at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he gained a first-class degree in politics, philosophy, and economics. After having worked for Shell UK and the management consultants McKinsey and Co., he was selected as the Conservative candidate for the safe seat of Richmond, North Yorkshire, and in 1989 he was elected to Parliament. He rose rapidly through the ministerial ranks of the then Conservative government, becoming secretary of state for Wales in 1995 at age 34. Following his party’s heavy defeat in the 1997 general election, Hague’s fellow Conservative MPs elected him to replace John Major as their new leader; at 36, Hague was the youngest leader of a major U.K. political party in two centuries. He adopted a series of populist policies, notably wanting to reduce immigration sharply and seeking a looser relationship between the U.K. and the rest of the EU. Although his agenda seemed to match the popular mood, the overall effect was to give Hague the image of being a right-wing politician. In the 2001 election, Labour won another landslide victory, and Hague immediately announced his resignation as Conservative leader. Hague remained a backbench politician for the next four years and earned significant sums from directorships, 88

consultancies, and speeches. In December 2005 he returned to front-line politics as shadow foreign secretary and de facto deputy leader of the Conservative Party, standing in when party leader David Cameron (q.v.) was away. Hague’s most controversial act, on Cameron’s instructions, was to withdraw Conservative Members of the European Parliament away from Europe’s main centre-right grouping to form a smaller, more right-wing parliamentary group. When Cameron formed his Conservative-led coalition in 2010, Hague became foreign secretary and also first secretary of state (a title that placed him, in effect, third in the Cabinet hierarchy). Hague quickly demolished hopes, or fears, that he would set British foreign policy in a more ideological and euroskeptic direction. Instead, he largely maintained the pragmatic foreign policies of the previous Labour government. To the surprise of many, Hague quickly became popular with other EU foreign ministers at their monthly meetings, deploying his wit, charm, and collegiate manner to great effect. (PETER KELLNER) Halladay, Roy (b. May 14, 1977, Denver, Colo.) In 2010 Roy Halladay, the hard-throwing ace of Major League Baseball’s Philadelphia Phillies’ pitching staff, made history. On May 29 he pitched the 20th perfect game in major league history, beating the Florida Marlins 1–0. Then on October 6, in the opening game of the National League (NL) Division Series against the Cincinnati Reds, Halladay threw a postseason nohitter. defeating the Reds 4–0. It was the first postseason no-hitter since New York Yankees pitcher Don Larsen’s famous perfect game in the 1956 World Series and only the second ever. The performance helped Halladay set a further historical milestone; he became only the fifth player in history—and the first since hall-of-famer Nolan Ryan in 1973—to throw two no-hitters in one season. Harry Leroy Halladay III, nicknamed “Doc,” played baseball in high school and was drafted by the American League (AL) Toronto Blue Jays shortly after graduation in 1995. He made his major league debut on Sept. 20, 1998, recording no decision against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays (now the Tampa Bay Rays). Seven days later, in his second career start, he narrowly missed becoming only the third player to

throw a no-hitter during the final game of the regular season when he gave up a home run with two outs in the ninth inning in a game against the Detroit Tigers. Halladay experienced some problems with pitch control early in his career and returned for short stints with the Blue Jays’ minor league affiliates, but he ultimately gained a reputation for pitching efficiently while issuing few walks. His breakthrough season came in 2002, when he recorded 19 wins and 7 losses and was selected to his first All-Star Game. In 2003 he won the Cy Young Award as the AL’s best pitcher after having posted a record of 22 wins and 7 losses with a 3.25 earned-run average. The following two seasons were shortened by injuries, but Halladay reestablished himself in 2006 as one of the premier pitchers in the major leagues, winning 16 games while losing only 5 and leading the AL in winning percentage (.762). In 2008 he won 20 games, and the following year he finished 17–10 and led the AL in shutouts (4). Shortly before the start of the 2010 season, the Phillies traded for Halladay. He did not disappoint his new team, winning 21 games and losing 10 while again leading the league in shutouts (4). Although the Phillies won the Division Series against the Reds, they lost the NL Championship Series to the San Francisco Giants, who went on to win the World Series. Halladay’s stellar debut season with the team, however, earned him unanimous selection as the NL’s Cy Young Award winner. (MATT STEFON) Handler, Chelsea (b. Feb. 25, 1975, Livingston, N.J.) On Sept. 12, 2010, American comic and television talk show host Chelsea Handler served as emcee of MTV’s Video Music Awards ceremony, following in the footsteps of fellow comedians such as Chris Rock, Jack Black, and Dennis Miller. In March the brassy, irreverent Handler released her third memoir, Chelsea Chelsea Bang Bang, which joined her previous two books in the top slots of the best-seller lists. Chelsea Joy Handler grew up in New Jersey, the youngest of six siblings. As a teen she competed in the Miss New Jersey pageant, and at age 19 she headed to Los Angeles in hopes of starting an acting career. Eventually she switched her focus to comedy and began performing stand-up at clubs around the city. This led to a stint on

Biographies Mike Nelson—Xinhua/Landov

Girls Behaving Badly, a hidden-camera show on the Oxygen cable TV network that premiered in 2002. Handler drew fans with her brassy, self-deprecating style and by approaching the topic of sex with an irreverence bordering on crassness. In 2005 she published her first book, My Horizontal Life: A Collection of One-Night Stands, a series of comedic short essays devoted to her dating life. After making appearances on the E! cable network and The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Handler was given her own program on E!, The Chelsea Handler Show. The show, which alternated comedy sketches with segments of Handler’s live stand-up act, ran for 12 episodes between April and September 2006. The following year Chelsea Lately premiered on E!. That show featured Handler’s stand-up as well as a regular roundtable segment with guest appearances by other comedians. The show was unique among late-night programs in that it specifically courted low-grade celebrities as its guests while also attracting A-list names. In 2007 Handler also began appearing on the online comedy series In the Motherhood (2007–08; later adapted into a short-lived TV series with different actresses). She guest starred on numerous TV shows, including The Practice, Reno 911!, and The Bernie Mac Show, and appeared as herself on othComedian and TV star Chelsea Handler

ers, such as The Good Wife. Her second book, Are You There, Vodka? It’s Me, Chelsea (2008), debuted at the top of the New York Times nonfiction bestseller list. In addition to managing her television and writing careers, Handler continued to perform as a stand-up comedian, including a 21-city tour that kicked off in March 2010. (MELISSA ALBERT) Hawass, Zahi (b. May 28, 1947, Al-!Ubaydiyah, Egypt) In April 2010 Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass hosted a two-day conference in Cairo, at which representatives from more than a dozen countries devised strategies for the repatriation of archaeological and historic treasures from foreign museums to their home countries. Egypt’s list of six items included the Rosetta Stone in the British Museum in London, the Dandarah Zodiac in the Louvre in Paris, and the bust of Nefertiti in the Egyptian Museum in Berlin. The return of such relics was an ongoing endeavour for Hawass, whose magnetic personality and forceful advocacy helped raise awareness of the excavation and preservation efforts he oversaw as head of Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA). Hawass grew up near Damietta, Egypt, and entered Alexandria University with the intention of becoming a lawyer. He eventually changed his course of study to Greek and Roman archaeology, but it was not until after he had graduated (B.A., 1967) and was working as an inspector for the Department of Antiquities (the forerunner of the SCA) that he developed a passion for the subject. Following a one-year postgraduate course in Egyptology at Cairo University, Hawass won a Fulbright fellowship and enrolled in a Ph.D. program in Egyptology at the University of Pennsylvania, graduating in 1987. He then returned to Egypt, where he was named general director of antiquities for the Giza pyramids complex as well as for the historical sites at Saqqarah and Al-Bahriyyah (Bahariya) Oasis. At Giza in 1990, Hawass discovered a necropolis that housed the tombs of the pyramid builders, which proved, contrary to then-popular fringe theories, that the pyramids had indeed been erected by Egyptians. Hawass’s frequent outspoken denunciations of the alternative theorists, whom he termed “pyramidiots,” established his international reputation. His profile was fur-

Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass ther raised in the late 1990s when he began the excavation of an extensive collection of tombs at Al-Bahriyyah Oasis. The site became known as the Valley of the Golden Mummies after the tombs’ well-preserved denizens, the most that had ever been found at a single site. By the time he was appointed general secretary of the SCA in 2002, Hawass had appeared on numerous American television programs promoting Egypt’s archaeological heritage. His ubiquitous media presence made him one of the most recognizable figures in Egypt but also one of the most divisive. Critics remarked on his tendency toward glib self-aggrandizement and charged that he too often privileged public relations over science. (Few of his scientific findings were published in peer-reviewed journals.) At the same time, Hawass was lauded for reclaiming Egyptology—for decades the province of Western scholars—for Egyptians. As head of the SCA, Hawass directed several other excavation projects that led to significant findings, including the discovery in 2008 of an Old Kingdom pyramid at Saqqarah that was determined to belong to a queen of Teti. He also initiated the Egyptian

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Mummy Project, which used modern forensic techniques such as computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans to study both royal and nonroyal mummies. As a result of that project, in 2007 the remains of Hatshepsut were identified, and in 2010 it was determined that Tutankhamen was the son of Akhenaton and probably died of complications from malaria and bone disease. In 2009, facing mandatory retirement, Hawass was appointed Egypt’s vice-minister of culture, with responsibility for the SCA. (JOHN M. CUNNINGHAM) Herrera, Carmen (b. May 31, 1915, Havana, Cuba) At age 95, Cuban-born American painter Carmen Herrera found herself, remarkably, among the most buzzedabout artists in 2010. A career retrospective of her rigorously composed and often radiantly coloured abstract works—which had been shown in Birmingham, Eng., in 2009—received high praise upon opening in Kaiserslautern, Ger., in January. Another exhibition, “Carmen Herrera: Recent Works,” went on display in New York City in April to similar acclaim. Herrera was raised by intellectual parents in Havana. She took art lessons when she was young, and as a teenager she was sent to Paris to further her studies. Upon her return to Cuba, she made sculptures of wood and later began studying for an architecture degree at the University of Havana, though the tumultuous political situation in the country following Fulgencio Batista’s seizure of power prevented her from finishing. She relocated in 1939 to New York City, where she pursued mostly figurative painting at the Art Students League and struck up friendships with other artists, including painter Barnett Newman. Only after returning to Paris in 1948, however, did Herrera fully develop her artistic identity, finding inspiration from the Salon des Réalités Nouvelles (“Salon of New Realities”), a group of artists who mounted an annual exhibition featuring abstract, mostly nonrepresentational work. Reducing her formal vocabulary to its most essential elements, Herrera started creating paintings in which boldly coloured, sharply defined geometric shapes predominated, and she exhibited this new work through the salon in 1949–52. In 1954 Herrera settled permanently in New York City. Though she continued to produce strong work throughout

Cuban-born American abstract painter Carmen Herrera the 1950s, the prejudices that some gallery owners held against women and Latin American artists put her at a disadvantage, as did the fact that her paintings—some of which prefigured the later trends of Op art and hardedged minimalism—were out of step with the period’s fashion for Abstract Expressionism. Herrera continued her precise chromatic explorations in the 1960s and ’70s in works such as Blanco y verde (1966), a triangular sliver of green against an austere white field, and Saturday (1978), a jet-black canvas interrupted by a thick gold zigzag. Since her days in Paris, she had experimented with nonrectangular canvases, and she played with dimensionality in works such as Amarillo (1971), painted on 10cm (4-in)-thick plywood. In 1984 Herrera received her first retrospective, at the Alternative Museum in New York City, but she did not sell a single painting until two decades later when, at age 88, she was included in a show of women geometric painters at New York City’s latincollector gallery (now Frederico Sève Gallery/latincollector). From then on, her art-world stock skyrocketed. Her works were acquired for the permanent collections of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, the Hirshhorn Museum in Washington, D.C., and the Tate Modern in London. (JOHN M. CUNNINGHAM)

Hüfner, Tatjana (b. April 30, 1983, Neuruppin, E.Ger.) German luger Tatjana Hüfner’s spate of victories during the 2009–10 luge season culminated in the gold medal in the women’s singles competition at the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver. Though trailing Austrian Nina Reithmayer and German teammate Natalie Geisenberger after the first run, Hüfner rallied with her second slide and coasted through the remaining two runs to take the gold. It was the crowning glory of a season in which just a month earlier Hüfner had earned her third consecutive International Luge Federation (FIL) World Cup overall title. Hüfner spent her early childhood in Fehrbellin, E.Ger., and in 1988 her family moved to Blankenburg, where they remained after German reunification in 1990. She joined a local tobogganing club in 1992 and began lugeing after her younger brother took up the pastime. Hüfner was soon drawn to the competitive aspect of the sport. She participated in junior luge competitions and won the Saxony-Anhalt regional championship four years in a row (1994–97). In 1997 she enrolled at the Eliteschule des Wintersports (Elite School of Winter Sports) in Oberwiesenthal, an educational institution for athletes partially sponsored by the German luger Tatjana Hüfner

Todd Korol—Reuters/Landov

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Biographies Martin Schutt—dpa/Landov

German Olympic Sports Association. During this time Hüfner continued to participate in numerous luge competitions, each year placing high in the overall Junior World Cup rankings: sixth in 1999–2000, third in 2000–01, second in 2001–02, and third in 2002–03. After graduating from the Eliteschule in 2002, she enlisted at the Sportschule der Bundeswehr (a school for athletes run by the German armed forces), where she attained the rank of master sergeant. In 2002 Hüfner competed in her first German national championship, finishing eighth. In 2004 she placed second in the European championship in Oberhof, Ger., and eighth at the FIL world championships in Nagano, Japan. She steadily accrued further noteworthy performances in 2005, including a fourth-place finish in the World Cup event in Oberhof and a victory in the World Cup race in Altenberg, Ger. In 2006 she qualified to compete in that year’s Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. She and teammates Sylke Otto and Silke Kraushaar-Pielach swept the women’s singles podium, with Hüfner taking the bronze. Hüfner racked up a series of significant wins over the following seasons, including the world championships in 2007 and 2008; in the latter year she was also part of Germany’s gold-medalwinning relay team and earned her first World Cup title. Though she edged out her competitors during most of the 2008–09 season to capture her second overall World Cup, she dropped to sixth place at the 2009 world championships in Lake Placid, N.Y., before making a spectacular recovery on the world stage in 2010. (RICHARD PALLARDY) Janka, Carlo (b. Oct. 15, 1986, Obersaxen, Switz.) Swiss Alpine skier Carlo Janka, whose clean, efficient style and poised determination had resulted in a string of dominating victories on the International Ski Federation (FIS) World Cup circuit, entered the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver as a strong favourite. Though doubts mounted following his first three races, in which he failed to finish higher than fourth, Janka finally met expectations by winning the Olympic gold in the giant slalom. Some two weeks later he confirmed his talent and his versatility by securing the overall title in the 2009–10 Alpine World Cup season, becoming the first Swiss overall champion since Paul Accola in 1992.

win races in three different disciplines on consecutive days since legendary French skier Jean-Claude Killy did so in 1967. Many observers attributed Janka’s success on the slopes to his streamlined style, which eschewed flashy moves in favour of precisely controlled motion and balance. He was also admired for his cool demeanour, a quality that led his Swiss teammates to accord him the nickname “the Iceman.” (JOHN M. CUNNINGHAM)

Olympic giant slalom champion Carlo Janka of Switzerland Janka was born in a mountain village in southeastern Switzerland and began skiing at age two. As a teenager he also excelled at association football (soccer), but Austrian skier Hermann Maier’s multiple-medal-winning performance at the 1998 Winter Olympics held in Nagano, Japan, inspired him to focus exclusively on skiing. In December 2005, four years after his first FIS race, Janka competed in his first World Cup event, and several months later he won a bronze medal in the giant slalom at the FIS junior world championships. Though Janka registered two top-10 finishes in World Cup events in early 2008, his real breakthrough came in November of that year, when he placed second in the downhill race at Lake Louise, Alta., despite having been one of the last skiers on the course. The following month he won his first World Cup race with a victory in the giant slalom at Val-d’Isère, France. At the FIS Alpine world championships in Val-d’Isère in February 2009, Janka took home two medals—a gold in the giant slalom and a bronze in the downhill—and later that month he clinched the World Cup title in the super combined. Despite having suffered from a virus in the summer that severely limited his off-season training, Janka returned to World Cup competition in late 2009 at the peak of his skills. In December, at Beaver Creek, Colo., he scored victories in the super combined, downhill, and giant slalom, becoming the first man to

Jonathan, Goodluck (b. Nov. 20, 1957, Otuoke, Nigeria) The year 2010 was an eventful one for Goodluck Jonathan, who had served as vice president of Nigeria since May 2007. In response to the extended absence of Pres. Umaru Musa Yar’Adua for medical treatment in Saudi Arabia, Jonathan was elevated by members of Nigeria’s National Assembly to serve as acting president in February 2010. Yar’Adua died on May 5, and Jonathan was sworn in as president the following day. In September Jonathan announced his intent to stand in the country’s 2011 presidential election, a decision that drew criticism from some quarters because it breached the unofficial policy of rotating the presidency between candidates from the predominantly Christian south and the predominantly Muslim north. Jonathan was born into the Ijo (Ijaw) ethnic group and was raised a Christian in the region of the Niger delta that later became Nigeria’s Bayelsa state. He went to Christian primary and secondary schools in the area and later attended the University of Port Harcourt, earning a B.S. in zoology (1981), an M.S. in hydrobiology and fisheries biology (1985), and a Ph.D. in zoology (1995). He taught at Rivers State College of Education (1983–93) and then served as an assistant director (1993– 98) at the Oil Mineral Producing Areas Development Commission. Jonathan’s political career began when he became involved with the nascent People’s Democratic Party (PDP) in the late 1990s. He was elected deputy governor of Bayelsa state in 1999 under the party’s banner. He was elevated to the governorship in 2005 after the incumbent was charged with corruption and impeached. Two years later Jonathan was selected to be the vice presidential running mate of Yar’Adua, a Muslim who was the PDP’s presidential candidate. They were elected by a landslide in April 2007. 91

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Nigerian Pres. Goodluck Jonathan As vice president, Jonathan engaged in efforts to negotiate with militants in the Niger delta, who were fighting against petroleum companies operating in the delta region, but otherwise he largely remained in the political background. His profile rose considerably after Yar’Adua went to Saudi Arabia for medical treatment in November 2009. The president’s absence made many Nigerians anxious and generated calls for Yar’Adua to formally transfer power to Jonathan. Despite a ruling by a Nigerian court on January 29 that Yar’Adua was not obligated to hand over power, the National Assembly voted to grant Jonathan power as acting president. After succeeding to the full presidency, Jonathan quickly replaced Yar’Adua’s cabinet. He also vowed to continue his involvement in the Niger delta peace negotiations and declared his intention to reform the country’s oft-criticized electoral process as well as tackle corruption and deal with the country’s energy problems. (AMY MCKENNA)

anthem of Coca-Cola’s 2010 FIFA World Cup campaign. The song’s success was yet another capstone for a musician whose bright melodies and clever, socially conscious lyrics had made him an ambassador for the plight of his homeland. Keinan Abdi Warsame grew up in Mogadishu in an artistic family—his grandfather was a celebrated poet and his aunt a popular singer—and as a child he too displayed a gift for reciting verse. He became drawn to American hip-hop after his father, who was living in New York City, sent him records, and he later taught himself English in part by phonetically imitating the rap songs he admired. When civil war broke out in Somalia in 1991, he fled with his mother and two siblings, settling first in New York City, where he reconnected with his father, and then in a community of Somali immigrants in Toronto. As a teenager Warsame began to write songs to help him process the turmoil he experienced in Mogadishu. After dropping out of school in 10th grade, he honed his performance skills at open-mike nights in Toronto, rapping under the name K’Naan, and he conSomali-born musician K’Naan

Kagan, Elena (b. April 28, 1960, New York, N.Y.) On May 10, 2010, Elena Kagan was nominated by U.S. Pres. Barack Obama to replace retiring Justice John Paul Stevens on the U.S. Supreme Court. Because of Kagan’s reputation for reaching out to conservatives—she had recruited several conservative professors at Harvard Law School (where she was dean), hosted a dinner honouring conservative Justice Antonin Scalia, and received a standing ovation from the conservative Federalist Society—some liberals feared that she might not be a reliable vote for the court’s liberal minority, though she was a passionate advocate of civil rights, including gay rights. Although her lack of judicial experience provoked some criticism, Kagan was confirmed (63–37) by the Sen-

K’Naan (b. May 30, 1978, Mogadishu, Som.) In 2010 the determinedly optimistic song “Wavin’ Flag,” by Somali-born Canadian hip-hop artist K’Naan, became a worldwide sensation. Already a hit in Canada, it was remade in February as a celebrity-studded charity single to benefit victims of the January earthquake in Haiti. Another version, a remix by K’Naan, became the official Direct Current Media

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tributed poems to Somali Web sites. Eventually, he attracted a manager, who secured him an opportunity to participate in an event in Geneva in 2000 marking the 50th anniversary of the creation of the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees. His impassioned spoken-word performance, which openly criticized the UN’s involvement in the Somali civil war, received a standing ovation. It also captured the attention of Senegalese singer Youssou N’Dour, who invited K’Naan to appear on the album Building Bridges (2001), a compilation of songs by musicians living in exile. In 2005 K’Naan released The Dusty Foot Philosopher, a rap album that fused traditional African instrumentation to the familiar structures of American hip-hop. Among its standout tracks, “Soobax” (Somali: “Come Out”) was a direct challenge to the warlords of his native land, rapped and sung in a mix of English and Somali, and “What’s Hardcore?” was a withering commentary on the macho pretenses of some gangsta rappers. Critics lauded K’Naan’s lyrical playfulness and political engagement, and the album won a Juno Award in Canada for best rap recording. After putting out the live recording The Dusty Foot on the Road in 2007, K’Naan expanded his audience with Troubadour (2009). The album, recorded in Jamaica, was another globally inspired concoction, featuring elements of reggae and Ethiopian jazz beneath his ebullient rhymes. In April 2010 he won two more Juno Awards, for artist of the year and songwriter of the year. (JOHN M. CUNNINGHAM)

Biographies

ate on August 5. Two days later she was sworn in as the 112th person and the fourth woman to serve as a U.S. Supreme Court justice. Kagan, the daughter of a lawyer and an elementary-school teacher, was raised in New York City. She received an A.B. in history (1981) from Princeton University and then studied on a scholarship at Worcester College, Oxford (M.Phil., 1983). She subsequently attended Harvard Law School. After having received her law degree in 1986, Kagan spent several years clerking, first for Judge Abner Mikva, who was then serving on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, and then for Thurgood Marshall, an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. She spent a few years in private practice in Washington, D.C., before becoming a law professor at the University of Chicago (where Obama also taught). Plucked out of academia by Pres. Bill Clinton, Kagan served as associate White House counsel (1995–96) and then as deputy assistant (1997–99) to Clinton on his Domestic Policy Council. In 1999 Clinton appointed Kagan to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, but the Republican-controlled Senate Judiciary Committee scheduled no hearings on her nomination. (John G. Roberts, later Supreme Court chief justice, was subsequently nominated to the post after George W. Bush became president.) Thereafter Kagan returned to academia at Harvard Law School, where she taught administrative law, constitutional law, and civil procedure; in 2003 she was appointed dean by Harvard president Lawrence H. Summers, who went on to serve in the Obama administration. In her new post Kagan was charged with overseeing fund-raising and improving student life, and she developed a reputation as a pragmatist able to reduce tension among Harvard’s notoriously fractious law faculty. In 2009 Obama appointed her to serve as the U.S. solicitor general; she was confirmed (61–31) by the U.S. Senate on March 19, the first woman to occupy the post. (MICHAEL LEVY) Kan, Naoto (b. Oct. 10, 1946, Ube, Yamaguchi prefecture, Japan) On Jan. 7, 2010, Naoto Kan, of the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ), was appointed to the post of Japanese finance minister in the government of Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama. The previous September the

party, led by Hatoyama, had soundly defeated the ruling Liberal-Democratic Party (LDP) in general elections to the Diet (parliament). When Kan took over as finance minister, however, no one realized that he would soon be replacing his boss. As Hatoyama’s administration failed at the beginning of June, Kan emerged as the front-runner for party leadership, and on June 4 he secured that and the prime minister’s office. He survived a challenge to his party leadership in mid-September. Kan was raised in southwestern Honshu, and he received a bachelor’s degree in physics (1970) from the Tokyo Institute of Technology. During his student days he became involved in community activism and in the mid-1970s decided to run for political office. He failed three times to win a seat in the Diet before succeeding in 1980 as a member of the tiny Social Democratic Federation. While serving (January–November 1996) as minister of health and welfare in an LDP-led coalition government, Kan rose to national prominence when he publicly acknowledged and exposed the government’s complicity in a scandal that involved an attempt by pharmaceutical companies to cover up their distribution of HIV-tainted blood products to hemophiliacs. Kan cofounded (1996) the DPJ and served as the party’s first president (1998–99) when it was emerging as the main opposition to the dominant LDP. He was replaced (1999) as president by Hatoyama but held the post of party secretary-general (2000–02) before regaining the presidency in 2002. Kan helped guide the DPJ to success in lower-house elections in 2003, when the party significantly increased its number of seats and firmly established its role as the opposition. Despite Kan’s reputation as a reformer, most notably for his willingness to circumvent the government bureaucracy when he deemed it necessary, he was tied to two scandals that damaged his reputation and popularity. He was accused in 1998 of having had an extramarital affair with a campaign aide, and in 2004, after having admitted that he had not paid into the national pension program while serving in the government in 1996, he was forced to resign from the DPJ presidency. Kan stayed largely in the background for the next several years. He regained some of his lost public favour by performing a traditional pilgrimage of Buddhist temples located on the island

of Shikoku. His political fortunes again rose when Hatoyama designated him deputy prime minister in September 2009 before naming him finance minister in January 2010. (KENNETH PLETCHER) Kauffmann, Sylvie (b. Oct. 30, 1955, Marseille, France) In 2010 French journalist Sylvie Kauffmann became the first woman to serve as the executive editor of France’s leading daily newspaper, Le Monde. Kauffmann indicated her desire to bring a new direction and vision not only to the print newspaper but also to the related Web site. Through a more dynamic synergy between print and the Web, she hoped to reach a wide audience and transform Le Monde into “the paper that never sleeps.” Kauffmann earned degrees from the Training Centre for Journalists in Paris and the Institute for Political Studies in Aix-en-Provence, as well as the faculty of law at the University of Provence Aix-Marseille. She also received a degree in Spanish from the University of Deusto in Bilbao, Spain. In 1979 Kauffmann began working at Agence France-Presse, the largest news agency in France, as a foreign correspondent stationed in various locations, including London, Warsaw, and Moscow. Eight years later she joined Le Monde as the paper’s Moscow correspondent. The following year she became the correspondent for eastern and central Europe, a position that enabled her to be among the first to report on the fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1993 Kauffmann was transferred to the United States, where she served as Washington correspondent and then New York bureau chief (1996–2001). She was widely noted for her objective reporting on American affairs, and in 2002 she wrote a prizewinning series of articles about life in the U.S. following the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. After serving as deputy executive editor (2004–06), Kauffmann was a senior correspondent covering Southeast Asia. In the early 21st century, Le Monde suffered a series of woes, including a drop in sales, internal struggles, and the threat of recapitalization, which ultimately ended journalists’ long-standing majority ownership (2010). In 2009, in the pursuit of a greater focus on international relations, Kauffmann’s predecessor as executive editor, Alain Frachon, was named the paper’s international editorial director. Éric Fottorino, chief executive of Groupe Le 93

Biographies Karlheinz Schindler—dpa/Landov

Monde, subsequently offered Frachon’s former position to Kauffmann, who immediately accepted. Kauffmann, who had spent nearly two decades abroad, avoided the internal political debates that had preceded prior appointments to the top editorial position, and she returned to France to work alongside Frachon before formally succeeding him in the post in early 2010. (JEANNETTE NOLEN; HEATHER CAMPBELL) Kaufmann, Jonas (b. July 10, 1969, Munich, W.Ger.) German tenor Jonas Kaufmann kept New York City’s Metropolitan Opera (Met) goers busy in 2010 with virtually back-to-back bookings as Cavaradossi in Puccini’s Tosca in April and Don José in Bizet’s Carmen in May. Renowned for his extraordinary technique, his versatility as a performer of German, French, and Italian repertoire, and his charismatic projection of a range of emotions, Kaufmann drew—as expected—thunderous ovations from his audiences. In July he made his muchanticipated debut at the Bayreuth (Ger.) Festival starring in Richard Wagner’s Lohengrin. Kaufmann developed an affinity for classical music largely through listening to his father’s records and attending performances for children at the Bavarian State Opera. When he was about eight years old, he started taking piano lessons. He was not enamoured with the instrument, but he became captivated whenever his grandfather took a seat at the piano to play from opera scores by Wagner while singing the vocal parts. It was these performances that ultimately kindled Kaufmann’s desire to become an opera singer. Throughout primary and secondary school, Kaufmann performed in school choirs. He did not initially pursue music at the university level but followed the advice of his parents and enrolled in a program in mathematics. After just two semesters, he auditioned for and was admitted to the Hochschule für Musik und Theater in Munich, where he received his first formal training as a concert and opera singer. While still a student, he took small roles in local opera productions, but after graduating in 1994 he performed in operas throughout Germany. In 1997 Kaufmann received his first international engagement, in Milan, in a production of Mozart’s Così fan tutte. Kaufmann subsequently returned to Germany to partner with pianist Hel94

German tenor Jonas Kaufmann mut Deutsch to perform a broad spectrum of German art songs, or lieder. The duo toured internationally and later recorded a number of albums together. In 2000 Kaufmann accepted a permanent position with the Zürich Opera. The following year he performed for the first time in the U.S., singing Cassio in the Chicago Lyric Opera’s production of Verdi’s Otello. In 2003 he played the role of Belmonte in Mozart’s Die Entführung aus dem Serail (Abduction from the Seraglio), mounted at Austria’s annual Salzburg Festival. The turning point in Kaufmann’s career came with his 2006 debut at the Met, where he sang Alfredo in Verdi’s La traviata. The overwhelmingly enthusiastic response to his performance triggered a spate of international offers that propelled him into the centre of the operatic mainstream. After his breakthrough, Kaufmann performed leading roles at the world’s major opera houses. He also released several recordings of favourites from the operatic repertoire, including Romantic Arias (2007) and Sehnsucht (2009; “Longing”). Aside from his operatic engagements, he maintained an active solo-concert schedule, with German art songs, as heard on his recordings Strauss Lieder (2006) and Schubert’s Die schöne Müllerin (2009), remaining among his specialties. (VIRGINIA GORLINSKI) Komorowski, Bronislaw (b. June 4, 1952, Oborniki Slaskie, Pol.) In April 2010 Polish politician Bronislaw Komorowski was named acting

president of Poland after the death of Pres. Lech Kaczynski in a plane crash while en route to a memorial service to commemorate the Katyn Massacre. Constitutionally obliged to call an election within two weeks of Kaczynski’s death, Komorowski announced that a first round of polling would occur on June 20 and that he would seek to run as the candidate for the centre-right Civic Platform (PO). Komorowski, who had already won the PO’s first-ever primary election (in March), finished first in the June poll with 41.5%—ahead of his most prominent opponent in the race, Kaczynski’s twin brother, former prime minister Jaroslaw Kaczynski, who represented the conservative Law and Justice (PiS) party. However, because no candidate tallied at least 50% of the vote, a runoff election was held in July. In that contest Komorowski prevailed 53–47%. The new president sought to bring a new direction to Poland’s foreign affairs, especially after the media organization WikiLeaks released confidential U.S. diplomatic cables in November that appeared to show U.S. officials emphasizing relations with Russia over those with Poland. After meeting with U.S. Pres. Barack Obama in December, Komorowski stated, “I simply believe that very much has gone the wrong way in Polish-American relations.” Komorowski was born to an aristocratic family, but the communist regime in post-World War II Poland created a challenging environment for members of the hereditary landowning class. His family moved frequently before settling in Warsaw when Komorowski was a teenager. He became active in the anticommunist movement while he was still a high school student, and his dissident activities led to his first arrest in 1971. He earned a bachelor’s degree in history (1977) from the University of Warsaw, and throughout the 1980s he taught at the Niepokalanow seminary near Warsaw. Komorowski also remained a committed dissident during this period, working as the editor of an underground publication. With the fall of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989, Komorowski launched his political career, initially serving on the Council of Ministers before his election to the Sejm (parliament) in 1991. Over the following decade, he held a number of ministerial posts, including defense minister (2000–01) in the government of Prime Minister Jerzy Buzek. Komorowski joined the PO in 2001, and five years

Biographies

later he was named party vice-chairman. He continued his rise in the Sejm, and in November 2007 he was elected speaker of that body. As speaker, Komorowski sponsored a number of proEuropean Union and economic-reform initiatives that often brought him into conflict with the more euroskeptic President Kaczynski. President Komorowski’s pro-EU views, however, were considered likely to provide him with an opportunity to pursue a greater role for Poland within the EU. (MICHAEL RAY) Kramer, Sven (b. April 23, 1986, Heerenveen, Neth.) Expectations were high for Dutch speed skater Sven Kramer at the start of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, where he was predicted to excel, notably in the 5,000- and 10,000-m races, both distances in which he had held the world record since 2007. Although he won a gold medal in the 5,000 m, as well as a bronze in team pursuit, it was his misfortune in the 10,000-m final that made the most headlines. Despite crossing the finish line with a winning (and Olympic record) time of 12 min 54.50 sec, Kramer was disqualified because he had followed his coach’s mistaken lanechange instruction with eight laps to go. Although the seemingly invincible skater was devastated at the unexpected turn of events, he recovered his Dutch speed-skating world champion Sven Kramer

aplomb and a month later won both the 5,000- and 10,000-m races at the International Skating Union world championships back home in Heerenveen, thus securing his fourth consecutive all-around speed-skating title. Kramer, the son of former Olympic speed skater Yep Kramer, grew up in Heerenveen, an important training centre for the Netherlands’s powerhouse speed skaters; his younger sister, Brecht Kramer, also competed in the sport. He received his first major recognition in 2004, when he won the Dutch allaround title. In 2005 he placed third at the world all-around speed-skating championships in Moscow and set his first world record, a blistering 6 min 8.78 sec in the 5,000 m, later in the year. That year he also was named the world all-around champion in the junior division. Kramer received a second bronze in the world all-around competition in 2006. At the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, he competed in four events, capturing a silver medal in the 5,000 m and a bronze in the team pursuit. Following the Turin Games, Kramer established himself as one of the premier long-distance speed skaters. In 2007 he won the first of four consecutive overall titles at both the world and European all-around championships; later that year he was named Dutch Sportsman of the Year. Along the way, he set several world records in the 10,000 m, including a time of 12 min 41.69 sec at the 2007 world single-distance championships in Salt Lake City, Utah. He also set a world record of 6 min 3.32 sec in the 5,000 m at a 2007 World Cup event, in Calgary, Alta. Both records stood at year-end 2010, but a leg injury kept Kramer, still only age 24, out of the 2010–11 skating season. (MELISSA ALBERT) Lady Gaga (b. March 28, 1986, New York, N.Y.) On Jan. 31, 2010, Lady Gaga opened the Grammy Awards telecast with an explosive production of her hit single “Poker Face” followed by a more subdued two-piano duet with Sir Elton John of a fusion of her “Speechless” and his “Your Song.” From her two Grammy wins (for best electronic/dance album and best dance recording [for “Poker Face”]) to her three Brit Awards in February, her eight wins at the Video Music Awards in September, her triumph as favourite female artist at the American Music Awards in November, and her six Grammy nominations in De-

cember, 2010 was in many ways the year of Gaga. It was almost inevitable that the flashy singer-songwriter would be named one of Time magazine’s 100 Most Influential People for the year, one of the world’s most powerful women by Forbes magazine, and Billboard magazine’s Artist of the Year. Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta learned music at an early age and was performing onstage in New York City clubs by the time she was a teenager. She studied for two years at the Tisch School of the Arts at New York University before dropping out to manage her own career. She began transforming herself into Lady Gaga—a name derived from Queen’s song “Radio Ga Ga”—with a style that combined glam rock and over-the-top fashion design. In 2007 she and performance artist Lady Starlight formed a revue called the Ultimate Pop Burlesque Rockshow. That year Lady Gaga, who also wrote songs for other pop artists such as Fergie, the Pussycat Dolls, and Britney Spears, was signed by the rapper Akon and Interscope Records and began preparing her debut album, The Fame. Although Lady Gaga modeled herself on such theatrical performers as David Bowie during his Ziggy Stardust period, the New York Dolls, and Freddie Mercury of the band Queen, she created a character that came to occupy a unique space in the music world. Her extravagant costumes and eye-catching wigs—many of them created by her own Haus of Gaga—combined with her up-tempo synthetic dance music and edgy performance style to create stunning sounds and onstage visuals. Lady Gaga’s 2008 single “Just Dance” (off The Fame) earned a Grammy nomination in 2009, which made her ineligible for a nomination in 2010 as best new artist. (This perceived injustice prompted the Recording Academy to revise that rule later in 2010.) Three other singles from The Fame—“Poker Face,” “LoveGame,” and “Paparazzi”— also reached number one. In early 2009 Lady Gaga performed on the Fame Ball Tour. The following November she embarked on the Monster Ball Tour to coincide with the release of her second album, The Fame Monster. Although the album contained only eight songs, three of them (“Bad Romance,” “Telephone,” and “Alejandro”) became hits and were ubiquitous on popular radio stations in 2010. From her headline performance at Chicago’s Lollapalooza music festival and her appearance in front of 20,000

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people for NBC’s Today show to her sold-out tour, Lady Gaga proved one of the most commercially successful artists of the year. (MICHAEL LEVY) Li Yuchun (b. March 10, 1984, Chengdu, Sichuan province, China) Chinese pop singing sensation Li Yuchun enjoyed a memorable night on April 18, 2010, when she attended the Hong Kong Film Awards as a double nominee. Her first foray as an actress, playing a young kung fu expert in the 2009 picture Bodyguards and Assassins, had netted her nominations for best supporting actress and best new artist. In addition, the theme song for the movie, “Fenmo” (“Dust”), for which she was the vocalist, was among the nominees for best original song. Imaginechina/AP

Chinese pop singer Li Yuchun Though she did not garner either award that night, the nominations burnished Li’s legend after her phenomenal rise to the top of the Chinese pop-music world over the previous five years. Li Yuchun (who called herself Chris Lee or Chris Li in English) was born and raised in Chengdu in southern China. She aspired to a career as a singer but while growing up received no formal musical training. She successfully sought admission to the Sichuan Conservatory of Music in Chengdu, however, and she studied there in 2002–06. 96

In 2005, while Li was still a student, she entered the Super Girl contest, a nationwide televised talent competition restricted to women and girls. She was one of some 150,000 aspirants originally. Although she did not have the best voice or dancing skills among the top contestants, Li captivated and won over audiences with her unorthodox androgynous looks and passionate delivery. By the final night of the competition, an estimated 400 million viewers were tuned in to the show as Li beat out her closest opponent by more than a quarter of a million votes. Li’s life thereafter was a whirlwind of performances and public appearances. She recorded and released her first studio album, Huanghou yu mengxiang (“The Queen and the Dreams”), in September 2006, and more discs followed, including her self-titled Li Yuchun (or Chris Lee) in 2009. Her concerts were wildly popular and included several annual shows titled “Why Me,” which were staged to thank her fans—mostly teenage girls—many of whom referred to themselves as “yumis,” or “corns,” a play on the Chinese characters for the term yu mi, which can be interpreted as meaning either “Yu’s fans” or “corn” (i.e., maize). Li’s popularity spread beyond China, as indicated by the distinction she achieved at the 2008 MTV Asia Awards ceremony in Malaysia, where she was named favourite artist from China, and by the enthusiastic reception she received while performing at the 2009 Asia Song Festival in Seoul. (KENNETH PLETCHER) LuPone, Patti, (b. April 21, 1949, Northport, Long Island, N.Y.) In November 2010 actresssinger Patti LuPone took to the stage of New York City’s Belasco Theater in the Lincoln Center Theater’s production of Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown, a musical adaptation of the Pedro Almodóvar film of the same name. Though the show was unevenly reviewed, LuPone drew raves as the recently released mental patient Lucía. In September she granted fans a first-person look at her varied career with the publication of Patti LuPone: A Memoir, a volume rife with accounts of offstage theatrics and showbiz wheeling and dealing. Patti Ann LuPone attended the drama division of the Juilliard School, New York City, which had just been formed by American producer John Houseman and the French director Michel SaintDenis. In 1971 she made her stage de-

Stage and singing star Patti LuPone but in the rock musical Iphigenia at the Young Vic Theatre in London. Despite a fractious relationship with Houseman, she joined his traveling repertory troupe, the Acting Company, when she graduated from Juilliard in 1972. LuPone made her Broadway debut in 1973 as Irina in Anton Chekhov’s The Three Sisters. Her work in the fairy tale The Robber Bridegroom (Oct. 7–18, 1975) at the Harkness Theatre earned her a Tony Award nomination for best actress in a musical. After having parted with the Acting Company in 1976, LuPone joined a touring production of Stephen Schwartz’s musical The Baker’s Wife (1976) and acted in a series of David Mamet plays. LuPone’s breakthrough came in 1979 when she debuted as Eva Perón in Andrew Lloyd Webber’s musical Evita. The production, initially staged in Los Angeles, traveled to Broadway, where LuPone’s dynamic embodiment of the Argentine icon won her the Tony Award for best actress in a musical. She continued to work steadily in New York and elsewhere. In 1985 her performances as both Fantine in the Royal Shakespeare Company’s production of the musical Les Misérables and Moll in a London revival of the Depression-era musical The Cradle Will Rock won her the Laurence Olivier Award for best actress in a musical. Mixed reviews for her performance in the London production of Lloyd Webber’s musical Sunset Boulevard (1992) led him to replace her with Glenn Close on Broadway, but LuPone remained a regular figure on the New York stage. She earned another Tony nomination

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for her portrayal of Mrs. Lovett in Sweeney Todd (2005) and dazzled audiences as the obsessive Momma Rose in a revival of Gypsy (2007), for which she won her second Tony for best actress in a musical. In 2007 she branched out in the Los Angeles Opera’s production of Kurt Weill’s The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny. LuPone also appeared in films such as Witness (1985), Summer of Sam (1999), and State and Main (2000) and on television, notably as the mother of a boy with Down syndrome on Life Goes On (1989–93). (RICHARD PALLARDY) Lynch, Jane (b. July 14, 1960, Dolton, Ill.) On Aug. 29, 2010, Jane Lynch received a supporting actress Emmy Award for her performance in the TV comedy series Glee. The American actress and comedian, who specialized in playing off-kilter characters with strong (sometimes tyrannical) personalities, won the award for her portrayal of Sue Sylvester, a wildly aggressive, acerbictongued cheerleading coach and archenemy to a high-school glee club. Lynch grew up in small-town Illinois, where she performed with her highschool choir. She received a bachelor’s degree in theatre (1982) from Illinois State University and a master’s degree in acting (1984) from Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. Lynch then moved to Chicago, where over the next decade she performed with the Steppenwolf Theatre Company, the Chicago Shake-

Versatile American actress Jane Lynch

speare Theater, and other stage companies around the city. She also toured with the Second City comedy troupe and, in the early 1990s, with Annoyance Theatre’s cult hit The Real Live Brady Bunch, a stage show that featured reenactments of old episodes of the TV sitcom The Brady Bunch. One of Lynch’s first film roles was in the action drama The Fugitive (1993), parts of which were filmed in Chicago. That experience was the catalyst for her move to Los Angeles, where she found steady work in commercials and on television shows, including Married . . . with Children, 3rd Rock from the Sun, and Frasier. Lynch was age 39 and still a little-known name when she met director Christopher Guest on the set of a TV cereal commercial. That meeting led to Guest’s casting her as a highly competitive dog trainer in Best in Show (2000), an improvisation-based mockumentary that lampooned the eccentric world of dog shows. Guest was known for working with the same actors from film to film, and he cast Lynch in his next two movies, as a porn-star-turned-folk-singer in A Mighty Wind (2003) and as an entertainment TV host in For Your Consideration (2006). Her performances in Guest’s films led to roles in other movies, notably Judd Apatow’s blockbuster comedy The 40-Year-Old Virgin (2005) and Julie & Julia (2009), in which she played the sister of Meryl Streep’s Julia Child. Lynch continued working in television, honing her reputation as a versatile character actress on such programs as The King of Queens, Arrested Development, Criminal Minds, and The L Word. She also had a recurring voice role on the animated TV series Family Guy. Lynch had worked with TV writer Ryan Murphy on an episode of his program Popular, and in 2008 he cast her in the pilot for Glee. The show premiered in 2009 and was an immediate hit, not least because of Lynch’s hilarious turn as the sarcastic coach of the “Cheerios.” Lynch, who was openly lesbian, was active in the gay rights movement. In 2008 she appeared in a short film lampooning Proposition 8, a ballot initiative that barred same-sex marriage in California. (MELISSA ALBERT) Lysacek, Evan (b. June 4, 1985, Chicago, Ill.) At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Evan Lysacek, the 2009 International Skating Union (ISU) men’s

Olympic champion ice skater Evan Lysacek world figure skating champion, upset Russian defending gold medalist Yevgeny Plushchenko to become the first American man to win Olympic figure skating gold since Brian Boitano in 1988. Lysacek’s technical elements (footwork, spins, and jumps) were judged superior to those of Plushchenko, who, unlike Lysacek, had included in his program a quadruple jump, which he believed would secure his victory. Lysacek started skating at age eight after his grandmother purchased a pair of hockey skates for him. Though he initially showed no natural ability on the ice, he soon improved after learning the basics in group lessons with his sister’s figure skating classes. After mastering a few tricks, he was encouraged by private coaches to pursue figure skating. In just one year, Lysacek qualified to contest at national competitions, and he captured first place at the juvenile skill level at the 1996 Junior Olympics. He went on to win at the novice (1999) and junior (2000) levels. After graduating from high school, Lysacek moved to California, where he trained under famed coach Frank Carroll. At the 2006 Olympic Winter Games in Turin, Italy, Lysacek was in 10th place

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at the end of the short program and sick with the stomach flu. He gained national attention by fighting through his illness during the free skate and ultimately placing fourth overall in the men’s skating event. In 2007 he captured the bronze medal at the ISU Grand Prix Final. In the U.S. championships at the senior level, he was twice gold medalist (2007 and 2008), silver medalist (2006 and 2010), and bronze medalist (2005 and 2009). Though injury forced him to withdraw from the world championships in 2008, Lysacek was victorious at that competition in 2009; he was the first American in 13 years (since Todd Eldredge) to become world champion. That year Lysacek also won the Grand Prix Final. Following the 2010 Olympics, Lysacek bypassed the world championships and performed in ice-skating shows and on the popular celebritydriven television program Dancing with the Stars, where he finished in second place. (KAREN SPARKS) Mackey, Lance (b. 1970, Alaska) On March 16, 2010, American musher Lance Mackey crossed the finish line to become the first person to win Alaska’s Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race four years in a row. He finished with a race time of 8 days 23 hr 59 min 9 sec (falling short of Martin Buser’s 2002 record of 8 days 22 hr 46 min 2 sec by just over an hour), which made him only the second musher to complete the Iditarod in less than 9 days. Although other drivers had won the race four or more times in a career, before Mackey only two other mushers, Susan Butcher (1986–88) and Doug Swingley (1999– 2001), had won three straight. Prior to his first Iditarod win, in 2007, Mackey had never placed higher than seventh in the event. Mackey’s dogsled experience began, as he put it, “at birth.” The son of champion musher Dick Mackey, he grew up in Alaska, where he and his five siblings raced from an early age. In 1973, when Mackey was a toddler, his father helped found the Iditarod Trail Seppala Memorial Race (later renamed the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race), which stretched about 1,770 km (1,100 mi) between the Alaskan cities of Anchorage and Nome. The event soon became the sport’s foremost competition. Mackey’s father won the Iditarod in 1978, and his eldest brother, Rick, won in 1983, creating a family legacy that the younger Mackey was determined to continue. 98

Mackey competed between 1985 and 1988 in the Jr. Iditarod Sled Dog Race, an event established in 1978 as a training ground for aspiring participants in the Iditarod. His best finish in the youth race was fourth place, in 1988. In 2001 he entered his first Iditarod and placed 36th out of 57 finishers. That same year he was diagnosed with throat cancer. After undergoing successful surgery and radiation treatments, Mackey entered the 2002 Iditarod while still using a feeding tube inserted into his stomach. His compromised health forced him to quit halfway through the race, and he took the following year off to recover. In honour of his medical struggles and eventual return to competition, Mackey named his sled dog business Comeback Kennel, Inc. Mackey returned to the Iditarod in 2004 and finished in 24th place. While continuing to compete in that race, he also began contending in the Yukon Quest, an annual 1,609-km (1,000-mi) dogsled race from Fairbanks, Alaska, to Whitehorse, Yukon. He placed first every year from 2005, when he was a race rookie, to 2008, thereby becoming the first four-time winner of that event. He also became the first musher to win both the Yukon Quest and the Iditarod in the same year, achieving this in both 2007 and 2008. (MELISSA ALBERT) Maddow, Rachel (b. April 1, 1973, Castro Valley, Calif.) The events of 2010 presented American political commentator and host Rachel Maddow with more than ample material for her cable-television program, The Rachel Maddow Show—a mixture of news, opinion, and entertainment— which debuted on MSNBC on Sept. 8, 2008. Maddow, a relatively rare liberal breakout star among political media figures, was kept busy fielding stories on BP’s Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the U.S. midterm elections, the debate over rescinding the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell policy on homosexuals in the U.S. military, and many more. While she did not hold back regarding the liberal opinions she held and advocated on radio and TV, she was known for expressing them with a sense of humour and with a lack of bluster that was unusual in the world of politically oriented programming. Rachel Anne Maddow grew up in the San Francisco Bay area. She attended Stanford University, where she earned a B.A. in public policy (1994), and she subsequently worked with the AIDS Legal Referral Panel in San Francisco and

Political commentator and TV host Rachel Maddow became a prison AIDS advocate. While in college, she decided to come out as a lesbian by posting copies of an open letter to the community throughout her dormitory. In 1995 she attended the University of Oxford as a Rhodes scholar, and she received a doctorate in politics in 2001. Before finishing her degree, Maddow moved back to the United States, settling in western Massachusetts and resuming her AIDS prison advocacy. During that time she answered a local radio station’s open audition call on a morning show in Holyoke, Mass., and won the job. Maddow was the host’s on-air sidekick for about a year before securing her own show at a Northampton station. In 2004, when Maddow was working as a morning disc jockey, a friend gave tapes of her work to a host on the fledgling Air America liberal radio network. Maddow was hired immediately as a news reader and soon became cohost of Unfiltered with Lizz Winstead and Chuck D. After that show’s cancellation in 2005, she was offered her own selftitled weekday show. She quickly built her reputation as an issue-oriented, fair-minded, left-leaning “policy wonk.” While continuing her radio work, in 2005 she began appearing on TV on conservative Tucker Carlson’s MSNBC talk program. After several years of appearances on cable news and discussion shows, as well as a stint as a frequent guest host on MSNBC’s Countdown with Keith Olbermann, Maddow was given her own show, The Rachel Maddow Show. Her

Biographies

radio program on Air America ended with the demise of that network in January 2010. (LORRAINE MURRAY) Mankell, Henning (b. Feb. 3, 1948, Stockholm, Swed.) In 2010 Swedish crime writer Henning Mankell’s novel Kinesen (2007) was at last published in English translation, as The Man from Beijing. Some Englishlanguage fans were disappointed that the book featured Judge Birgitta Roslin and not the gloomy, dysfunctional police inspector Kurt Wallander, a favourite in nine previous novels and on television. In November, however, Mankell announced that The Troubled Man, a translation of his latest Wallander novel, Den orolige mannen (2009), would reach his eager English-language readers in March 2011. Mankell grew up in Sveg, a small town in the Härjedalen region of central Sweden, where his father served as a judge. (His mother deserted the family when he was a toddler.) At age 16 Mankell joined the merchant marine, and he worked for two years as a stevedore on a freighter. When he returned to Stockholm after an extended stay in Paris, Mankell tried his hand at playwriting before publishing the novel Bergsprängaren (1973; “The Stone Blaster”). He continued to publish fiction, including the juvenile novel Sandmålaren (1974; “The Sand Painter”) and the first Wallander novel, Mördare utan ansikte (1991; Faceless Killers). Thereafter, he wrote one Wallander book a year, beginning with Hundarna i Riga (1992;

Swedish crime author Henning Mankell

The Dogs of Riga) and ending with Pyramiden (1999; The Pyramid), a prequel to the first Wallander book. Mankell then waited a decade to feature Wallander in Den orolige mannen. Mankell’s Wallander novels, set mostly in what he depicts as a particularly bleak region of Sweden, have a strong sense of place. Lean and dark, they reflect on what it means to be Swedish— indeed, what it means to be human— in a brutal and depressing world. Even though he was not especially likable or attractive, Inspector Wallander—with his divorced loner status, his bad eating habits, and his deeply pessimistic outlook—seemed to strike a chord with readers, and Mankell’s crime novels were translated into dozens of languages. Sales were further spurred when many of the books were adapted for TV in both Swedish and English. Mankell’s non-Wallander crime novels feature such characters as police officer Stefan Lindman (Danslärarens återkomst, 2000; The Return of the Dancing Master) and Judge Roslin. He also continued to write other books, including several—such as Eldens hemlighet (1995; Secrets in the Fire)—for a younger audience. Mankell maintained a strong connection with the theatre that began in his youth. His numerous plays include Darwins kapten (Darwin’s Captain) and Mörkertid (Time of Darkness), which had their world premieres on Oct. 29, 2010, in Stockholm and Amersfoort, Neth., respectively. After having worked as director (1984–87) of a theatre in Växjö, Swed., he became the artistic director and contributing playwright of Teatro Avenida in Maputo, Mozam., in 1987. Thereafter he divided his time between his homes in Stockholm and Mozambique. Mankell’s social activism extended to AIDS work in Africa. His nonfiction book Jag dör, men minnet lever (2003; I Die, but My Memory Lives On) is a reflection on his experiences in that regard. (KATHLEEN KUIPER) Mantel, Hilary (b. July 6, 1952, Hadfield, Derbyshire, Eng.) In March 2010 it was announced that English writer Hilary Mantel had won the 2009 National Book Critics Circle Award for fiction for her novel Wolf Hall. A voluminous narrative based on the life of Thomas Cromwell, the principal adviser to King Henry VIII of England, the book was lauded for its impressive scope and complex portrayal of its subject. Mantel had also captured the 2009 Man Booker Prize

for the novel. It was also short-listed for the 2010 Orange Prize for Fiction and won the inaugural Walter Scott Prize for historical fiction. Though Mantel had long been admired by critics for her bleakly comic, socially probing novels, she now found herself with an international best seller as well. Hilary Mary Mantel was born Hilary Mary Thompson, but she later took her unofficial stepfather’s surname. She attended convent school before embarking on a law degree at the London School of Economics. She finished her studies at the University of Sheffield in 1973 and found work first as a social worker and then as a store assistant. After moving to Botswana with her husband, a geologist, Mantel turned her attention to creating fiction, driven to write by the cultural isolation she experienced as well as by the inactivity imposed on her by a chronic medical condition, later diagnosed as endometriosis. In 1983 she and her husband relocated to Jiddah, Saudi Arabia, where she completed her first novel, Every Day Is Mother’s Day (1985), before eventually moving back to England. The book, a dark comedy about a social worker’s involvement with an emotionally unbalanced woman and her autistic daughter, established Mantel’s reputation for vivid characterization and sharp social criticism, and she capitalized on the book’s success a year later with a sequel, Vacant Possession. In 1987 Mantel wrote an essay for the British magazine The Spectator about her experiences in Jiddah, and she subsequently served (1987–91) as a film and book reviewer for the publication. Jiddah also provided the backdrop for the political thriller, Eight Months on Ghazzah Street (1988). Mantel followed that book with Fludd (1989), a fanciful religious mystery set in 1950s England. Mantel’s novel A Place of Greater Safety (1992) is a richly detailed chronicle of the French Revolution. She drew on her years in Botswana for the novel A Change of Climate (1994) and on her own straitened adolescence for the clear-eyed coming-of-age novel An Experiment in Love (1995). Three years later she returned to historical fiction with The Giant, O’Brien, which imaginatively explores and contrasts the lives of two real 18th-century figures—a freakishly tall sideshow performer steeped in the Irish oral tradition and a Scottish surgeon. In 2003 Mantel published a memoir, Giving Up the Ghost, which depicts her anxiety-ridden childhood and her later

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struggle with illness, and Learning to Talk, a collection of loosely autobiographical short stories. Beyond Black (2005), a wryly humorous novel about a psychic, was short-listed for the Orange Prize for Fiction. Mantel was made CBE in 2006. (JOHN M. CUNNINGHAM) McChrystal, Stanley (b. Aug. 14, 1954) U.S. Army Gen. Stanley McChrystal, the commander of U.S. and NATO forces in Afghanistan since June 2009, crafted a counterinsurgency strategy for the region that relied heavily on increased troop strength. U.S. Pres. Barack Obama approved the deployment of an additional 30,000 troops in December 2009, and the “surge” in Afghanistan began in earnest in early 2010. With a total strength of nearly 100,000 troops, McChrystal intended to reduce civilian deaths and promote security and development at the local level. In June, however, he was relieved of his command after he and members of his staff made derisive comments about top officials in the Obama administration to a reporter from Rolling Stone magazine. McChrystal attended the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y., and graduated as a second lieutenant in 1976. As a first lieutenant, McChrystal commanded a Green Beret unit (1979–80) before attending advanced infantry officer training school and receiving a promotion to captain. In the 1980s he served as an intelligence officer with the UN Command in South Korea, and he was promoted to major during an extended stint with the 75th Ranger Regiment at Fort Benning, Georgia. In 1990 he earned a master’s degree in national security and strategic studies from the Naval War College in Newport, R.I., and he was assigned to the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC)—a standing task force that integrates special operations units—at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. During the Persian Gulf War (1990–91), McChrystal was deployed to Saudi Arabia, and JSOC oversaw the search for Iraqi mobile Scud missile launchers. Shortly after the conflict, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. McChrystal then held commands in the 82nd Airborne Division and the 75th Ranger Regiment. In 1996, shortly after he had begun a year of study at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, he was elevated to full colonel. He returned to the 82nd Airborne in 2000 and was promoted to brigadier general the follow100

Retired general Stanley McChrystal ing year. After the September 11 attacks of 2001, McChrystal served as chief of staff of the combined joint task force operating in Afghanistan. He assumed command of JSOC in 2003 and oversaw the capture that year of Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein and the 2006 air strike that killed al-Qaeda leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. McChrystal’s success earned him his second (2004) and third (2006) stars. Though credited with initiating an era of cooperation between the previously insular JSOC and the Central Intelligence Agency, he was criticized for his role in suppressing evidence in the “friendly fire” death of Ranger and former National Football League player Pat Tillman, and incidences of prisoner abuse were alleged to have taken place under McChrystal’s supervision of Iraq’s Camp Nama. Nevertheless, he was named director of the Joint Staff in August 2008. In June 2009, as the tide in Afghanistan appeared to be turning against the U.S., McChrystal was given command of the joint NATO-U.S. mission there and received his fourth star soon afterward. When McChrystal retired from the military in July 2010, he was allowed to depart as a four-star general despite having not held that rank for the required three years. (MICHAEL RAY) McGorry, Patrick (b. 1952, Dublin, Ire.) In 2010 Irish-born Australian psychiatrist Patrick McGorry, best known for his research and advocacy efforts in the area of youth mental health, was named Australian of the Year. He was

also appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia for his efforts to improve mental health services, particularly for Australia’s youth. Patrick Dennistoun McGorry was the son of a doctor. In 1955, when McGorry was two years old, the family moved from Finglas, an area of northern Dublin, to Swansea, Wales. In 1968 the family immigrated to Australia. McGorry earned bachelor’s degrees in medicine and surgery (1977) from the University of Sydney and followed with a doctorate (1991) in psychiatry from Monash University in Melbourne. While he pursued a medical degree from the University of Melbourne, he founded (1992) and was subsequently appointed director of the university’s Early Psychosis Prevention and Intervention Centre (EPPIC), which offered services intended to diagnose and treat the early symptoms of psychosis. Also in 1992 he became an associate professor of psychiatry, and in 1996 he became director of the university’s Centre for Young People’s Mental Health (renamed Orygen Youth Health in 2002). In 2003 the Australian federal government awarded McGorry the Centenary Medal for the establishment of EPPIC, which was the first organization of its kind in Australia to focus on young people in general, as opposed to adolescents or adults specifically. The centre’s structure and services proved to be an influential model for other such facilities in Asia, Europe, and North America. In 2002 McGorry completed his medical training, and four years later he was appointed to Australia’s first chair of youth mental health at the University of Melbourne. McGorry was a founding director and board member of the National Youth Mental Health Foundation (also known as Headspace), a mental health initiative of the Australian federal government. The foundation offered information, services, and support in the areas of mental health and social well-being. In addition to his work in the field of early psychosis, McGorry was noted for his significant research contributions to the broader field of youth mental health, including the areas of suicide, homelessness, substance abuse, personality disorders, schizophrenia, torture, and trauma. He received criticism for his advocacy of administering preventive medicine to individuals who might be at high risk of developing mental illness, as they could face potential side effects from medications prescribed to prevent disorders that might not materialize.

Biographies

McGorry held various editorial positions, including editor in chief of the journal Early Intervention in Psychiatry, associate editor of the Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, and editorial board member of Schizophrenia Bulletin and Schizophrenia Research. He was also the coauthor or coeditor of several books, including The Recognition and Management of Early Psychosis: A Preventive Approach, 2nd ed. (2009). (JEANNETTE NOLEN)

won at least one tournament in each of the following three years, and he finished the 1996 PGA season with his first top-10 world ranking (seventh). He rose to second in the rankings in 2001, behind fellow American Tiger Woods. The two developed a rivalry that came to dominate the sport throughout the decade as the outgoing Mickelson and the more reserved Woods divided golf fans with their disparate personalities and approaches to the game. Despite his great success on the Tour, Mickelson gained a reputation as the best player in the world to have never won a major tournament (the Masters, the U.S. Open, the British Open, or the PGA Championship), a distinction made more burdensome by his finishing second or third in six majors between 1999 and 2003.

Mickelson, Phil (b. June 16, 1970, San Diego, Calif.) On April 11, 2010, American golfer Phil Mickelson won his third green jacket as champion of the Masters Tournament, placing himself into a tie with four others for the third highest career total in that prestigious tournament’s Chuck Burton/AP history. Although he fared less well later in the season, Mickelson was still among the top PGA money winners in 2010, and he qualified on points to represent the U.S. on his eighth consecutive Ryder Cup team. (He won his match, despite the overall U.S. loss.) Philip Alfred Mickelson took to golf at an extremely young age, hitting his first golf balls at just age 18 months. He learned the basics of the sport by mirroring his father’s swing, which led the naturally right-handed Phil to adopt the left-handed stroke that would later lead to his nickname, “Lefty.” He won dozens of Golfer Phil Mickelson San Diego-area tournaments as a junior golfer, and he captured an unprecedented three consecutive naHe finally broke through with a mational Junior Player of the Year awards jor victory in 2004 when he won the (1986–88). His golfing prowess earned Masters by one stroke over South him a full scholarship to Arizona State African Ernie Els. His hot play continUniversity (ASU), where he established ued through the rest of that season, and a reputation as one of the greatest he finished in the top six in the reAmerican amateur golfers of all time. mainder of the 2004 majors. Mickelson Mickelson was named first-team All- waited just one year for a second maAmerican in each of his four years at jor win, the 2005 PGA Championship, ASU, and he won three NCAA individ- which he followed with a victory in the ual championships (1989–90, 1992). In very next major, the 2006 Masters. He 1990 he won the U.S. Amateur Cham- continued to win less-prestigious tourpionship, and the following year he naments as well, and he was routinely won his first PGA Tour event, the among the sport’s annual top money Northern Telecom Open, becoming winners throughout the decade. only the fourth amateur to have won a (ADAM AUGUSTYN) PGA tournament. In 1992 Mickelson graduated from Miliband, Ed ASU with a degree in psychology and (b. Dec. 24, 1969, London, Eng.) joined the PGA Tour. His first profes- On Sept. 25, 2010, Britain’s Labour sional win came in 1993 at Torrey Pines Party elected 40-year-old Ed Miliband Golf Course in San Diego, where he had as the party’s youngest leader since played golf matches in high school. He World War II. He narrowly defeated his

older brother, David, at the end of a contest that provided both personal and political drama. Edward Samuel Miliband was the son of Jewish refugees who had survived the Holocaust during World War II. Ralph Miliband, who had fled Belgium in 1940, became a prominent Marxist intellectual in London, where he met and married Marion Kozak, who had been sheltered by a Roman Catholic family in Poland during the war. Their sons thus grew up in a household in which intense political debate was seldom absent for long. Ed Miliband followed his brother to Haverstock Comprehensive School and then to Corpus Christi College, Oxford, to study politics, philosophy, and economics before forging his own path with a master’s degree from the London School of Economics. In 1993, after a brief period as a television researcher, he started working for Labour Party MP Harriet Harman. When Labour returned to power after the 1997 general election, Ed became a special adviser to Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown. With David working for Prime Minister Tony Blair, the brothers found themselves in different camps that frequently devolved into intraparty conflict. More than once, the siblings provided the channel through which disputes between Brown and Blair could be settled or, at least, temporarily calmed. After having spent a year (2002–03) as a visiting scholar at Harvard University, Ed was selected as Labour candidate for Doncaster North, in Yorkshire. He was elected to Parliament in May 2005, four years after David had become an MP. When Brown took over as prime minister in 2007, he named David foreign secretary and added Ed to his cabinet, first as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and then, from October 2008, as the inaugural secretary of state for energy and climate change. Thus, two brothers sat in Britain’s cabinet for the first time since the 1930s. Ed represented the U.K. at the 2009 Copenhagen summit on climate change. Although the summit failed to achieve a legally binding agreement to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, Ed was widely credited as having worked hard for a deal. Following Labour’s defeat in the 2010 general election, Brown resigned as party leader, and David was regarded as the favourite to succeed him. Ed’s deci101

Biographies

sion to stand against his brother (along with three other candidates) caused widespread surprise, but the contest quickly became a two-horse race. In the end, strong campaigns by leading trade unions gave Ed a narrow victory (trade union members held one-third of the votes). Subsequently, David decided to leave front-line politics and not serve in Ed’s “shadow cabinet.” On September 28, in his first major speech, Ed sought to repudiate the criticism that he was “Red Ed”—a left-wing extremist in thrall to trade union leaders. (PETER KELLNER) Mo’Nique (b. Dec. 11, 1967, Woodlawn, Md.) Stand-up comedienne Mo’Nique—considered a shoo-in for best supporting actress at the 2010 Academy Awards—indeed waltzed away with the golden statuette for her deft humanization of the violent, sexually abusive Mary in Precious: Based on the Novel ‘Push’ by Sapphire (2009). As Mary, the zaftig Mo’Nique stalked the screen, constantly lambasting and assaulting her teenage daughter, Precious, who is already HIVpositive and pregnant with a second child by her own father. Though some critics thought her maniacal presence veered dangerously close to the stereotypical, most people agreed that sufficient counterpoint was provided in the film’s quieter moments, during which Mo’Nique was able to evoke the ignorance and desperation behind the cruelty of her character. The role also gar-

Academy Award-winning actress Mo’Nique

nered Mo’Nique the Golden Globe for best supporting actress. She was born Mo’Nique Imes, the youngest of four children. At her brother’s suggestion, she took to the stage in 1988 during an open-mike night at a comedy club. Encouraged by the success of her impromptu performance, she began performing professionally at other comedy clubs in Baltimore, Md., in Atlanta, and along the East Coast. Eventually, she left her job as a customer-service representative for a telecommunications company to pursue a full-time career in stand-up comedy, and she was soon opening for musicians and appearing in such television specials as Russell Simmons’s Def Comedy Jam and Comic View. After Mo’Nique made popular guest appearances on the television sitcom Moesha in 1999 and 2000, a spin-off series was created for her character, and she starred for five seasons as Nikki Parker on the sitcom The Parkers (1999–2004), in which she played an ebullient single mother. Film roles soon followed, though the movies were of varying quality, ranging from Baby Boy (2001), about life in inner-city Los Angeles, to Soul Plane (2004), a widely reviled parody of Airplane! (1980) that featured stereotypical depictions of African Americans. Mo’Nique continued to perform stand-up, notably joining the Queens of Comedy tour in 2000. Mo’Nique first gained attention as a dramatic actress in Shadowboxer (2005), in which she played a drug addict. She then lent her voice to Farce of the Penguins (2006), a coarse spoof of the nature documentary The March of the Penguins (2005), and starred in Phat Girlz (2006), a romantic comedy. Mo’Nique also hosted Mo’Nique’s F.A.T. Chance (2005–07), a television beauty pageant for full-figured women. In 2009 she took her confrontational brand of humour to the talk-show circuit with The Mo’Nique Show on Black Entertainment Television (BET). In addition, Mo’Nique penned (with Sherri McGee McCovey) Skinny Women Are Evil: Notes of a Big Girl in a SmallMinded World (2003), a profanity-laden apologia for overweight women; a cookbook, Skinny Cooks Can’t Be Trusted (2006); and a novel, Beacon Hills High (2008). (RICHARD PALLARDY) Morgan, Piers (b. March 30, 1965, Guildford, Surrey, Eng.) In June 2010 it was announced that British journalist and media per-

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sonality Piers Morgan would replace veteran interviewer Larry King as host of the flagship nightly talk show on American news channel Cable News Network (CNN). For Morgan, inheriting the esteemed seat was merely the latest triumph in a versatile, resilient career that was highlighted by his flashy roles as a tabloid editor, television talent-show judge, and TV contestant (and winner in 2008) on The Celebrity Apprentice. Piers Stefan Pughe-Morgan grew up in southern England. He displayed an affinity for journalism at age 15, when he wrote an article for a local newspaper about his village’s cricket team, and he went on to study the subject at Harlow College in Essex. After working as a reporter for papers in south London, he was hired in 1989 to be the showbusiness editor at the tabloid The Sun, at the time the most widely read daily newspaper in the U.K. The position allowed Morgan to socialize with celebrities, and he managed to boost his own public profile by frequently posing for photographs with them. Morgan’s ambition and savvy were rewarded when in 1994 publishing magnate Rupert Murdoch appointed him to be editor in chief of News of the World, the Sunday sister paper of The Sun; aged 28, he was the youngest national newspaper editor in the U.K. since 1937. He quickly won attention for his enthusiastic pursuit of scoops and his penchant for pushing against journalistic standards in the process. A year later Morgan took over the editorship of the rival tabloid The Daily Mirror, which he ran in the same provocative vein. A number of exclusive stories, such as an exposé of security at Buckingham Palace, positioned the newspaper at the forefront of national conversation. At the same time, Morgan was often criticized for his brash style and his seeming disregard for privacy. In 2000 a scandal erupted when it was discovered that Morgan had bought shares in a company shortly before The Daily Mirror’s financial column suggested that the firm was a good investment. Though he emerged from the situation unscathed, another controversy arose four years later when the paper published photographs purporting to depict British soldiers mistreating prisoners in the Iraq War. After the images were revealed to be a hoax, Morgan was fired. In 2006 Morgan was chosen by his friend Simon Cowell to appear as a judge on the American reality-TV com-

Biographies Mark Fagelson/Alamy

British TV personality Piers Morgan petition America’s Got Talent. His biting wit and self-confidence in that role led to further television opportunities, including a seat (2007–10) on the judging panel of Britain’s Got Talent and in 2009 his own interview program, Piers Morgan’s Life Stories. The latter show, along with a monthly interview column for the British version of GQ magazine, attested to Morgan’s skill at drawing out celebrities’ personal lives, which would undoubtedly prove to be an asset in his new position. (JOHN M. CUNNINGHAM) Nasheed, Mohamed (b. May 17, 1967, Male, Maldives) In 2010 Maldives Pres. Mohamed Nasheed received plaudits abroad and dealt with crisis at home. He received a Champion of the Earth award from the UN in April for his outspoken efforts toward halting climate change. In June relations between Nasheed and the People’s Majlis (parliament) hit a new low when his entire cabinet resigned in order to protest the Majlis’s blocking of the government’s initiatives. Although Nasheed reappointed his cabinet, the political situation was deadlocked, as the opposition Maldive People’s Party did not have enough seats in the Majlis to impeach him. Nasheed attended grammar school in the capital, Male, before going on to schools in Colombo, Sri Lanka (1981– 82), and in West Lavington, Wiltshire, Eng. (1982–84). He received a bachelor’s degree in maritime studies from Liverpool (Eng.) John Moores University in 1989.

He returned to Maldives and in 1990 became assistant editor of the new magazine Sangu, which criticized the government of Pres. Maumoon Abdul Gayoom. Sangu was banned, and Nasheed was sentenced to house arrest. He was jailed later that year and was held in solitary confinement for 18 months. He was sentenced to three years in prison in 1992 but was released in 1993. Nasheed applied in 1994 for government permission to form an independent political party, but his request was rejected. Beginning in April 1996 he again served six months in prison for an article he wrote in a Philippine magazine. In 1999 Nasheed was elected to the People’s Majlis. He was arrested again in late 2001 and was sentenced to two and a half years’ exile on a remote island. In March 2002, while still in exile, he was expelled from the Majlis because he had not attended for six months; he was released in August. After riots in Male in 2003, Nasheed left Maldives for Sri Lanka, where in 2004 he helped found the opposition Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP). Nasheed returned to Maldives in April 2005. After the government passed legislation that allowed political parties to participate in elections, Nasheed began a campaign of nonviolent civil disobedience designed to bring greater democracy to the country. Detained again, he spent more than a year under

Maldivian Pres. Mohamed Nasheed surfacing from his 2009 underwater cabinet meeting

house arrest (2005–06). In the first free presidential election in Maldives, in October 2008, Nasheed defeated Gayoom with 54% of the vote. As president, Nasheed became known internationally for his environmental campaign. With none of the low-lying Maldive Islands rising to more than 1.8 m (6 ft) above sea level, the country would be severely affected by rising seas, and Nasheed made climate change a central issue of his administration. Maldives also announced plans to become the world’s first carbon-neutral country by 2020, and Nasheed even held a cabinet meeting underwater in October 2009 in an effort to draw attention to the danger of rising sea levels. (ERIK GREGERSEN) Ohno, Apolo Anton (b. May 22, 1982, Seattle, Wash.) At the 2010 Winter Games in Vancouver, short-track speed skater Apolo Anton Ohno became the most decorated American athlete in the history of the Winter Olympics. Ohno arrived in Vancouver with five medals from two previous Olympics, and with his silver medal in the 1,500 m and bronze in the 1,000 m, he eclipsed American speed skater Bonnie Blair’s total of six career Winter Olympic medals. On the final night of short-track competition in Vancouver, Ohno suffered a disqualification in the 500-m final but returned to lead the U.S. to a bronze medal in the 5,000-m relay. Thus, in his three Olympics (2002, 2006, and 2010), Ohno accumulated eight medals—two gold, two silver, and four bronze. Ohno’s Japanese-born father encouraged him from an early age to participate in sports as a constructive outlet for his abundant energy. (He had no contact with his American mother.) Ohno experienced success in competitive swimming and in-line roller skating before taking up short-track speed skating at the age of 12. His talent on the ice was recognized almost immediately, and at age 14 he became the youngest skater ever to be accepted into the residency program at the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Lake Placid, N.Y. He won the first of his numerous U.S. championships in 1997, and by 2001 he had emerged as an elite competitor on the international shorttrack circuit, winning the overall World Cup title that year—the first American skater to do so. At the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah, Ohno was among the favourites in the 1,000-m event. On the

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race’s final lap, China’s Li Jiajun caused a pileup that knocked everyone down except Australian Steven Bradbury (then skating in last place), who safely bypassed the other skaters for the gold. Ohno managed to lunge across the finish line to earn the silver medal. Four nights later Ohno won a controversial gold in the 1,500-m competition; although he finished the race second behind South Korea’s Kim Dong-Sung, Kim was subsequently disqualified for having obstructed Ohno’s path. Ohno claimed his second overall World Cup title in 2003 and achieved a third in 2005. At the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, he won the only short-track gold medal by an American, in the 500-m event, and earned bronze medals in the 1,000 m and the 5,000-m relay. In 2007 Ohno made headlines off the ice by appearing as a contestant on the televised dance competition Dancing with the Stars, which he won with his professional dance partner, Julianne Hough. After returning to skating, he quickly regained his winning form. At the 2008 short-track world championships in Kangnung, S.Kor., he captured the 500-m and overall world titles. Although Ohno struggled in 2009, he arrived in Vancouver back on form and ready to make history. (SHERMAN HOLLAR) Oz, Mehmet (b. June 11, 1960, Cleveland, Ohio) As his television series, The Dr. Oz Show, entered its second season in 2010, Mehmet Oz continued his reign as “America’s Doctor,” a nickname given to him by TV superstar Oprah Winfrey. The Turkish American surgeon found a prescription for success with his holistic approach to health and his easygoing and candid manner. In addition to his TV work—which included frequent appearances on The Oprah Winfrey Show—Oz wrote (with Michael F. Roizen) the best-selling YOU series of health books and was cohost of a radio show. With a legion of devoted followers, Oz was perhaps the most popular and trusted doctor in the United States. Mehmet Cengiz Oz, whose parents were Turkish immigrants, was raised in Wilmington, Del., where his father was a thoracic surgeon. After graduating from Harvard University (1982), he earned an M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine and an M.B.A. from the Wharton School of Business (both in 1986). During this time Oz, who was a dual citizen of the 104

U.S. and Turkey, served in the Turkish army in order to maintain his citizenship in that country. He subsequently conducted his residency in general surgery (1986–90) and cardiothoracic surgery (1991–93) at Columbia-Presbyterian Medical Center, New York City. He became an attending surgeon at New York–Presbyterian Hospital/Columbia University Medical Center in 1993. An advocate of alternative medicine, Oz began incorporating hypnosis, meditation, acupuncture, and other non-Western treatments into his practice. In 2001 he became director of the hospital’s complementary medicine program. That year he also became professor of surgery at Columbia University. In 2005 Oz co-wrote YOU: The Owner’s Manual. The book—noted for its engaging text and humour—led to an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show and other programs. With Roizen, he continued the best-selling YOU series with such volumes as YOU: On a Diet (2006), YOU: The Smart Patient (2006), YOU: Staying Young (2007), YOU: Being Beautiful (2008), YOU: Having a Baby (2009), and YOU: Raising Your Child (2010). The popularity of the books and television appearances led to a daily talk show on Sirius XM Radio’s Oprah Radio. The program, which debuted in 2008, featured Oz and Roizen providing health advice. The following year Oz also began hosting the daytime TV series The Dr. Oz Show, an hourlong program that included information on various health topics and on preventive medicine.

Mehmet Oz of TV fame

Joe Fornabaio—Sony Pictures Television/PRNewsFoto/AP Images

In addition to his TV and radio work, Oz continued to practice medicine and teach. He also authored numerous papers and was a regular contributor to various periodicals, including Esquire and O, the Oprah Magazine. In 2003 he founded and became chairman of HealthCorps, a nonprofit organization that focused on obesity and other health problems, especially those affecting American youths. (AMY TIKKANEN) Patterson, James B. (b. March 22, 1947, Newburgh, N.Y.) American novelist James Patterson, already a prolific writer of thriller and suspense novels for adults, won recognition for his juvenile fiction when he was awarded Author of the Year honours for Maximum Ride: Max (2009) at the 2010 Children’s Choice Book Awards ceremony in New York City. The best-selling author was inspired to write for a younger audience when he discovered that his own son lacked a strong interest in reading. This discovery led Patterson to create (2005) the Maximum Ride science-fiction thriller series of children’s books designed to appeal to readers of all ages. The overwhelming success of this series led to several others, including the Daniel X and Witch & Wizard series. To fulfill his goal of helping children remain avid readers well into adulthood, Patterson launched the Web site ReadKiddoRead.com to suggest exciting books for children of various literacy levels. He also established (2005) the James Patterson Pageturner Awards, which acknowledge those who have developed successful methods to spread the joy of reading. Before embarking on his career as a novelist, Patterson found employment (1971) as a junior copywriter at advertising agency J. Walter Thompson Co. in New York City, where he created the slogan “I’m a Toys ‘R’ Us kid” and eventually worked his way up to CEO (1988) and chairman (1990–96) of JWT/North America. His first attempt at fiction, The Thomas Berryman Number (1976), won the 1977 Edgar Award for Best First Novel. By 2010 he had penned (alone or with a coauthor) more than 50 novels, with worldwide sales of at least 170 million copies. He was probably best known, however, for his series of books—notably, those featuring Alex Cross, beginning with Along Came a Spider (1993; filmed 2001) and Kiss the Girls (1995; filmed 1997). His other successful series include the Women’s Murder Club, which debuted with 1st to Die (2001) and served as the basis for a

Biographies Jeffery Salter/Redux

Detective novelist James Patterson short-lived 2007–08 television series. He was noteworthy as the first author to have had new titles concurrently listed at number one on the New York Times adult and children’s best-seller lists, and in 2009 he set the Guinness world record for the most entries on the New York Times best-seller list. Patterson continued to churn out novels at a frenetic pace in 2010, with the release of at least a dozen new titles on which he had collaborated with other authors. These novels include The 9th Judgment and Private, the inaugural book in a new series. Now You See Her was the first of several more novels due to be released in 2011. (BARBARA A. SCHREIBER) Piñera, Sebastián (b. Dec. 1, 1949, Santiago, Chile) For Chilean businessman-turned-politician Sebastián Piñera, much of 2010 was a journey from tragedy to joy. On February 27, less than two weeks before he was to assume the presidency, which he had won in a January runoff election, a magnitude-8.8 earthquake struck the country, killing more than 560 people and directly affecting millions. A reminder of that earthquake came when on March 11 powerful aftershocks jolted Piñera’s inauguration ceremony. Seven months later Piñera found himself above an Atacama Desert mine, at the mouth of a rescue tunnel, happily welcoming one-by-one the 33 workers who had become the centre of the global media’s attention after having been trapped underground for 69 days.

Miguel Juan Sebastián Piñera Echenique’s family moved to the United States when he was a baby. There his father, a civil servant, spent four years working for the Chilean Economic Development Agency. The family went back to Chile in the mid-1950s but left again in 1965 when Piñera’s father was appointed Chile’s ambassador to Belgium. After having earned a degree in commercial engineering (1971) at the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile (PUC), Piñera returned to the U.S. with the aid of a Fulbright scholarship to continue his studies, receiving a master’s degree and a Ph.D. (1976) in economics from Harvard University. He served on the PUC economics faculty throughout the 1970s and ’80s. He also taught at the University of Chile, Santiago, and the Valparaíso Business School (later Adolfo Ibáñez University). Piñera worked in the consulting and banking sectors prior to his founding of the hugely successful Bancard in the late 1970s. The company, which introduced credit cards to Chile, made him a billionaire. He also held large stakes in other companies, including LAN Chile, the country’s national airline; a private hospital; and the association football (soccer) team Colo Colo. Among Piñera’s other endeavours was the creation (1993) of the Fundación Futuro, a nonprofit organization concerned with water preservation and renewable energy that also established Tantauco Park, an ecological park on the Chilean island of Chiloé. Piñera took up politics in 1989, managing the unsuccessful presidential campaign of Hernán Büchi, the former finance minister under military dictator Augusto Pinochet. That same year Piñera was elected senator for East Santiago, a seat he held until 1998. He made an unsuccessful run for the presidency in the December 2005 election, as the candidate of the National Renewal party. Michelle Bachelet of the ruling Concertación coalition won, but she was constitutionally prohibited from serving a consecutive term, and in 2009 Piñera ran again. This time the Concertación candidate was former president Eduardo Frei, and Piñera’s victory over Frei in the January 2010 second-round runoff election, by a 52–48% margin, ended 20 years of Concertación rule. (EB ED.)

evening gowns and cocktail dresses coveted by many of Hollywood’s top actresses, launched a “fast fashion” collection for the American mass-market retail company Target Corp. and produced Z Spoke, a relatively affordable collection for the luxury retailer Saks Fifth Avenue. Posen, who had been criticized in the past for allegedly being more concerned with the social aspects of the fashion industry than with actual clothing design, vowed during the year that he was finished dressing New York socialites. In September Posen participated in his first Paris Fashion Week, though he promised that the Z Spoke line would show in New York. Posen attended Saint Ann’s School in Brooklyn, an independent school with a heavy focus on the arts. At age 16 he enrolled in a precollege program at Parsons School of Design (now Parsons the New School for Design), where he studied pattern making. In 1996 he landed a two-year internship at the Metropolitan Museum of Art Costume Institute, and subsequently he secured an internship at the Nicole Miller fashion house. After graduating (1999) from Saint Ann’s, he took a job as a design assistant for the Tocca fashion house. Later that year he entered the womenswear degree program at Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design at the University of the Arts London. He gained recognition while still a student when in 2000 supermodel Naomi Campbell requested one of his designs.

Fashion designer Zac Posen

Posen, Zac (b. Oct. 24, 1980, New York, N.Y.) In 2010 American fashion designer Zac Posen, best known for his glamorous Landov

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The following year one of his dresses— made entirely from thin strips of leather held together by hook-and-eye closures—was selected to be featured in the “Curvaceous” exhibit (2001–02) at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. In 2001 Posen returned to New York and, at age 20, held his first fashion show. It was attended by buyers for the luxury retailer Henri Bendel, which began selling his dresses. He was subsequently selected to present a capsule collection—a limited range of designs with a particular theme or focus—as a part of the Fresh Faces in Fashion show. In the same year, Posen founded his own company, Outspoke, and thereby launched his signature label. In 2002 Posen debuted his ready-towear collection, which received mixed reviews. He gained significant recognition, however, when Hollywood actress Natalie Portman wore a gown that he designed to the London premiere of one of her films. Later that year, with Vogue editor Anna Wintour sitting in the front row, Posen made his debut at New York Fashion Week and garnered rave reviews. Posen’s 2004 collection ventured into sportswear and earned him Swarovski’s Perry Ellis Award for Womenswear from the Council of Fashion Designers of America. In addition, Posen’s success secured him the financial backing of the American rapper and clothing designer Diddy. The Posen label also expanded to include handbags, shoes, accessories, and hosiery. (JEANNETTE NOLEN) Rajapakse, Mahinda (b. Nov. 18, 1945, Weeraketiya, Sri Lanka) In January 2010 Mahinda Rajapakse, who had served as president of Sri Lanka since 2005 and whose popularity had been buoyed by the end of the country’s long civil war in 2009, handily defeated retired general Sarath Fonseka and won election to a second term. Rajapakse later dissolved Parliament and called for parliamentary elections in April. His party, the United People’s Freedom Alliance (UPFA), won a strong majority of seats, and in September Parliament amended the constitution to allow the president to serve more than two terms. Rajapakse was born into a large upper-caste family and brought up as a Buddhist. Throughout much of his childhood, his father was a member of the Sri Lankan Parliament. Although Rajapakse did not pursue undergraduate study, he received a law degree (1974) from Colombo Law College.

In 1970 Rajapakse, age 24, became the youngest-ever member of the Sri Lankan Parliament when he was elected to the seat that his father had vacated just five years earlier. After losing the seat in 1977, he focused on his law career until reentering Parliament in 1989. Viewed as a centre-left politician, he became known as a defender of human rights—a reputation that would later be undermined during his presidency when Sri Lanka was recognized as one of the world’s most dangerous countries for dissenting journalists. Rajapakse served as minister of labour (1994–2001) as well as minister of fisheries and aquatic resources (1997–2001) under Pres. Chandrika Kumaratunga. In 2004 Kumaratunga appointed Rajapakse prime minister, and the following year she announced her endorsement of him as her successor. Rajapakse was elected president in 2005 as the UPFA candidate. At the time, the Sri Lankan government was in the midst of ongoing peace talks and a precarious cease-fire agreement with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE). Nevertheless, Rajapakse announced his intention in 2006 to eradicate the Tamil separatist group, which had operated as both a rebel army and a de facto government in parts of Sri Lanka for more than 20 years. The Sri Lankan army defeated the LTTE forces in 2009, ending the protracted civil war. Rajapakse’s popularity surged, but international observers criticized his army’s brutality in the war’s final battle, which had led to many civilian deaths.

In late 2009, four years into his sixyear term, Rajapakse called for a presidential election in early 2010. Fonseka, who commanded the Sri Lankan army in the final battle against the Tamil Tigers, emerged as his main opposition, but Rajapakse won with 58% of the vote. Despite Fonseka’s protests, as well as questions arising from Rajapakse’s possible misuse of state funds for his campaign, independent observers held that no voting fraud had taken place. (EB ED.) Rascal Flatts American country music trio Rascal Flatts began 2010 with a series of setbacks, including the shuttering in April of Lyric Street, their longtime record label, and the loss of millions of dollars in instruments and equipment in the historic floods that inundated Nashville in May. By July, however, the band had turned things around, signing with Big Machine Records, best known as the home of country superstar Taylor Swift. In November the band released its seventh studio album, Nothing like This, which debuted at number one on the Billboard magazine country album chart. The group, which consisted of lead vocalist Gary LeVox (born Gary Wayne Vernon, Jr., on July 10, 1970, in Columbus, Ohio), bassist Jay DeMarcus (born Stanley Wayne DeMarcus, Jr., on April 26, 1971, in Columbus), and guitarist Joe Don Rooney (born on Sept. 13, 1975, in Baxter Springs, Kan.), had its origins in the mid-1990s when cousins LeVox and DeMarcus moved from

Country trio Rascal Flatts (from left Joe Don Rooney, Gary LeVox, and Jay DeMarcus)

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Columbus to Nashville to pursue musical careers. DeMarcus played in the backing band of country vocalist Chely Wright, and he and LeVox performed regularly in the Nashville club scene. When their regular guitarist was unable to appear at a session, DeMarcus recruited Rooney, whom he knew from Wright’s band, to join them. The trio had an easy chemistry, and they decided to form Rascal Flatts in 1999. They signed to Disney’s Lyric Street Records imprint and released the self-titled Rascal Flatts (2000). The album went platinum on the strength of the group’s breakout single “Prayin’ for Daylight,” which reached number three on the Billboard country music chart and broke into the Top 40 on the mainstream pop chart. The band followed with Melt (2002), a ballad-heavy collection that featured “These Days,” a single that dominated the country charts and gave the group its first number one hit. Melt fared equally well on the country album chart, reaching number one and spending two years in the top 100. This success was repeated with each of the trio’s subsequent releases—Feels like Today (2004), Me and My Gang (2006), Still Feels Good (2007), and Unstoppable (2009)—all of which reached the top of the Billboard country album chart. Rascal Flatts also won accolades from their peers, collecting the Country Music Association (CMA) award for best new artist in 2002 and dominating the vocal group category of both the CMA and the Academy of Country Music (ACM) from 2003 to 2008. They won the ACM award again in 2009. (MICHAEL RAY) Ratmansky, Alexei (b. Aug. 27, 1968, Leningrad, U.S.S.R. [now St. Petersburg, Russia]) In December 2010 American Ballet Theatre (ABT) mounted the world premiere of a new production of Tchaikovsky’s classic The Nutcracker with choreography by ABT’s artist in residence, Alexei Ratmansky. The previous April, New York City Ballet (NYCB) staged the premiere of Ratmansky’s humorous pastiche Namouna as part of its Architecture of Dance festival. Against a musical backdrop by 19th-century French composer Édouard Lalo, the dancers enacted a storyless sequence of surreal interludes. The dual premieres embodied the exceptional musicality and stylistic versatility that had propelled Ratmansky into the global ballet spotlight—as both a dancer and a choreographer—in the mid-1990s.

Ratmansky grew up in Kiev, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. (now Ukraine); his mother was a psychiatrist and his father an aeronautical engineer and former champion gymnast. At age 10 Ratmansky enrolled in the school of the Bolshoi Ballet (now the Moscow State Academy of Choreography), from which he graduated in 1986. He then returned home to join the Kiev Ballet, with which he danced major roles of the classical repertoire before accepting an invitation to join the Royal Winnipeg (Man.) Ballet in 1992. During the following three years, Ratmansky expanded his repertoire to include works by such contemporary choreographers as George Balanchine, Frederick Ashton, Antony Tudor, and Twyla Tharp, and he created a number of small-scale choreographies of his own. In 1995 Ratmansky returned to Kiev, where he danced and choreographed independently until he moved to Copenhagen in 1997 to join the Royal Danish Ballet. In Denmark he created several works for a small company led by Bolshoi ballerina Nina Ananiashvili that toured internationally. Among those works was the highly acclaimed Dreams of Japan (1998), performed to a percussive score featuring Japanese taiko drumming. Ratmansky was soon promoted to principal dancer of the Royal Danish, and he continued to create new works for major dance companies, including the Royal Danish (Turandot’s Dream, 2000), Stockholm’s Royal Swedish Ballet (The Firebird, 2002), St. Petersburg’s Mariinsky Ballet (Cinderella, 2002), the Bolshoi (The Bright Stream, 2003), and the San Francisco Ballet (The Carnival of the Animals, 2003). The positive reception of The Bright Stream, set to music by Dmitry Shostakovich, earned Ratmansky an appointment in 2004 as artistic director of the Bolshoi Ballet, which had been struggling since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. During the next four years, he returned the company to international prominence, primarily by expanding its repertoire to include modern works alongside the traditional classical ballets. Meanwhile, he choreographed new full-length works—notably Anna Karenina (2004) for the Royal Danish, The Bolt (2005) for the Bolshoi, and Russian Seasons (2006) for NYCB. Ratmansky left the Bolshoi in 2008 to focus on choreography. After declining an offer from NYCB to become its resident choreographer, he joined ABT in 2009 as the company’s first artist in res-

idence. His initial full-length work for ABT, On the Dnieper, premiered that year. (VIRGINIA GORLINSKI) Rousseff, Dilma (b. Dec. 14, 1947, Belo Horizante, Braz.) On Oct. 31, 2010, Dilma Rousseff, a Brazilian public official and former dissident who had never previously held elective office, was elected president of Brazil. Having failed to capture more than half of the vote in an initial round of polling earlier that month, Rousseff, the hand-chosen successor to highly popular outgoing president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, scored a commanding victory in the runoff with 56% of the vote. Upon her inauguration on Jan. 1, 2011, she would become Brazil’s first female president. Eraldo Peres/AP

Brazilian Pres. Dilma Rousseff Dilma Rousseff was raised in an uppermiddle-class household. Her father was a lawyer who immigrated to Brazil from Bulgaria, and her mother was a teacher. After Brazil’s president was overthrown by a coalition of civilian and military officials in 1964, the teenaged Rousseff became involved in the left-wing opposition to the government. She was associated with the militant group National Liberation Command (Colina), and she married fellow activist Cláudio Galeno Linhares in 1968. After a raid on a Colina safe house resulted in police fatalities, the pair went into hiding in Rio de Janeiro. She and Galeno later fled Rio for Porto Alegre, subsequently separated, and in 1981 divorced. Rousseff moved to São Paulo, and it was there that she was arrested in 1970 by gov107

Biographies

ernment forces. She was imprisoned for three years on the charge of subversion and during that time was subjected to torture by her captors. Rousseff resumed her education after her release in 1973; she graduated (1977) with a bachelor’s degree in economics from the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre. As the grip of the dictatorship weakened, Rousseff became active in local politics, and in 1986 she was appointed finance secretary for Porto Alegre. She left that position in 1988 and later spent two years as president (1991–93) of the Foundation of Economics and Statistics of Rio Grande do Sul state. As secretary of mines, energy, and communications (1993–94) for Rio Grande do Sul, she was credited with increasing energy efficiency and power production within the state. Rousseff subsequently pursued a Ph.D. in economics, but before receiving the degree, she was called back in 1999 to her former government post. She soon became affiliated with Lula’s Workers’ Party and left her government job in 2002 to work on his successful presidential campaign. Upon taking office in 2003, Lula appointed Rousseff minister of mines and energy. She also was named chair of the Brazilian state-run oil concern Petrobrás, where she emphasized the need for Petrobrás to expand its production capacity. In 2005 Lula named her his chief of staff. An expanding economy and a shrinking poverty rate boosted Lula’s popularity, but he faced a constitutional limit of two terms, so he began grooming Rousseff to be his successor. She stepped down from Petrobrás in March 2010 to prepare for her presidential campaign. (MICHAEL RAY) Santos, Juan Manuel (b. Aug. 10, 1951, Bogotá, Colom.) On June 20, 2010, Juan Manuel Santos secured an overwhelming 69% of the vote in the second round of balloting for the office of president of Colombia. In the first round, held the previous month, Santos had fallen just short of the 50% needed to forgo a runoff. His ties to popular outgoing president Álvaro Uribe made him appealing to voters, and he vowed to continue Uribe’s policies. Santos was sworn in on Aug. 7, 2010. Santos was born into an influential political family. His great-uncle Eduardo Santos was Colombia’s president (1938–42), and his cousin Francisco Santos held office as vice president (2002–10) under Uribe. The family also founded El Tiempo, one of the country’s 108

largest newspapers. Santos attended the Naval Academy of Cartagena before traveling to the U.S. to earn a B.A. (1973) in economics and business at the University of Kansas. After graduation, he headed the Colombian delegation to the International Coffee Organization in London. While there, Santos earned a master’s degree in economics, economic development, and public administration from the London School of Economics. He added a master’s degree (1981) in public administration from Harvard University before returning to Colombia to work as an editor at El Tiempo, where his reporting earned him accolades. Santos became minister of foreign trade under Pres. César Gaviria in 1991. Two years later he was appointed designee to the presidency, a position that was later folded into the office of vice president. In 1994 Santos was part of a team of negotiators who attempted to reach a peace agreement with the Marxist guerrilla group FARC. He was a leader of the Colombian Liberal Party in the late 1990s and served (2000–02) as minister of the treasury and public credit under Pres. Andrés Pastrana. In 2005 Santos helped found the Social Party of National Unity, a coalition of lawmakers and officials from various parties who supported President Uribe’s agenda, which included austerity measures and strong antiterrorism laws. Santos joined Uribe’s cabinet as defense minister in 2006, and he escalated the government military campaign against the FARC. A controversial strike in Ecuadoran territory in March 2008 killed a senior FARC leader and a number of his subordinates, causing a diplomatic rift with Colombia’s western neighbour. Four months later Santos supervised Operation Checkmate, an intelligence operation that led to the dramatic rescue of 15 hostages held by the FARC, including Colombian politician Ingrid Betancourt. Later that year, however, Santos faced controversy when it was revealed that paramilitary, police, and army units had killed hundreds of civilians and disguised them as rebels to inflate body counts during antiguerrilla campaigns. Santos sacked dozens of officers over the matter, but human rights groups criticized the government’s delay in bringing those responsible to trial. He resigned his cabinet post in 2009 to run for the presidency. (MICHAEL RAY) Sejima, Kazuyo; and Nishizawa, Ryue (b. Oct. 29, 1956, Mito, Ibaraki prefecture, Japan) (b. Feb. 7, 1966, Kanagawa prefecture, Japan) The year

2010 marked an apex in the careers of Japanese architects Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa, founding partners of the firm SANAA (Sejima and Nishizawa and Associates), when in March they were announced as joint recipients of the Pritzker Prize. While their work had long been admired for its refined simplicity and spatial fluidity, as well as its thoughtful integration into its surroundings, the honour solidified their international reputation. (Sejima and Nishizawa were only the second partnership to be so honoured, after Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron in 2001.) Later in the year, Sejima presided over the opening of the Venice Biennale’s architecture sector as its first woman director. Sejima earned a master’s degree in architecture in 1981 from Japan Women’s University. After apprenticing with architect Toyo Ito, she launched her own firm, Kazuyo Sejima and Associates, in 1987. Nishizawa, a student who had also worked for Ito, was one of her first hires. The office gradually developed a national reputation, with Sejima winning the Young Architect of the Year award from the Japanese Institute of Architects in 1992. Not long after, Nishizawa, who had completed a master’s degree in architecture from Yokohama National University in 1990, sought to open his own practice. Sejima, however, persuaded him to stay with her, and the two founded SANAA in 1995. Nishizawa started his own firm two years later, and Sejima maintained hers, but both individual offices were devoted to small-scale projects, in contrast to the ambitious commissions accepted by the partnership. Most of SANAA’s early projects were in Japan, most notably the O-Museum (1995–99), built on a mountainside in Nagano. As with much of the duo’s work, the museum’s design was an elegant synthesis of the cerebral and the lyrical, and the closeness of their collaboration precluded attempts to assign responsibility for each element. Another major commission was the 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art in Kanazawa (1999–2004), a circular building with a glass facade. It was heralded for its panoramic views of the surrounding city and for its unconventional nonlinear floor plan, which encouraged visitors to create their own random paths through the museum. This concern with a space’s social use and its potential for adaptation was a hallmark of SANAA’s design philosophy, and as a result, Sejima and Nishizawa

did not consider a structure to be finished until it was inhabited. In 2001 Nishizawa and Sejima took up teaching posts, at Yokohama National University and Tokyo’s Keio University, respectively. About this time they also began to concentrate more on international commissions. SANAA’s first completed large-scale project outside Japan was the cubelike Zollverein School of Management and Design (2003–06) in Essen, Ger. It was quickly followed by the elegant Glass Pavilion at the Toledo (Ohio) Museum of Art (2001–06), a minimalist structure that in its use of curved glass quietly paid tribute to that city’s industrial history. Other notable international designs include those for the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York City (2003–07), the De Kunstlinie Theatre and Cultural Centre in Almere, Neth. (1998–07), and the Rolex Learning Center at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switz. (2005–09). In 2005 the pair was selected to design a new branch of the Louvre Museum in Lens, France. (JOHN M. CUNNINGHAM) Simon, David (b. 1960, Washington, D.C.) On April 11, 2010, American TV viewers saw the debut of American writer and producer David Simon’s latest show, Treme, which follows a group of people living in New Orleans soon after it was struck by Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The tone of the series was a surprise to many viewers and critics, as Treme showcased the positive aspects of urban environments, unlike the more dour programs that made Simon famous, particularly his critically acclaimed Baltimore-based crime dramas Homicide: Life on the Street (1993–99) and The Wire (2002–08). Simon was raised in the Washington, D.C., suburb of Silver Spring, Md. He became interested in journalism as a young boy through his father, a former newspaperman. Simon attended the University of Maryland at College Park, where he wrote for and edited the school’s newspaper. During his senior year he served as the College Park stringer for the daily newspaper the Baltimore Sun, and after graduating in 1983 he became a staff reporter there and began working the police beat. Simon’s years immersed in reporting on the Baltimore criminal underground made him privy to its inner workings, which he used to great effect in his first book, Homicide: A Year on the Killing Streets (1991). The nonfiction work,

Prolific TV series creator David Simon Reed Saxon/AP

which chronicles a year he spent with the Baltimore Police Department’s homicide unit, was the source of Homicide: Life on the Street, Simon’s first foray into television. He began contributing scripts to Homicide and was also a producer for the show’s final two seasons. His career at the Baltimore Sun ended in 1995, when he accepted a buyout. In 1997 Simon co-wrote—with former Baltimore police officer Ed Burns, who became a frequent collaborator—The Corner: A Year in the Life of an Inner-City Neighborhood, a no-holds-barred account of Baltimore’s drug culture. The Corner was adapted into a miniseries on the cable TV network HBO in 2000, with Simon serving as a writer and an executive producer. It was a critical success, and Simon won two Emmy Awards for his dual role in its production. In 2002 Simon created The Wire, which was ostensibly a take on the common “cop show” but was tailored to fit his views of contemporary American society. Unlike most other televised dramas in the genre, The Wire provided the perspectives of both the police and the criminals. The scope of the show expanded greatly over its fiveseason run on HBO to detail additional Baltimore institutions—including the school system, its political machinery, its shipping operations, and the press— and to explore how each facet of the city, in Simon’s opinion, corrupts or devalues the individuals who move within it. While the series won no Emmys, the program was beloved by critics, and Simon earned significant influence in the entertainment industry. Simon was also an executive producer and writer on

the HBO miniseries Generation Kill (2008), a chronicle of a U.S. Marine battalion during the early weeks of the Iraq War. (ADAM AUGUSTYN) Strauss-Kahn, Dominique (b. April 25, 1949, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France) In 2010 Dominique StraussKahn, the French economist and politician who served as the managing director of the IMF (the UN agency that helps maintain a stable global system of currency exchange and promotes balanced economic growth), controversially proposed the introduction of a global currency backed by a global central bank. Although Strauss-Kahn had broached the subject on previous occasions, he expanded upon the idea in early June in a speech in Sitges, Spain, at the 2010 Bilderberg Conference, an annual threeday colloquium—attended by about 100 of the world’s most influential bankers, economists, politicians, and government officials—that was traditionally secretive and entirely off-the-record. Strauss-Kahn was raised initially in Agadir in southwestern Morocco, where his parents were employed. In 1960—following one of the deadliest and most destructive earthquakes in Moroccan history—the family relocated to Monaco. Strauss-Kahn attended secondary school at the Lycée Carnot in Paris, earning top grades, and gained acceptance to the School of Higher Commercial Studies in Paris. There he received a degree in business (1971), to which he added a degree in political science (1972) from the Paris Institute of Political Studies. He subsequently obtained a degree in public law, as well 109

Biographies

as a Ph.D. in economics from the University of Paris. Strauss-Kahn was hired as a professor of economics at the University of Nancy and later joined the faculty at the University of Paris, where he was granted tenure in 1978. After a stint as deputy commissioner (1981–86) of a government economic planning agency, he was elected (1986) to the French National Assembly, where he chaired the finance committee for three years (1988–91). Manuel Balce Ceneta/AP

French economist and IMF director Dominique Strauss-Kahn

For many years Strauss-Kahn moved back and forth between government posts and his academic career. He served as France’s minister of industry and international trade (1991–93) but then left politics to work as a corporate lawyer (1993–97). Having returned to take the post of minister of economy, finance, and industry (1997–99), he oversaw the debut in 1999 of the euro as a noncash monetary unit. Back in the private sector again, he was an economics professor (2000–01) at the Paris Institute of Political Studies. StraussKahn also served as an adviser for the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. In the campaign for the 2007 French presidential election, he unsuccessfully sought the Socialist Party’s nomination. Later that year newly elected Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy helped persuade the IMF’s executive board to select StraussKahn to head the agency. Though many observers assumed that the IMF post would isolate Strauss-Kahn from French politics, his prominent role in dealing with the repercussions of the 110

2008–09 recession and subsequent slow recovery left others wondering if he would use the job as a springboard to mount a new campaign for the presidency in 2012. (JEANNETTE NOLEN) Tate, John (b. March 13, 1925, Minneapolis, Minn.) American mathematician John Tate was awarded the 2010 Abel Prize (which carries a $1 million cash award) by the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. He was cited “for his vast and lasting impact on the theory of numbers.” John Torrence Tate, Jr., received an undergraduate degree (1946) from Harvard College and a doctorate (1950) from Princeton University, where he studied under Austro-German mathematician Emil Artin. In his doctoral dissertation, Fourier Analysis in Number Fields and Hecke’s Zeta-Function, he applied harmonic analysis (the mathematical procedure for describing and analyzing phenomena of a periodically recurrent nature) to the study of a certain class of zeta function called Hecke L-functions. Tate served as an instructor at Princeton (1950–53) and a visiting professor at Columbia University, New York City (1953–54), before becoming (1954) a professor at Harvard University. In the 1950s Tate became one of the few non-French members of Nicolas Bourbaki, a pseudonymous group of young French mathematicians. In 1990 he moved to the University of Texas at Austin, where he served as professor and held the Sid W. Richardson Chair in Mathematics until his retirement in 2010. As a testimony to Tate’s stature in the fields of number theory and algebraic geometry, many concepts used in those disciplines bear his name—e.g., the Tate twist, the Tate-Shafarevich group, the Tate module, Tate cohomology, the Tate duality theorem, the Tate trace, Hodge-Tate decompositions, and the Sato-Tate conjecture. One of his particular interests was elliptic curves: real number solutions to cubic polynomial equations, such as y2 − x3 = c. His work on that subject has applications in the field of cryptography in that it can be used to factor extremely large prime numbers, which are used in secure communications. In 1956 Tate received the Cole Prize from the American Mathematical Society (AMS) for his contributions to number theory, and in 1995 the AMS also awarded him the Leroy P. Steele Prize for lifetime achievement. Tate shared

with Japanese mathematician Sato Mikio the 2002–03 Wolf Prize in Mathematics, a prestigious international award presented in recognition of outstanding work in the field of mathematics. Tate’s books include Class Field Theory (coauthored with Artin, 1967), Les Conjectures de Stark sur les fonctions L d’Artin en s=0 (1984), and Rational Points on Elliptic Curves (with Joseph H. Silverman, 1992). (ERIK GREGERSEN) Toews, Jonathan (b. April 29, 1988, Winnipeg, Man.) In 2010 Jonathan Toews established himself as one of ice hockey’s leading players. In February he helped the Canadian men’s hockey team win a gold medal at the Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver. For his stellar play he was named the best forward of the tournament. Four months later Toews—who was in just his third season in the NHL—led the Chicago Blackhawks to the Stanley Cup finals, where they defeated the Philadelphia Flyers four games to two. It was the franchise’s first Stanley Cup in 49 years. Toews, who scored 29 points in the postseason, was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy as the MVP of the playoffs. Early in the 2010–11 season, he scored the 200th point of his professional career. Toews in 2005 enrolled at the University of North Dakota, where he played centre on the school’s ice hockey team. He garnered attention for his offensive play, and in the 2006 NHL draft, he was selected third overall by the Blackhawks, an “Original Six” team that had struggled in recent years. After his sophomore year at North Dakota, he left college for Chicago to play professionally. During his first season with the Blackhawks (2007–08), he scored 24 goals and was nominated for the Calder Trophy for best rookie in the NHL. The award was won by his frequent linemate Patrick Kane, who had been drafted in 2007 to join Toews as the core of the Blackhawks’ efforts to rebuild. Before the start of the 2008–09 season, Toews was named team captain. In 2009 he appeared in his first All-Star game, and he finished the regular season with 34 goals and 35 assists. Chicago made the play-offs for the first time since 2002, but they lost to the Detroit Red Wings in the Western Conference finals. The next season Toews scored 68 points to lead Chicago to the play-offs and, ultimately, the Stanley Cup.

Biographies Kirsty Wigglesworth/AP

In addition to his play in the NHL, Toews continued as an important member of Canada’s national team, which won gold medals at the International Ice Hockey Federation’s junior world championships (2006, 2007) and world championships (2007). This, combined with his achievements in 2010, brought Toews inclusion in an elite group of ice hockey players, known as the “Triple Gold Club,” who have skated on teams that won a world championship, an Olympic gold medal, and a Stanley Cup. (AMY TIKKANEN) Virtue, Tessa; and Moir, Scott (b. May 17, 1989, London, Ont.) (b. Sept. 2, 1987, London, Ont.) At the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver, Canadian ice dancing favourites Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir skated a series of near-flawless programs en route to becoming the first non-Europeans to win the Olympic gold medal in the event, as well as the youngest winners in the event’s Olympic history. The following month Virtue and Moir capped their tremendous season by winning their first International Skating Union world championship. Virtue and Moir began skating together when they were aged seven and nine, respectively. Moir’s aunt, who was also his skating coach at the time, thought that the two similarly small, athletic children would make a good match on the ice, and the youngsters started training at a skating rink in Kitchener, Ont., some 113 km (70 mi) away from their homes in the London area. The two had a natural chemistry, and their performances around London often drew thousands of spectators. After six years of skating together, Virtue and Moir moved to Kitchener to further commit themselves to their training. Later they relocated to the U.S. and settled in a suburb of Detroit to work with renowned coaches Marina Zoueva and Igor Shpilband. Virtue and Moir’s first major success came in 2004 when the team won the Canadian junior national championship. Two years later they were the ice dancing world junior champions, the first Canadians to achieve that distinction. Their third-place finish at the 2006 national championships left them just short of qualifying for the Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy. Virtue and Moir made their senior international debut during the 2006–07 skating season. The following season the duo won the gold medal at the Canadian championships and the silver

at the world championships. They repeated as national champions the following season, when they also won the world championship bronze medal. After years spent approaching the top of international ice dancing, Virtue and Moir had a near-perfect season in 2009–10. At a November 2009 event at their old training rink in Kitchener, the two were awarded the first perfect performance score in the history of the then-five-year-old 10-point scoring system. Three months later the duo, performing in a stadium packed with their fellow Canadians, captured the Olympic gold medal in Vancouver. Their winning free-skate routine included their signature move, “the goose,” an audacious— and borderline illegal, by ice dancing’s rigid technical standards—maneuver that consisted of Virtue balancing on a crouching Moir’s back and extending her arms like wings before flipping through the air to be caught by her partner. (ADAM AUGUSTYN) Wilders, Geert (b. Sept. 6, 1963, Venlo, Neth.) On June 9, 2010, Dutch politician Geert Wilders led his anti-immigrant Party for Freedom (PVV) to an impressive showing in the Dutch parliamentary election. The PVV’s gain, from 9 seats to 24, put Wilders in a position to play a pivotal role in the minority government formed by the People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) and the Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA). Wilders, who had made headlines worldwide with inflammatory statements about Muslims, faced criminal prosecution in the Netherlands for inciting hatred. The trial, which began in January 2009, collapsed in October 2010, and a retrial was ordered with a new three-judge panel. Wilders was raised in the southeastern Netherlands, near the German border. After having completed secondary school, he took a series of law classes through the Dutch Open University. From 1981 to 1983 he lived in Israel and traveled throughout the Middle East. During his visits to Muslim countries in the region, Wilders began formulating the anti-Islamic views that later characterized his political career. Upon his return to the Netherlands, he worked in the health insurance industry. In 1997 he was elected to the Utrecht city council as a member of the right-of-centre VVD. The next year he was elected to the Dutch parliament. As an MP, Wilders initially drew little notice. In the early 2000s, however, a

Fiery Dutch politician Geert Wilders wave of anti-Islamic feeling in the Netherlands provided a platform for his views. In 2004 filmmaker Theo van Gogh was murdered after releasing the short film Submission, a collaboration with Somali-born Dutch activist Ayaan Hirsi Ali that critiqued the role of women in Muslim society. Wilders became a prominent voice on the political right, pronouncing Islam a “fascist ideology” and calling for restrictions on Muslim immigration to the Netherlands, and he quickly amassed a devoted following. Wilders left the VVD in 2004, partly to protest that party’s support for Turkey’s proposed accession to the EU, and two years later he founded the PVV. The fledgling party won nine seats in the 2006 parliamentary election, and Wilders continued to make public pronouncements against Islam. In 2007 he proposed that the Qur#an be banned in the Netherlands, and the next year he produced Fitna (“Strife”), a controversial short film that interlaces passages from the Qur#an with graphic images of Islamist terrorist attacks. Unable to find a commercial distributor for Fitna, Wilders released the film on the Internet. He then embarked on a promotional tour and made headlines in February 2009 when he was refused entry to the U.K. because British officials said that his visit would threaten public order (the ban was ultimately overturned). In spite of these setbacks, Wilders and the PVV fared well at the polls. The party won four seats in the election for the European Parliament in 2009, having earned 16.9% of the total vote. (MICHAEL RAY) 111

Biographies Li Huang—Color China Photo/AP

Woo, John (b. October 1946, Guangzhou, China) Chinese film director John Woo, who was honoured in September 2010 at the Venice International Film Festival with a Golden Lion for lifetime achievement, returned to the martial-arts subjects of his earliest films with the release in 2010 of Jianyu Jianghu (Reign of Assassins), an epic set in ancient China that he co-directed with Su Chao-Bin (Su Zhaobin). Woo was noted for his action movies, which combine copious stylized violence with lyrical, melodramatic depictions of male bonding. In 1950 Woo and his family immigrated to Hong Kong, where they lived in a crime-ridden slum. To escape his surroundings, Woo often went to the movies, and he was particularly fond of American musicals and later the westerns of American filmmaker Sam Peckinpah and the gangster films of French director Jean-Pierre Melville. In 1969 Woo became a script supervisor at Cathay Film Company. After moving to Shaw Brothers in 1971, he became assistant to martial-arts film director Chang Cheh, whose work, with its bloody violence and emphasis on male bonding, was a significant influence on him. In 1973 Woo became a director with Golden Harvest, where he garnered a reputation for slapstick comedies. Though he left that studio in 1983 because he had grown tired of the genre, he was still compelled by his new studio, Cinema City, to make two more comedies in Taiwan. In 1986 Woo released the gangster film Yingxiong bense (A Better Tomorrow). A huge box-office success, it initiated a series of action films that won Woo international acclaim for their mixture of expressive slow motion, nostalgia for lost codes of honour, Christian symbolism, melodramatic emotions, and hyperbolic violence. Woo and Chow Yun-Fat (Zhou Runfa), who became one of Hong Kong’s most popular actors by playing a character unique to Woo’s work—a 20th-century chivalrous mythic hero—collaborated on a sequel, Yingxiong bense II (1987; A Better Tomorrow II), as well as on Diexue shangxiong (1989; The Killer), Zongheng sihai (1991; Once a Thief), and Lat sau san taam (1992; HardBoiled). During this period, Woo also made Diexue jietou (1990; Bullet in the Head). Woo had some initial difficulties when he began working in the United States. Hard Target (1993) was submitted to the ratings board of the Motion 112

Picture Association of America seven times before it received a commercially acceptable R rating. While Face/Off (1997) was a critical and commercial success, Mission: Impossible II (2000) achieved even higher earnings, grossing more than $215 million in the U.S. Dissatisfaction with Hollywood led Woo back to China, where he made a two-part production, Chibi (2008; Red Cliff) and Chibi II (2009; Red Cliff II). With a budget of $80 million, it was the most expensive Chinese-language production to date. A historical epic set during the unstable ancient period of the Three Kingdoms, it balances tough action scenes with convincing characters. The Red Cliff film franchise grossed more than $200 million worldwide. (ERIK GREGERSEN) Xi Jinping (b. June 1953, Beijing, China) In October 2010 Xi Jinping, vice president of the People’s Republic of China since 2008, was named vice-chairman of the Central Military Commission. Xi’s elevation to the powerful commission was widely seen as one of the last stepping stones on his path to the presidency of China after Pres. Hu Jintao’s expected departure from office in 2012. Xi was the son of Xi Zhongxun, who was once deputy prime minister of China but was often out of favour with his party and government, especially after he openly criticized the government’s actions during the 1989 Tiananmen Square incident. In 1969, during the Cultural Revolution, the younger Xi was sent to rural Shaanxi province, where he worked for six years as a manual labourer on an agricultural commune. During this period he developed a good relationship with the local peasantry, which aided the wellborn Xi’s credibility in his eventual rise through the ranks of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). In 1974 he became an official party member, serving as a branch secretary, and in 1975–79 he attended Tsinghua University in Beijing, where he earned a degree in chemical engineering. After his graduation, he served for three years as secretary to Geng Biao, who at the time was China’s vice-premier and minister of national defense. Xi worked as a deputy secretary and then as secretary for the CCP in Hebei province from 1982 until 1985, when he was appointed a committee member and vice-mayor of Xiamen (Amoy) in Fujian province. While living in Fujian, he married (1987) the popular folk

Chinese Vice Pres. Xi Jinping singer Peng Liyuan. By 1995 Xi had ascended to the post of deputy provincial party secretary. He became acting governor of Fujian in 1999 and was named governor the following year. In the latter post he focused his attention on environmental conservation and cooperation with nearby Taiwan. He held both the deputy secretarial and governing posts until 2002, when he was elevated to acting governor of Zhejiang province. The following year he became provincial party secretary. In Zhejiang he focused on restructuring the province’s industrial infrastructure in an effort to promote sustainable development. In early 2007, following a pensionfund scandal surrounding the upper leadership of Shanghai, Xi took over as the city’s party secretary. In contrast to his reformist father, Xi had by then established a reputation for prudence and for following the party line; as Shanghai’s secretary he focused squarely on promoting stability and on rehabilitating the city’s financial image. He held the position only briefly, however, and in October 2007 he was named one of the nine members of the standing committee of the CCP’s Political Bureau. Xi’s status as Hu’s likely successor appeared more assured when in March 2008 he was elected vice president. In that role he focused on conservation efforts and on improving international relations. (MELISSA ALBERT)

Obituaries In 2010 the world LOST many LEADERS, pathfinders, NEWSMAKERS, heroes, CULTURAL ICONS, and ROGUES. The pages below RECAPTURE the lives and ACCOMPLISHMENTS of those we REMEMBER best.

Abraham, Raimund Johann, Austrian-born American architect (b. July 23, 1933, Lienz, Austria—d. March 4, 2010, Los Angeles, Calif.), created visionary and powerful architectural projects on paper; among the few of his designs that were built, the Austrian Cultural Forum in New York City (completed 2002), an arresting 24-story building on a narrow 7.6-m (25-ft) plot, won plaudits. Abraham established (1959) an avant-garde architectural studio in Vienna before relocating (1964) to the United States. He taught at the Rhode Island School of Design and later (1971–2002) primarily at the Cooper Union, New York City, and also at the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y. Abu Daoud (MOHAMMED DAOUD OUDEH), Palestinian militant (b. May 16, 1937, East Jerusalem, British Palestine—d. July 3, 2010, Damascus, Syria), organized the Black September attack at the Munich 1972 Olympic Games, in which 11 Israeli athletes were taken hostage and murdered. He was born Mohammed Oudeh and lived in East Jerusalem, where he taught math and science to Palestinian schoolchildren, until Israel took control of the area in the 1967 Six-Day War. He moved to Jordan, where he joined the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Eventually he took the nom de guerre Abu Daoud and became involved in the Black September movement, a militant offshoot of the Palestinian group Fatah. He claimed to have planned the capture of the Israeli athletes in an attempt to trade them for some 200 Palestinian prisoners held by Israel and to bring the PLO’s cause international prominence. After the attack resulted in the deaths of the hostages, five militants, and a West German police officer, he fled into exile. In 1981 he survived a presumed assassination attempt in Warsaw. Israel allowed his return in 1996 to attend the amending of the

Palestine National Charter, and he voted to remove the call for an armed struggle to destroy the Israeli state. After the publication in Paris of his memoir, Palestine: De Jérusalem à Munich (1999; Memoirs of a Palestinian Terrorist, 2000), in which he acknowledged his role in the Munich attack, Israeli authorities denied him reentry to his home in the West Bank.

voice in post-Stalinist Soviet literature, although her uncompromisingly individualistic work elicited official criticism and met with some difficulty in publication. Akhmadulina, who was of Tatar and Italian descent, completed her education at the Gorky Literary Institute (1960) and then traveled in Central Asia. She was eventually admitted to the Soviet Writers’ Union, and like

Abu Zayd, Nasr Hamid, Egyptian scholar (b. July 10, 1943, Quhafah, Egypt—d. July 5, 2010, Cairo, Egypt), challenged mainstream Muslim views and sparked controversy and debate through his interpretations of the Qur#an. Abu Zayd attended Cairo University and received a Ph.D. (1981) in Arabic and Islamic studies. His research and writings on Qur#anic exegesis, including his well-known Critique of Islamic Discourse (1995), offended some Islamists. In 1993 a colleague denounced Abu Zayd in a major Cairo mosque, and Islamist radicals sought in court to have his marriage nullified on the grounds that his writings demonstrated that he was an apostate. (Under Islamic law a Muslim woman may not be married to a nonMuslim man.) Though that court declined to pass judgment, an appeals court ordered Abu Zayd to divorce his wife (a fellow professor at Cairo University), a decision that was upheld by Egypt’s highest court. In 1995 Abu Zayd and his wife went into exile in the Netherlands, where he taught at the University for Humanistics, Utrecht, and Leiden University. Abu Zayd’s other works include the autobiographical Voice of an Exile: Reflections on Islam (2004).

ITAR-TASS Photo Agency/Alamy

Akhmadulina, Bella (IZABELLA AKHAAKHMADULINA), Russian-language poet (b. April 10, 1937, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.—d. Nov. 29, 2010, Peredelkino, Russia), was a distinctive

TOVNA

Poet Bella Akhmadulina her fellow poet Yevgeny Yevtushenko, to whom she was married during the 1950s, she drew audiences of thousands at readings of her work. Her first collection, Struna (“The Harp String”), appeared in 1962. The long poem Moya rodoslovnaya (1964; “My Family Tree”), the title of which alludes to a poem by Aleksandr Pushkin from 1830, is marked by ambitious but assured experimentation in both theme and technique. Subsequent volumes include Uroki muzyki (1969; “Music Lessons”), Stikhi (1975; “Poems”), and Taina 113

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(1983; “Secret”). Akhmadulina also published translations of poetry from Georgian and other languages. Among Akhmadulina’s many honours were the State Prize of the Soviet Union (1989) and the State Prize of the Russian Federation (2004). Alan, Ray(mond) (RAY WHYBERD), British ventriloquist and writer (b. Sept. 18, 1930, London, Eng.—d. May 24, 2010, Reigate, Surrey, Eng.), created numerous much-loved puppet characters, notably the drunken aristocrat Lord Charles and a boy and his pet duck named, respectively, Tich and Quackers. Introduced in 1959, the monocled Lord Charles was Alan’s longest-lasting and most well-known creation. Alan worked both on stage at variety theaters and on television, where he held the record for most perMyung Jung Kim—Press Association/AP

Allais, Maurice Félix Charles, French economist (b. May 31, 1911, Paris, France—d. Oct. 9, 2010, Saint-Cloud, France), was awarded the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1988 for his development of principles to guide efficient pricing and resource allocation in large monopolistic enterprises. Allais studied at the École Polytechnique (1931–33) and the École Nationale Supérieure des Mines, Paris (1934–36), before earning a doctorate (1949) at the University of Paris. In 1936 he began working for the state-owned French mine administration, and in 1944 he became a professor at the École des Mines. He also served as a professor of theoretical economics (1947–68) at the University of Paris, and from the mid-1940s he directed an economics research unit at the National Centre for Scientific Research. In his groundbreaking theoretical work, Allais sought to balance social benefits with economic efficiency in the pricing plans of state-owned enterprises such as utility companies, which proved particularly valuable in the decades following World War II, when the state-owned monopolies of western Europe experienced tremendous growth. His influential books include In Quest of an Economic Discipline (1943). In 1977 Allais was named an officer of the Legion of Honour; he was made grand officer in 2005 and promoted to grand cross in 2010.

Ventriloquist Ray Alan

Anderson, Alex (ALEXANDER HUME ANDERSON, JR.), American cartoonist (b. Sept. 5, 1920, Berkeley, Calif.—d. Oct. 22, 2010, Carmel, Calif.), created the beloved animated characters Bullwinkle J. Moose and Rocky the flying squirrel, as well as Canadian Mountie Dudley Do-Right and others that were featured in the TV series Rocky and His Friends (1959–61), later renamed The Bullwinkle Show (1961–64).

formances (19) on the show The Good Old Days. He performed with Tich and Quackers on a variety of children’s shows, including Time for Tich (1963–64) and Tich and Quakers (1965–68). Alan also hosted a variety of TV programs, including Ice Cabaret (1968–69), It’s Your Word (1972–73), and Three Little Words (1980–86), and from 1980 to 1988 he was the host of the radio show The Impressionists. Alan also wrote scripts and segments for TV sitcoms (under the name Ray Whyberd), two documentaries, two nonfiction books, and three crime novels.

Anderson, Fred, American musician (b. March 22, 1929, Monroe, La.—d. June 24, 2010, Evanston, Ill.), improvised on tenor saxophone with a robust sound and a flair for extended melodic invention that made him a major freejazz figure. Anderson was inspired by Charlie Parker’s music, but he developed his own sound. He spent most of his career in Chicago, where in 1965 he played in the first concert produced by the pioneering musicians’ cooperative the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians (AACM). Over the years, his music grew in fluency and confidence as he led combos that in-

troduced a series of important young musicians, including drummer Hamid Drake, trombonist George Lewis, and saxophonist Douglas Ewart. Anderson recorded his first album in 1977 as AACM leader during his first tour of Europe. The growth of his international reputation in the 1990s and 2000s led to the release or rerelease of more than 20 albums featuring his work. In those decades the Velvet Lounge, his Chicago nightclub, became a centre for the city’s free-jazz community and presented noted American and European free-jazz artists. Anderson, Sparky (GEORGE LEE ANAmerican baseball player and manager (b. Feb. 22, 1934, Bridgewater, S.D.—d. Nov. 4, 2010, Thousand Oaks, Calif.), guided teams to three Major League Baseball (MLB) World Series titles, two (1975 and 1976) for the National League (NL) Cincinnati Reds and one (1984) for the American League (AL) Detroit Tigers, and thereby became the first manager in the history of baseball to capture a World Series in both the NL and the AL. Anderson played some 10 years in the minor baseball leagues (with the exception of one year [1959] as a player for the MLB Philadelphia Phillies) before embarking in 1964 on a managing career in the minors, where he remained until 1969. In his first season (1970) with the Reds, he led the team to the NL title. During his nine-year tenure with the “Big Red

DERSON),

Hall of Fame baseball manager Sparky Anderson

Kirthmon Dozier—MCT/Landov

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Machine,” the team, which included such future Hall of Fame superstars as Joe Morgan, Tony Perez, Johnny Bench, and Pete Rose, won five NL pennants. Anderson was fired by the Reds at the end of the 1978 season after the team placed second in the NL West in consecutive seasons. He moved to the Tigers in 1979 and won 1,331 games before retiring in 1995. He was named Manager of the Year four times: twice for the NL (1972 and 1974) and twice for the AL (1984 and 1987). Anderson, who had a career record of 2,194 wins and 1,834 losses, was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2000. Annabi, Hédi, Tunisian diplomat (b. Sept. 4, 1944, Stains, France—d. Jan. 12, 2010, Port-au-Prince, Haiti), served in the United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) from its inception in 1992, initially with responsibility for missions in Africa, and from 2007 led the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Annabi began his career in 1966 in the Tunisian foreign service and in 1981 joined the UN, working in the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs in South-East Asia; he was appointed director of the office in 1991 and was instrumental in the establishment that year of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia. He was appointed (1993) director of the DPKO’s Africa division and given responsibility for the UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda. Though that office was widely excoriated for the inadequacy of its response to the 1994 genocide in Rwanda, Annabi maintained that the mission was hamstrung by its weakness and lack of reinforcements. Annabi was preparing MINUSTAH to oversee elections scheduled for February 2010 in Haiti when he was killed by the collapse of the building housing his office in the massive earthquake that devastated Haiti. Arbatov, Georgy Arkadyevich, Russian foreign policy adviser (b. March 23, 1923, Kherson, Ukraine, U.S.S.R. [now in Ukraine]—d. Oct. 1, 2010, Moscow, Russia), advised five general secretaries of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union, from Nikita Khrushchev to Mikhail Gorbachev, on relations with the United States and explained Soviet foreign policy to Americans in speeches and television appearances. Arbatov graduated (1949) from the Moscow

State Institute of International Relations. After working as a journalist for several years, he became (1962) a sector leader in the Institute of World Economy and International Relations, part of the Soviet Union’s Academy of Sciences. He founded the Institute of U.S. and Canadian Studies in 1967 and served as its director until 1995. Arkhipova, Irina Konstantinova, Russian mezzo soprano (b. Dec. 2, 1925, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.—d. Feb. 11, 2010, Moscow, Russia), sang with impressive range and dramatic intensity throughout an opera career that spanned more than four decades and encompassed some of the great mezzo (and, later, contralto) roles, notably Marfa in Modest Mussorgsky’s Khovanshchina, Marina in Mussorgsky’s Boris Godunov, and Amneris in Giuseppe Verdi’s Aida. Arkhipova graduated (1948) from the Moscow Architectural Institute and then studied singing at the Moscow Conservatory; she joined (1954) the Sverdlovsk (later Yekaterinburg) Opera before moving to the Bolshoi Theatre, where she made her debut as Carmen in 1956 and was a mainstay during the 1960s and ’70s. She continued performing in Russia and elsewhere well into her 70s, including making a noteworthy appearance as Filippyevna in Tchaikovsky’s Eugene Onegin at New York City’s Metropolitan Opera in 1997. Arkhipova was made a People’s Artist of the U.S.S.R. in 1966, and from 1993 she and her husband, tenor Vladislav Piyavko, promoted young singers through her foundation. Auchincloss, Louis Stanton, American novelist, short-story writer, and critic (b. Sept. 27, 1917, Lawrence, N.Y.—d. Jan. 26, 2010, New York, N.Y.), was best known for his novels of manners set in the world of contemporary upper-class New York City. Auchincloss studied (1935–38) at Yale University and graduated (1941) from the University of Virginia School of Law. He was admitted to the New York state bar that same year and began a legal career that lasted until 1987. For his first novel, The Indifferent Children (1947), Auchincloss used the pseudonym Andrew Lee, but by 1950 he was publishing stories under his own name. Noted for his stylistic clarity and skill at characterization, he became the prolific chronicler of life in the rarefied world of corporate boardrooms and brownstone mansions. Several of his best novels, in-

cluding The House of Five Talents (1960) and Portrait in Brownstone (1962), examine family relationships over a period of decades. Others, notably The Rector of Justin (1964) and Diary of a Yuppie (1986), are studies of a single character, often from many points of view. Subsequent works include the novels Tales of Yesteryear (1994), The Education of Oscar Fairfax (1995), Her Infinite Variety (2000), The Scarlet Letters (2003), and The Headmaster’s Dilemma (2007). Short-story collections include Tales of Manhattan (1967), Skinny Island (1987), Three Lives (1993), The Anniversary and Other Stories (1999), and Manhattan Monologues (2002). In addition, Auchincloss published biographies of U.S. presidents—including Woodrow Wilson (2000) and Theodore Roosevelt (2002)— and the essay collections The Man Behind the Book: Literary Profiles (1996) and Writers and Personality (2005). Bainbridge, Dame Beryl Margaret, British novelist (b. Nov. 21, 1934, Liverpool, Eng.—d. July 2, 2010, London, Eng.), was known for her psychologically astute portrayals of lower-middleclass English life; her works often presented in a comical yet macabre Michael Crabtree—Press Association/AP

Novelist Dame Beryl Bainbridge manner the destructiveness latent in ordinary situations. Although her early novels were mainly semiautobiographical, her later works drew on historical figures and events. Bainbridge began a theatrical career at an early age and 115

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acted in various repertory theatres; later she occasionally appeared on television. She wrote Harriet Said in the late 1950s, but the novel, which deals with two teenage girls who seduce a man and murder his wife, was not published until 1972. Bainbridge’s first published novel, A Weekend with Claud (1967), is an experimental work concerning a predatory, violent man. Five of her novels—The Dressmaker (1973; filmed 1988), The Bottle Factory Outing (1974), An Awfully Big Adventure (1989; filmed 1995), Every Man for Himself (1996), and Master Georgie (1998)— were short-listed for the Booker Prize, and two, Every Man for Himself and Injury Time (1977), were awarded the Whitbread Prize. Other novels include Sweet William (1975; filmed 1980), Young Adolf (1978), The Birthday Boys (1991), and According to Queeney (2001). Bainbridge also wrote short stories, television plays, and some nonfiction, notably a collection of theatre reviews and essays, Front Row: Evenings at the Theatre: Pieces from the Oldie (2005). She was made DBE in 2000. Basu, Jyoti, Indian politician (b. July 8, 1914, Calcutta [now Kolkata], India—d. Jan. 17, 2010, Kolkata), served as the chief minister (1977–2000) of West Bengal state and was a cofounder of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI[M]). Though Basu’s political career had radical roots, his later style of governance was defined by pragmatism and concerns about corruption. Basu, the son of an affluent physician, began his studies in Calcutta before traveling to London in 1935 to complete his law education and qualify as a barrister. In England he also came under the influence of Marxist political theorist Harold Laski. On his return to Calcutta in 1940, Basu became a party worker for the Communist Party of India (CPI), participating in the organization of rail workers. In 1946, the year before India became independent of British rule, Basu was elected to the Bengal Legislative Assembly. In 1964 the CPI split into two factions, with Basu among the founders of the more radical CPI(M). In 1996, in the absence of a clear majority by any party, he was slated to become India’s prime minister at the head of a national coalition, but some CPI(M) party members felt that their Marxist principles would be compromised by the selection, and he was obliged to turn down the opportunity. Basu made strides toward literacy and rural development in West Bengal, with his land reforms in partic116

ular receiving praise, and he played a large part in the actualization of Kolkata’s commuter rail project, but his industrial policies were criticized. In late 2000 he stepped down as chief minister, but he remained a member of his party’s Politburo, and his pragmatic approach was evident in 2004 when the CPI(M) allied itself with Prime Minister Manmohan Singh’s Congress Party. Bazin, Marc Louis, Haitian politician (b. March 6, 1932, Saint-Marc, Haiti— d. June 16, 2010, Port-au-Prince, Haiti), contested Haiti’s first free presidential election in 1990, with the support of U.S. Pres. George H.W. Bush, but he was unpopular with the masses and badly lost to Jean-Bertrand Aristide. Although a military takeover set Bazin up in 1992 as prime minister and acting president, again supported by the Bush administration, he resigned in 1993 as the new administration of U.S. Pres. Bill Clinton helped reinstall Aristide. Growing up as part of a minority of socially mobile blacks in Haiti, Bazin studied law, economics, and sociology at the Lycée Petion in Port-au-Prince, the University of Paris, and the Solvay Institute of Sociology in Brussels. He was minister of finance and economy in 1982 under the corrupt dictatorship of Jean-Claude (“Baby Doc”) Duvalier until his criticism of Duvalier forced Bazin to leave the government and the country. As the founder (1986) and president of the Movement for the Establishment of Democracy in Haiti, Bazin failed in subsequent presidential bids. He remained an active politician and media commentator, however, writing for the daily Le Nouvelliste. Bedser, Sir Alec Victor, English cricketer (b. July 4, 1918, Reading, Berkshire, Eng.—d. April 4, 2010, Woking, Surrey, Eng.), was one of the all-time greatest of English fast-medium bowlers and the mainstay of the England attack during the post-World War II years; his 236 Test wickets stood as a world record from 1955 until 1963. Bedser and his identical-twin brother, Eric, joined the Surrey ground staff in 1938, and Alec made his first-class debut the following summer. After service in World War II, Bedser returned to Surrey in 1946 and, with only 12 first-class matches behind him, was selected for the Test series against India. In the first Test, at Lord’s, Bedser took 11 wickets, followed by another 11 in the second Test at Old Trafford, finishing the series with 24 wickets. On the winter tour to Australia in 1946–47, in

which he took 16 wickets, he developed a leg cutter, which he used with great effect. Bedser took 30 wickets in the 1950–51 Ashes series and 39 in the 1953 series, including 14 for 99 in the first Test at Trent Bridge, in which England regained the Ashes for the first time since 1932–33. Illness ended Bedser’s Test career in 1955. In 51 Test matches, he took 236 wickets (average 24.89), with a best-bowling analysis of 7 wickets for 44 runs. He scored 714 runs in 71 innings (average 12.75) and took 26 catches. After retiring from first-class cricket in 1960, Bedser served as an England selector for a record 23 years (1961–85), 13 as chairman (1968–81). He also managed the 1974–75 and 1979–80 tours of Australia and was president of Surrey in 1987. Having been made OBE (1964) and CBE (1982), Bedser was knighted in 1997 for services to cricket. Beeson, Jack Hamilton, American composer (b. July 15, 1921, Muncie, Ind.—d. June 6, 2010, New York, N.Y.), wrote symphonies, chamber works, and opera scores, notably Lizzie Borden, based on the life of the accused ax murderess of that name, which premiered at the New York City Opera in 1965 and was later performed and recorded (1999) as part of the television series Live from Lincoln Center. He wrote his first opera, Jonah (1950), while studying in Rome (1948–50). His operas draw on a range of musical styles and often incorporate American texts or history, as with Lizzie Borden, the chamber opera Hello Out There (1954), from William Saroyan’s play, and The Sweet Bye and Bye (1957), which mixes evangelical hymns and chants with more traditional arias. Beeson also collaborated with Broadway lyricist Sheldon Harnick on several operas, including Dr. Heidegger’s Fountain of Youth (1978), based on a short story by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Berlanga, Luis García, Spanish filmmaker (b. June 12, 1921, Valencia, Spain—d. Nov. 13, 2010, Madrid, Spain), directed satiric comedies that skewered Spanish politics and culture under the dictator Francisco Franco while maintaining sufficiently subtle humour to escape serious censorship by the government. After his service in World War II, he attended film school in Madrid with fellow writer-director Juan Antonio Bardem (uncle of actor Javier Bardem), and he used scripts cowritten with Bardem in some of his

Obituaries CBS/Landov

early films, notably Esa pareja feliz (1951; That Happy Couple) and ¡Bienvenido, Mister Marshall! (1952; Welcome, Mister Marshall!), a classic farce in which a poor Castilian village mistakenly believes that it is in line to receive aid from the postwar Marshall Plan. Berlanga featured screenplays by Rafael Azcona in some of his later films, including the Academy Awardnominated Plácido (1961), El verdugo (1963; The Executioner), the French sex farce Grandeur nature (1973), and La vaquilla (1985; The Heifer). Berlanga was honoured with a Prince of Asturias Award in 1986. Bigeard, Marcel Maurice (“BRUNO”), French general (b. Feb. 14, 1916, Toul, France—d. June 18, 2010, Toul), was a veteran of three wars and one of France’s most decorated military heroes. Bigeard was working as a bank clerk in 1939 when he was called to the army to defend France against German invasion. He was captured by the enemy in June 1940 but later escaped to join the Free French Forces. After World War II he remained in the army and was dispatched to French Indochina at the head of a parachute battalion. Bigeard was interned after Viet Minh guerrillas overran the French stronghold of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954. Following several months of imprisonment, he was repatriated to France and then returned to active paratroop service during the war for independence (1954–62) in Algeria, where he fought in the Battle of Algiers (1957). Bigeard served a year (1975–76) as the secretary of state for defense and retired in 1976 with the rank of général de corps d’armée (equivalent to lieutenant general in other NATO countries). Later he became a deputy in France’s lower house of parliament. Bigeard’s military awards included the French grand cross of the Legion of Honour and Croix de Guerre, the British Distinguished Service Order, and the U.S. Commander of the Legion of Merit. Billingsley, Barbara (BARBARA LILLIAN COMBES), American actress (b. Dec. 22, 1915, Los Angeles, Calif.—d. Oct. 16, 2010, Santa Monica, Calif.), portrayed June Cleaver, the even-tempered and perfectly coiffed stay-at-home mother who kindly shepherded her two sons, Wally and Theodore (“Beaver”), through their childhood travails on the television series Leave It to Beaver (1957–63). Her character wore high heels, shirtwaist dresses, and a trademark string of

oratories as director of therapeutic research in 1978. From 1984 he was professor of analytical pharmacology at King’s College, London, becoming emeritus in 1993. He also served (1992–2006) as chancellor of the University of Dundee, Scot., which in 2006 opened the Sir James Black Centre, a research facility for the investigation of cancer, tropical diseases, and diabetes. Black was knighted in 1981 and became a member of the Order of Merit in 2000.

Quintessential TV mom Barbara Billingsley pearls in the course of her everyday housework, a style that became emblematic of the 1950s typical housewife, though few women at that time actually performed household duties in such finery. Prior to joining the sitcom, Billingsley worked briefly as a model and appeared in a few B movies. In the film Airplane! (1980), Billingsley spoofed her Cleaver character in a cameo in which she interpreted jive talk. She later provided the voice (1984–91) for the character Nanny in the Nickelodeon cable TV show Muppet Babies. Black, Sir James Whyte, Scottish pharmacologist (b. June 14, 1924, Uddingston, Scot.—d. March 21, 2010), received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1988 (along with George H. Hitchings and Gertrude B. Elion) for his insights into the pharmacotherapeutic potential of receptor-blocking drugs and his development of two such drugs, propranolol (the first clinically useful beta-receptor blocking drug) and cimetidine (a drug that could block histamine receptors), which revolutionized the treatment of coronary heart disease and of gastric and duodenal ulcers, respectively. Black earned a medical degree (1946) from the University of St. Andrews in Scotland and taught at various universities before joining (1958) Imperial Chemical Industries as a senior pharmacologist. He became head of biological research at Smith Kline and French Laboratories in 1964 and joined the Wellcome Research Lab-

Blackwell, David Harold, American statistician and mathematician (b. April 24, 1919, Centralia, Ill.—d. July 8, 2010, Berkeley, Calif.), made significant contributions to game theory, probability theory, information theory, and Bayesian statistics and broke racial barriers when he was named (1965) the first African American member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. Blackwell, the son of a railroad worker, taught himself to read as a boy. He initially planned to become an elementary school teacher, and at age 16 he entered the University of Illinois, where his early aptitude for mathematics blossomed. He earned bachelor’s (1938), master’s (1939), and doctorate (1941) degrees, and after a postdoctoral fellowship at Princeton University, he briefly worked for the U.S. Office of Price Administration; Southern University, Baton Rouge, La.; and Clark College, Atlanta. Blackwell taught (1944–54) in the mathematics department at Howard University, Washington, D.C., and then in 1954 was invited to join the faculty at the University of California, Berkeley, where he became that institution’s first black tenured professor. He also served as chairman (1957–61) of the statistics department there before retiring in 1988. While working (1948–50) as a consultant at the RAND Corporation, Blackwell pioneered game theory by analyzing the optimum timing of theoretical armed duelists. Blanda, George Frederick, American football player (b. Sept. 17, 1927, Youngwood, Pa.—d. Sept. 27, 2010, Alameda, Calif.), became a legend as a placekicker and backup quarterback who won numerous games in the final seconds, and he established records (first as a quarterback and later as a kicker) for most seasons played (26), most games played (340; broken in 2004), most points scored (2,002; broken in 2000), most points after touchdowns (943 of 959 attempted), and 117

Obituaries NFL Photos/AP

Broadway revival of Fiddler. In the 1950s Bock had teamed up with Larry Holofcener on songs for television’s Your Show of Shows and the musical Mr. Wonderful (1956).

Legendary quarterback George Blanda most field goals (335 of 638 attempted; broken in 1983). Blanda played football at the University of Kentucky before he joined (1949) the NFL Chicago Bears. In 1953 he became the team’s starting quarterback and led the league in pass completions. After an injury in 1954, he acted mainly as a placekicker through 1958. He was inactive in 1959 and joined the Houston Oilers of the AFL in 1960. He propelled the Oilers to league championships (1960–61) as a quarterback and led the league in touchdown passes (36) in 1961 (tied in 1963 by Y.A. Tittle), a record until 1984. He was signed (1967) by the AFL Oakland Raiders (part of the NFL from 1970) and retired in 1976. Blanda was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1981.

Bohlen, Jim (JAMES CALVIN BOHLEN), American-born antiwar activist and environmentalist (b. July 4, 1926, Bronx, N.Y.—d. July 5, 2010, Comox, B.C.), was a founder of the organization Greenpeace in 1971, when he and several other people from the Sierra Club formed the group—originally called the Don’t Make a Wave Committee—to protest U.S. nuclear testing on Amchitka Island in Alaska’s Aleutian chain. Although their boat was stopped, the protest ultimately proved successful. The organization eventually expanded to some three million members campaigning for environmental causes around the world. After the Amchitka event, Bohlen was not involved in Greenpeace again until the 1980s, when the organization renewed its active opposition to nuclear testing, notably in the Nuclear Free Seas campaign; he was a Greenpeace director until 1993. Bol, Manute, Sudanese basketball player and political activist (b. Oct. 16, Towering star basketball defenseman Manute Bol

Bosley, Tom (THOMAS E DWARD BOSLEY), American actor (b. Oct. 1, 1927, Chicago, Ill.—d. Oct. 19, 2010, Palm Springs, Calif.), was best remembered for his portrayal of Howard Cunningham, the affable paternal head of a Wisconsin family that included son Richie, daughter Joanie, and wife Marion on the television series Happy Days (1974–84). The sitcom centred on the high-school antics of Richie and his best friends Potsie, Ralph, and Fonzie and the sage advice dispensed to them by the affectionately known “Mr. C.” Bosley also had a recurring TV role (1984–88) on Murder, She Wrote as Sheriff Amos Tupper, and he appeared in the title role as a Chicago priest with a knack for solving crimes on the TV series Father Dowling Mysteries (1987–91). In addition to his television work, Bosley appeared in several films and earned a Tony Award in 1960 for best featured actor for his original role as crusading New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia in the Broadway musical Fiorello!.

Bock, Jerry (JERROLD LEWIS BOCK), American composer (b. Nov. 23, 1928, New Haven, Conn.—d. Nov. 3, 2010, Mount Kisco, N.Y.), had his greatest successes in collaborations with lyricist Sheldon Harnick on such Broadway smash hits as Fiorello! (1959, Pulitzer Prize) and Fiddler on the Roof (1964), for which he earned a Tony Award for best composer. Bock and Harnick’s other musicals include The Body Beautiful (1958), Tenderloin (1960), the admired She Loves Me (1963), The Apple Tree (1966), and The Rothschilds (1970). The duo had a falling out over the latter production, but in 2004 they resumed their partnership to write additional tunes for David Leveaux’s Mike Derer/AP

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1962, southern Sudan—d. June 19, 2010, Charlottesville, Va.), used his tremendous height—variously identified as 2.31 m (7 ft 7 in) or 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in)—to great effect as one of the National Basketball Association’s (NBA’s) best defensive players throughout his 10-year (1985–95) NBA career with the Washington Bullets, the Golden State Warriors, the Philadelphia 76ers, and the Miami Heat. In his playing days, the spindly-looking Bol rarely weighed much more than 91 kg (about 200 lb), but his quick reflexes and incredible 2.6-m (8-ft 6-in) arm span made him a formidable shot blocker: in 624 games he made 2,086 blocks, for an average of 3.34 per game, the second best in NBA history. Bol, a Dinka from southern Sudan, tended his family’s cattle and at age 15 began playing basketball. He arrived in the U.S. in 1982 with no formal education or knowledge of the English language. Within three years, however, he had studied English at the Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, played a year of college ball at the University of Bridgeport, Conn., and been drafted by the Bullets. After retiring in 1995, Bol campaigned for peace in war-torn Sudan, where he maintained a part-time home and funded the construction of new schools. He died of complications from a rare skin disease and kidney failure.

Obituaries

Bourgeois, Louise, French-born American sculptor (b. Dec. 25, 1911, Paris, France—d. May 31, 2010, New York, N.Y.), was known for her monumental abstract and often biomorphic works that deal with the relationships of men and women. For many people, however, she was most closely associated with Maman (1999) a looming 9.27-m (30-ft)-tall steel-and-marble spider that was commissioned as the centrepiece of the inaugural exhibit in the vast Turbine Hall at the opening (2000) of London’s Tate Modern museum. (Bourgeois presented the piece to the Tate for its permanent collection in 2008.) Six bronze versions were cast in 2003 and later traveled to several sites throughout the world. Bourgeois was born to a family of tapestry dealers and restorers and made her first drawings to assist her parents in their restorations. She studied mathematics at the Sorbonne, but in her early 20s she changed her focus to art, studying at the École des Beaux-Arts, the Académie de la Grande Chaumière, and the studio of Fernand Léger. In 1938 she married the American art historian Robert Goldwater and moved with him to New York City, where she began exhibiting her distinctly Surrealist paintings and engravings. In the late 1940s she began to experiment with sculptural forms, producing a series of long, lean wooden shapes that she exhibited singly and in groups. In the following decades she built many often unsettling environments of latex and found objects and structures of marble, plaster, and glass. In 1982 she was granted a retrospective show at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, an honour seldom granted to a living artist, and in 1993 she represented the U.S. at the Venice Biennale. Boyle, Robert Francis, American art director (b. Oct. 10, 1909, Los Angeles, Calif.—d. Aug. 1, 2010, Los Angeles), designed some of the most realistic and memorable scenes in cinematic history—including the cropduster chase and Mt. Rushmore sequences in director Alfred Hitchcock’s film North by Northwest (1959), which earned Boyle the first of his four Academy Award nominations for best art direction–set decoration, and the seagull attack scene in Hitchcock’s The Birds (1963). Other movie credits include Cape Fear (1962), In Cold Blood (1967), The Shootist (1976), and several with director Norman Jewison, including The Thomas Crown Affair (1968), Gaily, Gaily (1969),

and Fiddler on the Roof (1971). Boyle received a Lifetime Achievement Award (1997) from the Art Directors Guild, and in 2008, at the age of 98, he was awarded an honorary Oscar for his distinguished career in art direction. Brazauskas, Algirdas Mykolas, Lithuanian politician (b. Sept. 22, 1932, Rokiskis, Lith.—d. June 26, 2010, Vilnius, Lith.), was the first elected president (1993–98) of his homeland after it withdrew from the U.S.S.R. Brazauskas rose through the ranks of the Lithuanian Communist Party (LKP) and in 1988 became first secretary of the party’s Central Committee. The LKP severed its connections with the Soviet Union’s Communist Party in 1989, and the following year Lithuania declared independence. In 1991 the country was formally recognized, and Brazauskas became acting president after his Lithuanian Democratic Labour Party (LDDP) won a majority of seats in the general election for the new parliament in 1992. As president and later as prime minister (2001–06), Brazauskas promoted Lithuania’s economic freedom and eventual membership in the EU and NATO. He resigned in 2006 amid accusations of economic corruption, and the next year he retired as leader of the Lithuanian Social Democratic Party—a party created in 2001 by the merger of the existing Social Democratic Party and the LDDP. Brazauskas was awarded Russia’s Order of Honour in 2010 for his diplomatic role in strengthening relations between Russia and Lithuania. Breuker, Willem, Dutch jazz musician and composer (b. Nov. 4, 1944, Amsterdam, Neth.—d. July 23, 2010, Amsterdam), championed the uniqueness of blossoming European jazz traditions as he led his ensemble, the Willem Breuker Kollektief, in playing works by jazz and pop songwriters and avantgarde composers, such as Bela Bartók and Kurt Weill, and, most of all, in playing his own original, often satiric, works. A pioneer of free jazz in Europe, Breuker became a soloist on several saxophones in the 1960s, recording with the German saxophonist Peter Brötzmann and multi-instrumentalist Gunter Hampel and cofounding the Instant Composers Pool. In 1974 he formed the Kollektief, a tightly disciplined ensemble that included other soloists and that spiced his dramatic music with occasional slapstick comedy; the group usually consisted of 10–11 members, 7 of

whom performed with the Kollektief for more than 30 years. The Kollektief toured extensively, often working with added singers and instrumentalists. Breuker also composed for the theatre and motion pictures and for other jazz ensembles, such as the Italian Instabile Orchestra and the Globe Unity Orchestra. In addition, he was an active music educator, founded an annual Amsterdam music festival and the BVHaast label to record contemporary jazz and avant-garde music, produced a 48-hour radio documentary (1997) on the music of Weill, and was a leading advocate of public funding for new music in the Netherlands. Burbidge, Geoffrey Ronald, Britishborn American astrophysicist and astronomer (b. Sept. 24, 1925, Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 26, 2010, La Jolla, Calif.), played a key role in several important developments in astrophysics and cosmology. He coauthored with his wife (astronomer E. Margaret Peachey Burbidge) and two other colleagues a seminal paper published in 1957 that showed how all but the lightest chemical elements are produced through nuclear reactions within stars. (Atoms of the heavier elements are then scattered into the universe when more massive stars eventually explode.) He and his wife carried out early research in quasars and radio galaxies and measured the masses of galaxies from the galaxies’ rotational speeds. Burbidge never accepted the big-bang model of the origin of the universe and instead argued that the universe periodically expands and contracts. Burbidge obtained a bachelor’s degree (1946) from Bristol University and a Ph.D. in theoretical physics (1951) from University College, London. He taught at several universities before he joined the faculty of the University of California, San Diego, in 1962. Burbidge spent the rest of his career there except for a six-year period (1978–84) when he served as director of the Kitt Peak (Arizona) National Observatory. During 1974–2004 he was editor of the Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. Burbidge and his wife were jointly awarded the American Astronomical Society’s Warner Prize (1959) and the Royal Astronomical Society’s gold medal (2005). Burke, Solomon, American singer (b. March 21, 1940, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. Oct. 10, 2010, Haarlemmermeer, Neth.), helped to usher in the soul mu119

Obituaries Alan Spearman—The Commercial Appeal/Landov

chart in 1978. Burke was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001.

Soul singer Solomon Burke sic era in the 1960s by merging the gospel style of the African American church with rhythm and blues; two of his most memorable songs were “Everybody Needs Somebody to Love” (1964) and “Got to Get You off My Mind” (1965), which he was inspired to write following the death of his friend singer Sam Cooke. Burke’s family established its own church, and he had become a preacher and the host of a gospel radio program by age 12. He began recording in 1955 but did not have his first national hit until 1961, with a rhythm-and-blues version of a country ballad, “Just out of Reach.” His recordings, most of which were produced in New York City, incorporated gospel-derived vocal techniques—shouted interjections, an exhortatory recitation, melisma, and rasping timbre. At Atlantic Records, under producer Bert Berns, Burke became one of the first rhythm-and-blues performers to be called a soul artist, based on his success with “Cry to Me” (1962), “If You Need Me” (1963), “Goodbye Baby (Baby Goodbye)” (1964), and his last Top 40 pop hit, “Tonight’s the Night” (1965). After the mid-1960s Burke continued to record but with lessening success, last placing a record on the rhythm-and-blues

Byrd, Robert Carlyle (CORNELIUS CALVIN SALE, JR.), American politician (b. Nov. 20, 1917, North Wilkesboro, N.C.—d. June 28, 2010, Falls Church, Va.), achieved a historical landmark during his tenure as a U.S. Democratic senator (1959–2010) from West Virginia when he became (2006) the longest-serving U.S. senator; that tenure, combined with his three terms (1953–59) as a U.S. representative, allowed him to claim the record in 2009 as the longest-serving member of Congress. His achievements as a skilled orator, a staunch advocate for the working class, and an expert on senatorial procedures and the U.S. Constitution established his reputation as a towering figure on Capitol Hill. Byrd held such Senate leadership positions as Democratic whip (1971–77), majority leader (1977–80, 1987–88), minority leader (1981–86), and president pro tempore (1989–95, 2001–03, and 2007–10). Despite not having gained a bachelor’s degree until 1994, he earned a law degree (1963) from American University in Washington, D.C., while serving in the Senate. In the early 1940s Byrd organized a local Ku Klux Klan chapter, but he later apologized for this and became a strong supporter Longtime senator Robert Byrd

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of civil rights. He launched his political career by winning election (1946) to the West Virginia House of Delegates. Byrd served in the state Senate (1951–52) before winning election in 1952 to the U.S. House of Representatives. As chairman (1988–2008) of the Senate Appropriations Committee, Byrd worked to attract industry and federal jobs to West Virginia, but his efforts to bolster his state with billions of dollars of federal funding also attracted criticism. In addition, he provided guidance on procedural matters during Senate hearings in 1998–99 on the impeachment of Pres. Bill Clinton. Byrd opposed the reorganization of federal security agencies undertaken by Pres. George W. Bush, including the creation of the Department of Homeland Security—in the wake of the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks—and he was a vocal critic of the Iraq War. Byrd also published the celebrated four-volume series The Senate, 1789–1989 (1989–94). Captain Beefheart (DON GLEN VLIET; DON VAN VLIET), American avant-garde musician (b. Jan. 15, 1941, Glendale, Calif.—d. Dec. 17, 2010, Arcata, Calif.), was an innovative rock and blues singer, songwriter, and instrumentalist. Performing with the shifting lineup of musicians known as the Magic Band, Captain Beefheart produced a series of albums from the 1960s to the ’80s that had limited commercial appeal but were a major influence on punk and experimental rock. Beefheart, a child prodigy as a sculptor, grew up in the Mojave Desert region of California, where he and Frank Zappa met as teenagers. Having learned to play the harmonica and saxophone, Beefheart formed the first Magic Band in 1964, and the group (which briefly included Ry Cooder) had moderate success with the albums Safe as Milk (1967) and Strictly Personal (1968). Beefheart’s most famous recording, Trout Mask Replica (1969), produced by Zappa, proved an astonishing departure from previous rock conventions, combining eerie slide guitars, unpredictable rhythms, and surrealistic lyrics that Beefheart (who possessed a nearly fiveoctave range) wailed with fierce intensity. He earned critical acclaim with Clear Spot (1972), Shiny Beast (Bat Chain Puller) (1978), Ice Cream for Crow (1982), and other albums. In the early 1980s Beefheart, again using the name Don Van Vliet, left the music business altogether and devoted himself to painting.

Obituaries Hamilton—REA/Redux

Carmichael, Ian Gillett, British actor (b. June 18, 1920, Kingston upon Hull, East Yorkshire, Eng.—d. Feb. 5, 2010, Grosmont, North Yorkshire, Eng.), brilliantly embodied the character of a bumbling affable twit in numerous stage productions and films and memorably played the parts of Bertie Wooster in the television series The World of Wooster (1965–67) and Lord Peter Wimsey in BBC TV adaptations of the detective novels of Dorothy L. Sayers in the 1970s. Carmichael was also known for his work in the films of John and Roy Boulting, especially Private’s Progress (1956), Lucky Jim (1957), and I’m All Right Jack (1959), as well as for School for Scoundrels (1960). Carmichael was appointed OBE in 2003. Carter, Dixie Virginia, American actress (b. May 25, 1939, McLemoresville, Tenn.—d. April 10, 2010, Houston, Texas), often portrayed independent, successful Southern women and was best known for her role as Julia Sugarbaker on the television situation comedy Designing Women (1986–93). She later (2007) received an Emmy nomination for her guest-starring role as brusque mother-in-law Gloria Hodge in the TV series Desperate Housewives. Carter appeared on Broadway in the musical Sextet (1974) as well as in a revival of Pal Joey (1976). Her final Broadway performance (2004) was as Mrs. Meers in a production of Thoroughly Modern Millie. She married actor Hal Holbrook in 1984. Cecchi d’Amico, Suso (GIOVANNA CECCHI), Italian screenwriter (b. July 21, 1914, Rome, Italy—d. July 31, 2010, Rome), contributed to more than 100 films in post-World War II Italian cinema, notably the Neorealist classic Ladri di biciclette (1948; The Bicycle Thief), directed by Vittorio De Sica, and Il gattopardo (1963; The Leopard), directed by Luchino Visconti, with whom Cecchi d’Amico often worked. She began writing screenplays in 1945 but received her first credit for Mio figlio professore (1946; Professor, My Son). She later collaborated on such films as Michelangelo Antonioni’s Le amiche (1955; The Girlfriends) and Mario Monicelli’s Casanova ’70 (1965)—for which Cecchi d’Amico was nominated (1966) for an Academy Award for best screenplay—as well as Franco Zeffirelli’s TV miniseries Gesù di Nazareth (1977; Jesus of Nazareth). Cecchi d’Amico acquired the nickname “Suso” because her father called her Susanna. The

Venice Film Festival awarded her the Golden Lion for lifetime achievement in 1994. Chabrol, Claude, French motion-picture director, scenarist, and producer (b. June 24, 1930, Paris, France—d. Sept. 12, 2010, Paris), was France’s master of the mystery thriller and a preeminent figure in the New Wave (Nouvelle Vague) in French cinema of the 1950s, notably with his debut movie, Le Beau Serge (1958). Chabrol’s fascination with the grotesque, his use of irony, and his commingling of tragedy and comedy reflect the strong stylistic influence of the English director Alfred Hitchcock, and he was coauthor with director Eric Rohmer (q.v.) of a 1957 book on Hitchcock. Chabrol attended the University of Paris and worked at Twentieth Century-Fox’s French office before becoming a filmmaker. He followed the critical and commercial success of Le Beau Serge with Les Cousins (1959), Les Bonnes Femmes (1960), Landru (1963), Les Biches (1968), and Le Boucher (1970), among others that featured his second wife, Stéphane Audran. As the New Wave receded, Chabrol maintained a prodigious output, creating such works as Violette Nozière (1978), Le Cheval d’orgueil (1979), Blood Relatives (1978), Une Affaire de femmes (1988; Story of Women), an adaptation (1991) of Gustave Flaubert’s novel Madame Bovary, the César Award-nominated La Cérémonie (1995), Merci pour le chocolat (2000), La Fleur du mal (2003; The Flower of Evil), and La Fille coupée en deux (2007; The Girl Cut in Two), many of which starred actress Isabelle Huppert. His last film was the thriller Bellamy (2009; Inspector Bellamy). In 2003 Chabrol was honoured with a lifetime achievement award from the European Film Awards. Charpak, Georges, Polish-born French physicist (b. March 8, 1924, Dabrowica, Pol. [now Dubrovytsya, Ukr.]—d. Sept. 29, 2010, Paris, France), was the recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1992 for his invention of subatomic particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber, which revolutionized high-energy physics and had applications in medicine, biology, and industry. Charpak’s family moved from Poland to Paris when he was seven years old. During World War II he served in the French Resistance, but he was imprisoned by Vichy authorities in 1943, and the next year he was de-

Nobel Prize-winning physicist Georges Charpak ported to the Nazi concentration camp at Dachau, where he remained until the camp was liberated in 1945. Charpak became a French citizen in 1946. He studied mining engineering at the École des Mines (B.S., 1948) and later received a doctorate (1954) from the Collège de France, Paris, where he worked in the laboratory of Frédéric Joliot-Curie. After having worked at the National Centre for Scientific Research (1948–59), Charpak joined (1959) the staff of CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) in Geneva; in 1984 he also became Joliot-Curie Professor at the School of Advanced Studies in Physics and Chemistry, Paris. He retired in 1991. Charpak built the first multiwire proportional chamber in 1968. Charpak was made a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1985. Chartrand, Michel, (JOSEPH MICHEL RAPHAËL CHARTRAND), Canadian labour leader and political activist (b. Dec. 20, 1916, Montreal, Que.—d. April 12, 2010, Montreal), was a fiercely outspoken proponent of a sovereign, socialist Quebec. In October 1970 Chartrand was arrested and charged with sedition after he publicly voiced his support for members of the radical separatist group Front de Libération du Québec who that month had kidnapped and killed Pierre Laporte, Quebec’s minister of labour. (A British diplomat, James Cross, was also taken hostage but was later released.) Chartrand spent four months in prison, but all 121

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charges against him were eventually dropped. Chartrand helped found the Socialist Party of Quebec in 1963 and in 1964–65 was the party’s first president. He also served (1968–78) as president of the federation of trade unions in Montreal. Chernomyrdin, Viktor Stepanovich, Soviet administrator and government minister (b. April 9, 1938, ChernyOtrog, Russia, U.S.S.R.—d. Nov. 3, 2010, Moscow, Russia), as prime minister of Russia (1992–98), steered a middle course between those favouring free-market reforms and those advocating the continued support of Soviet-era state enterprises, but he lost his post when Russian Pres. Boris Yeltsin installed a new team to carry out ongoing economic reforms. Chernomyrdin became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1961. After having held several jobs in the oil and gas industry, Chernomyrdin went to Moscow (1978) to work for the CPSU Central Committee. In 1982 he was appointed deputy minister of the Soviet natural-gas industry, and three years later Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev promoted him to minister. In this post Chernomyrdin converted (1989) the Ministry of Gas into the state-owned Gazprom, where he remained during the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In June 1992 Chernomyrdin was named a deputy prime minister and minister of fuel and energy in the new Russian government. However, when Russia’s legislature refused to confirm Yegor T. Gaidar as prime minister, Yeltsin replaced him with Chernomyrdin. Chilton, Alex (WILLIAM ALEXANDER CHILTON), American singer and songwriter (b. Dec. 28, 1950, Memphis, Tenn.—d. March 17, 2010, New Orleans, La.), as the frontman of the seminal power pop band Big Star, crafted a body of work whose influence far outstripped its output. Chilton began his musical career as the lead singer of the Box Tops (formerly the Devilles). The quintet’s song “The Letter” was a surprise hit, spending four weeks in 1967 at the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart. The Box Tops returned to the top 10 in 1968 with “Cry like a Baby,” but the group experienced diminishing success over the following years and disbanded in 1970. In 1971 Chilton and fellow songwriter Chris Bell formed the core of Big Star. The quartet released #1 Record in 1972, and the album’s ex122

quisitely crafted power pop met with critical acclaim. Melancholy lyrics, sweet harmonies, and jangly guitars combined on tracks such as “The Ballad of El Goodo” to create a unique sound. The group’s follow-up, Radio City (1974), featured what is considered Chilton’s masterpiece, “September Gurls.” Big Star’s final album, Third (1978; also released as Sister Lovers), was a dark, meandering work that lacked the focus of its predecessors. Chilton embarked on a solo career in the late 1970s, and he worked as a producer, recording the first single for the “psychobilly” (a fusion of punk and rockabilly) group the Cramps. Chilton’s solo albums met with mixed reviews.

making a foray into films. Other notable movie credits include Silver Streak (1976), Semi-Tough (1977), First Monday in October (1981), and I’m Dancing as Fast as I Can (1982), in which she was cast as a hard-driving career woman addicted to Valium. Her career spiraled down, however, as her script selection became poor. Clayburgh’s death followed her 21-year battle with chronic leukemia.

Christopher (VELIMIR KOVACEVICH), American religious leader (b. Dec. 25, 1928, Galveston, Texas—d. Aug. 18, 2010, Chicago, Ill.), became the first U.S.-born bishop to serve a North American diocese of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Kovacevich was one of 12 children born to Serbian immigrants. Ordained in 1951, he served as a parish priest in Johnstown, Pa., Pittsburgh, and Chicago, establishing such innovations as bilingual religious education programs and participating in ecumenical dialogue with Roman Catholic and Lutheran theologians. In 1978 he was made bishop of Eastern America and Canada, taking the monastic name Christopher. In 1991 he was appointed metropolitan of the see (ecclesiastical jurisdiction) of Libertyville-Chicago and thus primate of the Serbian Orthodox Church in the United States and Canada. He also served as dean of St. Sava Orthodox School of Theology in Libertyville, Ill.

Mark Lennihan/AP

Poet Lucille Clifton

Clayburgh, Jill, American actress (b. April 30, 1944, New York, N.Y.—d. Nov. 5, 2010, Lakeville, Conn.), was equally adept in dramatic and comedic roles but was especially noted for her performances as independent-minded women, notably in An Unmarried Woman (1978), as a divorcée who experiments sexually following her newfound status, and in Starting Over (1979), as the love interest of a man who is unable to separate himself emotionally from his ex-wife; she was nominated for Academy Awards for both of these portrayals and won the best actress award at the Cannes film festival for An Unmarried Woman. She appeared on Broadway in the Tony Award-winning musicals The Rothschilds (1970) and Pippin (1972) while

News About the Earth (1972), and An Ordinary Woman (1974). Clifton’s later poetry collections include Quilting: Poems 1987–1990 (1991); Blessing the Boats: New and Selected Poems, 1988–2000 (2000), winner of the National Book Award; and Voices (2008). She was born of a family that was descended from slaves, and Generations: A Memoir (1976) is a prose piece celebrating her origins. Good Woman: Poems and a Memoir, 1969–1980 (1987) collects some of her previously published verse. She attended Howard University (1953–55) and Fredonia State Teachers College (1955; now State University of New York College at Fredonia). Clifton worked in state and federal government positions until

Clifton, Lucille (THELMA LUCILLE SAYLES), American poet (b. June 27, 1936, Depew, N.Y.—d. Feb. 13, 2010, Baltimore, Md.), examined family life, racism, and gender in books of verse that included Good Times (1969), Good

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serving (1971–74) as writer in residence at Coppin State College, Baltimore. From 1982 to 1983 she was a visiting writer at Columbia University School of the Arts, New York City, and at George Washington University, Washington, D.C. Thereafter Clifton taught literature and creative writing at the University of California, Santa Cruz, and then at St. Mary’s College of Maryland. Clifton’s many children’s books, written expressly for an African American audience, include All Us Come Cross the Water (1973), Three Wishes (1976), and My Friend Jacob (1980). She also penned an awardwinning book in a series that featured events in the life of Everett Anderson, a young black boy. In 2007 Clifton was awarded the Ruth Lilly Poetry Prize. Cochran, Hank (GARLAND PERRY COCHRAN), American songwriter and musician (b. Aug. 2, 1935, Isola, Miss.— d. July 15, 2010, Hendersonville, Tenn.), penned chart-topping songs for numerous country music artists, including Patsy Cline (“I Fall to Pieces,” co-written with Harlan Howard; “She’s Got You”), Ronnie Milsap (“Don’t You Ever Get Tired [of Hurting Me]”), George Strait (“Chair”), and Eddy Arnold (“Make the World Go Away”), as well as noncountry performers such as Bing Crosby and Elvis Costello. Cochran became interested in music while singing and playing guitar at his grandfather’s church. After moving to California as a teenager, he formed a band with the unrelated Eddie Cochran called the Cochran Brothers. The two appeared together on a country music variety show, toured, and recorded before they split up in the late 1950s. Cochran, who had already had several songs published, got a job writing and plugging songs for Pamper Music. He brought along thenstruggling singer-songwriter-actor Willie Nelson; the two collaborated on several songs. Cochran continued writing and recording his own songs into the early 2000s. He was elected in 1974 to the Nashville Songwriters Association International’s Hall of Fame. Coleman, Gary Wayne, American actor (b. Feb. 8, 1968, Zion, Ill.—d. May 28, 2010, Provo, Utah), achieved stardom as a child in the television sitcom Diff’rent Strokes (1978–86) with his portrayal of the younger of two impoverished African American brothers adopted by a wealthy white businessman after their mother, a domestic worker in his household, dies. As the

precocious chubby-cheeked Arnold Jackson, Coleman was usually at the centre of the comic capers that also involved his on-screen sibling Willis (Todd Bridges) and often included the businessman’s daughter, Kimberly (Dana Plato). After Diff’rent Strokes ended, Coleman tried to capitalize on his trademark catchphrase, “Whatchoo talkin’ ’bout, Willis?” by parlaying it into a second career as a reality-TV personality. The diminuitive Coleman, who suffered from congenital kidney disease, attained an adult height of only 1.4 m (4 ft 8 in) as a result of treatment for that illness. Plagued with health issues, Coleman died after suffering a brain hemorrhage. Conrad, Paul Francis, American editorial cartoonist (b. June 27, 1924, Cedar Rapids, Iowa—d. Sept. 4, 2010, Rancho Palos Verdes, Calif.), garnered both praise and scorn for his political cartoons, which skewered dozens of politicians, including 11 U.S. presidents (notably Richard M. Nixon) and several other public figures. One unforgettable drawing that appeared during the Watergate Scandal depicted Nixon nailing himself to a cross. After serving in the U.S. Army during World War II, Conrad earned a B.A. in art (1950) from the University of Iowa. Soon after graduation he became the staff cartoonist for the Denver Post newspaper. He served (1964–93) on the editorial staff of the Los Angeles Times, where the popularity of his political cartoons, which focused on moral corruption and social injustice, helped to elevate the reputation of the newspaper to national prominence. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 1964, 1971, and 1984. Corneau, Alain, French film director (b. Aug. 7, 1943, Meung-sur-Loire, France—d. Aug. 30, 2010, Paris, France), achieved international fame with Tous les matins du monde (1991; All the Mornings of the World), which earned seven César Awards, including best picture and best director, as well as a Golden Globe nomination and a Golden Bear nomination for Corneau at the Berlin Film Festival. Corneau’s compelling drama about the life of the Baroque composer and viola de gamba virtuoso Marin Marais also revived interest in French Baroque music, and the CD of the sound track became a best seller. Corneau’s other noteworthy films include Le Choix des armes (1981; Choice of Arms), Fort Saganne (1984), and Crime d’amour (2010).

Corneille (CORNELIS GUILLAUME VAN BEVERLOO), Belgian-born Dutch artist (b. July 3, 1922, Liège, Belg.—d. Sept. 5, 2010, Paris, France), was a cofounder of the influential art collective COBRA (1948–51). Although he painted vibrant expressionistic works, his subjects were often landscapes, and in the mid-1960s his work became more figurative. Corneille studied (1940–43) at the Academy of Fine Arts in Amsterdam but was largely self-taught as a painter. His first solo show was in Groningen, Neth., in 1946. With a group of like-minded artists, he founded (1948) the Dutch Experimental Group; this led to the formation of COBRA, which issued a manifesto decrying formalism and dogma and espoused an art of spontaneity. Corneille participated in the COBRA group shows in Amsterdam’s Stedelijk Museum (1949) and in Liège (1951). From 1950 onward, he based himself in Paris. He also contributed poetry to the 10 issues of the group’s magazine. Cossiga, Francesco, Italian politician (b. July 26, 1928, Sassari, Sardinia, Italy—d. Aug. 17, 2010, Rome, Italy), served as Italy’s prime minister (1979–80), Senate president (1983–85), and the president of the republic (1985–92). For many, however, he was most notable for his role as interior minister (1976–78) during the 1978 kidnapping and murder of former prime minister Aldo Moro by the militant leftist organization the Red Brigades; Cossiga’s refusal to negotiate with the kidnappers resulted in Moro’s murder and his own resignation from the Interior Ministry. Cossiga’s outspoken, often caustic, criticism of the government during the later part of his term as president earned him the nickname “Il Picconatore” (“the Pickax-wielder”). He resigned from the presidency in 1992 following criticism of his involvement in a 1960s clandestine operation, sponsored by NATO, to prepare guerrilla fighters in the event of an invasion by Warsaw Pact countries. Crémer, Bruno (BRUNO-JEAN-MARIE CRÉMER), French actor (b. Oct. 6, 1929, Saint-Mandé, Val-de-Marne, France—d. Aug. 7, 2010, Paris, France), portrayed Georges Simenon’s classic Parisian detective Jules Maigret on French television in 54 episodes over 14 years (1991–2005). Although he often portrayed gangsters and military officers, Crémer’s burly build and world-weary face made him the ideal choice to play 123

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Simenon’s imperturbable pipe-smoking police commissioner. Crémer studied acting at the Paris Conservatory in the early 1950s, and after having appeared onstage as Saint Just in Jean Anouilh’s Poor Bitos (1956), he created the role of Thomas Becket in Anouilh’s Becket, ou l’honneur de Dieu at the Théâtre Montparnasse in 1959. Crémer’s films include La 317ème Section (1965; The 317th Platoon), Paris brûle-t-il? (1966; Is Paris Burning?), Noce blanche (1989), Sous le sable (2000; Under the Sand), and, mostly notably, Lo straniero (1967; The Stranger), Luchino Visconti’s adaptation of Albert Camus’s classic novel L’Étranger, with Crémer cast against type as the prison priest. Cullum, Leo Aloysius, American cartoonist (b. Jan. 11, 1942, Newark, N.J.— d. Oct. 23, 2010, Los Angeles, Calif.), featured humans as well as dogs, cats, birds, and other animals in his masterful gag cartoons, hundreds of which appeared (1977–2010) in The New Yorker magazine and in such publications as the Harvard Business Review and Barron’s. Cullum consistently hit readers’ funny bone with his spot-on depictions of bombastic businessmen, incompetent doctors, and slippery lawyers. His classic drawings include a man standing near a litter box and telling a cat, “Never, ever, think outside the box”; a buffalo talking on a cell phone and complaining, “I love the convenience, but the roaming charges are killing me”; and an anchovy warning its child, “Some will love you, Cartoonist Leo Cullum

son, and some will hate you.” Cullum’s cartoon of a woman and a man at a bar became the first cartoon that The New Yorker published after its weeklong moratorium on the publication of lighthearted material following the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the U.S. The woman remarks, “I thought I’d never laugh again. Then I saw your jacket.” Cullum, who served as a commercial airline pilot for more than 30 years, took up cartooning as an avocation. Culp, Robert Martin, American actor (b. Aug. 16, 1930, Oakland, Calif.—d. March 24, 2010, Los Angeles, Calif.), starred as Bill Cosby’s partner in a government secret agent team in the trailblazing espionage television drama I Spy (1965–68), the first program to feature a black actor (Cosby) in a leading role. The show’s premise cast Culp as agent Kelly Robinson and Cosby as his partner, Alexander Scott, who embarked on secret missions while traveling around the world disguised as, respectively, an international tennis player and his trainer. The actors often engaged in comic banter as they tried to brainstorm how to engineer their escape from imminent danger. Though Culp’s big-screen credits were slim, a few of his most memorable movies include Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice (1969), in which he played one of the sexually adventurous participants in a foursome; Hickey & Boggs (1972), in which he and Cosby were a team of seedy private detectives; and The Pelican Brief (1993), in which he was the president of the United States. In 1994 Culp and Cosby reunited in the TV movie sequel I Spy Returns. Cunningham, Evelyn (EVELYN ELIZABETH LONG), American journalist (b. Jan. 25, 1916, Elizabeth City, N.C.—d. April 28, 2010, New York, N.Y.), as a pathbreaking newspaperwoman for the Pittsburgh Courier, a black weekly, covered some of the most prominent stories of the civil rights era, notably the numerous lynchings that occurred in the segregated South. She interviewed Malcolm X and the Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., and prepared a three-part series on the King family. In the late 1960s New York Gov. Nelson Rockefeller, who was impressed with Cunningham’s skills when she interviewed him, invited her to serve as his special assistant. She later led women’s rights groups and took part on government panels that addressed women’s rights and community issues. Cunningham

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continued to advise Rockefeller even after he became (1974) U.S. vice president under Pres. Gerald Ford. In 1998 she was one of five reporters who accepted the George Polk Award on behalf of the Courier for that newspaper’s civil rights coverage. Curtis, Tony (BERNARD SCHWARTZ), American actor (b. June 3, 1925, Bronx, N.Y.—d. Sept. 29, 2010, Henderson, Nev.), was a Hollywood heartthrob whose handsome looks propelled him to fame in a series of adventure romps, including The Prince Who Was AP

Matinee film idol Tony Curtis a Thief (1951) and its sequel, Son of Ali Baba (1952), but he earned critical acclaim for his performances in Houdini (1953), as the master magician; Trapeze (1956), as an aerialist; Sweet Smell of Success (1957), as an unprincipled press agent; Spartacus (1960), as a former slave; and The Defiant Ones (1958), in which his portrayal of an escaped prisoner chained to a black convict (Sidney Poitier) earned him his only Academy Award nomination. For many of his fans, however, Curtis was best known for his comedic role in Some Like It Hot (1959), in which he romanced Marilyn Monroe and posed as a woman in an all-girl band to elude mobsters whom he and partner Jack Lemmon could identify from the St. Valentine’s Day Massacre. Other Curtis film credits include The Vikings (1958), Operation Petticoat (1959), The

Obituaries

Great Imposter (1961), Sex and the Single Girl (1964), Goodbye Charlie (1964), The Great Race (1965), The Boston Strangler (1968), and The Last Tycoon (1976). Curtis made a string of films with his first wife, Janet Leigh, including The Perfect Furlough (1958) and Who Was That Lady? (1960), before the couple divorced in 1962 after an 11-year marriage. One of their two daughters, Jamie Lee Curtis, became a successful actress. Curtis, who was married six times, went on to become a noted painter after his retirement from acting. Daly, Mary, American theologian, philosopher, and ethicist (b. Oct. 16, 1928, Schenectady, N.Y.—d. Jan. 3, 2010, Gardner, Mass.), pioneered radical feminist theology. Daly, who was born into a Roman Catholic family, earned a Ph.D. (1953) in religion from St. Mary’s College, Notre Dame, Ind. She studied medieval philosophy and Thomist theology at the University of Fribourg, Switz., receiving doctorates in theology and philosophy. As a faculty member from 1966 at Boston College, she had several clashes with the administration over her policy of barring male students from her classrooms, a practice she justified as necessary to create a “safe space” in which women (including some survivors of domestic abuse) could speak comfortably and freely. In 1998 a male student backed by a conservative political organization sued the college when Daly refused to admit him into one of her classes. The college dismissed her and revoked her tenure, spurring a bitter legal battle; the matter was settled in 2001, when Daly agreed to retire. Daly increasingly identified herself as “post-Christian” as her own theology evolved. She drew from a deep knowledge of the Western tradition and exhibited a poetic use of etymological wordplay in developing her theoretical “expos” of patriarchy, by which she meant both the systematic domination of women by men throughout society and the social and cultural institutions that serve to justify that domination. Rejecting traditional conceptions of a transcendent (and often male) God, Daly promoted a sense of the Absolute as a “Be-ing” that was not only immanent but actualized through women’s creativity. Daly’s works include The Church and the Second Sex (1968), Gyn/ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism (1978), and Quintessence— Realizing the Archaic Future: A Radical Elemental Feminist Manifesto (1998).

Dankworth, Sir John Philip William, British jazz musician and composer (b. Sept. 20, 1927, Woodford, Essex, Eng.—d. Feb. 6, 2010, London, Eng.), helped popularize modern and bebop jazz in Britain; he was also a notable composer of film music and a champion of music education. Dankworth began his career playing clarinet with traditional jazz bands but, inspired by Andrew Parsons/AP

Jazz musician and composer Sir John Dankworth a recording by Charlie Parker, had switched by the mid-1940s to the alto saxophone. In 1948 he was a founder of Club Eleven, a refuge for lovers of bebop, and about a year later he introduced the Johnny Dankworth Seven. That group broke up in 1953, and Dankworth formed a big band fronted by the actress and vocalist Cleo Laine; Laine and Dankworth married in 1958. The band was reorganized in 1956 and had a popular hit song that year, “Experiments with Mice” (based on “Three Blind Mice”), and in 1959 it played at the Newport (R.I.) Jazz Festival. Throughout the 1960s Dankworth composed scores for a large number of films as well as themes for television shows. He took charge as Laine’s musical director in 1971, and in 1985 he founded and became musical director of the pops program of the London Symphony Orchestra. Dankworth was made CBE in 1974 and was awarded a knighthood in 2006.

Daya Mata (FAYE WRIGHT), American religious leader (b. Jan. 31, 1914, Salt Lake City, Utah—d. Nov. 30, 2010, Los Angeles, Calif.), led for more than 50 years (1955–2010) the Self-Realization Fellowship/Yogoda Satsanga Society of India, one of the largest Hindu groups in the U.S. She was raised Mormon but converted as a teenager after meeting Swami Paramahansa Yogananda at a Yoga lecture and recovering from a serious illness. She subsequently became a nun in Yogananda’s Self-Realization Fellowship, taking the Sanskrit name Daya Mata (“Mother of Compassion”) and serving as Yogananda’s assistant. After becoming spiritual leader and president of the organization, she greatly expanded its outreach. De Laurentiis, Dino (AGOSTINO DE LAURENTIIS), Italian-born American film producer (b. Aug. 8, 1919, Torre Annunziata, Campania, Italy—d. Nov. 11, 2010, Beverly Hills, Calif.), was known for his prolific output of more than 160 films ranging from the populist to the cerebral. De Laurentiis acted and performed odd jobs and then produced his first movie at age 20. He scored his first hit with Riso amaro (1949; Bitter Rice), which was dominated by the sensuous presence of his first wife, actress Silvana Mangano. De Laurentiis formed a company with Carlo Ponti, and they jointly produced such films as Federico Fellini’s La strada (1954) and Le notti di Cabiria (1957; Nights of Cabiria), both of which won Academy Awards for best foreignlanguage film. De Laurentiis opened (1964) his first independent studio, Dinocittà, but was compelled to sell it in the early 1970s. By that time, however, he had established relations with American studios, particularly Paramount Pictures, which distributed Romeo and Juliet (1968) and Barbarella (1968). After moving to the U.S., he formed a series of companies and produced such films as Serpico (1973), King Kong (1976), Blue Velvet (1986), and four movies based on Thomas Harris’s novels about serial killer Hannibal Lecter. In 2001 De Laurentiis was awarded the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award for lifetime achievement by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. de Marco, Guido, Maltese politician (b. July 22, 1931, Valletta, British Malta—d. Aug. 12, 2010, Msida, Malta), shaped Malta’s domestic politics as the country’s deputy prime min125

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ister (1987–96, 1998–99) and president (1999–2004) and was a driving force behind his homeland’s admission in 2004 as a member of the EU. De Marco was a law student (LL.D., 1955) and professor at the Royal University of Malta (later the University of Malta) and an advocate in the Superior Courts of Malta from 1956. He joined the Nationalist Party (PN) as a proponent of Maltese independence (which came in 1964) and was the party’s secretarygeneral (1972) before becoming deputy leader (1977–99). He represented the PN in the parliament from 1966 to 1999. He was named deputy prime minister in 1987 when the PN won the majority of votes but a minority of seats; during the late 1980s and ’90s, he also served as minister of justice, minister of the interior, and minister of foreign affairs. In 1990 De Marco formally submitted Malta’s bid to join the EU, and he remained a diligent campaigner at home and abroad for years until membership was achieved. As president (1990–91) of the UN General Assembly, De Marco oversaw that body’s support for Kuwait after its invasion by Iraq, as well as the admission of both North and South Korea to the UN. Dean, Jimmy Ray, American performer and businessman (b. Aug. 10, 1928, Seth Ward, Texas—d. June 13, Country singer and sausage king Jimmy Dean

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2010, Varina, Va.), penned (in less than two hours) and recorded the Grammy Award-winning song “Big Bad John” (1961), which showcased Dean’s flair for dramatic recitation and immortalized the heroics of a coal miner who saves fellow workers following a cavein. Dean delighted television audiences with his folksy charm and country twang, especially on his variety program The Jimmy Dean Show, which ran on ABC (1963–66) after a brief run in 1957 on CBS. Earlier, the accordionplaying Dean fronted the Texas Wildcats band, which scored its first national hit, “Bummin’ Around,” in the early 1950s. Other Dean recitation songs include “Dear Ivan,” “The Cajun Queen,” “To a Sleeping Beauty,” and “I.O.U.” Besides his numerous appearances on TV (he portrayed Josh Clements on Daniel Boone [1967–70] with Fess Parker [q.v.] and was a guest on numerous variety and talk shows), Dean founded (1969) the Jimmy Dean Meat Co. and served as its sausage spokesperson until 2003, though he sold the firm in 1984 to Sara Lee Corp. In 2010 Dean was elected to the Country Music Hall of Fame. Delibes, Miguel (MIGUEL DELIBES SETIÉN), Spanish novelist, essayist, and journalist (b. Oct. 17, 1920, Valladolid, Spain—d. March 12, 2010, Valladolid), wrote widely of travel, the outdoors, sport, and his native Valladolid, but his fiction is best known for its critical analysis of 20th-century Spanish society. At age 17 Delibes enlisted in the Spanish navy, hoping to avoid infantry combat in the Spanish Civil War. (The war affected him powerfully and figured in his later writings.) Following his military service, Delibes studied commerce and law at the University of Valladolid. He was also hired as a caricaturist for the Valladolid newspaper El Norte de Castilla. His first novel, La sombra del ciprés es alargada (1948), was awarded the Nadal Prize. Delibes became director of El Norte de Castilla in 1958, but his advocacy for Castilian causes in the face of government censorship brought about his resignation in 1963. The plight of Castile also informed his novel Las ratas (1962; Smoke on the Ground). Other major works include El camino (1950; The Path), La hoja roja (1959), Cinco horas con Mario (1966; Five Hours with Mario), Las guerras de nuestros antepasados (1975; The Wars of Our Ancestors), and El hereje (1998; The Heretic). Delibes collected numer-

ous literary honours, including election to the Royal Spanish Academy (1973), the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters (1982), and the Cervantes Prize (1993). di Tiro, Hasan, Indonesian rebel leader (b. Sept. 25, 1925, Aceh province, Indon.—d. June 3, 2010, Banda Aceh, Aceh, Indon.), founded (1976) the separatist Free Aceh Movement (GAM) in the Indonesian province of Aceh, which fought the Jakarta government for more than three decades. Di Tiro studied in Yogyakarta, Indon., and at Columbia University, New York City, but in 1976 he left his wife and son in the U.S. to begin a campaign for Aceh’s independence. GAM, also known as the AcehSumatra National Liberation Front, grew from approximate 150 rebels at its inception to thousands of members whose guerrilla war against the Indonesian government ultimately resulted in an estimated 15,000 or more deaths. Di Tiro in 1977 fled to Sweden, where he eventually became a citizen, but he remained a key decision-making leader and international lobbyist for GAM. Peace talks between the Indonesian government and GAM were boosted by the December 2004 tsunami that killed about 170,000 people and devastated Aceh. The final peace agreement signed in August 2005 allowed Aceh greater autonomy and authorized local political parties. Di Tiro returned to Aceh in 2008. His Indonesian citizenship was restored the day before his death. Dixon, Bill (WILLIAM ROBERT DIXON), American jazz artist (b. Oct. 5, 1925, Nantucket, Mass.—d. June 16, 2010, North Bennington, Vt.), composed brooding, impressionist scores and played trumpet solos that incorporated silence, quiet passages, and distortions of his sound into large, abstract forms. One of the earliest free-jazz artists in New York City, Dixon produced (1964) the historically important October Revolution in Jazz festival, which introduced a generation of post-Ornette Coleman musicians, and cofounded the cooperative Jazz Composers Guild. Dixon introduced his characteristic dark ensemble-sound colours in Intents and Purposes (1967); he composed longer works for later albums, such as 17 Musicians in Search of a Sound: Darfur (2008) and Bill Dixon with Exploding Star Orchestra (2008). He taught for many years (1968–95) at Bennington College, where he founded the Black Music Division.

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Dobrynin, Anatoly Fyodorovich, Soviet diplomat (b. Nov. 16, 1919, Krasnaya Gorka, Russia—d. April 6, 2010, Moscow, Russia), served as the Soviet Union’s ambassador to the U.S. (1962–86) and as dean of the Washington, D.C., diplomatic corps (1979–86). Throughout his 24-year tenure—spanning six Soviet leaders and six U.S. presidents—Dobrynin provided a vital continuity to U.S.-Soviet relations during the Cold War, and his fluency in English and French, good humour, and intellectual flair made him a highly visible presence on the Washington scene. After graduating (1942) from the Sergo Ordzhonikidze Moscow Aviation Institute, Dobrynin worked as an engineer at an aircraft plant. In 1944–46 he studied at the Higher Diplomatic School of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (becoming a Communist Party member in 1945), and he thereafter served in the Moscow Foreign Office until 1952, when he was sent to Washington, first as counselor (1952–54) and then as the second-ranking minister-counselor (1954–55). From 1955 to 1957 he was again based in Moscow and took part in several international conferences abroad, and from 1957 to 1960 he held posts in the UN Secretariat in New York City. Dobrynin was appointed ambassador to the U.S. by Nikita Khrushchev in March 1962; he was called back to Moscow in 1986 by Mikhail Gorbachev to serve (1986–88) as head of the international department of the Communist Party’s Secretariat. Dobrynin retired from that position. Donner, Clive Stanley, British film director (b. Jan. 21, 1926, London, Eng.—d. Sept. 6, 2010, London), established himself with The Caretaker (1963), an intense low-budget blackand-white adaptation of Harold Pinter’s play. The movie earned a Silver Bear at the Berlin Film Festival and marked the beginning of Donner’s high-profile directing career, but he became better known for his bawdy comedies, notably the box-office hit What’s New Pussycat? (1965), Nothing but the Best (1964), Here We Go ’Round the Mulberry Bush (1968), and Luv (1967), based on Murray Schisgal’s play about an attempted marital swap. Draves, Victoria (VICTORIA TAYLOR MANALO; VICKI), American diver (b. Dec. 31, 1924, San Francisco, Calif.—d. April 11, 2010, Palm Springs, Calif.), became the first woman to win gold medals in both 3-m springboard and

10-m platform diving at the same Olympic Games, accomplishing this feat at the 1948 Games in London. Before she could begin competing for a San Francisco swimming club, the Asian American teenager had to assume her English mother’s maiden name (Taylor), instead of her Filipinoborn father’s surname (Manolo), because of racial prejudice. In 1946 she won her first U.S. outdoor highboard diving championship, and she married her coach, Lyle Draves, that year. She retained the highboard championship in 1947 and 1948 and also won the indoor 3-m diving championship in 1948. Draves was inducted into the International Swimming Hall of Fame in 1969.

Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1961) starring Audrey Hepburn. Edwards demonstrated equal facility with dramas such as Days of Wine and Roses (1962). In 1969 Edwards married English actress and singer Julie Andrews, who appeared in several of his films, among them 10 (1979) and Victor/Victoria (1982), which he revived in 1995 as a Broadway musical, also starring Andrews. In 2004 the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences gave Edwards an honorary award for lifetime achievement.

Dumas, Jean-Louis (JEAN-LOUIS ROBERT FRÉDÉRIC DUMAS-HERMÈS), French fashion executive (b. Feb. 2, 1938, Paris, France—d. May 1, 2010, Paris), transformed Hermès (founded in 1837 by his mother’s great-grandfather Thierry Hermès) from a prestigious but languishing company into an international high-fashion retailer with some 300 stores and revenues of about $2.5 billion. Dumas took Hermès public in 1993 but retained most of the stock in family hands; he retired in 2006.

Yossi Zamir—EPA/Landov

Edwards, Blake (WILLIAM BLAKE CRUMP), American film director, producer, and screenwriter (b. July 26, 1922, Tulsa, Okla.—d. Dec. 15, 2010, Santa Monica, Calif.), was perhaps best known for his often-ribald comedies, notably The Pink Panther (1963), starring Peter Sellers, and its sequels. Edwards’s stepfather was the son of silentfilm director J. Gordon Edwards, and he found his stepson work as a script courier for Twentieth Century-Fox. Edwards acted in films in the 1940s and wrote two screenplays before beginning a successful stint in radio. He transitioned back to writing for film when director Richard Quine, who worked for Columbia Pictures, asked him to cowrite a script. The two collaborated for several years—notably on My Sister Eileen (1955)—during which time Edwards also wrote for several television shows. He made his directing debut with Bring Your Smile Along (1955). After creating the TV series Peter Gunn (1958–61), Edwards mainly worked in film, often writing and producing as well as directing his own material. Early directorial efforts included the comedy Operation Petticoat (1959), set aboard a pink submarine, and an acclaimed adaptation of Truman Capote’s

Eliyahu, Mordechai, Israeli religious leader (b. March 12, 1929, Jerusalem, British Palestine—d. June 7, 2010, Jerusalem, Israel), was an outspoken

Religious leader Mordechai Eliyahu proponent of religious Zionism and a staunch defender of Jewish settlements in Palestinian territories. In the early 1950s Eliyahu served 10 months in prison for cofounding an organization that advocated the establishment of a theocracy in Israel. He graduated in 1959 from the Institute of Rabbis and Religious Justices and subsequently became Israel’s youngest religious court justice. He also served for 10 years (1983–93) as chief rabbi for Israel’s Sephardic Jews, a position that he used for outreach to secular Jews. Throughout his career, Eliyahu publicly denounced plans by the Israeli government to withdraw Jewish settlers from occupied Gaza and the West Bank, often using violent anti-Palestinian rhetoric. Inflammatory statements that Eliyahu made in which he reportedly blamed the victims of the Holocaust 127

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and the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 attracted further controversy. Ellis, Herb (MITCHELL HERBERT ELLIS), American jazz artist (b. Aug. 4, 1921, Farmersville, Texas—d. March 28, 2010, Los Angeles, Calif.), played graceful, lyrical guitar as a soloist and accompanied singers and jazz combos with buoyant swing. Ellis was one of several outstanding Charlie Christianinfluenced guitarists who emerged in the 1940s. He played in the Soft Winds trio (1947–52) but created his most noted work in the Oscar Peterson Trio (1953–58), which toured internationally in Jazz at the Philharmonic; he also accompanied such stars as Billie Holiday, Lester Young, and Louis Armstrong. In the 1960s, besides performing with singer Ella Fitzgerald (1958–62), Ellis worked in bands on television shows. From 1972 Ellis toured and recorded on his own, in small groups, with fellow guitarist Joe Pass, and most popularly with Barney Kessel and Charlie Byrd in the Great Guitars trio, which they formed in 1973. Fadlallah, Muhammad Husayn (AYATOLLAH SAYYID MUHAMMAD HUSAYN FADLALLAH), Iraqi-born Lebanese Muslim cleric (b. Nov. 16, 1935, Al-Najaf, Iraq—d. July 4, 2010, Beirut, Leb.), was a prominent Shi!ite religious leader and was thought to have been a cofounder (1957) of the Shi#ite Islamic Da#wa Party in Iraq. Fadlallah was schooled at a traditional madrasa in his birthplace, where he studied under many of the eminent Shi!ite scholars of his day. His scholarly acumen eventually earned him the honorific title of ayatollah. He moved to Lebanon (where his parents had been born) in 1966 and quickly established a reputation as a leading religious authority. He was also admired for his extensive charitable work and for his relatively progressive ideas on women’s rights. Although some believed that Fadlallah was the leader of the Shi!ite militia and political party Hezbollah after its founding in 1982, both he and the party denied any direct link. He was impressed by the Islamic revolution in Iran (1978–79), but he generally stood aloof from the more radical position of its leader, Ruhollah Khomeini. Feller, Bob (ROBERT WILLIAM ANDREW FELLER; “RAPID ROBERT”; “BULLET BOB”), American baseball player (b. Nov. 3, 1918, Van Meter, Iowa—d. Dec. 15, 2010, Cleveland, Ohio), was a righthanded pitcher whose fastball made 128

him a frequent leader in games won and strikeouts during his 18-year professional career with the Cleveland Indians of the American League (AL). He also had an effective curveball and sinker in his pitching arsenal. Feller made his major league debut at age 17, when he joined the Indians mid-season in 1936, and he broke the AL single-game strikeout record in just his fifth start. The young hurler soon became a national sensation; his high school graduation was covered live by NBC radio, and he appeared on the cover of Time magazine before his second season. Initially Feller had control problems (his AL record of 208 bases on balls in 1938 still stood in 2010), but his pitching quickly improved, and for three consecutive years (1939–41), he led the league in innings pitched, wins, and strikeouts. In 1940 he also had the best earned run average (ERA) in the AL, which, along with his registering the highest win and strikeout totals for the year, earned him that season’s pitching triple crown. Following service in the navy in World War II, he returned to baseball and again led the league in strikeouts from 1946 through 1948, throwing 348, 196, and 164 strikeouts, respectively, in those years. In 1948, Feller also played a pivotal role in the Indians’ winning the World Series. He pitched three no-hit games (1940, 1946, and 1951), the first pitcher in the 20th century to do so. In his career he pitched 12 one-hit games. Feller retired as a player in 1956 with a win-loss record of 266–162, 2,581 strikeouts, and a lifetime ERA of 3.25, and he briefly served as a TV broadcaster for the Indians. An eight-time career All-Star, he was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962. Fenn, John Bennett, American scientist (b. June 15, 1917, New York, N.Y.— d. Dec. 10, 2010, Richmond, Va.), won the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2002 with Tanaka Koichi and Kurt Wüthrich for developing techniques to identify and analyze proteins and other large biological molecules. Fenn’s prizewinning research expanded the applications of mass spectrometry (MS), an analytic technique used in many fields of science since the early 20th century. (MS can identify unknown compounds in minute samples of material, determine the amounts of known compounds, and help deduce the molecular formulas of compounds.) In the late 1980s he originated electrospray ionization, a technique that involves injecting a solution of the sample into a strong electric

field, which disperses it into a fine spray of charged droplets. As each droplet shrinks by evaporation, the electric field on its surface becomes intense enough to toss individual molecules from the droplet, forming free ions ready for analysis with MS. Fenn’s electrospray ionization proved to be a highly versatile technique, and it was used in the development of pharmaceuticals and the analysis of foodstuffs for harmful substances. After receiving a Ph.D. (1940) in chemistry from Yale University, Fenn spent more than a decade working for various companies before joining (1952) Princeton University. In 1967 he moved to Yale, where he became professor emeritus in 1987. Fenner, Frank Johannes, Australian virologist and microbiologist (b. Dec. 21, 1914, Ballarat, Vic., Australia—d. Nov. 22, 2010, Canberra, Australia), led smallpox-eradication efforts, first by assisting (from 1969) the World Health Organization in its smallpox program; he was later appointed (1977) chairman of the Global Commission for the Certification of Smallpox Eradication. On May 8, 1980, he delivered the official announcement that proclaimed the program’s success. Fenner earned an M.D. (1942) from the University of Adelaide. From 1940 to 1946, while in the Australian Army Medical Corps, he learned about malaria and implemented strategies to reduce soldiers’ deaths from the disease. He later studied pox viruses. In the 1950s he headed a program to eradicate some 600 million feral rabbits that were devastating the Australian countryside; to reassure the public that the myxoma virus used to kill the rabbits was safe for humans, Fenner and two other researchers injected themselves with samples that contained enough of the virus to kill 1,000 rabbits. Among his many awards were the Japan Prize (1988), the Albert Einstein World Award of Science (2000), and the Prime Minister’s Prize for Science in Australia (2002). Fignon, Laurent, French cyclist (b. Aug. 12, 1960, Paris, France—d. Aug. 31, 2010, Paris), won more than 75 races in his 11-year professional career (1982–93), including the Tour de France twice—in 1983 aged only 22 and again in 1984—but for many he was best remembered for the 1989 Tour de France that he narrowly lost to American Greg LeMond. After Fignon secured his second Tour, injuries hampered his performance, but he returned to form in

Obituaries Lionel Cironneau/Ap

with Perry Como and Elvis Presley as RCA Victor’s top-selling pop vocalists. Fisher had a string of smash hits between 1950 and 1956 that included “Tell Me Why,” “Cindy, Oh Cindy,” “Wish You Were Here,” “Count Your Blessings,” and “Somebody Like You,” but his divorce from the popular Reynolds derailed his career. His television series, The Eddie Fisher Show (1957–59), was canceled, and RCA Victor dropped him. His children with Reynolds (director Todd and actress Carrie of Star Wars fame) and Stevens (actresses Joely and Tricia Leigh Fisher), were also involved in show business. His attempted comebacks were unsuccessful.

Cycling champion Laurent Fignon 1988, winning the Milan–San Remo, and took both the Milan–San Remo and the Giro d’Italia the following year. In the 1989 Tour de France, he built up what appeared to be an insurmountable 50-second lead going into the final day’s 25-km (15.5-mi) time trial. LeMond set a record pace in the time trial, however, and won the Tour by eight seconds, the closest finish in history. Fisher, Eddie (EDWIN JACK FISHER), American singer (b. Aug. 10, 1928, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. Sept. 22, 2010, Berkeley, Calif.), was a handsome crooner as well known for his renditions of such top 10 singles as “Thinking of You” (1950), “Trust Me” (1951), and “Oh! My Papa!” (1953) as he was for his marital scandals, which included a divorce from actress Debbie Reynolds to wed (1959) actress Elizabeth Taylor (who divorced him in 1964 after a highly public affair with actor Richard Burton) and a two-year union (1967–69) with singer-actress Connie Stevens. While performing at a resort in the Catskill Mountains, Fisher was discovered by established star Eddie Cantor, who featured the young singer on his radio program. In 1953 the melodious tenor and bobby-sox idol was rewarded with the TV show Coke Time with Eddie Fisher, which was sponsored until 1957 by the soft drink giant. Fisher’s first million-selling song, “Any Time” (1951), became his signature tune, and he reigned

Flew, Antony Garrard Newton, English philosopher (b. Feb. 11, 1923, London, Eng.—d. April 8, 2010, Reading, Eng.), made noteworthy contributions to analytic philosophy, but he became more widely known as a longtime atheist who later declared belief in God. Flew was the son of a Methodist minister but became an atheist as a teenager. While studying philosophy at St. John’s College, Oxford, he came under the influence of ordinary-language philosopher Gilbert Ryle; he later edited two volumes of papers (Logic and Language, First Series [1951] and Second Series [1953]) that were important in disseminating the ideas of postWorld War II analytic philosophy. It was also at Oxford that Flew was exposed to the critiques of traditional religious beliefs espoused by the Scottish philosopher David Hume. Flew’s 1950 essay “Theology and Falsification” argued that the concept of God was philosophically meaningless because his existence could be neither proved nor refuted. In 2004, however, he declared that scientific evidence had persuaded him to adopt a conception of a God that was similar to Aristotle’s “prime mover.” Foot, Michael Mackintosh, British politician and author (b. July 23, 1913, Plymouth, Devon, Eng.—d. March 3, 2010, London, Eng.), was leader of Britain’s Labour Party from November 1980 to October 1983 and an intellectual left-wing socialist who was a strong ally of the British trade unions, an advocate of sharply increased public expenditures and state ownership of industries, and a founder (1958) of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Foot, the son of a Liberal Party MP, attended Wadham College, Oxford, and then began a career as a newspaper ed-

itor and columnist (1937–74). The mass unemployment of the 1930s turned him to socialism, and from 1945 to 1992, apart from a break between 1955 and 1960, Foot was a Labour MP. He was secretary of state for employment (1974–76) in Prime Minister Harold Wilson’s cabinet and then served as leader of the House of Commons (1976–79) under Wilson’s successor, James Callaghan. In November 1980, by a vote of 139–129, Foot rose from deputy Labour leader (1976–80) to become the party’s chief by defeating Denis Healey, the candidate of Labour’s right wing. This vote, as well as other leftward trends in the party, caused some right-wing Labourites to resign from the party and four months later to found the Social Democratic Party. Following a disastrous showing in the June 1983 general election, Foot resigned as Labour leader, although he remained in Parliament. He wrote a number of books, including Aneurin Bevan: A Biography, 2 vol. (1962 and 1973) and studies on literary figures. Foot, Philippa (PHILIPPA BOSANQUET), British philosopher (b. Oct. 3, 1920, Owston Ferry, Lincolnshire, Eng.—d. Oct. 3, 2010, Oxford, Eng.), was influential in advancing the naturalistic point of view in moral philosophy against the prevailing nonnaturalism of post-World War II analytic philosophy. After receiving a B.A. (1942) from Somerville College, Oxford, she worked as a researcher at the Royal Institute for International Affairs in London. Returning to Oxford after the war, she received an M.A. (1946) and later became a fellow (1949) of Somerville College, where she was lecturer in philosophy and served as viceprincipal (1967–69). She joined (1976) the philosophy department of the University of California, Los Angeles, and retired in 1991. Influenced by one of her colleagues at Somerville, Elizabeth Anscombe, herself a disciple of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Foot began to question the dominant view in moral philosophy that moral judgments say nothing about the actual world but are merely expressions of emotion (e.g., Sir A.J. Ayer) or prescriptive statements (e.g., R.M. Hare). In her 1958 papers “Moral Arguments” and “Moral Beliefs,” Foot attacked the assumptions of nonnaturalistic ethics and attempted to show that moral ideas are grounded in human life. In Morality as a System of Hypothetical Imperatives (1972), Foot introduced an element of subjectivism into her system, accepting that values are chosen, not grounded in 129

Obituaries

nature. She revised her views again in Natural Goodness (2001), arguing that values are objectively rooted in natural human needs. Perhaps her best-known contribution to ethics was the Trolley Problem, a hypothetical case that highlights the tension between deontological (duties-based) ethics and consequentialist (consequences-based) ethics. Forsythe, John (JOHN LINCOLN FREUND), American actor (b. Jan. 29, 1918, Penns Grove, N.J.—d. April 1, 2010, Santa Ynez, Calif. ), possessed good looks and a sensuous voice that contributed to his fame on three television series: Bachelor Father (1957–62), as the guardian to his teenage niece; Charlie’s Angels (1976–81), as the voice of a multimillionaire private eye who outlines cases via telephone to his female protégés; and the nighttime soap opera Dynasty (1981–89), as oil mogul Blake Carrington, a role that brought him two Golden Globe Awards (four nominations) and three Emmy nominations. Other TV shows, including The John Forsythe Show (1965–66), To Rome with Love (1969–71), and The Powers That Be (1992–93), were less successful. Big-screen credits include The Trouble with Harry (1955), Madame X (1966), and In Cold Blood (1967). He also lent his voice to the 2000 film Charlie’s Angels and its 2003 sequel. Francis, Dick (RICHARD STANLEY FRANCIS), British jockey and mystery writer (b. Oct. 31, 1920, Lawrenny, Pembrokeshire, Wales—d. Feb. 14, 2010, Grand Cayman), thrilled fans Jockey and thriller writer Dick Francis

with more than 40 detective novels that featured realistic plots centred on the sport of horse racing. Francis grew up in a family of amateur steeplechase jockeys and breeders, and in 1946, after completing his World War II military service as a pilot in the Royal Air Force, he took up steeplechase riding. Turning professional in 1948, he won some 350 National Hunt races, though he failed to win the Grand National in eight attempts. He was named Champion Jockey in 1953–54 and for four years (1953–57) rode for Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother. In 1957 he published The Sport of Queens: The Autobiography of Dick Francis and took a job as a racing correspondent for London’s Sunday Express newspaper, where he remained until 1973. Francis’s successful first novel, Dead Cert (1962; filmed 1974), was followed by Nerve (1964); thereafter he averaged a book a year. Three books won Edgar Awards—Forfeit (1968), Whip Hand (1979), and Come to Grief (1995)—and other novels include Hot Money (1987), Shattered (2000), and Under Orders (2006). Late in life he coauthored four novels with his son Felix. Francis was made OBE in 1984 and advanced to CBE in 2000. Geesink, Anton (ANTONIUS JOHANNES GEESINK), Dutch judoka (b. April 6, 1934, Utrecht, Neth.—d. Aug. 27, 2010, Utrecht), in 1961 was the first nonJapanese world judo champion and thus transformed the image of judo from a Japanese-dominated sport into a truly international event that was worthy of inclusion in the Olympic Games. Geesink, at 1.98 m (6 ft 6 in) and 120 kg (267 lb), used his great size to advantage, but it was his training in Japan and technical skills that helped him prevail over his competitors. Between 1951 and 1967 he earned 21 European judo titles, three world championships (1961, 1964, and 1965), and the first open (unlimited weight) Olympic gold medal when the sport was introduced at the 1964 Tokyo Games. Geesink was honorary president of the European Judo Union and was elected (2003) to the International Judo Federation Hall of Fame. In 1995 Geesink’s hometown of Utrecht erected a statue in his honour. Miep (HERMINE SANTROUHERMINE SANTRUSCHITZ), Austrian-born heroine (b. Feb. 15, 1909, Vienna, Austria-Hungary—d. Jan. 11, 2010, Hoorn, Neth.), was the last

surviving member of the group of five non-Jewish people who concealed eight Jews, including Anne Frank and her family, from the Nazis in the secret annex above their Amsterdam office for more than two years (July 9, 1942–Aug. 4, 1944). After the Gestapo arrested the hidden group, who had been betrayed by an unidentified person, Gies rescued Anne’s private diary, which she later returned (unread) to Anne’s father, Otto, the only one of those eight Jews to survive the Holocaust. Sent as a child from Vienna to Leiden, Neth., in 1920 to recuperate from malnutrition, young Hermine was given the nickname Miep and was adopted by a Dutch family. She later took a job (1933) in Amsterdam as Otto Frank’s assistant and married (1941) Jan Gies. The couple, who also took Otto Frank into their home for several years after his return, received numerous awards, and in 1972 Yad Paul Hurschman/AP

Miep Gies, preserver of Anne Frank’s diary Vashem, Israel’s Holocaust Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Remembrance Authority, recognized Miep and Jan Gies as Righteous Among the Nations. Miep’s memoir, Anne Frank Remembered (1987), was the basis for the television movie The Attic: The Hiding of Anne Frank (1988) and was adapted in 1995 into an eponymous Academy Awardwinning documentary.

Gies,

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Giraudeau, Bernard René, French actor (b. June 18, 1947, La Rochelle, France—d. July 17, 2010, Paris, France), was a versatile performer, di-

Obituaries Photos 12/Alamy

1965. He continued his academic career (1966–86) at Rice University, Houston.

Filmmaker and actor Bernard Giraudeau rector, and writer. His early films were primarily romantic comedies and adventures, but he later expanded into darker roles, notably in the Academy Award-nominated Ridicule (1996) and the psychological thriller Une Affaire de goût (2000; A Matter of Taste), for which he earned one of his six César Award nominations. An accomplished theatre actor, he was nominated for the Molière Award three times and presided over the jury in 2009. After having been diagnosed with cancer in 2000, Giraudeau reduced his acting commitments and wrote several novels and children’s stories. Gordon, William Edwin, American engineer and scientist (b. Jan. 8, 1918, Paterson, N.J.—d. Feb. 16, 2010, Ithaca, N.Y.), designed and built the Arecibo Observatory, the world’s largest radio telescope, in Puerto Rico. While serving in the armed forces during World War II, Gordon began studying the effects of weather on radar transmission range, and he pursued work in this area after joining (1948) Cornell University, Ithaca, as a research associate. A related interest in measuring the properties of the ionosphere led him to begin designing the radio telescope in 1958, at which time he was serving as a professor of electrical engineering at Cornell. Gordon designed a telescope with a dish 305 m (1,000 ft) wide, nearly seven times the size of extant radio telescopes. Gordon became director of the observatory on its completion in 1963, and he remained in that position until

Gorecki, Henryk Mikolaj, Polish composer (b. Dec. 6, 1933, Czernica, near Rybnik, Pol.—d. Nov. 12, 2010, Katowice, Pol.), enjoyed extraordinary international popularity with his sombre Symphony No. 3: Symphony of Sorrowful Songs (1976), a three-movement piece based on a modal canon that gradually builds upward from low strings to a solo soprano voice. Gorecki studied at the Music Academy of Katowice. The works of Anton Webern, Olivier Messiaen, and Karlheinz Stockhausen informed his often atonal and violent early compositions. A change in his compositional style came in 1963 when, challenged to write simple tunes, he created Three Pieces in Old Style for orchestra. Folk songs, medieval music, and references to his Roman Catholic faith characterized his subsequent work, which frequently was based on tragic themes and cast in very slow tempi. Gorecki was elected provost (1975) of the Music Academy in Katowice, but he resigned in protest four years later when the government refused to allow Pope John Paul II to visit the city. He then conducted his choral work Beatus Vir for the pope in Krakow and composed new pieces for subsequent papal visits to Poland. Miserere, also a choral composition, was written in 1981 to honour a Solidarity leader beaten by the militia, but the piece was not performed until 1987. The Song of Rodziny Katynskie, for unaccompanied chorus, was completed in 2004 and premiered in Krakow in 2005. Graham, Bruce John, American architect (b. Dec. 1, 1925, La Cumbre, Colom.—d. March 6, 2010, Hobe Sound, Fla.), designed some of the world’s tallest, most iconic skyscrapers and was a dominant force behind Chicago’s architectural prominence during the late 20th century. His most notable Chicago buildings include the Inland Steel Building (1957); the 100story John Hancock Center (1970), which received (1999) the American Institute of Architects’ 25-Year Award for its “enduring significance”; and the 110-story Sears Tower (1974; renamed Willis Tower in 2009), which was constructed by using the groundbreaking tubular frame method and stood as the world’s tallest skyscraper until 1996. He graduated (1948) from the University of Pennsylvania with a degree in architec-

ture and relocated to Chicago, where he secured a position with architectural firm Holabird, Root & Burgee. In 1951 Graham joined the firm of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM), where he was promoted (1960) to partner. After retiring (1989) from SOM, Graham established his own firm in Florida. Graves, Peter (PETER DUESLER AURNESS), American actor (b. March 18, 1926, Minneapolis, Minn.—d. March 14, 2010, Pacific Palisades, Calif.), was best known for his portrayal of Jim Phelps, the intensely serious leader of a secret government organization charged with presenting dangerous assignments to a diverse crew of operatives on the television drama series Mission: Impossible (1967–73 and 1988–90). Prior to his TV work, Graves appeared in such notable motion pictures as Stalag 17 (1953), The Night of the Hunter (1955), and The Court-Martial of Billy Mitchell (1955) as well as such B films as Killers from Space (1954) and It Conquered the World (1956); the latter two provided material for a number of send-ups. Graves, who was the brother of actor James Arness (Marshall Matt Dillon of TV’s Gunsmoke fame), tried to create a serious niche for himself. Though he was initially reluctant to appear in the wildly popular spoof film Airplane! (1980), he ultimately played pilot Capt. Clarence Oveur. Graves also appeared in that role in Airplane II: The Sequel (1982). From 1987 Graves used his sonorous voice as host of Biography for the A&E cable television network. Grayson, Kathryn (ZELMA KATHRYN ELISABETH HEDRICK), American actress (b. Feb. 9, 1922, Winston-Salem, N.C.—d. Feb. 17, 2010, Los Angeles, Calif.), showcased her operatic coloratura voice in a string of 1940s and ’50s movie musicals, notably Thousands Cheer (1943), Anchors Aweigh (1945), The Kissing Bandit (1948), Show Boat (1951), and Kiss Me Kate (1953). When Grayson’s Hollywood film career ended, she performed in nightclubs, on television (including General Electric Theater and Playhouse 90), in concert, and on the stage; she made her operatic debut in 1960 in Madame Butterfly. Greenberg, Moshe, American-born Israeli rabbi and biblical scholar (b. July 10, 1928, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. May 15, 2010, Jerusalem, Israel), was best known for his scholarship of the Hebrew 131

Obituaries Richard Drew/AP

Bible, in which he integrated traditional rabbinic scriptural commentary with the historical-critical method of religious studies, drawing from archaeological and linguistic research, which had been developed largely by nonJewish scholars. In 1994 he was one of the first two recipients of the Israel Prize, Israel’s highest civilian honour, for biblical studies. Greenberg studied at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, New York City, and at the University of Pennsylvania (Ph.D., 1954). He was professor of Bible and Judaic studies at the University of Pennsylvania Penthouse publisher Bob Guccione with his (1954–70) and at the Hebrew Uni- magazine versity of Jerusalem (1970–96). Among his works are Biblical Prose Prayer (1983) and a two-volume magazine that featured scantily clad or commentary on the biblical book of nude women in provocative positions. Guccione launched Penthouse in the Ezekiel (1983, 1997). United Kingdom in 1965 and followed Greenspan, Bud (JONAH JOSEPH with an American version four years GREENSPAN), American sports docu- later. The magazine’s success made him mentary filmmaker (b. Sept. 18, 1926, a multimillionaire and spawned a pubNew York, N.Y.—d. Dec. 25, 2010, New lishing empire, but a series of failed inYork City), chronicled international vestments, a string of legal misfortunes, sporting events and individual athletes and the migration of pornography to for more than 60 years. Beginning with video and the Internet greatly diminthe 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games ished his personal fortune. (16 Days of Glory), he documented every Summer and Winter Olympics (in Guillot, Olga, Cuban singer (b. Oct. 9, print or on film), many on behalf of the 1922, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba—d. July International Olympic Committee 12, 2010, Miami Beach, Fla.), was (IOC); his final effort, on the 2010 Van- known to her many fans as “the queen couver Winter Olympics, was scheduled of the bolero” as she entranced audifor release in early 2011. He began as ences with her heartfelt ballads for a sports journalist and covered the more than half a century. She was dis1948 London Olympics as a 21-year-old covered in a singing competition as a radio reporter. His first TV documen- child in a duo with her sister (who quit tary, Jesse Owens Returns to Berlin in 1940); by the age of 20, Guillot was (1968), was originally filmed in 1964 performing with the legendary French and was later rebroadcast in the 1970s singer Edith Piaf. In 1945 she recorded as part of his award-winning Olympiad “Miénteme,” which was a hit throughseries. Greenspan was honoured with out Latin America. It became her sigseven Emmy Awards, a Peabody Award nature song, and in 1954 the song be(1996) for creating “his own genre of came the first gold-selling record by sports documentary,” lifetime achieve- any Cuban singer. She was also well ment awards from the Directors Guild known throughout the Spanish-speakof America (1995) and the Academy of ing world for her recording of “La gloTelevision Arts and Sciences (2006), in- ria eres tú” (1947). Guillot earned three duction into the U.S. Olympic Hall of consecutive awards as Cuba’s best feFame (2004), and the IOC’s Olympic male singer, but she fled the country in Order (1985). 1961 after having strongly criticized Fidel Castro’s government. Although Guccione, Bob (ROBERT CHARLES Guillot never sang in English, she later JOSEPH EDWARD SABATINI GUCCIONE), split her time between the U.S. and American publisher (b. Dec. 17, 1930, Mexico, where she began acting and Brooklyn, N.Y.—d. Oct. 20, 2010, Plano, eventually appeared in 16 movies, usuTexas), founded Penthouse magazine as ally as herself. In 1964 she became the a more explicit alternative to Hugh first Latin singer to perform as a solo Hefner’s provocative Playboy, a men’s artist at New York City’s Carnegie Hall. 132

She was honoured with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the Latin Grammys in 2007. Guinzburg, Thomas Henry, American editor and publisher (b. March 30, 1926, New York, N.Y.—d. Sept. 8, 2010, New York City), cofounded (1953) the literary magazine The Paris Review, which helped to launch the careers of such up-and-coming novelists as Jack Kerouac and Mona Simpson. Guinzburg earned a Purple Heart while serving in the U.S. Marines during World War II, and shortly thereafter he attended Yale University, where he was managing editor of the Yale Daily News. In 1954 Guinzburg joined his father’s publishing company, Viking Press, which contracted such writers as Graham Greene, Arthur Miller, and John Steinbeck. Guinzburg became president of Viking in 1961 upon his father’s death, and he employed several top-notch editors, along with some famous individuals, such as Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis. Although Viking continued to be successful during Guinzburg’s tenure (he published the 1974 National Book Award winner Gravity’s Rainbow by Thomas Pynchon), he sold the company in 1975 to a British media group that owned Penguin Books. He continued until 1978 to serve as president of the new publishing company, Viking/Penguin. Haig, Alexander Meigs, Jr., American general and government official (b. Dec. 2, 1924, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. Feb. 20, 2010, Baltimore, Md.), achieved prominence as White House chief of staff (May 1973–September 1974) under U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon, as commander in chief of American forces in Europe and supreme allied commander of NATO forces (1974–79), and as secretary of state (January 1981–June 1982) under Pres. Ronald Reagan. Haig was widely credited with keeping the White House functioning during the period surrounding Nixon’s resignation as president in August 1974, but he left his post shortly after Pres. Gerald Ford, who succeeded Nixon, issued a presidential pardon for Nixon. After graduating (1947) from the U.S. Military Academy, West Point, N.Y., Haig served under Gen. Douglas MacArthur in occupied Japan and saw combat in the Korean War. Haig then continued his education at Columbia University, New

Obituaries

York City; the Naval War College, Newport, R.I.; and Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., where he earned (1961) a master’s degree in international relations. He worked at the Pentagon and attended the Army War College, Carlisle, Pa., before serving (1966–67) as battalion and brigade commander of the First Infantry DiviThumma/AP

General and government official Alexander Haig sion in Vietnam; his service there won him the Distinguished Service Cross. He became a military assistant on the staff of the National Security Council led by Henry Kissinger in 1969 and quickly rose through the ranks, becoming a full (four-star) general in 1973. Haig retired from the military in 1979 and went into business. Hannah, (Howard) Barry, American author (b. April 23, 1942, Meridian, Miss.—d. March 1, 2010, Oxford, Miss.), wrote darkly comic, often violent novels and short stories set in the Deep South. His first novel, Geronimo Rex (1972), which received a National Book Award nomination, is a raucous coming-of-age story addressing the theme of racism. In the less-successful Nightwatchmen (1973), both a secret killer and a hurricane are unleashed upon a small college town. Hannah’s reputation as a daring stylist was secured with Airships (1978), a collection of short stories. The book’s recurrent motif of American Civil War valour is developed more fully in the short novel Ray (1980). Hannah’s other novels include The Tennis Handsome (1983), Hey

Jack! (1987), Never Die (1991), and Yonder Stands Your Orphan (2001), which tells the stories of a town of eclectic and unsavoury characters. His short-story collections include Captain Maximus (1985), which also contains the outline of an original screenplay; Bats out of Hell (1993); and High Lonesome (1996). He collaborated with the fashion designer Gianni Versace and several others on the photography book Men Without Ties (1994). Hannah was educated at Mississippi College (B.A., 1964) and the University of Arkansas (M.A., 1966; M.F.A., 1967). He taught writing at several schools and was a writer in residence at the Universities of Iowa, Montana, and Mississippi. Harwell, Ernie (WILLIAM EARNEST HARWELL), American sports broadcaster (b. Jan. 25, 1918, Washington, Ga.—d. May 4, 2010, Novi, Mich.), was the announcer for a number of Major League Baseball teams—including the Brooklyn Dodgers, the Baltimore Orioles, the New York Giants, and the California Angels—but he was indelibly identified as the beloved folksy radio voice of the Detroit Tigers during his more than four decades (1960–91 and 1993–2002) of calling the action on the field for that team. In 1981 the Baseball Hall of Fame bestowed upon him the Ford C. Frick Award, which celebrates a broadcaster’s major contributions to baseball. Havoc, June (ELLEN E VANGELINE HOVICK), Canadian-born American actress (b. Nov. 8, 1912, Vancouver, B.C.— d. March 28, 2010, Stamford, Conn.), enjoyed a successful stage and screen career, beginning with vaudeville performances at the age of two as Baby June (later Dainty June) with her sister, who went on to become the famous striptease artist Gypsy Rose Lee. The sisters’ lives were immortalized in the 1959 stage musical Gypsy (and the 1962 movie), but Havoc’s early accomplishments as a child star, making as much as $1,500 a week, were diminished in the fictionalized account.

rock music. The variously titled song (“Suzy-Q,” “Suzie Q,” or “Susie-Q”), sometimes referred to as an example of “swamp rock” because it drew heavily on the blues sounds of South Louisiana, became a favourite of several bands, notably Creedence Clearwater Revival, whose rendition reached the Billboard Top 20 in 1968. Hawkins formed his own band shortly after service in the U.S. Navy and was one of the first white artists to sign with Chess Records, the notable Chicago rhythmand-blues label. His albums include L.A., Memphis & Tyler, Texas (1969), Wildcat Tamer (1999), and Back Down to Louisiana (2007). Height, Dorothy Irene, American civil rights and women’s rights activist (b. March 24, 1912, Richmond, Va.—d. April 20, 2010, Washington, D.C.), was a widely respected and influential leader of organizations focused primarily on improving the circumstances of and opportunities for African American women. Height graduated from New York University with a bachelor’s degree (1933) and a master’s degree (1935) in educational psychology. She was involved in social service for some six decades, four of them as president of the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW), an umbrella organization that comprises civic, church, educational, labour, community, and professional groups. Height’s involvement with the Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA) facilities for Prominent civil rights activist Dorothy Height

Hawkins, Dale (DELMAR ALLEN HAWKINS, JR.), American songwriter and singer (b. Aug. 22, 1936, Goldmine, La.—d. Feb. 13, 2010, Little Rock, Ark.), featured the spectacular riffs of guitarist James Burton in his rockabilly standard “Susie Q” (1957), which became a bandstand classic and was chosen by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as one of the 500 songs that shaped David Kohl/AP

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black women, dating to the 1930s, led to her advocacy of improved conditions for black domestic workers, her election to national office within the YWCA, and her involvement with that organization’s integration policy. In 1957 she became the fourth president of the NCNW, which she steered through the civil rights struggles of the 1960s by organizing voter registration in the South, voter education in the North, and scholarship programs for student civil rights workers. Height subsequently urged the black community to join in the war against drugs, illiteracy, and unemployment. Before retiring in 1998, she helped secure funding for a national headquarters for the NCNW in the historic Sears House in Washington, D.C., where the organization also housed its Dorothy I. Height Leadership Institute. Her numerous honours include the Presidential Medal of Freedom (1994) and the Congressional Gold Medal (2004). Higgins, Alex (ALEXANDER GORDON HIGGINS; “HURRICANE”), Northern Irish snooker player (b. March 18, 1949, Belfast, N.Ire.—d. July 24, 2010, Belfast), raised the visibility and popularity of the billiards game of snooker with his quick, impulsive style of play and his entertaining flamboyance during televised matches. His brilliant playing career was marred, however, by erratic behaviour, gambling, frequent drunkenness (even during matches), and violent outbursts (he was known to attack the referee and on at least one occasion threatened to kill another player). By 1968 he had secured the Northern Irish and All-Ireland amateur snooker titles. He won the world championship in 1972, at age 22, in his first year as a professional. After having racked up several other titles, he returned to the limelight with his second world championship in 1982.

Holbrooke, Richard Charles Albert, American diplomat (b. April 24, 1941, New York, N.Y.—d. Dec. 13, 2010, Washington, D.C.), brokered the Dayton Accords (1995) to end the conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina, served as the U.S. ambassador to the UN (1999–2001), and was the special representative to Afghanistan and Pakistan (2009–10) in the administration of Pres. Barack Obama. After receiving a B.A. (1962) from Brown University, Providence, R.I., Holbrooke joined the Foreign Service and was posted to Vietnam until 1966. His experience there and in Washington, D.C., on Pres. Lyndon Johnson’s Vietnam staff led to his being named a junior member of the U.S. delegation to the Paris Peace Talks in 1968–69. After serving (1970–72) as Peace Corps director in Morocco, he edited (1972–76) the quarterly magazine Foreign Policy. He returned to the government in 1977 when Pres. Jimmy Carter appointed him assistant secretary of state for East Asian and Pacific affairs. From 1981 to 1985 Holbrooke was both vice president of Public Strategies, a Washington consulting firm, and senior adviser to the New York investment firm Lehman Brothers; he then served (1985–93) as managing director of Lehman Brothers. In 1996 he became vice-chairman of Crédit Suisse First Boston. In the administration of Pres. Bill Clinton, he was ambassador to Germany (1993–94) and assistant secretary of state for European and Canadian affairs (1994–95). In 1997 he was appointed special envoy to

Diplomat Richard Holbrooke

Hirsch, Moshe, American-born Orthodox Jewish rabbi (b. 1923, Brooklyn, N.Y.—d. May 2, 2010, Jerusalem, Israel), was a leading figure in Neturei Karta, a politically active anti-Zionist Orthodox sect that opposed the existence of a sovereign Jewish state. After studying at a rabbinical yeshiva in Lakewood, N.J., Hirsch immigrated to Israel. He never sought citizenship there, however, and his opposition to what he considered the unlawful creation of Israel in Palestine led him to become a close ally and adviser to Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat. Charles Dharapak/AP

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Cyprus, where he attempted to broker a settlement of the two-decade-old dispute over that island between Greece and Turkey. In 1998 Holbrooke returned to the Balkans to attempt to negotiate a cease-fire between Serbs and the ethnic Albanian majority in the ongoing Kosovo conflict, but he was unable to bring the fighting to a close. From 2001 to 2009 he served as vice president of Perseus, LLC, a private equity fund management company. Holmes, Andy (ANDREW JEREMY HOLMES), British rower (b. Oct. 15, 1959, London, Eng.—d. Oct. 24, 2010, London), partnered with Steven Redgrave (later Sir Steven) to win the gold medal in the coxed fours (with Martin Cross and Richard Budgett) at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympic Games and followed with golds in the coxless pairs and coxed fours at the 1986 Commonwealth Games, the coxed pairs at the 1986 world championships, the coxless pairs at the 1987 world championships (as well as a silver in the coxed pairs), and the coxless pairs at the 1988 Seoul Olympics (plus a bronze in the coxed pairs). When he and Redgrave split right after the 1988 Olympics, Holmes was unable to find another partner, and he retired from rowing, though he later coached. He was made MBE in 1989. Holmes reportedly died of Weil disease (leptospirosis), a rare bacterial illness contracted from infected water. Hooks, Benjamin Lawson, American jurist, minister, and government official (b. Jan. 31, 1925, Memphis, Tenn.—d. April 15, 2010, Memphis), as executive director (1977–92) of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), helped reinvigorate the flagging organization and was successful in boosting the sagging NAACP membership. During his tenure the eloquent Hooks stressed the need for affirmative action and pressed for increased minority voter registration. He also deplored underrepresentation of minorities in media ownership. He served in the U.S. Army during World War II and later studied law at De Paul University, Chicago (J.D., 1948); at that time no law school in Tennessee was admitting blacks. While practicing law (1949–65) in Memphis, he participated in restaurant sit-ins during the late 1950s and early ’60s and joined numerous civil rights and public-service organizations; notably, he presided on the board of directors of Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Southern Christian Leader-

Obituaries CBS/Landov

ship Conference. Ordained a Baptist minister in the mid-1950s, Hooks preached regularly at churches in both Memphis and Detroit. From 1961 he served as assistant public defender of Shelby county, Tenn., until his appointment (1965) as judge of Shelby County Criminal Court; he was the first African American to hold that position. He was elected to a full eight-year term in 1966, but he resigned in 1968. In July 1972 Hooks was appointed to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission and became the first black FCC commissioner. He resigned to become executive director of the NAACP, succeeding Roy Wilkins. Hooks also served as the chairman of the board of directors of the National Civil Rights Museum, Memphis, and helped to found (1996) the Benjamin L. Hooks Institute for Social Change at the University of Memphis. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2007. Hopper, Dennis Lee, American actor, director, and writer (b. May 17, 1936, Dodge City, Kan.—d. May 29, 2010, Los Angeles, Calif.), became a countercultural icon following his starring role as the long-haired Billy in the classic drug-fueled motorcycle drama Easy Rider (1969). The film also marked Hopper’s directorial debut and situated him at the forefront of the burgeoning youth-oriented resistance to the status quo. Hopper, Peter Fonda (his costar), and writer Terry Southern earned an Academy Award nomination for their screenplay. Hopper made his film debut as a high-school gang member in the teenage-angst classic Rebel Without a Cause (1955) opposite James Dean. Despite Hopper’s reputation for having a volatile temperament on the film set, he was cast in a string of movies, including the epic western Giant (1956), also opposite Dean, and The Story of Mankind (1957). Throughout the 1960s Hopper appeared in movies of varying quality, ranging from horror films such as Night Tide (1961) to Cool Hand Luke (1967), a classic prison drama starring Paul Newman. Hopper’s substance abuse and erratic behaviour overshadowed his work in the following decade, and studios balked at casting him. He rallied sufficiently to play an addled photojournalist in Francis Ford Coppola’s Apocalypse Now (1979). By the mid-1980s Hopper, having overcome his addictions, was enjoying a career resurgence. In 1986 he appeared in director David Lynch’s Blue Velvet as the sadistic Frank Booth and in Hoosiers as

the alcoholic assistant coach of a smalltown high-school basketball team; the latter performance earned him an Academy Award nomination for best supporting actor. Later work included turns as the villain in Speed (1994) and a poet in Elegy (2008). Horne, Lena Mary Calhoun, American singer and actress (b. June 30, 1917, Brooklyn, N.Y.—d. May 9, 2010, New York, N.Y.), was a velvety-voiced jazz songstress who broke down racial barriers as the first black performer to land, in the 1940s, a long-term contract with a major Hollywood studio and who went on to promote civil rights while she showcased her expressive vocals on the stage, on television, in films, on recordings, and in nightclubs; during World War II the sultry beauty also became a popular pinup for African American servicemen. Horne left high school to become a dancer at the Cotton Club in Harlem, New York City, where she appeared with such entertainers as Duke Ellington and Cab Calloway and eventually starred. In 1935 she joined the Noble Sissle orchestra, under the name Helena Horne. She was hired in the early 1940s to sing for Charlie Barnet’s allwhite orchestra, becoming one of the first African Americans to breach the music-business colour divide. Soon after being discovered by producer John Hammond, she performed in a solo show at Carnegie Hall, New York City. In 1942 Horne moved to Los Angeles, signed with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios, and performed in Panama Hattie. The following year she appeared in such films as Thousands Cheer, Cabin in the Sky, and Stormy Weather; the title song for the latter became one of her signature tunes. Her marriage in Paris to a white man, arranger and composer Lennie Hayton (1947 until his death in 1971), was kept secret for three years because their union was illegal in much of the U.S. In the U.S. she was a fixture on numerous television shows. As an actress, she refused to accept roles that stereotyped African American women, and many of her scenes were filmed in such a way that they could be cut for Southern distribution. Other movies include Meet Me in Las Vegas (1956) and The Wiz (1978), in which she starred as Glinda the Good. Lena Horne at the WaldorfAstoria (1957) became the best-selling album by a female singer in RCA Victor’s history, and her first featured performance on Broadway—in the musi-

Jazz singing sensation Lena Horne cal Jamaica (1957–59)—won her a New York Drama Critics’ Poll Award in 1958. In addition, her one-woman show, Lena Horne: The Lady and Her Music (1981), garnered a Drama Critics’ Circle Award as well as a specialachievement Tony Award. In 1984 Horne received a Kennedy Center Honor for lifetime contribution to the arts, and in 1989 she was the recipient of a Grammy Award for lifetime achievement. Houk, Ralph George (“THE MAJOR”), American baseball manager (b. Aug. 9, 1919, Lawrence, Kan.—d. July 21, 2010, Winter Haven, Fla.), as manager (1961–63, 1966–73; general manager 1964–65) of Major League Baseball’s New York Yankees, won the World Series in his first two seasons and the pennant in his first three. Houk signed with the Yankees organization in 1939 and played in the minor leagues before serving in the army in World War II, earning a Silver Star (at the Battle of the Bulge) and a Purple Heart and rising to the rank of major (which provided his professional nickname in later years). After the war he played in only 91 games as a backup catcher (behind Yogi Berra) in eight seasons (1947–54) with the Yankees. In 1955 Houk began managing the franchise’s top minor league team, the Denver Bears. He returned to New York City in 1958, and after three years as the Yankees first-base coach, he took over management of the team from Casey Stengel in 1961. Houk resigned in 135

Obituaries John Pryke/AP

1973, soon after George Steinbrenner (q.v.) acquired the franchise. He then managed the Detroit Tigers (1973–78) and, after a brief retirement, the Boston Red Sox (1981–84). Houk finished his 20-year managing career with a record of 1,619 wins and 1,531 losses. Huang Hua (WANG RUMEI), Chinese diplomat (b. Jan. 25, 1913, Hebei province, China—d. Nov. 24, 2010, Beijing, China), served as China’s public face to Western governments for the latter half of the 20th century. Born Wang Rumei, he adopted the name Huang Hua when he joined the Communist Party in 1936. Having mastered English Aboriginal singer and songwriter Ruby Hunter at the American-run Yanjing University in Beijing, Huang acted as an interpreter for journalist Edgar with the release of Thoughts Within, Snow, whose book Red Star over China Hunter became the first Aboriginal (1937) provided the first exposure for woman to produce a solo album; it was many in the West to the Chinese Com- nominated for an ARIA (Australian munist Party and its leadership. After Recording Industry Association) Award the war against Japan (1937–45) and for best indigenous release. Her second the Chinese civil war (1945–49), Huang album, Feeling Good (2000), also was served in the new government’s Min- nominated for an ARIA Award. In 2004 istry of Foreign Affairs. Thereafter he Ruby’s Story, a musical collaboration filled a number of diplomatic roles, no- between Hunter, Roach, and the Austably serving as China’s first permanent tralian Art Orchestra, was staged in representative to the UN. Among his Sydney, and two years later Hunter beother acccomplishments, Huang held came a founding member of the Black talks with U.S. Secretary of State Henry Arm Band musical collective. Kissinger that led to the normalization of ties between China and the U.S. in Ioannidis, Dimitrios, Greek military 1972, brokered a key friendship treaty officer (b. March 13, 1923, Athens, with Japan in 1978, and negotiated Greece—d. Aug. 16, 2010, Athens), was with British Prime Minister Margaret a leading figure in the Greek military Thatcher in 1980 to secure the return junta (1967–74), which imposed a reof Hong Kong to Chinese control. pressive government and established Huang formally retired in the 1980s. censorship, exile of political opponents, and the torture of dissenters; he also Hunter, Ruby, Australian Aboriginal was responsible for the 1974 military singer and songwriter (b. 1955, South intervention in Cyprus that led to Australia, Australia—d. Feb. 17, 2010, Turkey’s invasion and the subsequent Victoria, Australia), with her partner, political division of that island repubArchie Roach, embodied the spirit and lic. Although Ioannidis never officially experience of the “stolen generation” of led the Greek government, as head of Aborigines in music and performances the much-feared military police (ESA) in Australia and elsewhere. The pair, and the interrogation force known for both of whom had been taken from its use of torture (EAT), he was called their family homes and placed with the “invisible dictator.” Ioannidis atwhite foster families when they were tended a military academy before joinyoung children, met as homeless ing the army in 1943, and he fought teenagers. Hunter was known for her against both the fascist occupying distinctive gravelly voice and her songs forces in World War II and the comthat told stories of her life and ad- munist forces during the Greek Civil dressed Aboriginal and women’s issues. War. He held the rank of lieutenant Roach’s debut album, Charcoal Lane colonel at the time of the 1967 military (1990), contained a song written by coup, which installed as dictator Col. Hunter, “Down City Streets.” In 1994, Giorgios Papadopoulos. Ioannidis be136

came head of the ESA and forcefully repressed opposition to the regime, notably in a violent response to student protests in 1973 at Athens Polytechnic University. He was promoted to brigadier general that same year, but he was dissatisfied with government reforms, and in November he staged a coup against Papadopoulos. The turmoil in Cyprus heightened civil unrest in Greece. Ioannidis was ousted in 1974 and sentenced to death, which was commuted to life imprisonment. Isley, Marvin, American bass guitarist and songwriter (b. Aug. 18, 1953, Cincinnati, Ohio—d. June 6, 2010, Chicago, Ill.), reimagined the gritty rhythmand-blues singing trio the Isley Brothers (Kelly, Rudolph, and Ronald); after joining (1973) his older brothers (together with another brother, Ernie, on lead guitar and brother-in-law Chris Jasper on keyboards), Marvin infused the enlarged group with a distinctive funky sound. Prior to becoming fullfledged bandmembers, Marvin, Ernie, and Chris played on the group’s recordings after it left Motown in 1969, including the seminal “It’s Your Thing” (1969). Marvin Isley also co-wrote many of the six-member band’s greatest hits, including “That Lady (Part 1)” (1973), “The Highways of My Life” (1973), “Fight the Power (Part 1)” (1975), “Harvest for the World” (1976), “Livin’ in the Life” (1977), and “It’s a Disco Night” (1979). Their debut album as a sextet, 3+3 (1973), heralded the change in musical style and went platinum. Though the three newest bandmates formed (1984) their own group— Isley-Jasper-Isley—and scored a hit with “Caravan of Love” (1985), the three rejoined the Isley Brothers in 1990. In 1992 the group was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Jankowski, Henryk, Polish Roman Catholic priest (b. Dec. 18, 1936, Starogard Gdanski, Pol.—d. July 12, 2010, Gdansk, Pol.), supported the pivotal Polish trade union Solidarity in its 1980s resistance to the communist government, notably by celebrating masses in 1980 for striking shipyard workers, which earned him the sobriquet “the chaplain of Solidarity.” Jankowski, the parish priest at St. Brygida Church in Gdansk, was part of Solidarity’s delegation to the Vatican in 1981 (in 1990

Obituaries

he was named an honorary chaplain to the pope). He came under political fire from the government throughout the 1980s as he continued to assist the bythen-banned Solidarity. As Poland shifted to democracy during the 1990s, Jankowski was criticized for his statements against the European Union as well as for his lavish lifestyle. He also was investigated for sexual abuse of a minor, though he denied the charges. In 1997 Jankowski was banned from giving sermons for a year following a series of anti-Semitic remarks; he lost his position as St. Brygida’s rector in 2004. Johnson, Eunice Walker, American entrepreneur (b. April 4, 1916, Selma, Ala.—d. Jan. 3, 2010, Chicago, Ill.), was the influential wife of John H. Johnson, the founder in 1945 of Ebony magazine. The publication, the title of which Eunice Johnson conceived, became the flagship for the Johnson Publishing Co. Besides serving as secretary-treasurer of the publishing empire that she and her husband built, Johnson became a force in the fashion world, creating the Ebony Fashion Fair, an annual countrywide tour (beginning in 1958) featuring haute couture and ready-to-wear fashions designed mainly for African American women. Johnson was also instrumental in establishing (1973) a line of beauty products, Fashion Fair Cosmetics, that were formulated for the complexions of women of colour. Johnson presided as producer and director of the Ebony Fashion Fair for nearly 50 years, from 1961 until 2009. Johnson, Lester, American painter (b. Jan. 27, 1919, Minneapolis, Minn.—d. May 30, 2010, Westhampton, N.Y.), was known for bold, energetic canvases depicting human figures. Johnson studied at the Minneapolis School of Art, the St. Paul School of Art, and the Art Institute of Chicago before moving in 1947 to New York City, where he received his first solo show four years later. His early paintings took as their subject urban landscapes or else were abstract, but he gradually became drawn to figurative work. Nevertheless, Johnson’s association with the Eighth Street Club, a social group that consisted mainly of Abstract Expressionists, strongly influenced his style and technique. His moody thickly painted works of the 1960s gave way to busy brightly coloured paintings thereafter. From 1964 to 1989 he also taught figurative drawing at Yale University.

Jones, Hank (HENRY WILLIAM JONES, JR.), American jazz musician (b. July/Aug. 31, 1918, Vicksburg, Miss.— d. May 16, 2010, Bronx, N.Y.), played lyrical solo piano and accompanied other musicians with such taste, sensitivity, and versatility that he became one of the most in-demand modernMaigre Alain—Dalle/Landov

Jazz pianist Hank Jones jazz musicians. Jones launched his career in the Detroit area but moved in 1944 to New York City. Performing (1947–51) with the all-star Jazz at the Philharmonic troupe led to his accompanying (1947–53) Ella Fitzgerald. In his hundreds of recordings, he led his own trios and accompanied Charlie Parker, Lester Young, Billie Holiday, Miles Davis, Benny Goodman, and dozens of other major artists, including his younger, more-famous brothers, trumpeter-arranger-bandleader Thad Jones and drummer-bandleader Elvin Jones. While Jones performed from 1959 to 1974 as a staff musician at CBS Studios, he continued to record jazz piano. He played in the Great Jazz Trio and directed the music in the Broadway show Ain’t Misbehavin’ during the 1970s and, beginning in the 1980s, became best known as the leader of his own jazz trios. Jones won a National Medal of Arts in 2008 and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2009.

tional Football League’s Chicago Bears for 12 years (1954–65); he was one of the first NFL players to use a weightlifting regimen to build muscle. In his final college season (1953) at the University of Maryland, Jones was an All-American, earned the Knute Rockne Memorial Trophy for outstanding lineman, and helped the team to a place in the Orange Bowl. Jones spent his first year (1954) with the Bears as an offensive tackle before moving to offensive guard. When the Bears’ defensive line needed strengthening in 1962, Jones played both offense and defense, and thereafter he played only defense. In 1963 the Bears won the NFL title game against the New York Giants; the defense that Jones anchored forced six turnovers. He played his final season (1966) for the Washington Redskins. Jones was voted to the Pro Bowl seven times, and in 1991 he was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Kaczynski, Lech, Polish politician (b. June 18, 1949, Warsaw, Pol.—d. April 10, 2010, Smolensk, Russia), as president of Poland (2005–10), was known as a fierce nationalist and religious conservative who advocated a strong central government, promoted both tax cuts and a strong economic safety net, and was often critical of the EU. In 2009, however, having secured opt-outs for Poland from EU policy on some social issues, including abortion, he initialed the Lisbon Treaty. Kaczynski and his identical twin, Jaroslaw, first attained prominence as child actors, appearing in The Two Who Stole the Moon (1962). After having attended the UniPolish politician Lech Kaczynski

Jones, Stan (STANLEY PAUL JONES), American football player (b. Nov. 24, 1931, Altoona, Pa.—d. May 21, 2010, Broomfield, Colo.), established himself as a strong, quick, and versatile offensive and defensive lineman for the NaAlik Keplicz/AP

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versity of Warsaw, Kaczynski earned a Ph.D. in law at the University of Gdansk. During the 1970s he and his brother were active in anticommunist movements, and he was jailed briefly (1981–82) by the government. Kaczynski also held leadership positions in Solidarity, the trade-union movement headed by Lech Walesa, and when Solidarity came to power in 1989, the two brothers began careers in government. In 1990 they formed the political party Centre Agreement. Both brothers won election to the Sejm (lower house of parliament) and held a number of government appointments. By 1993, however, the pair had begun a falling out with Walesa, and in 2001 they cofounded the Law and Justice Party (PiS), initially headed by Kaczynski and then from 2003 by his brother. In 2002 Kaczynski became mayor of Warsaw, and in 2005 the PiS won a plurality in the Sejm and he was elected president. He died in a plane crash. Kamenshek, Dorothy (DOTTIE; KAMMIE), American baseball player (b. Dec. 21, 1925, Norwood, Ohio—d. May 17, 2010, Palm Desert, Calif.), was a sensational left-handed first baseman and leadoff hitter for the Rockford (Ill.) Peaches in the All-American Girls ProBaseball superstar Dorothy Kamenshek

fessional Baseball League (AAGPBL). She played in the AAGPBL from its inception in 1943 until a back injury forced her temporary retirement in 1951, and she returned in 1953 for the league’s penultimate season. Kamenshek was recruited by a scout for the AAGPBL while playing for an industrial league softball team in Cincinnati, Ohio. During her professional career, she was named to seven All-Star teams, won batting titles in 1946 and 1947 (hitting .316 and .306, respectively), and held the all-time AAGPBL batting average record (.292). At first base she was renowned for her spectacular leaps, and as a base runner she was fearless; in 1946 the skirt-clad Kamenshek stole 109 bases. The exploits of Kamenshek and her teammates inspired the 1992 film A League of Their Own. Kermode, Sir (John) Frank, British critic and educator (b. Nov. 29, 1919, Douglas, Isle of Man, Eng.—d. Aug. 17, 2010, Cambridge, Eng.), bridged the divide between literary criticism and reading for pleasure through more than 50 books and scores of essays. His numerous articles for such publications as The London Review of Books, which he cofounded in 1979, were aimed at more leisurely readers, but as the editor of works ranging from The Oxford Anthology of English Literature (1973) to the Modern Masters series, he promoted both traditional literature and modern theory. Kermode was knighted in 1991. Keynes, Richard Darwin, British physiologist (b. Aug. 14, 1919, London, Eng.—d. June 12, 2010, Cambridge, Eng.), was among the first in Britain to trace the movements of sodium and potassium during the transmission of a nerve impulse by using radioactive sodium and potassium. He also conducted research on English naturalist Charles Darwin (his maternal greatgrandfather) and on economist John Maynard Keynes (his paternal uncle), editing The Beagle Record: Selections from the Original Pictorial Records and Written Accounts of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle (1979) and Charles Darwin’s Zoology Notes and Specimen Lists from H.M.S. Beagle (2000), as well as Lydia and Maynard: Letters Between Lydia Lopokova and John Maynard Keynes (1989). After having earned degrees in natural science (B.A., 1946; Ph.D., 1949) at Trinity College, Cambridge, Keynes joined the Cambridge faculty as a fellow at Trinity (1948–60) and Peter-

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house (1952–60; honorary fellow, 1989–2010). He left to become head of the physiology department of the Agricultural Research Council’s Institute of Animal Physiology at Babraham (1960–64) and subsequently director of the institute (1965–73). He then returned to Cambridge to teach physiology (1973–87). He co-wrote the textbook Nerve and Muscle (1981; 3rd ed. 2001). He was elected in 1959 to the Royal Society and was created CBE in 1984. Kimche, David, British-born Israeli spy and diplomat (b. 1928, London, Eng.—d. March 8, 2010, Ramat Hasharon, Israel), held leading positions in Israel’s intelligence agency, Mossad, and in the country’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and was deeply involved in many of Israel’s foreign intrigues. He joined Mossad in 1953 and spent many years cultivating relationships in Africa. He rose to become the agency’s deputy director. Kimche played a leading role in the operations that destroyed the Palestinian militants who killed 11 Israeli athletes at the 1972 Munich Olympic Games, and he helped nurture secret Israeli ties with Christian Phalangists in Lebanon. In 1980 Kimche resigned from Mossad and became director general of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He championed Israel’s invasion of Lebanon in 1982 and was the country’s chief negotiator at talks ending that war. In 1985 Kimche persuaded the U.S. government to arrange for Israel to supply antitank weapons to Iran—in violation of an international arms embargo against that country—in an effort to smooth the way for the release of American hostages captured and held in Lebanon. This was the beginning of the Iran-Contra Affair in the U.S. Kimche left the ministry in 1987. He was a cofounder (1997) of the International Alliance for Arab-Israeli Peace and served as president of the Israel Council on Foreign Relations. Kirchner, Néstor Carlos, Argentine politician and lawyer (b. Feb. 25, 1950, Río Gallegos, Santa Cruz, Arg.—d. Oct. 27, 2010, El Calafate, Arg.), served (2003–07) as the popular president of Argentina and, together with his wife, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, who succeeded him as president in 2007, became a potent political force in the country. Kirchner was relatively unknown outside his home province of Santa Cruz, where he and his wife had

Obituaries Torsten Leukert—Vario Images GmbH & Co.KG/Alamy

cated to regional integration. He died following a heart attack.

Argentine politician Néstor Kirchner a successful law practice and where he served three consecutive four-year terms as governor, before deciding to run for the presidency. In 2003 he earned the endorsement of outgoing Argentine Pres. Eduardo Duhalde, a key figure in the Peronist party, and, though Kirchner placed second to former president Carlos Menem in the first round of voting, he became president when Menem withdrew his candidacy after opinion polls showed that Kirchner had a commanding lead going into the runoff. As president, Kirchner earned popular support by forcing top military officials to retire, annulling legislation prohibiting the extradition of military officers accused of committing human rights abuses (dating to the 1976–83 military dictatorship), and attacking unpopular institutions, such as the Supreme Court and the privately run utility companies. Despite Kirchner’s popularity and his success in reviving Argentina’s economy, during his last year in office his administration was tainted by corruption scandals, an energy crisis, and high inflation. He chose not to seek a second presidential term and announced his support for his wife, Fernández de Kirchner, as the Peronist party presidential candidate. From April 2008 to June 2009 he served as leader of the Peronist party, and in December 2009 he was sworn in for a four-year term in the Chamber of Deputies. In May 2010 Kirchner was elected secretary-general of UNASUR, a South American organization dedi-

Koirala, Girija Prasad, Indian-born Nepalese politician (b. 1925, Bihar state, British India—d. March 20, 2010, Kathmandu, Nepal), served four times as prime minister of Nepal (1991–94, 1998–99, 2000–01, 2006–08), but his administrations were plagued by persistent problems. These included factional disputes between Koirala and his rivals within the ruling Nepali Congress Party (NCP), the murder in 2001 of King Birendra and subsequent clashes with his autocratic successor, King Gyanendra, and a bloody uprising (1996–2006) of Maoist insurgents. Koirala was a member of the most prominent political family in Nepal. Two of his older brothers served as prime minister: Matrika Prasad Koirala in 1951–52 and 1953–55 and Bisheshwar Prasad Koirala from May 1959 until December 1960, when King Mahendra dismissed the government. Koirala and Bisheshwar Prasad were subsequently imprisoned. After Koirala was released in 1967, he went into exile with other leaders of the NCP and did not return to Nepal until 1979. In 1990 he was a leader of the People’s Movement (Jana Andolan), which achieved a restoration of democracy in Nepal. In 1991 he was elected to the parliament and was sworn in as prime minister for the first time. Koirala eventually directed talks with the Maoists that culminated in a comprehensive peace agreement in November 2006 and, in April 2007, an interim government cabinet that included former insurgents. After the Maoists won a majority of seats in the April 2008 general elections, Koirala was succeeded by Maoist Prime Minister Prachanda.

alliance between Dacko, the country’s first president (1960–66), and JeanBédel Bokassa, who ousted Dacko in January 1966 and declared himself emperor (1976) until another coup (1979) briefly restored Dacko to power. Kolingba survived a coup attempt (1982), established a one-party state, and became president in 1986. After failing in his bid for reelection in 1992, he had the results annulled, but he lost again to Patassé in 1993. Kolingba challenged Patassé in the 1999 ballot and then fled to Uganda after an unsuccessful coup attempt in 2001. He was allowed to return to the Central African Republic when François Bozizé seized power in 2003. Kouyaté, Sotigui, Malian-born actor and playwright (b. July 19, 1936, Bamako, French Sudan [now Mali]—d. April 17, 2010, Paris, France), was one of West Africa’s most respected actors, but to Western audiences he was best known for his roles as Bhisma the sage in Peter Brook’s television miniseries The Mahabharata (1989) and as a French Muslim father in London River (2009), which earned him the Silver Bear for best actor at the 2009 Berlin Film Festival. His other films include Keita! L’Héritage du griot (1994), directed by his son Dani Kouyaté, and Little Senegal (2001). From 1984 Kouyaté lived mainly in Paris, but in 1997 Award-winning actor and playwright Sotigui Kouyaté

Kolingba, André-Dieudonné, Central African Republic army commander and politician (b. Aug. 12, 1936, Bangui, Ubangi-Shari, French Equatorial Africa [now Bangui, C.A.R.]—d. Feb. 7, 2010, Paris, France), held dictatorial rule over his country for 12 years, from Sept. 1, 1981, when he overthrew Pres. David Dacko, until he reluctantly stepped down on Oct. 22, 1993, after having lost a presidential election to Ange-Félix Patassé. Kolingba joined the French army as a young man but transferred to the forces of the new Central African Republic when it gained independence in 1960. Kolingba rose through the army, carefully shifting his Rainer Jensen—dpa/Landov

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he founded Bamako’s Mandeko Theatre, where he staged several of his own plays. Lally, Mick (MICHAEL LALLY), Irish actor (b. November 1945, Tourmakeady, County Mayo, Ire.—d. Aug. 31, 2010, Dublin, Ire.), was a well-regarded stage actor who cofounded (1975) the respected Druid Theatre Co. in Galway but was most familiar for his portrayal Craig Lassig/AP

Stage and TV actor Mick Lally of the farmer Miley Byrne in the longrunning (1983–2001) Irish TV drama Glenroe. He also appeared in 2001 in several episodes of the BBC television show Ballykissangel. Lally also acted in a number of films, among them the Gaelic-language Poitin (1978) and The Secret of Roan Inish (1994). Law, Phillip Garth, Australian polar explorer (b. April 21, 1912, Tallangatta, Vic., Australia—d. Feb. 28, 2010, Melbourne, Australia), earned the nickname “Mr. Antarctica” for his devotion to the scientific study of that continent, which he visited 28 times, and to the expansion of the Australian Antarctic Territory there. As director (1949–66) of the Australian Antarctic Division and leader of the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition (ANARE), Law mapped more than 140

5,000 km (3,100 mi) of Antarctic coastline and established three permanent research stations—Mawson (1954), Davis (1957), and Casey, which was opened in 1969 to replace the Wilkes Station after Law negotiated (1959) the transfer of Wilkes from American to Australian control. In 1987 a summer base in Antarctica’s Larsemann Hills was named Law Base in his honour. He also served as chairman (1966–80) of the Australian National Committee for Antarctic Research and vice president (1966–77) of the Victoria Institute of Colleges, which he revamped and expanded. He visited Davis Station in 1998, more than four decades after he first opened the station. Law was made CBE in 1961; he was appointed Officer of the Order of Australia (AO) in 1975 and advanced to Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) in 1995. Levine, Jack, American artist (b. Jan. 3, 1915, Boston, Mass.—d. Nov. 8, 2010, New York, N.Y.), was a prominent painter in the American Social Realist school of the 1930s. From 1935 to 1940 he was intermittently part of the Works Progress Administration (WPA) Federal Art Project, and during this period he set up a studio in the slums of Boston, where he depicted the poor and created satiric portrayals of corrupt politicians. Levine gained attention through paintings such as Brain Trust, exhibited in 1936, and The Feast of Pure Reason, shown the following year. In the latter work a police officer, a politician, and a wealthy man huddle together, presumably striking a deal; this theme of corruption would continue to appear in much of his work. Levine’s first oneman show was held in 1939 in New York City. In works such as The Trial (1953–54), Gangster Funeral (1952–53), The Patriarch of Moscow on a Visit to Jerusalem (1975), and a diptych, Panethnikon (1978), that depicts an imaginary meeting of the UN Security Council, he continued in the vein of biting social satire. Levine’s satiric tendencies drew sharp criticism from Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower when he saw some of Levine’s works in a 1959 State Department exhibit in Moscow. In 1978 New York’s Jewish Museum held a retrospective exhibit in honour of Levine. He was married to the painter Ruth Gikow, and their daughter Susanna also became an artist. Liang Congjie, Chinese environmentalist (b. Aug. 4, 1932, Beijing, China— d. Oct. 28, 2010, Beijing), cofounded

China’s first government-approved conservation group, the Friends of Nature, in 1994, and established the country’s environmental movement. Unlike some international groups that favoured extreme methods of advocacy, Liang employed a gentler approach to preserving nature in order to avoid antagonizing members of the conservative Chinese government. His methods included urging officials to use existing laws to deal with ecological issues, launching the country’s first bird-watching group, and instituting environmental education in primary schools. Liang’s group helped to publicize illegal logging in virgin forests, which led to a government ban (1999) of the practice. He also waged successful campaigns against inadequately inspected factories and environmentally damaging dams, as well as crusades for saving endangered species, such as the snub-nosed monkey and the Tibetan antelope. Liang served (1978–88) as an editor at the Encyclopedia of China Publishing House in Beijing, cofounded (1979) the periodical Encyclopedic Knowledge, and became chief editor of Intellectuals magazine. He also contributed (1980–86) to the work of the editorial review board of the Chinese-language Concise Encyclopædia Britannica. MARIE Lincoln, Abbey (ANNA WOOLDRIDGE; GABY LEE; AMINATA; MOSEKA), American vocalist, songwriter, and actress (b. Aug. 6, 1930, Chicago, Ill.—d. Aug. 14, 2010, New York, N.Y.), wrote songs about black culture and civil rights and sang them in a dramatic, evocative style. She grew up in southern Michigan and was first noted as the glamorous singer Gaby Lee (1952–53) in Hawaii, but after moving to California she changed her name to Abbey Lincoln and appeared in the film The Girl Can’t Help It (1956). Influenced by the great jazz drummer Max Roach, she explored black identity in her song lyrics, and her fiercely urgent singing lent power to his albums We Insist! Freedom Now Suite (1960) and Percussion Bitter Sweet (1961). While married to Roach (1962–70) she starred in the films For Love of Ivy (1968), for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award, and Nothing but a Man (1964); she went on to act in such television series as Mission Impossible and All in the Family. During a 1972 tour of Africa she was honoured with the names of Aminata and Moseka by officials in Guinea and Zaire, respectively. Beginning with The

Obituaries

World Is Falling Down (1990), her songwriting became more philosophical, and her singing career reached new heights, especially with the release of a series of nine CDs in which she was joined by top jazz artists such as Jackie McLean, Stan Getz, and Charlie Haden. Her last album, Abbey Sings Abbey, was released in 2007. Linkletter, Art (GORDON ARTHUR KELLY; ARTHUR GORDON LINKLETTER), Canadian-born American broadcasting host (b. July 17, 1912, Moose Jaw, Sask.—d. May 26, 2010, Los Angeles, Calif.), charmed radio and television audiences for more than 20 years with his amiable ad-libs and his ability to put those he interviewed—particularly, young children—at ease. Linkletter was adopted as a baby by an itinerant evangelical minister and his wife, who settled in San Diego. He obtained (1934) a teaching degree at San Diego State Teachers College (later San Diego State University) but chose instead to pursue a career in radio. In 1944 Linkletter became emcee for the variety show House Party, which involved the audience in spontaneous contests and activities; he created the show’s popular segment “Kids Say the Darndest Things.” A TV adaptation of the program aired from 1952 to 1969; the radio show ended in 1967. He hosted another audience-participation show, People Are Funny, on radio (1942–59) and TV (1954–61). AfEngaging radio and TV host Art Linkletter

ter one of his children committed suicide, he became an anti-drug-abuse campaigner and an adviser on drug policy to Pres. Richard Nixon. Linkletter wrote more than 20 books, including the best-selling Kids Say the Darndest Things! (1957), I Wish I’d Said That (1968), Old Age Is Not for Sissies (1988), and two volumes of autobiography. He was granted a lifetime achievement Emmy Award in 2003. López Arellano, Oswaldo Enrique, Honduran military and political leader (b. June 30, 1921, Danlí, Hond.—d. May 16, 2010, Tegucigalpa, Hond.), toppled two civilian governments and held power as a military strongman from 1963 to 1971 and again from 1972 to 1975. As the longtime head of the Honduran military, he first assumed presidential power after leading a coup in 1963 against Pres. José Ramón Villeda Morales. López Arellano stepped down from office in June 1971, but in December 1972 he staged another coup, against Pres. Ramón Ernesto Cruz. Although he announced that he would serve out the remainder of Ernesto Cruz’s six-year term, López Arellano himself was overthrown in 1975 following the so-called Bananagate scandal, in which he was accused of having accepted a $2.5 million bribe from the United Brands Co. (formerly United Fruit Co.) in exchange for lowering the tax on banana exports. López Arellano later became president of the Honduran national airline. MacArthur, James Gordon, American actor (b. Dec. 8, 1937, Los Angeles, Calif.—d. Oct. 28, 2010, Jacksonville, Fla.), was especially remembered for his role (1968–79) as the idealistic detective Danny (“Danno”) Williams on the television series Hawaii Five-O, about an elite police squad in Honolulu, and for the four Disney films in which he appeared: Third Man on the Mountain (1958), The Light in the Forest (1958), Kidnapped (1960), and Swiss Family Robinson (1960). Though MacArthur appeared in dozens of TV programs, it was his Hawaii Five-O character that became immortalized with the popular catchphrase “Book ‘em, Danno.” Mackerras, Sir Charles (ALAN CHARLES MACLAURIN MACKERRAS), Australian conductor (b. Nov. 17, 1925, Schenectady, N.Y.—d. July 14, 2010, London, Eng.), brought intensity to a range of works, championed Czech

composer Leos Janacek in the West, and was among the first conductors to perform pieces in their original style. Mackerras’s 1959 recording of Handel’s Music for the Royal Fireworks featured the original wind scoring and more than 20 oboists, and his 1965 production of Mozart’s Marriage of Figaro at Sadler’s Wells Opera (now the English National Opera) used 18th-century vocal techniques. In 1980 he was the first non-British conductor for the BBC’s broadcast Last Night of the Proms. Mackerras was knighted in 1979, earned a Czech Republic Medal of Merit in 1996, was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia in 1997, and was made a Companion of Honour in 2003. Majid, Ali Hassan al- (“CHEMICAL ALI”), Iraqi official (b. 1941, Tikrit, Iraq—d. Jan. 25, 2010, Baghdad, Iraq), as a loyal henchman to former Iraqi strongman Saddam Hussein, earned his nickname for his leadership of a campaign in the late 1980s against Iraq’s Kurdish population in which mass executions, starvation, and chemical weapons laid waste to many Kurdish villages and killed an estimated 120,000 Kurds; the single-most-horrific incident in the campaign was the use of poison gas in an attack against the village of Halabja in March 1988 in which 5,000 people were killed. Majid was captured about five months after Saddam’s overthrow by the U.S.-led invasion in 2003, and he was executed after having been tried for and found guilty of genocide and crimes against humanity for those and other atrocities. Mandelbrot, Benoit B., Polish mathematician (b. Nov. 20, 1924, Warsaw, Pol.—d. Oct. 14, 2010, Cambridge, Mass.), was universally known as the father of fractals (a term he coined), a class of complex geometric shapes that commonly have a “fractal dimension.” Mandelbrot proposed (1980) that a certain set governs the behaviour of some iterative processes in mathematics that are easy to define but have remarkably subtle properties. The set, now called the Mandelbrot set, has the characteristic properties of a fractal, and small regions in the set look like smallerscale copies of the whole set (a property called self-similarity). Others later used fractals to describe diverse behaviour in economics, finance, the stock market, astronomy, and computer science. Mandelbrot’s main ideas were presented in many articles and

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books, notably The Fractal Geometry of Nature (1982). He was awarded the Wolf Foundation Prize for Physics in 1993 and shared the Japan Prize in 2003. Mankiller, Wilma Pearl, Native American leader and activist (b. Nov. 18, 1945, Tahlequah, Okla.—d. April 6, 2010, Adair county, Okla.), became principal Cherokee chief in 1985, the first woman chief of a major tribe. Her Buddy Mays/Alamy

Tribal leader Wilma Mankiller administration focused on lowering the high unemployment rate and increasing educational opportunities, improving community health care, and developing the economy of northeastern Oklahoma. She also established the Institute for Cherokee Literacy. In 1983 Mankiller won election as deputy principal Cherokee chief, and when the principal chief became head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1985, Mankiller succeeded him. Two years later she was elected chief in her own right. Mankiller was reelected in 1991, but she did not run in 1995. She was inducted (1993) into the National Women’s Hall of Fame, and in 1998 she received the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Buenos Aires, Arg.), was a leading Latin American author who wrote two Spanish classics about the glamorous Eva Perón and her husband, Argentine Pres. Juan Domingo Perón—La novelo de Perón (1985; The Perón Novel, 1988) and Santa Evita (1995; Eng. trans., 1996). Both works blended fiction and nonfiction, and the latter was translated into more than 30 languages and sold more than 10 million copies. He published his first novel, Sagrado (1969), the same year he took a job as a reporter in Paris. From 1970 to 1972 he was the director of the magazine Panorama. Threats by a right-wing paramilitary group following the publication of his articles about the massacre of political prisoners in the Patagonian city of Trelew (collected in the book La pasión según Trelew [1973]) forced Martínez to seek exile (1975–83) in Venezuela, where he founded the newspaper El Diario de Caracas. In Guadalajara, Mex., he founded Siglo 21, another newspaper. Other works include essays, notably Los testigos de afuera (1978) and Retrato del artista enmascarado (1982); the short-story collection Lugar común la muerte (1979); and 10 screenplays. In 2002 Martínez was awarded the Alfaguara Prize for El vuelo de la reina, a semiautobiographical story about a May-December relationship. In 2008 Martínez published Purgatorio, his last novel. Marzieh (A SHRAF AL-SADAT MORTEZA!I), Iranian singer (b. 1924, Tehran, Iran—d. Oct. 13, 2010, Paris, France), was an acclaimed interpreter of traditional Persian and modern music in Iran from the 1940s until the Islamic Revolution (1978–79); later, in self-imposed exile from 1994, she became an Iranian singer Marzieh

Massera, (Eduardo) Emilio, Argentine dictator (b. 1925, Buenos Aires, Arg.—d. Nov. 8, 2010, Buenos Aires), was the enforcer in a brutal military regime (1976–83) that was responsible for overseeing the “Dirty War,” an infamous campaign waged against suspected left-wing political opponents. An estimated 10,000–30,000 citizens were tortured and then killed; many of them were “disappeared”—seized by the authorities and never heard from again. The three-man junta (that included Admiral Massera, Gen. Orlando Ramón Agosti, and Gen. Jorge Rafaél Videla, serving as president) came to power by ousting Isabel Perón, the widow of Juan Domingo Perón. During his bloody regime Massera, who also headed the navy, was responsible for turning the Navy Mechanics School in Buenos Aires into a notorious concentration camp for dissidents. After the regime collapsed in 1983, Massera was convicted in 1985 of having committed crimes against humanity. He served five years of a life sentence before Pres. Carlos Menem granted him and other coup leaders amnesty. Though a 2005 Supreme Court ruling voided the amnesty, Massera was judged too ill to return to prison or to be extradited. McCarthy, Kevin, American actor (b. Feb. 15, 1914, Seattle, Wash.—d. Sept. 11, 2010, Hyannis, Mass.), appeared in numerous supporting parts during his seven-decade-long career, but he became best known for his only starring film role—as a small-town doctor who feverishly tries to keep humans from being turned into “pod people” in the classic science-fiction thriller Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956). The square-jawed actor had an impressive résumé on Broadway, and he wowed the critics in London with his portrayal

Martínez, Tomás Eloy, Argentine writer and journalist (b. July 16, 1934, Tucumán, Arg.—d. Jan. 31, 2010, Kevin Rivoli/AP

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icon of Iranian opposition to the theocratic government, and her songs were frequently political in theme. Marzieh, a lyrical mezzo-soprano, began her career in the early 1940s on Tehran Radio and performed in 1942 in the Persian operetta Shirin and Farhad. After Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini came to power in Iran in 1979, Marzieh was forbidden to sing in public. She defected to France in 1994 and ultimately became involved with the National Council of Resistance of Iran. Her first major concert thereafter was at the Royal Albert Hall in London in 1995; her final performance took place in 2006 in Paris.

Obituaries AP

of Biff, the troubled elder son of Willy Loman, in Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman (1949). McCarthy earned an Academy Award nomination and the Golden Globe for most promising newcomer when he reprised the role in 1951 for the big screen. McClanahan, Rue (EDDI-RUE MCCLANAHAN), American actress (b. Feb. 21, 1934, Healdton, Okla.—d. June 3, 2010, New York, N.Y.), portrayed the liberated sensual Southern belle Blanche Devereaux on the television sitcom The Golden Girls (1985–92), a role for which she won an Emmy Award in 1987. Blanche’s talk of her sexual exploits provided her three housemates—two middle-aged women (Betty White and Bea Arthur) and the latter’s screen mother (Estelle Getty)— fodder for such comic zingers as “Your life’s an open blouse.” Prior to The Golden Girls, McClanahan starred in a series of Off-Broadway productions and captured an Obie Award in 1970 for her role as the “other woman” in Who’s Happy Now? McGarrigle, Kate (CATHERINE FRANCES MCGARRIGLE), Canadian folk musician (b. Feb. 6, 1946, Montreal, Que.—d. Jan. 18, 2010, Montreal), won critical acclaim for her luminous and

Folk musician Kate McGarrigle

haunting vocal harmonies, most often with her sister Anna McGarrigle, as well as for evocative and idiosyncratic songwriting. The McGarrigle sisters established themselves as folk musicians in Montreal’s coffeehouses in the 1960s and for several years were part of the Mountain City Four, a group that performed traditional and new folk music in both English and French. By the early 1970s songs written by both sisters had come to the attention of other artists; their songs were recorded by Linda Ronstadt and Maria Muldaur, among others. The first of their 10 albums, Kate & Anna McGarrigle (1975), was perhaps the most widely known; French Record (1980) won accolades especially in Canada. She was awarded the Order of Canada in 1994. McGuire, Dick (RICHARD JOSEPH MCGUIRE; “TRICKY DICK”), American basketball player and coach (b. Jan. 26, 1926, New York, N.Y.—d. Feb. 3, 2010, Huntington, N.Y.), enjoyed a morethan-50-year career with the New York Knicks and Detroit Pistons professional National Basketball Association (NBA) teams and was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1993. He served as the Knicks’ precision passing guard and superb ball handler (1949–57), head coach (1965–67), and then chief scout and assistant coach; for the Pistons he was a player (1957–60; player-coach for final season) and then head coach until 1963. His most lasting legacy, however, was his ability to meticulously thread his bounce passes to his teammates; in his rookie year he was credited with a then-record 386 assists. He and his younger brother Al (also a Knicks player and a college coach) were the only two brothers to gain entrance to the Hall of Fame. McLaren, Malcolm Robert Andrew, British rock impresario and musician (b. Jan. 22, 1946, London, Eng.—d. April 8, 2010, Switzerland), helped birth punk culture in his role as the colourfully provocative manager of the punk band the Sex Pistols. While attending art school in England, McLaren was drawn to the subversive Marxist-rooted philosophy of the Parisbased Situationist International movement. In 1965 he became involved with fashion designer Vivienne Westwood, with whom he opened (1971) an avant-garde clothing boutique, but he soon became more interested in rock music as a means to enact his radical

Musician and band manager Malcolm McLaren aesthetic ideas. After a brief stint managing and costuming the American glam rock band the New York Dolls, in 1975 he began working with a band he dubbed the Sex Pistols in a cross-marketing ploy with the clothes shop, which had been rebranded as Sex. By the following year the raucous punk group had become a cause célèbre in the U.K., and McLaren eagerly fueled the controversy with stunts such as having the band play its antiauthoritarian anthem “God Save the Queen” aboard a boat outside the British Houses of Parliament. Following the Sex Pistols’ collapse in 1978, McLaren guided the image and career of new-wave band Adam and the Ants and formed a spin-off act, Bow Wow Wow. In 1983 he released the first of several solo albums, Duck Rock, an eclectic fusion of hip-hop and world music that spawned two British top 10 hits: “Buffalo Gals” and “Double Dutch.” McQueen, (Lee) Alexander, British fashion designer (b. March 17, 1969, London, Eng.—found dead Feb. 11, 2010, London), was known for his precise tailoring, shocking catwalk fashion shows, and groundbreaking clothes, including what he called “bumster” trousers (1992)—pants cut so low that they revealed the cleavage of the back-

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side. In London, McQueen enrolled (1990–92) at Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design, where he staged a fashion show for his master’s thesis. The show caught the eye of fashion editor and stylist Isabella Blow, who bought his entire first collection and promoted his work. Despite his “enfant terrible” image, McQueen was named British Designer of the Year in 1996 (an honour he received three more times), and later that year he took over as the head designer of the French couture house Givenchy while maintaining his own eponymous design label in London. McQueen opened his first boutique in 1999; he sold a controlling interest in his signature brand in 2000 to the Gucci Group, although he retained creative control. The following year he left Givenchy and began to diversify his brand to include fragrances (2003), a menswear collection (2004), and McQ (2006), a more affordable ready-to-wear line. He was made CBE in 2003. McQueen was an apparent suicide.

cued his home audience with superimposed lyrics highlighted by a bouncing ball. He also developed a set of singalong albums, 19 of which made the Top 40 list during 1958–62. After having graduated (1932) from the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, Miller joined CBS Radio and spent the next 11 years as an oboist with the CBS Symphony Orchestra. He boosted Mercury Records’s success with hits by Frankie Laine and Patti Page when he directed Mercury’s popular music division in the late 1940s, and in 1950 he became Columbia’s head of artists and repertoire, producing Tony Bennett, Doris Day, Johnnie Ray, and Johnny Mathis, among others. Miller often produced upbeat tunes, including such novelty songs as “I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus” and Rosemary Clooney’s “Come on-a My House,” as well as traditional songs, notably “The Yellow Rose NBCU Photo Bank/AP of Texas,” recorded in 1955 by his own group, Mitch Miller and His Gang.

Milgrom, Jacob, American-born Israeli rabbi and biblical scholar (b. Feb. 1, 1923, Brooklyn, N.Y.—d. June 6, 2010, Jerusalem, Israel), was credited with having written the definitive commentary on the biblical book of Leviticus. After graduating from the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York City, Milgrom spent most of his academic career at the University of California, Berkeley, where he was professor of biblical studies and chair of the department of Near Eastern studies. His three-volume Anchor Bible translation and commentary on Leviticus (1991, 2000, 2001) raised controversy by stating, among other things, that the Hebrew Bible prohibits homosexual behaviour only between Jewish men in the Holy Land. In 1994 Milgrom retired from Berkeley and immigrated with his wife to Israel.

Meredith, Don (JOSEPH DONALD MEREDITH), American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. April 10, 1938, Mount Vernon, Texas—d. Dec. 5, 2010, Santa Fe, N.M.), brought his Texas charm to the huddle as a spunky quarterback (1960–68) for the Dallas Cowboys professional football team and to the announcer’s booth (1971–73 and 1977–85) as the lively colour analyst with commentator Howard Cosell and play-by-play announcer Keith Jackson (later Frank Gifford) on ABC television’s Monday Night Football. That program became hugely popular, largely because of the antics taking place between “Dandy Don” and “The Mouth” (Cosell). Meredith played college football at Southern Methodist Maestro Mitch Miller with the Sing Along Kids University in Dallas, where he was twice named an All-American. He was inducted into the College Miller, Mitch (MITCHELL WILLIAM Football Hall of Fame in 1982. He led MILLER), American conductor and muthe Cowboys to three consecutive di- sic producer (b. July 4, 1911, Rochester, vision titles and to NFL championship N.Y.—d. July 31, 2010, New York, N.Y.), games in 1966 and 1967 (losing both, set the pace for popular music in the however, to the Green Bay Packers). U.S. after World War II and before the He was named to the Pro Bowl three dominance of rock and roll in the midtimes and in 1966 was crowned the 1960s, initially as a top producer for NFL’s MVP. He later took up acting Columbia Records. As the goatee-sportand appeared on a number of televi- ing conductor of the hit television show Sing Along with Mitch (1961–66), Miller sion series. 144

Milner, Robin (ARTHUR JOHN ROBIN GORELL MILNER), British computer scientist (b. Jan. 13, 1934, Yealmpton, Devon, Eng.— d. March 20, 2010, Cambridge, Eng.), won the A.M. Turing Award, the highest honour in computer science, in 1991 for his work with automatic theorem provers, the ML (“metalanguage”) computer programming language, and a general theory of concurrency. Milner attended Eton College and won a scholarship to King’s College, Cambridge, in 1952, but he had to postpone his course work for two years while he served at the Suez Canal with the Royal Engineers of the British army. Milner entered Cambridge in 1954 and graduated in 1957 with a bachelor’s degree in mathematics. In the summer of 1956 he took a short course in programming in which he used the school’s EDSAC computer. He held various jobs in London before he became a computer programmer and developed compilers at Ferranti Ltd., the firm that produced the first commercial computer, the Ferranti Mark I, in 1951. Milner left Ferranti in 1963 for a series of academic and research positions. At the University of Edinburgh (1973–95), he helped design ML, a computer programming language developed for implementing an automatic theorem solver.

Obituaries

Monicelli, Mario, Italian filmmaker (b. May 15, 1915, Viareggio, Tuscany, Italy—d. Nov. 29, 2010, Rome, Italy), was a pioneer of commedia all’italiana, or Italian-style screen comedy, a genre in which comic situations take place against a background of dramatic— even tragic—circumstances. Among the more than 60 movies that Monicelli directed, three received Academy Award nominations as best foreign language film: I soliti ignoti (1958; Big Deal on Madonna Street), La grande guerra (1959; The Great War), and La ragazza con la pistola (1968; The Girl with the Pistol). Monicelli also wrote Oscar-nominated screenplays, notably for I compagni (1963; The Organizer) and Casanova 70 (1965), and contributed to many screenplays that he did not direct. Monicelli won three Silver Bears for best director at the Berlin International Film Festival, for Padri e figli (1957; A Tailor’s Maid), Caro Michele (1976), and Il marchese del Grillo (1981). His last major film was Le rose del deserto (2006; The Roses of the Desert). Monicelli was awarded a Golden Lion for lifetime achievement at the 1991 Venice Film Festival and a Lifetime Achievement Award at the Milan International Film Festival in 2007. Mono Jojoy (VÍCTOR JULIO SUÁREZ ROJAS; JORGE BRICEÑO), Colombian guerrilla leader (b. Feb. 5, 1953, Cabrera, Colom.—d. Sept. 22, 2010, Meta departamento, Colom.), served as the Rebel leader Mono Jojoy

ruthless, formidable military commander of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). Mono Jojoy joined FARC at a young age and, as he rose through the ranks, became close to the group’s founder, Manuel Marulanda, acting as a confidante and eventually as Marulanda’s chief bodyguard. By the early 1990s Mono Jojoy had taken charge of the Eastern Bloc, FARC’s most powerful military faction, and he was subsequently appointed to the General Secretariat as overall military commander. Though Mono Jojoy was unexpectedly passed over to succeed Marulanda as FARC’s leader upon the latter’s death in 2008, he maintained his reputation as a loyal soldier and effective strategist. His death in a massive government air strike on a FARC stronghold was widely seen to have dealt a major blow to the guerrilla organization. Moody, James, American jazz musician (b. March 26, 1925, Savannah, Ga.—d. Dec. 9, 2010, San Diego, Calif.), joked with audiences and introduced unlikely themes, including “Beer Barrel Polka,” but then played tenor saxophone with a fierce, passionate devotion to melodic romanticism. One of the earliest bebop musicians, he appeared with Dizzy Gillespie’s pioneering big band (1946–48) and lived (1949–51) in Europe, where he recorded an alto saxophone solo that, with lyrics added, became singer King Pleasure’s 1954 hit “Moody’s Mood for Love.” After leading 1950s groups, Moody played flute and saxophones with Gillespie’s combos (1963–69) and then performed for seven years in Las Vegas show bands. Returning to jazz in 1979, Moody reached his peak of popularity as he led groups, sang novelty songs, reunited occasionally with Gillespie, and continued to play intense tenor saxophone and flute solos. Morgan, Edwin George, Scottish poet and professor (b. April 27, 1920, Glasgow, Scot.—d. Aug. 19, 2010, Glasgow), was already serving (1999–2005) as poet laureate of Glasgow when he was declared (2004) Scotland’s first official national poet, with the title Scots Makar. Morgan was cherished for his vibrant, imaginative, and widely varied poetry, which ranged from a 1952 verse translation of Beowulf to sound poems (“The Loch Ness Monster’s Song”), concrete poems (“Message Clear”), and, especially, lyrical love poems (“Strawberries”). (It was not until

his 70th birthday that Morgan publicly acknowledged his homosexuality, which had been a criminal offense in Scotland until 1980). After having served in the Royal Army Medical Corps during World War II, Morgan earned an English degree at Glasgow University, where he remained on the faculty (1947–80) until his retirement. His first volume of poetry was The Vision of Cathkin Braes (1952), but it was The Second Life (1968) that brought him critical notice and the 1968 Cholmondeley Award for poetry. Subsequent works include Glasgow Sonnets (1972), From Glasgow to Saturn (1973), Poems of Thirty Years (1982), and Collected Poems (1990). Morgan was made OBE in 1982 and was awarded the Queen’s Gold Medal for Poetry in 2000. Muzorewa, Abel Tendekayi, Rhodesian-born cleric and politician (b. April 14, 1925, Old Umtali, Southern Rhodesia [now Zimbabwe]—d. April 8, 2010, Harare, Zimb.), served as prime minister of his homeland from May 29 to Dec. 11, 1979, during the transitional period from white-ruled Southern Rhodesia to black-ruled Zimbabwe. Muzorewa was educated at local Methodist schools and from 1958 to 1963 studied in the U.S. at the Central Methodist College, Fayette, Mo., and at Scarritt College for Christian Workers, Nashville. After returning home he worked as a teacher, lay preacher, youth work organizer, and pastor, and in 1968 he became a bishop of the United Methodist Church. Muzorewa emerged as a political figure in the 1970s when all of Southern Rhodesia’s major black politicians were in prison or in exile. He mobilized opposition to Britain’s proposals for a settlement of the conflict between whites and blacks. Although he appeared as a spokesman for Joshua Nkomo, after Nkomo’s release from detention Muzorewa chose to lead his own party, the African National Council, founded in 1971 and renamed the United African National Council (UANC) in 1977. He was a member of the Transitional Executive Council set up to prepare the transfer to majority black rule in 1978–79, and when his party won a commanding 51 seats in the interim parliamentary elections of 1979, he became prime minister of “Zimbabwe Rhodesia.” After the country briefly reverted to British control in December of that year, Muzorewa’s government voted itself out of office.

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Nahyan, Sheikh Ahmad ibn Zayid Al, Emirati businessman and financier (b. 1969, Al-!Ayn, Abu Dhabi emirate, U.A.E.—d. March 26, 2010, near Rabat, Mor.), was managing director (from 1997) of the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority (ADIA), the sovereign wealth fund of Abu Dhabi’s royal family, with assets believed to be in excess of $500 billion. Sheikh Ahmad, a younger half brother of U.A.E. Pres. Sheikh Khalifah ibn Zayid Al Nahyan, was actively involved in several of the ADIA’s major financial deals, notably a high-profile $7.5 billion investment in Citigroup in November 2007. That deal left the ADIA with a 4.9% stake in the American financial firm early in the banking crisis that culminated in an international recession (2007–09). He was also undersecretary of the U.A.E. Ministry of Finance, a member of the Supreme Petroleum Council, and chairman of the Zayed Charitable and Humanitarian Foundation. In 2009 Sheikh Ahmad was number 27 on Forbes magazine’s list of the world’s most powerful people. He died when his small glider aircraft crashed in Morocco.

married Cooper. In the early 1950s Neal appeared in mostly mediocre films, with the exception of Robert Wise’s science-fiction classic The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951). She returned to the stage for a few years but made an impression on the big screen in 1957 when she starred opposite Andy Griffith in Elia Kazan’s A Face in the Crowd. In Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1961), she is spurned by the young lover she supports financially. During the filming of director John Ford’s final picture, Seven Women (1966), the pregnant Neal suffered a series of severe strokes. Her husband from 1953, British author Roald Dahl, played a major role in her recovery. (The couple divorced in 1983.) Her comeback film, The Subject Was Roses (1968), garnered her an Oscar nomination. Neame, Ronald, British filmmaker (b. April 23, 1911, London, Eng.—d. June 16, 2010, Los Angeles, Calif.), was one of Britain’s most admired cinematographers in the 1930s and ’40s, notably on a series of acclaimed films with director David Lean. Neame himself later directed such hits as the drama The Prime of Mrs. Jean Brodie (1969) and the disaster movie The Poseidon Adventure (1972). After Neame worked with Lean, then a film editor, on Major Barbara (1941) and One of Our Aircraft Is Missing (1942), for which Neame earned an Academy Award nomination (1943) for best effects, the two formed the Cineguild production company with producer Anthony Havelock-Allan. The trio successfully collaborated on Brief Encounter (1945) and Great Expectations (1946), both nominated for

Neal, Patricia (PATSY LOUISE NEAL), American actress (b. Jan. 20, 1926, Packard, Ky.—d. Aug. 8, 2010, Edgartown, Mass.), delivered deeply intelligent performances, usually as a toughminded independent woman. Neal reached the pinnacle with her Academy Award-winning best actress performance as the shy housekeeper who resists the advances of Paul Newman in Hud (1963). This strength of character was reflected in her personal life as she was able to make a triumphant return to films following a series of strokes in 1965 that had left her semiparalyzed and unable to Filmmaker Ronald Neame speak. After undertaking theatre studies at Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill., Neal moved to New York City and soon began performing as an understudy on Broadway. For her starring role in Lillian Hellman’s Another Part of the Forest (1946), Neal won a Tony Award. She signed with Warner Brothers in 1948 and appeared in director King Vidor’s adaptation of Ayn Rand’s The Fountainhead (1949). That film introduced Neal to leading man Gary Cooper, with whom she also costarred in Bright Leaf (1950). In her autobiography, As I Am (1988), Neal revealed details about her affair with the

Oscars for best screenplay, but Lean and Neame parted ways in 1949. Neame was made CBE in 1996. Newman, Edwin Harold, American broadcast journalist (b. Jan. 25, 1919, New York, N.Y.—d. Aug. 13, 2010, Oxford, Eng.), was known for his cultured intellect and his droll sense of humour during a 32-year career at NBC News. In 1952 he became the London bureau chief for NBC News, and he performed the same role in Paris and Rome before returning in 1961 to the United States. As a frequent presence on the Today morning TV show and general correspondent for NBC, Newman became a familiar face to millions of Americans. Nielsen, Leslie William, Canadianborn actor (b. Feb. 11, 1926, Regina, Sask.—d. Nov. 28, 2010, Fort Lauderdale, Fla.), showcased his comedic gifts, beginning with his portrayal of a bewildered doctor in Airplane! (1980) and then as bumbling detective Frank Drebin in the spoof The Naked Gun (1988) and its sequels (1991 and 1994), following a career in which he had been cast in mostly dramatic roles, notably as the captain of a capsized ocean liner in The Poseidon Adventure (1972). After high school Nielsen joined the Royal Canadian Air Force and then served as a disc jockey in Calgary, Alta., before turning to an acting career in New York City. Other notable film credits include Forbidden Planet (1956), Tammy and the Bachelor (1957), Mr. Magoo (1997), 2001: A Space Travesty (2000), Scary Movie 3 (2003), and Scary Movie 4 (2006). In 2002 he was awarded the Order of Canada.

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Nirenberg, Marshall Warren, American biochemist (b. April 10, 1927, Brooklyn, N.Y.—d. Jan. 15, 2010, New York, N.Y.), was corecipient, with Robert William Holley and Har Gobind Khorana, of the 1968 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. Nirenberg was cited for his role in deciphering the genetic code. He demonstrated that with the exception of “nonsense codons,” each possible triplet (called a codon) of four different kinds of nitrogen-containing bases found in DNA and, in some viruses, in RNA ultimately causes the incorporation of a specific amino acid into a cell protein. Nirenberg’s work and that of Holley and Khorana helped to show

Obituaries

how genetic instructions in the cell nucleus control the composition of proteins. His research earned him the National Medal of Science in 1965. In 1968 Nirenberg and Khorana were recognized with an Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award and the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize for Biology or Biochemistry. In the late 1960s Nirenberg began investigating neuroblastomas—tumours involving masses of neurons that are known as ganglia— and eventually developed a neuroblastoma model that served as the basis for a broad range of neurobiological research. Njawé, Pius Noumeni, Cameroonian journalist (b. March 4, 1957, Babouantou, French Cameroun—d. July 12, 2010, near Norfolk, Va.), championed a free press as the founder (1979) and editor of the first independent newspaper in Cameroon, Le Messager, in which he criticized the government despite being subjected to persistent persecution. Njawé was arrested more than 100 times under the regime of Cameroon Pres. Paul Biya. News reports on the bloody repression of a riot led to the seizure of Njawé’s paper in 1990; in 1992 the publication was banned, and he went into exile for a year. He was imprisoned at least three times, notably in 1996 on charges of having insulted the president and members of the National Assembly. Njawé was a member of the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, which works to collaborate on international news stories, and the head of Free Media Group, which published Le Messager. In 1991 he was honoured with the International Press Freedom Award from the Committee to Protect Journalists, and in 2000 he was listed by the International Press Institute as one of 50 World Press Freedom Heroes. Nkosi, Lewis, South African author, critic, journalist, and broadcaster (b. Dec. 5, 1936, Durban, Natal, S.Af.—d. Sept. 5, 2010, Johannesburg, S.Af.), was a respected journalist and producer (1962–65) of the BBC radio series Africa Abroad, but his first novel, Mating Birds (1983), brought him to the attention of a wider audience for its subtle examination of an interracial affair. After attending a technical college in Durban for a year, Nkosi worked for the Zulu-English weekly newspaper Ilanga lase Natal (1955) and then (1956–60) for the Drum magazine and

as chief reporter for its Sunday newspaper, the Golden City Post. He was exiled from South Africa in 1961 after having accepted a fellowship to study journalism at Harvard University. Thereafter Nkosi wrote for American, British, and African periodicals, including The New Yorker magazine and The New African, of which he was literary editor (1965–68). Many of his critical essays were published in Home and Exile (1965), which became a standard source for students of African literature. Nkosi’s other works include The Rhythm of Violence (1964), a drama set in Johannesburg in the early 1960s, and the essay collections The Transplanted Heart (1975), Tasks and Masks: Themes and Styles of African Literature (1981), and Home and Exile and Other Selections (1983).

D.C., and at Bennington (Vt.) College (1968). Noland’s work was exhibited internationally, and permanent collections of his paintings are housed at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, the Tate Collection in London, and the Zürich Kunsthaus. Nordheim, Arne, Norwegian composer (b. June 20, 1931, Larvik, Nor.— d. June 5, 2010, Oslo, Nor.), introduced modern compositional styles to postWorld War II Norway with works that often comprised (or included) pretaped Lisbeth Risnes/mic.no

Nolan, David Fraser, American politician (b. Nov. 23, 1943, Washington, D.C.—d. Nov. 21, 2010, Tucson, Ariz.), was one of the founding members in 1971 of the Libertarian Party. Spurred by U.S. Pres. Richard M. Nixon’s removal of the U.S. from the gold standard and temporary imposition of a wage and price freeze, Nolan and a group of friends created the Libertarian Party, which emphasized free markets and limited government power. Nolan ran unsuccessfully for a number of political offices, and in 2010 he failed in his campaign for the U.S. Senate seat in Arizona held by John McCain. Noland, Kenneth Clifton, American painter (b. April 10, 1924, Asheville, N.C.—d. Jan. 5, 2010, Port Clyde, Maine), was a disciple of the Abstract Expressionist school and was one of the first to use the technique of staining the canvas with thinned paints and of deploying his colours in concentric rings and parallels, shaped and proportioned in relation to the shape of the canvas. He and Morris Louis, influenced by the work of Helen Frankenthaler, worked together on the technique of staining with thinned paints. This method presented pure saturated colour as an integral part of the canvas. Noland arrived at his characteristic style in the late 1950s. He attended Black Mountain College, Asheville, and studied (1948–49) under French sculptor Ossip Zadkine in Paris. Noland presented his first one-man show there in 1949. He taught at the Institute of Contemporary Art (1949–51) and at Catholic University (1951–60), both located in Washington,

Norwegian composer Arne Nordheim electronic elements. His sound structure for the 1970 Osaka World Exposition played six musical loops that were designed not to re-create their original relationship for 102 years. Nordheim attended (1948–52) the Oslo Conservatory, but he left to study the works of Bela Bartok in Copenhagen as well as musique concrète and electronic music in Paris. In the late 1950s he composed his first significant work, the song cycle Aftonland. Later works include Epitaffio (1963) for orchestra and tape, Colorazione (1968) for organ, percussion, electronic equipment, and tape, the cello concerto Tenebrae (1982), and the music drama Draumkvædet (1994), which he adapted from a Norwegian folk tale for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer. He also championed other modern compositions as music critic (1960–68) for the Oslo newspaper Dagbladet. From 1982 Nordheim and 147

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his wife lived in the Grotten, the honorary residence reserved for Norway’s current leading artistic figure. Ohno, Kazuo, Japanese performance artist (b. Oct. 27, 1906, Hakodate, Hokkaido, Japan—d. June 1, 2010, Yokohama, Japan), was a leading exponent of buto (Butoh), a Japanese dance-theatre movement in which formal technique is eschewed and primal sexuality and the grotesque are explored. Ohno and Tatsumi Hijikata are credited with having founded this “dance of darkness” in the 1950s. The two collaborated (1959–66) in works that were inspired by the writings of French playwright Jean Genet, French poet comte de Lautréamont, and Japanese novelist Yukio Mishima. Performing usually in the guise of a woman, Ohno interpreted his grisly experiences during his nine years (1938–46) of service in the Japanese army, including time spent as a prisoner of war. Ohno’s Jellyfish Dance (1950s) explored his wartime experience of seeing jellyfish swimming where combatants had been buried at sea. In 1980 he began an international career, whose major works included Admiring La Argentina and My Mother as well as Water Lilies and The Road in Heaven, the Road in Earth, which he performed with his son Yoshito. Ohno continued to perform past his 100th birthday; though his ailing body limited his movement, he often performed by using only his hands or crawling on all fours. Olsen, Merlin Jay, American football player, sports announcer, and actor (b. Sept. 15, 1940, Logan, Utah—d. March 11, 2010, Duarte, Calif.), was the strapping 1.9-m (6-ft 5-in)-tall left tackle (1962–76) for the National Football League’s (NFL’s) Los Angeles Rams and a mighty force for the team, making up a crucial part of the formidable line that was heralded as the “Fearsome Foursome.” Besides Olsen, the quartet that included left end Deacon Jones, right end Lamar Lundy, and right tackle Roosevelt (Rosey) Grier were not only aggressive blockers (with an estimated average weight of 125 kg [275 lb]) but also agile play stoppers. Though the Rams won only one game in the 1962–63 season, Olsen was named the NFL Rookie of the Year. In 1973 he was voted the National Football Conference Defensive Lineman of the Year. For every year but his final one with the Rams, Olsen was voted to 148

the Pro Bowl, and at the time of his death, his record still stood as the Rams’ all-time leader in tackles, with a career 915. Before joining the Rams, Olsen was an All-American at Utah State University. He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1980 and the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1982. After leaving the Rams, Olsen served as an NFL commentator, television spokesperson, and TV actor, best known for his recurring role as Jonathan Garvey (1977–81) on Little House on the Prairie and as the star of Father Murphy (1981–83). Osman, (Muhammad) Fathi, Egyptian religious scholar and author (b. March 17, 1928, Minya, Egypt—d. Sept. 11, 2010, Montrose, Calif.), advocated for a broad-minded interpretation of Islam and sought to bridge understanding between the Muslim and non-Muslim worlds. As a young man Osman joined the Muslim Brotherhood, a hard-line fundamentalist organization, and worked on its weekly newspaper, but he left the group in the 1950s. After the publication of Al-Fikr al-Islami wa-al-tatawwur (1960; “Islamic Thought and Change”), which set out a more moderate approach to Islam, Osman completed a master’s degree (1962) in Islamic-Byzantine relations at Cairo University. Beginning in the 1960s—while continuing to publish works in Arabic—he taught at universities in Egypt, Algeria, and Saudi Arabia, and in 1976 he earned a Ph.D. in Near Eastern studies from Princeton University. Osman moved to Los Angeles in 1987, becoming a scholar in residence at the Islamic Center of Southern California and later founding the Institute for the Study of Islam in the Contemporary World. Osman found particular acclaim for the book Concepts of the Quran: A Topical Reading (1997), a comprehensive explication of central tenets and ideas found in the Islamic holy book. Oyono, Ferdinand Léopold, Cameroonian statesman and novelist (b. Sept. 14, 1929, Ngoulémakong, French Cameroun—d. June 10, 2010, Yaoundé, Cameroon), perfected an ironic tone that conveyed the full tragedy and pain of the lives of the common people, usually illiterate peasant farmers, who naively accepted the doctrines of French colonialism. In mocking the foibles of the self-deluded colonial masters as well as the simple villagers in his three novels, Oyono often painted

hilarious portraits. Une Vie de boy (1956; Houseboy, 1966), written in the form of a diary, depicts honestly but with humour the often brutal life of a houseboy in the service of a French commandant. During the 1950s Oyono worked in Paris as an actor while he was studying law and diplomacy and writing his first two novels. He returned to newly independent Cameroon in 1960 and entered the diplomatic corps. Palevsky, Max, American computer pioneer (b. July 24, 1924, Chicago, Ill.— d. May 5, 2010, Beverly Hills, Calif.), cofounded (1968) Intel Corp., the world’s leading manufacturer of semiconductor computer circuits; the comD. Gorton—The New York Times/Redux

Computer guru Max Palevksy pany produced (1971) the first microprocessor, which paved the way for personal computers and handheld calculators. In 1957 he joined the electronics company Packard Bell. Palevsky and a group of colleagues established (1961) Scientific Data Systems (SDS), which filled a market niche by building small and medium-sized business computers. SDS, an astounding success, was purchased (1969) by Xerox Corp. for nearly $1 billion. Raimon (RAIMUNDO Panikkar, PANIKKAR ALEMANY), Spanish Roman Catholic theologian (b. Nov. 3, 1918, Barcelona, Spain—d. Aug. 26, 2010, Tavertet, Spain), was a Jesuit priest and an advocate of interreligious dialogue.

Obituaries

Panikkar was the son of an Indian Hindu father and a Catalan Catholic mother. He became an expert in both Christian and Indian thought, and his work sought to inculcate within Christians an appreciation for the insights of non-Western traditions. He divided his time between research in India and teaching duties at various institutions. In 1987, however, he moved near Barcelona, where he established the Raimon Panikkar Vivarium Foundation, which was devoted to intercultural studies. Park, Ruth (ROSINA RUTH LUCIA PARK), New Zealand-born Australian author (b. Aug. 24, 1917, Auckland, N.Z.—d. Dec. 14, 2010, Sydney, Australia), created a scandal in Australia with her first novel, The Harp in the South (1948), in which she exposed the lives of impoverished families struggling to survive in the slums of Sydney, but she went on to be heralded as one of Australia’s most popular writers. During her 65-year career, Park penned nine novels and dozens of books for children and young adults, as well as newspaper articles, radio scripts, two autobiographies, and a guide to Sydney. She immigrated in 1942 to Australia, where she met and married a fellow journalist, D’Arcy Niland. Park’s other novels include the Harp sequel, Poor Man’s Orange (1949); The Witch’s Thorn (1951); and Swords and Crowns and Rings (1977), which won the Miles Franklin Award. Her best-known books written for children include the Muddle-Headed Wombat series (1962–82), Playing Beatie Bow Actor

heroic Crockett triggered a craze among American children, a hit record of the theme song (“The Ballad of Davy Crockett”), and soaring sales of coonskin caps and replicas of Crockett’s legendary long rifle. After a brief change of pace as an idealist politician in the TV series Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1962–63), Parker returned to the frontier in Daniel Boone (1964–70), several episodes of which he produced and directed. His movie appearances included supporting roles in such films as the western Thunder over the Plains (1953), the science-fiction cult hit Them! (1954), the war films Battle Cry (1955) and Hell Is for Heroes (1962), and the poignant family drama Old Yeller (1957). Parker retired from acting in the early 1970s and became a successful California real-estate developer. Parker, Robert Brown, American author (b. Sept. 17, 1932, Springfield, Mass.—d. Jan. 18, 2010, Cambridge, Mass.), created two well-known detective series—one featuring Spenser, a hard-boiled, wise-cracking Bostonbased private eye (his first name is not revealed) who also exhibits a sensitive side as he solves crimes and ruminates on human nature, and the other featuring Jesse Stone, a divorced alcoholic who serves as the chief of police in a Massachusetts town. Parker’s first book, The Godwulf Manuscript (1973), readers’ introduction to Spenser, was followed by God Save the Child (1974) and more than 30 other works in the Fess Parker as Daniel Boone

(1980; filmed 1986), and Callie’s Castle (1974). Park was made a Member of the Order of Australia in 1987, and in 2006 The Bulletin magazine included her on its list of the 100 most influential Australians. Parker, Fess (FESS ELISHA PARKER, JR.), American actor (b. Aug. 16, 1924, Fort Worth, Texas—d. March 18, 2010, Santa Ynez Valley, California), brought a folksy charm and imposing 1.98-m (6-ft 6-in) physique to the television roles of the iconic American frontiersmen Davy Crockett and Daniel Boone. Although he played the former character in only a few episodes during 1954–56 as part of the Walt Disney series Disneyland, Parker’s earnest portrayal of the

series. Night Passage (1997) introduced the Jesse Stone series, and Family Honor (1999) was the first in the Sunny Randall detective series, which featured a female protagonist. Parker and his wife also collaborated on a number of television scripts, notably some for the Spenser for Hire TV series. Parker was the recipient in 2002 of the Grand Master Award from the Mystery Writers of America. Patz, Arnall, American ophthalmologist (b. June 14, 1920, Elberton, Ga.— d. March 11, 2010, Pikesville, Md.), discovered the leading cause of blindness in premature infants in the 1950s and later helped develop one of the first argon laser treatments for diabetic retinopathy and other eye conditions characterized by overgrowth and leaking of blood vessels in the retina. Patz was a corecipient with Kinsey of the Albert Lasker Clinical Medical Research Award in 1956 and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2004. Pekar, Harvey Lawrence, American comic book writer (b. Oct. 8, 1939, Cleveland, Ohio—d. July 12, 2010, Cleveland Heights, Ohio), chronicled the minutiae of his life in Cleveland— the tedium of his job as a file clerk (1965–2001) for a veterans hospital, his relationship woes, and his health issues in the long-running autobiographical series American Splendor. The series’ elevation of the mundane to art drew comparisons to the works of Anton Chekhov and Henry Miller, and its critical success served to enhance the literary credibility of the graphic novel as a medium. As one of the last white children in a racially changing neighborhood in Cleveland, he was frequently subjected to harassment and physical abuse by his peers, which Pekar believed contributed to his lifelong inferiority complex. While working as a file clerk, Pekar maintained an interest in writing, particularly about jazz, and he was a regular contributor to magazines in the U.S. and England. In 1962 a shared interest in jazz led to a friendship with the artist R. Crumb, who encouraged Pekar to explore comics as a storytelling medium. Over the next decade, Pekar, whose artistic skills were somewhat limited, sketched a series of stories. Crumb illustrated one for an is-

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lothario image, most notably with his trademark “ladies only” concerts. He scored hits with the singles “I Don’t Love You Anymore” and “Love T.K.O.” After an automobile accident in 1982 left him paralyzed from the waist down, his recording future appeared to be in doubt. Following a year of rehabilitation, he recorded a new album that ultimately went gold. He returned to the stage in 1985. He retired from recording in 2006.

Confessional comic book writer Harvey Pekar sue of his The People’s Comics magazine in 1972, and soon other artists were recruited to draw Pekar’s tales “from off the streets of Cleveland.” The first volume of American Splendor was published in 1976, and it gained a robust following in the alternative comics scene. Pekar achieved minor celebrity as a guest on television talk shows and later with the film adaptation of American Splendor (2003), which included documentary footage of Pekar himself. Pendergrass, Teddy (THEODORE DEREESE PENDERGRASS), American singer (b. March 26, 1950, Kingstree, S.C.—d. Jan. 13, 2010, Bryn Mawr, Pa.), embodied the smooth Philly soul sound of the 1970s as lead rhythm-and-blues vocalist for Harold Melvin and the Blue Notes before embarking on a successful solo career. Pendergrass began as a gospel singer in Philadelphia churches, taught himself to play drums, and in 1969 joined the Blue Notes. In 1971 the group signed with producers Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff at Philadelphia International Records, and a string of hits followed. The group’s 1972 eponymous debut album for Philadelphia International produced the singles “I Miss You” and Grammy-nominated “If You Don’t Know Me by Now,” and Pendergrass joined the ranks of R&B’s elite male vocalists as he brought an unbridled masculinity to his stage presence. Embarking on a solo career in 1976, Pendergrass capitalized on his baritone 150

Penn, Arthur Hiller, American motion-picture and theatre director (b. Sept. 27, 1922, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. Sept. 28, 2010, New York, N.Y.), depicted the darker undercurrents of American society and the role of the outsider, especially in such films as Mickey One (1965), The Chase (1966), and Bonnie and Clyde (1967), which used graphic violence as a mode of social criticism, made an indelible mark on the evolution of the film industry, and earned him an Academy Award nomination for best director. His Broadway productions included Two for the Seesaw (1958); The Miracle Worker (1959), a successful adaptation of a play that he had originally directed for television; Toys in the Attic (1960); All the Way Home (1960); and An Evening with Mike Nichols and Elaine May (1960–61). In 1962 Penn directed the screen version of The Miracle Worker, a commercial and artistic success that brought him the first of his three Oscar nominations. Other credits include his final Oscar-nominated film, Alice’s Restaurant (1969), and the revisionist western Little Big Man (1970). In the 1990s Penn directed only sporadically. He then returned to the theatre, directing the Broadway plays Fortune’s Fool (2002) and Sly Fox (2004). Pérez Rodríguez, Carlos Andrés, Venezuelan politician (b. Oct. 27, 1922, Rubio, Venez.—d. Dec. 25, 2010, Miami, Fla.), served one term (1974–79) as president of Venezuela during a period marked by great oil wealth and an expanding profile for the country, but his second term of office (1989–93) was marked by violence and disgrace. Pérez was a member of Rómulo Betancourt’s Democratic Action party and held several posts during Betancourt’s presidencies. With Betancourt’s support, Pérez easily won the 1973 presidential election. Venezuela was then awash in revenue from skyrocketing oil prices, and Pérez nationalized the oil industry (1976) and undertook a number of

large development projects. As a former president he was barred by law from seeking reelection until the 1988 ballot, which he won with 54.6% of the vote. At that time the country’s economy was in much worse shape, however, and he quickly put in place free-market reforms and an austerity program in order to secure an IMF loan. This led to rioting, and in February 1989 security forces killed hundreds of people while trying to quell the protests. Pérez survived two coup attempts in 1992. The next year Pérez was suspended from office by the Supreme Court; he was later charged with corruption and spent two years under house arrest (1994–96) before leaving the country in 1999. Pettigrew, Antonio, American athlete (b. Nov. 3, 1967, Macon, Ga.—found dead Aug. 10, 2010, Chatham county, N.C.), was a top 400-m runner for the U.S. in the 1990s, but he shocked sports fans when in 2008 he admitted to having used performance-enhancing drugs. Pettigrew first came to prominence while running for St. Augustine’s College, Raleigh, N.C. (B.A., 1993), and at the 1991 world championships, where he took the 400-m gold medal. In July 1998 he helped set a world record (2 min 54.2 sec) in the 4 × 400m relay. His relay teams won at the 1997, 1999, and 2001 world championships and captured the gold at the 2000 Sydney Olympics. When Pettigrew testified under subpoena in the trial of coach Trevor Graham, however, he admitted to having taken human growth hormone and other drugs, although he had never tested positive for such drugs. He and his relay teammates were subsequently stripped of all medals earned and records set during 1997–2003. Polke, Sigmar, German artist (b. Feb. 13, 1941, Öls, Ger. [now Olesnica, Pol.]—d. June 10, 2010, Cologne, Ger.), rendered complex, layered paintings that played an important role in the resurgence of modern German art. In the 1980s he and other German artists—including Jörg Immendorff, Anselm Kiefer, A.R. Penck, and Gerhard Richter—were part of a movement known as Neo-Expressionism. Polke emigrated with his family from East Germany to West Germany in 1953 and settled in Düsseldorf, where he studied (1961–67) at the Staatliche Kunstakademie. Polke later taught (1977–91) at the Hochschule für Bildende Künste in Hamburg. Polke’s

Obituaries Fredrik Von Erichsen—dpa/Landov

German artist Sigmar Polke with an untitled work early paintings of the 1960s, done in a style known as Capitalist Realism, both mimicked and challenged American Pop art, using recognizable imagery often derived from photography and advertising to invite a more critical social and economic analysis of American capitalism and its ramifications. His use of paint to replicate the halftone process of newspaper photographic reproduction gave some of his paintings a deliberately blurred and dreary quality. He began to layer images one atop another, and his interest in pattern led him to use commercially prepared decorative fabrics in the construction of his mixed-media canvases. While Polke’s interests, including photography and experimentation with diverse painting materials, led him to eschew a signature style, many of his works— such as Raised Chair with Geese (1987–88), with its interwoven pictorial references—offer strange and compelling juxtapositions that are both allusive and ambiguous. Porter, Peter Neville Frederick, Australian-born British poet (b. Feb. 16, 1929, Brisbane, Australia—d. April 23, 2010, London, Eng.), crafted verse characterized by a formal style and rueful, epigrammatic wit. Porter was educated in Australia and worked as a journalist before settling in 1951 in London, where he worked as a clerk, a bookshop assistant, an advertising copywriter, and a critic. His first volumes of poetry, beginning with Once Bitten, Twice Bitten (1961), reflect a satiric approach to modern society and to his own experiences. His other works include Poems Ancient & Modern

(1964), The Last of England (1970), Preaching to the Converted (1972), The Cost of Seriousness (1978), The Automatic Oracle (1987), Millennial Fables (1994), Max Is Missing (2001), Afterburner (2004), and Better than God (2009). Porter received many honours, notably the Duff Cooper Prize (1983), the Whitbread (now Costa) Poetry Award (1988), the Gold Medal for Australian Literature (1990), and the Queen’s Gold Medal (2002), and in 2007 he was made a Companion of the Royal Society of Literature. Probert, Bob, Canadian ice hockey player (b. June 5, 1965, Windsor, Ont.—d. July 5, 2010, Windsor), was a powerful and imposing 1.9-m (6-ft 3in)-tall left winger who, while playing in the National Hockey League, gained a reputation for his punishing brawls while skating for the Detroit Red Wings (1985–94) and the Chicago Blackhawks (1995–2002), but his career was marred by bouts of drug and alcohol abuse. During his tenure with the Red Wings, Probert and fellow winger Joe Kocur earned the moniker “the Bruise Brothers” for the manner in which they forcefully patrolled the ice. Probert often skated on the same line as future Hall of Fame centre Steve Yzerman. Besides his aggressiveness (he accrued 3,300 penalty minutes in 935 games), Probert was credited with 163 goals and 221 assists. After retiring in 2002 as a player, he enjoyed a brief stint as a Blackhawks radio analyst, but he suffered a substanceabuse relapse and entered a treatment program in 2003. His death was attributed to a heart attack.

Quaife, Pete (P ETER ALEXANDER GREENLAW QUAIFE), British musician (b. Dec. 31, 1943, Tavistock, Devonshire, Eng.—d. June 23, 2010, Herlev, Den.), was a founding member of the British Invasion rock band the Kinks and played bass guitar during their 1960s rise to fame. Quaife attended school with brothers Ray and Dave Davies, and in 1961 the three formed a band; by 1964 they had solidified as the Kinks with drummer Mick Avory. Their first hit song, “You Really Got Me” (1964), reached number one on the charts in Britain and number seven in the U.S. During Quaife’s time with the Kinks, the band had 11 more Top 10 songs in Britain, among them “All Day and All of the Night” (1964), “A Well Respected Man” (1965), “Tired of Waiting for You” (1965), “Dedicated Follower of Fashion” (1966), “Sunny Afternoon” (1966), and “Waterloo Sunset” (1967). He quit in 1969, complaining of constant fighting and little artistic control, and then briefly played with the band Mapleoak. Quaife was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame with the Kinks in 1990. Redgrave, Corin William, British actor (b. July 16, 1939, London, Eng.— d. April 6, 2010, London), was a veteran character actor and ardent left-wing political activist. To many people, however, he was best known as the “prince” of the renowned Redgrave family acting dynasty—he was the son of Sir Michael Redgrave and Rachel Kempson, the grandson of silent-film actor Roy Redgrave, and the brother of actresses Vanessa Redgrave and Lynn Redgrave (q.v). Corin Redgrave began acting at a young age and continued while attending King’s College, Cambridge. After graduating with a first in classics, he made his professional theatrical debut in 1962 in Tony Richardson’s Royal Court Theatre production of Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream. Perhaps his best role was as the brutal prison warden, Boss Whalen, in Tennessee Williams’s Not About Nightingales (1998), which earned Redgrave a Laurence Olivier Award and, after the play moved to Broadway in 1999, a Tony nomination for best actor. He also excelled in Chips with Everything (1962), with which he made his Broadway debut in 1963; Noël Coward’s A Song at Twilight (1999); Harold Pinter’s No Man’s Land (2001); Shakespeare’s King Lear for the Royal Shakespeare Company (2004); and Tynan (2004), a one-man show about the 151

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influential theatre critic Kenneth Tynan. Redgrave’s films include A Man for All Seasons (1966), Excalibur (1981), In the Name of the Father (1993), and Four Weddings and a Funeral (1994). Redgrave, along with his sister Vanessa, was for many years an active member of the Trotskyist Workers’ Revolutionary Party. Redgrave, Lynn Rachel, British-born actress (b. March 8, 1943, London, Eng.—d. May 2, 2010, Kent, Conn.), was a member of the renowned Redgrave family acting dynasty; she was CBS/Landov

Actress Lynn Redgrave

the younger sister of Vanessa Redgrave and Corin Redgrave (q.v.), the daughter of Sir Michael Redgrave and Rachel Kempson, and the granddaughter of silent-film actor Roy Redgrave. Lynn Redgrave made her professional debut as Helena in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream in 1962. Her screen debut came in Tom Jones in 1963, the same year she was chosen as a founding member of the National Theatre (later the Royal National Theatre) under Sir Laurence Olivier. Redgrave gained international recognition—as well as a New York Film Critics Circle Award and the first of her two Academy Award nominations—for her star turn in the romantic comedy Georgy Girl (1966). Her later films include The Happy Hooker (1975); Shine (1996); Gods and Monsters (1998), for which 152

she earned her second Oscar nomination; The White Countess (2005); and the animated My Dog Tulip (2009). Redgrave performed often onstage in Britain and in the U.S., where she made her Broadway debut in 1967 in Peter Shaffer’s Black Comedy. Among other notable stage roles were Vicky in Charles Lawrence’s My Fat Friend (1974) and Masha in an acclaimed 1990 production of Chekhov’s Three Sisters opposite her own sister, Vanessa, and her niece Jemma Redgrave. In 1993 she was nominated for a Tony Award for Shakespeare for My Father, a one-woman show she wrote and performed often over the years; she also received Tony nominations for George Bernard Shaw’s Mrs. Warren’s Profession (1976) and W. Somerset Maugham’s The Constant Wife (2006). Redgrave wrote two other solo plays, Nightingale (in which she imagined the life of her maternal grandmother) and Rachel and Juliet (a tribute to her actress mother). After settling in the U.S., she starred in several television series, notably House Calls (1979–81) and Rude Awakening (1998–2001); she eventually became a U.S. citizen. Redgrave was made OBE in 2002, the same year she was first diagnosed with breast cancer. Roberts, H(enry) Edward (ED), American computer pioneer and physician (b. Sept. 13, 1941, Miami, Fla.—d. April 1, 2010, Macon, Ga.), helped usher in the personal computer (PC) by inventing the Altair 8800, which debuted in the mid-1970s after Bill Gates, then a college student, and Paul Allen (the founders of software company Microsoft) converted BASIC, a popular mainframe computer programming language, for use on the Altair PC. Two years after Roberts’s general-purpose microcomputer appeared on the January 1975 cover of Popular Electronics magazine, he sold his company, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems, for more than $6 million. Roberts, Pernell Elvin, Jr., American actor (b. May 18, 1928, Waycross, Ga.— d. Jan. 24, 2010, Malibu, Calif.), was best remembered for his television portrayals of two characters: the brainy and debonair Adam Cartwright (the eldest of three grown sons) on the longrunning western Bonanza (1959–73; he appeared until 1965) and the eponymous compassionate chief of surgery at a San Francisco hospital on Trapper John, M.D. (1979–86).

Roberts, Robin Evan, American baseball player (b. Sept. 30, 1926, near Springfield, Ill.—d. May 6, 2010, Temple Terrace, Fla.), was a phenomenal right-handed pitcher (1948–61) for the major league Philadelphia Phillies; as one of the famed “Whiz Kids,” he led the team to the 1950 National League pennant, the franchise’s first in 35 years. With his rising fastball, the intense Roberts compiled an amazing record, leading the league in victories (1952–55), innings pitched (1951–55), and complete games (1952–56). He also won at least 20 games every season from 1950 to 1955. Though he was sold in 1961 to the New York Yankees, Roberts did not appear in a single game with that team before his release the following year. He then pitched for the Baltimore Orioles (1962–65), the Houston Astros (1965–66), and the Chicago Cubs (1966), with whom he ended his major league career. His career winloss record was 286–245, and his earned run average was 3.41. Roberts was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1976. Rodgers, Carolyn Marie, American poet and publisher (b. Dec. 14, 1940, Chicago, Ill.—d. April 2, 2010, Chicago), was known for a body of work that deepened and extended beyond the Black Arts movement in which she found her voice. While working as a social worker in Chicago, Rodgers participated in writing workshops that introduced her to the burgeoning Black Arts movement, and in 1967 she cofounded Third World Press, an outlet for African American literary works. The following year she released her first volume of poetry, Paper Soul; the work was noted for its frequent use of black vernacular and even obscenities as part of a vivid illustration of black female identity during a time of revolutionary social upheaval. Rodgers later received a National Book Award nomination for how i got ovah: New and Selected Poems (1975), in which she offered mature reflections on love, family, and religion. Other notable collections include Songs of a Black Bird (1969) and The Heart as Ever Green: Poems (1978). Rohmer, Eric (JEAN-MARIE MAURICE SCHÉRER), French motion-picture director and writer (b. April 4, 1920, Tulle, France—d. Jan. 11, 2010, Paris, France), was admired for his sensitively observed studies of romantic passion and longing. Rohmer was perhaps best

Obituaries

known for his six contes moraux, or moral tales, notably the last three in the series: Ma Nuit chez Maud (1968; My Night at Maud’s), which earned an Academy Award nomination for best foreign-language film and one for Rohmer for best original screenplay, Le Genou de Claire (1970; Claire’s Knee), and L’Amour l’après-midi (1972; Chloe in the Afternoon). The six scripts were later published as Six Moral Tales (1977). Rohmer earned an advanced degree in history and taught school for a short time before beginning his writing career in the mid-1940s. After making a series of short films, Rohmer directed his first full-length feature, Le Signe du lion (1959). The contes moraux began with the unsuccessful short films La Boulangère de Monceau (1962) and La Carrière de Suzanne (1963), but the third in the series, the feature-length film La Collectionneuse (1966), achieved some critical esteem. Rohmer’s later films include Die Marquise von O (1976; The Marquise of O), which won the Special Jury Prize at the Cannes Festival, and two more multifilm series known as Comédies et proverbes and Contes des quatre saisons. His last film was Les Amours d’Astrée et de Céladon (2007; Romance of Astrea and Celadon). Rosen, Moishe (MARTIN MEYER ROSEN), American religious leader (b. April 12, 1932, Kansas City, Mo.—d. May 19, 2010, San Francisco, Calif.), founded (1973) the evangelical Christian organization Jews for Jesus, which he led until his retirement as executive director in 1996. Rosen was born to Jewish immigrants from eastern Europe who attended an Orthodox synagogue, but in 1953, shortly after his marriage to a Jewish woman, he followed his wife in converting to Christianity. He then graduated from Northeastern Bible College, Essex Fells, N.J., and was ordained (1957) a Baptist minister, after which he served with the American Board of Missions to the Jews. After founding Jews for Jesus in San Francisco, he employed the theatrical and pamphleteering tactics of groups protesting the Vietnam War in a controversial open ministry toward Jews. Rosen claimed that Jewishness and Christian faith were complementary, and he and his followers observed many Jewish customs. Salinger, J.D. (JEROME DAVID SALINAmerican writer (b. Jan. 1, 1919, New York, N.Y.—d. Jan. 27, 2010, CorGER),

nish, N.H.), won critical acclaim and devoted admirers for his novel The Catcher in the Rye (1951), which uses humour and colourful language to portray the sensitive, rebellious adolescent Holden Caulfield, who views his life with an added dimension of precocious self-consciousness. The 16-year-old Caulfield relates in authentic teenage idiom his flight from the “phony” adult world, his search for innocence and truth, and his collapse on a psychiatrist’s couch. At the time of his death, Salinger’s entire corpus of published works consisted of that one novel and a number of short stories, only 13 of which were issued in collected book form during his lifetime. Salinger, like the protagonist of The Catcher in the Rye, grew up in New York City, attending public and private schools and a military academy. His stories began to appear in periodicals in 1940. After his return from service (1942–46) in the U.S. Army, Salinger’s name and writing style became increasingly associated with The New Yorker magazine, which published almost all of his later stories. His wartime experiences were featured in “For Esmé—with Love and Squalor” (1950), which describes a U.S. soldier’s poignant encounter with two British children, and “A Perfect Day for Bananafish” (1948), which concerns the suicide of the sensitive, despairing veteran Seymour Glass. Nine Stories (1953), a selection of Salinger’s best work, added to his reputation. Franny and Zooey (1961) brought together two earlier New Yorker stories; both deal with the fictional Glass family, as do the two stories in Raise High the Roof Beam, Carpenters and Seymour: An Introduction (1963). After “Hapworth 26, 1924” (1965), his last story and final Glass family installment, was published, Salinger became a semirecluse. Samaranch, Juan Antonio, marqués de Samaranch, Spanish businessman and public official (b. July 17, 1920, Barcelona, Spain—d. April 21, 2010, Barcelona), served (1980–2001) as the seventh president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Although he was sometimes criticized for being autocratic and arrogant, Samaranch had numerous accomplishments, including the development of brand-licensing schemes to enhance the IOC’s revenue sources, the addition of professional athletes to some Olympic sports, the implementation of a compromise that permitted both China and Taiwan to enter teams, and the opening (1993) of

the Olympic Museum in Lausanne, Switz. After allegations surfaced in 1998 of widespread corruption among IOC members, he succeeded in passing a 50-point reform package that addressed the conduct of the bidding process and attempted to eliminate gifts to IOC members. Samaranch joined the Spanish Olympic Committee in 1954, the same year that he was elected to the Barcelona city council. In 1973 he became president of the Catalan regional council, and he served as Spain’s ambassador to the Soviet Union in 1977–80. He was elected to the IOC in 1966 and held several posts before being elected president in 1980. In 1992 King Juan Carlos made him marqués de Samaranch. Samaranch was replaced as IOC president by Belgian Jacques Rogge in 2001 but was elected honorary president for life. Sánchez Junco, Eduardo, Spanish magazine publisher (b. April 26, 1943, Palencia, Spain—d. July 14, 2010, Madrid, Spain), spawned a new style of British celebrity magazine with the launch in 1988 of Hello!, which offered a sugar-coated, scandal-free view into the lives of stars, royals, and other luminaries. After studying agronomy at the Complutense University of Madrid, Sánchez Junco began working for his parents’ celebrity magazine ¡Hola!, whose positive coverage of the opulent lives of Spanish aristocrats was in keeping with Spanish dictator Francisco Franco’s agenda and proved to be a hit with the public. Sánchez Junco took over the publication in 1984 following his father’s death, and four years later he founded Hello!, using the same style to cover British celebrities, particularly Diana, princess of Wales. The magazine’s reverent approach, flattering photographs, and large paychecks earned interviews with many stars, and by 1992 weekly circulation had reached 1.3 million copies. In later years other publications, notably OK!, mirrored Sánchez Junco’s model, but his publications reached worldwide circulation of more than 10 million copies a week, appearing in 14 countries and spanning 10 languages. Sandage, Allan Rex, American astronomer (b. June 18, 1926, Iowa City, Iowa—d. Nov. 13, 2010, San Gabriel, Calif.), led an extensive effort to determine Hubble’s constant, the rate at which the universe is expanding. He also discovered the first quasi-stellar radio source (quasar), a starlike object 153

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that is a strong emitter of radio waves. Sandage received a bachelor’s degree (1948) in physics from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and a doctorate (1953) in astronomy from Caltech. While in graduate school he was the observing assistant (1949–53) for American astronomer Edwin Hubble until the latter’s death. Sandage also became a member of the staff of the Hale Observatories (now the Observatories of the Carnegie Institute of Washington) in California and carried out most of his investigations there. Pursuing the theoretical work of several astronomers on the evolution of stars, Sandage, with Harold L. Johnson, demonstrated in the early 1950s that the observed characteristics of the light and colour of the brightest stars in various globular clusters indicate that the clusters can be arranged in order according to their age. Beginning in 1956, the main focus of Sandage’s research was on the determination of Hubble’s constant. Sandage was the recipient of numerous honours, including the Crafoord Prize of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1991). Sanguineti, Edoardo, Italian poet and playwright (b. Dec. 9, 1930, Genoa, Italy—d. May 18, 2010, Genoa), was a Italian poet and playwright Edoardo Sanguineti

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self-proclaimed Marxist intellectual and founding member (1963) of the avant-garde Gruppo 63, Italian intellectuals who sought a radical break with conformity and looked to the deconstruction of literary language. Sanguineti wrote two experimental novels, Capriccio italiano (1963) and Il giuoco dell’oca (1967), and published numerous volumes of poetry, beginning with Laborintus (1956), distinguished by the musicality, playfulness, and chaotic feel of his verse. He also wrote several plays and screenplays; translated authors such as Shakespeare, Bertolt Brecht, and James Joyce; developed opera librettos incorporating quotes from Marx, the Bible, and Dante; and produced critical essays, many of which explore the political responsibilities of intellectuals. Saramago, José, Portuguese novelist and man of letters (b. Nov. 16, 1922, Azinhaga, Port.—d. June 18, 2010, Lanzarote, Canary Islands, Spain), was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1998 for his “parables sustained by imagination, compassion, and irony.” In many of his novels Saramago sets these whimsical parables against realistic historical backgrounds in order to comment ironically on human foibles. The son of rural labourers, Saramago grew up in great poverty in Lisbon. After holding a series of jobs as a mechanic and metalworker, he began working in a Lisbon publishing firm and eventually became a journalist and translator. He joined the Portuguese Communist Party in 1969, published several volumes of poems, and served as editor (1974–75) of a Lisbon newspaper during the cultural thaw that followed the overthrow of the dictatorship of António Salazar. An anticommunist backlash followed in which Saramago lost his position, and in his 50s he began writing novels, beginning with Manual de pintura e caligrafia (1976; Manual of Painting and Calligraphy, 1994). In Memorial do convento (1982; Baltasar and Blimunda, 1998), Saramago alternates allegorical fantasy with grimly realistic descriptions of 18th-century Portugal during the Inquisition, while A jangada de pedra (1986; The Stone Raft, 1994; filmed 2002) explores the situation that ensues when the Iberian Peninsula breaks off from Europe and becomes an island. Other works include the companion novels Ensaio sobre a cegueira (1995; Blindness, 1997; filmed 2008) and Ensaio sobre a lucidez (2004; Seeing, 2006).

Schorr, Daniel Louis, American journalist (b. Aug. 31, 1916, New York, N.Y.—d. July 23, 2010, Washington, D.C.), was an uncompromising and sometimes combative newsman who had an illustrious career (1946–2010) as a foreign correspondent, a CBS television news reporter rewarded with three Emmy Awards (1972, 1973, and 1974) for his coverage of the Watergate Scandal, a pioneering broadcast journalist for the cable news network CNN, and a senior news analyst for National Public Radio (NPR). His dogged efforts often antagonized political leaders, and in the early 1970s he found himself on U.S. Pres. Richard M. Nixon’s infamous “enemies list.” Following service in World War II, he launched his career in Europe as a foreign correspondent reporting on postwar reconstruction for The Christian Science Monitor and the New York Times. He joined (1953) CBS as one of “Murrow’s boys,” the crack news team assembled by esteemed journalist Edward R. Murrow. In 1955 Schorr reopened CBS’s shuttered Moscow bureau (closed by Stalin in 1947), and in 1957 he secured an exclusive broadcast interview with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Later that year, however, the KGB expelled Schorr from the U.S.S.R. for defying Soviet censors. As CBS bureau chief in Germany and Western Europe, he covered the building of the Berlin Wall and aired a compelling story about East German citizens living under communist rule. He was reassigned in 1966 to Washington, D.C., where he investigated major stories, including the preparation of a secret report that alleged that the CIA and the FBI had been involved in questionable activities. Schorr leaked a copy of the report to the Village Voice newspaper and narrowly escaped being cited for contempt of Congress when he refused to identify his source. After serving (1980–85) as the senior Washington correspondent at CNN, he finished his career with NPR (1985–2010). Schorr’s honours included induction (1991) into the Hall of Fame of the Society of Professional Journalists, the 1992 George Foster Peabody Award for lifetime achievement, and the 1996 Alfred I. duPont Columbia University Golden Baton for lifetime work. Segal, Erich Wolf, American educator, author, and screenwriter (b. June 16, 1937, Brooklyn, N.Y.—d. Jan. 17, 2010, London, Eng.), was serving as a pro-

Obituaries

fessor of classics and comparative lit- the romantic spirit. He was best known erature (1968–72) at Yale University for his plays Tak pobedim! (1982; That’s when he published the best-selling How We’ll Win!), for which he won the novel Love Story (1970), a sentimental State Prize of the U.S.S.R. in 1983, Diktearjerker about the courtship of Har- tatura sovesti (1986; Dictatorship of vard students who marry despite the Conscience), and Dalshe . . . dalshe . . . strident objections of the groom’s dalshe! (1988; Onward . . . Onward . . . wealthy family to the bride’s working- Onward!), which openly connects class background. Segal also wrote the Stalin to the death of Communist Party screenplay for the blockbuster film, leader Sergey Kirov. Though Shatrov’s starring Ryan O’Neal and Ali McGraw, plays were performed successfully in which grossed nearly $200 million and the late Soviet era, it was not until reportedly saved the struggling Para- Mikhail Gorbachev’s glasnost era that mount Pictures. Despite the popular Shatrov’s plays were staged to their success of his works, critical praise was greatest potential. often elusive. Other novels include Oliver’s Story (1977), Man, © RIA/Novosti—Lebrecht Music & Arts Photo Library Woman, and Child (1980), The Class (1985), and Only Love (1997). Scholarly works edited by Segal include Euripides: A Collection of Critical Essays (1968) and Oxford Readings in Menander, Plautus, and Terence (2001). Semyonova, Marina Timofeyevna, Russian ballerina and teacher (b. May 30 [June 12, New Style], 1908, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. June 9, 2010, Moscow, Russia), was credited with having renewed classical ballet in the Soviet Union through her radical reinterpretations and expressionism just when Stalinist modernism was threatening the tradition’s survival. She shocked and inspired audiences with her new, emboldened Odette-Odile in Swan Lake, majestic Nikia in La Bayadère, and down-to-earth title character in Giselle. After having trained in Agrippina Vaganova’s method at the Petrograd State Ballet School and in the Mariinsky Ballet, Semyonova Ballerina Marina Semyonova rose quickly to prima ballerina at the Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow, where she danced for more than Sheppard, Bob (ROBERT LEO SHEP20 years. She retired from the stage in PARD), American sports announcer (b. 1952 but stayed on at the Bolshoi to Oct. 20, 1910, Queens, N.Y.—d. July 11, teach. In 1975 Semyonova was 2010, Baldwin, N.Y.), earned the nickawarded the title of People’s Artist of name “the voice of God” for his unmistakably sonorous, precise, and digthe U.S.S.R. nified speech as the longtime public Shatrov, Mikhail (MIKHAIL FILIPP- address announcer at Major League OVICH MARSHAK), Soviet playwright (b. Baseball’s Yankee Stadium. Sheppard April 3, 1932, Moscow, Russia, began announcing for the New York U.S.S.R.—d. May 23, 2010, Moscow, Yankees on April 17, 1951, which also Russia), inaugurated an age of new marked player Mickey Mantle’s debut artistic freedom with his self-pro- with the team and the start of Joe claimed “dramas of fact.” Shatrov’s DiMaggio’s final season. In 2000 the works delicately integrate social, polit- Yankees honoured Sheppard with a ical, and human issues with a touch of plaque in their stadium’s Monument

Park. His last game was on Sept. 5, 2007, when he retired owing to illness. He also announced for football teams, including the All-America Football Conference’s Brooklyn Dodgers (1947) and New York Yankees (1948–51) and the National Football League’s New York Giants (1956–2005). Sibanda, Gibson Jama, Zimbabwean politician (b. 1944, Filabusi, Southern Rhodesia [now Zimbabwe]—d. Aug. 23/24, 2010, Bulawayo, Zimb.), challenged Pres. Robert Mugabe’s one-party rule as a powerful trade union leader and then as a cofounder (1999) and vice president (1999–2005) of the opposition party Movement for Democratic Change (MDC). In the 1970s Sibanda was an active member of Joshua Nkomo’s Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU); as such, he was detained without trial by the white Rhodesian government in 1976–79, a period during which he was ZAPU’s welfare secretary. Sibanda’s greatest influence, however, was as a trade union leader. He served as president of the Railway Association of Enginemen (1982–84) and of the Zimbabwe Amalgamated Railwaymen’s Union (1987–89), as well as vice president (1988) and president (1989–99) of the Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU), working with MDC founder Morgan Tsvangirai. Sibanda represented the MDC as an MP (2000–08) in Zimbabwe’s parliament. In 2005 intraparty disagreements resulted in an MDC party schism, and Sibanda became vice president of the faction led by Arthur Mutambara. After Zimbabwe’s power-sharing government formed in 2009, Mutambara became deputy prime minister, with Sibanda as his minister of state. Siepi, Cesare, Italian opera singer (b. Feb. 10, 1923, Milan, Italy—d. July 5, 2010, Atlanta, Ga.), won international acclaim with his warm, resonant bass voice and seductive stage presence, notably as the title character in Mozart’s Don Giovanni, which became his signature role. Siepi, who opposed Benito Mussolini’s Fascist regime, fled to Switzerland during World War II, but his career advanced quickly in postwar Italy, where he garnered notice at Milan’s La Scala opera house in Verdi’s 155

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Nabucco and Aida. He made his debut at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City in 1950 as King Philip II in Verdi’s Don Carlos, and over the next quarter century he sang more than 300 performances in some 17 roles at the Met. Sillitoe, Alan, British writer (b. March 4, 1928, Nottingham, Eng.—d. April 25, 2010, London, Eng.), was one of the socalled Angry Young Men, whose brash and acrimonious accounts of workingclass life injected new vigour into postWorld War II British fiction. The son of a labourer, Sillitoe worked in factories from the age of 14. In 1946 he joined the air force, and for two years he served as a radio operator in Malaya. After his return to England, X-rays revealed that he had contracted tuberculosis, and he spent several months in a hospital. Between 1952 and 1958 he lived in France and Spain. In Majorca he met the poet Robert Graves, who suggested that he write about Nottingham, and Sillitoe began work on his first published novel, Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1958; filmed 1960). It was an immediate success, telling the story of a rude and amoral young labourer for whom drink and sex on Saturday night provide the only relief from the oppression of the working life. From his short-story collection The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Runner (1959), Sillitoe helped adapt the title story into a film (1962). Later novels include The Death of William Posters (1965), The Widower’s Son (1976), and Birthday (2001), a much-anticipated sequel to Saturday Night and Sunday Morning.

Thomas’s Mignon drew international attention. Simionato was also closely associated with the Lyric Theatre of Chicago (later the Lyric Opera of Chicago), where she debuted in November 1954, singing Adalgisa opposite Maria Callas’s title role in Bellini’s Norma, the Lyric’s inaugural opera. Simionato retired in 1966. Simmons, Jean Merilyn, British-born American actress (b. Jan. 31, 1929, London, Eng.—d. Jan. 22, 2010, Santa Monica, Calif.), was known for her cool elegance, especially opposite strong leading men, in such films as The Robe (1953), Guys and Dolls (1955), Elmer Gantry (1960), and Spartacus (1960). At age 14, soon after she entered the Aida Foster dancing school, Simmons was chosen by director Val Guest for a role in what would be her screen debut, Give Us the Moon (1943). Over the next several years she had roles in more than a dozen British films, notably as Estella in Great Expectations (1946), as a native girl among nuns in Black Narcissus (1947), and as Ophelia in Laurence Olivier’s production of Hamlet (1948), for which she received an Academy Award nomination for best supporting actress. In 1950, the same year she married actor Stewart Granger, Simmons moved to Hollywood; six years later she became a U.S. citizen. After her divorce (1960) from Granger, she married the director and writer Richard

Elegant actress Jean Simmons

Slabbert, Frederik van Zyl, South African politician and academic (b. March 2, 1940, Pretoria, S.Af.—d. May 14, 2010, Johannesburg, S.Af.), was a leading Afrikaner in the white opposition to South African apartheid and an MP for the antiapartheid Progressive Party (later renamed the Progressive Federal Party [PFP]) for 12 years (1974–86), the last 7 of which he was leader of the parliamentary opposition. In 1974 he was elected to Parliament, where he was one of several newly elected progressives to join Helen Suzman in the fight against racial discrimination. Slabbert unexpectedly resigned from Parliament (and leadership of the PFP) in February 1986, having decided that it had become irrelevant. That July he cofounded the Institute for a Democratic Alternative in South Africa, which formed alliances with the African National Congress and other black organizations. Smith, Carl M., American country music singer (b. March 15, 1927, Maynardville, Tenn.—d. Jan. 16, 2010, Franklin, Tenn.), was one of the most popular country music recording stars of the 1950s and ’60s as well as a regular fixture on television, which showcased his polished and handsome appearance, his refined ballad-style voice, and his infusion of upbeat rockand-roll music—a departure from the style of other country singers who embraced the honky-tonk sound. While in high school Smith began performing on WROL radio station in Knoxville, Tenn. After serving (1945–47) in the U.S. Navy, he returned to radio, appearing as a singer, guitarist, and bass player with the Brewster Brothers band at WROL, as well as at stations in Asheville, N.C., and Augusta, Ga. In 1950 he joined the Grand Ole Opry and signed a recording contract with Columbia Records. During the 1950s

Simionato, Giulietta, Italian mezzo soprano (b. May 12, 1910, Forlì, Italy— d. May 5, 2010, Rome, Italy), excelled at bel canto and lighter operas by Rossini and Mozart, which perfectly suited her wide vocal range and warm, expressive lyricism, though she later expanded her repertoire to include such dramatic roles as Amneris in Verdi’s Aida and the title character in Bizet’s Carmen. Simionato received a convent education and did not begin music lessons until she was in her late teens. She made her operatic debut in Montagnana in 1932 as Lola in Mascagni’s Cavalleria rusticana, and the next year she won a major bel canto competition in Florence. She signed a contract with Milan’s La Scala in 1936 but performed mainly small roles there and elsewhere throughout Europe until her triumphant 1947 appearance in Ambroise AP

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Brooks; the couple divorced in 1977. Simmons earned a second Oscar nomination, for best actress, for her powerful portrait of an alcoholic in The Happy Ending (1969), written and directed by Brooks. Her other films include The Actress (1953), The Big Country (1958), and All the Way Home (1963). In later years Simmons appeared often on television, notably in The Thorn Birds (1983), for which she won an Emmy Award for outstanding supporting actress in a limited series or special, and in a return to Great Expectations (1989).

Obituaries Abbie Rowe—EPA/Landov

he charted 30 Top 10 singles and 58 consecutive Top 40 hits on the Billboard country music chart. His string of number one hits includes “Are You Teasing Me” (1952), “Let Old Mother Nature Have Her Way” (1952), “Hey Joe!” (1953), and “Loose Talk” (1955). Smith was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 2003. Smith, Elinor (ELINOR REGINA PATRICIA WARD; ELINOR SMITH SULLIVAN), American aviator (b. Aug. 17, 1911, Long Island, N.Y.—d. March 19, 2010, Palo Alto, Calif.), set several flying records and captured the country’s imagination with stunt flying in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Smith created a sensation in October 1928 when, on a dare, she flew a Waco 10 biplane under all four East River suspension bridges in New York City. She set a women’s solo endurance record of nearly 13.5 hours in January 1929 and surpassed it in April of the same year with a flight of nearly 26.5 hours. In 1930 Smith shattered the women’s altitude record when she flew a six-seat Bellanca up to 8,357 m (27,419 ft). The following year she took the plane up to 9,929 m (32,576 ft), high enough to make the fuel line freeze and to cause her to lose consciousness when she accidentally cut off her oxygen. In 1930 the licensed pilots of the U.S. voted her Best Woman Pilot in America. Smith, Nico (NICOLAAS JACOBUS SMITH), South African minister and activist (b. April 11, 1929, Kroonstad, Orange Free State [now Free State], S.Af.—d. June 19, 2010, Pretoria, S.Af.), challenged apartheid as the first white man to be allowed to live (1985–89) in a black community, in defiance of the Group Areas Act, when he moved to the black township of Mamelodi. Smith grew up among elite Afrikaners and attended theological school at the University of Pretoria. In 1981 he broke with the dominant apartheid policies and resigned from his position teaching at the University of Stellenbosch, from the Dutch Reformed Church, and from the racist Afrikaner fellowship Broederbond. Smith began preaching in 1982 for the breakaway Dutch Reformed Church in Africa in Mamelodi, where he became an antiapartheid activist, inquiring into the deaths of other activists and organizing (1988) a racial reconciliation event in which some 170 whites stayed in Mamelodi and blacks spent a few days in white suburban homes. After

apartheid was dismantled, Smith helped to form a multiracial congregation in Pretoria. Smyslov, Vasily Vasilyevich, Russian chess master (b. March 24, 1921, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.—d. March 27, 2010, Moscow, Russia), won the world championship from fellow Soviet player Mikhail Botvinnik in 1957 and lost it to Botvinnik in a return match in 1958. Smyslov was taught chess by his father at the age of six, and in 1938 he won the Soviet youth championship. He achieved grandmaster status in 1941. He won the candidates qualification tournament in 1953 for the right to challenge Botvinnik, but a final 12–12 draw allowed Botvinnik to retain the world title until Smyslov returned to defeat him in 1957. After losing to Botvinnik in the rematch exactly one year later, Smyslov continued high-level play. He lost his last major event at age 63, falling in the final match of the 1984 candidates tournament to Garry Kasparov, who went on to take the world title. Sorensen, Ted (THEODORE CHAIKIN SORENSEN), American lawyer and presidential speechwriter (b. May 8, 1928, Lincoln, Neb.—d. Oct. 31, 2010, New York, N.Y.), had a profound role in the administration of U.S. Pres. John F. Kennedy (1961–63), serving as an influential inner-circle adviser, special counsel, and speechwriter who was credited with helping to draft some of Kennedy’s most inspiring and memorable addresses to the country. After Sorensen earned a B.S. (1949) and an LL.B. (1951) from the University of Nebraska, he worked as an assistant (1953–61) to Kennedy, who was serving as a Democratic senator from Massachusetts. It was during this time that Kennedy won the 1957 Pultizer Prize for the nonfiction work Profiles in Courage (1956). It later became an open secret that Sorensen had contributed substantially to the writing. Sorensen defined his proudest moment, however, as his role in defusing the Cuban missile crisis in 1962. He and the president’s brother Robert Kennedy, who was then U.S. attorney general, had carefully crafted a letter that was sent to Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, and the missive helped to avert a nuclear war between the U.S. and the Soviets, who had installed nuclear-armed missiles in Cuba. Sorensen and President Kennedy had forged a tight bond during the run-up to the

JFK speechwriter Ted Sorensen 1960 presidential election; they visited all 50 states together. While Sorensen polished his writing skills, Kennedy improved his oratorical skills, and Kennedy’s inaugural address, in which he urged Americans to “ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country,” was considered the modern benchmark for oratory. After President Kennedy’s assassination in November 1963, Sorensen briefly remained in Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson’s administration before returning to private life in 1964. He ran in 1970 for the Senate seat in New York left vacant following the assassination of Robert Kennedy, but he lost his bid to carry on the Kennedy legacy. Sorensen published his memoir, Counselor: A Life at the Edge of History, in 2008. Soyer, David, American musician (b. Feb. 24, 1923, Philadelphia, Pa.—d. Feb. 25, 2010, New York, N.Y.), cofounded (1964) the world-renowned Guarneri String Quartet, for which he served as cellist until his retirement in 2001. The Guarneri, which also consisted of violinists Arnold Steinhardt and John Dalley and violist Michael Tree, achieved the distinction of being the longest continually performing quartet in the world, maintaining all 157

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original members for 37 years. Though not from a musical family, Soyer began playing the cello at age 11 and debuted in a concert with the Philadelphia Orchestra in 1942. During World War II, Soyer played both the euphonium and the cello with the U.S. Navy Band; after the war he occasionally served as cellist with the NBC Symphony Orchestra. He was a dominant presence at the Marlboro (Vt.) Music Festival every year since 1961 and was a faculty member of the Curtis Institute of Music, the Juilliard School, and the Manhattan School of Music. In 2009 he returned to perform a final time with the Guarneri at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, before the group disbanded. Spohr, Arnold Theodore, Canadian dancer, choreographer, and artistic director (b. Dec. 26, 1923, Rhein, Sask.— d. April 12, 2010, Winnipeg, Man.), in his role as the Royal Winnipeg Ballet’s (RWB’s) enterprising artistic director (1958–88), was responsible for transforming the struggling company from a small regional one into an internationally renowned troupe. Spohr, who trained in New York City, Hollywood, and London, joined the ballet company as a dancer in 1945, prior to its royal charter in 1953. A fire destroyed the RWB premises in 1954, and the group suspended activities for two years. As interim director (1957) and artistic director, Spohr not only produced Canadian-themed ballets—notably Brian Macdonald’s The Shining People of Leonard Cohen (1970) and Norbert Vesak’s The Ecstasy of Rita Joe (1971)— but also invited American choreographers, including Agnes de Mille and John Neumeier, to produce works for the RWB, which undertook numerous international tours to showcase its repertoire. Spohr’s awards include the Dance Magazine Award (1982; the first Canadian to be so honoured), the Governor General’s Performing Arts Award (1998), the inaugural Order of Manitoba (2000), and the Companion of the Order of Canada (2004). Starkey, Greville Michael Wilson, British jockey (b. Dec. 21, 1939, Lichfield, Staffordshire, Eng.—d. April 14, 2010, Kennett, near Newmarket, Suffolk, Eng.), rode some 2,000 winners (1,989 in Britain) in a Thoroughbred racing career that spanned more than three decades. In his best year, 1978, Starkey won 107 races, including a rare “double-double” when he captured 158

both the Epsom Derby and the Irish Derby aboard Shirley Heights (later voted Horse of the Year) as well as both the Epsom Oaks and Irish Oaks on Fair Salinia. Many observers considered his greatest individual achievement to have been the 1975 Prix de l’Arc de Triomphe in Paris when he won aboard the 118–1 long shot Star Appeal. A loss in 1986, however, cast a shadow over Starkey’s entire career: after having taken Dancing Brave to victory in the Two Thousand Guineas, he narrowly failed to capture the Derby when he held the colt, the overwhelming favourite, back until too late in the race. Starkey retired in November 1989. Stein, Joseph, American librettist (b. May 30, 1912, Bronx, N.Y.—d. Oct. 24, 2010, New York, N.Y.), wrote the books for the Broadway musical greats Fiddler on the Roof (1964), for which he earned a Tony Award, and Zorba (1968); he also wrote the 1971 screenplay for Fiddler. Stein was working as a social worker when he met actor Zero Mostel, who paid him to create some comedic material for radio. Stein soon made his Broadway writing debut, crafting a sketch (with Will Glickman) for Lend an Ear (1948). During the 1950s Stein joined the comedy writing staff of Sid Caesar’s television series Your Show of Shows. Other Stein Broadway credits include Plain and Fancy (1955, with Glickman), Take Me Along (1959, with Robert Russell), Enter Laughing (1963), and his last, Rags (1986), for which he earned a Tony Award nomination. He continued to work well into his 90s, producing books for regional theatre. Steinbrenner, George Michael, III (“THE BOSS”), American businessman and sports executive (b. July 4, 1930, Rocky River, Ohio—d. July 13, 2010, Tampa, Fla.), was the principal owner (1973–2010) of the New York Yankees professional baseball team. Though his exacting methods and often bellicose manner established him as one of the most controversial personalities in Major League Baseball (MLB), under his ownership the Yankees became one of the most dominant teams in baseball (winning 7 World Series titles [1977, 1978, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2009] and 11 pennants) and one of the most valuable franchises in sports (valued at about $1.6 billion in 2010). In 1957 he joined his family’s shipping company, and by 1967 he had ac-

quired the American Ship Building Company, which he soon merged with the family business. The shipbuilding company made him a fortune. In 1973 Steinbrenner and a group of investors purchased the Yankees franchise for a net price of $8.7 million. Though he had vowed to distance himself from the quotidian activities of the team, the autocratic tendencies for which he would become infamous—and that would earn him the nickname “the Boss”—emerged during the season opener when he demanded that several players cut their long hair. In 1974 Steinbrenner was indicted for obstruction of justice and for conspiring to make illegal contributions to U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon’s reelection campaign. Steinbrenner was convicted and, as a result, suspended from MLB until 1976. He was barred again (1990–93) for mounting a smear campaign against a player. In 2002 he expanded the Yankees empire with the creation of the Yankees Entertainment and Sports (YES) Network, a regional broadcasting network devoted chiefly to coverage of the team. Steinbrenner frequently indulged in highly publicized spats with members of his team and staff. (He fired manager Billy Martin four separate times and accepted Martin’s resignation once.) In addition, his practice of paying skyhigh sums to star players (Catfish Hunter, Reggie Jackson, and Derek Jeter, among others) was widely blamed for escalating salaries in the major leagues. In 2008 Steinbrenner turned over control of the team to his sons, Hank and Hal. Stevens, Ted (T HEODORE FULTON STEVENS), American politician (b. Nov. 18, 1923, Indianapolis, Ind.—found dead Aug. 10, 2010, near Dillingham, Alaska), was the longest-serving (1968– 2009) Republican in the U.S. Senate and was well known for his ability, particularly as chair of the Senate Appropriations Committee (1997–2001 and 2003–05), to funnel to the state of Alaska billions of dollars in federal funding for highways, military bases, and most famously the “bridge to nowhere.” (The latter $452 million project to link two tiny islands to the mainland was later dropped.) Stevens moved (1953) to Fairbanks, Alaska, to practice law and then worked (1956–61) for the Department of the Interior in Washington, D.C., where he championed statehood for Alaska (achieved in 1959). Stevens was twice

Obituaries © Metropolitan Opera Archives/Lebrecht Music & Arts Photo Library

defeated (1962, 1968) in bids for the U.S. Senate. He was elected in 1964 to the Alaska State House of Representatives and became majority leader in 1966. On Dec. 24, 1968, he was appointed to the U.S. Senate seat left vacant by the death of Sen. E.L. Bartlett. Stevens earned a reputation as a powerful advocate for Alaskan industry. In 1971 he helped to draft the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, which compensated indigenous communities for millions of hectares of land needed for the construction of the TransAlaska Pipeline (completed 1977). Despite concerns voiced by environmentalists, in the early 1980s he brokered legislation that opened the Tongass National Forest to logging and mandated millions of dollars in federal payments to Alaska for prohibiting development in other large wilderness areas. Opera singer Dame Joan Sutherland (The federal government cut the earmark in 2009.) Though Stevens was a fierce advocate of allowing oil drilling in the Arctic Na- cenzo Bellini’s Norma and Gaetano tional Wildlife Refuge, his efforts to Donizetti’s Lucia di Lammermoor, win approval for this were unsuccess- which became her signature role. She ful. In 2008 Stevens was convicted in a made her singing debut in Sydney in federal corruption trial and lost his bid 1947 as Dido in a concert performance for reelection; in 2009 a federal judge of Henry Purcell’s Dido and Aeneas and overruled the conviction, citing prose- her operatic debut in 1951 in the title cutorial misconduct. Stevens perished role of Sir Eugene Goossens’s Judith. Cash prizes from several vocal compein a private airplane crash. titions made it possible for her to Stuart, Gloria Frances, American ac- study at the Royal College of Music, tress (b. July 4, 1910, Santa Monica, London. In 1952 she was accepted into Calif.—d. Sept. 26, 2010, Los Angeles, the company of the Royal Opera, Calif.), appeared in many Hollywood Covent Garden, and made her first apmotion pictures of the 1930s and ’40s, pearance there as the First Lady in but she was best known for her role as Mozart’s The Magic Flute. Although her Old Rose in the blockbuster movie Ti- training was as a dramatic Wagnerian tanic (1997), which garnered her a soprano, Sutherland began to develop nomination for the Academy Award for her higher range in the florid colbest supporting actress; she was the oratura repertoire with the help and oldest performer ever nominated for an encouragement of her Australian acOscar. As a young actress, Stuart had companist and vocal coach, Richard starring roles in the horror pictures The Bonynge, whom she married in 1954. Old Dark House (1932) and The Invisi- (He later became a much-lauded conble Man (1933) as well as parts in Gold ductor.) In 1959 Covent Garden reDiggers of 1935 (1935) and Rebecca of vived Lucia di Lammermoor for her, and in 1961 she made her New York Sunnybrook Farm (1938). City debut in the same role at the MetSutherland, Dame Joan Alston (“LA ropolitan Opera. Her later successes STUPENDA”), Australian soprano (b. included Handel’s Giulio Cesare, Nov. 7, 1926, Sydney, Australia—d. Jacques Offenbach’s The Tales of HoffOct. 10, 2010, Les Avants, Switz.), was mann, and Donizetti’s La Fille du régiinternationally recognized as the lead- ment. She also had an impressive coning coloratura of the 20th century, no- cert career and appeared on many tably in bel canto operas such as Vin- highly acclaimed recordings. She re-

tired from performing in 1990. Sutherland was made DBE in 1978 and granted the Order of Merit in 1991. Sutzkever, Avrom (ABRAHAM SUTZKEVER; AVRAHAM SUTSKEVER), Russian-born Yiddish-language poet (b. July 15, 1913, Smorgon, White Russia, Russian Empire [now Smarhon, Belarus]—d. Jan. 20, 2010, Tel Aviv–Yafo, Israel), became a major figure in Yiddish letters as he celebrated nature, beauty, and language in his poetry and chronicled his childhood in Siberia, his life in the World War II ghetto in Vilna (now Vilnius, Lith.), and his escape to join the Jewish partisans. In 1915 Sutzkever and his family fled to Siberia to escape World War I; they returned home in 1921 and settled near Vilna, where Sutzkever later studied literary criticism at the University of Vilna. Although he began writing poetry in Hebrew around 1927, he came under the influence of intellectual thought at the Yiddish Scientific Institute (later the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research) and became associated with Yung Vilne, a group of aspiring Yiddish artists and writers living in Vilna. Early in his career Sutzkever contributed to the American Modernist poetry journal In zikh (“In Oneself” or “Introspection”). His first published collection, Lider (1937; “Songs”), was praised for its innovative imagery, language, and form. During World War II, Sutzkever was a central cultural figure in the Vilna ghetto and was one of the Jewish intellectuals chosen to select books and other Jewish cultural artifacts to be sent to the Institute for the Study of the Jewish Question, founded by Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg; the remainder was sold for pulp. Sutzkever led the effort to save whatever could be rescued, first from the Nazis and then from the Soviets; thousands of volumes and documents survived and were eventually reclaimed by the YIVO Institute. In 1946 he testified at the Nürnberg (Ger.) trials, and in 1947 he settled in Palestine (later Israel), where he founded and edited (1949–95) the Yiddish literary journal Di goldene keyt (“The Golden Chain”). A. Sutzkever: Selected Poetry and Prose (1991) and Beneath the Trees (2003) are collections of his work in English translation. 159

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Takamine, Hideko (HIDEKO HIRAYAMA), Japanese actress (b. March 27, 1924, Hakodate, Japan—d. Dec. 28, 2010, Tokyo, Japan), was considered by critics to be one of the great actresses of the classical Japanese cinema. During a career that spanned 50 years (1929–79), Takamine was most noted for her roles as strong-willed women from lower economic backgrounds who rose to success and independence despite the unsupportive men in their lives. She was also among the first Japanese film stars to break free of studio contracts and took command of her own career in 1950. At age five Takamine debuted in the film Haha (1929; “Mother”), and she performed in lighthearted musicals and comedies throughout the 1930s. She began to make the transition from child star to more mature roles in such films as Uma (1941; “Horse”). A few years later she broke with imperial tradition by playing a progressive free-minded woman in the American-style film Ginza kankan musume (1949; “Cancan Dancer of the Ginza”). Takamine worked often with director Mikio Naruse, notably in Ukigumo (1955; Floating Clouds) and Onna ga kaidan wo agaru toki (1960; When a Woman Ascends the Stairs), and with Keisuke Kinoshita, for whom she starred in the first Japanese colour film, Karumen kokyo ni kaeru (1951; Carmen Comes Home), among others. She made her final screen appearance in Shodo satsujin: musuko yo (1979; My Son! My Son!). She received a lifetime achievement award from the Japanese Academy in 1996. Classical actress Hideko Takamine

Tantawi, Sheikh Muhammad Sayyid, Egyptian Muslim cleric (b. Oct. 28, 1928, Salim al-Sharqiyyah, Sawhaj govAmr Nabil/AP

Moderate Muslim cleric Sheikh Muhammad Sayyid Tantawi ernorate, Egypt—d. March 10, 2010, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia), was a moderate Sunni scholar who was grand mufti of Egypt (1986–96) and then served (1996–2010) as grand imam of al-Azhar mosque and grand sheikh of al-Azhar University in Cairo, where he had been educated. Many of his declarations offended traditionalists, and hard-line Muslims vehemently opposed him. In 1989 he ruled that some forms of financial interest, including those on bank loans and on savings accounts, were permissible, although in Islam all forms of interest were traditionally viewed as forbidden. Tantawi spoke out against suicide bombings and in particular condemned the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks on the United States. He asserted that women held rights in Islam, including the right to hold important government offices. In 2009 he declared that he opposed women’s wearing the niqab, or veil covering the face, and he ruled that Muslim women and girls could follow the law in France that forbade them to attend school while wearing the hijab, the traditional head covering. Tantawi also promoted dialogue between faiths. Tatum, Jack (JOHN DAVID American football player (b. 1948, Cherryville, N.C.—d. 2010, Oakland, Calif.), earned

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TATUM), Nov. 18, July 27, the nick-

name “the Assassin” with his exceptionally hard tackles, one of which paralyzed New England Patriots wide receiver Darryl Stingley in a 1978 NFL preseason game. Tatum spent nine seasons (1971–79) with the NFL Oakland Raiders, where his brutal hits, 30 interceptions, and quality play at safety contributed to the team’s tough reputation and 1977 Super Bowl championship. Tatum began playing football in high school and in 1968 went to Ohio State University (OSU) as a running back before switching to defense. While attending OSU he contributed to the team’s 1968 national championship, was designated the country’s best college defensive player (1970), and was twice named an All-American. In the NFL Tatum was selected to the Pro Bowl three times (1973–75), and he retired in 1980 after a final season with the Houston Oilers (now the Tennessee Titans). Taylor, Billy (WILLIAM EDWARD TAYLOR, JR.), American jazz pianist, educator, and broadcaster (b. July 24, 1921, Greenville, N.C.—d. Dec. 28, 2010, New York, N.Y.), became the most prominent spokesman for the virtues of jazz, beginning with The Subject Is Jazz, a 1958 television series for which he was musical director. After hosting (1966) his own New York City TV show, he led the band on David Frost’s 1969–72 TV series and fronted a jazz show on the Bravo network. In addition, he was an arts correspondent for CBS Sunday Morning. On radio he was a New York City disc jockey (1959–69) and later hosted the Jazz Alive and Billy Taylor’s Jazz at the Kennedy Center publicbroadcasting series. Taylor was a brightly melodic pianist who accompanied swing and bebop stars, including Charlie Parker, Artie Shaw, and Dizzy Gillespie, and beginning in 1951 he led trios in American jazz clubs and concert halls. Taylor was especially proud of his doctorate (1975) in music education from the University of Massachusetts. In 1964 he founded the muchacclaimed Jazzmobile to present leading jazz artists in free concerts and school programs around New York City and elsewhere. Teena Marie (MARY CHRISTINE BROCKERT ), American rhythm-andblues musician (b. March 5, 1956, Santa Monica, Calif.—d. Dec. 26, 2010, Pasadena, Calif.), was known for her robust voice and soulful delivery in a series of hit singles in the late 1970s

Obituaries

and early ’80s. Teena Marie was signed in the mid-1970s by the recording company Motown, which usually limited itself to African American artists. Rick James, a funk musician with the label, became her mentor, writing and producing her 1979 debut album, Wild and Peaceful. The album produced a hit duet with James, “I’m Just a Sucker for Your Love.” Teena Marie included some of her own songs on Lady T (1980) and wrote and produced almost all of her subsequent releases. Her notable singles for Motown included “I Need Your Lovin’ ” (1980) and “Square Biz” (1981). After signing (1983) with the Epic label, she released such top hits as “Lovergirl” (1984) and “Ooo La La La” (1988). Teena Marie was significant for her successful lawsuit against Motown, which in 1982 established the legal principle that a label may not keep an artist under contract while refusing to release that artist’s recordings. Terre’Blanche, Eugène Ney, South African farmer and Afrikaner nationalist (b. Jan. 31, 1941, Ventersdorp, Transvaal province, S.Af. [now in North West province]—d. April 3, 2010, near Ventersdorp), cofounded (1970) the pro-apartheid Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB, Afrikaner Resistance Movement), through which he fought against majority rule in South Apartheid advocate Eugène Terre’Blanche

Africa and campaigned for a separate whites-only homeland. Terre’Blanche was of French Huguenot ancestry and originally trained as a police officer, serving for a time as a presidential bodyguard. He became well known as a fiery public speaker with a penchant for wearing paramilitary uniforms and sporting neo-Nazi symbols, though his influence waned in later years. The AWB was accused of several acts of white-supremacist terrorism, including a 1993 attack on the World Trade Centre near Johannesburg and a bomb campaign in 1994, and Terre’Blanche himself was arrested several times and served three years (2001–04) in prison for attempted murder. He was found beaten and slashed to death in his home, reportedly after a dispute with two young farm workers over unpaid wages. Terzieff, Laurent (LAURENT DIDIER ALEX TCHEMERZINE), French actor and director (b. June 27, 1935, Toulouse, France—d. July 2, 2010, Paris, France), established his on-screen persona in his first major film role as a cynical existentialist in director Marcel Carné’s Les Tricheurs (1958), and throughout the next five decades, his leading-man good looks often belied performances marked by an aura of torment or disaffection. Terzieff’s other notable roles include a conscientious objector in Claude Autant-Lara’s Tu ne tueras point (1961), Brigitte Bardot’s lover in Serge Bourguignon’s À coeur joie (1967), a literary-minded investigator in Jean-Luc Godard’s Détective (1985), and an anarchist in Claude Berri’s Germinal (1993). Terzieff began his stage career in avantgarde writer Arthur Adamov’s Tous contre tous (1953) and later proved equally adept at performing in classic and contemporary plays. Working with the theatre company bearing his name, which he founded in 1961, Terzieff earned numerous Molière Awards, notably for best director with Ce que voit fox (1988) and Temps contre temps (1993) and for best actor in 2010 for both L’Habilleur, portraying an actor in existential crisis, and Sophocles’ Philoctetes, as the bitter Greek warrior. Terzieff was made an Officer of the National Order of Merit and a Commander of Arts and Letters. Thigpen, Ed (EDMUND LEONARD THIGPEN), American jazz musician (b. Dec. 28, 1930, Chicago, Ill.—d. Jan. 13, 2010, Copenhagen, Den.), played drums with intense swing yet with a discretion and sensitivity that made

him a favourite accompanist of singers and member of small groups. Thigpen, the son of veteran big-band drummer Ben Thigpen, played in bop and swingstyled combos in the 1950s, including pianist Billy Taylor’s trio (1956–59), and recorded with singer Blossom Dearie, pianist Mal Waldron, saxophonists John Coltrane and Paul Quinichette, and others. He became most noted as a member (1959–65) of the popular Oscar Peterson Trio and as the drummer for singer Ella Fitzgerald through most of 1966–72. Though Thigpen moved to Copenhagen in 1972 and drummed for touring American and European jazz artists, he also frequently returned to perform and teach in the U.S. Toye, Wendy (BERYL MAY JESSIE TOYE), British dancer, choreographer, and director (b. May 1, 1917, London, Eng.—d. Feb. 27, 2010, Hillingdon, London), forged a successful path into the male-dominated profession of film directing in the 1950s during an illustrious and diverse career that spanned some eight decades. A child prodigy, Toye made her first stage appearance at the age of four at London’s Royal Albert Hall, and by age nine she had choreographed a ballet at the London Palladium. She made her professional stage debut at age 12 as a fairy in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream at the Old Vic theatre in London and then toured with professional theatre and dance companies, including the British Ballet, during her teenage years. Toye began choreographing professional dance productions in the 1930s and advanced to directing during the 1940s. She also gained experience in motion pictures as an actress, dancer, and director of dance sequences, and in 1952 she directed her first film, The Stranger Left No Card, which won an award for best short at the Cannes film festival. Toye was actively working in theatre and dance well into her 70s. She was appointed CBE in 1992. Tretyakov, Sergey Olegovich, Russian intelligence officer (b. Oct. 5, 1956, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.—d. June 13, 2010, Osprey, Fla.), left his position as a colonel in the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR)—a successor agency of the Soviet KGB—in 2000 to defect to the U.S., where he gave the FBI and the CIA an estimated 5,000 secret cables and additional information about Russian intelligence operations and agents. Tretyakov studied at the

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Institute of Foreign Languages in Moscow and rose through the ranks of the KGB and, later, the SVR. By 1995 he was responsible for covert operations abroad while nominally serving the Russian government as a senior aide at the UN in New York City. He reportedly began supplying the U.S. with information in 1997, before leaving the SVR to live in hiding; American intelligence agencies allegedly rewarded his defection with a settlement of some $2 million. After the publication of Pete Earley’s authorized biography Comrade J.: The Untold Secrets of Russia’s Master Spy in America After the End of the Cold War (2007), Tretyakov lived openly under his real name. Udall, Stewart Lee, American conservationist (b. Jan. 31, 1920, St. Johns, Ariz.—d. March 20, 2010, Santa Fe, N.M.), preserved millions of hectares of wilderness while serving as interior secretary under U.S. Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. He was elected to Congress in 1954 and was nominated (1961) as interior secretary by President Kennedy. In this post Udall was instrumental in acquiring more than 1.5 million ha (nearly 4 million ac) of land that included Canyonlands (Utah), Guadalupe Mountains (Texas), North Cascades (Washington), and Redwood (California) national parks, 6 national monuments, 8 national seashores, notably Cape Cod (Massachusetts) and Point Reyes (California), 9 national recreation areas, 20 historical sites, and 50 wildlife refuges. Because of his interest in historical structures, Udall helped to spare New York City’s Carnegie Hall from the wrecking ball. He also assisted in the creation of several pieces of legislation, including the Wilderness Act (1964), which saved more than 40 million ha (100 million ac), and the Endangered Species Act (1973). An advocate for Native Americans, Udall filed a lawsuit against the government on behalf of Navajo miners who developed cancer after being exposed to uranium. He was the brother of longtime representative Morris (Mo) Udall.

ing several centimetres of armour. The portable rocket launcher consisted of a smooth-bore steel tube, originally about 1.5 m (5 ft) long, open at both ends, and equipped with a hand grip, a shoulder rest, a trigger mechanism, and sights. The shoulder-fired device, which was designed to prevent soldiers from suffering powder burns on their faces, was called the bazooka because it was similar to a tube-shaped musical instrument of that name. After the war, Uhl worked for Glenn L. Martin Co., where he led efforts to develop guided missiles; for Ryan Aeronautical Co., where he served as vice president (1959–61); and for Fairchild Industries, which he converted from an airplane producer to an aerospace powerhouse during his tenures as president and chief executive (1961–76) and chairman (1976–85). Under his expert guidance, Fairchild developed the A-10 Thunderbolt II close combat aircraft (“the Warthog”), which demolished a sizable number of Iraqi tanks during the Persian Gulf War.

world champion in two weight divisions and won all 27 of his professional career fights by knockout; he gained a huge following among boxing fans in his native Venezuela and around the world with his explosive punching power and relentless style. Valero made his professional debut in 2002 and established a record when he scored a first-round knockout in each of his first 18 professional bouts. He won the World Boxing Association super featherweight title in 2006 and, after defending the title four times, moved up in weight and captured the World Boxing Council lightweight title in 2009. As his boxing fame grew, his life outside the ring became increasingly troubled, however. He reportedly battled drug and alcohol addictions and in March 2010 was arrested on suspicion of assaulting his wife. The following month, after his wife was found stabbed to death in a hotel, Valero was detained again and was to be charged with her murder. His death while in custody was an apparent suicide.

Valero, Edwin, Venezuelan boxer (b. Dec. 3, 1981, Bolero Alto, Venez.—d. April 19, 2010, Caracas, Venez.), was a

Verrett, Shirley, American opera singer (b. May 31, 1931, New Orleans, La.—d. Nov. 5, 2010, Ann Arbor, Mich.), was a mezzo-soprano who had a regal onstage presence and a colourful vocal range; she was best known in the U.S. and Europe for her roles as Georges Bizet’s fiery Carmen, as both Dido and Cassandra in Hector Berlioz’s Les Troyens, and as Azucena in Giuseppe Verdi’s Il trovatore. Verrett studied (1955) singing in Los Angeles before continuing her education at the Juilliard School, New York City. She made her operatic debut in Ohio in 1957 in Benjamin Britten’s The Rape of Lucretia. Two years later she made her European bow in Cologne, Ger., where she portrayed the gypsy in Nicolas Nabokov’s Rasputin’s End. Her first appearance at La Scala, in Milan, came in 1966, and she continued to perform there until 1984. Italians dubbed her La Nera Callas (“The Black Callas”). By the late 1980s, however, her vocal quality was becoming inconsistent. From 1996 to 2010 Verrett taught at the University of Michigan School of Music. Her autobiography, I Never Walked Alone (written with Christopher Brooks), was published in 2003.

Powerful pugilist Edwin Valero

Uhl, Edward George, American engineer and aerospace executive (b. March 24, 1918, Elizabeth, N.J.—d. May 9, 2010, Easton, Md.), was serving in the U.S. Army during World War II when he helped develop (1942) a weapon, nicknamed the bazooka, that fired an explosive that was capable of penetrat-

Voznesensky, Andrey Andreyevich, Russian poet (b. May 12, 1933, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.—d. June 1, 2010, Moscow, Russia), was one of the Caribe Focus—Archivolatino/Redux

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most prominent of the generation of writers that emerged in the Soviet Union after the Stalinist era. In 1941, while his father assisted in the evacuation of Leningrad, Voznesensky moved with his mother and sister from the city of Vladimir to Kurgan, in the Ural Mountains. The profound effects of the war on his developing psyche later found vivid expression in Voznesensky’s poetry, notably in perhaps his bestknown poem, “Goya” (1960), in which he uses a series of powerful metaphors to express the horrors of war. After the war the family returned to Moscow. While a student at Moscow Architectural Institute, from which he graduated in 1957, Voznesensky sent some of his own verses to the author Boris Pasternak, who became his role model and tutor for the next three years. Voznesensky’s first published poems, which appeared in 1958, are experimental works marked by changing metres and rhythms, a distinctive use of assonance and sound associations, and a passionate but intellectually subtle moral fervour. During the late 1950s and early ’60s, he participated in a creative renaissance in the Soviet Union and became a star attraction at huge public poetry readings. The readings came to a sudden halt in 1963, however, when Soviet artists and writers working in “excessively experimental” styles were subjected to an official campaign of condemnation. Despite frequent criticism of his work, Voznesensky retained his position as an “official” writer (he received the State Prize in 1978). He was therefore able to act in ways otherwise dangerous for a Soviet author: he wrote letters that condemned the occupation of Czechoslovakia and defended the novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, and he collaborated on the underground magazine Metropol. Wagner, Wolfgang Manfred Martin, German opera director and impresario (b. Aug. 30, 1919, Bayreuth, Ger.—d. March 21, 2010, Bayreuth), devoted more than 50 years of his life to the legacy of composer Richard Wagner (his grandfather) and to the annual Bayreuth Festival, the family-run summer event founded in 1876 as a venue for his grandfather’s operas. After a post-World War II hiatus, the annual festival resumed in 1951 with Wolfgang as co-director in charge of finance and his older brother, Wieland, as the artistic director. After Wieland’s death in 1966, Wolfgang remained as sole director (1966–2008). An autocratic leader

munist Poland. Walentynowicz died in a plane crash that also killed Pres. Lech Kaczynski (q.v.), his wife, and some 90 others.

who excluded most other members of the family from Bayreuth, Wolfgang was credited with revitalizing the festival by putting it on a more secure financial footing and, after Wieland’s death, by hiring new directors to mount more innovative productions of the operas. During the last years of his tenure, however, he was at the centre of a power struggle between Eva Wagner-Pasquier, his estranged daughter from his first marriage; Katharina Wagner, his much-younger daughter from a later second marriage and his favoured successor; and Wieland’s daughter, Nike Wagner. When Wolfgang was compelled to step down in 2008 because of failing health, Eva and Katharina were named co-directors.

Walker, Albertina (TINA), American gospel singer (b. Aug. 28, 1929, Chicago, Ill.—d. Oct. 8, 2010, Chicago), inspired audiences with her powerful contralto voice while performing with the Chicago-based Caravans, a gospel group she founded in 1951, and later as a church soloist, with her signature song, “Lord, Keep Me Day by Day.” Walker began singing as a child in church choirs and went on to become a protégé of gospel great Mahalia Jackson. She briefly toured with the Willie Webb Singers and recorded her first song, “He’ll Be There,” before joining Robert Anderson and His Gospel Caravan. When Anderson retired, she formed the Caravans, which featured at various times some of the most talented gospel artists, including Shirley Caesar, Inez Andrews, Delores Washington, Cassietta George, Dorothy Norwood, and Bessie Griffin. Walker, who was dubbed a “star maker,” was known for turning the spotlight from herself to other Caravan featured singers. The group’s hits include such songs as “Mary Don’t You Weep,” “I Won’t Be Back,” “(I Know) The Lord Will Provide,” and “Tell Him What You Want.” Walker released more than 50 albums, one of which, Songs of the Church: Live in Memphis (1994) won a Grammy Award. She was inducted into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame in 2001, and in 2002 Pres. George W. Bush honoured her at the White House for her contributions to gospel music.

Walentynowicz, Anna, Polish labour leader and political activist (b. Aug. 13, 1929, Rowne, Pol.—d. April 10, 2010, Smolensk, Russia), was working as a crane operator at the Lenin Shipyard in Gdansk when she was fired in August 1980, allegedly in response to illegal trade-union and antigovernment activities. Her dismissal helped to trigger a massive strike at the shipyard and additional strikes throughout the country, which ultimately led to the founding of the independent trade union Solidarity under Lech Walesa. After her shipyard job was restored amid the protests, Walentynowicz stayed active in Solidarity, but she had a falling out with Walesa after he was elected president of Poland in 1990. Despite this division, she remained a revered figure in postcom-

Warren, David Ronald, Australian scientist (b. March 20, 1925, Groote Eylandt, N.Terr., Australia—d. July 19, 2010, Melbourne, Australia), invented (1957) the first flight data recorder (FDR), or Black Box, a device (in a red or orange crash-proof case) that can collect and store data about the performance and condition of an airplane in flight and then make that information available to investigators seeking to determine the cause of a crash. After his father died in 1934 in one of Australia’s first airplane disasters, Warren developed his early interest in electronics and chemistry. He matriculated at the University of Sydney (B.Sc.) and Imperial College London (Ph.D.) and taught chemistry before moving to Melbourne in 1952 to become principal re-

German opera director Wolfgang Wagner

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search scientist at the Aeronautical Research Laboratories (now part of the Australian Department of Defence’s Defence Science and Technology Organisation); he retired in 1983. In 1967 Australia became the first country to make the FDR mandatory equipment on all aircraft. In 2002 Warren was made an Officer of the Order of Australia. Wayburn, Edgar, American conservationist (b. Sept. 17, 1906, Macon, Ga.— d. March 5, 2010, San Francisco, Calif.), was awarded (1999) the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his leading role in helping to preserve more than 40 million ha (100 million ac) of North American wilderness. He joined the Sierra Club in 1939 and was thereafter elected to the executive board of the local chapter, for which he formed the first conservation committee. Using a quiet, low-key method of writing letters, raising funds, attending public hearings, and lobbying public officials, Wayburn succeeded in conserving millions of wild hectares in Alaska (through the passage of the 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act) and California, all while maintaining his full-time status as a physician. He was instrumental in establishing and expanding numerous public lands in California, most notably the Redwood National Park, Point Reyes National Seashore, Mt. Tamalpais State Park, and the Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Wayburn served five terms as president of the Sierra Club and published the memoir Your Land and Mine: Evolution of a Conservationist (2004). In recognition of his selfless devotion to the environment, Wayburn was awarded the Albert Schweitzer Prize for Humanitarianism in 1995. Weiss, George David, American songwriter (b. April 9, 1921, New York, N.Y.—d. Aug. 23, 2010, Oldwick, N.J.), composed some of the greatest pop hits of the 1940s, ’50s, and ’60s, notably “What a Wonderful World” (1967; with Bob Thiele), which was recorded by Louis Armstrong and featured in the film Good Morning, Vietnam (1987). Weiss studied music theory at the Juilliard School, New York City, and served as a bandmaster in the U.S. Army during World War II. After the war the multi-instrumentalist (piano, violin, saxophone, and clarinet) embarked on a songwriting career and collaborated with composer Bennie Benjamin to write three number one hit songs in 1946: “Surrender,” “Rumors Are Fly164

ing,” and “Oh, What It Seemed to Be,” sung by Frank Sinatra. He achieved his crowning success, however, when he co-wrote “The Lion Sleeps Tonight” (1961), which became a top hit and later was featured in the 1994 Disney film The Lion King, and “Can’t Help Falling in Love” (1961), made popular by Elvis Presley in the film Blue Hawaii (1961). Weiss also collaborated on the Broadway musicals Mr. Wonderful (1956), First Impressions (1959), and Maggie Flynn (1968) and wrote numerous movie scores. In his role as president (1982–2000) of the Songwriters Guild of America, Weiss advocated on behalf of composers for more stringent copyright protection. He was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1984.

July 17, 1962, he flew an X-15 to an altitude of 95.9 km (59.6 mi). As a result of this feat, he became the first pilot of an airplane to earn the winged badge of an astronaut and played an important role in the development of manned spaceflight.

Weyand, Frederick Carlton, general (ret.), U.S. Army (b. Sept. 15, 1916, Arbuckle, Calif.—d. Feb. 10, 2010, Honolulu, Hawaii), served (1972–73) as the final commander of all United States military forces in Vietnam during the last year of the war. After graduating from the University of California, Berkeley, with a degree (1939) in criminology, Weyand, who had served in the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps, was called up in 1940 by the army for active duty. During World War II he was an intelligence officer in India, China, and Burma (now Myanmar), and he commanded an infantry battalion during the Korean War. Weyand became commander of the 25th Infantry Division in 1964 and went with it to Vietnam several months later. Known for his candid approach, he remarked in 1967 (referring to Gen. William C. Westmoreland) that “Westy just doesn’t get it. The war is unwinnable. We’ve reached a stalemate, and we should find a dignified way out.” Weyand became army chief of staff in 1974 and retired in 1976. His military awards include the Distinguished Service Cross, Distinguished Service Medals, the Silver Star, Legions of Merit, and the Bronze Star.

Wild, Earl, American pianist, composer, and teacher (b. Nov. 26, 1915, Pittsburgh, Pa.—d. Jan. 23, 2010, Palm Springs, Calif.), built an impressive career as one of the most technically accomplished pianists of any era. He was best known for his mastery of 19thcentury Romantic showpieces and for playing his own virtuoso interpretations of works by composers such as Bach, Mozart, and Tchaikovsky. Wild began studying piano at age 4. At age 15 he performed Franz Liszt’s Piano Concerto No. 1 with the visiting Minneapolis Symphony. After graduating (1937) from Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University), he worked (1937–44) in New York City as staff pianist for the NBC radio and television network. In 1939 Wild performed the first televised piano recital, and in 1997 he became the first pianist to perform live on the Internet. Wild came to national attention when he played (1942) George Gershwin’s Rhapsody in Blue with Arturo Toscanini and the NBC Symphony in a radio broadcast. During World War II, Wild served (1942–44) as a musician in the U.S. Navy. As the ABC television network’s staff pianist, conductor, and composer (1944–68), he wrote comic music for Sid Caesar (1954–57) and composed serious music for the network (Easter Oratorio and Revelations, both in 1962). From 1939 Wild recorded frequently; his discography includes more than 700 solo piano works, 35 concertos, and 26 recordings of chamber music. His album Earl Wild: The Romantic Master won a Grammy Award in 1997; he performed his last public concert at age 92. In 1986 the Hungarian government awarded Wild the Liszt Medal.

White, Robert Michael, major general (ret.), U.S. Air Force (b. July 6, 1924, New York, N.Y.—d. March 17, 2010, Orlando, Fla.), was a test pilot for the U.S. Air Force when he became the first American to fly an airplane into outer space. In a series of flights, he took the rocket-powered X-15 to new aircraft speed records of Mach 4, Mach 5, and Mach 6 (four, five, and six times the speed of sound, respectively), and on

Wilkes, Sir Maurice Vincent, British computer scientist (b. June 26, 1913, Dudley, Worcestershire, Eng.—d. Nov. 29, 2010, Cambridge, Eng.), was a primary figure in early computer science, notably through his work to develop and build the EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) (1949), the first full-size stored-program computer. He also received credit for inventing microprogramming (1951), co-

Obituaries John Robertson/Alamy

picture franchise as a daily comic strip (1981–84) in the Los Angeles Times newspaper, as a Marvel Comics series (1979), and as a graphic novel, Episode I: The Phantom Menace (1999). He also drew (1967–80) the newspaper strip Secret Agent Corrigan (previously called Secret Agent X-9), and in the 1990s he was the inker on such series as SpiderMan 2099, Blade Runner, and Daredevil. Williamson was inducted into the Will Eisner Comic Industry Hall of Fame in 2000.

Computer scientist Sir Maurice Wilkes wrote the first book on computer programming (1951), produced the first paper on cache memories (1965), and pioneered client-server architecture computing (1980). Wilkes won the A.M. Turing Award in 1967 and a Kyoto Prize in 1992 and was knighted in 2000. Williams, George Christopher, American evolutionary biologist (b. May 12, 1926, Charlotte, N.C.—d. Sept. 8, 2010, Long Island, N.Y.), was known for his theory that natural selection acts on individuals and genes rather than whole populations. In Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought (1966), Williams introduced his gene-centred theory of natural selection, which ran counter to the then widely held notion that adaptation occurs through broadly acting processes, such as group selection. Williamson, Al(fonso), American comic artist (b. March 21, 1931, New York, N.Y.—d. June 12, 2010, New York state), illustrated comic books and strips with a richly detailed, almost cinematic style. He was particularly noted for his work on Flash Gordon in the 1960s, ’80s, and ’90s, as well as the adaptations of the Star Wars motion

Wilson, Charlie (CHARLES NESBITT WILSON), American politician (b. June 1, 1933, Trinity, Texas—d. Feb. 10, 2010, Lufkin, Texas), as a 12-term (1973–96) Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas, engineered the covert supplying of billions of dollars in funding and weaponry to the mujahideen fighting the Soviet Union in Afghanistan in the 1980s, an effort that was instrumental in forcing the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989. Wilson earned the nickname “Good-Time Charlie” as a dedicated and flamboyant womanizer with a fondness for wild parties. He spent 12 years in the Texas state legislature before his election to Congress, where he served on the Appropriations Committee. His exploits were dramatized in the 2007 movie Charlie Wilson’s War, based on the 2003 book of the same name by George Crile. Wilson, Georges, French actor and director (b. Oct. 16, 1921, Champignysur-Marne, Val-de-Marne, France—d. Feb. 3, 2010, Rambouillet, Yvelines, France), was a respected character actor for more than six decades on the stage and in more than 100 motion pictures and television programs; in 1963 he succeeded Jean Vilar as director of the Théâtre National Populaire (TNP). Wilson began acting in amateur productions, and in 1952 Vilar invited him to join the TNP, where his roles included Ubu in Alfred Jarry’s Ubu roi, the title character in Shakespeare’s King Lear, and Vladimir in Samuel Beckett’s En attendant Godot. Perhaps his best-known film role was Captain Haddock in Tintin et le mystère de la toison d’or (1961); his other films include Une aussi longue absence (1961), The Three Musketeers (1973), Je ne suis pas là pour être aimé (2005), and L’Ennemi public no 1 (2008). As director of the TNP (1963–72) and later of the Théâtre de l’Oeuvre (1978–95), Wilson staged productions of Shakespeare, Molière,

and Corneille, as well as modern playwrights such as Bertolt Brecht, Harold Pinter, and Tom Stoppard. Wittenberg, Henry, American wrestler (b. Sept. 18, 1918, Jersey City, N.J.—d. March 9, 2010, Somers, N.Y.), had an illustrious amateur wrestling career that included winning a gold medal in the light heavyweight division (191.5 lb) freestyle at the 1948 Olympic Games in London and a silver medal at the 1952 Helsinki Olympics, both while working as a New York City police officer. Though Wittenberg did not take up wrestling until he was a sophomore at the City College of New York (CCNY), he remained undefeated in more than 300 matches from 1939 to 1951. Included in that streak were seven of his eight Amateur Athletic Union championships (between 1940 and 1952). He later left the police force to start a career in the printing industry but returned to wrestling in 1959 to coach the first American team to compete in the Soviet Union. He then coached at Yeshiva University (1959–67), New York City, and CCNY (1967–79). Wittenberg served in 1968 as head coach of the U.S. Greco-Roman team. In 1977 he was inducted into the National Wrestling Hall of Fame. Wolfe, Billy (WILLIAM CUTHBERTSON WOLFE), Scottish political leader (b. Feb. 22, 1924, Bathgate, West Lothian, Scot.—d. March 18, 2010, Hamilton, South Lanarkshire, Scot.), was an ardent Scottish nationalist who as the Scottish National Party (SNP) leader (1969–79) helped to transform the hitherto marginalized party into a political force. In the general election of October 1974, Wolfe guided the SNP to win an unexpected 30% of the vote in Scotland and 11 of the 71 Scottish seats in the British Parliament, though Wolfe failed to win a seat of his own. The SNP’s success boosted its claims to be a mainstream party and triggered negotiations that eventually led to the devolution of Scotland and the founding of the Scottish Parliament in 1999. Wolfe, who trained as a chartered accountant, joined the SNP in 1959. After stepping down as chairman in 1979, he was party president (1980–82) and remained an active member until 2008. Wolken, (Abraham) Jonathan, American dancer, choreographer, and artistic director (b. July 12, 1949, Pittsburgh, Pa.—d. June 13, 2010, New York, N.Y.), defied dance categories and traditions 165

Obituaries Sara Krulwich—The New York Times/Redux

Pilobolus Dance Theatre cofounder Jonathan Wolken with his troupe as a cofounder of the innovative Pilobolus Dance Theatre, which was distinguished by its dancers’ intricate acrobatics and sometimes astonishing contortions of intertwined bodies. Wolken graduated (1971) with a degree in philosophy from Dartmouth College, Hanover, N.H., where he was inspired by a modern dance class. With no other dance experience, Wolken—with Moses Pendleton (who left in the early 1980s to form the Momix dance company), Robby Barnett, and Lee Harris (later replaced by Michael Tracy)—founded the experimental Pilobolus Dance Theatre, which Wolken named for a genus of phototropic fungus. The company’s first performance (1971) in New York City was well received by audiences and critics alike, who were astonished by its inventive and bold style and humour. In 1997 a televised performance of Pilobolus at the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Washington, D.C., won an Emmy Award for cultural programming. Wolken, who created 46 works for Pilobolus, danced in the group until his mid-30s and thereafter remained until his death as a choreographer, fund-raiser, and one of the three artistic directors (with Barnett and Tracy). Wolper, David Lloyd, American movie and television producer (b. Jan. 11, 1928, New York, N.Y.—d. Aug. 10, 2010, Beverly Hills, Calif.), popularized the TV miniseries format with his 166

African American epic Roots (1977), which set viewing records and earned nine Emmy Awards, and later with the Emmy Award-winning Roots: The Next Generations (1979), The Thorn Birds (1983), and North and South (1985). Wolper began as a documentary filmmaker; The Race for Space (1959), for which he used inexpensively purchased Russian space footage, was nominated for an Academy Award for best documentary. Other documentaries include the Emmy-winning The Making of the President, 1960 (1963) and the Oscarwinning The Hellstrom Chronicle (1971). Wolper also produced feature films, including The Bridge at Remagen (1969), Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory (1971), and L.A. Confidential (1997). He was presented with the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award in 1985 and was inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 1989. Wooden, John Robert (“WIZARD OF WESTWOOD”), American basketball coach (b. Oct. 14, 1910, Hall, Ind.—d. June 4, 2010, Los Angeles, Calif.), directed teams of the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), to 10 National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) championships in 12 seasons (1964–65, 1967–73, 1975). As a student at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind., Wooden, a guard, gained AllAmerica honours as a basketball player for three seasons (1930–32) and won a Western Conference (Big Ten)

medal for athletic and scholastic excellence. He coached high school basketball in Kentucky and Indiana before entering (1943) the U.S. Navy. After World War II, in which he served as a physical education instructor, he was head basketball coach and athletic director (1946–48) at Indiana State Teachers College (now Indiana State University). He was appointed head coach at UCLA in 1948 and retired in 1975, with a record of 620 wins and 147 losses, for an .808 percentage. His overall 40-year record was 885 wins and 203 losses, a percentage of .813. Among Wooden’s most notable accomplishments at UCLA were two record winning streaks: 88 consecutive games (over four seasons, 1971–74) and 38 consecutive NCAA tournament games. He was named the NCAA’s College Basketball Coach of the Year six times (1964, 1967, 1969–70, 1972–73) and was the first person to be inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame as both a player (1961) and a coach (1973). The John R. Wooden Award, established in 1976, annually honours the nation’s outstanding player as chosen by a media poll. Wooden was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2003. Wu Guanzhong, Chinese painter (b. July 5, 1919, Yixing, Jiangsu province, China—d. June 25, 2010, Beijing, China), blended his training in both Chinese ink and brushwork and Western oil-painting styles into a unique form of modern art epitomized by his acclaimed landscapes, many of which verged on abstraction. Wu graduated (1942) from the National Academy of Art (now the China Academy of Art) in Hangzhou and studied (1947–50) at the École Nationale Supérieure des BeauxArts in Paris, where he was influenced by European painters such as Vincent van Gogh, Maurice Utrillo, and Amedeo Modigliani. Wu returned to China in 1950, but the government condemned his figure paintings, notably his many nudes, and during the early years of the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), he was sent to the country as a labourer. He was allowed to return to painting in the early 1970s, and by 1978 his works were being featured in the Central Academy of Fine Arts (CAFA) in Beijing. Wu taught at many schools, including the CAFA and Tsinghua University, Beijing, and he participated in exhibitions in Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, the U.S., and Britain, notably at

Obituaries Imaginechina/AP

the State Committee for the State of Emergency. Yanayev grew up in Gorky oblast (now Nizhegorod), where he studied agriculture and law. He joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in his 20s and worked with the Komsomol youth organization before becoming head of the Central Council of Trade Unions. He later was named Politburo secretary in charge of foreign policy, and in December 1990 he unexpectedly received Gorbachev’s support as a compromise choice for the new post of vice president. Yanayev was one of those arrested after the abortive three-day coup failed and convicted of high treason. He was granted amnesty, however, by the Russian legislature in 1994 and released from prison.

Painter Wu Guanzhong the British Museum, where in 1992 he was the first living Chinese artist to be exhibited. Yamaguchi, Tsutomu, Japanese engineer, translator, and educator (b. March 16, 1916, Nagasaki, Japan—d. Jan. 4, 2010, Nagasaki), was the only officially documented survivor of both the Hiroshima (Aug. 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (Aug. 9, 1945) atomic bombings during World War II. Yamaguchi was on a business trip in Hiroshima when the U.S. dropped the first bomb, and he had returned home when the second blast occurred. Although some 100 people were known to have been affected by both bombings, he was the only one the government of Japan recognized as such. In 2006 Yamaguchi addressed the United Nations General Assembly in New York City in support of nuclear disarmament. Yanayev, Gennady Ivanovich, Soviet bureaucrat (b. Aug. 26, 1937, Perevoz, Russia, U.S.S.R.—d. Sept. 24, 2010, Moscow, Russia), was one of eight hard-line coup leaders, or “putschists,” who in August 1991 tried to oust Soviet Pres. Mikhail Gorbachev and take over the government with Yanayev, then vice president, as president at the head of

Yar’Adua, Umaru Musa, Nigerian politician (b. Aug. 16, 1951, Katsina, Nigeria—d. May 5, 2010, Abuja, Nigeria), served (2007–10) as president of Nigeria; his inauguration on May 29, 2007, marked the first time in the country’s history that an elected civilian head of state had transferred power to another. Yar’Adua was born to an elite Fulani family that was prominent in both traditional and modern politics. He received a university education at Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, and taught (1975–83) at various colleges and a polytechnic school before becoming a businessman and then entering politics. He lost in his first bid (1991) for governor of Katsina state but won election in 1999 and reelection in 2003. As governor, Yar’Adua, a Muslim, introduced the Shari!ah (Muslim law); he also focused on the socioeconomic development of his state (with particular attention to the educational and health sectors) and was known for being financially prudent. To the surprise of many, in 2006 Pres. Olusegun Obasanjo chose Yar’Adua to be his party’s candidate in the April 2007 presidential election. Although Yar’Adua ran against several well-known and popular military leaders and politicians, he secured a landslide victory with 70% of the vote in an election marred by widespread violence, voter intimidation, and reports of vote rigging. Despite a ruling by a Nigerian court on Jan. 29, 2010, that the ailing Yar’Adua was not obligated to hand over power to Vice Pres. Goodluck Jonathan, Nigeria’s National Assembly on February 9 voted to have Jonathan assume full power as acting president.

Zinn, Howard, American historian and social activist (b. Aug. 24, 1922, Brooklyn, N.Y.—d. Jan. 27, 2010, Santa Monica, Calif.), created in his best-known book, A People’s History of the United States (1980), a left-wing narrative that provided the then-unusual perspectives of the working poor, of people of colour, and of the dispossessed. In A People’s History and his many other works, Zinn explored how changes have come more from grassroots movements than from the actions of the conventional historical heroes and espoused his belief that ordinary people must stand up to injustice and fight to bring about a righteous society. Zinn worked as a pipe fitter before joining the Army Air Corps in 1943, becoming a bombardier; he opposed subsequent wars, in particular the Vietnam War and the Iraq War. Zinn earned a master’s degree and a doctorate at Columbia University in New York City. In 1956 he became chairman of the history department of Spelman College, a historically black women’s institution in Atlanta. He beMichael Dwyer/AP

Historian and activist Howard Zinn came a member of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee fighting for the civil rights of African Americans and encouraged his students to join the movement. This stance was at odds with the views of the school’s administration, and Zinn was fired in 1963. The following year he began teaching at Boston College, where he remained until he retired (1988). Zinn’s memoir, You Can’t Be Neutral on a Moving Train, appeared in 1994. 167

A sea lamprey (above), an invasive fishlike parasite that devastated some commercial-fish populations in the Great Lakes in the 20th century, extends the specially designed sucker mouth that it uses to latch onto its prey. A member of Yemen’s antiterrorist forces (left) trains in the Sarif area outside Sanaa, the country’s capital. Pedestrians (below left) survey a building in Concepción, Chile, that was badly damaged in the earthquake that struck the country in February. Worried specialists (below right) at the New York Stock Exchange monitor their computer screens as U.S. stock markets plunge on June 4. Photos: (counterclockwise) Anjanette Bowen/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; AP; Martin Bernetti—AFP/Getty Images; David Karp/AP

2010 Special Reports

Photos: (counterclockwise) J. Scott Applewhite/AP; Herbert Lehmann—Bon Appetit/Alamy; Sunday Alamba/AP; (background) John J. Mosesso/life.nbii.gov

Supporters (below) of the American Tea Party movement gather at a rally in Washington, D.C., to protest against federal government spending. The science of molecular gastronomy (bottom left) led to culinary inspirations such as this layered concoction of egg, nettle spinach, and celery puree with a toast point for dipping. Soldiers (bottom right) march in formation during the festivities commemorating Nigeria’s 50th anniversary as an independent country. Background photo of invasive kudzu vines.

SPECIAL REPORT

The Persistent

Economic Slump

by Joel Havemann

I

n 2010, two years after the financial meltdown of 2008, the Great Recession continued to reverberate throughout the world. One by one, many European Union countries faced possible bankruptcy. There were indications that a currency war might have begun, with the U.S. and China the key combatants. Americans learned that the price of keeping the international financial system afloat was $3.3 trillion in loans and other forms of credit from the U.S. Federal Reserve (Fed) to such firms as General Electric and Toyota and a passel of foreign banks. The U.S. Sputters from Recession. For all of its international dimensions, the Great Recession wore a “Made in Amer1/28/2010 U.S. Senate confirms Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke to a second term in office.

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ica” label. A huge run-up in U.S. housing prices in the early 2000s, abetted by mortgage lenders and investment banks willing to take big risks to make big profits, set the stage for the monumental collapse in the real-estate sector that began in 2007 and then spread with speed and intensity to the financial sector. Lenders, afraid that even their most reliable borrowers could not pay them back, hunkered down. That in turn imperiled the lending that enables business to conduct business, not only in the U.S. but also in other free-market countries in the global economy. For many Americans it came as a surprise to learn that their economy was not officially in recession in 2010. In September the National Bureau of Eco-

1/29/2010 In the last quarter of 2009, GDP grew at an annual rate of 5.7%, but the U.S. economy shrank for the year; at year’s end unemployment was 10%.

3/24/2010 Japan’s legislature approves a record ¥92.3 trillion (about $1 trillion) budget intended to stimulate the economy.

People who lost their jobs in the recession queue up outside a government job centre in Madrid on June 2. The number of Spaniards seeking unemployment benefits in mid-2010 rose by 12.3% year-on-year to more than four million.

nomic Research (a group of private economists who act as the arbiters of such matters) determined that the U.S. economy, which had plunged into reverse in December 2007, had reached a trough and officially emerged from recession in June 2009. Even if the economy did not fall into a much-feared double-dip slump, the 18 months already on the books made the so-called Great Re3/24/2010

As a result of the recession, in 2010 the Social Security system will pay more in benefits than it takes in in payroll taxes.

5/7/2010 Leaders of the countries of the euro zone approve a financial rescue package for Greece.

Victor R. Caivano/AP

cession the longest such period of decline since the end of World War II. In its impact on American workers, this recession was also one of the deepest. Although the unemployment rate never came close to its peak of 25% in the Great Depression of the 1930s, the rate hit double digits in October 2009 for only the second time in the postwar period and reached at least a temporary peak in November 2010 of 9.8%. Of the 15.1 million job-seeking unemployed, some 6.3 million had been out of work for at least six months, easily eclipsing the previous postwar high. Another 1.3 million Americans were considered “discouraged” because they had ceased looking for employment. Many, particularly at the older end of the workforce spectrum, had no hope of ever working again. The U.S. Congress had repeatedly extended unemployment compensation to out-of-work Americans and in late 2010 agreed to extend it yet again as part of a larger tax bill. A terrible year for labour, however, turned out to be a good one for capital. Companies that had scored large savings by cutting their workforces during the recession maintained those savings and converted them into productivity gains—2.5% in the third quarter, year on year—by simply leaving their payrolls lean and mean instead of hiring. American corporate profits reached a record high of nearly $1.7 trillion on an annual basis in the July–September quarter of 2010. Stock markets, which had plunged by more than half during the worst of the financial crisis, in March 2009 began an overall rise that had recovered more than three-quarters of their losses by the end of 2010. The Global Impact. Just how global was the global financial crisis? The answer became clearer in 2010, and it emerged that the term was something of a misnomer. Generally, the crisis stung most sharply in developed economies that were most intimately linked to the global economy. More precisely, the recession’s bite was most acute in countries whose financial systems and trade patterns depended on ties with the U.S. Thus, during the period 2008–09, most members of the Organisation for Economic Co5/12/2010 Spain announces a series of austerity measures to reduce the country’s deficit.

Marcio Jose Sanchez/AP

On September 16, women stock up on bread at a community centre food bank in San Jose, Calif. That same day the U.S. Census Bureau reported that in 2009 the national poverty rate reached a 15-year high, with 14.3% of the country, or roughly one in seven Americans, living in poverty. operation and Development (OECD) suffered recessions of varying degrees of severity. Hardest hit were countries that had adopted banking policies most closely echoing those of the U.S. Europe provided multiple case studies. In tiny Iceland a financial bubble proportionately much larger than the one in the U.S. developed and burst; the fallout impoverished much of the country and brought down the government. Latvia saw its economic output fall by one-quarter as Germany and other major trading partners, in recession themselves, reduced Latvian imports. Greece and Ireland, on the brink of bankruptcy, accepted massive bailouts from the EU, although they were plagued less by the financial crisis than by their own government deficits and their use of the euro. (See Sidebar on page 353.) Most of Asia, except Japan, escaped the brunt of the financial crisis. Japan was bruised because its financial system was linked to that of the world’s other richest countries. Its economy shrank in 2008 and 2009—by an annualized 12.1% in the fourth quarter of 2008 alone. The economies of Malaysia and Thailand rebounded smartly in 2010 from minor contractions in 2009. Asia’s other major economies, notably China and India, kept growing as if nothing was amiss in the Western world. China’s growth was

6/7/2010 Germany introduces an austerity package to reduce the budget deficit.

6/22/2010 The U.K. unveils an austerity budget of deep spending cuts and tax increases.

slowed almost imperceptibly by the recessions in the U.S. and other major export markets; growth in the range of 10–15% before the financial crisis fell back to 9–10% annually for the period 2008–10. India slid back to 6.7% growth in 2008–09 before rebounding to a more familiar 7.4% in 2009–10, according to IMF estimates. Indonesia, which had registered growth above 6% in 2007 and 2008, prospered in the shadow of the two Asian giants and showed a gritty resilience during the financial crisis. The Paris-based OECD reported that in 2009 Indonesia’s economic growth slipped to 4.6%, but the OECD estimated that growth would rebound to 6% in 2010 and 2011, especially if, as promised, the government canceled fuel subsidies that disproportionately benefited the rich and distorted energy consumption. If the Asian giants suggested that geographic proximity to the U.S. was not necessary for economic success, the experience of some U.S. neighbours made such proximity seem downright harmful. Economic output in 2009 fell by about 2% in Canada and 6% in Mexico, according to the IMF. Both suffered a decline in exports to their huge North American neighbour as it battled recession. Meanwhile, in South America output gained a bit in Argentina and fell slightly in Brazil. 6/23/2010

Sales of new homes in the U.S. fell 32.7% in May to the lowest level since reporting began in 1963.

7/2/2010 Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) closes at 9686.48, its lowest closing for the year.

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To deal with the financial crisis, countries with emerging economies demanded—and got—a larger role on the world stage. For 35 years the Group of Seven (G7) had provided the leaders of the seven largest industrial democracies—the U.S., Canada, Japan, and the four largest European economies (Germany, France, Italy, and the U.K.)— with a cozy opportunity to discuss economic concerns. In the wake of the Great Recession, however, the G7 was largely supplanted by the Group of 20 (G20), which comprised the G7 members plus the EU and 12 emerging economies: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, and Turkey. The G20 members that were not in the G7 could make a strong case that they represented the economic powers of the future. In 2009, with the financial crisis still going strong, all seven of the G7 countries had shrinking economies. Of the dozen G20 countries not in the G7, the economies of half grew despite the crisis. The IMF estimated that in 2010 every G20 newcomer would outpace every G7 member except Germany and Canada, which were expected to grow slightly faster than Australia and South Africa. When the G20 leaders met in Toronto in June and again in Seoul in November 2010 to discuss the global economy, U.S. Pres. Barack Obama was rebuffed on his three chief proposals. In Toronto the president asked his colleagues to follow the U.S. lead and put in place further government spending programs to stimulate their economies. Other G20 leaders, notably German Chancellor Angela Merkel, rejected such a step as potentially inflationary. Germany was also among the countries that dismissed Obama’s later calls to reduce their trade surpluses. Obama’s other target was China, which for years had been accused of artificially holding down the value of its currency, the renminbi (yuan). A weak renminbi had the effect of making Chinese goods cheaper on world markets. Chinese officials gave conciliatory speeches in Seoul about letting the renminbi find 7/15/2010 Congress passes a bill to increase U.S. government oversight of financial companies and markets; Pres. Barack Obama signs the bill on July 21.

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Police escort an 84-year-old protester, who had lost her home, away from a demonstration outside a Chase Bank branch in Los Angeles on December 16. Angry Americans objected that many banks and Wall Street investment firms that benefited from U.S. government bailouts in 2009 recorded huge profits in 2010 while struggling homeowners faced high rates of foreclosure. its own level, but in practice little changed. The Severity of the Downturn. It was clear that the global Great Recession would never be confused with a gardenvariety downturn in the business cycle. How did the world economy come to such a sorry pass? Fingers everywhere pointed to the U.S.—or, more precisely, mortgage lenders in the U.S. and Wall Street investment bankers. Investment houses had discovered that great profits could flow from the practice of buying hundreds or even thousands of mortgages and bundling them into securities that would provide a steady stream of income from individual mortgage payments. So great was the lure of mortgage-backed securities—and the demand for more mortgages to bundle—that lenders offered “subprime” mortgages to some home buyers who could not be expected to meet their monthly payments. Exotic mortgages designed to hide their real costs proliferated. As more families were enticed into the real-estate market, the price of housing soared. Finally, inevitably, the real-estate bubble burst. Many mortgage holders— particularly those who held subprime mortgages—failed to make their payments. The value of thousands and thousands of properties plunged to less

7/23/2010 All but 7 of the 91 European banks subjected to stress tests are reported to have passed.

8/16/2010 In the second quarter China surpassed Japan as the world’s second largest economy.

than the occupants owed on the mortgage. Some homeowners, among them even ones who could afford to make their mortgage payments, simply walked away from their homes. RealtyTrac, an online marketplace for foreclosure properties, reported about 1.7 million foreclosure filings in the first half of 2010, an 8% increase over the same period a year earlier. One in 78 homes in the U.S. had been the object of some kind of foreclosure action during January–June 2010. Banks and other mortgage holders made matters worse by foreclosing on properties without completing the proper procedures, often wrongly designating properties for foreclosure. Fire sales of foreclosed homes and short sales of homes that had barely escaped foreclosure as owners sold their property for less than the outstanding mortgage continued to depress the realestate market. In 20 major cities, average home prices roughly doubled between 2000 and 2007 and then gave back half their gains in two years before stabilizing at their 2003 level. Mortgage lenders who had made the bulk of the subprime mortgages found themselves stuck with mounds of worthless contracts. The buyers of mortgage-backed securities, including the federally chartered Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, did likewise many times 9/20/2010

NBER declares that the recession in the U.S. ended in June 2009, making it, at 18 months, the longest since the end of World War II.

10/29/2010 The U.S. economy grew in the third quarter by 2%.

Reed Saxon/AP

over. American International Group (AIG), the giant insurance company that had insured mortgage-backed securities against loss, could not make good on its policies. Car sales plunged as buyers could not get loans. Investment houses that had pioneered mortgage-backed securities and held many of them suddenly went from positive to negative net worth. The U.S. government, terrified that the economic engine would freeze up, rescued major players by lending them money or buying their stock, thus partially nationalizing some companies. Among the largest of those that accepted government bailouts were Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, AIG, General Motors, Chrysler, Merrill Lynch, Bear Stearns, and Goldman Sachs. Investment house Lehman Brothers, a pioneer in mortgage-backed securities, was allowed to fail in 2008 as the government sought to show that irresponsible behaviour was not always rewarded by federal aid. That lesson may have been learned, but so was another: that lending was risky. Consequently, the credit markets locked up. The U.S. Department of the Treasury carried out the congressionally mandated Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), which made $700 billion available for support for financial institutions saddled with worthless mortgagebacked securities. The Fed, acting on its own authority, played a much larger role, manufacturing a great variety of novel ways to lend money to teetering businesses whether domestic or foreign, financial or nonfinancial. Thus, TARP enabled controversial government moves to make General Motors a $6.7 billion loan and buy 60.8% of its stock. GM later regained control of the company and repaid the loan (although with a different pot of TARP money). The Treasury estimated that TARP’s ledgers would ultimately show a $29 billion loss, a fraction of the funds put at risk. The Fed meanwhile quietly channeled $3.3 trillion in credit to a host of other businesses, including such American companies as motorcycle manufacturer Harley-Davidson and telecommunications firm Verizon, as well as European11/21/2010 Ireland applies for an EU financial rescue package; EU leaders approve the release of the bailout funds on November 28.

and Asian-owned banks. The Fed did not lose money on any of its lending programs, and it made a profit on some. Jump-Starting the Economy. The Great Recession could hardly have come at a worse time. Traditionally, a government has two weapons—fiscal policy and monetary policy—to combat recessions. Both involve getting more money into people’s hands so that they have more to spend. On the fiscal side, the government can use its budget to cut taxes or increase spending. On the monetary side, it can use its unique power to print money. Both were already going flat out in the U.S., however, when the financial crisis plunged the economy into recession. On the fiscal side, 2009 and 2010 produced the two biggest annual deficits relative to the size of the economy since the end of World War II: almost 10% of total GDP. In dollar terms 2009 was the record holder, at $1.4 trillion, with 2010 in second place. By the end of 2010, the government was spending nearly $10 billion a day, including nearly $4 billion that it had to borrow, and increasingly members of the public were saying that enough was enough. Making the budget outlook still more bleak, the aging baby-boom generation, which was just beginning to reach full retirement age, figured to put enormous pressure on the government’s two biggest entitlement programs, Social Security and Medicare. On the monetary side the outlook was just as unfriendly. The Fed, which controls short-term interest rates directly by dictating the Federal Funds Rate (the interest rate that banks may charge each other for overnight loans), slashed the rate from 4.25% in early 2008 to 0.0–0.25% at year’s end—just about as low as it could go. This did nothing, however, for longer-term rates. In 2008 and 2009 the Fed bought $1.7 trillion in longer-term Treasury securities, which had the effect of taking the securities out of circulation and injecting cash. When that failed to bring longerterm interest rates down sufficiently to boost economic activity, the Fed announced another $600 billion infusion in November 2010. This evoked pre-

11/30/2010 Unemployment in the 16 euro-zone countries rose to 10.1% in October, its highest since 1998; the EU as a whole remained at 9.6%.

12/3/2010 U.S. unemployment in November jumped from 9.6% to 9.8%; only 39,000 nonfarm private-sector jobs were created that month.

dictable criticism from China, which complained that the U.S. was trying to bring down the value of the dollar to boost its exports. Other major American trading partners, including Brazil and Germany, joined the chorus. The German finance minister suggested that the U.S. was engaging in currency manipulation and exhorted the U.S. to shore up its industrial base instead. At home, inflation hawks also warned that the Fed’s easy-money, low-interestrate policy would ultimately trigger another round of uncontrolled price increases. Ben S. Bernanke, the chairman of the Fed and one of the country’s preeminent Great Depression scholars, promised that the Fed was on the lookout daily for signs of inflation. The Fed, by virtue of its independence even from the president, could continue to try to manipulate interest rates and the money supply in the face of congressional opposition. The deficit was another story. Given the astronomical deficits of 2009 and 2010, voices in favour of using more deficit spending to stimulate the economy were scarce, and the Republican gains in Congress in the 2010 midterm elections all but removed that option from the table. (See Sidebar on page 482.) A taste of how difficult it would be to reduce the deficit was offered by a commission appointed by Obama to recommend steps to do just that. The commission’s cochairs—former Republican senator Alan K. Simpson and Erskine Bowles, former chief of staff to Democratic Pres. Bill Clinton—produced a proposal that included raising the Social Security retirement age and eliminating or reducing a host of popular tax breaks, such as the mortgage-interest deduction. When it became clear that the commission could not muster at least 14 of its 18 members to vote in favour of the proposal—the number required to force the measure to the Senate and House floors—the commission simply adjourned without a vote. Joel Havemann is a Former Editor and National and European Economics Correspondent for the Washington, D.C., and Brussels bureaus of the Los Angeles Times.

12/17/2010 Regulators shut down two banks in Georgia and one in Florida, bringing the number of failed banks in the U.S. in 2010 to 154.

12/31/2010 DJIA closes at 11,577.51, up 11% for the year; Nasdaq composite rose 17% in 2010. Gold closes at a record high $1,421.10, and oil closes at $91.38.

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SPECIAL REPORT

BP’s Deepwater Horizon

Oil Spill by Richard Pallardy

T

he explosion on April dome over the largest leak in the 20, 2010, of energy gibroken riser were thwarted by ant BP’s Deepwater the buoyant action of gas hyHorizon oil rig in the drates—gas molecules trapped in Gulf of Mexico, couan ice matrix—which formed pled with its sinking on April 22, when natural gas and cold water led to the largest accidental macombined under high pressure. rine oil spill in history. The rig After an attempt to employ a was located about 66 km (41 mi) “top kill,” whereby drilling mud off the coast of Louisiana. The was pumped into the well to ecological and economic fallout stanch the flow of oil, also failed, was immense, with numerous BP turned in early June to an apjobs, species of wildlife, and paratus called a lower marine communities affected by the riser package (LMRP) cap. The spill. damaged riser was shorn from The Explosion. The Deepwater the LMRP—the top segment of Horizon rig, owned and operthe BOP—and the cap was lowated by offshore-oil-drilling ered into place. Though fitted company Transocean and leased loosely over the BOP, allowing by BP, was situated in the Masome oil to escape, the cap encondo oil prospect in the Misabled BP to siphon approxisissippi Canyon, a valley in the mately 15,000 bbl per day to a continental shelf. The oil well tanker. The addition of an ancilover which it was positioned lary collection system compriswas located on the seabed 1,522 ing several devices, also tapped m (4,993 ft) below the surface into the BOP, increased the coland extended approximately lection rate by approximately 5,486 m (18,000 ft) into the 25,000 bbl a day. rock. On the night of April 20, In early July the LMRP cap was a surge of natural gas blasted removed for several days so that through a cement cap that had On July 12, nearly three months after the explosion a more permanent seal could be recently been installed to seal and sinking of energy giant BP’s Deepwater Horizon installed; this capping stack was the well for later use. The gas offshore oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico, this in place by July 12. Though the traveled up the rig’s riser to the containment cap was lowered to the seabed and leak had slowed before it was platform, where it ignited, installed on the gushing wellhead to finally end the successfully capped, a governkilling 11 workers and injuring massive crude oil leak. ment-commissioned panel of sci17. The rig capsized and sank entists estimated that 4.9 million on the morning of April 22, bbl had already leaked from the rupturing the riser, through which was thought by U.S. scientists and en- well, of which about 800,000 bbl had drilling mud was normally injected in gineers to have peaked at more than been captured. On August 3 BP conorder to counteract the upward pres- 60,000 bbl per day. ducted a “static kill,” a procedure in sure of oil and natural gas. Without Leaking Oil. Although BP attempted to which drilling mud was pumped into the opposing force, oil began to dis- activate the rig’s blowout preventer the well through the BOP. Though simcharge into the Gulf. The volume of (BOP), a fail-safe mechanism designed ilar to the failed top kill, mud could be oil escaping the damaged well—origi- to close the channel through which oil injected at much lower pressures durnally estimated by the U.S. Coast was drawn, the device malfunctioned. ing the static kill because of the stabiGuard at about 1,000 bbl per day— Efforts in May to place a containment lizing influence of the capping stack.

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Reuters—BP/Landov

The defective BOP and the capping stack were removed in early September and replaced by a functioning BOP. The success of these procedures cleared the way for a “bottom kill,” which was considered to be the most likely means of permanently sealing the leak. This entailed pumping cement through a channel—known as a relief well—that paralleled and eventually intersected the original well. Construction of two such wells had begun in May. On September 17 the bottom kill maneuver was successfully executed through the first relief well. The second, intended to serve as a backup, was not completed. Two days later, following a series of pressure tests, it was announced that the well was completely sealed. In May claims by several research groups that they had detected large subsurface plumes of dispersed microscopic oil droplets were initially dismissed by BP and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). In June, however, it was verified that the plumes existed and had come from the Deepwater spill. Their presence cast doubt on earlier predictions about the speed with which the discharged oil would dissipate. Cleanup Efforts. The petroleum that had leaked from the well formed a slick extending over thousands of square kilometres of the Gulf of Mexico. To clean oil from the open water, dispersants— substances that emulsified the oil, thereby allowing for easier metabolism by bacteria—were pumped directly into the leaks and applied aerially to the slick. Booms to corral portions of the slick were deployed, and the contained oil was then siphoned off or burned. As oil began to contaminate Louisiana beaches in May, it was manually removed; more difficult to clean were the state’s marshes and estuaries, where the topography was knit together by delicate plant life. By June oil and tar balls had made landfall on beaches of Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. Thousands of birds, mammals, and sea turtles were plastered with oil. Birds were particularly vulnerable to the effects; many perished from ingesting oil as they tried to clean themselves or because of the substance’s interference with their ability to regulate their body temperatures. The brown pelican, recently delisted as an endangered species, was among the species most affected. Animals found alive were transported to rehabilitation centres

Scientists noted that the prevailing paths of the Gulf of Mexico’s Loop Current and a detached eddy located to the west kept much of the oil from reaching shore.

and, after they had been cleaned and medically evaluated, were released in oil-free areas. The fragile larvae of the many fish and invertebrates that spawned in the Gulf were also likely to be affected. The various cleanup efforts were coordinated by the National Response Team, a group of government departments and agencies headed by the Department of Homeland Security. BP, Transocean, and several other companies were held liable for the millions of dollars in costs accrued. The National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling, formed by U.S. Pres. Barack Obama in May, faulted the Obama administration’s response to the spill in a report issued in October. In December the Justice Department sued BP, along with other companies involved in the disaster, in New Orleans civil court. The commission’s final report, issued in January 2011, attributed the spill to lack of regulatory oversight by the government and negligence and time-saving measures by BP and its partners. Human Impacts. Economic prospects in the Gulf Coast states were dire, as the spill affected many of the industries upon which residents depended. More than one-third of federal waters in the Gulf were closed to fishing at the peak of the spill because of fears of con-

tamination. A moratorium on deepwater drilling, enacted by the Obama administration despite a district court reversal, left an estimated 8,000–12,000 people temporarily unemployed. Few travelers were willing to face the prospect of petroleum-sullied beaches, and those who depended on tourism were left struggling to supplement their incomes. Following demands by President Obama, BP created a $20 billion compensation fund for those affected by the spill. As oil dispersed, portions of the Gulf began reopening to fishing in July, and by October the majority of the closed areas had been judged safe. The drilling moratorium, initially set to expire in November, was lifted in mid-October. The emergence of BP’s British chief executive, Tony Hayward, as the public face of the oil giant further inflamed public sentiment against the embattled company. Deemed by one publication “the most hated—and most clueless— man in America,” Hayward was derided for his alternately flippant and obfuscating responses in media interviews related to the spill and while testifying before the U.S. Congress. He was replaced in October by American Robert Dudley. Richard Pallardy is a Research Editor at Encyclopædia Britannica.

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SPECIAL REPORT

Freedom from Empire:

An Assessment of Postcolonial Africa

by Ebenezer Obadare

T

he currency of the tag postcolonial as a cognomen for countries that once laboured under various forms of European colonial rule tends to obscure the fact that it is at the same time a hotly disputed label. Scholars who embrace it (which is not to say that they are not at the same time critical of it) argue that it is a convenient term for referring to those societies (whether in Africa, Asia, or Latin Amer-

176

ica) that, being former colonies, continue in different ways to display the imprints of European colonialism. To deploy postcolonial in this sense is to account for the subsisting maladies in those places against the background of the exceptional severity of the colonial impact. At the same time, those who refuse to touch the term with a barge pole insist, no doubt with some merit, that behind what is presented as an innocent attempt at periodization often

A giant billboard in Kinshasa proudly proclaims the 50th anniversary of the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s independence from Belgium as a crowd of Congolese spectators watch a military parade in June commemorating the occasion. lurks a derogatory tendency to totalize those societies in an apparent attempt to describe the unique pathologies that Dai Kurokawa—EPA/Landov

they are presumed to embody. In this alternative sense, postcolonial refers not merely to the simple fact that a group of countries share certain characteristics on account of their status as former colonies; it is about the seeming intractability of those problems because they are rooted in a vaguely defined postcolonial culture. These disputations are in their own way echoes of fundamental ideological tensions among those who study postcolonial societies generally. In Africa such tensions funnel down to the ticklish issue of how the history of the continent is to be written—which social agents and political narratives to valorize and what cultural values to affirm and/or defend. These tensions are not irreconcilable. On the one hand, it is possible to acknowledge, as scholar Richard L. Sklar once said, that colonialism has produced “enduring social formations” in Africa without necessarily succumbing to the nihilism (Sklar, to be sure, does not) that those formations are ineradicable. To do so is to dismiss out of hand the corrective capacities of human agency. On the other hand, it is possible, even necessary, to insist on the unpalatability of the existing social order in most of Africa while not balking at the moral imperative of allocating blame not only when, but especially when those who are deserving of blame are African agents themselves; and although the range of possible perspectives on Africa is not exhausted by these polarities, they are at least a reminder of the important fact that when it comes to the history of the continent, very few issues are actually settled. When we talk about postcolonial Africa, therefore, it is important to bear in mind that we are referring to an extraordinarily diverse spectrum of political regimes, economic conditions, and social realities. For instance, while it is common to characterize the entire continent as an economic basket case, the examples of Tunisia, Botswana, Morocco, South Africa, and Egypt—countries with the most stable GDP growth on the entire continent—offer more positive stirrings. This fact is worth reiterating, if only to counter the dogma of those who would use the postcolonial label without the slightest concession to its capacity to gloss over this complexity. Even to assert this complexity is not to deny that African countries are beset by similar social, economic, political, and infrastructural AP

challenges. Rather, it is to affirm that much as this is true, it should not be allowed to detract from the fact that an increasing number of countries (Ghana is a good example) appear to be on the cusp of the most revolutionary transformations seen anywhere in the whole of the less-developed world over the past half century.

Ghanaian Pres. Kwame Nkrumah, who was known for his eloquent oratory, addresses a White House press conference on March 8, 1961, after meeting with U.S. Pres. John F. Kennedy to discuss the prospects of Ghana and other newly independent African countries. Oddly enough, the mood in these expanding economies is reminiscent of the headiness on the rest of the continent in 1960. That year was heralded as the year of Africa’s freedom from empire. In 1960 alone, 17 African countries, 14 of which had been ruled by France, broke free from their European overlords. These were Cameroon (January 1), Togo (April 27), Mali (June 20), Senegal (June 20), Madagascar (June 26), the Democratic Republic of the Congo (June 30), Somalia (July 1), Benin (August 1), Niger (August 3), Burkina Faso (August 5), Côte d’Ivoire (August 7), Chad (August 11), the Central African Republic (August 13), the Republic of the Congo (August 15), Gabon (August 17), Nigeria (October 1), and Mauritania (November 28). Earlier, Egypt (1922), Ethiopia (1941), Libya (1951), and, between 1956 and 1958, Sudan, Morocco, Tunisia, Ghana, and Guinea had blazed the trail in

becoming fully independent African countries. Other countries snapped their chains at different points in the course of the 1960s, while late decolonization brought the fruits of independence to Angola and Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Namibia, in 1975, 1980, and 1990, respectively. (See Map.) At the dawn of independence in these countries, the thrill of autonomous nationhood was matched by the anticipation of material elevation. There was understandable expectation that political freedom would translate into instant economic dividends. The giddiness of those days was most famously rendered in the soaring rhetoric of Ghana’s first president, Kwame Nkrumah, who boldly proclaimed that once African countries realized “the political kingdom” for which they had so valiantly struggled, it was only a matter of time before “all things shall be added.” As if to confirm Nkrumah’s optimism, the initial auguries were in fact very positive. The first two decades of postindependence have been rightly described as the “golden era” of African development. This is no surprise, as they coincided with massive state outlays for social and physical infrastructure. Many of the new states reaped the rewards for their investments with periods of sustained growth: the average rate of annual GDP growth in Africa during the 1960s and 1970s was nearly 5%, with Botswana, Gabon, and Côte d’Ivoire (easily the most successful African performers) notching upwards of 7% growth. This period of excellent economic performance lasted until the early 1980s, following which the story for most African economies has been one of consistent decline. The reversal of economic fortunes is indexed by the fact that today Africa receives the highest amount of foreign grants and loans per capita of any region of the world. Indeed, according to the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative’s 2010 Multidimensional Poverty Index, the 10 poorest countries in the world are in Africa (from poorest to least poor): Niger, Ethiopia, Mali, the Central African Republic, Burundi, Liberia, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Rwanda. The dispute over how African countries seem to have snatched grim destitution from the jaws of economic prosperity is far from settled, and the battle line remains drawn between those who blame problems that were 177

inherited at independence and others who contend that African countries (by which they mean African leaders) are solely responsible for their own wretched lot. Both positions have merits that are worth pondering. Those who plead colonial incapacitation argue that while African countries might have thought that they had secured political independence from their colonial masters, what they actually got was a caricature rather than the substance of independence. In this view, political independence was a mere facade for the retention of actual economic power by the colonial masters, insofar as power was transferred to a local elite whose weltanschauung was no different from the Europeans’. In reality, so the argument goes, what this meant was that colonial rule perdured through other means, with the important difference that while the former European masters were white, their African successors were black. No doubt this argument is often overstated, but the reality that it seeks to apprehend is legitimate nonetheless: the one lament most likely to be heard from citizens in Africa nowadays is 178

that just as in colonial days, their leaders do not seem to give a hoot about their welfare. Many citizens, amid obvious frustration, have toyed with the idea of a romanticized return to what they are convinced were the certainties of the colonial era. Emergent scholarship on the colonial era in Africa has qualified this view somewhat by suggesting, controversially, that since African subjects themselves were complicit in the implementation of colonial governmentality (think for a moment of the army of “local custodians” required to carry through various colonial ordinances), it is dishonest to describe them as innocent victims of colonial rule. The logic of this position is that postcolonial African leaders may indeed have been recipients of a mode of power that was guaranteed to perpetuate the hegemony of the colonial masters, but these leaders took the reins with their eyes wide open and could not claim total ignorance of the structure of a system that they themselves had partly implemented, if not designed. The latter constitutes the point of departure for those who indict African agency for Africa’s

myriad problems. Such people point to the absence of accountability among officeholders, political arbitrariness, endemic corruption, and persistent human rights abuses as the bane of the African political class and the signal reasons why the majority of African countries are, as it were, stuck in a rut. Zimbabwe and Nigeria are often invoked, rightly, to a degree, as prime examples of countries where these factors have produced a state of developmental stasis. Was Africa dealt a bad hand at independence, or did Africans dig themselves into a hole from which they have so far failed to extricate themselves? Are the economic and political problems of African countries a result of an international Western conspiracy or a concatenation of foreign and domestic factors that astute political agency might have alleviated? Contrasting answers to these questions are possible on the bases of contradictory African examples. Given the well-documented plunder in the late 1800s of the Congo region under Belgium’s King Leopold II, for instance, Congolese could justly complain that their country was dealt

a bad hand at independence. The Republic of the Congo (now called the Democratic Republic of the Congo) was born in the throes of violently enforced slave labour, and the country’s traumatic history continued after independence when Western leaders, ostensibly on the trail of “Soviet-backed communists,” went after authentic representatives of the people (e.g., nationalist Patrice Lumumba, the country’s first prime minister [June–September 1960]) and paved the way for a pliable but vicious leadership (by Mobutu Sese Seko [1965–97]). With the Cold War as backdrop, this pattern was repeated in several other African countries; Somalia, Angola, and Mozambique immediately come to mind. The example of Botswana, for instance, would seem to suggest that neither colonial rule nor continued Western interference need be a death sentence. Scholars who take this position point to the landlocked Southern African country as an example of an African nation that has risen from the ashes of British colonialism to construct one of the most politically stable and economically prosperous societies on the continent—though it is fair to say that Britain never quite went after “Soviet-backed communists” in Botswana after the colony won independence in September 1966. The Botswana “miracle” is usually attributed to a range of factors, especially a relatively coherent and disciplined leadership and a strong civil service— in short, an efficient state, the kind that seems to be missing in such places as Nigeria, Chad, Sudan, and Cameroon. Yet, whether one sees the bottle as half full or half empty, or whether one blames foreign or domestic factors for postcolonial Africa’s woes, two points seem clear. One is that both positions can end up seeming frustratingly inadequate. There is always a tendency, after all, to read too much meaning—or too little, for that matter—into current events in Africa, a tendency that often leaves analysts of various hues looking rather distant from the rough-and-tumble of local milieus. The second point deserves greater elaboration. In attempting to counter narratives of gloom in which postcolonial Africa’s so-called backwardness is pinned on an inscrutable “African essence,” scholars often cite economic statistics that appear to show conclusively that the continent is embarked on an upward spiral. They note, for exAP

ample, that since 2000 Africa’s economic growth has accelerated. Indeed, from 2000 to 2008 collective GDP grew by leaps and bounds, rising 4.9% (a June 2010 McKinsey Global Institute report put Africa’s collective GDP in 2008 at $1.6 trillion, roughly equal to that of Brazil or Russia). Scholars point, moreover, to an increase in for-

In 2010 Belgian lawyers sought to bring war-crimes charges against Belgian officials and military officers believed to have been involved in the murder of the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s first prime minister, Patrice Lumumba, who was assassinated in January 1961, just months after this photo was taken. eign direct investment in Africa from $9 billion in 2000 to $62 billion in 2008, and they cite rapid growth in the region’s domestic service sectors—such as banking, retailing, and telecommunications—as household incomes have climbed. Such positive trends would seem to bode well for Africa. Now, one might pour water on this enthusiasm by noting that we have been here before (witness the African “golden era” referenced earlier) or by remarking that such is the fragility of many political regimes in Africa that these important gains remain susceptible to quick reversals. Those observations would be valid. They are not the point I am pursuing here, however. What I would like to underscore is simultaneously more mundane and more profound: even when the most positive

economic indicators are indisputable, they invariably exist cheek by jowl with deep immiseration. South Africa perfectly emblematizes this striking paradox of high economic development and profound human degradation. Africa’s biggest economy by some distance, South Africa in 2009 boasted a per capita GDP of $10,000 and ranked a proud 31st on the global GDP scale. Yet 22% of its 49.3 million people (2009 estimate) were living at or below the national poverty line in 2008, and nearly 22% were unemployed. South Africa, of course, has its own problems, intelligible in the specific matrix of the enduring effects of apartheid capitalism and its skewed distribution of economic advantages on the basis of race. But the pattern in South Africa—of stupendous poverty in the midst of plenty—is hardly unique. The pattern is the sociological backdrop to the angry militarism of young “emancipation fighters” in the oil-producing Niger Delta, the material underpinning of the turn to religious essentialism on sundry college campuses across western Africa, and easily the most important factor behind the ceaseless hemorrhage of highly skilled people from every region of the continent to Europe, North America, and increasingly Asia. In pondering this and other ancillary issues, one invariably arrives at the critical crossroads where the question of the continued legitimacy of the postcolonial state becomes the key issue. If the postcolonial state in most of Africa has become nothing more than an institutional appendix, what is the point of keeping it alive? The debate that emanates from this critical question is at the heart of most discussions about the character of politics and the nature of political contestation in contemporary Africa. For the underprivileged, though, the debate has always taken a radically different slant. For instance, while the elite’s quest for political liberalization in Africa that took wing in the mid-1980s has had state “reform” as its goal, the underprivileged have consistently agitated for a root-and-branch perestroika that they hope will eventuate in wealth redistribution. It would seem at the moment that only serious attention to the latter can stem the continued erosion of the legitimacy of the postcolonial state in Africa. Ebenezer Obadare is Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of Kansas.

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SPECIAL REPORT

Yemen’s

Perilous State by Robert Burrowes

B

y early 2010 the struggle faced by Yemen and its antiterrorist allies against alQaeda, the Islamic militant organization, had come to dominate that country’s narrative. Since 2007 the Yemeni state had been seriously challenged by a rebellion in the north, a secessionist movement in the south, and the revival of al-Qaeda throughout the country. Yemen, divided by tribal and other political forces and marked by corruption and inefficiency, had been judged by many to have a failing state that could become a failed state. In February 2010 the regime headed by !Ali !Abdullah Salih and the northern al-Huthi rebels reached an uneasy truce. Shortly thereafter, after a spasm of violence, the southern secession seemed to lose momentum, although this may have been partly an artifact of the regime’s conflating some secessionist activities with those of alQaeda. In any case, with al-Qaeda resurgent, a revised narrative held out the prospect of Yemen’s becoming a failed state and a major base for transnational political Islam as well as terrorism. Al-Qaeda’s revival had been heralded in early 2009 by the creation of alQaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), a merger of the Saudi Arabian and Yemeni branches and based in Yemen. AQAP’s verbal barrage called for the overthrow of the Saudi and Yemeni regimes “subservient” to the U.S. and their replacement with an Islamic caliphate. Even before this development, a new al-Qaeda leadership had launched attacks against tourists, foreign facilities, and government forces. Most notable was the September 2008 suicide bombing of the U.S. embassy in Sanaa, Yemen’s capital, killing 17. Increasingly over the next two years, AQAP attacked Yemen’s se-

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On June 10, antigovernment protesters march under the flag of the former People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen) near the town of Labous in southern Yemen. Many southern Yemenis never accepted their country’s 1990 unification with the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen). curity forces, mostly in the south; many of the latter were killed, including 13 at security headquarters in the city of Aden. In April 2010 a suicide bomber failed in an attempt to assassinate Britain’s ambassador in Sanaa. By early 2009, prodded by the U.S. and newly aware that AQAP posed a threat to it, the Salih regime had largely abandoned its old live-and-letlive policy toward al-Qaeda. Indeed, President Salih declared “total war” on AQAP in early 2010. Operations by military and security forces increased markedly, as did arrests and trials. In the fall of 2010, the military laid siege to two large southern towns harbouring al-Qaeda elements. By this time,

moreover, the U.S. had clandestinely increased CIA and Special Operations units in Yemen and was already conducting joint actions with the country. Most notable were the large and lethal air strikes conducted in the south on Dec. 17 and 24, 2009, and another one in May 2010. The event that focused United States attention on AQAP was the failed Christmas 2009 attempt by a young Nigerian to blow up a Detroit-bound plane, an incident that highlighted the danger non-Yemenis trained and radicalized in Yemen posed to the U.S. and Europe. By late 2009 the personification of the struggle had become Anwar al-Awlaki, an American-born militant STR—Reuters/Landov

cleric of Yemeni origins who had capacity to do what had to be proved to be a skillful Internet done to make Yemen’s economy propagandist. Awlaki, finding and society viable and sustainsafe haven amid the Awlaki tribe able. The reasons for this lay in in the south, became an informal the natures of the Yemeni state voice of AQAP and called for atand the Salih regime. The state tacks on the U.S. and Americans. was weak and lacking in capacity He had counseled the Nigerian because of insufficient state bomber and the U.S. army offibuilding over several decades, cer who in mid-2009 killed 13 and the regime, despite its demcolleagues at Ft. Hood, Texas. In ocratic facade, remained an oliApril 2010 the CIA put Awlaki on garchy consisting mostly of milia capture-or-kill list. tary and security officers, tribal The equating of Yemen and terleaders, and northern businessrorism increased sharply in the men. Beginning in the late 1980s, U.S. and spread throughout Eumoreover, it evolved into a sperope with the discovery in late cial kind of oligarchy, a kleptocOctober of two bombs sent from racy—i.e., government of, by, and Yemen on U.S.-bound air cargo In Aden, the second largest city in Yemen and the for the few who use their posiplanes. Under increasing pres- former capital of the People’s Democratic Republic tions to divert public funds for sure, Yemen in early November of Yemen (South Yemen), black smoke billows from their private gain. Operating announced a trial in absentia of the intelligence services building, which on June 19 from “profit centres” through Awlaki on charges of incitement came under attack by suspected al-Qaeda gunmen. which flowed increasing oil revto murder foreigners. enues and aid, this militaryIn late 2010 the U.S. declared tribal-business complex proAQAP a greater threat than its coun- for 32 years, had over time lost most of duced a Yemen best distinguished by terpart in Pakistan. Months earlier its support and legitimacy owing to its rampant corruption, staggering inWashington had doubled aid to Yemen failure to meet the basic wants and equality, an eroded infrastructure, and to $150 million and promised to in- needs articulated by the Yemeni people. hollowed-out social institutions. crease it to $300 million in the next fis- The politics of 1990–95, framed by the Deflecting Yemen’s trajectory toward cal year. Indeed, the Pentagon in late unification of the two Yemens in 1990 state failure would require the coordi2010 proposed to increase aid to $1.2 and the war of secession in 1994, were nation of international and domestic billion over six years. Also in 2010, matched by profound economic and so- forces to effect massive changes in ecomore than 20 Western and Arab states cial changes. Yemen’s failure to join in nomic and social policy and govermet twice to create the Friends of the effort to force Iraq from Kuwait in nance. Friends of Yemen could have an Yemen for the purposes of both in- 1990–91 led Saudi Arabia to expel the important role to play, using carrots creasing aid for Yemen and pressuring approximately 800,000 Yemeni workers and sticks. However, most of the Yemen to adopt the major reforms whose remittances were key to the roughly $6 billion pledged at the 2006 needed for that aid to be used effec- Yemeni economy in the 1970s and ’80s. London Conference remained undelivtively. These gatherings were prepara- In addition to virtually destroying the ered and unspent in 2010. While the tory for a major Friends of Yemen remittance system, the expulsion sud- donor community had resorted to meeting to be held in Saudi Arabia in denly created massive unemployment; threats and punishments, it had freearly 2011. widespread poverty soon followed. The quently backed down in the face of Doubts persisted, however. Donors modest inflow of oil revenues that be- Yemen’s defiance. questioned whether, as in the past, eco- gan in the late 1980s only temporarily Short of a coup or a revolution, the nomic aid would be lost to incompe- cushioned this economic disaster. domestic political changes required call tence and corruption and whether mil- Yemen had become just another Third for a credible opposition strong enough itary aid would be turned against the World country—and one of the poorest to persuade or pressure the Salih regime’s non-AQAP enemies. Despite of them. regime to effect the needed reforms. his pledges of support, President Salih In 1995, with the economy in free-fall, The 2009 parliamentary elections were still had to balance U.S. demands the Salih regime and the IMF and the postponed because of political turmoil against a domestic political landscape World Bank agreed on a long-term mul- and the inability of the regime and opmarked by strong Islamic sensibilities, tistage package of reforms designed to position to agree on the terms of the Yemeni nationalism, and anti-American restore Yemen’s viability and attract elections. For needed change to occur, feelings. In addition, the tribes often foreign donors and private investment. a lot would depend on whether these felt compelled to confront the state Initially, the regime and its interna- elections, rescheduled for 2011, and the when it acted against militants seeking tional partners worked together to im- 2013 presidential elections were held refuge in tribal areas. Finally, some sen- plement successive reforms. By 1998, and, if they were, the outcomes. The ior military officers and politicians in- however, as the reforms demanded fun- past gives little reason for optimism. side the Salih regime were themselves damental changes in the economy and militants or politically tied to them. governance, the regime largely stopped Robert Burrowes was an Adjunct Professor at the University of Washington’s Jackson School The turmoil and violence of the past implementing them. decade were but symptoms of the exClearly, the Salih regime from the late of International Studies, and he is the author tent to which the Salih regime, in office 1990s demonstrated a lack of will and of the Historical Dictionary of Yemen. AP

181

SPECIAL REPORT

Cyberwarfare: The Invisible Threat by John B. Sheldon

C

omputers and the ical attacks usually occur durnetworks that coning conventional conflicts, nect them are colsuch as NATO’s Operation Allectively known as lied Force against Yugoslavia the domain of cyin 1999 and the U.S.-led operberspace, and in 2010 the issue ation against Iraq in 2003, in of security in cyberspace came which communication netto the fore, particularly the works, computer facilities, and growing fear of cyberwarfare telecommunications were damwaged by other states or their aged or destroyed. proxies against government Attacks can be made against and military networks in order the syntactic layer by using cyto disrupt, destroy, or deny berweapons that destroy, intertheir use. In the U.S., Secretary fere with, corrupt, monitor, or of Defense Robert Gates on otherwise damage the softMay 21 formally announced ware. Such weapons include the appointment of Army Gen. malicious software, or malKeith B. Alexander, director of ware, such as viruses, trojans, the National Security Agency spyware, and worms that can (NSA), as the first commander U.S. Army Gen. Keith B. Alexander (left) acknowledges introduce corrupted code. In of the newly established U.S. the applause of Secretary of Defense Robert Gates distributed denial of service Cyber Command (USCYBER- (right) and others on May 21 after having taken charge (DDoS) attacks, hackers, using COM). The announcement was of the newly created U.S. Cyber Command. malware, hijack a large numthe culmination of more than a ber of computers to create botyear of preparation by the Denets, groups of zombie compartment of Defense. Soon after a govare becoming more reliant upon cyber- puters that then attack other targeted ernment Cyberspace Policy Review was space every year. Therefore, the threat computers, preventing their proper published in May 2009, Gates had isof cyberwar and its purported effects function. This method was used in cysued a memorandum calling for the esare a source of great concern for gov- berattacks against Estonia in April and tablishment of USCYBERCOM, and ernments and militaries around the May 2007 and against Georgia in AuAlexander underwent months of U.S. world. Cyberwarfare should not be con- gust 2008. On both occasions it was alSenate hearings before he was profused with the terrorist use of cyber- leged that Russian hackers, mostly moted to a four-star general in May space or with cyberespionage or cyber- civilians, conducted DDoS attacks 2010 and confirmed in his new posicrime. Some states that have engaged against key government, financial, metion. USCYBERCOM, based at Fort in cyberwar may also have engaged in dia, and commercial Web sites. In 2010 Meade, Maryland, was charged with disruptive activities such as cyberespi- Australian government Web sites came conducting all U.S. military cyberoperonage, but such activities in themselves under DDoS attack by cyberactivists ations across thousands of computer do not constitute cyberwar. protesting national Internet filters. networks and with mounting offensive The cyberspace domain is composed Semantic cyberattacks manipulate strikes in cyberspace if required. USof three layers: the physical, including human users’ perceptions and interpreCYBERCOM became fully operational hardware, cables, satellites, and other tations of computer-generated data in in late 2010. equipment; the syntactic, which in- order to obtain valuable information Attacks in Cyberspace. Western councludes computer operating systems and (such as passwords, financial details, tries depend on cyberspace for the other software; and the semantic, and classified government information) everyday functioning of nearly all aswhich involves human interaction with from the users through fraudulent pects of modern society, including critthe information generated by comput- means. Social engineering techniques ical infrastructures and financial instiers and the way that information is per- include phishing (attackers send seemtutions, and less-developed countries ceived and interpreted by its user. Phys- ingly innocuous e-mails to targeted 182

Cherie Cullen/Department of Defense

users, inviting them to divulge protected information for apparently legitimate purposes) and baiting (malwareinfected software is left in a public place in the hope that a target user will find and install it, thus compromising the entire computer system). Semantic methods are used mostly to conduct espionage and criminal activity. Cybercrime, Cyberespionage, or Cyberwar? One of the first references to the term cyberwar can be found in Cyberwar Is Coming!, a landmark article by John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, two researchers for the RAND Corporation, published in 1993 in the journal Comparative Strategy. The term is increasingly controversial, however, and many experts in the fields of computer security and international politics suggest that the cyberactivities in question can be more accurately described as crime, espionage, or even terrorism but not necessarily as war, since the latter term has important political, legal, and military implications. It is far from apparent that an act of espionage by one state against another, via cyberspace, equals an act of war—just as traditional methods of espionage have rarely, if ever, led to war. For example, a number of countries, including India, Germany, and the U.S., believe that they have been victims of Chinese cyberespionage efforts, but overall diplomatic relations remain undamaged. Similarly, criminal acts perpetrated in and from cyberspace are viewed as a matter for law enforcement, though there is evidence to suggest that Russian organized crime syndicates helped to facilitate the cyberattacks against Georgia in 2008 and that they were hired by either Hamas or Hezbollah to attack Israeli Web sites. On the other hand, a cyberattack made by one state against another, resulting in damage against critical infrastructures or financial networks, might legitimately be considered an armed attack if attribution could be reliably proved. In recent years cyberwar has assumed a more prominent role in conventional armed conflicts, ranging from the Israeli-Hezbollah conflict in Lebanon in 2006 to the Russian invasion of Georgia in 2008. In these cases cyberattacks were launched by all belligerents before the armed conflicts began, and cyberattacks continued long after the shooting stopped, yet it cannot be claimed that the cyberattacks caused the conflicts. Similarly, the cyberattacks against Estonia in 2007 were conducted in the context of a wider political crisis. Tech. Sgt. Cecilio Ricardo/U.S. Air Force

American airmen at Barksdale Air Force Base, Louisiana, update antivirus software in July in an effort to prevent hackers from accessing military computer networks. The Air Force Cyberspace Command was part of the new U.S. Cyber Command. Cyberattack and Cyberdefense. Despite its increasing prominence, there are many challenges for both attackers and defenders engaging in cyberwarfare. In order to be effective in a cyberattack, however, the perpetrator has to succeed only once, whereas the defender must be successful over and over again. Another challenge is the difficulty of distinguishing between lawful combatants and civilian noncombatants. Civilians are capable of mounting and participating in cyberattacks against state agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and individual targets. The legal status of such individuals—under the laws of armed conflict and the Geneva Conventions—is unclear, presenting additional difficulty for those prosecuting and defending against cyberwar. Perhaps the greatest challenge is the anonymity of cyberspace, in which anyone can mask his or her identity, location, and motive. For example, there is little solid evidence linking the Russian government to the Estonian and Georgian cyberattacks, so one can only speculate as to what motivated the attackers. If the identity, location, and motivation of an attack cannot be established, it becomes very difficult to deter such an attack, and using offensive cybercapabilities in retaliation carries a strong and often unacceptable risk that the wrong target will face reprisal. Key features of any country’s major cyberdefense structure include firewalls to filter network traffic, encryption of data, tools to prevent and detect network intruders, physical security of equipment and facilities, and training

and monitoring of network users. A growing number of modern militaries also are creating units specifically designed to defend against the escalating threat of cyberwar, including the U.S. Air Force and the U.S. Navy, both of which formed new commands under USCYBERCOM. In the U.K. the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) created a Cyber Security Operations Centre in September 2009, and France set up its Network and Information Security Agency in July 2009. In October 2010 Australia’s Defence Signals Directorate reported a huge increase in cyberattacks on that country’s military computer networks. While the present focus is on defending against cyberattacks, the use of offensive cybercapabilities is also being considered. In many Western countries such capabilities are proscribed extensively by law and are alleged to be the preserve of intelligence agencies such as the NSA in the U.S. and GCHQ in the U.K. In China it is believed that organizations such as the General Staff Department Third and Fourth Departments, at least six Technical Reconnaissance Bureaus, and a number of People’s Liberation Army Information Warfare Militia Units are all charged with cyberdefense, attack, and espionage. Similarly, it is thought that in Russia both the Federal Security Service and the Ministry of Defense are the lead agencies for cyberwar activities. John B. Sheldon is Professor of Space Security and Cybersecurity at the School of Advanced Air and Space Studies, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama.

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SPECIAL REPORT

The Tea Party: A New Force in U.S. Politics

Tea Party supporters gather at the former McClellan Air Force Base in Sacramento, Calif., on September 12 to listen to Mark Meckler (onstage) at a rally sponsored by the Tea Party Patriots, a group he cofounded.

by Michael Ray

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n Nov. 2, 2010, voters in the United States headed to the polls for a midterm election that in some ways served as a referendum on the presidency of Barack Obama. (See Sidebar on page 482.) With a Democrat in the White House and Democratic majorities in both houses of Congress, pundits and poll watchers expected the electorate to support Republican candidates as a way of providing “balance” to the government. This voting response was typical when a single party controlled both the executive and legislative branches, but a wild card was at play in this election cycle. The Tea Party, a conservative populist social and political movement that had emerged in 2009, exerted an amount of influence that was surprising, given the group’s lack of centralized leadership. Generally opposing what they considered excessive taxation, immigration, and government in-

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tervention in the private sector, Tea Party-affiliated candidates by the dozen won the Republican nominations for their respective U.S. Senate, House, and gubernatorial races. In Kentucky, for example, Rand Paul, son of former Libertarian presidential candidate Ron Paul, captured the Republican primary for a seat in the U.S. Senate. In a decision that was widely seen as a repudiation of the Republican Party establishment, Paul defeated Trey Grayson, Kentucky’s secretary of state and the favoured choice of Senate minority leader and Kentuckian Mitch McConnell. Successes such as these sparked a conflict of ideological purity, and a push-pull relationship between Tea Party supporters and the Republican Party ensued, with each side presenting itself as the true representative of conservative values. In some states Tea Party candidates won endorsement from local Republican groups, while in others they provoked a

backlash from the Republican establishment. When ballots were finally cast in the general election, it seemed that the Tea Party label mattered less than the strength of an individual candidate. In Delaware, Christine O’Donnell, who endured lampooning by the national media because of statements she had made on Bill Maher’s Politically Incorrect television program years earlier, lost the Senate race by a wide margin, and in Nevada embattled Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, despite low approval ratings, defeated Tea Party candidate Sharron Angle. Rand Paul coasted to a comfortable victory in Kentucky, and in Florida Tea Party nominee Marco Rubio won a three-way Senate race that included the sitting Republican governor, Charlie Crist. Dan Maes, running as a Republican with Tea Party backing, faded from contention for the Colorado governor’s office after former Republican presidential candidate Tom Tancredo entered the race on the American Constitution Party ticket. Mike Lee won an easy victory in Utah’s Senate race with a platform that advocated both strict adherence to the U.S. Constitution and a desire to alter it—specifically, changing or repealing the 14th and 17th Amendments (which grant birthright citizenship and the direct election of U.S. senators, respectively). Perhaps the most surprising result came from the 2008 GOP vice presidential nominee and former Alaskan governor Sarah Palin’s home state, where the Tea Party candidate for the U.S. Senate, Joe Miller, won the Republican nomination but faced a strong general election challenge from incumbent Republican Lisa Murkowski, who chose to run as a write-in candidate. After weeks of vote tallying, Murkowski appeared to have a commanding lead, and she declared victory on November 17. Historically, populist movements in the U.S. have arisen in response to periods of economic hardship. In the wake of the financial crisis that swept Steve Yeater/AP

U.S. Sen. Lisa Murkowski of Alaska takes a break on the campaign trail in October. Murkowski lost the Republican primary to a Tea Party-backed challenger, but she retained her seat after waging a historic write-in campaign in the general election in November.

the globe in 2008, populist sentiment was once more on the rise. The catalyst for what would become known as the Tea Party movement came on Feb. 19, 2009, when Rick Santelli, a commentator on the business-news network CNBC, referenced the Boston Tea Party (1773) in his response to President Obama’s mortgage-relief plan. Speaking from the floor of the Chicago Mercantile Exchange, Santelli heatedly stated that the bailout would “subsidize the losers’ mortgages” and proposed a Chicago Tea Party to protest government intervention in the housing market. The five-minute video clip became an Internet sensation, and the “Tea Party” rallying cry struck a chord with those who had already seen billions of dollars flow toward sagging financial firms. Unlike previous populist movements, which were characterized by a distrust of business in general and bankers in particular, the Tea Party movement focused its ire at the federal government and extolled the virtues of free-market principles. Within weeks Tea Party chapters began to appear around the U.S., using social media sites such as Facebook to coordinate protest events. They were spurred on by conservative pundits, particularly by Fox News Channel’s Glenn Beck. The generally libertarian character of the movement drew disaffected Republicans to the Tea Party banner, and its antigovernment tone resonated with members of the paramilitary militia movement. Obama himself served as a powerful recruiting tool as the Tea Party ranks were swelled by “Birthers”—individuals who claimed, despite incontrovertible evidence to the (Top left) Chris Miller/AP; (top right) Ed Reinke/AP

Tea Party favourite Rand Paul campaigns for a U.S. Senate seat from Kentucky at a rally on July 10. Paul defeated the mainstream candidate in the Republican primary and was elected to the Senate on November 2.

contrary, that Obama had been born outside the U.S. and was thus not eligible to serve as president—as well as by those who considered Obama a socialist and those who believed the unsubstantiated rumour that Obama, a practicing Christian, was secretly a Muslim. The Tea Party movement’s first major action was a nationwide series of rallies on April 15, 2009, that drew more than 250,000 people. April 15 is historically the deadline for filing individual income-tax returns, and protesters claimed that “Tea” was an acronym for “Taxed Enough Already.” The movement gathered strength throughout the summer of 2009, with its members appearing at congressional town hall meetings to protest the proposed reforms to the American health care system. The frequent branding of government policies as socialist recalled the rhetoric of the Cold War-era John Birch Society (JBS), and it was not uncommon to see some Tea Party groups and the JBS working in concert. At the national level, a number of groups claimed to represent the Tea Party movement as a whole, but with a few exceptions the Tea Party lacked a clear leader. When Palin resigned as governor of Alaska in July 2009, she became an unofficial spokesperson of sorts on Tea Party issues, and in February 2010 she delivered the keynote address at the first National Tea Party Convention. Beck, whose 9/12 Project— so named for Beck’s “9 principles and 12 values” as well as for the obvious allusion to the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks—drew tens of thousands of protesters to the U.S. Capitol on Sept. 12, 2009, also offered daily affirmations of

Tea Party beliefs on his TV and radio shows. FreedomWorks, a supply-side economics advocacy group headed by former Republican House majority leader Dick Armey, provided logistic support for larger gatherings, and Sen. Jim DeMint of South Carolina supported Tea Party candidates from within the Republican establishment. The absence of a central organizing structure was cited as proof of the Tea Partiers’ grassroots credentials, but it also meant that the movement’s goals and beliefs were highly localized and even personalized. In the special election in January 2010 to fill the U.S. Senate seat left vacant by the death of Ted Kennedy, dark-horse candidate Scott Brown defeated Kennedy’s presumptive successor, Massachusetts Attorney General Martha Coakley. That race shifted the balance in the Senate, depriving the Democrats of the 60-vote filibuster-proof majority that they had held since July 2009. With its mixed performance at the midterm polls, it remained to be seen if the Tea Party could maintain its momentum through another election cycle. While certain elements appeared to have been co-opted into the mainstream Republican Party, others remained well apart, focusing on single policy issues or rejecting the trappings of power almost as a matter of principle. The diffuse collection of groups and individuals who made up the Tea Party movement was unique in the history of American populism, as it seemed to draw strength from its ability to “stick apart.” Michael Ray is an Assistant Editor, Geography, at Encyclopædia Britannica.

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SPECIAL REPORT

Invasive Species:

Exotic Intruders T by John P. Rafferty

he increasing prevalence of invasive species and their impact on biodiversity briefly pushed global warming and climate change out of the environmental spotlight, especially since the United Nations and many conservation organizations recognized 2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity. In particular, the activities of two invasive groups of animals in North America—the Asian carp, a collection of Eurasian fishes that belonged to the family Cyprinidae, and the Burmese python (Python molurus bivittatus)—received the most attention during the year. Invasive species, which are also known as exotic or alien species, are plants, animals, and other organisms that have been introduced either accidentally or deliberately by human actions into places outside their natural geographic range. Many foreign species set free in new environments do not survive very long because they do not possess the evolutionary tools to adapt to the challenges of the new habitat. Some species introduced to new environments, however, have a built-in competitive advantage over native species; they can establish themselves in the new environment and disrupt ecological processes there, especially if their new habitat lacks natural predators to keep them in check. Since invasive competitors thwart native species in their bid to obtain food, over time they can effectively replace, and thus eliminate from the ecosystem, the species they compete with. On the other hand, invasive predators, which also could spread diseases, may be so adept at capturing prey that prey populations decline over time, and many prey species are eliminated from affected ecosystems. One of the best contemporary examples of an invasive competitor is the Asian carp. After having been taken to

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Asian carp, voracious eaters of algae and plankton, make their way upstream in the Kansas River near Edwardsville, Kan. Environmentalists, state government officials, and the members of the sportfishing and tourism industries feared that these fish could drastically alter Great Lakes ecosystems. the United States in the 1970s to help control algae on catfish farms in the Deep South, bighead carp (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) and silver carp (H. molitrix) escaped into the Mississippi River system during flooding episodes in the early 1990s. After establishing self-sustaining populations in the lower Mississippi River, they began to move northward. Thus far, they have been restricted to the Mississippi River watershed; however, it is feared that they will enter the Great Lakes through the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. Once in the Great Lakes ecosystem, they could seriously disrupt the food chains of the major lakes and adjoining rivers. These two species of carp pose the greatest danger. They consume large amounts of algae and zooplankton, eating as much as 40% of their body weight per day. They are fierce competitors that often push aside native fish to ob-

tain food, and their populations grow rapidly, accounting for 90% of the biomass in some stretches of the Mississippi and Illinois rivers. (Some scientists suggest, however, that the carp’s impact may be tempered by the presence of the quagga mussel, Dreissena bugensis, a filter-feeding mollusk that has already scoured plankton from parts of the Great Lakes.) In addition, silver carp often leap out of the water when startled by noise, creating lifethreatening aerial hazards to anglers, water-skiers, and boaters. With the discovery of Asian carp DNA in the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal and in Lake Michigan, a controversy erupted between Illinois and a coalition of other Great Lakes states and a Canadian province. The coalition then asked Illinois to close the locks to prevent the transfer of the carp between the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes. Travis Heying—Wichita Eagle/AP

A Burmese python is displayed wrapped around the arm of a researcher during a news conference in the Florida Everglades. These dangerous constrictor snakes were responsible for the decline of native rodents, birds, reptiles, and amphibians in regions where they had been introduced.

Citing the potential loss of shipping revenue, Illinois declined—an action that spawned two petitions to the U.S. Supreme Court and one to Federal District Court with the goal of forcing Illinois to close the canal’s locks. All three petitions were rebuffed by the courts in 2010. However, the announcement in early September that John Goss, the former director of the Indiana Department of Natural Resources, would serve as U.S. Pres. Barack Obama’s Asian carp czar, along with the allotment of $79 million earlier in the year, signaled greater White House involvement in the issue. Florida ecosystems, in contrast, faced a different type of invader. Unlike the Asian carp, the Burmese python is a voracious predator. Released into the Florida landscape after Hurricane Andrew damaged pet stores in 1992, as well as by change-of-heart pet owners, Burmese pythons have established breeding populations in the state. Growing to nearly 6 m (20 ft) long, these giant constrictor snakes have become significant predators in the area, challenging the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) for dominance. The python’s penchant for consuming the Key Largo wood rat (Neotoma floridana) and the wood stork (Mycteria americana) have caused both species to decline locally. As python numbers con(Top) Lynne Sladky/AP; (bottom) John J. Mosesso/NBII Life

tinue to grow, predation pressure on these and other prey animals will as well. Wildlife managers and government officials gave up hope of completely eradicating the animals, choos-

ing instead to implement a program of monitoring and control. They also worry that the Burmese python could interbreed with the more aggressive African rock python (Python sebae sebae), another species released by pet owners. Those concerned remain optimistic about containing the animals, however. A cold snap descending on Florida in January 2010 was thought to have killed large numbers of pythons. Unfortunately, the Asian carp and Burmese python are only two examples of several invasive species currently affecting North America. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Great Lakes region was altered by the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), a primitive fish that uses a specially modified sucker to latch on to game fish and drain their blood. In the 1980s the introduction of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha), a filter-feeding mollusk that clogs water intake pipes and removes much of the algae from the aquatic ecosystems it inhabits, created further ecological disruption. Other parts of the U.S. are covered by kudzu (Pueraria montana var. lobata), a fast-growing vine native to Asia that deprives native plants of sunlight, and plagued by the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), an aggressive swarming and biting species native to South America.

Kudzu can grow up to 26 cm (10 in) per day, relentlessly covering forest-edge habitats, tree plantations, banks of streams and lakes, pastures, and other managed lands, such as this roadside in southern Virginia.

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North American gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinenis) introduced to the United Kingdom (top left) continue to outcompete native red squirrels (S. vulgaris). Gray squirrels have driven out native red squirrels from most of their habitat in Britain. Cane toads (top right), native to Central and South America, have established invasive populations in Florida and the islands of the Caribbean, Australia and New Guinea, and parts of Polynesia. Sea lampreys (centre left) probably entered the Great Lakes through shipping canals of the northeastern U.S. connecting Lake Ontario and Lake Erie to the Atlantic Ocean; however, some scientists contended that these fish were first introduced to the Great Lakes and its tributaries by anglers as bait. Oriental bittersweet (centre right), which was introduced to the United States in the middle of the 19th century, is a climbing vine that smothers native shrubs and burdens the crowns of larger trees. By decimating pollinator species on Guam, brown tree snakes (Boiga irregularis) interfered with plant reproduction (bottom left), which slowed the rate of plant regeneration on the island. Zebra mussels (bottom right), nuisance mollusks that are notorious for choking water-intake pipes, encrust a pier that has been pulled from Lake Erie in Monroe, Mich. 188

(Top left) iStockphoto/Thinkstock; (top right) U.S. Geological Survey Archive—U.S. Geological Survey/Bugwood.org; (centre left) Blickwinkel/Alamy; (centre right) James H. Miller—USDA Forest Service/Bugwood.org; (bottom left) Gordon H. Rodda/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; (bottom right) Jim West/Alamy

The invasive species problem is neither new nor restricted to North America. One of the best-known historical examples is the spread of the Norway, or brown, rat (Rattus norvegicus) throughout the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Since the rat’s accidental introduction during the voyages of exploration between the late 18th and 19th centuries, populations have established themselves on numerous Pacific islands, including Hawaii and New Zealand, where they prey on many native birds, small reptiles, and amphibians. Dogs, cats, pigs, and other domesticated animals taken to new lands caused the extinction of many other species, including the dodo (Raphus cucullatus). In modern times, red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) in the United Kingdom are being replaced by North American gray squirrels (S. carolinensis), which breed faster than red squirrels and are better equipped to survive harsh conditions. Although invasive species occur on all continents, Australia and Oceania have been particularly hard hit. The first

The population of red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) in the United Kingdom declined in part because of a disease brought by and competition with gray squirrels (S. carolinensis) introduced from North America.

(Top) Ronald Laubenstein/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; (bottom) iStockphoto/Thinkstock

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) are clever, omnivorous mammals that typically prey on rodents and insects; however, they are also capable of consuming fruit, grain, and carrion. wave of invasive species arrived in Australia and the islands of the Pacific with European explorers in the form of feral cats and various rat species. European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) were introduced to the continent in 1827 and have multiplied significantly. Over time, they degraded grazing lands by stripping the bark from native trees and shrubs and consuming their seeds and leaves. The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has wreaked havoc on marsupials and native rodents since its introduction in the 1850s. The voracious cane toad (Bufo marinus), a poisonous species with few natural predators, was introduced to Australia in the 1930s from Hawaii to reduce the effects of beetles on sugarcane plantations. Cane toads are responsible for a variety of ills, such as population declines in native prey species (bees and other small animals), population drops in amphibian species that compete with them, and the poisoning of species that consume them. On Guam, Saipan, and several other Pacific islands, the brown tree snake (Boiga irregularis) has caused the extinction of several birds, reptiles, and amphibians and two of Guam’s three native bat species. The best way to thwart further invasions and contribute to the protection of biodiversity is to prevent the introductions of exotic species to new areas. Although international trade and travel continue to provide opportunities for “exotic stowaways,” governments and citizens can reduce the risk of their re-

lease to new environments. Closer inspection of pallets, containers, and other international shipping materials at ports of departure and arrival could uncover insects, seeds, and other stowaway organisms. Tougher fines and the threat of incarceration might also deter buyers, sellers, and transporters of illegal exotic pets. More stringent control at ports will not work for invasive species already established, however. Climate change, for example, may afford some invasive species new opportunities. The continued rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations has been shown to fuel photosynthesis (and thus growth and reproductive success) in some plants. For botanical invaders such as kudzu and Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus), climate warming associated with increases in atmospheric carbon will likely allow these species to gain footholds in habitats formerly off-limits to them. To prevent such scenarios from playing out, aggressive monitoring and eradication programs need to be put in place. Ideally, these actions, combined with effective education programs that give citizens the knowledge and resources to deal with exotic plants, animals, and other species in their region, will prevent the further loss of biodiversity from invasive species. John P. Rafferty is the Associate Editor of Earth and Life Sciences for Encyclopædia Britannica.

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SPECIAL REPORT

Engineering for

Earthquakes by Robert Reitherman

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ajor earthquakes in Haiti and in Chile made the headlines in 2010. Though both quakes caused significant damage to buildings and other infrastructure, the degree of destruction and disruption was extremely severe in Haiti but was held to a modest level in Chile. The reason for this was not so much a difference in the earthquakes themselves as in the high level of earthquake engineering that had been implemented in Chile and the absence of such strategies in Haiti. In the January 12 earthquake in Haiti, more than 220,000 people were killed. (See Sidebar on page 407.) Fatalities totaled about 10% of the population of the metropolitan Port-au-Prince area, whereas past statistics for equally strong earthquakes in urban areas in many countries usually have fatality ratios of less than 1%. In Chile the February 27 earthquake killed fewer than 600 people. In Port-au-Prince, Haiti’s capital and its predominant urban centre, the peak ground-shaking severity was greater than in Chile. The Haiti earthquake had a magnitude of “only” 7.0, while the Chile earthquake had a near-record magnitude of 8.8, but Port-au-Prince was very close to the rupturing fault. In Chile a much-larger earthquake (roughly packing 1,000 times more energy) was spread over a far greater area, along approximately 800 km (about 500 mi) of South America’s coastline and adjacent interior areas, where 8 of Chile’s 10 largest cities are located. Along with the larger magnitude came a larger duration of shaking. One explanation for the difference in losses between those two countries is that Chile is historically among the world’s most seismically active coun190

Poor-quality construction contributed to the collapse of this five-story masonryand-concrete-frame building in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, during the magnitude-7.0 earthquake that befell the capital and surrounding areas in January.

tries, where some of the largest earthquakes have been recorded, including significant events as recently as 1960 and 1985. In Haiti there were earthquakes that damaged Port-au-Prince in 1751, 1770, and 1860, but time can lead to complacency when the most recent serious event was more than a century earlier. Earthquake engineering and its disciplines of structural and geotechnical engineering deal with the world “from the ground up” and are primarily implemented via professions and trades that conscientiously carry out the seismic regulations in construction codes and in guidelines and standards. In Haiti the building code did not have significant seismic provisions, and,

with the exception of isolated instances, there was little voluntary application of current-day earthquake engineering. Standard procedure in Haitian government bureaus was to issue building permits without any engineering review of the plans or visits to the site to observe construction. Architects and engineers practice in Haiti without any particular licensure requirements, and much of the housing there is built without any permits. Historically, earthquake requirements have typically been grafted onto an existing building code that is already enforced for ordinary gravity-load design and fire safety, but in Haiti’s case the prerequisite—a preexisting effectively enforced building code—does not exist. Eduardo Fierro—BFP Engineers, Inc./Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering (CUREE)

On the other hand, earthquake engineering in Chile extended back to Aug. 17, 1906, when there was a magnitude8.2 earthquake that caused as much damage in Valparaiso, Chile, as the magnitude-7.9 earthquake that struck San Francisco earlier that year, on April 18. One of the world’s most prominent seismologists at the time, Ferdinand de Montessus de Ballore, emigrated from Paris to Santiago to head the Chilean Seismological Service. He also established a course at the University of Chile on earthquake-resistant design. In 1939 Chile’s most deadly natural disaster occurred, a magnitude-7.8 earthquake centred near Chillán in which some 28,000 people died. This resulted in the beginnings of a national seismic code. Quality of construction materials is also crucial. Reinforced concrete consists of five ingredients: Portland cement, aggregate (gravel), sand, water, and air. If Portland cement is not supplied in the mix in sufficient quantity, there is not enough “glue” to hold the concrete together. The sand must be clean, not beach sand with a salty residue that chemically reacts in a negative way with the other ingredients. The aggregate should be of a specified type and size of rock, not random-sized or excessively large. The water must be essentially as clean as drinking water. In Haiti each ingredient, however, is too often substandard. Also, reinforcing steel bars (“rebar” about the diameter of a finger) are sometimes made in long lengths at the factory and then bent or folded several times so that they can fit onto small trucks. They are then straightened at the construction site. The steel in seismically designed construction is calculated to be ductile; that is, it must be capable of being permanently bent out of shape while still remaining intact and resisting load. That ductility is used up when the steel has already been severely bent back and forth, just as one can break a paper clip by simply bending the wire back and forth. Several popular theories have been widely disseminated to explain the difference in losses in Haiti and Chile in 2010. One says that Haiti’s poverty is the explanation, but the GDP per person in Haiti, at approximately $1,000, is about the same as in Nepal. Yet in Nepal there is an active program instructing builders about earthquake-resistant construction as well as a national earthquake engineering society, and Nepalese engineering students are Chuck Burton/AP

During an earthquake engineering test in October at the Institute for Business and Home Safety in Richburg, S.C., a building constructed according to conventional design crumbles while one adhering to earthquake-fortified standards shows little or no damage.

being trained at universities in neighbouring India and other countries where earthquake engineering is already part of the curriculum. Lack of government stability is another theory, and it is noteworthy that Haiti has suffered more than 30 coups in its 200 years. Where Caribbean governmental stability is concerned, there is no match for Cuba, with its 50 years under Fidel Castro. Under Castro, and before him Fulgencio Batista, the University of Havana came under political control, and academic access to knowledge in most other countries was cut off. In the countries that kept advancing their earthquake engineering over the past half century—including Chile, Japan, New Zealand, Taiwan, the U.S., and Italy—exchanges of professors on sabbatical leave and students studying abroad have been keys to success. Thus, Cuba’s second largest city, Santiago de Cuba, located a short distance across the Windward Passage from Haiti, may be another candidate for earthquake disaster, even though government instability and extreme poverty are not present. Because the field’s major innovations have already occurred over the past three or four decades, the big story that surfaced in 2010 is how those innovations are being applied. One advance is the invention in the 1970s of seismic isolators, bearings installed between the concrete foundation and the superstructure above, which convert the jittery and violent motion of the earth—and the

foundation embedded in the earth—into smoother and less-severe motions that the building or bridge above can withstand. Seismic dampers, which are similar in function to shock absorbers in an automobile, can damp out the bumpy motions. New types of steel braces (diagonal struts) can take the lateral load of an earthquake without buckling. Analytic techniques also continuously improve, and engineers today can make a computer-simulation model that includes every column, beam, brace, floor, and foundation element and then analyze that structure with regard to half a dozen or more recorded earthquake motions to test and refine the design. Although these more sophisticated applications are often found in countries where earthquake engineering is most advanced, many countries such as Haiti could benefit from simply applying much more basic technology in a reliable way. In earthquake engineering, as in medicine, there are many kinds of barriers to the application of measures that can protect a population, but simple precautions—including robust building codes and professional standards for architects and engineers, the use of quality construction materials, and educated earthquake engineers—can make all the difference. Robert Reitherman is Executive Director of the Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering and is coauthor (with Christopher Arnold) of Building Configuration and Seismic Design.

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Molecular Gastronomy: The Science Behind the Cuisine by Hervé This

M

olecular Gastronomy. By 2010 the term Molecular Gastronomy—as well as other names, among them Molecular Cooking and Molecular Cuisine— had wrongly become identified with a culinary trend that had been spreading among chefs worldwide for some 20 years. As a result, the designation of the scientific discipline that was created in 1988 by myself and Nicholas Kurti (a former professor of physics at the University of Oxford [died in 1998]) often became associated with the cooking trend rather than with the scientific application behind the techniques used to fashion unique culinary creations. In part this confusion arose because, beginning in 1992, we established international meetings that we called International Workshops on Molecular and Physical Gastronomy, which took place about every two years in Erice, Italy. In our attempt to infuse our program of Molecular Gastronomy with a mix of science (looking for new knowledge on the mechanisms of phenomena), technology (improving technique, or craft, using the results produced by that science), and communication, Kurti and I contributed to the confusion between the various names. We wanted to (1) understand culinary phenomena, (2) collect and test culinary old wives’ tales, (3) invent new dishes based on these phenomena and old wives’ tales, (4) introduce into the kitchen “new” tools, ingredients, and methods, and (5) use all of this to demonstrate to a large audience how wonderful science is. Even if the goals—science, technology, and communication—were of a heterogeneous nature, and even if it were felt that technology is easier to implement when new knowledge produced by science is used, the initial idea for Molecular Gastronomy was clearly scientific. This was the reason why we decided on the name chosen 192

Chef Grant Achatz at his Chicago restaurant Alinea uses a blowtorch to complete his recipe for pheasant that has been cooked sous vide (simmered at a relatively low temperature in a vacuum-sealed bag), then deep-fried tempura-style with apple cider gelled with agar, and skewered with burning oak leaves. for this research. Gastronomy, as defined by Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, author of Physiologie du goût (1825; The Physiology of Taste, 1949), is not “cooking with expensive ingredients” but rather “the intelligent knowledge of whatever concerns man’s nourishment.” It was obvious to us that to characterize this particular part of gastronomy would require using an adjective such as chemical or physical, but in order to avoid excluding any particular science, the term molecular was chosen. Molecular Gastronomy developed very quickly, in part because many chefs who had at least one coveted Michelin star were invited to the International Workshops but also because it was new and highly needed. It slowly became apparent that the confusion between science and cooking was unfortunate. In about 1999 it was determined that different names had to be applied to the scientific activity on the one hand and the culinary enterprise on the other. The name Molecular Cooking (and its variations Molecular

Cookery and Molecular Cuisine) was introduced as the kind of technologically oriented way of cooking developed by some of the world’s top chefs. Proposed just before 2000, this new terminology gained momentum, and by 2010 it had become clear that Molecular Gastronomy should be used to designate the scientific discipline that investigates the mechanism of phenomena that occur during culinary transformation, while the term Molecular Cooking (Cookery, Cuisine) should define the culinary trend in which chefs use the new tools, ingredients, and methods developed through research in Molecular Gastronomy. Historical Context. Molecular Gastronomy has famous ancestors. These include 18th-century chemist ClaudeJoseph Geoffroy, who studied essential oils in plants; 18th-century French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier, who studied meat stock and was celebrated as one of the founders of modern chemistry; American-born British physicist Sir Benjamin Thompson, count von Jim Newberry/Alamy

Culinary foams, such as this soybean froth atop an oyster au gratin, involve spraying out of a nitrous-oxide canister a mixture of a flavour ingredient and a natural gelling agent, such as agar or lecithin. Rumford, who developed modern theories regarding heat and was also interested in meat cooking; German chemist Friedrich Christian (Frederick) Accum, whose A Treatise on Adulterations of Food and Culinary Poisons (1820) raised awareness of food safety; and 19th-century French chemist MichelEugène Chevreul, who analyzed the chemical composition of animal fats. In the 20th century French microbiologist Edouard de Pomiane published bestselling books on cooking. Since 1988 research teams have been established under the name Molecular Gastronomy at universities in many countries. Educational initiatives have also been introduced within the main framework of physical chemistry education, such as the Experimental Cuisine Collective launched in 2007 at New York University. Molecular Gastronomy has been shown to be an excellent educational tool, as the students (in chemistry, physics, and biology) can observe and understand the practical use of the theories that they learn. Scientifically speaking, it was understood in the early 2000s that “cooking” involves an artistic element of fundamental importance: creating a cheese soufflé is not cooking if the flavour is such that it is not eaten, but flavour is a question of art, not of technique. At the same time, it was understood that the “social link” of food is also very important. A distinction was then made between the various parts of recipes, which led to the proposal of a new program for Molecular Gastronomy: (1) to model recipes (“culinary definitions”), (2) to collect and test “culinary precisions,” (3) to explore (scientifically) the (Left) Bon Appetit/Alamy; (right) Bernat Armangue, FILE/AP

Catalan chef Ferran Adrià, one of the foremost exponents of Molecular Cooking, announced in 2010 that he was closing his award-winning restaurant, El Bulli, to focus more on culinary research and teaching.

artistic component of cooking, and (4) to explore (scientifically) the “social link.” Among many other achievements, a formalism called “complex disperse systems/non periodical organization of space” (CDS/NPOS) was introduced in 2002 in an effort to describe the organization and material of food in particular but also of all formulated products (including drugs, cosmetics, paintings, etc.), and new analytic methods were introduced for the study of the transformation of foods either in isolation or in aqueous solutions such as broths and stocks. On the other hand, Molecular Cooking, or Molecular Cuisine, is now clearly defined as the culinary trend wherein chefs use new tools, ingredients, and methods. Of course, the word new is itself problematic. Tools such as laboratory filters (for clarification), decanting bulbs (used in skimming stocks), vacuum evaporators (for making extracts), siphons (for producing foams), and ultrasonic probes (for emulsions) are not new in chemistry laboratories. Gelling agents such as carrageenans, sodium alginate, agaragar, and others are certainly not entirely new in the food industry. Even liquid nitrogen (used to make sherbets and to flash freeze almost anything) was proposed for use in the kitchen as early as 1907. None of these tools or ingredients, however, was present in cookbooks as recently as the 1980s. Molecular Cuisine. Molecular Cooking has been perfected by such noted chefs as Ferran Adrià (see BIOGRAPHIES) and Andoni Luis Aduriz in Spain, Denis Martin in Switzerland, Ettore Bocchia in Italy, Alex Atala in Brazil, Heston

Blumenthal in the U.K., René Redzepi in Denmark, Sang-Hoon Degeimbre in Belgium, and Thierry Marx in France. Critics and foodies alike enjoyed the marriage of food science and artistry. In the U.S., Fritz Blank left his career as a clinical microbiologist in 1979 to open his Philadelphia restaurant Deux Cheminées before retiring in 2007. At his restaurant wd~50 in New York City, Wylie Dufresne invented such singular creations as deep-fried mayonnaise and noodles made with protein (such as shrimp) instead of flour. In Chicago, chefs Homaru Cantu at Moto and Grant Achatz at Alinea devised such innovations as edible ink and paper and dishes nestled on aromatic pillows, respectively. Even chefs who do not specialize in Molecular Cuisine have introduced to their menus spherification (liquids that create their own spherical “skin” through gelling agents), culinary foams (popularized by Adrià), and flash-frozen popcorn balls, among other concoctions. While this innovative, and often whimsical, cuisine has become very fashionable, it is important to remember that Molecular Cooking per se might die as the modernization of culinary activities is achieved. Molecular Gastronomy, however, will remain forever and will continue to develop in new and exciting directions because it is a science and not technology or technique. Hervé This, one of the founders of Molecular Gastronomy, is the head of the Molecular Gastronomy Group at the AgroParisTech/INRA Research Unit in Paris and Scientific Director of the Food Science and Culture Foundation of the French Academy of Sciences.

193

SPECIAL REPORT

The XXI Olympic

Winter Games

by Melinda C. Shepherd

V

ancouver welcomed the world to Canada “With Glowing Hearts” as the city and its environs played host to the XXI Olympic Winter Games on Feb. 12–28, 2010. Some 2,600 athletes representing 82 national Olympic committees (NOCs)—including first-time participants Cayman Islands, Colombia, Ghana, Montenegro, Pakistan, and Peru—competed in 86 medal events in 15 disciplines. There were two new events: freestyle skiing ski cross for both men and women. The competition was spread across nine venues in Vancouver (those for ice hockey, curling, figure skating, and short-track speed skating), suburban Richmond (speed skating), the Whistler Mountain resort (sliding events and most of the skiing events), and Cypress Mountain (freestyle skiing and snowboard). BC Place in Vancouver was the site of many of the victory medal ceremonies in addition to the relatively low-key opening and closing ceremonies, which drew on Canadian culture as well as the self-deprecating humour and legendary politeness of the self-described “Canucks.” In preparing for the Games, the Vancouver Organizing Committee (VANOC) emphasized participation by members of the Canadian aboriginal peoples— First Nations, Inuit, and Métis—especially in the accompanying Cultural Olympiad. Even the Olympic mascots were inspired by First Nations aboriginal mythology. Quatchi, the sasquatch of the forests, and Miga, the sea bear (half orca whale and half white Kermode bear), were prominent figures, often with Mukmuk the marmot, their unofficial “sidekick.” Sumi, a magical guardian spirit who “wears the hat of the orca whale, flies with the wings of the mighty thunderbird, and runs on the strong furry legs of the black bear,” served as a special mascot for the fivesport Winter Paralympics that followed the Games on March 12–21.

194

Fears that the Whistler Sliding Centre track (used for bobsleigh, skeleton, and luge) was too dangerous were heightened after Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili was killed when he lost control of his sled during a training run and

During the opening ceremony of the Vancouver Olympic Winter Games on February 12, performers dance through a symbolic forest, one of many features at the Games that were inspired by First Nation aboriginal mythology. was thrown off the track into a supporting girder. Among other cautions, the accident triggered calls for more stringent qualifications for less-experienced competitors. Officials moved the starting gates for both men and women to lower positions on the track and made other changes to the track in an effort to improve safety and reduce top speeds. Weather played a role on the slopes as the region experienced mild tempera-

tures, and VANOC organizers had to truck in extra snow. Rain, heavy fog, high winds, or blowing snow forced the postponement of some Alpine skiing runs, while athletes at Whistler and Cypress Mountain faced poor visibility during some skiing and snowboard events. In the end, however, nothing was canceled, and the general atmosphere remained cheerful. At the closing ceremony, International Olympic Committee Pres. Jacques Rogge called the Vancouver Games a “unique and joyous celebration of Olympism.” The United States, with 37 medals (9 gold, 15 silver, and 13 bronze), set a record for a single Winter Olympics and finished atop the Winter Olympic medal rankings for the first time since the 1932 Games in Lake Placid, N.Y. Germany was second with 30 medals (10 gold, 13 silver, and 7 bronze). Canada’s controversial Can$117 million (about U.S.$104 million) “Own the Podium” funding program paid off, as the host country, which had no gold medals from the two prior Olympics held in Canada (Montreal, 1976, and Calgary, Alta., 1988), captured a record 14 gold (breaking the previous record of 13 set by the Soviet Union in 1976 and matched by Norway in 2002). Canada claimed an additional 7 silver and 5 bronze medals and finished an unprecedented third in the final medal rankings. The other top countries were Norway, with 23 medals (9 gold); Austria, with 16 (4 gold); Russia, with 15 (3 gold); and South Korea, with 14 (6 gold). Altogether, 26 NOCs earned at least one medal. There were 61 multiple-medal winners in Vancouver, with 15 competitors taking three or more. Norwegian crosscountry skier Marit Bjørgen topped the individual medals table, reaching the podium in all five events in which she competed and finishing with three gold, one silver, and one bronze. Her teammate Petter Northug led the men’s list with four cross-country medals Kevork Djansezian/Getty Images

(two gold, one silver, and one bronze). Short-track speed skater Apolo Anton Ohno (see Biographies), competing in his third Winter Olympics, took a silver and two bronze and set a record for an American Winter Olympian with a career total of eight medals, two better than the previous leader, speed skater Bonnie Blair, who competed in 1988, 1992, and 1994. Alexandre Bilodeau of Rosemère, Que., made history on the second full day of competition when he became the first Canadian to win gold on home soil, narrowly defeating Vancouver-born Australian Dale Begg-Smith in the freestyle skiing moguls final. Canadian fans rejoiced when the ice dancing team

of Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir, who led going into the final free skate, held on for the gold medal. (See Biographies.) Virtue and Moir were the first North American team ever to win the event. In the last event of the Vancouver Games, the men’s ice hockey final, Canada defeated the U.S. to give the host country its record 14th gold medal and a thrilling victory in what many considered the national sport. In women’s ice hockey Canada accomplished a “three-peat,” defeating the U.S. in the gold-medal game after having secured the gold in Salt Lake City, Utah (2002), and in Turin, Italy (2006). Six other gold medalists from the Turin Games also won the same

event in Vancouver: American snowboarders Shaun White (halfpipe) and Seth Wescott (snowboardcross [SBX]), American speed skater Shani Davis (1,000 m), short-track speed skater Wang Meng of China (500 m), André Lange and Kevin Kuske of Germany (two-man bobsleigh), and brothers Andreas and Wolfgang Linger of Austria (luge doubles). American Evan Lysacek (see Biographies) turned in a nearly flawless free skate to become the first non-Russian or non-Soviet men’s Olympic figure skating champion since American Brian Boitano in 1988. Melinda C. Shepherd is Senior Editor of Encyclopædia Britannica Yearbooks.

OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS, XXI WINTER GAMES, VANCOUVER Alpine Skiing—Men Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Downhill Slalom Giant slalom Super G Super Combined

Didier Defago (SUI) Giuliano Rozzoli (ITA) Carlo Janka (SUI) Aksel Lund Svindal (NOR) Bode Miller (USA)

1 min 54.31 sec 1 min 39.32 sec 2 min 37.83 sec 1 min 30.34 sec 2 min 44.92 sec

Aksel Lund Svindal (NOR) Ivica Kostelic (CRO) Kjetil Jansrud (NOR) Bode Miller (USA) Ivica Kostelic (CRO)

Bode Miller (USA) Andre Myhrer (SWE) Aksel Lund Svindal (NOR) Andrew Weibrecht (USA) Silvan Zurbriggen (SUI)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Downhill Slalom Giant slalom Super G Super Combined

Lindsey Vonn (USA) Maria Riesch (GER) Viktoria Rebensburg (GER) Andrea Fischbacher (AUT) Maria Riesch (GER)

1 min 44.19 sec 1 min 42.89 sec 2 min 27.11 sec 1 min 20.14 sec 2 min 09.14 sec

Julia Mancuso (USA) Marlies Schild (AUT) Tina Maze (SLO) Tina Maze (SLO) Julia Mancuso (USA)

Elisabeth Görgl (AUT) Sarka Zahrobska (CZE) Elisabeth Görgl (AUT) Lindsey Vonn (USA) Anja Pärson (SWE)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

1.5-km sprint team sprint

Nikita Kriyukov (RUS) Øystein Pettersen, Petter Northug (NOR) Dario Cologna (SUI) Marcus Hellner (SWE) Petter Northug (NOR) Sweden (Daniel Richardsson, Anders Södergren, Marcus Hellner, Johan Olsson) Simon Ammann (SUI)

3 min 36.3 sec 19 min 01.0 sec

276.5 pt

Aleksandr Panzhinskiy (RUS) Tim Tscharnke, Axel Teichmann (GER) Pietro Piller Cottrer (ITA) Tobias Angerer (GER) Axel Teichmann (GER) Norway (Martin Johnsrud Sundby, Odd-Bjørn Hjelmeset, Lars Berger, Petter Northug) Adam Malysz (POL)

Petter Northug (NOR) Nikolay Morilov, Aleksey Petukhov (RUS) Lukas Bauer (CZE) Johan Olsson (SWE) Johan Olsson (SWE) Czech Republic (Martin Jaks, Lukas Bauer, Jiri Magal, Martin Koukal) Gregor Schlierenzauer (AUT)

Simon Ammann (SUI)

283.6 pt

Adam Malysz (POL)

Gregor Schlierenzauer (AUT)

Austria (Wolfgang Loitzl, Thomas Morgenstern, Gregor Schlierenzauer, Andreas Kofler) Jason Lamy Chappuis (FRA)

1,107.9 pt

25 min 01.1 sec

Germany (Michael Neumayer, Andreas Wank, Martin Schmitt, Michael Uhrmann) Johnny Spillane (USA)

Norway (Anders Bardal, Tom Hilde, Johan Remen Evensen, Anders Jacobsen) Alessandro Pittin (ITA)

Bill Demong (USA)

24 min 46.9 sec

Johnny Spillane (USA)

Bernhard Gruber (AUT)

Austria (Bernhard Gruber, Felix Gottwald, Mario Stecher, David Kreiner)

49 min 31.6 sec

United States (Brett Camerota, Todd Lodwick, Johnny Spillane, Bill Demong)

Germany (Johannes Rydzek, Tino Edelmann, Eric Frenzel, Björn Kircheisen)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

1.5-km sprint team sprint

Marit Bjørgen (NOR) Evi Sachenbacher-Stehle, Claudia Nystad (GER) Charlotte Kalla (SWE) Marit Bjørgen (NOR)

3 min 39.2 sec 18 min 03.7 sec

Justyna Kowalczyk (POL) Charlotte Kalla, Anna Haag (SWE)

24 min 58.4 sec 39 min 58.1 sec

Kristina Smigun-Vaehi (EST) Anna Haag (SWE)

Petra Majdic (SLO) Irina Khazova, Nataliya Korosteleva (RUS) Marit Bjørgen (NOR) Justyna Kowalczyk (POL)

Alpine Skiing—Women

Nordic Skiing—Men

15-km freestyle 30-km pursuit 50-km mass start 4 × 10-km relay

normal hill (106-m) ski jump large hill (140-m) ski jump large hill (140-m) team ski jump Nordic combined NH/10 km Nordic combined LH/10 km Nordic combined team 4 × 5-km relay

33 min 36.3 sec 1 hr 15 min 11.4 sec 2 hr 5 min 35.5 sec 1 hr 45 min 05.4 sec

Nordic Skiing—Women

10-km freestyle 15-km pursuit

195

Nordic Skiing—Women (continued) Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

30-km mass start 4 × 5-km relay

Justyna Kowalczyk (POL) Norway (Vibeke W. Skofterud, Kristin Størmer Steira, Marit Bjørgen, Therese Johaug)

1 hr 30 min 33.7 sec 55 min 19.5 sec

Marit Bjørgen (NOR) Germany (Katrin Zeller, Evi Sachenbacher-Stehle, Miriam Grossner, Claudia Nystad)

Aino-Kaisa Saarinen (FIN) Finland (Pirjo Muranen, Virpi Kuitunen, Riitta-Liisa Roponen, Aino-Kaisa Saarinen)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

10-km sprint 12.5-km pursuit 15-km mass start 20 km 4 × 7.5-km relay

Vincent Jay (FRA) Björn Ferry (SWE) Yevgeny Ustyugov (RUS) Emil Hegle Svendsen (NOR) Norway (Halvard Hanevold, Emil Hegle Svendsen, Ole Einar Bjørndalen, Tarjei Bø)

24 min 07.8 sec 33 min 38.4 sec 35 min 35.7 sec 48 min 22.5 sec 1 hr 21 min 38.1 sec

Emil Hegle Svendsen (NOR) Christoph Sumann (AUT) Martin Fourcade (FRA) Ole Einar Bjørndalen (NOR)* Austria (Simon Eder, Daniel Mesotitsch, Dominik Landertinger, Christoph Sumann)

Jakov Fak (CRO) Vincent Jay (FRA) Pavol Hurajt (SVK) Sergey Novikov (BLR)* Russia (Ivan Tcherezov, Anton Shipulin, Maksim Tchoudov, Yevgeny Ustyugov)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

7.5-km sprint 10-km pursuit 12.5-km mass start 15 km 4 × 6-km relay

Anastazia Kuzmina (SVK) Magdalena Neuner (GER) Magdalena Neuner (GER) Tora Berger (NOR) Russia (Anna Bogaliy-Titovets, Olga Medvedtseva, Olga Zaitseva, Svetlana Sleptsova)

19 min 55.6 sec 30 min 16.0 sec 35 min 19.6 sec 40 min 52.8 sec 1 hr 09 min 36.3 sec

Magdalena Neuner (GER) Anastazia Kuzmina (SVK) Olga Zaitseva (RUS) Elena Khrustaleva (KAZ) France (Marie-Laure Brunet, Sylvie Becaert, Marie Dorin, Sandrine Bailly)

Marie Dorin (FRA) Marie-Laure Brunet (FRA) Simone Hauswald (GER) Darya Domracheva (BLR) Germany (Andrea Henkel, Kati Wilhelm, Simone Hauswald, Martina Beck)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Moguls Aerials Ski cross

Alexandre Bilodeau (CAN) Alexei Grishin (BLR) Michael Schmid (SUI)

26.75 pt 248.41 pt

Dale Begg-Smith (AUS) Jeret Peterson (USA) Andreas Matt (AUT)

Bryon Wilson (USA) Liu Zhongqing (CHN) Audun Grønvold (NOR)

Biathlon—Men

Biathlon—Women

Freestyle Skiing—Men

Freestyle Skiing—Women Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Moguls Aerials Ski cross

Hannah Kearney (USA) Lydia Lassila (AUS) Ashleigh McIvor (CAN)

26.63 pt 214.74 pt

Jennifer Heil (CAN) Li Nina (CHN) Hedda Berntsen (NOR)

Shannon Bahrke (USA) Guo Xinxin (CHN) Marion Josserand (FRA)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Parallel giant slalom Halfpipe Snowboardcross (SBX)

Jasey Jay Anderson (CAN) Shaun White (USA) Seth Wescott (USA)

48.4 pt

Benjamin Karl (AUT) Peetu Piiroinen (FIN) Mike Robertson (CAN)

Mathieu Bozzetto (FRA) Scott Lago (USA) Tony Ramoin (FRA)

Snowboarding—Men

Snowboarding—Women Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Parallel giant slalom Halfpipe Snowboardcross (SBX)

Nicolien Sauerbreij (NED) Torah Bright (AUS) Maëlle Ricker (CAN)

45.0 pt

Yekaterina Ilyukhina (RUS) Hannah Teter (USA) Deborah Anthonioz (FRA)

Marion Kreiner (AUT) Kelly Clark (USA) Olivia Nobs (SUI)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Men Women Pairs

Evan Lysacek (USA) Kim Yu-Na (KOR) Shen Xue, Zhao Hongbo (CHN)

257.67 pt 228.56 pt 216.57 pt

Yevgeny Plushchenko (RUS) Mao Asada (JPN) Pang Qing, Tong Jian (CHN)

Ice dancing

Tessa Virtue, Scott Moir (CAN)

221.57 pt

Meryl Davis, Charlie White (USA)

Daisuke Takahashi (JPN) Joannie Rochette (CAN) Aliona Savchenko, Robin Szolkowy (GER) Oksana Domnina, Maksim Shabalin (RUS)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

500 m 1,000 m 1,500 m 5,000 m 10,000 m Team pursuit

Mo Tae-Bum (KOR) Shani Davis (USA) Mark Tuitert (NED) Sven Kramer (NED) Lee Seung-Hoon (KOR)§ Canada (Mathieu Giroux, Lucas Makowsky, Denny Morrison, François-Olivier Roberge)

69.82 sec† 1 min 08.94 sec 1 min 45.57 sec 6 min 14.60 sec‡ 12 min 58.55 sec‡ 3 min 41.37 sec

Keiichiro Nagashima (JPN) Mo Tae-Bum (KOR) Shani Davis (USA) Lee Seung-Hoon (KOR) Ivan Skobrev (RUS) United States (Brian Hansen, Chad Hedrick, Jonathan Kuck, Trevor Marsicano)

Joji Kato (JPN) Chad Hedrick (USA) Havard Bokko (NOR) Ivan Skobrev (RUS) Bob de Jong (NED) Netherlands (Jan Blokhuijsen, Sven Kramer, Simon Kuipers, Mark Tuitert)

Figure Skating

Speed Skating—Men

196

Speed Skating—Women Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

500 m 1,000 m 1,500 m 3,000 m 5,000 m Team pursuit

Lee Sang-Hwa (KOR) Christine Nesbitt (CAN) Ireen Wüst (NED) Martina Sablikova (CZE) Martina Sablikova (CZE) Germany (Daniela Anschütz-Thoms, Stephanie Beckert, Anni FriesingerPostma, Katrin Mattscherodt)

76.09 sec† 1 min 16.56 sec 1 min 56.89 sec 4 min 02.53 sec 6 min 50.91 sec 3 min 02.82 sec

Jenny Wolf (GER) Annette Gerritsen (NED) Kristina Groves (CAN) Stephanie Beckert (GER) Stephanie Beckert (GER) Japan (Masako Hozumi, Nao Kodaira, Maki Tabata, Miho Takagi)

Wang Beixing (CHN) Laurine van Riessen (NED) Martina Sablikova (CZE) Kristina Groves (CAN) Clara Hughes (CAN) Poland (Katarzyna Bachleda-Curus, Natalia Czerwonka, Katarzyna Wozniak, Luiza Zlotkowska)

Short-Track Speed Skating—Men Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

500 m 1,000 m 1,500 m 5,000-m relay

Charles Hamelin (CAN) Lee Jung-Su (KOR) Lee Jung-Su (KOR) Canada (Charles Hamelin, François Hamelin, Olivier Jean, François-Louis Tremblay)

40.981 sec 1 min 23.747 sec‡ 2 min 17.611 sec 6 min 44.224 sec

Sung Si-Bak (KOR) Lee Ho-Suk (KOR) Apolo Anton Ohno (USA) South Korea (Kwak Yoon-Gy, Lee Ho-Suk, Lee Jung-Su, Sung Si-Bak)

François-Louis Tremblay (CAN) Apolo Anton Ohno (USA) J.R. Celski (USA) United States (J.R. Celski, Travis Jayner, Jordan Malone, Apolo Anton Ohno)

Short-Track Speed Skating—Women Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

500 m 1,000 m 1,500 m 3,000-m relay

Wang Meng (CHN) Wang Meng (CHN) Zhou Yang (CHN) China (Sun Linlin, Wang Meng, Zhang Hui, Zhou Yang)§

43.048 sec 1 min 29.213 sec 2 min 16.993 sec‡ 4 min 06.610 sec¶

Marianne St-Gelais (CAN) Katherine Reutter (USA) Lee Eun-Byul (KOR) Canada (Jessica Gregg, Kalyna Roberge, Marianne St-Gelais, Tania Vicent)

Arianna Fontana (ITA) Park Seung-Hi (KOR) Park Seung-Hi (KOR) United States (Allison Baver, Alyson Dudek, Lana Gehring, Katherine Reutter)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Men (winning team) Women (winning team)

Canada

6–1–0

United States

Finland

Canada

5–0–0

United States

Finland

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Men (winning team)

Canada (Kevin Martin [skip], John Morris, Marc Kennedy, Ben Hebert, Adam Enright) Sweden (Anette Norberg [skip], Eva Lund, Cathrine Lindahl, Anna Le Moine, Kajsa Bergström)

11–0–0

Norway (Thomas Ulsrud [skip], Torger Nergård, Christoffer Svae, Håvard Vad Petersson, Thomas Løvold) Canada (Cheryl Bernard [skip], Susan O’Connor, Carolyn Darbyshire, Cori Bartel, Kristie Moore)

Switzerland (Markus Eggler [skip], Ralph Stöckli, Jan Hauser, Simon Strübin, Toni Müller) China (Wang Bingyu [skip], Liu Yin, Yue Qingshuang, Zhou Yan, Liu Jinli)

Ice Hockey

Curling

Women (winning team)

10–1–0

Bobsleigh Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Two man

André Lange, Kevin Kuske (GER 1) Steven Holcomb, Steve Mesler, Curtis Tomasevicz, Justin Olsen (USA 1) Kaillie Humphries, Heather Moyse (CAN 1)

3 min 26.65 sec

Thomas Florschütz, Richard Adjei (GER 2) André Lange, Alexander Rödiger, Kevin Kuske, Martin Putze (GER 1) Helen Upperton, Shelley-Ann Brown (CAN 2)

Aleksandr Zoubkov, Aleksey Voyevoda (RUS 1) Lyndon Rush, Chris Le Bihan, David Bissett, Lascelles Brown (CAN 1) Erin Pac, Elana Meyers (USA 2)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Men (singles) Men (doubles)

Felix Loch (GER) Andreas Linger, Wolfgang Linger (AUT 1) Tatjana Hüfner (GER)

3 min 13.085 sec 1 min 22.705 sec

David Möller (GER) Andris Sics, Juris Sics (LAT 1)

2 min 46.524 sec

Nina Reithmayer (AUT)

Armin Zöggeler (ITA) Patric Leitner, Alexander Resch (GER 1) Natalie Geisenberger (GER)

Event

Gold medalist

Performance

Silver medalist

Bronze medalist

Men Women

Jon Montgomery (CAN) Amy Williams (GBR)

3 min 29.73 sec 3 min 35.64 sec

Martins Dukurs (LAT) Kerstin Szymkowiak (GER)

Aleksandr Tretyakov (RUS) Anja Huber (GER)

Four man

Women

3 min 24.46 sec

3 min 32.28 sec

Luge

Women (singles)

Skeleton

*Tied

for silver, no bronze awarded. †Time is combined total of two heats. winner disqualified. ¶World record.

‡Olympic

record.

§Original

197

Events of 2010

Exploding Olympic rings form a backdrop to a soaring snowboarder during the opening ceremony of the Vancouver Olympic Winter Games on February 12. Michael Kappeler—AFP/Getty Images

Anthropology and Archaeology Investigators mapped much of the GENOME of the Neanderthal and discovered a NEW SPECIES of human ancestor. EARLY FLINT TOOLS pushed back the dating of the human population of Britain, and in South Africa DECORATED OSTRICH EGGSHELLS seemed to indicate an ancient concept of art.

ANTHROPOLOGY

I

n the field of physical anthropology, the key developments of 2010 included the publication of a draft sequence of approximately two-thirds of the Neanderthal nuclear genome. The work was accomplished by an international team of genetic researchers led by Swedish biologist Svante Pääbo of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Ger. The DNA sequence came from three long bone fragments representing three different female Neanderthals who occupied the Vindija cave in Croatia approximately 38,000–45,000 years ago. Estimates of human DNA contamination were all less than 1%, which thereby strengthened the credibility of perhaps the most surprising result of the study—i.e., the discovery of genetic evidence for interbreeding between the Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. An estimated 1–4% of the genome in modern Eurasians was found to be derived from Neanderthals. Because the Neanderthals were significantly more closely related to all nonAfrican samples than to African samples, scientists speculated that the actual genetic admixture occurred in the Middle East after modern humans left Africa but before the global expansion and differentiation of modern human populations. Conversely, there was no evidence of any gene flow into the Neanderthal population from modern human groups. Seventy-eight amino acid differences were found between Neanderthals and modern humans such that Neanderthal samples had the ancestral state, while modern human samples were fixed for an evolutionarily derived state. These changes occurred in 73 separate genes, with 5 genes exhibiting two substitu-

tions involving phenotypes (properties produced by the interaction of the genotype and the environment) associated with the sperm flagellum, wound healing, gene transcription, and skin structure and function. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-based test for positive natural selection in modern humans identified 212 regions of the genome where selection had, indeed, taken place when our ancestors separated from the Neanderthals or shortly thereafter. Some of the strongest selection signals in the modern human lineage were associated with the following phenotypes: type II diabetes and energy metabolism, Down syndrome and its associated cognitive impairment, schizophrenia and cognitive function, autism and cognitive development, and the clei-

docranial dysplasia syndrome, which includes distinctive traits that differ in Neanderthals and modern humans. Pääbo’s study calculated that Neanderthals and modern humans separated between 270,000 and 440,000 years ago. The evolutionary implications of the subsequent gene flow between these two groups were noteworthy. First, according to the standard biological species definition wherein reproductive isolation was the primary criterion for separate species status, Neanderthals and modern humans might represent two subspecies of H. sapiens, as many paleoanthropologists have contended. Second, the “strong” model of the “outof-Africa” scenario for human origins— which posited virtually concurrent population-size and geographic expansion and that allowed no gene flow between archaic hominin populations and early humans—has been refuted. The model that most closely corresponded to the new genetic data was the “mostly outof-Africa” model, which stated that although African populations largely replaced archaic hominin populations throughout the world, some hybridization occasionally occurred when these two groups encountered each other. Pääbo’s laboratory also spearheaded a different international team’s discovery of a possible new hominin species en-

Drilling a Neanderthal bone fragment produces the matter that is used in the nuclear genome research project.

Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology

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Anthropology and Archaeology Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology

tirely based on molecular data. during the Early Pleistocene, In 2008 Russian archaeologists when Britain was connected to unearthed the distal phalanx mainland Europe by a land (fingertip) of a fifth (little) finger bridge. Site excavators Nick Ashat Denisova Cave in the Siberian ton of the British Museum and Altai Mountains in a stratum Simon Parfitt of the Natural Hisdated to between 48,000 and tory Museum believed the tools 30,000 years ago. The cave to be the work of Homo antecesshowed evidence of intermittent sor—a supposed ancestor of H. occupation having occurred over heidelbergensis—whose remains the past 125,000 years by both were found at Atapuerca, Spain. Neanderthals and modern huA study of the tooth enamel of mans. When the entire mitoa 14- to 15-year-old male— chondrial DNA (mtDNA) genome known as the Boy with the Amwas sequenced from the finger ber Necklace—buried some three bone, the results were both unkilometres (two miles) south of expected and astonishing. The Stonehenge c. 1550 BCE indicated that he may have grown up digit belonged neither to a in the Mediterranean. His burial Neanderthal nor to a modern was the latest in a growing list of human. The date of the most foreigners’ graves found near the recent common ancestor of site, suggesting that Stonehenge the Denisova hominin, Neancontinued to serve as a pilgrimderthals, and modern humans age destination long after its was calculated to be 1.04 million construction 5,000 years ago. years ago. Thus, Denisova Cave In Frome, Somerset, Eng., an may have harboured a hereto- Three fragments of long bones, representing three earthenware pot containing fore-undetected population of different female Neanderthals who occupied the more than 52,000 Roman coins hominins that migrated from Vindija cave in Croatia. DNA from these bones was dated to the 3rd century CE was Africa to northern Central analyzed for genome sequencing. discovered in a farmer’s field by Asia/southern Siberia after H. David Crisp, who was prospecterectus left Africa for Asia but before an African population of H. hei- the hip, knee, ankle, pelvis, and lower ing in the area with a metal detector. delbergensis (the probable ancestor of limbs all indicating habitual bipedal- Excavated by archaeologists from the the Neanderthals) arrived in Europe. ism, plus reduced premolars and mo- Somerset County Council and the The phylogenetic relationships of the lars combined with a flatter face and British Museum’s Portable Antiquities Scheme, the Frome Hoard, the largest Denisova hominin remained specula- less-pronounced cheekbones. tive, awaiting the decipherment of its The authors claimed that their newly of its kind found to date, contained nuclear genome. If it was a new hom- erected australopithecine species could coins minted by 21 Roman emperors, inin lineage, the evolutionary implica- lie evolutionarily between A. africanus among them Gallienus, Diocletian, and tion was that as many as five hominin and early Homo. The dates for the Ma- Maximian, as well as several emperors’ taxa may have shared the Late Pleis- lapa site (between 1.78 million and 2.03 wives. Most notable, however, were the tocene landscape. million years ago) posed a dilemma for 766 coins, including 5 unusual silver A newly defined species from the Ma- this scenario, since they postdated the denarii, that bear the image of Caraulapa site in South Africa was identified earliest members of the genus Homo by sius, a brutal military commander who via fossil morphology, a more tradi- at least 300,000 years. Although the declared himself emperor of Britain and tional source. An international team most parsimonious cladogram depicted northern Gaul in 286 CE and ruled the headed by American paleoanthropolo- A. sediba as the sister-group of the region until his assassination in 293. In Italy a geophysical survey revealed gist Lee Berger from the University of Homo clade, many paleoanthropolothe Witwatersrand, S.Af., published a gists concluded that this taxon should what was believed to be the largest description of two specimens, a 12–13- be considered a member of the genus canal ever built by the Romans. It conyear-old male and an adult female, that Homo rather than a transitional aus- nected the deepwater harbour at Porthey placed in the new taxon, Australo- tralopithecine. (STEPHEN L. ZEGURA) tus, near modern Fiumicino, with Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber. According pithecus sediba. The specimens disto Portus Project director Simon Keay played a mosaic of more primitive ausof the University of Southampton, the tralopithecine-like traits and more ARCHAEOLOGY Eastern Hemisphere. The discovery in 90-m (300-ft)-wide canal—in use beadvanced Homo-like features. Traits reminiscent of A. africanus included 2010 of 70 flint tools and flakes dated tween the 2nd and 5th centuries CE— small cranial capacity (a minimum of to more than 800,000 years ago placed would have allowed cargo from 420 cc [26 cu in]), relatively long arms, early humans in Britain a hundred throughout the Roman Empire to be short stature (a maximum of almost 1.3 thousand years earlier than previously transferred from large oceangoing vesm [51 in]), relatively small bodies thought. Found on the banks of the sels to smaller ships that plied the (weights of 27–34 kg [60–75 lb]), and proto-Thames at Happisburgh, Norfolk, Tiber, delivering goods to docks and primitive features of the foot, especially the tools were associated with sedi- warehouses in the imperial capital the heel. Conversely, Homo-like traits ments rich in environmental data that some 30 km (18 mi) inland. Until the included numerous derived features of provided a clear picture of the climate Portus discovery, it was believed that 201

Anthropology and Archaeology

imported goods took a far more cir- coin was inscribed with characters that the Levant, marking humanity’s transicuitous route overland along what is read “Yongle Tongbao,” indicating that tion from a nomadic to a more sedenknown as the Via Flavia. it was issued during the Yongle period. tary way of life. Prior to this discovIn Crete Elpida Hadjidaki of the According to site excavators Qin Dashu ery, the earliest-known evidence for Greek Department of Maritime Antiq- of Peking University and Herman funerary feasting in the Levant dated uities found the remains of the first Kiriama of the National Museums of to the Neolithic Period, some 10,500 known Minoan ship, which foundered Kenya, the presence of the coin, to- years ago. some 100 m (330 ft) off the Bronze Age gether with earlier finds of Chinese At Sanliurfa (ancient Edessa) in island port of Pseira in the Gulf of porcelains off the coast of Lamu, sug- southeastern Turkey, archaeologists Mirabéllo. Dated to c. 1700 BCE, finds gested that one of Zheng He’s ships found the remains of a Byzantine villa from the ship included hundreds of may have sunk in a storm. with a spectacular suite of 5th- to 6thlarge ceramic amphorae that century mosaics, which inMatt Crossick—PA Photos/Landov likely contained wine and olive cluded depictions of bareoil, several cooking pots, cups, breasted Amazons, exotic beak-spouted jugs, storage jars, animals, battling warriors, and and numerous fishnet weights. scenes from Greek mythology. Some 350 ostrich eggshell According to Nurten Aydemir fragments engraved with geoof the Sanliurfa Museum, the metric patterns and dated to bemosaics were rescued by excatween 55,000 and 65,000 years vations carried out during the ago were retrieved from South construction of a parking lot, Africa’s Diepkloof Rock Shelter. the building of which had since Associated with the so-called ceased. To date, 11 rooms of Howieson’s Poort occupation the villa had been excavated. layers at the site, the fragments (ANGELA M.H. SCHUSTER) Western Hemisphere. In 2010 bore one of four distinct design ongoing excavations by the patterns—a hatched band (preIllinois State Archaeological dominant in older deposits), a Survey (ISAS) at the East St. series of horizontal lines, interLouis site in southwestern Illisecting lines (common in more nois continued to uncover recent strata), or a cross-hatchlarge portions of one of the ing motif—and came from largest Mississippian mound some two dozen eggshells, sev- A hoard of more than 52,000 Roman coins was found centres in eastern North Amereral of which had holes drilled in April in Somerset, Eng., and was displayed at the ica. More than 300 buildings in them. The eggshells, which British Museum later in the year. and associated features docuhad a volume of about a litre, mented Mississippian residenmay have been used to carry water—a practice known until recent In northern Israel the butchered re- tial and ceremonial life on an untimes among the San hunter-gatherers mains of tortoises and wild cattle precedented spatial scale. On the basis of the Kalahari. According to Pierre- found at a 12,000-year-old Natufian of these expansive excavations, ISAS Jean Texier of the University of Bor- burial site in Hilazon Tachtit Cave archaeologists estimated that the site deaux 1 in Talence, France, the stan- provided the earliest evidence for com- was occupied by about 3,000 people dardized and repetitive nature of the munal feasting as part of ancient fu- during the 12th century. Among the designs on the shells offered the earli- nerary rites. According to Leore Gros- important discoveries of 2010 was a est-known evidence for a graphic tradi- man of Hebrew University and Natalie workshop in which stone ear spools tion among prehistoric hunter-gatherer D. Munro of the University of Con- (also called ear plugs) were fabricated. New research on materials recovered populations. Although markings had necticut, mourners roasted dozens of been found on earlier objects such as tortoises (Testudo graeca) and, after from the Sacred Ridge site in southanimal bones and blocks of ochre, none consuming their meat, tucked their western Colorado revealed evidence of attested to group adaptation of an artis- fire-blackened carapaces around the a 1,200-year-old mass killing. The site tic canon. body of a 45-year-old disabled woman, deposit contained the remains of at A 15th-century coin unearthed in the thought to be a shaman. She had been least 35 men, women, and children village of Mambrui just north of Ma- placed in a mud-plastered burial pit who were tortured, killed, and mutilindi on Kenya’s northern coast ap- with several exotic items, including lated following an attack on their setpeared to further substantiate a long- the wing of a golden eagle, the tail of tlement. A study of teeth from human held local legend that Chinese mariners an aurochs (Bos primigenius), the remains in the region revealed that the had reached the Swahili coast nearly a pelvis of a leopard, and a severed hu- victims were biologically distinct from century before Portuguese navigator man foot. The remains of three other nearby groups, supporting the Vasco da Gama; Chinese court docu- roasted aurochs, or wild cattle, were findings of previous studies (of such ments detail the exploits of Adm. Zheng found in association with a second features as architecture technologies, He, who was said to have taken a fleet structure. In time a total of 28 indi- ceramic styles, and mortuary practices) of 200 ships across the Indian Ocean in viduals were buried in the cave, the that indicated the presence of multiple 1418, meeting with the sultan of Ma- entrance to which is 150 m (492 ft) different Pueblo ethnic groups in the lindi along the way. Dated to between above the valley floor. The Natufian region. Thus, archaeologists posited 1403 and 1424, the Ming dynasty brass period is considered a pivotal time in that this massacre might have been 202

Anthropology and Archaeology Lucas Jackson—Reuters/Landov

fueled by ethnic tension following a period of drought. Workers at the construction site of the World Trade Center, New York City, uncovered the remains of a wooden ship dating to the 18th century. Archaeologists estimated that the ship was approximately 18 m (60 ft) long and 5.4 m (18 ft) wide and was used to transport cargo on the Hudson River and along the East Coast. Found at a depth of 6 m (20 ft) below the current street level, the ship appeared to have been deposited some 200 years earlier in a landfill that was part of an effort to extend the lower Manhattan shoreline. Excavations continued at the New Philadelphia site in Illinois, uncovering portions of what was the first town planned in advance and legally registered by an African American. The town became a multiracial community, and it was an important stop along the Underground Railroad used by African Americans fleeing enslavement. The 2010 field season uncovered the foundation and basement of a house and a well that belonged to Louisa McWorter, a relative of the town’s founder, “Free” Frank McWorter. A 14-km (9-mi) stretch of land on the Blackfeet Indian reservation in Montana was the location of an archaeological project documenting an ancient bison-hunting complex and kill site. This complex consisted of two campsites (with more than 600 tepee rings), remnants of a system by which bison were driven off a cliff, and an expansive bone bed where bison were processed. Moreover, excavation of the bone bed revealed small cutting and chopping tools that were used to process bison hide and meat. (GREG WILSON) Several important archaeological discoveries were made in Mesoamerica during 2010. In May a team under the direction of Stephen Houston of Brown University, Providence, R.I., discovered an extremely well-preserved tomb in the Mayan city of El Zotz, buried beneath the El Diablo pyramid at the site in Guatemala. This small pyramid was erected opposite a structure of ritual importance to the Sun God. The tomb was so well sealed beneath layers of flat stones and mud that the preservation of organic materials, including wood and textiles, was remarkable. Skeletal remains inside the tomb included an adult male and six children, two of whom were represented only by crania—these children probably were sacrificed to accompany the interment of

On July 15, archaeologists are among those examining the remains of an 18thcentury ship unearthed at the construction site of the World Trade Center, New York City. The wooden cargo vessel was probably scuttled some 200 years earlier when part of the Hudson River was filled in to extend the Manhattan shoreline. this presumed leader. Also discovered in the tomb were several small caches, including red bowls filled with human teeth and fingers, in addition to what was interpreted as a sacrificial blade, which may have been placed in the leader’s hand when he was interred. A red organic residue—possibly blood— coated the blade. Both the tomb’s location and its contents seemed to indicate the burial site of a Mayan king, possibly the founder of an important dynasty. Another important tomb was discovered in 2010, in the top of a pyramid at the site of Chiapa de Corzo, located in between the Olmec and Maya settlement spheres. This tomb was especially significant as it appeared to be the oldest-known pyramid tomb in Mesoamerica, dating back some 2,700 years. Excavation leader Bruce Bachand of Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, and his team believed the site to have been an important village along Olmec trade routes, possibly controlled by elites based at La Venta hundreds of years before the tomb was built. Olmec influences were clear in the site’s material culture, including local pottery. By the time the tomb was constructed, however, Chiapa de Corzo had developed into an important political centre in its own right. Two of the individuals interred in the tomb were of elite status, probably leaders, as indicated by their adornment; both bodies were dusted in red pigment, and one was clothed in a loincloth of pearl beads.

Jade beads carved in various animal shapes adorned their waists, and obsidian-inlaid marine shells covered their mouths. Two human sacrifices, an adult and a child, accompanied the elite individuals, and both appeared to have been unceremoniously thrown into the burial chamber. MIT researchers Dorothy Hosler and Michael Tarkanian conducted chemical experiments that illuminated how ancient Mesoamericans processed rubber to make it suitable for different functions. Ancient peoples of Mexico and Central America combined latex from rubber trees (Castilla elastica) with liquids from morning glory vines (Ipomoea alba) to create balls for the wellknown Mesoamerican ceremonial ball game, soles for sandals, and various bands and adhesives for adornment. In addition to examining ancient artifacts and ethnohistorical documents written by early Western explorers, the researchers experimented with proportions of latex and morning glory juice in order to determine ideal formulas for producing rubber suitable for each of its many uses. The results suggested that the chemical process for rubber production was both more complex and more ancient than expected. Indeed, the oldest rubber artifact (a ball found at the El Manatí site) dated to 1600 BCE, thousands of years before Charles Goodyear’s “invention” of vulcanized rubber in the 19th century. (AMBER VANDERWARKER) 203

Architecture and Civil Engineering Several INNOVATIVE structures opened, including the world’s TALLEST building, in Dubayy, and Zaha Hadid’s MAXXI in Rome. JAPANESE ARCHITECTS Fumihiko Maki and the principals in the firm SANAA were honoured, and two buildings by LOUIS I. KAHN were restored.

ARCHITECTURE

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ndoubtedly the most talked-about work of architecture in 2010 was Burj Khalifa, which opened in January in the Arab emirate of Dubayy. At more than 160 stories, it was by far the tallest building in the world. Building heights were often a matter of controversy because people disagreed about the inclusion of elements such as rooftop spires. But rising to more than 828 m (2,717 ft) at its structural top, the Burj was more than 300 m (1,000 ft) taller than the previous champion, the Taipei 101 (2003) tower in Taiwan. Some observers suggested that construction of the Burj might mark the end of an era. They argued that the worldwide economic crisis, in addition to concerns about energy, would make governments and private corporations less willing to invest in costly superlative buildings of this kind. The Burj was designed by American architect Adrian Smith and contained a mix of apartments and office space. Other Notable Buildings. Despite the recession, a number of major buildings were constructed worldwide in 2010. Like the Burj, they tended to be designed by nonnative architects as architecture, like many industries, became more and more a global undertaking. If there was a design trend, it was the ever-increasing use of glass as the major exterior material. That was possible largely because of the development of new types of insulating glass that both prevented heat transmission and aided light diffusion in building interiors. In Beijing the so-called Linked Hybrid, designed by American architect Steven Holl and completed in 2009,

consisted of a group of eight residential towers of varying heights up to 22 stories. Forming a rough U-shape, the towers were connected to their nearest

Burj Khalifa, the world’s tallest building, opened in 2010. Known during its construction as Burj Dubai, it was renamed Burj Khalifa in honour of the president of the United Arab Emirates, Sheikh Khalifah ibn Zayid Al Nahyan, emir of Abu Zaby, who came to Dubayy’s financial rescue.

Martin Rose—Bongarts/Getty Images

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neighbours by glass-walled pedestrian sky bridges. Rome saw the opening of MAXXI, the National Museum of XXI Century Arts, designed by Iraqi-born British architect Zaha Hadid. It displayed Hadid’s usual sweeping curves and looked a little like a freeway interchange. In Chicago a firm called Studio Gang, led by architect Jeanne Gang, designed Aqua, an 82-story tower of apartments, hotel rooms, and offices near Lake Michigan. The tower was memorable for its balconies, which wrapped the glass building in sensuous ripples of white concrete curves. At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Japanese architect Fumihiko Maki created a new building for the school’s Media Arts and Sciences laboratories. The glass building was partly sheathed in an aluminum screen that let in delicate light. In Miami Beach, Swiss architects Jacques Herzog and Pierre de Meuron designed a remarkable open concrete parking garage that resembled a dramatic eight-story display case for cars. It also included shops and a top-floor restaurant and penthouse. In Lausanne, Switz., the Japanese partnership SANAA created the Rolex Learning Center, a mix of library, café, and other spaces for the students and faculty of a prestigious technical school. The structure bore some resemblance to a huge undulating slice of Swiss cheese. Large round openings in the roof let in light. Landscape and Urban Design. Increasingly, throughout the world architects collaborated with other architects and with experts in urban design (the design of towns and cities) and landscape architecture (the design of parks and other open spaces). That enlarged vision was complemented by a growing interest in “green” design, emphasizing the conservation of energy and other natural resources. As a result, architectural trends moved away from the design of single isolated buildings toward collaboration in the creation of clusters of buildings and parklands—and sometimes entire neighbourhoods. One notable example that opened in late 2009 was the CityCenter, a development on the famous Strip in Las Vegas. It was a huge $8.5 billion cluster of flamboyant buildings, including hotels, restaurants and bars, condominiums, convention

Architecture and Civil Engineering Tony Law/Redux

Beijing’s Linked Hybrid, a mixed-use complex designed by Steven Holl Architects, aimed to create a “porous urban space.” spaces, a theatre, a shopping mall, and a casino. Each was designed by a different star architect (sometimes called “starchitect”) in a unique style, but it was hoped that the buildings would together form an exciting as well as diverse whole, like a good party. Another urban-plus-landscape cluster was the sprouting of new buildings around the High Line, a popular new elevated park in Manhattan near the Hudson River. A notable arrival there in 2010 was a residential tower by French architect Jean Nouvel. Its facade consisted of hundreds of glass windows of many sizes and shapes that were tilted at different angles. Awards. The annual Pritzker Prize, considered the highest international honour for an architect, was awarded in 2010 to Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa. (See BIOGRAPHIES.) They were partners in the Tokyo-based firm SANAA (an initialism for Sejima and Nishizawa and Associates). At age 44 Nishizawa was the youngest Pritzker winner, and Sejima was only the second female winner. SANAA was known for working with glass to create buildings of exceptional lightness and delicacy. The Royal Gold Medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects went to Sir David Chipperfield, a British architect who maintained offices in London, Milan, Berlin, and Shanghai. Britain’s Stirling Prize, for the best new European building built or designed in Britain, went to Rome’s MAXXI museum by Zaha Hadid. Fumihiko Maki, the 1993 winner of the Pritzker Prize who had long been regarded as one of

the world’s top architects, was named in December as the winner of the Zoll Gold Medal of the American Institute of Architects (AIA). The AIA’s coveted 25-Year Award, given to a building that had proved its merit over time, went to Hajj Terminal at the King Abdul Aziz International Airport in Jiddah, Saudi Arabia. The terminal, which opened in 1981, was designed by the American firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM), and in 1983 it won the Aga Khan Award for Islamic architecture. Responding to the desert climate, the

terminal was a mostly open-air structure with a tensile fabric roof system that resembled a 49-ha (120-ac) field of semitranslucent white tents. The structure allowed diffused light into the terminal but reflected heat away from it. Cooling breezes were free to circulate through the space, which maintained a comfortable temperature of 27 °C (80 °F) even when the temperature outside the terminal reached 49 °C (120 °F). The annual six-week hajj is a mass movement of Muslim pilgrims on their way to the holy city of Mecca. During that period the terminal was the world’s busiest, able to accommodate more than 1.5 million travelers. The AIA presented its annual Honor Awards for architecture to 14 buildings. Among them was a tiny inventive theatre ticket booth (Perkins Eastman, Choi Ropiha, and PKSB Architects) in New York City’s Times Square. Its unique ramp roof of glowing glass stairs provided a resting place and viewing grandstand for tourists. Another winner was the Brochstein Pavilion in Houston, by Thomas Phifer, a gathering place for students and faculty at Rice University. It was a simple large glass box topped by a canopy of thin aluminum tubes that extended over a surrounding terrace. The feeling was that of a traditional temple wearing modern dress. There were just five winners of the triennial Aga Khan Award for Architecture, which aimed to honour works (continued on page 208)

The Rolex Learning Center in Lausanne, Switz., with its superlow profile, was designed by the Pritzker Prize-winning Tokyo-based firm SANAA.

EPFL/Alain Herzog

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Architecture and Civil Engineering

Notable Civil Engineering Projects (in work or completed, 2010) Name

Year of completion

Location

Airports

Notes

Terminal area (sq m)

Indira Gandhi International (Terminal 3) New Doha International (phases 1 and 2) Miami International (North Terminal)

southwest of Delhi

502,000 2010

Opened July 3; handles all of Delhi’s international flights

near Doha, Qatar northwest of central Miami

465,000 2013 316,000 2011

Muscat International Málaga Airport (Terminal 3) Berlin Brandenburg International

west of Muscat, Oman, near Al-Sib southwest of Málaga, Spain Schönefeld airport, southeast of Berlin

290,000 2013 250,000 2010 220,000 2012

Sheremetyevo International (Terminal D, earlier named Terminal 3) Haneda (new international terminal)

northwest of Moscow

170,000 2010?

southwest of central Tokyo

130,000 2010

Dublin (Terminal 2)

north of Dublin

75,000 2010

Al Maktoum International (phase 1)

at Jebel Ali, southwest of Dubai, U.A.E.

41,000* 2010

Being built on 22 sq km of Persian Gulf landfill Largest U.S. airport expansion under way in 2010; original terminal is being remodeled and expanded to become the North Terminal Terminal expanded Opened March 15 Schönefeld to be expanded; other Berlin airports closed in 2008 (Tempelhof) or will close in 2012 (Tegel); new terminal to be U-shaped Swan-shaped terminal will be home to Aeroflot; formal opening date not announced Opened Oct. 21; Japan’s busiest airport, is closer to central Tokyo than Narita International Airport Opened Nov. 19; has U.S. customs facilities (previously found only at western Ireland’s Shannon Airport) Cargo operations began July 1 with completion of phase 1; to become largest commercial airport in the world; *size of cargo terminals

Bridges Hong Kong–Zhuhai Crossing Hangzhou Bay #2 (Jia-shao) Fourth Yangtze Bridge Bridge Crossing to the Russky Island John James Audubon unnamed Mississippi River bridge at St. Louis Tokyo Port Waterfront Manaus–Iranduba Bridge Mike O’Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Deh Cho Bridge

Danube Bridge #2 (2nd bridge between Bulgaria and Romania)

Length (main span; m) Hong Kong to China link (via Macau) (in Pearl River estuary) between Jiaxing and Shaoxing, China Nanjing, China Vladivostok–Russky Island, Russia (across the Eastern Bosporus Strait) New Roads–St. Francisville, La. (across the Mississippi) St. Louis, Mo.–Fairmount City, Ill.

c. 50 km 2016 2,680* 2012 1,418 2013 1,104 2012 483 2011

To be longest cable-stayed bridge in North America

457 2014

To be 3rd longest cable-stayed bridge in the U.S.; first new Mississippi bridge at St. Louis in more than 40 years Part of Tokyo Port Seaside Road; to enhance movement of international trade cargo; will be world’s 9th longest steel truss bridge 1st bridge across the Amazon; to open the Brazilian rainforest to further development; 3.6 km in length and supported by 74 pylons Opened Oct. 19; 274 m above the Colorado River; world’s 4th longest concrete arch bridge Unique redesigned (1,045 m in length) composite steel truss bridge with 190-m cable-assisted main span; creates first permanent road link between Yellowknife, N.W.Terr., and the Alberta border To stimulate economic development in an economically depressed part of Europe (NW Bulgaria/SW Romania); total length of bridge is 1,971 m

Tokyo (on reclaimed land [in part] outside central breakwater) Manaus–Iranduba, Brazil

440 2011

Arizona–Nevada border (just south of Hoover Dam) at Fort Providence, N.W.Terr., across Mackenzie River

323 2010

Vidin, Bulg.–Calafat, Rom.

180 2011

Buildings, Towers

400 2010/11

190 2011

Height (rooftop; m)

Burj Khalifa

Dubai, U.A.E.

828 2010

Tokyo Sky Tree Shanghai Tower Guangzhou TV & Sightseeing Tower

Tokyo Shanghai Guangzhou, China

634 2012 632 2014 610 2010

Abraj Al Bait (“Royal Clock”) Towers

Mecca, Saudi Arabia

1 World Trade Center (Freedom Tower)

New York City

Pentominium International Commerce Centre

Dubai, U.A.E. Hong Kong

516 2013 484 2010

Nanjing Greenland Financial Center Kingkey Finance Center Ryugyong Hotel

Nanjing, China Shenzhen, China Pyongyang, N.Kor.

450 2010 440 2011 330 2012?

Dams Santo Antonio (SA)/Jirau (J) (2 dams on the Madeira River)

577 2011 “1,776 ft” (541.3 m) 2013

Bakun Hydroelectric Project Xiluodu (part of upper Yangtze hydropower development scheme) Gilgel Gibe III

184 km upriver of Yibin, China, on Jinsha River Omo River, southwestern Ethiopia

700 2015

Nam Theun 2

on Nam Theun River, eastern Bolikhamxai province, Laos on Vakhsh River, south of Dushanbe, Tajik. Caroní River, northern Bolívar, Venez.

436 2010

on Mekong (Lancang) River, southwestern Yunnan, China

? 2013

on Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) River southeast of Lhasa, Tibet, China

? 2015?

Manuel Piar (Tocoma) (4th of 4-dam lower Caroní development scheme) Xiaowan

Zangmu

1 m = 3.28 ft; 1 km = 0.62 mi

Opened Jan. 4, 2010; became world’s tallest man-made structure in April 2008; known as Burj Dubai (“Dubai Tower”) prior to Jan. 4, 2010 To be world’s tallest stand-alone communications tower To be world’s 2nd tallest building and the tallest in China Opened Sept. 29; is world’s tallest observation/television tower; height to rooftop 454 m, with spire 610 m Clock became operational Aug. 11; to be world’s 3rd tallest building; 6 residential/hotel towers to house 65,000 people Complex to include 6 new buildings, a memorial, and a museum; height to rooftop 417 m, with spire 541.3 m Will be world’s tallest residential tower Topped out in 2010; world’s 4th tallest building; to have world’s highest hotel when opened in 2011 Opened April; world’s 6th tallest building Work began in 1987 and halted in 1993; construction on what will be North Korea’s tallest building resumed in mid-2008

Crest length (m) (SA): near Porto Velho, Rondônia, Braz. (J): between Porto Velho and Bolivian border Balui River, Sarawak, Malay.

Sangtuda 2

To include world’s largest sea bridge (c. 35 km) and world’s longest immersed tube tunnel (5.6 km) *Will be world’s longest all-span cable-stayed bridge To be world’s 6th longest suspension bridge To be world’s longest cable-stayed bridge

(SA) 1,173 2011 (J) 550 2013 750 2011

610 2014

385 2011 300 2012

Together will provide 8% of the electricity for Brazil by 2013

To be largest concrete-faced rockfill dam in the world; may provide electricity to Singapore and peninsular Malaysia if needed First of 4-dam scheme that will generate more electricity than Three Gorges Production will surpass domestic needs; additional electricity will be exported to Sudan and Kenya; largest hydropower project in sub-Saharan Africa Inaugurated Dec. 9; most electricity is exported to Thailand To be 5th hydropower station on the Vakhsh River; Tajikistan will be energy self-sufficient with completion of this Iranian-built dam Final unit of world’s 3rd largest hydroelectric complex World’s tallest (292 m) arch dam; potential hydroelectric capacity equal to the combined capacities of all other Southeast Asian reservoirs; 2nd only to Three Gorges Dam in hydroelectrical potential First dam to be built across the 2,900-km Tsangpo (Brahmaputra) River; possible water diversion is controversial with India and Bangladesh

Architecture and Civil Engineering

Notable Civil Engineering Projects (in work or completed, 2010) continued Name Highways South Interoceanic Highway Mombasa–Nairobi–Addis Ababa Road Corridor East-West Highway (across northern Algeria) A2 Motorway (“east to west expressway across Poland”) Bamenda–Enugu Multinational Highway Corridor Transylvanian Motorway Upper Egypt–Red Sea Road

Year of completion

Location

Iñapari (at Brazilian border)–Ilo/Matarani/ San Juan de Marcona, Peru Addis Ababa, Eth.–Mombasa, Kenya Tunisian border (near Annaba)– Algerian border (near Tlemcen) Polish border near Frankfurt an der Oder, Ger.–Brest, Belarus (via Warsaw) Bamenda, Cameroon–Enugu, Nigeria

2,627 2011 1,284 2012? 1,216 2011? 610 2012 443 2012?

Brasov–Bors, Rom.

415 2013

Safaga–Assiut/Sohag/Qena, Egypt

412 2014

Canals and Floodgates St. Petersburg Flood Protection Barrier

25,400 2010

Mose Project (flood-protection plan) Panama Canal Expansion

between Panama City and Colón, Pan.

— 2014

Eastmain-1-A Powerhouse and Rupert Diversion South-to-North Water Transfer Project (Middle Route)

Rupert River watershed to Eastmain River watershed, northern Quebec Danjiangkou Reservoir (on Haijiang River) to Beijing

— 2012

Railways (Heavy)

2,283 2011

— 2014

— 2014

Al-Zubairah–Ras Al-Zour, Saudi Arabia Benguela–Luau, Angola (at DR Congo border) Sebha–Misurata, Libya

Sena Railway (destroyed during 1976–92 civil war) Xinqiu–Bayan Ul Railway

Moatize–Beira, Mozam.

673 2010

Xinqiu, Liaoning–Bayan Ul, Inner Mongolia, China Baku, Azer.–Kars, Tur. (via Georgia) Lhasa–Xigaze, Tibet, China Caloocan (north Metro Manila)– Clark international airport, Philippines

487 2011?

Lhasa–Xigaze railway North Luzon Railway System project (phase 1)

Railways (High Speed) Jinghu High-Speed Turkish High-Speed Zhengxi High-Speed Madrid–Valencia High-Speed Shanghai–Hangzhou High-Speed Bothnia Line (Botniabanan) Gyeongbu High-Speed (3rd section)

1,486 2011 1,314 2011 800 2012

258 2012 254 2014 84 2012

1,318 533 457 438 200 190 129

Rows of 78 20-m-wide submerged gates in 3 lagoon openings will rise in flood conditions Will include new wider and longer 3-chamber locks, doubling the canal’s capacity and allowing the passage of world’s biggest container ships Most recent Hydro-Québec development; water diversion scheme to create an additional capacity of 918 MW Water will be canalized north 925 km to drought-prone Beijing area; 2 massive tunnels under the Yellow River are near completion

To facilitate the export of phosphate and bauxite from mines in the interior via the Persian Gulf Will enable resumption of copper exports from DR Congo and Zambia To expand the shipment of iron ore from the Libyan interior to the Mediterranean port of Misurata First freight train reached Moatize on Jan. 30; route is expected to be important for coal export To be important for coal transport; future link to Mongolia expected Caspian Sea to Turkey link, bypassing Armenia; 98 km of new rail, remainder modernized; new transport outlet for Georgia Extension of the world’s highest railroad will include 29 tunnels To accelerate development of central Luzon

To halve travel time between capital and financial centre To connect capital with largest city Opened Feb. 6; includes 3 tunnels between 7,600 m and 8,500 m in length Opened Dec. 10 Opened Oct. 26; world’s fastest bullet train (avg. speed of 350 km/hr) Opened Aug. 28; along difficult terrain of north Swedish coast Opened Nov. 1; 420-km Seoul to Busan high-speed rail now complete except for rails through Daegu and Daejeon cities

66.2 km represents lengths of lines or extensions opened Jan.–Nov. 2010; total length of lines equals 155.8 km 30.2 km opened April; length of lines opened between 1995 and April 2010 equaled 420 km (metro system has become world’s longest) To connect 3 existing MRT lines; 16.5 km opened on April 17 2 lines to be built; construction began in 2007 Crosses the city from NW to SE; first phase to open in 2011 Part of world’s longest fully automated driverless transport system Includes 9.8 km refurbishment of existing line and 11.7 km new extension Opened Nov. 3; first intercity subway in China

Length (km) Delhi

66.2 2010

Shanghai Metro (Line 10)

Shanghai

36.2 2010

Circle MRT Namma Metro Rome Metro (Line C) Dubai Metro (Green Line) Lima Metro (Line 1) Guangfo Metro (or FMetro) (phase 1) Mecca (Makkah) monorail

Singapore Bangalore (Bengaluru), India Rome Dubai, U.A.E. Lima Guangzhou–Foshan, China

35.7 33.0 25.5 22.5 21.5 20.4

Mecca, Saudi Arabia

18.1 2010

Métro d’Alger (Line 1, phase 1)

Algiers

Tunnels

2010/11 2011 2011 2011 2011 2010

9.0 2010/11

Opened Nov. 13; links various holy sites in Mecca; 500,000 pilgrims can be transported every 6 to 8 hours Mainly underground near the city centre and eastward; delayed by archaeological finds

Length (m)

Brenner Base Tunnel

Innsbruck, Austria–Fortezza, Italy

Alimineti Madhava Reddy Project

Krishna River to Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh state, India connecting European and Asian portions of Istanbul

1 m = 3.28 ft; 1 km = 0.62 mi

To protect city from tidal surges; city protected from flooding as of 2010; ancillary projects to be completed in 2011 Central component of 3.2-km-long project to prevent storm-surge flooding, using 7.9-m barrier walls and floodgates

2012 2013 2010 2010 2010 2010 2010

Delhi Metro

East and West tunnels of A86 ring road Busan–Geoje Fixed-Link project

To link Romania and Hungary and open Transylvania to tourism; 13-km Turda–Campia Turzii section opened Nov. 13, 2010 To link three vital communities on the Nile with the Red Sea via a modern multilane highway

Length (km) Beijing–Shanghai Ankara–Istanbul Zengzhou–Sian (Xian), China Madrid–Valencia, Spain Shanghai–Hangzhou, China Nyland–Umeå, Swed. Daegu–Busan, S.Kor.

Subways/Metros/Monorails/ Commuter Rails

Marmaray railroad project tunnels

Will link to German autobahn; more than 150 km had been completed by the end of 2010 To be a component of a planned Pan-African highway

Length (km)

North South Rail Project (freight) Benguela Railway (rehabilitation; closed by civil war 1975–2002) Sebha–Misurata rail project

KATB rail project

To be paved road for Brazilian imports/exports from/to Asia via 3 Peruvian ports; to link the Atlantic and Pacific oceans To facilitate trade between landlocked Ethiopia and the world through the Kenyan port of Mombasa To facilitate economic development and trade across North Africa

Length (m) Gulf of Finland embankment, Russia (Gorskaya–Bronka via Kotlin Island) near confluence of Gulf Intercoastal Waterway and Mississippi River Gulf Outlet, east of New Orleans lagoon openings near Venice

New Orleans Surge Barrier

Notes

Length (km)

western outskirts of Paris Busan–Geoje island, South Korea

55,392 2015 43,500 2012 13,600 2013

10,000/7,500 2011 3,200 2010

To ease congestion of freight travel from across Europe passing through the Alps; breakthrough on a 10.5-km exploration tunnel occurred Nov. 3 To provide irrigation and drinking water to drought-prone Nalgonda; will be the world’s longest tunnel without intermediate access Includes 1.4-km-long bored tunnel, world’s deepest sunken-tube tunnel (56 m under the Bosporus strait); completed (though not opened) Oct. 13, 2008 Two tunnels under Versailles and nearby protected woodlands Opened Dec. 13; world’s deepest immersed roadway tunnel

Architecture and Civil Engineering Mark Lennihan/AP

(continued from page 205)

that related to Islamic culture anywhere in the world. As usual, the recipients of the award were very diverse. They included a wetlands reclamation effort in Saudi Arabia; the restoration of a relatively recent 19th- and 20thcentury neighbourhood in Tunis, Tunisia; a new museum of archaeology on what once was a Muslim site in Córdoba, Spain; a high-quality textile factory in Turkey; and a school and community centre in China that bridged a creek that divided a village. Exhibitions. By far the largest exhibit of the year was the Expo 2010 Shanghai China, a world’s fair with the theme “Better City, Better Life.” (See Sidebar on page 381.) Many of the fair’s 200-plus buildings were intended to be examples of experimental architecture. Like most fair pavilions, they came from nations around the globe and were not intended to last beyond the dates of the Expo. One favourite was the British pavilion, made of more than 60,000 transparent acrylic rods. Each rod contained seeds from wild plant species. When the Expo closed, the rods of the disassembled building were given to Chinese schoolchildren. One of the largest fairs ever, the Expo 2010 was compared by one critic to the great World’s Columbian Exposition (1893) in Chicago: “Just as the Columbian Exhibition heralded the American Century, the Shanghai World Expo portends a coming century of Chinese supremacy.” In Padua, Italy, a retrospective exhibition showed the work of Pritzker Prize winner Zaha Hadid. It was billed as an investigation of her firm’s “continued experimentation and research into digital design and construction methods at the cutting edge of the industry.” “Rising Currents: Projects for New York’s Waterfront,” at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, displayed the ideas of five architectural teams on how the city could respond to effects of rising global temperatures and rising sea levels that were predicted by climatologists. Another MoMA show was “Small Scale, Big Change: New Architectures of Social Engagement,” which presented examples of what it called humanitarian design. Those were the work of architects designing innovative low-cost buildings for underprivileged communities around the world. The Venice Biennale in Italy held its 12th International Architecture Exhibition. The event was titled “People Meet in Architecture” and was directed by Kazuyo Sejima. It aimed to explore how archi208

The discount theatre ticket TKTS Booth—by Perkins Eastman, Choi Ropiha, and PKSB Architects—located in New York City’s Times Square won an Honor Award from the American Institute of Architects (AIA). tecture can “clarify new values and a new lifestyle for the present.” Some 52 nations and 48 individual contributors presented proposals of one kind or another. Many of the proposals were works of art or theatre as much as architecture. Preservation. The year was notable for the restoration of two early masterpieces by the late Louis I. Kahn, one of the greatest American architects of the late 20th century. One was the so-called Trenton Bath House (1954–59) in Ewing, N.J.—a small pavilion through whose design the architect began to develop the humane yet monumental architecture for which he became famous. The other structure was the Yale University Art Gallery (1951–53) in New Haven, Conn., Kahn’s first significant building, most memorable for the pattern of tetrahedrons in the massive concrete ceilings. Competitions, Deaths, and Other News. In a widely followed competition, a design by the Philadelphia firm KieranTimberlake beat proposals by three other prominent firms for a new U.S. embassy in London. The building was to replace the U.S. embassy (1960) in Grosvenor Square, which—on its site in built-up central London—was considered an easy target for terrorists. Considerable attention was paid by architects, mostly American, to the disaster of the earthquake that struck Haiti on January 12. (See Special Report on page 190.) Many offered their

services to help with the enormous task of rebuilding. In the days after the quake, the group Architecture for Humanity received thousands of e-mails to that effect. Later in the year architect Andrés Duany, a noted designer of new communities, proposed several inexpensive prefabricated dwelling types for the island. Bruce Graham died in March at age 84. For many years before his 1989 retirement, he was the most powerful architect in the Midwest, where he headed the Chicago office of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. In that capacity he led the design of Chicago’s John Hancock Center and Sears Tower (now Willis Tower), which at the time of its construction was the world’s tallest building. Raimund Abraham died in March at age 76. Abraham taught architecture for more than 30 years at New York City’s Cooper Union, but in 2002 he also gained recognition for his blade-shaped Austrian Cultural Forum in Manhattan. (See OBITUARIES.) Also in March came the death of Der Scutt, 75, designer of many New York City buildings, including Trump Tower on Fifth Avenue. Jack Warnecke, 91, died in April. A friend of Pres. John F. Kennedy, Warnecke during that administration redesigned much of the area around Lafayette Square, in front of the White House. His modest red brick buildings were intended to stave off unwanted high-rise development of the historic site. (ROBERT CAMPBELL)

Art and Art Exhibitions Art exhibits in 2010 became more INTERACTIVE, with curators emphasizing the RELEVANCE OF THE PAST to the present and artists enticing museumgoers to ACTIVELY PARTICIPATE in the shows. Ai Weiwei encouraged viewers to walk on PORCELAIN SUNFLOWER SEEDS, and Marina Abramovic invited viewers to sit across from her while she remained MOTIONLESS. In the realm of photography, images were often posted to SOCIAL NETWORKING Web sites, but the allure of VINTAGE PHOTOGRAPHS remained strong.

ART

D

espite continuing economic uncertainty in 2010, auction returns for contemporary art indicated new vitality in the market. At Sotheby’s, the February sale outstripped presales estimates and—with 96% of the 77 lots sold—became the second most successful of its type in the house’s history. New records were set for 19 artists, including Chris Ofili and Blinky Palermo; Yves Klein’s flame-resistant resin imprint F 88 (1961) and Willem de Kooning’s Untitled XIV (1983) brought the highest bids of the evening ($5.13 million and $6.2 million, respectively). Resurgence continued at Phillips de Pury and Company, although the showing was less spectacular, with solid sales that reached the midestimate figures and strongest returns for established figures such as Jean-Michel Basquiat and Donald Judd. Contemporary art also led the Asian market, with mainland Chinese and Indonesian bidders dominating the Hong Kong spring sales. Sotheby’s brought in $18.7 million—$2 million above presales estimates—for contemporary art alone, setting new records for rising artists. Liu Ye’s acrylic Bright Road (1995), featuring a cherubic couple dancing as a flaming jet plummets to earth behind them, brought the highest price for a work by a contemporary Asian artist in two years, quickly ending last year’s speculation that the new Asian market had reached its peak. Recovery was also seen in the Postwar and Modern markets. Alberto Gia-

cometti’s 1.8-m (6-ft) bronze figure Walking Man I (1960) broke all previous records for a single work of art, selling at Sotheby’s for $104.3 million. That fee was quickly overtaken by the sale at Christie’s of Pablo Picasso’s Nude, Green Leaves, and Bust (1932) for $106.5 million. Also at Christie’s, a new record was set for Jasper Johns, one of whose iconic Flag (1960–66) paintings nearly doubled its high estimate when the bidding ended at $28.6 million. The market proved unpredictable, however, as seen at Christie’s Impressionist and Modern Art sale, promoted as the most valuable auction ever to take place in

London. The sales—featuring works by Henri Matisse, René Magritte, and Gustav Klimt—were solid but lacklustre. Picasso’s “Blue Period” portrait of Ángel Fernández de Soto (1903) sold at its low-end estimate, and Claude Monet’s superb 1906 Nymphéas was retracted when bids failed to reach the low estimate of $44 million. The most innovative of the year’s new works explored the idea of synthesis, blurring boundaries between the dictates of site and transformative intervention. Flare II, a sculpture by Antony Gormley (see BIOGRAPHIES), was directly inspired by the space he selected for installation: the void defined by Christopher Wren’s 17th-century Geometric Staircase in the southwest tower of London’s St. Paul’s Cathedral. Cy Twombly also intervened in a centuriesold space: the Salle des Bronzes in the Paris Louvre. He transformed the 400sq-m (4,300-sq-ft) ceiling into a magnificent cerulean blue canopy spangled with discus-shaped forms and white panels inscribed with the names of ancient Greek sculptors as a harmonious tribute to the Greek and Roman sculptures displayed in the gallery. Anglo-Nigerian artist Yinka Shonibare employed site to reconsider historical significance and issues of identity in his installation for the Fourth Plinth in London’s Trafalgar Square.

Yinka Shonibare’s Nelson’s Ship in a Bottle, a scale model of a ship that fought in the Battle of Trafalgar (1805), was installed in London’s Trafalgar Square in May.

Andy Rain—EPA/Landov

209

Art and Art Exhibitions Lennart Preiss/AP

Nelson’s Ship in a Bottle featured a 1:30 replica of the HMS Victory enclosed in a giant Perspex bottle corked and sealed with red wax. Negotiating the provocative convergence of commemoration and critique, Shonibare altered only one detail of the ship commanded by Sir Horatio Nelson in the Battle of Trafalgar; he used colourful African textiles for the 31 rigged sails to acknowledge “the multicultural society we have in Britain today” as well as the “historic victory.” German artist Thomas Demand (see BIOGRAPHIES) blurred the boundaries between inspiration and invention, as well as artist and curator, by organizing a group exhibition (including his own work) at the Villa Paloma for the Musée National de Monaco in Monte Carlo. He used the title of René Magritte’s eclectic journal (briefly published in the early 1950s) as a departure point, not in tribute but in a desire to controvert historic categories. Referring to Magritte’s famous painting of a pipe that states “Ceci n’est pas une pipe,” Demand said with a touch of irony, “I am not Magritte.” Irony was present too in the Tate Modern’s Turbine Hall, where Chinese artist Ai Weiwei encouraged visitors to walk on his installation of more than 100 million handmade and painted life-size porcelain Sunflower Seeds. Fearing that inhalation of the resulting ceramic dust would prove harmful, however, the Tate (with the artist’s support) subsequently closed direct access to the gallery and directed the public to view the work from a walkway above. The way in which Bravo TV’s reality show Work of Art: The Next Great Artist, featuring 14 artists competing for $100,000 and an exhibition at the Brooklyn (N.Y.) Museum, breached the line between art and entertainment stirred critical controversy, but on-air judge-critic Jerry Saltz noted that it gave rise to a kind of “accidental art criticism,” encouraging popular interest in contemporary art. Abdi Farah won the competition. Banksy’s film Exit Through the Gift Shop, purportedly a documentary about street art by an amateur filmmaker whose enthusiasm leads him to adopt a covert identity as a graffiti artist called Mr. Brainwash, mocked the genre with the tagline “The incredible true story of how the greatest graffiti film of all time was never made.” Critic Jeannette Catsoulis labeled it a “prankumentary.” Each in their own way, the artists selected for the short list of the 26th 210

At the Tate Modern in London, Chinese artist Ai Weiwei poses in front of his installation Sunflower Seeds, which comprised millions of porcelain seeds; the exhibit opened in October and was scheduled to run until May 2, 2011. Turner Prize defied expectations. As the only painter on the list, Dexter Dalwood worked in a sharp, Neorealist style, but his disturbing scenes of murder and conspiracy confounded the viewer’s desire to ascertain narrative. Angela de la Cruz exploited the three-dimensional possibilities of canvas by folding and layering monochromatic planes into sculptural shapes. The film collaborative Otolith Group (Anjalika Sagar and Kodwo Eshun)—named for the human inner-ear structure that establishes the physical perception of gravity—challenged the documentary genre with time-traveling films that blurred past, future, and present. The ultimate winner was Susan Philipsz, who sampled familiar songs and sounds, often in her own voice. She subverted the ambient noise of bridges and walkways with hidden sound tracks that triggered personal, as well as communal, memories. Three visual artists were chosen as John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation fellows: traditional stone carver Nicholas Benson, whose immaculate inscriptions graced public buildings and monuments; Jorge Pardo, who used quotidian objects to create mind-altering, large-scale installations; and sculptor Elizabeth Turk, whose technique coaxed out a weightless quality in marble. At age 95, Cuban-born painter Carmen Herrera (see BIOGRAPHIES) received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Cintas Foundation for her elegant geomet-

ric abstractions. The Ordway Prize, granted every other year to a curator or critic and to a visual artist went to Hamza Walker, director of education and associate curator at the University of Chicago’s Renaissance Society, and Artur Zmijewski, a Polish artist who moved freely between sculpture, film, and photography. The French government made Italian-born American curator Francesco Bonami a member of the Legion of Honour, and painter Frank Stella was honoured in the United States with the National Medal of Arts. Notable deaths in the art world included painters Sigmar Polke, Wu Guanzhong, and Kenneth Noland; sculptor Louise Bourgeois; and Corneille, a founder of the group known as COBRA. (See OBITUARIES.) Other losses included painters Ruth Kligman, David Slivka, self-taught artist Purvis Young, and the Togolese artist Paul Ahyi, who designed Togo’s national flag, and sculptor Dustin Shuler. (DEBRA N. MANCOFF)

ART EXHIBITIONS Questions of relevance that clouded the 2009 art expositions were somewhat tempered in 2010 as prominent fairs sought ways to reinvent—or at least reestablish—their significance in the volatile market. While some continued to expand, boasting of unprecedented numbers of participants, the

Art and Art Exhibitions

idea of engaging the past to find meaning in the present proved to be a ubiquitous theme, in both curatorial concepts and artistic expression. At the 75th Whitney Biennial, organizers Francesco Bonami and Gary CarrionMurayari selected a cross section of contemporary art that explored time as a “two-way telescope.” Comparing this with the radical statements of recent biennials, critic Holland Cotter construed the strategy as a “preemptive effort at damage control.” Among the 55 artists represented, interpretative reference emerged as the prevailing approach, as seen in the way R.H. Quaytman’s Distracting Distance, Chapter 16 evoked deliberate aesthetic connections to the exhibition site: Marcel Breuer’s window designs and the austere loneliness of Edward Hopper’s A Woman in the Sun (1961). Overlapping both ends of the Whitney Biennial was “Collecting Biennials,” featuring works from past biennials that had been purchased for the museum’s permanent collection. Similarly, the 12th Armory Show, with 289 galleries representing 31 countries, emphasized the dialogue between past and present over provocative innovation, but it also launched a new initiative to showcase international art communities. This section of the show, called Armory Focus, debuted with a spotlight on Berlin. Asian expositions continued to expand. “CIGE 2010,” the seventh edition of the China International Gallery Exposition, held in Beijing, displayed works from 22 countries across five continents, while “ShContemporary 10,” the fourth edition of the Asia Pacific Contemporary Art Fair in Shanghai, spotlighted young artists in the curated exhibition “Discoveries.” With art thefts dominating international news, Ai Weiwei looked back to the 19th century in an installation at the 29th São Paolo Biennale of 12 bronze animal heads simulating zodiac emblems that were looted from the Old Summer Palace in Beijing in 1860 by British and French troops; the original bronzes were at the centre of a controversy over national patrimony at the 2009 sale of the Yves St. Laurent and Pierre Bergé art collection in Paris. Seeking more meaning from the 2010 contemporary expositions, curators Charlie Stainback and Cheryl Brutvan selected 50 works from the “Art Basel Miami Beach” fair, as well as 20 other fairs and 850 galleries, for the exhibition “Now WHAT?” which premiered in December at the Norton Museum of Art in Palm Beach, Fla. Giving them-

selves a viewing window of five days— Stainback compared it to “speed dating”—the curators dispelled questions of a breach between museum practice and commercial interest with the assurance that “nothing will be for sale in the museum.” Museum retrospectives proved more provocative. At New York’s Museum of Modern Art, “Marina Abramovic: The Artist Is Present” showed works that spanned four decades, ranging from recreations of early pieces—by 39 dancers and artists trained by Marina Abramovic—to the new performance piece that gave the exhibition its title. For the duration of the exhibition (700 hours), the longest-running museum performance piece on record, Abramovic was literally present. (See BIOGRAPHIES.) Viewers could occupy the chair opposite her and stare at her motionless form for as long as they desired. A daily live feed was featured on the museum’s Web site. The restaging of Imponderabilia, in which a nude couple stands within a door frame forcing people to pass between them, discomfited a number of visitors—complaints were lodged—and marked the first time that the MoMA featured live, interactive nudity. Tino Sehgal’s self-titled exhibition at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City also dissolved the boundary between performance and participation. The galleries were stripped of all installations, and on the

first floor in the centre of the rotunda, Sehgal staged The Kiss, featuring a slow-motion embrace by a man and a woman. As visitors ascended the spiral ramps, they encountered “interpreters,” who informed them, “This is a piece by Tino Sehgal.” The only installed objects that violated the pristine walls were signs prohibiting photography; Sehgal avoided all documentation. At John Bock’s “FischGrätenMelkStand” (“Herringbone Milking Parlor”), the last exhibition scheduled for Berlin’s Temporäre Kunsthalle, visitors were encouraged not only to take pictures but also to touch and even deface the art. Building a four-level steel structure more than 11 m (35 ft) high, Bock installed a gallery within a gallery and curated works by 63 international artists, including Mathew Hale, Matthew Burbidge, and Isa Melsheimer, in the randomly configured spaces that he created. Repurposed objects—distressed wood, pizza, and cotton socks—marked a common thread throughout the exhibition. Confounding any preordained route through the assemblage, Bock’s chaotic installation encouraged visitors to conceive their viewing as an adventure through an uncharted terrain. The display of Takashi Murakami’s sculpture in the royal apartments of the Palace of Versailles elicited protests from conservative visitors who regarded the giant cartoonlike presence of figures such as Mr. Pointy, Kaikai, and Kiki as incompatible with the dignity of

Performance artist Marina Abramovic (left) faces a visitor to her piece The Artist Is Present, in which she sat still in a chair for at least seven hours a day. The work was part of a retrospective held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City from March to May.

Ruth Fremson—The New York Times/Redux

211

Art and Art Exhibitions Robert Schlesinger—EPA/Landov

and Albert Museum in London, as well as patron Mortimer D. Sackler and collector Ernst Beyeler. Charges of antiquities trafficking against former Getty curator Marion True were dropped when the statue of limitations on charges of conspiracy expired in Rome. (DEBRA N. MANCOFF)

PHOTOGRAPHY

An installation of car tires was part of the meta-structure for the exhibition “FischGrätenMelkStand” by artist-curator John Bock at Berlin’s Temporäre Kunsthalle. Like the other exhibitions held there during 2010, Bock’s show addressed the exhibition itself as a work of art. the landmark French interior. Murakami did not disguise his subversive approach, comparing himself to children’s writer Lewis Carroll’s Cheshire Cat with its “diabolic smile,” welcoming Alice to the galleries. Although insisting that he was not bending to public pressure, palace director Jean-Jacques Aillagon announced that the contemporary art program at Versailles would be temporarily suspended at the close of Murakami’s exhibition. In Paris, at the Pierre Bergé–Yves Saint Laurent Foundation, David Hockney exhibited cyber drawings made on his Apple iPad tablet computer with the iPhone smart phone’s Brushes application as “Fleurs fraîches” (“Fresh Flowers”). Viewers could access the digital images on the iPhones and iPads installed in fibreboard panels in the galleries. Museum exhibitions in the U.S. reinterpreted key 20th-century artists and movements. “Matisse: Radical Invention, 1913–1917,” organized by the Art Institute of Chicago and MoMA, employed archival and technical discoveries to lend insight into the artist’s phase of isolated experimentation that was previously regarded as a self-imposed departure from the mainstream of modernism. Drawing from its magnificent permanent collection, the MoMA presented “Abstract Expressionist New York,” spanning the development of the movement from its roots in Surrealism to its waning in the new wave of Pop in an integrated hanging that acknowledged the importance of photography and drawing, as well as that of women 212

painters, such as Joan Mitchell and Grace Hartigan. “Seductive Subversion: Women Pop Artists, 1958–1968” at the Brooklyn (N.Y.) Museum of Art also revised conventional gendered history, calling attention to lesser-known figures, such as Martha Rosler and Rosalyn Drexler along with the betterknown Marisol, Niki de Saint Phalle, and Yayoi Kusama. “John Baldessari: Pure Beauty,” the retrospective of the work of Baldessari organized by the Los Angeles County Museum of Art and the Tate Modern in London, charted the developmental arc of late 20th-century ideas through a five-decade survey of the artist’s constantly evolving work. The exhibit moved to the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art in October. The Tate Modern celebrated its 10th anniversary with a free international arts festival that it likened to a pop-up village of global art; Chris Dercon was named as the new director. Gallerist Jeffrey Deitch closed Deitch Projects in New York to take the position of director at the Los Angeles Museum of Contemporary Art and immediately stirred up controversy by appearing in a cameo role as “Jeffrey Deitch, director of MoCA” in the daytime television soap opera General Hospital. Deaths in the museum world included James N. Wood, retired director of the Art Institute of Chicago; Edmund P. Pillsbury, director of the Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, Texas; Ralph T. Coe, retired director of the Nelson-Atkins Museum in Kansas City, Mo.; and Lionel Lambourne, retired curator at the Victoria

In the world of photography, the year 2010 would be remembered as a watershed. The new decade heralded the convergence of still capture and highdefinition (HD) moviemaking within the body of a single camera as manufacturers recognized a changing consumer preference for imaging (both still and movie) that could be uploaded quickly onto Web-driven social networking sites rather than printed on paper. The new generation of digital cameras exhibited at the biennial Photokina World of Imaging trade fair in Cologne, Ger. (September 21–26), provided consumers with the means to capture stills, record HD movies, and take multiple images in an instant, blending the best elements of each format into a single optimized image. This emerging change in picture-taking and picture-usage habits provided a new layer of poignancy to the retrospective exhibitions and books produced in 2010. The year began with the news of the death in January of American photographer Dennis Stock (see OBITUARIES), best known for his iconic 1955 image of actor James Dean walking in a rain-soaked Times Square, New York City. Stock was a highly respected photographer for the Magnum photo agency, which in February announced a deal with computer entrepreneur Michael Dell to sell almost 200,000 of its archive press prints. Although the price paid for the archive was undisclosed, the collection was reportedly insured for more than $100 million. The archive included some prints by Magnum cofounder Henri Cartier-Bresson, some of which were featured (April 11–June 28) in “The Modern Century” at the Museum of Modern Art, New York City. It was the first major retrospective exhibition in the U.S. of Cartier-Bresson’s work in more than 30 years. The exhibition comprised 300 prints made from 1929 to 1989, more than 50 of which had never before been seen by the public. New York also witnessed a rare exhibition of Soviet photography; in commemoration of the 65th anniversary of

Art and Art Exhibitions

the end of World War II in Europe, Nailya Alexander Gallery hosted “Dmitri Baltermants: Photographs 1940s–1960s” (May 5–July 30). Baltermants, who was self-taught, was one of the Soviet Union’s most famous photographers. The exhibition ran during the week of the third New York Photo Festival (May 12–16), an annual event staged on the Brooklyn waterfront to showcase global contemporary photography on a scale to match similar photo festivals already established in Europe. New York’s festival marked the first U.S. showing of French photographer Marc Garanger’s “Femme algérienne” portraits. Garanger, who was a young soldier in 1960 during Algeria’s war of independence, had been ordered to take these portraits for identity cards, and the subjects were required to remove their veils, to show their faces in public, many for the first time. “Faces of Our Times,” an exhibition of rare vintage and signed photographs featuring iconic portraits of the past 60 years, was shown (April 29–May 29) at Atlas Gallery, London. It included portraits of boxer Muhammad Ali by Thomas Hoepker, actress Marilyn Monroe (from her last sitting) by Bert Stern, German-born physicist Albert Einstein by Ernst Haas, and the Beatles (for the album Beatles for Sale) by Robert Freeman, as well as Eve Arnold’s celebrated portrait of African American leader Malcolm X. Arnold was duly honoured on April 22—the day after her 98th birthday—with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the Sony World Photography Awards ceremony in Cannes, France. Italian photographer Tommaso Ausili won the top award, the Iris d’Or, and a $25,000 cash prize for his series The Hidden Death, taken in an abattoir. Young Gallery, Brussels, hosted (February 25–April 30) Albert Watson’s “UFO: Unified Fashion Objectives,” featuring a selection of the fashion photographer’s finest work from the past 40 years. In September Watson, who had shot more than 200 Vogue covers, became the latest recipient of the Royal Photographic Society’s Centenary Medal. He joined a prestigious list of previous winners, including David Bailey, Annie Leibovitz, and Cornell Capa. In May Leibovitz opened one of the world’s largest museums of contemporary photography, Fotografiska, Stockholm. Leibovitz was the subject of the museum’s first exhibition (May 21– September 19), the retrospective show “Annie Leibovitz: A Photographer’s Life 1990–2005.”

London in the “Swinging Sixties” inspired several photographic events. The year began with “Beatles to Bowie: The 60s Exposed” (Oct. 15, 2009–Jan. 24, 2010) at the National Portrait Gallery, London, continued at Bonhams, London, with “Pure Sixties. Pure Bailey” (March 7–April 7), and concluded at Lucy Bell Gallery, St. Leonards-on-Sea, Hastings, East Sussex, Eng., with “The Third Man: A Retrospective of the Work of Brian Duffy” (September Tommaso Ausili—Contrasto/Redux

The Hidden Death by Italian photographer Tommaso Ausili won the top prize at the Sony World Photography Awards. This image was one of a series of shocking images taken in a slaughterhouse.

28–November 19). The latter exhibition was a tribute to the photographer who had died on May 31, aged 76. Along with David Bailey and the late Terence Donovan, Duffy had photographed the actors, musicians, models, and other celebrities who defined London’s vibrant culture of the 1960s and ’70s. Arguably the most eagerly anticipated exhibition of the year was “The Mexican Suitcase” (Sept. 24, 2010–Jan. 9, 2011), at the International Center of Photography (ICP), New York City, featuring contact sheets made from recovered negatives documenting the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). The approximately 4,500 negatives by Robert Capa, David Seymour (Chim), and Gerda Taro had been believed lost

until they resurfaced in late 2007. International interest was intense, and on September 19 The Sunday Times Magazine published a selection of prints and contact sheets, including shots by Capa of writer Ernest Hemingway with soldiers at Teruel, Spain (1937), and a poignant study of Capa’s lover and fellow photographer, Gerda Taro, asleep in Paris. Taro died while photographing the Battle of Brunete (1937), and her last images were among the negatives found in the so-called Mexican suitcase. Perhaps the most surprising and acclaimed new work of 2010 was produced by American painter and filmmaker Julian Schnabel, using a huge 20 × 24-in-format Polaroid camera. “Julian Schnabel: Polaroids” was exhibited (May 30–July 11) at NRW-Forum Kultur und Wirtschaft, Düsseldorf, Ger. Additional work, “Julian Schnabel Polaroids: Beyond Infinity and Grandview,” was exhibited (June 1–July 3) at Bernheimer Fine Old Masters, Munich, and marked the launch of the book Julian Schnabel: Polaroids, published by Prestel. The Polaroid photos under discussion captured the artist’s family and friends, including actor Mickey Rourke, musician Lou Reed, and tenor Placido Domingo. Although Polaroid Corp. had ceased manufacturing instant film in 2008, demand for the product led to a revival in 2010. The Netherlands-based Impossible Project, headed by Florian Kaps, invested >2.3 million (about $3.2 million) to develop PX 100 and PX 600 instant monochrome film packs, which it unveiled at a New York City press conference (March 22). The Impossible Project set a target of one million film packs to be produced by the end of the year, followed by three million in 2011. That film launch was followed by the launch of the Polaroid 300 instant camera (April 29) and instant colour film (July 29). A truly unique camera gained public attention in 2010; the Imago 1:1, the world’s largest walk-in camera, required the subject to be inside its massive metal frame, where it was photographed lifesize on specially made 60 × 200-cm (24 × 80-in) direct positive black-and-white paper. The massive print was ready about 10 minutes after the flash exposure. Only one Imago existed, in Berlin, its use having been revived by Susanna Kraus, daughter of the camera’s inventor, Werner Kraus. The Imago camera and the Impossible Project were major talking points at Photokina, providing a distraction from the overwhelming display of the latest in digital imaging technologies. (KEITH WILSON) 213

Business Overview As the global recession ABATED in 2010, energy producers, automakers, airlines, and manufacturers generally posted SOLID PERFORMANCES, achieving in some cases the best earnings in years. The price of gold SOARED, however, and it was uncertain if the fragile RECOVERY would hold and would finally translate into lower UNEMPLOYMENT, greater consumer SPENDING, and increased business INVESTMENTS.

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etroleum and Natural Gas. A defining image of 2010 was the colossal oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, a disaster created by the April 20 explosion and subsequent sinking of the BP-licensed drilling rig Deepwater Horizon. The explosion, which killed 11 people, also resulted in the largest offshore oil spill in the history of the U.S. (See Special Report on page 174.) The leak, which dominated news for much of the summer, was also a public relations fiasco for energy giant BP, and a costly one, with BP setting aside $32 billion to pay for cleanup expenses. BP would likely be the target of civil lawsuits and could face billions in additional fines (and possible criminal charges) should the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) file charges. BP replaced CEO Tony Hayward, whom critics called unresponsive to the severity of the oil spill, with Robert Dudley, an American executive responsible for BP’s cleanup efforts in the Gulf. To offset cleanup-related expenses, BP planned to sell up to $30 billion in assets, including $7 billion in oil and gas fields to be sold to Apache Corp. Responding to the BP disaster, U.S. Pres. Barack Obama’s administration temporarily suspended deepwater oil drilling sectorwide. The administration’s first order, on May 27, was struck down by a federal court, so in July the administration issued a new order suspending drilling operations that used the same equipment that failed in the BP disaster until November 30, which affected about 33 deepwater rigs. In October the administration lifted the ban, citing new rules from the Department of the Interior (such as mandat-

214

ing that a professional engineer independently inspect and certify each stage of the drilling process) to be implemented to reduce the chances of a repeat disaster. The rules were struck down later that month by a federal judge. In early December the administration announced that it would not approve new offshore oil drilling leases along the Atlantic coast or in the eastern Gulf of Mexico for seven years. China’s three state-owned oil companies—China Petrochemical Corp. (Sinopec), China National Petroleum Corp., and China National Offshore Oil Corp.—spent $29 billion to purchase oil and gas assets worldwide from early 2009 to mid-2010, with a focus on Brazil in particular, as Chinese energy companies had signed $4.3 billion in resource deals there in 2010 as of early October. China also considered signing a long-term gas agreement with Russia’s Gazprom in which Chinese loans would guarantee lower prices for Russian gas deliveries. Automobiles. After enduring collapsing revenues and (in two cases) stays in bankruptcy court, the Big Three American automakers—Ford, General Motors (GM), and Chrysler—had a year of solid recovery in 2010. Big Three vehicle sales rose 11% year over year through August, compared with an overall 8% increase in global auto sales. In another promising sign, J.D. Power & Associates’ “initial quality study,” for the first time in its 24-year-history, ranked new domestic autos higher than it did new imports. Global automakers sold more than 11.5 million cars and trucks in the U.S. in 2010, compared with 10.4 million in 2009, which was the lowest level in 30

years. In September, sales of trucks and SUVs moved above 50% of overall U.S. vehicle sales for the first time. Ford Motor Co., the sole Big Three automaker to avoid bankruptcy, unsurprisingly turned in the strongest performance of the group. Its auto sales for 2010 were 1.93 million, an increase of 19.5% year over year, and Ford gained market share for the second year in a row, a feat that it had not achieved since 1993. Ford reported third-quarter earnings of $1.7 billion, up 68% year over year, thanks to increased sales and higher pricing; it was Ford’s sixth consecutive profitable quarter. Strong sales did not prevent the automaker from having to make some hard decisions, such as discontinuing its storied Mercury brand (while working to revive its stalled Lincoln model). General Motors Corp. returned to the public market in November with the world’s largest initial public offering, worth $23.1 billion ($33 per share). The U.S. government, which owned a roughly 61% stake in the automaker, would fully recoup its $49.5 billion investment, however, only if it sold GM shares at an average price of $133, or about $40 more than the company’s peak stock price in 2000. GM posted an $865 million profit in the first quarter and net income of $1.3 billion in the second quarter, the latter being its best quarterly performance since 2004. As of September, GM’s retail sales had increased 15% year over year, with its reduced “four core brands” (Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, and GMC) up 23.3% for the year. GM decided not to seek further European government aid to restructure its German Opel and British Vauxhall units (in part because the German government had refused to provide further aid). In August GM’s board selected telecommunications executive Daniel Akerson as the new CEO to replace Edward Whitacre, Jr., who had served as interim CEO since 2009. A year after Chrysler Group LLC emerged from bankruptcy protection, it posted a net loss of $172 million for the second quarter, following a $197 million net loss in the first quarter. Fiat SpA, which had a 20% stake in and management control of Chrysler, registered a stronger performance, with third-quarter earnings of >586 million (about $817 million) and projected full-

Business Overview PRNewsFoto/United Airlines and Continental Airlines/Tammy Bryngelson/AP

year earnings of >2 billion (about $2.8 billion). Fiat was expected to introduce the Alfa Romeo Giulietta in 2012 to replace the Dodge Caliber. The Giulietta would be the first Fiat-based Chryslerbuilt vehicle introduced since Chrysler emerged from bankruptcy. Top global automaker Toyota Motor Corp.’s reputation for quality was left in tatters during the year. Between October 2009 and October 2010, the Japanese automaker recalled more than 10 million cars and trucks worldwide, most notably for faulty gas pedals and floor mats that allegedly trapped accelerators. In August Toyota recalled 1.33 million cars in the U.S. and Canada owing to engine problems, and in October it recalled 740,000 vehicles because of concerns about leaking brake fluid. Despite the recalls and a barrage of negative press, Toyota’s sales held steady. Its April–June 2010 quarter had a net profit of roughly $2.2 billion, compared with a loss in the same period the previous year, and Toyota expected global sales to be in the 7.38 million range. Volkswagen AG surprised many by announcing that it intended to overtake Toyota as the world’s largest carmaker by 2018, a goal that would require the German automaker, among other challenges, to sell 800,000 Volkswagens annually in the U.S. (it sold 256,830 in 2010). While VW had posted losses in the U.S. of nearly $1 billion in the late 2000s, the company said that it aimed to be profitable by 2012 or 2013. VW’s plans included introducing several new models, including a revamped Jetta and Beetle. South Korea’s Hyundai Motor Co. and its affiliate, Kia Motors Corp., posted sales gains, often at the expense of Japanese rivals. In 2010 Hyundai’s market share in the U.S. exceeded 4.5%, up from 3% in 2008, while Kia had a roughly 3% share. Hyundai sold more than 500,000 vehicles in the U.S. in 2010, its best performance ever. Volvo, which China’s Zhejiang Geely Holding Group acquired from GM for $1.8 billion, geared up to produce 300,000 vehicles a year in China, compared with the 24,405 cars that GMowned Volvo had sold in China in 2009. Geely hoped that Volvo would enable the company to fulfill its ambition of having two million in annual vehicle sales by 2015. Mitsubishi Motors Corp. began production in Thailand of a lowpriced (approximately $10,000) model that seemed ideal for the growing Chinese market. Japan’s Nissan Motor Co., which in October issued its own recall

An aircraft, flying under the United Airlines name, displays the new tail logo chosen to represent the visual branding of the global airline created by the merger of United and Continental Airlines. of nearly 750,000 cars in the U.S. and Canada for electrical problems, looked to use its joint venture with China’s Dongfeng Motor Group to beef up its Chinese market share, including electric cars and plug-in hybrids. Airlines. After, in some cases, a decade’s worth of disappointing performances, the American legacy airlines had a strong year in 2010. In the third quarter, AMR Corp. (American Airlines’ parent) posted $143 million, its first profitable quarter since 2008, while US Airways Group Inc. recorded $240 million in earnings, the most profitable third quarter in its history, compared with an $80 million loss in thirdquarter 2009. Delta Air Lines Inc., whose revenue rose 18% in the third quarter, reported that severe winter weather in the northeastern U.S. reduced fourth-quarter profits. Delta, as the year ended, was fighting a unionization push from some of its 50,000 flight attendants and ground workers, the largest union election involving a private company since World War II. Discount airlines also fared well. JetBlue Airways Corp. reported thirdquarter income of $59 million. Southwest Airlines Co., which in September acquired AirTran Holdings for $1.4 billion, registered net income of $195 million for the third quarter, a profit six times larger than the $31 million it posted in third-quarter 2009. The AirTran deal gave Southwest access to the lucrative Atlanta market, which could mean an increase in two million passengers in the following few years, and

also added a new aircraft—the Boeing 717—to Southwest’s 544-plane fleet. The airline sector’s recovery was due in part to relatively stable energy prices, cost and route reductions (often taken while under bankruptcy protection), increased international and business travel, and airline consolidations. The $3.2 billion merger of United Airlines and Continental Airlines, which closed in early October, displaced Delta to make the newly created United Continental Holdings Inc. the world’s largest airline in terms of traffic. United and Continental would continue to operate separately as they awaited Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approval before merging their flight crews and fleets. The United-Continental merger had encountered some resistance from Congress, though both the DOJ and EU regulators cleared the merger. Delta said that it would compensate for losing market dominance by pushing for greater customer service, including spending $1 billion through 2013 to upgrade aircraft. Friction increased between airlines and federal regulators during the year. Under the Obama administration, the FAA proposed $77.4 million in fines during the 12 months ended September 30, a 66% increase from the $46.7 million proposed for the fiscal year ended Sept. 30, 2008. AMR contested a proposed $24.2 million fine due to alleged maintenance violations on 280 of American’s jetliners. Should the penalty be finalized, it would be a record, eclipsing the $10.2 million fine levied against 215

Business Overview

Southwest Airlines in 2008. (Southwest later settled for $7.5 million.) European and Asian airlines proved less resilient than their American rivals, with British Airways (BA), for example, posting the largest loss in its history in the fiscal year ended March 31, 2010. (BA also endured several strikes by cabin crews that allegedly cost the airline more than $300 million.) Many European airlines suffered revenue losses as a result of the Icelandic volcano eruption in April, which caused the cancellation of 100,000 Europe-based flights and cost global airlines an estimated $1.7 billion. EU regulators in July approved BA’s merger with Spain’s Iberia Líneas Aéreas, which would create the third largest airline by revenue in Europe. The EU also approved a longplanned commercial alliance between BA/Iberia and American Airlines; this would allow the carriers to share revenues, set prices, and coordinate routes without incurring antitrust violations. Japan Airlines Corp. (JAL) filed for bankruptcy in January with a debt load of $25 billion, making it Japan’s largestever nonfinancial bankruptcy filing. While under bankruptcy protection, JAL reportedly was considering establishing a low-cost carrier to match its rival All Nippon Airways Co., which planned to launch a budget carrier by the end of 2011. Aircraft. Boeing Co. continued to struggle with the rollout of its 787 Dreamliner, which had been plagued by delays for three years. Boeing reported in August that the delivery of the firstproduction Dreamliners would be delayed again until first-quarter 2011 due to difficulties in securing new engines from supplier Rolls-Royce Group. Boeing’s new 747-8 jetliner was also behind schedule (the first planes were expected to be delivered in mid-2011) and was more than $1 billion over budget. In October the FAA issued preliminary rules requiring planes to maintain much longer distances behind Boeing’s new 787 and 747-8s; the rule would require all planes to keep at least 16 km (10 mi) behind the latest-model Boeing jets upon descent, which was more than twice the distance required for Boeing’s current airplanes. The rule, if implemented, would likely cause delays at airports and would be a scheduling obstacle for airlines such as All Nippon (which was due to receive the first Boeing 787s). The FAA rescinded its preliminary ruling, however, citing errors in the original rules, and the situation was unclear at year’s end. 216

Europe’s Airbus and Boeing each announced production increases for their best-selling aircraft. Airbus in March announced a boost in its A320 jet production from 34 to 36 planes a month by December 2010 in an attempt to reduce its backlog of more than 2,000 orders. Boeing followed suit in June, saying that it would produce 35 of the 737 airliners a month by early 2012, compared with its current pace of 31.5 planes a month. Orders piled up for both aircraft manufacturers during the year, with the newly launched Air Lease Corp. ordering 100 jetliners between the two manufacturers and Dubayy’s Emirates Airline ordering 30 Boeing 777s, a roughly $9 billion purchase. Boeing and Airbus also faced a growing threat from challengers such as Canada’s Bombardier Inc., whose rival to the 737 and A320, the CSeries jet, was due to begin shipping in 2013. Boeing and Airbus came under attack by many of the world’s major airlines, which jointly opposed government loan guarantees for some aircraft purchases. The alliance, which included American, Southwest, and Air-France KLM, consisted of airlines not eligible to receive government guarantees, which topped $15 billion annually in 2009 and 2010. The arrangement dated to the 1980s, when Airbus and Boeing agreed not to seek government funding to sell planes in each other’s home markets (the U.S., the U.K., France, Germany, and Spain); thus, Ireland’s Ryanair could use government export-credit financing to help purchase Boeing planes, while BA, for example, could not. Metals. Gold prices rose throughout 2010 to finish at an all-time high of $1,421.10 an ounce, up 29.8% for the year. The gold price boom, which had been at a steady pace since 2008, spurred a wave of gold mining company mergers (including Kinross Gold’s $7.1 billion takeover of Red Back Mining Inc.), as well as increased mining company expansion, with global production expected to rise 3% globally in 2010. Other metals enjoyed similar price spikes; silver soared 83.8% to finish the year at $30.91 per troy ounce, and the price of copper hit a record $4.4395 at year’s end. Aluminum prices softened early in 2010 but stabilized as the year went on, rising by 20% between late August and mid-October and closing the year at $2,467 per ton. Alcoa Inc.—which since 2009 had reduced operations by $3 billion, slashed its workforce by 30%, and reduced its production by 20%—re-

ported third-quarter net income of $61 million, a 20% drop from third-quarter 2009. Steelmakers, bracing for worldwide price declines in 2010, instead had a mild surprise by year’s end—a slight but steady uptick in prices. China’s major steel producers, including its largest producer, BaoSteel, were able to raise prices on 12 products in September. Other producers followed suit, ranging from India’s Tata Steel to South Korea’s Posco to the American AK Steel Holding Corp. While ArcelorMittal—the world’s largest steelmaker, with 8% of global production—posted $3 billion in earnings in the second quarter, it forecast earnings declines for the rest of the year. One threat to the company’s longterm health was the poor economic state of Europe, which accounted for a third of ArcelorMittal’s sales and which was posting declines in steel production. The EU expected output of 160 million tons in 2010, compared with annual capacity of 220 million tons. Continued steel-producer fragmentation meant that even top global steelmakers had little pricing power. The Chinese government aimed to change this situation by pushing for its top 10 producers to eventually control 60% or more of China’s steel-production capacity. To this end, in an attempt to encourage industry consolidation, China’s government banned new steel projects until 2012 and issued rules to eliminate steel mills with annual output of less than one million tons. The first sign that the strategy was working came in the summer, when four Chinese steelmakers merged to form Tianjin Bohai Iron & Steel Group. Australia’s BHP Billiton Ltd., the world’s largest mining company, made a major expansion move in August with its unsolicited $39 billion offer for Potash Corp. of Saskatchewan Inc. (PotashCorp.), the world’s largest fertilizer producer. In October, however, Saskatchewan Premier Brad Wall announced that his government opposed the deal, which he felt was not in the best interests of Canada or the province. On November 3 the Canadian government provisionally rejected the bid, giving BHP 30 days to make its case before the decision was made final. BHP responded by dropping its bid. China’s Sinochem briefly expressed interest in buying PotashCorp. Utilities. The utilities sector experienced a wave of mergers and acquisitions in 2010, reflecting the desire of

Business Overview

some utility owners to sell out of a sector mired in weak demand and pricing. Buyers looked to consolidate regional presences. Northeast Utilities, for example, acquired Nstar for $4.3 billion to form the largest utility in New England. Other deals included the Blackstone Group’s $4.7 billion purchase of Dynegy Inc., Mirant Corp.’s merger with RRI Energy in a $1.6 billion stock transaction, PPL’s $7.6 billion acquisition of two utilities (Louisville Gas & Electric and Kentucky Utilities Co.) from Germany’s E.On, and FirstEnergy Corp.’s $4.7 billion purchase of Allegheny Energy. The wind-energy industry faltered in 2010, despite the approval by the U.S. federal government of the first American offshore wind farm. The installation of wind-turbine farms, which for a decade had been one of the fastestgrowing sources of energy production in advanced economies, fell during the year in the face of environmental concerns and economic recession. (See Sidebar on page 233.) Chemicals. As in previous years, the chemicals industry saw a number of

large-scale mergers. In June BASF SE bought German specialty chemicals firm Cognis GmbH for $4.1 billion, beating out a rival bid from Lubrizol Corp. Many chemicals producers benefited from higher sales and improved prices for petrochemical and plastic products, with Saudi Basic Industries Corp., for example, recording a 46% increase in net profit for the third quarter. DuPont Co.’s net income nearly tripled in the second quarter, rising to $1.16 billion. Dow Chemical Co. posted second-quarter net income of $651 million, compared with a year-earlier loss of $344 million. Pharmaceuticals. Many pharmaceutical manufacturers were hit hard by a series of FDA rejections and bans. In September the FDA placed strict curbs on GlaxoSmithKline PLC’s Avandia, which once had annual sales of $3 billion. The FDA said that its ruling was based on studies linking Avandia with increased heart attack risks. (About 600,000 diabetics in the U.S. were using Avandia at the time of the ruling.) European regulators blocked future sales of the drug in their territories.

Selected Major World Stock Market Indexes1

Country and Index Argentina, Merval Australia, Sydney All Ordinaries Brazil, Bovespa Canada, Toronto Composite China, Shanghai A France, Paris CAC 40 Germany, Frankfurt Xetra DAX Hong Kong, Hang Seng India, Sensex (BSE-30) Italy, S&P/MIB Japan, Nikkei 225 Mexico, IPC/BOLSA Russia, RTS Singapore, Straits Times South Africa, Johannesburg All Share South Korea, KOSPI Spain, Madrid Stock Exchange Taiwan, Weighted Price United Kingdom, FTSE 100 United States, Dow Jones Industrials United States, Nasdaq Composite United States, NYSE Composite United States, Russell 2000 United States, S&P 500 United States, Wilshire 5000 World, MS Capital International

2010 range2 High Low 3524 2061 5024 4251 72,996 58,192 13,449 11,094 3443 2478 4066 3331 7078 5434 24,964 18,986 21,005 15,791 23,811 18,383 11,339 8824 38,551 30,368 1773 1227 3314 2651 32,210 25,793 2051 1561 1273 895 8973 7072 6009 4806 11,585 9686 2671 2092 7961 6435 792 590 1260 1023 13,387 10,722 1280

1034

Year-end close 3524 4847 69,305 13,443 2940 3805 6914 23,035 20,509 20,173 10,229 38,551 1773 3190 32,119 2051 1004 8973 5900 11,578 2653 7964 784 1258 13,360 1280

Index numbers are rounded. 2Based on daily closing price. Sources: FT.com, Bloomberg.com, mscibarra.com, wilshire.com, Financial Times, The Wall Street Journal. 1

Percent change from 12/31/2009 52 –1 1 14 –14 –3 16 5 17 –13 –3 20 23 10 16 22 –19 10 9 11 17 11 25 13 16 10

An FDA panel in July voted to revoke approval of Roche’s Avastin—the world’s top-selling cancer drug, with $6 billion in global sales—citing the follow-up studies that did not support the initial data that had led to Avastin’s approval. In October the FDA forced Abbott Laboratories to pull its antiobesity drug Meridia off the market owing to fears about cardiovascular side effects. After advisory panels voted not to recommend two experimental weight-loss drugs, Arena’s Lorcaserin and Vivus’s Qnexa, the FDA rejected both drugs in late October, while another obesity drug, Orexigen’s Contrave, was endorsed by an FDA panel in December. The FDA also ruled that companies sponsoring new drugs had to report within 15 days after drugmakers became aware of safety-related issues, such as higherthan-expected adverse reactions. The FDA approved Novartis AG’s Gilenya, a drug for treating multiple sclerosis, which Novartis was planning to sell at $3,700 wholesale for a 28-day supply, making it one of the most expensive drugs on the market. The pharmaceutical sector saw its share of mergers driven in part by drugmaker concerns about dwindling pipelines of new products and the impending threat of many top-selling drugs’ going generic in the 2010s. Sanofi-Aventis SA made a hostile $18.5 billion bid for U.S.-based Genzyme Corp., while Pfizer bought King Pharmaceuticals Inc. for $3.6 billion. Eli Lilly & Co., which in the next decade would face patent expiration on drugs making up nearly 75% of its current sales, was hoping to fill the gap with new drugs treating cancer and Alzheimer disease, though in August it halted development of the latter after poor test-studies results. Finance. In September 2010 the U.S. National Bureau of Economic Research determined that the U.S. recession that officially began in December 2007 technically ended in June 2009. That announcement was cold comfort to Americans enduring the highest levels of unemployment since the early 1980s. (See Special Report on page 170.) As several euro-zone countries struggled with debt, two, Greece and Ireland, required financial bailouts. (See Sidebar on page 353.) Meanwhile, most stock markets showed gains for the second straight year, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average closing the year up 11.1% at 11,577.51. (CHRISTOPHER O’LEARY) 217

Computers and Information Systems PORTABLE computing, social NETWORKING, smartphone APPS, and CLOUD COMPUTING were all ubiquitous in 2010.

never moved into the mainstream. The iPad, while priced at a steep $499–$829, was nonetheless a break with that tradition. It was a touch-screen device with a virtual keyboard and high-quality graphics that was aimed directly at consumers. Its lack of a physical keyboard did little to impede sales because ortable personal computing tween the public cloud, in which com- it was intended for people who were gained popularity in 2010 as panies used remote services over the more likely to consume information a result of Apple’s newly in- Internet, and the private cloud, in than to create it. The iPad more closely troduced tablet computer, which other corporations provided on- resembled an enlarged Apple iPod the touch-screen iPad, which demand computing services to their di- Touch than a laptop computer, and it almost immediately threatened sales of visions from a central company data connected to the Internet via either Wiestablished laptop and ultrasmall net- centre inside the corporate firewall. Fi or a combination of Wi-Fi and the book PCs. Apple was expected to ship Both were intended to reduce spending cellular telephone network. 13.8 million iPads by year’s end, ac- on information technology through the Competition quickly followed. Recording to iSuppli, an industry research use of a pay-as-you-go outsourcing search in Motion (RIM) announced the firm. Another firm, Bernstein Research, model rather than reliance on a tradi- BlackBerry PlayBook tablet computer, reported that the iPad had become the tional data centre employing company- which was slated for delivery in 2011 fastest-selling new nonphone electronic owned computers, licensed software, and aimed mainly at business cusgadget in history, eclipsing the initial and company staff. tomers. By year’s end dozens of other adoption rates for the DVD player and Tablet Computers. Apple’s iPad was far consumer electronics manufacturers the Apple iPhone. from the first tablet computer, a device were planning to offer tablet-sized deLeading social-networking service in which a touch screen replaced a key- vices. In addition, there were concerns Facebook doubled its subscriber base board, but earlier models had been of- that tablet computers were stealing from the previous year to 500 million fered mainly for business users and had some market share from traditional users worldwide. Moreover, the laptops and newer netbooks. Incompany became an icon of the formation technology research online era when Hollywood re- Han Ziwen (centre) celebrates his purchase on firm Gartner predicted that 19.5 leased a popular, if somewhat fic- September 17 of the first Apple iPad tablet million media tablets would be tionalized, movie about Face- computer to be sold at the Apple store in Beijing. sold worldwide in 2010. book’s founding, The Social Despite the success of the iPad, Network. tablet computers did not qualify The growing capabilities of as a “mass market” consumer smartphones made it possible for electronics product. To do so them to function as portable comthey would need sales of 40 milputers that also made phone calls. lion–50 million units a year, said Downloadable software applicaABI Research. According to ABI, tions (apps) made smartphones the iPad’s relatively high price, more useful than ever before for averaging more than $650 per music, video, navigation, social unit sold, was too steep to spur networking, and games. Apps mass adoption of the product. In were either free of charge or sold October, however, iSuppli estià la carte. GPS chips in telemated that iPad sales could exphones also enabled locationceed 40 million units in 2011. based social-networking services, Smartphones. The rapid growth in which friends could locate each of smartphones, whose shipother’s positions, and opened up ments were expected by iSuppli new opportunities for advertisers to increase by approximately wanting to reach consumers at 35% for the year worldwide, specific locations. opened up a new way for adverCloud computing, which altisers to reach consumers. Adlowed companies to buy comvertisers were particularly interputer services such as database ested in the “geolocation” feature software and storage online as of many phones, in which a comthey were needed, gained in popbination of GPS chips and celluularity. The market was split belar phone towers pinpointed a

P

Luo Xiaoguang—Xinhua/Landov

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consumer’s geographic position. By sending people advertising for businesses near their location at that moment, advertisers hoped that more people would take advantage of advertising specials, coupons, or other incentives. Studies showed that smartphone geolocation apps were not widely used by consumers. Consumer demand for information on smartphones and other portable devices was driving radical changes in cell phone networks, which became predominantly data networks. Existing cellular networks carried as much computer data as voice traffic, and the new fourth generation (4G) cellular networks that were being started by the major cellular carriers could handle and download even more data to smartphones and other portable devices at greatly increased speeds. One of the first of these networks in the United States was the dual-purpose 4G network being introduced by Clearwire Corp., a company that provided wireless Internet service by means of the new Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) technology. Cellular carrier Sprint shared the same network and downloaded data to smartphones at the same speeds available to Clearwire’s computer customers. The average data-transmission speed was three million–six million bits per second, or three to six times faster than the average speed of existing 3G cellular networks. AT&T and Verizon Wireless were in the early stages of launching their competing 4G networks as the year ended. The demand of data downloads on wireless networks also resulted in pricing changes by the cellular providers. AT&T marked the end of an era when it stopped offering customers unlimited data plans, citing cellular network congestion caused by a relatively small percentage of customers who were heavy users of data services. AT&T substituted tiered pricing plans based on the amount of data consumed. Some other cellular carriers followed suit. A survey conducted by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) reported that the rapid advances of wireless data downloads were leaving some users confused and that consumer satisfaction with wireless broadband speeds on cell phones was lower than for wired broadband speeds on computers. The FCC attributed the lower satisfaction rate to the inherently slower speeds for wireless Internet service in the 3G era. However, the sur-

vey also found that consumers generally were uninformed about the specifics of their broadband speeds. About 80% of U.S.-based broadband users in the survey did not know the speed of their Internet connections. The proliferation of data downloads to smartphones resulted in a three-way race for the most popular smartphone OS, although none dominated the phone market as the Microsoft Windows OS did in the PC market. According to the Nielsen Co., the BlackBerry OS from RIM was number one among smartphone users in the first eight months of the year, with a 31% market share, followed by the Apple iPhone OS (28%) and the Google Android OS (19%.) Social Networking. Facebook was frequently in the news in 2010 because of its innovations and growth. The company said that it intended to go public (by selling shares of stock) at some point but indicated that it probably would not have an initial public stock offering until 2012 or later. Not all the publicity was favourable, however. Facebook, whose purpose was to allow its users to share personal information with each other, continued to push the boundaries of privacy by redesigning its privacy policy in ways that confused and angered many users. Under a new policy, some Facebook personal information became available on other Web sites, and the Facebook controls for regulating the dissemination of personal information seemed unnecessarily complicated. After enduring public criticism, Facebook revised its privacy policy to simplify the way in which users could choose what to share and how widely to do so. It also reduced the amount of information that Facebook users were required to share when others searched for them on the service. Facebook in August introduced a longanticipated service called Facebook Places that strongly resembled locationbased services for social networking such as Foursquare. Facebook allowed users to “check in” at bars, restaurants, or other businesses via Places so that friends searching online could find them. Facebook Places was controversial because for the first time it allowed a user to locate a nearby friend at a specific site (if the friend had previously allowed such a move), potentially revealing the friend’s presence to other people checked in at the same location. This raised the spectre of stalking. Facebook said that that feature of the Places service was easy to turn off.

Facebook was involved in another controversy when it was discovered that some games and other applications provided to users by third-party firms were collecting personal information that might be of use to advertisers—a problem about which government regulators as well as consumer advocates had been concerned. The company said that it would block Facebook user information from reaching outside firms. Facebook also kept finding ways to build its audience. The company established itself as a new online gaming environment where millions of people played general-interest games such as FarmVille. Players could buy virtual goods inside the games by using Facebook’s online currency, called Credits. Some observers said that Credits might one day expand beyond Facebook games and compete with e-commerce companies such as Amazon, Apple, and Google. Fast-growing social-networking service Twitter, on which consumers sent messages called tweets, announced that it had a plan to generate advertising revenue, which it called Promoted Tweets. Consumers who searched for key words on the service would receive ads from companies that had bought the right to advertise in connection with those words. Apple joined the social-networking scene with Ping, a music-focused network that was integrated with iTunes. This service would enable people to find out what music their friends had downloaded and, in a broader context, what music those friends had reviewed or what concerts they were going to attend. Users could also see event postings by musical groups. Social networking also caught the eye of government officials who regulated advertising. They sought to curb the practice of company-directed advertising campaigns making misleading claims via social-network postings or blogs. The U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) had already published guidelines for such marketing, and the U.K. Advertising Standards Authority also planned to monitor this type of marketing. Cloud Computing. The market for cloud computing was estimated at more than $68 billion worldwide in 2010, up 17% from 2009, according to Gartner. The initial interest was mostly on the part of technology companies, financialservices businesses, and legal firms, but cloud computing was not universally accepted. The public cloud involved ac219

Computers and Information Systems

cessing a remote data centre—one outside a company’s control—and some corporations feared that data in the public cloud could be lost or stolen. Concerns about the security of cloud computing ran particularly high in Europe, where governments already had privacy laws that strictly limited the transfer of data outside the European Union. The problem was that the computing cloud, or remote data centre, might not be in Europe. In addition to security concerns, some corporations were reluctant to give up their own computer centres to use cloud computing because those centres had been built at considerable expense. Companies. Apple agreed to compromise on rules governing its iPhone app development software, avoiding a clash with Adobe Systems about Adobe’s Flash animation tools. The new policy came a few months after a change in Apple’s software licensing terms had blocked Flash technology from being used to write apps for the iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch. Apple switched gears and allowed the use of non-Apple development tools for apps that were available through the iTunes app store. A conversion was needed to make the apps compatible with Apple’s devices, but the devices still would not be able to display Flash animations—an exclusion Apple seemed determined to maintain. Observers maintained that Apple’s rule change would make it easier for Adobe to continue attracting programmers to work with Flash technology, which was widely used on Web pages for video and animated graphics. Analysts said that the move aided Adobe’s strategy of turning Flash into a favoured development tool that could easily be converted for any mobile device. Some observers wondered if Apple made the change in an effort to avoid a federal antitrust investigation of the company, which had been rumoured earlier in the year. Hewlett-Packard (HP) CEO Mark Hurd resigned after the company’s board of directors investigated sexual harassment claims brought against Hurd by a female independent contractor to HP. Hurd had hired the woman, a former actress in adult entertainment films, to attend meetings with top HP customers. Hurd settled the harassment claims and tried unsuccessfully to prevent HP from publicizing the investigation, which found no evidence of sexual harassment but did find that Hurd had tried to conceal his personal relationship with the woman by altering his expense ac220

counts. Hurd then joined HP competitor Oracle as co-president, prompting HP to sue him for breach of contract, alleging that Hurd’s insider knowledge of HP could be harmful in his new Oracle position. HP and Hurd settled the suit out of court, and Hurd agreed to give up some HP stock-based compensation owed to him. HP later named Léo Apotheker, a former CEO of German firm SAP, to replace Hurd. Under Hurd, HP had said that it would eliminate 9,000 jobs over several years as it consolidated and automated its data centres and as a result would take a charge against its balance sheet of approximately $1 billion. The company predicted that during the same period it would hire some 6,000 workers for sales and service jobs. HP in July acquired portable-device company Palm for $1.2 billion. Analysts pointed out that the deal was important to HP because the company lagged in the smartphone market. The deal was also significant to Palm, since the company had put itself up for sale after its smartphones were unsuccessful. HP also procured 3Par for $2.35 billion, winning out over rival Dell in a bidding war for a firm with cloudcomputing technology. IBM paid $1.7 billion for computer analytics firm Netezza Corp., a business that helped companies analyze their internal data. IBM also acquired an AT&T business unit called Sterling Commerce for $1.4 billion. Sterling created collaboration software that allowed companies to interact with their suppliers. Intel Corp. made two large purchases, buying security software firm McAfee (for $7.7 billion) and the wireless business of chip manufacturer Infineon (for $1.4 billion). The acquisition of McAfee, one of the premier consumer PC security firms, was seen by analysts as a way for Intel to add security features to nontraditional Internet-linked products, such as smartphones and other consumer electronics gadgets. It was believed that in some cases the McAfee security software might be embedded on Intel chips instead of being sold separately. Infineon’s wireless chips were used for wireless communications in laptops and smartphones. Intel also settled with the FTC over charges that the chip manufacturer had engaged in anticompetitive behaviour—partly, allegedly, by paying customers to buy exclusively from Intel. The FTC alleged that Intel had unfairly tried to suppress competition for about 10 years.

A long-simmering dispute between Google and China over the censorship of Google searches made by Chinese citizens caused Google to temporarily stop cooperating with China. Google also cited a December 2009 attack on its computer systems that originated in China. In the end Google decided not to abandon China, which had about 400 million Internet users. Instead Google redirected visitors from its China-based Web site, Google.cn, to Google.com.hk, based in Hong Kong, outside the Chinese firewall. The Chinese government renewed Google’s license to operate Google.cn but still required that search results be censored. The European Commission investigated allegations that Google had unfairly taken advantage of its dominant position in the European search market. The investigation was based on complaints that Google had manipulated the search rankings of competing services and tampered with Web statistics that dictated how much advertisers paid Google to buy ads linked to a keyword in a search. Internet. It was a year in which more consumers were able, and apparently willing, to view Internet content on their televisions. Some of the new highdefinition television (HDTV) units— dubbed “smart TVs”—came equipped with the ability to accept streaming WiFi signals of Internet video content from home computer networks. Research firm Forrester Research, Inc. predicted that TVs with all types of Internet connections would be available in 43 million U.S. homes by 2015, compared with 2 million in 2010. In 2010 Netflix continued to offer movies via Internet streaming in addition to its popular DVD-by-mail service. The service was facilitated by some 100 different intermediate devices, such as a video game console or dedicated Roku digital video player device, and was offered to customers who had already paid for its DVD-by-mail service. The limitation was that Netflix made only about one-fifth of its video library available for streaming. Licensing restrictions often prevented recent movies from being streamed by the Netflix service. Apple sought to join the nascent Internet-to-TV trend by improving its Apple TV device, which had not been particularly successful. The new version allowed consumers to rent TV shows, although initially only from the ABC or Fox networks, and to stream them to their TV sets via Wi-Fi. Apple also cut the Apple TV price by two-thirds, to $99.

Computers and Information Systems

Google introduced Google TV, a device that allowed an Internet-connected TV or a Blu-ray player to deliver online content to TV viewers. Google TV would allow viewers to find content in much the same way that they searched the Internet. The service also allowed a viewer to watch TV and use the Internet at the same time. Google TV initially lacked many of the large contentproducing partners that could provide TV programs. Home-theatre media provider Boxee was said to be adapting its $199 Internet-to-TV device to stream both video and other Web content. Other online video services, such as Hulu, continued to make free videos available for viewing on a computer, though Hulu began to charge subscription fees for certain TV shows. Another kind of Internet-based video, person-to-person chat, became more widely used as it was supported by more services and gadgets. While video chat had been available previously on online telecommunications services, such as Skype and Yahoo! Messenger, it also became available on new smartphones such as the HTC Evo (Sprint) and the iPhone 4 (AT&T). It was unclear how popular video chat would become, and some experts noted that video landline telephones had failed to win over the general public more than 40 years earlier. One type of Internet advertising became easier to use in Europe. Google changed its search rules so that more European advertisers could pay to have their products advertised in conjunction with search terms that were trademarked. Previously, trademark holders had been able to file complaints to prevent ads from appearing next to the name of their trademarked product. The advertising practice was already allowed in the U.S., Canada, the U.K., and Ireland. The future of “net neutrality”—the idea that all Internet content should be treated equally by companies that control access to the Internet—remained unresolved, although the FCC continued to push for it. The FCC support had been based on the idea that net neutrality would prevent the telephone and cable TV companies, which were large Internet service providers, from favouring some Internet content or services over others. Google and communications company Verizon challenged the FCC’s net neutrality plan with a proposal that net neutrality be observed on the existing wired Internet but not on existing wireless Internet services or any

future additional, “differentiated” online services. The concern among net neutrality advocates was that the joint proposal made by Google and Verizon could create two Internets: one for the general public and another higherpriced, higher-performance Internet for those who could afford the services. (It was unclear whether the higher prices would be borne by companies providing Internet services or by customers.) There was also the possibility that some services might be effectively blocked from reaching customers because they were not favoured by Internet service providers. In September the FCC chose to seek more public comment on the issues raised by Google and Verizon and postponed any FCC decision on the controversial issue until after the November U.S. congressional elections. As the year ended, the FCC narrowly approved a compromise between net neutrality advocates and the telecommunications industry. Previous efforts at a decision on net neutrality had encountered roadblocks. The FCC’s initial strategy of creating Internet neutrality rules was blocked by a federal appeals court in April. The FCC then hinted that it might seek to reclassify Internet service— which was only slightly regulated—so that it would fall under the more stringent rules that governed telephone and telecommunications services. The rate of home broadband adoption in the U.S. slowed in 2010 after several years of growth, according to a study by the Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project. Home broadband adoption was nearly even in comparison with 2009, at about two-thirds of American adults, which the Pew survey indicated was because the remainder of the population was not interested in high-speed Internet service. The U.S. government sought to expedite broadband adoption in 2009 by earmarking $7.2 billion in federal stimulus funds for grants or loans to selected high-speed Internet projects around the country, but much of the money was awarded in 2010. The purpose was to encourage broadband projects in unserved and underserved areas and to provide high-speed connections to local institutions that were likely to create jobs or benefit the public. China’s government announced that it would set up its own search engine for the general public, which the government would then be able to censor for political purposes. The Search Engine New Media International Communica-

tions Co. was formed by two Chinese state agencies: the cell phone company China Mobile and the news agency Xinhua. Legal Issues. A hacker who was wanted in the U.S. for alleged fraud and identity theft was arrested during a trip to France after having operated with impunity in Russia, a country long considered a haven for Internet criminals. Vladislav Horohorin, known online as BadB, held both Ukrainian and Israeli citizenship. Horohorin had been sought for months for allegedly operating Web sites for hackers who stole and resold credit card numbers. If extradited to the U.S. and convicted, he would face as many as 12 years in prison and a $500,000 fine. The EU resolved a long-standing pricefixing case with a group of semiconductor manufacturers, fining them a total of >331.3 million (about $409 million). The case involved dynamic random access memory (DRAM) chips that were widely used in PCs. The semiconductor manufacturers in the case included Samsung and Hynix of South Korea; Infineon of Germany; NEC, Mitsubishi, Hitachi, Toshiba, and Elpida of Japan; and Nanya Technology of Taiwan. EU Digital Agenda Commissioner Neelie Kroes estimated that as many as 150 million Europeans did not use the Internet for fear that they would become victims of cybercrime. As a result, she said, there were plans to improve the European Network and Information Security Agency to better deal with Internet threats. In an effort to head off unsolicited messages, or spam, to cell phones, the Chinese government began demanding that users provide identification when buying subscriber identity module (SIM) cards, which uniquely identify a cell phone to the network and encrypt its calls. By reducing the number of unidentified cell phone users (currently about 40%), China hoped to reduce spam and attempted fraud. Online service provider Craigslist, apparently bowing to pressure from state law-enforcement officials, closed a section of its U.S.-based Web site devoted to sex solicitation ads, but it refused to comment on its intentions. At first the company replaced the ads with the word censored, but then it removed this label. Although Craigslist could not be held legally responsible for postings by consumers, several state attorneys general and nonprofit groups working against human trafficking had pressured the company to remove the ads. The sex ads 221

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were still available on Craigslist in some other countries, however. The fact that people who posted information on the Internet could remain anonymous caused consternation and legal action. An American soldier in Iraq who handled military intelligence allegedly leaked secret information to the Web site Wikileaks.org (edited by Julian Assange [see BIOGRAPHIES]), which published some of the information. The details provided by the soldier included 260,000 confidential documents and video of two American airborne attacks in which a large number of people were killed—many of them apparently innocent bystanders. The soldier was arrested, but the outcome of his case was pending at year’s end. LimeWire, an online service that had provided free copyrighted music long after similar services had disappeared, was found guilty of copyright infringement by a U.S. federal court in a lawsuit brought by record companies. Following the decision, LimeWire was again sued for copyright infringement by a group of eight music publishers. LimeWire said that it hoped to remain in business as a subscription music service. Consumer Electronics. Complementing the rise of the smartphone was the popularity of the cell phone itself, which was the premier “must-have” gadget in the U.S., according to a survey conducted by Pew. The survey showed that 85% of Americans over age 18 owned a cellular telephone and that 96% of those aged 18–29 had one. About threefourths of Americans had either a desktop or a laptop computer. While only a minority of people chose to read books on a computer screen, ebook readers, or e-readers, grew in popularity as prices declined. At the same time, sales of downloadable ebooks increased sharply. In the months leading up to the important holiday shopping season, the leading e-reader suppliers were Amazon (Kindle, $139–$379), Barnes & Noble (Nook, $149–$249), Sony (Reader, $179–$299), and Apple (iPad, $499–$829). The iPad was more of a laptop competitor than an e-reader, however. E-books accounted for only a small portion of consumer book sales, but the rate at which e-books were selling rose significantly. Between January and August 2010, sales of e-books in the U.S. rose 193% from the same period in 2009 to $263 million, according to the Association of American Publishers. As a result, e-books accounted for almost 10% 222

Australian WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange, at a press conference in London on July 26, displays a newspaper with front-page coverage of some of the thousands of classified U.S. military documents that were leaked to his whistleblowing Web site. of U.S. consumer book sales, compared with 3.3% a year earlier. Meanwhile, hardcover book sales declined, and in 2010 bookseller Amazon reported that it was selling more e-books than hardcover books. Apple, historically a master of consumer electronics marketing, suffered through some difficult situations in 2010. The company had been known for highly publicized new-product introductions. In 2010 Apple suffered a major embarrassment when, prior to the introduction of its iPhone 4, an Apple employee lost a prototype of one of the devices. The iPhone 4’s features had been a major corporate secret, but the lost phone was subsequently found and publicized on a technology Web site, Gizmodo, which denied any wrong doing. Apple also weathered an unusual product glitch with the iPhone 4. Some owners complained of a signal-loss problem that appeared to be related to the placement of the device’s wireless antenna. To mollify customers, Apple offered free phone cases that seemed to solve the reception problem, and for a limited time the company offered iPhone 4 refunds. Apple celebrated the ninth year of its popular iPod MP3 player, which in 2010 held the largest share of the MP3 music-player market. Apple had sold more than 260 million iPods worldwide since 2001. Privacy. Privacy issues came to the fore as digital devices intruded on peoples’ personal lives as never before. U.S.

Pres. Barack Obama’s administration said that in order to prevent terrorism and identify criminals, it wanted Congress to require that all Internet services be capable of complying with wiretap orders. The broad requirement would include Internet phone services, social-networking services, and other types of Internet communication, and it would enable even encrypted messages to be decoded and read—something that in 2010 required considerable time and a lot of effort. Critics complained that the monitoring proposal challenged the ideals of privacy and lack of centralized authority for which the Internet had long been known. No action on the proposed security measure was expected until 2011. Federal officials also sought to update an existing law so it would require telephone companies and broadband providers to make it easier for the federal government to perform courtauthorized wiretapping. Some recent telecommunications system upgrades had made wiretapping difficult. Privacy of cell phone communications also became an issue when BlackBerry smartphone maker RIM reacted to demands from the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.), Saudi Arabia, and India that security forces from those countries be given the ability to intercept communications such as e-mail and instant messages from BlackBerry users within their borders. The U.A.E. later canceled a planned ban on the BlackBerry service, saying that it had reached an agreement with RIM, which declined to reveal

Computers and Information Systems

its discussions with the governments of other countries. The demands were part of a rising tide of security demands from national governments that cited the need to monitor criminals and terrorists who used wireless communications. Other countries, including Lebanon, were said to be considering making similar demands. The FTC proposed an online “do not track” option for consumers. It was modeled on the FTC’s “do not call” list that was designed to bar telemarketers from calling people who opted out in advance. The proposal would allow consumers, via Web browser controls, to opt out of being tracked online for marketing purposes. The proposal did not have the force of law, and its future was unclear, but Microsoft was the first to introduce a browser containing such controls. Photos and videos emerged as unexpected threats to online personal privacy. “Geotags” were created when photos or videos were embedded with geographic location data from GPS chips inside cameras, including those in cell phones. When images were uploaded to the Internet, the geotags allowed homes or other personal locations within the images to be precisely located by those who viewed the photos online. The security risk was not widely understood by the public, however, and in some cases disabling the geotag feature in certain models of digital cameras and camera-equipped smartphones was complicated.

Google’s Street View photo-mapping service caused privacy concerns after the company disclosed that it had been recording locations and some data from unprotected household wireless networks as it took pictures. The company said that the data had been gathered inadvertently. German officials objected to Google’s actions on the basis of Germany’s strict privacy laws. The controversy led to other investigations of the Street View service by several U.S. states and the governments of Spain, France, Italy, South Korea, and the Czech Republic (which later refused to grant Google permission to offer the Street View service there). Online microblogging service Twitter reached a settlement with the FTC involving two security violations that compromised privacy in 2009. One of the incidents involved a hacker’s gaining access to Twitter accounts, including that of then President-elect Obama, which the hacker had used to send out fake messages. Twitter agreed to set up a security program and was barred from misleading consumers about the degree to which it protected their privacy. Another privacy issue was cyberbullying: using the Internet to threaten or humiliate another person with words, photos, or videos. The problem once again received public attention when a male Rutgers University student committed suicide after two acquaintances reportedly streamed a video over the Internet of the student having a sexual encounter with a man. Also in 2010,

Several European countries and U.S. states in 2010 criticized Google’s Street View online service. Privacy advocates denounced Google’s method of recording images and other data, which included employees such as this one shown riding through Paris in August 2009 on a camera-equipped tricycle.

Donna Witsell, the mother of a 13-yearold Florida girl who had committed suicide in 2009 after a cyberbullying incident, formed a group called Hope’s Warriors to help curb abuse and to warn others of the threat. By December, 44 U.S. states had enacted laws against bullying, although very few of them included cyberbullying. Innovation. Internet search, the most lucrative online service because of its related advertising, got new features as a result of the competition between Microsoft and Google. The Microsoftowned search engine was revised and released as Bing in 2009 to enhance online searches for travel and images. After Microsoft’s introduction of the improved Bing, Google developed Google Instant, a predictive search engine that identified several possible queries and listed relevant Web links as people typed in their search terms. The Google service was said to allow for faster searches. For Google, even a slight edge in search capabilities was important because search-related advertising accounted for more than 90% of the company’s revenue. It was unclear, however, how the change would affect businesses that tried to tailor their Web pages so that they would rise to the top of Google search results. Although Microsoft failed to overtake Google in search engine usage, Bing was successful enough to push Microsoft to the number two position in Web search in the U.S. by late 2010. Number one-ranked Google continued to hold about 65% of the American search market. Nintendo sought to bring 3D viewing to computer games in a way that did not require wearing special glasses, as new 3D TV sets did. The task proved unexpectedly difficult, and Nintendo announced that it would not be able to ship the 3DS handheld device until early 2011. The delay was a setback for Nintendo after it had won the 2009 battle for most popular home video-game console with its Wii device, which had steadily outsold the Sony PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Xbox 360. Google went into competition with Internet phone company Skype. In an expansion of Google’s existing computerto-computer voice and video chat service, the new service allowed consumers to place Internet calls from within Google’s Gmail service to either cellular or landline telephones. Initially, calls within the U.S. and Canada were free, whereas there were varying charges for calling other countries. (STEVE ALEXANDER)

Jacques Brinon/AP

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Earth Sciences Scientists in 2010 ALTERNATELY CHALLENGED AND SUPPORTED the notion of a DRY MOON and the role of a single METEORITE IMPACT that closed the CRETACEOUS PERIOD. Large EARTHQUAKES struck Haiti and Chile, and the eruption of Iceland’s EYJAFJALLAJÖKULL VOLCANO hampered AIR TRAVEL over Europe. NOAA reported that 1999 through 2009 was the WARMEST DECADE ON RECORD.

of known mineral species to more than 4,400. Hazen and Ferry argued that classifying minerals in terms of history allows the comparison of planets and moons by their geologic, geochemical, and biological evolution. For instance, the Moon is generally understood to have separated from Earth following the impact of a Mars-sized asteroid. This event would have occurred during the second era of mineral evolution, and so the Moon would also have developed during this era, but only into Stage 3— an idea consistent with the conclusion that the Moon was essentially dehyGEOLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY most influential was Stage 7, the “Great drated during formation. he first issue in 2010 of the Oxidation Event,” which started some The dogma of a dry Moon was chaljournal Elements opened 2.4 billion years ago; over the course of lenged and counterchallenged in two with a comprehensive re- 600 million years, atmospheric oxygen studies examining the geochemistry of view by Robert Hazen of increased to almost 1% of present lev- hydrogen and chlorine in samples of the Carnegie Institution of els, and mineral species more than the mineral apatite taken from lunar Washington and John Ferry of Johns doubled to almost 4,000. During Stage rocks. In June, Francis McCubbin of Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., 10 (the most recent 500 million years), the Carnegie Institution of Washington entitled “Mineral Evolution: Mineral- new biomineralization processes oc- and colleagues and Jeremy Boyce of ogy in the Fourth Dimension.” Hazen curred, including shell and skeleton Caltech and colleagues independently and Ferry’s article defined three eras formation; these increased the number published analyses for hydrogen and of Earth’s history spanning 10 chlorine, reporting a range of stages. It was followed by five ar220–2,405 ppm (parts per milticles that provided detailed ac- Apatites are any of a series of relatively soft lion) of H2O in three lunar samples. From these analyses they counts of the minerals that phosphate minerals. Apatite crystals found in rocks evolved during each stage. collected from the Moon’s surface were used in 2010 concluded that H2O levels in the residual magmas fell between During Stage 1 of the “Era of to alternately challenge and support the notion of a 200 and 17,000 ppm. Boyce conPlanetary Accretion,” which oc- dry Moon. cluded that because the apatites curred earlier than 4.55 billion in the sample were similar to years ago, supernova explosions those on Earth, portions of lunar distributed elements that conmantle or crust were richer in densed into about 60 minerals. volatile components than previThis small collection expanded ously thought. With additional to about 250 minerals during assumptions and extrapolations, Stage 2 as meteorites and planMcCubbin estimated that the etesimals were formed. Stage 3 minimum H2O content of deepwas the first of three stages in seated lunar source rocks ranged the “Era of Crust and Mantle Refrom 64 ppb (parts per billion) working,” an era that lasted from to 21 ppm, between two and five 4.55 billion to 2.5 billion years orders of magnitude higher than ago. During Stage 3 geochemical the current estimate of less than and geologic processes, such as 1 ppb. volcanism on rocky planets and In August, Zachary Sharp of moons, increased the number of the University of New Mexico minerals to 350–500, and during and his coauthors challenged the Stages 4 and 5 granitic rocks and novelty of a hydrous Moon in an continents and plate tectonics article that analyzed chlorine developed, increasing the minisotopes in lunar basalts, voleral count to 1,500. canic glasses, and apatite grains. The “Era of Biologically MediIn terrestrial rocks the ratios for ated Mineralogy,” which began chlorine isotopes are concen3.9 billion years ago and contintrated within a narrow interval; ues to this day, is characterized however, they found that in luby biochemical processes. The

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Courtesy of Professor George Rossman, California Institute of Technology

Earth Sciences

nar materials the range was found to be 25 times wider. Sharp and colleagues argued that hydrogen in Earth processes prevented the differential vaporization of chlorine that took place in lunar magmas, and they concluded that the Moon was thus essentially anhydrous. They suggested that the high hydrogen content found in lunar apatites occurred in anomalous rock samples with unusually high concentrations of volatile components. The Moon’s water debate continued. It is widely accepted that a massive asteroid impact on Earth about 65.5 million years ago (Era 3, Stage 10, of Hazen and Ferry’s classification) near present-day Chicxulub in Mexico coincided with one of the largest mass extinctions in Earth’s history. Alternative explanations for the extinctions at the boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods (the K-Pg boundary, formerly known as the K-T, or Cretaceous-Tertiary, boundary) persisted. The leading alternative hypothesis considered the climatic effects of the Deccan lavas in India, which erupted through a time interval of about one million years. Evidence for these competing hypotheses was reviewed in March by an international group of 41 authors led by Peter Schulte of the Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Ger. All of the authors “contributed equally to this work,” thus implying that their conclusion was not just a vote of believers. They synthesized recent geologic and geochemical evidence from sedimentary layers at the K-Pg boundary and illustrated a global pattern of change with distance from Chicxulub—a pattern consistent with the explosive distribution of ejecta from this impact site. An evaluation of the evidence for biological turnovers (that is, mass extinction followed by recovery) supported the conclusion that neither multiple-impact nor volcanic-eruption scenarios could account for the observed geology and paleontology around the world. They presented compelling evidence to show that the Chicxulub impact triggered the K-Pg mass extinction. In April a report by Steven Whitmeyer of James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Va., and two colleagues described recent developments in field mapping. They noted that modern mobile computers equipped with GPS (global positioning systems) and GIS (geographic information systems) can be used to record and interpret geo-

logic data, and digital sources, such as Google Earth, can organize the data in three dimensions. They also suggested that the pairing of digital field methods with virtual 3-D representation has become a necessary skill for many academics as well as professionals in the geosciences. Geologic mapping extends into the third dimension through continental drilling. In April, John Geissman of the University of New Mexico and two coauthors described plans for the Colorado Plateau Coring Project, formulated at a 2009 workshop by 37 researchers from nine countries. Beginning in the second half of 2010, drill holes in five locations sampled a continuous sequence of rocks dating from 250 million to 145 million years ago. The drill cores were expected to reveal a continuous geologic record that would capture dramatic climate change, the appearance of modern lifeforms, and two major mass extinctions. As society has slowly transitioned from its dependence on petroleum and other fossil fuels, a class of 17 metals called rare-earth elements (REEs) have become increasingly important. REEs are used in catalysts and in permanent magnets for components that are vital for the defense industry, hybrid-electric vehicles, wind turbines, computers, and motors. REEs are scarce and concentrated in minerals in some rocks, such as the carbonatites. Writer David Kramer reported in the May issue of Physics Today that one-third of the world’s estimated reserves occurred in the United States, though China also had large reserves. Owing to lower extraction and production costs, China now provided more than 95% of the world’s supply, whereas all but one of the American rare-earth mines had closed. Kramer noted that U.S. production could take 10 years to reach full capacity; operations were hampered in part by the lack of geology graduates with rare-earths experience. (PETER J. WYLLIE)

GEOPHYSICS One of the most devastating earthquakes in modern times struck Haiti on Jan. 12, 2010. Occurring at 4:53 PM local time just 25 km (1 km = 0.6 mi) west of the capital city of Port-auPrince, the earthquake was large (moment magnitude of 7.0) and shallow (focal depth of 13 km). It was felt throughout Haiti and the neighbouring Dominican Republic and as far away as

southern Florida. Official estimates put the death toll at over 222,000, with an additional 300,000 injured and 1,300,000 homeless. (See Sidebar on page 407.) The massive human losses were attributed in part to relatively poor building construction and the lack of earthquake-resistant design practices. (See Special Report on page 190.) Damage was caused by strong ground shaking, soil liquefaction, landslides, rockslides, and a tsunami, which had wave heights (peak to trough) of only 12 cm (about 5 in) and thus resulted in relatively few of the deaths. The Haiti earthquake was produced by left-lateral strike-slip faulting in or near the Enriquillo–Plantain Garden fault zone separating the Caribbean and North America tectonic plates. The relative motion between these plates is considered to be small (7 mm [0.3 in] per year), but slippage along the fault zone probably produced two of the region’s large historical earthquakes, which occurred in 1751 and 1770. Although the 2010 earthquake relieved some of the stress that had accrued, the seismic hazard remained high along this fault zone as well as in the nearby Septentrional fault zone running along the northern coast of Hispaniola, the island on which Haiti and the Dominican Republic are located. Just six weeks later an even larger earthquake occurred in central Chile. This massive event had a moment magnitude of 8.8, making it the fifth largest earthquake to be recorded with seismometers. The human losses were at least 521 people killed and about 12,000 injured. Compared with the human cost of the Haitian earthquake, that of the Chilean earthquake was light (a result attributed to sound construction practices), though Chile’s economic damages, estimated at $30 billion, were larger than the $8 billion estimated for Haiti. The earthquake produced a tsunami that was recorded by tide gauges across the Pacific basin at amplitudes of tens to hundreds of centimetres. The earthquake began at 3:34 AM local time on February 27, and it lasted for more than 120 seconds as it propagated bilaterally away from the epicentre, some 335 km southwest of the Chilean capital of Santiago. The rupture extended nearly 500 km along the megathrust boundary that separates the Nazca plate from the South American plate. The average slip (relative motion) between the two plates during the earthquake was approximately 5 m (16 ft), and the maximum 225

Earth Sciences

slip was approximately 20 m (66 ft). This region is well known for producing large earthquakes, with the Nazca plate subducting beneath South America at the rapid rate of 80 mm (3.1 in) per year. The 2010 event occurred mostly to the north of the rupture area of the great 1960 earthquake, which, with a moment magnitude of 9.5, was the largest earthquake ever recorded. The summit caldera of Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull volcano began erupting explosively early on the morning of April 14. Scientists had been monitoring several geophysical indicators that preceded the main event—including a swarm of seismicity in 2009–10, increased surface deformation, and an effusive flank eruption that began on March 20. The erupting plume of ash reached a height of more than eight kilometres within the first day, and prevailing winds quickly spread the ash to mainland Europe. Because it was feared that fine particles of tephra in the ash cloud would cause jet engines to fail, the eruption led to a six-day closure of European airspace, causing airlines to lose more than $250 million daily. Significant volcanic activity continued for more than a month after the initial eruption; however, further flight restrictions were minor. Iceland sits at the divergent plate boundary between the North America and Eurasian tectonic plates, and its volcanism is thought to derive from a quasi-cylindrical upwelling of material, referred to

as a plume, rising from deep within Earth’s mantle. Geophysicists continued to debate the precise depth of origin for mantle plumes; some argued that they emerge from the very base of the mantle that touches Earth’s liquid outer core, almost 3,000 km below the ocean floor. In September an international team of scientists reported new evidence that helped explain the surprising stability of continental lithosphere. In contrast to oceanic lithosphere, which exists at Earth’s surface for approximately 200 million years before subducting into the mantle, continental lithosphere may remain at the surface for billions of years after formation. The oldest cores of the continents, cratons, possess exceptionally thick roots (180–250 km deep) that add to the stability of continental lithosphere. The research team measured the amount of water in mantle xenoliths that had been naturally exhumed from the base of South Africa’s Kaapvaal craton during a kimberlite eruption. The scientists searched 18 xenoliths for water by using Fourier transform infrared analysis, a method capable of detecting water at levels as low as parts per million. The xenoliths were found to be exceptionally dry, which implied that the lithospheric mantle of cratons is exceptionally strong, having a viscosity at least 20 times and possibly hundreds of times higher than that of the underlying asthenosphere. Such mechanical strength

The 1.8-m (6-ft) tsunami spawned from the powerful earthquake that struck Chile in February brought debris and the hull of a boat to a street in the city of Talcahuano.

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keeps the cratons from easily breaking up as they experience the tectonic stresses associated with traveling across Earth’s surface. (KEITH D. KOPER)

METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE The second and final stage of the largest and most ambitious tornado field experiment in history ran from May 1 to June 15, 2010, across the U.S. Great Plains. As in 2009, VORTEX2 (Verification of the Origins of Rotation in Tornadoes Experiment 2) involved a small army of scientists and a fleet of research vehicles, including 10 mobile radars. The effort also included weather balloons, vehicles capable of dropping instruments ahead of storms, and a remote-controlled aircraft. The project was designed to improve the scientific understanding of how tornadoes originate and develop, as well as inform and improve the process of severe weather prediction. In 2009 the teams intercepted a single tornado-producing thunderstorm; in 2010, however, VORTEX2 researchers gathered data on at least 30 rotating thunderstorms and 20 tornadoes, including one of a series that ripped across Oklahoma during a major tornado outbreak on May 10. The amount of data collected by the researchers was so vast that the analysis phase of the experiment was expected to last 5 to 10 years. The funding for the project came from the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). In 2010 there was also a big push to learn more about the formation of hurricanes in the Atlantic basin, with no fewer than three separate airborne campaigns during the 2010 tropical cyclone season. NASA conducted the Genesis and Rapid Intensification Processes (GRIP) mission to study how storms form and rapidly intensify into hurricanes. A second experiment sponsored by the NSF, the Pre-Depression Investigation of Cloud-Systems in the Tropics (PREDICT), focused on discovering why some clusters of tropical thunderstorms develop into cyclones whereas others dissipate. The third project, led by NOAA, was known as the Intensity Forecasting Experiment (IFEX). Although the three projects were independent, the groups coordinated with one another, and all had the common purpose of unlocking the secrets of hurricane formation and evolution.

Earth Sciences

NASA’s DC-8 aircraft flew into Hurri- and ocean temperatures, snow cover, “rigour and honesty as scientists are not cane Earl four times in late August and ocean heat content, sea level, Arctic in doubt,” but it did note “a consistent early September as the storm strength- sea-ice extent, and glacier mass bal- pattern of failing to display the proper ened and weakened along its path be- ance, which all pointed to a warming degree of openness” among the retween Puerto Rico and North Carolina. climate. The report noted that the past searchers and the UEA. Critics of the reSeptember 2 was a historic day for the decade was the warmest on record and views stated that the reports did not adGRIP project, as it marked the first that average global temperatures had dress some of the allegations raised by time that NASA had flown a Global risen during the past 50 years. Ad- the e-mails—such as the deletion of eHawk drone over a fully formed hurri- dressing public concerns about the ev- mails to avoid complying with the Freecane. The data collected on Hur- Sergey Ponomarev/AP dom of Information Act, the ricane Earl were expected to help withholding of temperature and scientists better understand how other climate data, and the insuch phenomena intensify and terference with the peer-review dissipate. process that prevented the pubThe long-term impact of a lication of research disputing the warming climate on tropical cynotion that human-induced cliclones had been a topic of conmate change was occurring. siderable debate for a few years. The United States Senate To resolve the issue, scientists on failed in 2010 to pass legislation both sides of the debate collabocontaining a carbon cap-andrated in an attempt to arrive at trade proposal, which would ala consensus. A review paper publow the government to set emislished by researchers from NOAA sion limits and auction off and other institutions concluded permits which individual emitthat the impact of climate change ters could later buy and sell. A on past storm activity remained bill passed by the U.S. House of uncertain. However, climate proRepresentatives in 2009 had jections based on modern theory called for a 17% reduction in and the latest computer-simulaAmerican greenhouse gas emistion models indicated that by sions below 2005 levels by 2020, 2100 global warming would but in July 2010 Senate Majorcause tropical cyclones to become Smoke from hundreds of wildfires, which were ity Leader Harry Reid declared more intense and would cause exacerbated by record heat, mixed with pollution to the bill dead, as he could not precipitation rates to increase cover several Russian cities during parts of the come up with a supermajority near the storms’ centres; however, summer of 2010. In the ancient city of Ryazan, of 60 senators to pass the conthe overall number of tropical cy- some 193 km (120 mi) southeast of Moscow, a troversial legislation. newly married couple embrace against a backdrop clones would decrease globally. The United Nations Climate Record heat in the U.S. and of gray smog. Change Conference in Cancún, Russia during the summer of Mex., concluded on Dec. 10, 2010 helped to refocus global2010, with the adoption of a warming concerns following episodes idence for global warming, the report package of decisions designed to move of heavy snow and severe cold in the stated that the “observed changes in a governments toward a low-emissions fueastern U.S. and Europe during the broad range of indicators provide a self- ture. As part of this overall effort, conprevious winter. The National Climatic consistent story of a warming world.” ference representatives lent their supData Center (NCDC) reported that the Reverberations continued from the port to a variety of climate-change global land temperature in July set a scandal dubbed “Climategate,” the elec- initiatives in less-developed countries new record for that month, and the tronic release in November 2009 of (LDCs). One of the more prominent elecombined land-ocean temperatures for more than 1,000 e-mails and documents ments of the Cancún Agreements was January through July also broke a hacked from the Climatic Research Unit the creation of a Green Climate Fund, a record. NASA announced in December (CRU) at the University of East Anglia mechanism designed to raise and disthat its preliminary climate data, which (UEA), Norwich, Eng. Officials in the seminate $100 billion per year by 2020 spanned the period December 2009 U.K. and elsewhere investigated charges to transfer clean technologies to LDCs through November 2010, demonstrated that CRU scientists had manipulated and help them adapt to the effects of clithe highest average annual global tem- data to boost the case for human-in- mate change. Governments decided that perature in 131 years. duced climate change and had sup- the fund’s board would have equal repThe rising trend in average annual pressed dissenting viewpoints. The re- resentation from LDCs and developed global temperatures appeared to level views posted in 2010 generally countries. Governments also agreed to off for the years 1999 through 2009, supported the research integrity of the work to keep the rise in average global contradicting the projections of some scientists who had written the e-mails, temperatures under the threshold of climate models; however, a longer-term but they also noted problems. The most 2 °C (3.6 °F) above preindustrial levels. perspective suggested that warming thorough investigation, led by Muir They developed a timetable for review to was ongoing. NOAA’s annual report Russell, former vice-chancellor of the ensure that global actions were adecalled State of the Climate, released in University of Glasgow, Scot., found no quate to confront the anticipated rise in 2010 for the year 2009, examined 10 evidence of malicious intent. Its final re- average global temperatures. key climate indicators, including land port indicated that the researchers’ (DOUGLAS LE COMTE) 227

Education and ACHIEVEMENT were primary global CONCERNS in education in 2010. Legislation affording FREE elementary education was passed in India, and common education standards were adopted in the U.S. A REDUCTION in REMITTANCES was suffered in El Salvador and Haiti; SCHOOLCHILDREN were ATTACKED in China; EARTHQUAKES disrupted schooling in HAITI and PAKISTAN; and DRUG-GANG ACTIVITY led to the CANCELLATION of foreign university programs in MEXICO. ACCESS

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION

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ropelled by a deepening understanding of the importance of education on multiple levels, countries throughout the world in 2010 addressed whether children had adequate access to education and were successful in school. These issues gained a sense of urgency during the year owing to the continuing effects of the global economic crisis that began in 2008. Data released in 2010 by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) suggested that individuals with higher levels of education were more likely to be employed— even during the economic downturn. For example, in Spain—which had among the highest unemployment rates in the developed world—nearly 15% of 15- to 29-year-olds who had not completed secondary education were unemployed in 2008–09, compared with about 6% for those who had completed this level of schooling. These findings did not apply only to the developed world. “Throughout the world it has been found that the probability of finding employment rises with higher levels of education,” stated a UNESCO report on poverty and education. “A better educated household is less likely to be poor.” For that reason most of the world’s countries committed to achieving universal primary education by 2015. A 2010 UN report tracking enrollment trends suggested that many countries had taken tremendous strides toward

reaching that goal, with 90% of the world’s age-eligible children enrolled in school in 2008, compared with 84% in 1999. The increase came entirely from less-developed countries, which increased their enrollment in the primary grades from 82% of school-age children in 1989 to 89% in 2008. For example, South Asia increased enrollment by 11%, and sub-Saharan Africa enlarged enrollment by 18 percentage points— from 58% to 76%—between 1999 and

2008. Even so, sub-Saharan Africa remained the area of the world with the lowest enrollment percentages, and India was ranked as the country with the most children out of school—in large part because school fees continued to be higher than many families could afford to pay. In April, however, the country passed a monumental law affording free elementary education to all children between the ages of 6 and 14. Despite the substantial advances documented in the UN enrollment report, the findings were pessimistic about attaining universal education by 2015. “The pace of progress is insufficient to ensure that, by 2015, all girls and boys complete a full course of primary schooling.” Because the latest data available were from 2008 and thus did not reflect the global financial crisis that began in the same year, UNESCO considered world education to be “at risk.” One of the many factors UNESCO cited for this was the reduction of remittances sent back from migrant workers—which were often used to pay school fees—as a result of the economic slowdown. This was particularly true for El Salvador and Haiti, both of which remained

Schoolchildren in Nanjing, China, watch a demonstration of self-defense skills presented by paramilitary soldiers in May. Resentment over the disparity between educational opportunities for rich and poor children was believed to be behind violent attacks at schools in the region.

EPA—Cite Mooi/Landov

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highly dependent on remittances from the United States. UNESCO also reported that unemployment in China had forced an estimated 20 million migrants to return to rural areas, causing the flow of money that was being used for education to stop. Resentment due to the disparity in educational opportunities for rich and poor children in China was believed to have prompted a series of horrific assaults on schoolchildren that, according to the New York Times, “stunned the nation and sent government officials scrambling to suppress public outrage.” Few reliable reports were available, but at least 18 children—all of kindergarten or primaryschool age—and 5 adults were killed, and 66 children were wounded in schools along the developed eastern coast of China. The 2008 UN data also failed to reflect huge increases in displaced children and interrupted schooling. During 2010 schoolchildren in Haiti, where an earthquake ravaged the country (see Sidebar on page 407), and in Pakistan, which also was struck by an earthquake and hit by unprecedented flooding, had major disruptions in their schooling. The book Three Cups of Tea: One Man’s Mission to Fight Terrorism and Build Nations . . . One School at a Time (2006) by Greg Mortenson and David Oliver Relin was about building schools for girls in Pakistan and Afghanistan and remained on the New York Times best-seller list. The work became well known not only for its advocacy of primary education but also for Mortenson’s deep knowledge of the subject area. He was subsequently consulted by Gen. Stanley McChrystal (see BIOGRAPHIES), who served as head of the U.S. military in Afghanistan until he retired after having made impolitic statements about Pres. Barack Obama. In the United States the sense of urgency regarding education was evident. The provision of $10 billion through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 allowed states to retain as many as 300,000 teachers and other school employees whose jobs had been threatened by budget cuts caused by the decline in local and state tax revenues that primarily paid for schools. In addition, 36 states adopted the common standards set forth by the Common Core State Standards Initiative, which were developed by the National Governors Association and the Council of Chief State School Officers to ensure that American students learn

as much as students in other developed countries. The movement toward this adoption was aided by a national competition, known as Race to the Top, for $4.3 billion in federal funds. To become eligible for the subsidy, states were required to adopt “standards and assessments that prepare students to succeed in college and the workplace.” As part of U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan’s strategy to improve schools and enhance student learning, all the competing states had submitted applications to the U.S. Department of Education outlining their plans to build data systems to measure student growth and success and turn around their lowest-performing schools. Of the 40 states that competed for the Race to the Top funds, only 11 states— Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Rhode Island, and Tennessee—and the District of Columbia were awarded the funds following a competitive process, utilizing outside peer reviewers in the scoring of state applications. “Every state that applied showed a tremendous amount of leadership and a bold commitment to education reform,” Duncan said. Nonetheless, controversies erupted in some of the states that failed to secure the funds. For example, in New Jersey, the newly elected Gov. Chris Christie fired his appointed education commissioner, alleging that he was to blame for the state’s loss. Perhaps the most controversial aspect of Race to the Top was its push to connect student test scores to individual teachers. Most states did not have the data capacity to be able to determine whether the student scores went up or down in relation to an individual teacher or how the students’ current proficiency compared with their previous performance. Some states, including Tennessee, however, did have such data systems—known as “value-added data”—and the Race to the Top application afforded additional points for states that had existing data systems or that pledged to develop them. This gave rise to a great upset among teachers and their unions, which argued that state tests were not developed to provide value-added data and thus should not be used in such a manner. To do so, they maintained, would undermine other school-improvement efforts. The country’s largest teachers union, the National Education Association (NEA), announced its opposition to Race to the Top, and its rival, the

American Federation of Teachers, while stopping short of opposition, expressed reservations. As the 2010–11 school year began, the Los Angeles Times pushed the concept a step further by conducting its own analysis and thereafter publishing lists of teachers and their “value added.” This act prompted the NEA to call for a boycott of the newspaper. The reason for the drive toward valueadded data was the growing recognition that some teachers were better able than others to guide their students toward mastery and that schools had not done a sufficient job in identifying effective teaching—allowing ineffective teachers to continue for years, to the detriment of their students. A growing base of research established that students who had effective teachers were better able to complete a demanding curriculum and reach higher levels of education. This was especially true for minority students and students from low-income families, whose achievement tended to be lower than their more privileged peers.

HIGHER EDUCATION Reflecting the widespread recognition of the importance of higher education, the number of students entering college grew by more than 20 percentage points in OECD countries from 1995 to 2008. In most developed countries, for example, the current generation of young people tended to have higher educational attainment than their parents’ generation. One rare exception was the United States, where attainment at both the high-school and college levels had stagnated, threatening that the present generation of young people might be the first to be less educated than their parents’ generation. High-school graduation rates in the U.S. remained steady; while about 70% of high-school graduates enrolled in college, only about 57% of them actually completed degrees, and fewer than half of African American, Hispanic, and low-income students did so. “In a single generation, we’ve fallen from first place to 12th in college graduation rates for young adults,” President Obama told students at the University of Texas in August. “We can retake the lead. . . . The single most important thing we can do is make sure we’ve got a world-class education system for everybody.” He said that the country should adopt the goal of raising graduation rates to 60% in the next 10 229

Education Ronald Zak/AP

years—a goal that, if met, would add at least eight million college graduates. Partly in response to President Obama’s challenge, 24 state university systems continued their participation in the Access to Success Initiative, which aimed to cut the college attendance and graduation gaps for low-income and minority students in half by 2015. During 2010 they established campus-by-campus goals for improvements in graduation rates and began working on resolving some of the potential barriers to graduation, such as difficulties students might have with registering for classes that were required for their majors. The developed countries of the OECD hardly had a monopoly on believing that higher education was the key to improving their economies. An evergreater number of less-developed countries invested substantial amounts in universities. The number of Chinese enrolled in higher education quintupled in a decade, and the number of colleges and universities in China more than doubled—from 1,022 to 2,263. India established a goal of enrolling more than 40 million additional students in Indian universities over the next decade. In order to meet that goal, in the spring the country’s cabinet approved a bill that would allow foreign universities to establish campuses in India—an acknowledgement that existing institutions were insufficient to the task. “In the next 10 years, you are going to have more than 40 million children going to college, an extra 40 million,” Kapil Sibal, the minister for human resource development, told the New York Times. The Georgia Institute of Technology was one of several American universities that expressed interest in establishing programs in India, owing in part to the fact that more than 100,000 foreign students in the U.S. hailed from India. To some extent this followed a model established in the Middle East, where during the previous five years, American universities had rushed to open branches. Education City in Qatar, for example, afforded programs established by such universities as Carnegie Mellon, Cornell, Georgetown, Northwestern, Texas A&M, and Virginia Commonwealth. In Abu Dhabi, in the fall New York University opened an undergraduate program with 150 students. Dubayy, however, which opened campuses of Michigan State and the Rochester Institute of Technology in 2008, thereafter saw its economy crumble, and according to the New York Times, the “prospec230

University students in Vienna on March 11 show their opposition to the Bologna Process ahead of a ministerial summit to honour the 10th anniversary of that system of educational reforms, which promoted more unified and standardized higher education across Europe. tive college-student pool in the area has shrunk substantially.” For example, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va., which opened a branch in the United Arab Emirates, closed its Ra#s alKhaymah campus in May 2009 without having ever graduated a student. The prestige of American universities still made the United States a magnet for foreign students, with fairly steady annual increases in enrollment. According to the Institute of International Education, enrollment of international students rose by 7.7% from 2008 to 2009—from 623,805 to 671,616—with international students making up 3.7% of the total enrollment. The U.S., however, claimed a smaller percentage of international students than previously reported as universities in China, Australia, Russia, and the Middle East increased their appeal. Although foreign students brought in revenue of at least £8 billion (about $12 billion) every year, the United Kingdom was actually attempting to reduce its appeal to foreign students, maintaining that in the spring it would tighten visas for students. One of the new requirements was that students speak English well enough to pass British high-school exams instead of simply mastering “beginner’s English,” as had previously been required. According to the New York Times’s John Burns, the measure seemed aimed particularly at the Indian subcontinent as well as at countries in the Arab and Muslim world and might have been, in part, prompted by

the failed attempt by a 23-year-old Nigerian engineering student at the University College of London to blow up an American airliner. After a lawsuit brought by a coalition of 440 Englishlanguage schools challenged that requirement, a High Court decision said the new rule had to undergo parliamentary consideration. The new coalition government announced that it was studying the matter further. The U.K. remained the top destination for American students studying abroad, with 33,333 American students studying there in 2008. Other popular countries were Italy, Spain, France, China, Australia, and Mexico. Universities began canceling their programs in Mexico, however, out of fear that students might be affected by the violence perpetrated by drug gangs. For example, after the U.S. State Department issued a travel warning for Mexico, California State University and the University of Kansas—among others— canceled programs there. Despite global economic pressures in regard to higher education, more countries signed up in 2010 to participate in what had become known as the “Bologna Process”—an attempt to ensure the quality and reliability of higher education throughout the participating countries. A project of the European Union initially designed to ensure that credits could transfer between universities in EU member countries, it grew to include 47 countries. (KARIN CHENOWETH)

The Environment The INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF BIODIVERSITY brought attention to EXTINCTION; DEFORESTATION RATES DECLINED in Brazil and Indonesia; scientists implicated in the CLIMATEGATE SCANDAL were exonerated; and the LARGEST OIL SPILL in history fouled part of the Gulf of Mexico. The lowest SMOG levels in 10 years were reported over many European countries, while they reached RECORD levels in Hong Kong.

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limategate. A major scandal that broke on Nov. 17, 2009, when more than 1,000 email messages and other documents from the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) of the University of East Anglia (UEA), Norwich, Eng., were leaked on the Internet continued to resonate in 2010. Written over 13 years, the material suggested that scientists had withheld data from outsiders and had shown contempt for those who disagreed with them. The emails appeared to show that scientists had been discrediting and attempting to boycott journals that published papers by their opponents. The leaked material also concerned work by CRU director Phil Jones and his Chinese-American colleague WeiChyung Wang of the State University of New York at Albany. In the Fourth Assessment Report produced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2007, Jones addressed concerns that part of the measured rise in global temperatures might have resulted from taking measurements at urban sites that are warmer than the surrounding countryside. He noted that studies had determined that this effect was negligible. His argument, based on data from 84 Chinese weather stations, depended critically on the certainty that the stations had not moved or changed their methods during the study period. In reality, 51 of the stations had moved during the study period, 25 had not moved, and no information was available about the remaining 8. That meant that Wang’s statement, which was repeated by Jones, that “few, if any” stations had moved was not true.

Jones appeared before the House of Commons Science and Technology Committee on March 1, 2010, supported by Edward Acton, vice-chancellor of UEA. Lord Lawson and Benny Peiser, who served as chairman and director of the Global Warming Policy Foundation, respectively, expressed some of the concerns voiced by other critics of CRU. The committee reported on March 31. (Its investigation was curtailed because of the impending U.K. general election.) It criticized the university for supporting “the culture at CRU of resisting disclosure of information” but found no evidence of an attempt to subvert the peer-review process. The Independent Climate Change Email Review, chaired by Sir Alastair Muir Russell, former vice-chancellor of the University of Glasgow, Scot., published its report on July 7. Russell criticized CRU scientists for having withheld information legally requested under freedom-of-information legislation. The review described the behaviour revealed in the leaked e-mail messages as unprofessional, but overall it concluded that the researchers had been honest and responsible. On September 14 the Global Warming Policy Foundation (GWPF), a British nonpartisan global-warming think tank, published a report of its investigation of the official inquiries into the Climategate scandal. It determined that none of the panels was comprehensive within its area of remit and that insufficient consideration in the choice of panel members led to a failure to ensure balance and independence. It also determined that none of the panels managed to remain objective

and comprehensive or made any serious attempt to consider the views and submissions of well-informed critics. In addition, the GWPF noted that the terms of reference in each of the panels were either vague or nonexistent, and none of the panels performed its work in a way likely to restore confidence in the work of CRU. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC was drawn into the Climategate controversy when it was revealed in January 2010 that a claim made in its 2007 Fourth Assessment Report—the projected disappearance of all Himalayan glaciers by 2035—was based on a 1999 report in New Scientist that referred to an e-mail interview with Indian glaciologist Syed Hasnain, then of Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi. The New Scientist story was picked up by An Overview of Glaciers, Glacier Retreat, and Subsequent Impacts in Nepal, India, and China, a document published in 2005 by the environmental-conservation group Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF). The IPCC repeated the WWF document’s statement that the likelihood that the glaciers would disappear was “very high.” The IPCC went on to suggest that the total area of the Himalayan glaciers might decrease from the present 500,000 to 100,000 sq km (193,000 to 39,000 sq mi). It cited the WWF document as its source for that data, but the WWF document included no such numbers. Other glaciologists found the claim absurd, and Hasnain later admitted that his prediction had been speculative and not supported by research. Vijay Raina, a leading Indian glaciologist, wrote in a discussion paper published by the Indian government in November 2009 that there was no sign of an abnormal retreat in the glaciers, and Indian Environment and Forests Minister Jairam Ramesh accused the IPCC of being alarmist. In response, IPCC Chairman Rajendra Pachauri dismissed the government paper as “voodoo science.” On March 10 the InterAcademy Council (IAC), which represents national science academies, accepted a request by the UN and the IPCC to appoint a panel to investigate the IPCC’s procedures. The 12-member panel was chaired by Harold Shapiro, an American economist and a former adviser to the administrations of Presidents George H.W. 231

The Environment Zhang Xiaoli—Xinhua/Landov

Bush and Bill Clinton. In its report, published on August 30, the IAC concluded that the IPCC assessment process had been successful overall, but it criticized certain IPCC procedures. The IAC recommended that the IPCC establish an executive committee to supervise its work between plenary sessions and that the chairman, the director, and the chairs of working groups serve for the construction of only one assessment report. The IAC also recommended that the IPCC develop and adopt rigorous policies regarding conflicts of interest among those who prepare assessment reports, that review editors ensure that authors properly consider the comments of reviewers, that the reports reflect genuine controversies, and that the reports be much clearer in characterizing and categorizing uncertainties.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS Brazil. In April the government energy regulator announced that the Norte Energia consortium, led by state-owned Companhia Hidro Elétrica do São Francisco, would be authorized to build the Belo Monte Dam on a tributary of the Amazon called the Xingu River in the state of Pará. The government maintained that the dam was needed to further economic development, but critics said that it would displace thousands of people and cause environmental damage.

Oil-blocking strips strung along a boom crossing the Yellow River in Henan province, China, were used unsuccessfully in January in the attempt to contain a massive plume of diesel oil released upstream. China. It was reported in October 2009 that 15,000 residents from approximately 10 villages near Jiyuan, Henan province, were being relocated after more than 1,000 children had tested positive for lead poisoning caused by China’s largest lead-smelting centre. The government and the smelting companies would pay most of the 1 billion yuan (about $146 million) to cover the cost of the relocation, would lease the

Brazilian government officials authorized the construction of the Belo Monte Dam, the third largest dam in the world, along a tributary of the Amazon called the Xingu River. The photo, taken on April 23, depicts the future site of the dam in the state of Pará.

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surrounding land from the farmers who owned it, and would use the land to establish an exclusion zone. On Dec. 30, 2009, about 150,000 litres (40,000 gal) of diesel oil leaked into the Chishui and Wei rivers from a broken fuel pipeline operated by the China National Petroleum Corp. The pipeline linked Lanzhou in Gansu province with Zhengzhou in Henan province. Despite the efforts of hundreds of workers to contain the oil, by January 3 it had flowed from the Chishui and Wei into the Yellow River about 200 km (124 mi) upstream from Zhengzhou, where more than two million people depended on the Yellow River for drinking water. France. In late December 2009 the Constitutional Council struck down a proposed carbon tax slated to go into force on Jan. 1, 2010. The council said that the tax, which was set at >17 (>1 = $1.40) per ton of emitted carbon dioxide, would have raised fuel prices for cars, domestic heating, and factories; however, the heavy industries and power firms included in the EU emissions trading scheme would have been exempt from paying the full tax, meaning that exemptions would have covered 93% of industrial emissions. The council said that the tax would run counter to the goal of fighting global warming and violated the principle of imposing public charges equally. On March 23 Prime Minister François Fillon announced that the government would not enact a carbon tax unless other EU countries did likewise.

The Environment

Wind Turbines: A New Spin on Energy The wind-energy industry, which for a decade has been one of the fastest-growing sources of energy production in advanced economies, hit a stumbling block in 2010 despite a promising start to the year. In April the U.S. federal government approved the first American offshore wind farm—the proposed Cape Wind project in Nantucket Sound, Massachusetts—buoying industry hopes for rapid development and stirring discontent among coastal communities along the waterway. By late summer, however, this momentum had been deflated by industry reports that wind-farm installations had dropped dramatically, falling by more than 70% compared with the same period in 2009. The news, alongside the delays in U.S. Pres. Barack Obama’s climate-change legislation, left a mixed outlook for an industry that has garnered increasing support from governments while also requiring large capital investments amid major economic constraints. Trend of Industrial Development. The long-term trend for wind-energy development in the United States and Western Europe remains one of growth. In 2008, despite the economic downturn, the United States funded wind development and surpassed Germany as the global leader in wind-power capacity. This growth appeared to be accelerating worldwide through 2009, a year when the world’s economies added a record-breaking 37.5 gigawatts of wind-power capacity—a more than 30% increase in capacity over 2008. Projects subsidized by economic stimulus spending, particularly in China and the United States, played a major role in boosting this increase in capacity. A few news events in early 2010 seemed to mark a continuation of this trend. Overall, the World Wind Energy Association estimated that 16 gigawatts of capacity were added in the first half of the year, which included the construction of three wind turbines on Ross Island in Antarctica. The proposal for the Cape Wind project called for a wind farm similar to those standing off the coasts of some European countries and China. In April Germany opened its first offshore wind farm, some 45 km (28 mi) off the coast in the North Sea, with a test field of 12 wind turbines. In July China’s first full-size commercial offshore wind farm, the 102-MW Donghai Bridge Wind Farm in the East China Sea, began transmitting power. It initially provided electricity to the Expo 2010 Shanghai China. (See Sidebar on page 381.) The turbines were expected to generate enough power for 200,000 households in Shanghai. In September the Thanet wind farm, the world’s largest offshore project to date, commenced operations off the coast of Kent, Eng. It boasted 100 turbines, which would be expanded to 341 turbines within four years. Environmental Concerns. Environmentalists cited different concerns about the installation of new wind turbines. One common

Germany. On September 5 the German government agreed to extend the life spans of the country’s 17 nuclear power plants, which were to have been shut down by 2021. Under the plan, plants built prior to 1981 would be allowed to operate for 8 additional years, and younger plants would operate for 14 ad© Elenathewise/Fotolia

refrain is that turbines result in bird and bat fatalities and sometimes obstruct bird migratory patterns. Environmentalists also argued that turbines could leak oils or other chemicals into the surrounding environment and worried about the effects of electromagnetic fields produced by windmills. The wind industry responded to these claims by pointing out that unlike most methods of producing electricity, wind turbines produce no carbon emissions. They also maintained that the quantities of chemicals used in constructing and maintaining wind turbines are relatively small compared with those used in other methods of producing electricity. Economic and Legislative Obstacles. The biggest threat to wind-energy development in 2010 came not from environmental concerns but from economic and legislative ones. In some respects it was highly unlikely that the industry would repeat its heady 2009 performance, much of which was propelled by temporary economic-stimulus measures implemented by governments around the world. As these programs expired in 2010, financial pullback was inevitable, but analysts said that owing to expiring stimulus programs, the slowdown in turbine installations in 2010 had surpassed what might have been expected. In July the leading industry research group, the American Wind Energy Association, reported that the installation of new turbines in the U.S. during the first half of 2010 fell 71% compared with the same period in 2009. The group projected that the decline in installations would continue and that the industry would install a little over half as many turbines in 2010 as it did in 2009. The decline seemed to be the result of multiple factors. First, Spain, which was a leading source of industry growth, experienced a major economic downturn in early 2010 and thus sharply scaled back its investment in turbines. Second, slower growth trends in the United States were attributed to fragile credit markets that followed in the wake of the financial crisis. As a result, private investment was not freely available. Thus, companies had a difficult time making up for the withdrawal of government funding. In a capital-intensive industry that requires massive up-front expenditures in infrastructure, the lack of available credit proved to be a major impediment to growth. Doubts also emerged in the second half of 2010 about whether the U.S. government would follow through on plans to expand windpower capacity. President Obama’s sweeping climate-change legislation, which once seemed likely to bolster the wind-energy industry, stalled in mid-2010, ahead of the congressional elections. Late in the year, analysts said that the industry’s prospects going forward in the U.S. would depend heavily on whether (and in what form) this legislation eventually passed into law. (LEE HUDSON TESLIK)

ditional years. Nuclear-power companies faced new charges totaling >30 billion, which included a tax on fuel rods between 2011 and 2017 that would raise >2.3 billion per year and a tax of >9 per megawatt-hour generated to support the development of renewable-energy capacity. In addition, energy companies

would pay >300 million in 2011 and 2012 and >200 million per year from 2013 to 2016 to help finance renewableenergy research and development. Such charges were planned to increase after the fuel-rod tax ended in 2017. Nigeria. It was reported in June that during an annual immunization pro233

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ists preferred to see polar bears listed as “endangered,” a classification that would force the administration of Barack Obama to confront a threat to the species from warming blamed on greenhouse-gas emissions. Such a classification could warrant setting emission limits on the oil, coal, and manufacturing industries, risking millions of jobs during the first stages of an economic recovery. The Interior Department’s status quo approach allowed the White House to avoid a fight with business interests while providing some protection to polar bears.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Illegal gold mining, which contaminated the soil with lead in several poor Nigerian villages, claimed over 160 lives and sickened hundreds of others. More than 100 of these deaths were of children. gram, government officials discovered that there were very few children in certain remote villages in the northern state of Zamfara. Inquiries revealed that weeks before the visits more than 100 children had died from lead poisoning, though villagers said that the children had died from malaria. The truth did not emerge until a Doctors Without Borders team took blood samples. A Health Ministry official said that there had been 355 cases of poisoning, 163 of them fatal. A Chinese company had been mining gold in the area, and villagers had sought to profit by digging for gold themselves, which was illegal. It was thought that lead discarded during the refining process had contaminated soil in and around village dwellings. United States. On February 10 the Utah House of Representatives passed a nonbinding resolution that questioned evidence of global warming and urged the EPA to revoke its 2009 endangerment finding, which posited that current and projected levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere posed a threat to human health and welfare. The resolution then went to the state Senate, which passed it on February 26. On February 16 the attorney general of Virginia filed court petitions urging the EPA to reconsider its finding. On September 16 the state of Texas filed four motions aimed at preventing the EPA from implementing the finding as well as rules that followed from it, such as a light-duty ve234

hicle rule. Documents filed by the state explained that the endangerment finding was unsupported because the EPA had outsourced its legally mandated scientific assessment to the IPCC, which had had the objectivity, reliability, and propriety of its scientific assessments called into question. Therefore, Texas maintained, the EPA had used flawed science to conclude that greenhouse gas emissions endangered public health and welfare. Moreover, the state argued, the endangerment finding and ensuing regulations would impose economic harm on employers, workers, and enforcement agencies. On May 12 Senators John Kerry and Joe Lieberman unveiled a bill that proposed to reduce American carbon emissions by 17% by 2020. It also included provisions to ease restrictions on offshore oil drilling imposed earlier in 2010; however, the states could veto drilling proposals if they could prove that drilling would pose an environmental risk. On July 22 Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid acknowledged that the climate bill could not attract sufficient votes to pass during the current session. He proposed to introduce as an alternative more-limited legislation designed to increase energy efficiency in vehicles and tighten regulations on offshore oil exploration. The issue of polar bear protection rose again in December after the U.S. Interior Department defended in federal court its decision to classify the animals as “threatened.” Environmental-

Gulf Oil Spill. The United States faced the worst accidental marine oil spill in history following an explosion on the night of April 20 on the Deepwater Horizon oil rig. The rig, which had been leased by BP from the drilling company Transocean, was carrying out exploratory drilling in the Gulf of Mexico some 60 km (40 mi) off the Louisiana coast. The explosion killed 11 workers and injured 17. After burning for 36 hours, the rig capsized and sank, thereby detaching from the pipe that had linked the rig to the well, approximately 1,500 m (5,000 ft) below the surface. The leaks that resulted eventually released an estimated 4.9 million bbl (206 million gal) of oil. The well’s blowout preventer (BOP), a device designed to cut off the flow of oil in the case of such an accident, failed, so BP proposed drilling a relief well to reduce pressure at the sites of the leaks. Meanwhile, the company brought in more than 30 spill-response vessels and several aircraft to spray chemical dispersants at oil that had reached the surface. BP also enlisted the help of robotic submersibles to discharge dispersants around the leak sites, and it hired local fishers to help enclose the oil slicks with booms. After several attempts to seal the leaks, U.S. Coast Guard Adm. Thad Allen reported on June 8 that the well had been successfully contained and that much of the leaking oil was being pumped to a surface ship. The well was later capped. On August 3 BP began pumping drilling mud into the well through the defective BOP to help seal the well; it then pumped cement to form a plug. Those “static kill” and cementing operations were completed on August 5, and on September 2 the cap was removed, allowing the replacement of the failed BOP. On September 4, with the

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new BOP in place, Admiral Allen announced that the damaged well posed no further risk to the environment. The relief well, which had been drilled some 4 km (2.5 mi) below the seabed, intersected the shaft of the damaged well on September 16, and BP pumped cement into the bottom of the well to seal it permanently. The slick, in the meantime, by April 29 was 32 km (20 mi) from ecologically important wetlands at the mouth of the Mississippi and threatened commercially important shrimping grounds and oyster beds. Oil began to go ashore later that day, and the U.S. Coast Guard started small fires to remove some of the oil. On May 7 oil began to wash ashore on Louisiana’s Chandeleur Islands, an uninhabited chain inside the Breton National Wildlife Refuge, affecting pelicans and other birds; it later reached Dauphin Island, Alabama. An August 4 report by more than 25 scientists for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) stated that almost three-quarters of the leaked oil had been captured or burned off or had dispersed or evaporated. According to the report, the remaining oil was degrading rapidly. By September 3 the cost to BP for responding to the spill had reached $8 billion. The company said that the cost included about $399 million in claims it had paid to those affected by the spill. (See Special Report on page 174.) Climate Change. In December 2009, with no prospect of agreement, U.S. Pres. Barack Obama held bilateral talks with delegates from China, India, Brazil, and South Africa at the 15th Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change in Copenhagen. The talks resulted in the nonbinding Copenhagen Accord, a declaration that was “noted” by other parties to the convention. It stated that reductions in greenhouse gas emissions were required to ensure that global temperatures did not rise by more than 2 °C (3.6 °F), but it proposed no reduction targets. The accord merely affirmed that emissions should peak and then fall as soon as possible, but it set no target dates. Instead, it called on developed countries to register by the end of January 2010 their economy-wide emission targets for 2020. The accord asked less-developed countries (LDCs) to pledge “nationally appropriate mitigation actions” aimed at reducing their emissions to below “business-as-usual” levels—the levels emissions would reach if no actions

were taken to reduce them. By February 1, 55 countries had registered, having largely reiterated positions they had set out earlier. There was no agreement on a successor to the Kyoto Protocol, and the weakness of the Copenhagen Accord reflected the distrust that had emerged between LDCs and developed countries. Further meetings aimed at preparing a successor to the Kyoto Protocol ahead of a summit meeting scheduled for November 29 to December 10 in Cancún, Mex., were held in Bonn, Ger., from May 31 to June 11 and August 2–6. The talks made little progress, however. Air Pollution. A report that the European Environment Agency published on March 3 said that summer smog levels across Europe in 2009 had been among the lowest since reporting of Europe-wide data began in 1997. Onefifth of about 2,000 EU monitoring stations recorded an hourly threshold exceeding 180 g/m3 of ground-level ozone. Ozone concentrations between April and September exceeded the higher threshold of 240 g/m3 in only eight EU countries (Bulgaria, France, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Spain, and the U.K.). In contrast, in March air pollution reached record levels in Hong Kong because sandstorms around Beijing had exacerbated Hong Kong’s smog. Some schools forbade children to play outdoors. On March 22 the air pollution index (API) was 453 at one monitoring station and more than 400 at five others. Recommendations to remain indoors were announced when the API exceeded 200.

AWARDS In June the Asahi Glass Foundation announced that James Hansen of the United States and Robert Watson of the U.K. were the winners of the 2010 Blue Planet Prize. Hansen, director at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies, New York City, was honoured for having predicted global warming and for having warned of its dangers. Watson, chief scientific adviser to the U.K. Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs and science director at the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, University of East Anglia, was recognized for having organized the investigation that found scientific evidence for the depletion of the ozone layer and for his later role as chair of the IPCC. (MICHAEL ALLABY)

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION Biodiversity and its conservation were the prominent environmental themes in 2010. The United Nations dubbed 2010 the International Year of Biodiversity, and the United Nations Environment Programme Convention on Biological Diversity completed an effort designed to reduce the rate of global biodiversity loss between 2002 and 2010. This effort was highlighted in October by the 10th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention in Nagoya, Japan. Despite some local and regional successes, the rate of biodiversity loss worldwide did not slow. A compilation published in April of 31 indicators of progress toward the 2010 target showed, however, that the state of biodiversity had declined, while pressures on biodiversity had increased. Invasive species were but one of several factors that had contributed to the decline of biodiversity. (See Special Report on page 186.) The Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, and the Kew Royal Botanical Gardens, London, announced in September that the global inventory of plants known to science had been cut by more than 600,000 species to approximately 400,000. To support ongoing plant-conservation efforts, the project aimed to provide a definitive working list of all plant species. The effort involved taking records from existing databases to produce a global inventory without duplications and errors. Also in September, the Kew report on the Sampled Red List Index for Plants project, which examined species from each of the five main groups of plants between 2005 and 2010, revealed that 22% of plants were at risk of extinction, with tropical species facing the greatest risk. In March the publication of the Global Forest Resources Assessment by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations showed that deforestation rates had decreased in certain countries, such as Brazil and Indonesia, but persisted at a high rate elsewhere. The reduction in the net global rate of forest loss was attributed to afforestation (planting) and regeneration. The estimated net annual change in forest area from 2000 to 2010 was about –5.3 million ha (1 ha = 2.47 ac), compared with –8.3 million ha between 1990 and 2000. Between 2000 and 2010, South America and Africa experienced the greatest forest loss, while forested area actually increased in Europe. On April 20 a massive explosion aboard the Deepwater Horizon rig off 235

The Environment Charlie Riedel/AP

Courtesy of BP p.l.c.

Oil from the Deepwater Horizon oil rig spill affected wildlife throughout the Gulf of Mexico. Large numbers of birds frequenting the Louisiana coast, such as this brown pelican (left) on East Grand Terre Island, were covered in oil after landing in areas tainted by an expansive slick. Despite the significant loss of marine life in the wake of the Gulf oil spill, several animals, including dozens of pelicans—such as those released by U.S. Fish and Wildlife workers (right) in Aransas Pass, Texas—have been cleaned, rehabilitated, and returned to the wild. the Louisiana coast of the U.S. precipitated the largest oil spill in history. Continuing for three months, the spill caused extensive damage to marine and wildlife habitats in the Gulf of Mexico and placed more than 400 species at risk, including several threatened species of marine turtles. A July report by the American Bird Conservancy noted that some cleanup efforts caused additional harm to birds and their habitats, that cleanup vessels were inadequate and operated in the wrong locations, and that floating booms failed to protect some important bird colonies. (See Special Report on page 174.) In a sign that biodiversity loss was being considered more seriously at international levels, representatives from 85 countries approved the creation of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) in June. The IPBES, modeled on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), was designed to carry out assessments of biodiversity and ecosystem services based on reviews of scientific literature. It was expected to meet for the first time in 2011. Like the IPCC, the IPBES would not recommend courses of action, but it would provide authoritative and unbiased summaries of biodiversity and ecosystem issues. Whaling nations and their opponents failed to compromise at the International Whaling Commission’s annual meeting in June. The compromise 236

would have put whaling by Iceland, Japan, and Norway under international oversight for 10 years. The draft proposal of the agreement worried Latin American countries because it legitimized scientific whaling in the Southern Ocean by Japan and did not call for a substantial reduction in catch. The key stumbling block for Japan was the demand by the European Union and Latin American countries that its Antarctic whaling program end within a set time frame. About 400 years ago, beavers (Castor fiber) in the U.K. were hunted to extinction. In 2010 the first beavers born in the wild since the reintroduction of 11 animals from Norway to Scotland in 2009 were observed in a Scottish forest. At least two kits belonging to two settled family groups were seen in Knapdale Forest in Argyll. Both beaver families built their own lodges, and one family built a dam to access better food supplies. In September a project to rediscover amphibian species thought to be extinct, organized by Robin Moore of Conservation International, yielded its first results. Conservationists found live specimens in the Democratic Republic of the Congo of the Omaniundu reed frog (Hyperolius sankuruensis), which had last been seen in 1979. The Mount Nimba reed frog (H. nimbae), which had been lost since 1967, was discovered in Côte d’Ivoire, and the cavedwelling splayfoot salamander (Chiropterotriton mosaueri), which had last

been seen in 1941, was located in Mexico. The expeditions collectively aimed to find out whether 100 species thought to be extinct were in fact still alive. Results of a three-year study published in September demonstrated that the reintroduction of wolves (Canis lupus) to Yellowstone National Park in the U.S. did not contribute to the recovery of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), a tree under threat from elk (Cervus elaphus). Matthew Kauffman of the U.S. Geological Survey and colleagues discovered that predation by wolves had not deterred elk from eating young trees. It had been expected that elk would eventually learn to avoid areas in which wolves were found. As a result, plants in those areas would grow without being eaten, and habitat would regenerate over the long term. While elk numbers did decline, a noticeable change in their foraging behaviour was not observed. In 2010 three of the four populations of Saiga tatarica tatarica, the largest and most endangered of the two subspecies of the saiga antelope, suffered separate catastrophes. The decline in the Pre-Caspian population in Russia was caused by the hard winter of 2009–10, and the Ural population in western Kazakhstan was hit by a mass mortality event in May, in which roughly 12,000 died within a few days. In addition, the Ustyurt population shared between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan showed a 47% decline since 2009. (MARTIN FISHER)

Fashions fashion receded into the background somewhat, while Prada prints, RUFFLES, pastels, and overtly feminine collections took centre stage; LOW-KEY GLAMOUR emerged in 2010 in response to the DIFFICULT ECONOMIC TIMES. CELEBRITY-DRIVEN

nated, from the standout item in the Stella McCartney spring-summer collection—a knee-length finely pleated red cocktail dress, featuring billowing ruffles adorning its off-the-shoulder neckline—to the fit-and-flare 1950s-inspired silhouette typified by the Prada Print Collection. This capsule line of silk and cotton sundresses bearing vintage Prada prints was launched by actress Carey Mulligan. Circle skirts also den May 2010 at the Cannes film brocade “pouf skirt” minidress and scended from wasp-waist dresses at the festival opening-night premiere, sweeping “monastic” gowns. They were 2010 autumn-winter show that Marc Jaa silver eagle swept across the critically acclaimed after they were dis- cobs presented for Louis Vuitton. bodice of the black off-the-shoul- played at an intimate March presentaAt the 2010 spring-summer Chanel der Alexander McQueen gown tion staged at PPR’s Paris headquarters. couture collection, Karl Lagerfeld inflaunted on the red carpet by actress Meanwhile, the coming of spring un- troduced a light-hearted spirit with his Cate Blanchett. McQueen reportedly leashed a plethora of upbeat trends. influential pastel colour palette, which had “handpicked” the dramatic number Overtly feminine fashions predomi- he offset with “cartoonish” bouffant for her, and the public display of wigs. It was the first time in his this spectacular piece was the entire career that he had introfirst of several sartorial tributes Three months after the February death of designer duced a collection without black paid throughout the year to the Alexander McQueen, actress Cate Blanchett, at the or navy. For Chanel’s 2010 auBritish fashion maverick whose Cannes film festival in France, flaunts a gown tumn-winter collection, however, tragic suicide in February proved featuring a bird from his pre-autumn 2010 he returned to his signature the year’s most significant oc- collection. dark colour palette; the backcurrence. Though the uplifting drop was an iceberg imported avian motif emblazoned on from Scandinavia, and against it Blanchett’s dress symbolized the Lagerfeld displayed mostly positive mood that prevailed black, white, and brown modthroughout the fashion industry ernized Chanel classics with huin 2010, McQueen’s sudden passmorous faux-fur accoutrements, ing cast a temporary pall over it. including “igloo-shaped capes, His death, which occurred a day bonnets, even . . . furry trousers.” before New York City’s MerBold patterns—which British cedes-Benz Fashion Week kicked Vogue described as “notice me off the international round prints”—also struck a chord, inof autumn-winter ready-to-wear cluding Moschino’s oversized shows, shocked and saddened cherry emblems (which Leighton those attendees who had chamMeester flaunted on the televipioned him. (See OBITUARIES.) sion show Gossip Girl), Prada’s A day after McQueen’s death exotic palm-tree print, and the was publicly announced, London exuberant abstract florals masdepartment stores Liberty, Selfterminded by Erdem Moralioglu. ridges, and Harvey Nichols reIn April the London-based Canaported that his signature skull dian designer was the recipient scarves, rings, expensive clothof the inaugural British Fashion ing, and handbags were “flying Council/Vogue Designer Fashion off the shelves.” As a result, Fund. Composed of a grant of rather than shutter McQueen’s £200,000 (£1 = about $1.54) plus eponymous brand, its owner, mentoring support, it was PPR, the French multinational awarded to Moralioglu by a holding company, appointed Mcgroup of British fashion industry Queen’s former “right hand” and titans that included Sir Paul women’s wear designer Sarah Smith and Sir Philip Green, the Burton as its creative director. billionaire proprietor of retail Burton successfully completed conglomerate Arcadia. McQueen’s 2010 autumn-winter Fashion success stories made collection and its 16 ornate statepositive news. The Guardian ment pieces—including a gilded newspaper in London noted that

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At Paris Fashion Week in March, models exhibit creations from Karl Lagerfeld’s autumn-winter 2010–11 ready-to-wear collection for Chanel; an imported iceberg served as the spectacular backdrop. Francois Mori/AP

the buoyant performance of Uniqlo, the affordable Japanese brand purveying bargain-priced luxuries, such as vibrantly hued cashmere sweaters, made its owner Tadashi Yanai the richest person in Japan, with a fortune estimated at $9.2 billion. Natalie Massenet, the executive chairman of Net-A-Porter, the online luxury clothing and accessories retailer, made a personal profit calculated at £50 million as the Swiss luxury group Richemont paid £350 million to acquire the 67% stake in the company that it did not already own. The French government recognized Ralph Lauren’s contribution to fashion and philanthropy by awarding him the Chevalier de la Legion d’Honneur, the highest decoration in France. Lauren also opened his third Paris store, which was housed in a restored Left Bank Louis XV hôtel particulier. It was equipped with Lauren’s first European restaurant, a 128-seat bistro serving folksy American fare, such as cheeseburgers and meatloaf. Phoebe Philo, the creative director of Céline, forged what Women’s Wear Daily dubbed a “new identity” for the venerable French luxury brand. Louis Vuitton Moët Hennessy (LVMH) had acquired the French luxury goods house in 1996, 51 years after it was founded by Céline Vipiana. The Céline brand had been operating quietly since 2004, when Michael Kors departed after a successful seven-year tenure as creative director. Philo, the former creative director of Chloé, was consulting for the Gap clothing retailer upon her appointment to Céline and to conjure its new direction, she seemingly merged 238

the mass-market American retail chain’s casual sensibility with Céline’s heritage of sophistication. Philo described Céline’s sharply tailored springsummer wardrobe as “a kind of contemporary minimalism.” Such staples as fine-leather T-shirts and T-shirt dresses; crisp white piqué cotton collarless shirts; stirrup trousers; and linen separates were all interpreted in a “restrained” colour palette of camel, beige, black, and white. The luxuriant subtlety of her Céline designs initiated a streamlined simplicity that was in sync with the luxury consumer’s demand for low-key glamour appropriate for the more sober economic era. While Celine’s distribution “jumped” in the U.S. from one client to nearly 40 prestige department stores—including Barneys New York, Bergdorf Goodman, and Saks Fifth Avenue—the khaki-andbeige shade it introduced was instantly copied and factored into both the spring-summer and the autumn-winter collections produced by Louis Vuitton, Max Mara, Stella McCartney, Chloé, and Uniqlo. American Vogue labeled Céline’s “pared down” square-shaped “Classic Box” handbag as spring’s “must-have,” and a wood-heeled wedge clog became another essential and was produced in an affordable variation by footwear retailers. In May, French actress Juliette Binoche generated more positive press coverage for Céline by wearing an offwhite strapless silk crepe gown custom made by Philo as she accepted the Palme d’Or best actress prize at Cannes. Riccardo Tisci, artistic director of Givenchy, also emerged as “part of the firmament of designers who set the

fashion agenda.” This development was noted in a lengthy feature about him in the September W magazine. (The issue marked the debut of Stefano Tonchi, W’s new editor in chief.) Sally Singer assumed Tonchi’s former role as editor of T: The New York Times Style Magazine. In his five years at LVMH, Tisci had succeeded in reviving the venerable couture house (after a trio of his predecessors had failed), even though the 36-year-old designer’s dramatic gothic signature contrasted starkly with the demure image forged for the brand by its esteemed founder, Hubert de Givenchy. Nevertheless, Tisci’s autumn-winter ready-to-wear designs, such as sharp trouser suits— executed for men and women in red, leopard print, and black—as well as Alpine print knitwear, proved soughtafter and were also swiftly copied by fast-fashion chains such as Topshop and BCBG, which created inexpensive mass-produced variations. Designer Zac Posen (see BIOGRAPHIES) declared that he was finished dressing New York socialites and earned rave reviews during the year for his modestly priced new line for Saks Fifth Avenue, Z Spoke, and his bridge line, Zac Posen for Target. Zoë Saldana, the actress who portrayed Neytiri in James Cameron’s blockbuster film Avatar, wore a sparkling, flowing Givenchy strapless dress featuring a sweeping skirt of “spiral cut” organza “sprays” during her turn as an Academy Awards presenter. The creation was the glamorous grand-finale piece of Tisci’s acclaimed Givenchy 2010 spring-summer couture show. Tisci also succeeded in forming a “tribe,” a term W used to describe the high-profile personalities with whom he socialized and gave his clothes. A designer’s entourage traditionally enhanced the desirability of his or her work, and Tisci’s group included performance artist Marina Abramovic (see BIOGRAPHIES), as well as singer Courtney Love and actress Liv Tyler, who both attended the Givenchy June dinner he hosted to close Abramovic’s New York Museum of Modern Art retrospective. The most-talked-about member of Tisci’s group was Lea T. This Brazilian transsexual, formerly known as Leandro Cerezo, served as Tisci’s personal assistant and fitting model at Givenchy. Lea T appeared in Givenchy’s autumn-winter advertising campaign and was described as fashion’s “first transsexual model” after having posed naked in the August issue of Paris

Fashions Jim Ruymen—UPI/Landov

Vogue, in which she credited Tisci for instigating her sex change. Lara Stone—the voluptuous blond model who was ranked as the world’s number one female fashion model by models.com—also wore a corseted Givenchy couture wedding gown embellished with hand-embroidered lace when she married comedian David Walliams in London in May. A month later Calvin Klein signed an exclusive deal with Stone. She was appointed the brand’s “face” and appeared in three global autumn advertising campaigns: for the signature Calvin Klein collection, ck Calvin Klein, and Calvin Klein Jeans. The Calvin Klein Jeans image was banned in Sydney and Melbourne, however, because, after receiving 50 complaints, Australia’s Advertising Standards Bureau decided that it was “suggestive of violence and rape.” Stone also replaced actress Eva Mendes, the former face of Calvin Klein Jeans, a move that suggested that the supremacy of Hollywood celebrities was waning in the fashion world.

Riccardo Tisci brought a dramatic look to his autumn-winter 2010–11 women’s ready-to-wear collection for Givenchy with this bright-coloured trouser suit.

Avant-garde blogs—such as photographer Tommy Ton’s Jak and Jil—elevated a new group of artfully dressed fashion personalities to renown, including Italian Vogue’s Giovanna Battaglia and Japanese Vogue’s fashion director Anna dello Russo. Launching her own blog, flamboyant dello Russo—who appeared on the November cover of 10 Magazine— received 200,000 monthly hits, and in November H&M made a request on her blog for dello Russo to model the first samples of its hotly anticipated limitededition Lanvin collection. The New York Times described Olivier Zahm as a “demi-celebrity”—attributing his high profile to the overt sexuality characterizing the images he captured for his fashion magazine Purple and Web site purple-diary.com. Meanwhile, Daphne Guinness appeared in an autumn advertising campaign for François Nars, promoting the cosmetic brand’s “Daphne” eyeshadow, which she inspired. Guinness, an Irish brewery heiress famed for her patronage of haute couture, also made headlines in June by purchasing the groundbreaking wardrobe assembled by her dear friend the late fashion muse Isabella Blow and thus halting its planned sale at Christie’s auction house to settle debts on Blow’s estate. Fashion icon Lady Gaga (see BIOGRAPHIES), who received eight honours at September’s MTV Video Music Awards, provoked an outcry from the People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) as she accepted the honours while brandishing the “Meat Dress.” The ensemble was conceived by Los Angeles designer Franc Fernandez from “cuts of beef” and assembled by Nicola Formichetti, Lady Gaga’s stylist. Throughout the year the music industry inspired the fashion world. On April 22 Gucci opened a temporary “pop up” Gucci Icon boutique in London, selling limited-edition men’s sneakers conceived by the British-born disc jockey and music producer Mark Ronson. Glamorous Life—a vinyl album featuring tracks by Chauffeur, a 1980s-inspired group Ronson assembled for the collaboration—was sold with every pair of shoes. Georgia May Jagger, aged 18, the youngest daughter of Rolling Stones front man Mick Jagger and model Jerry Hall, appeared in the spring-summer Versace advertising campaign as well as Chanel’s Christmastime ads. In September the denim label Hudson launched a co-branded line of jeans designed by Georgia May. Model and TV presenter Alexa Chung, girlfriend of Alex Turner of the rock band Arctic

Provocative pop star Lady Gaga poses in a dress fashioned out of raw meat at the MTV Video Music Awards in Los Angeles on September 12. Monkeys, produced a collection of shorts, blazers, and party dresses for J Crew’s Madewell line. The collection was inspired by her tomboyish style. Madonna launched Material Girl, a junior fashion label she “co-designed” with Lourdes Leon, her 13-year-old daughter. The range of affordable casuals—produced in black, white, and grey—included T-shirts, leggings, and minis as well as special “wow” items, such as studded leather jackets and crinoline dresses. The collection was sold at 200 Macy’s stores across the U.S. Madonna “hand-picked” Taylor Momsen, the 17-year-old star of Gossip Girl and lead singer of the rock band the Pretty Reckless as the star of the advertising campaign. Besides McQueen, three other key British style figures died during the year. They included fashion icon Malcolm McLaren (see OBITUARIES), the former partner of designer Vivienne Westwood and manager of the punk rock band the Sex Pistols; author and notoriously decadent dandy Sebastian Horsley; and photographer Corinne Day, whose gritty fashion images of model Kate Moss heralded the early 1990s “heroin chic” grunge movement. (BRONWYN COSGRAVE)

Gonzalo Fuentes—Reuters/Landov

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Health and Disease Optimism about the potential for an effective AIDS VACCINE soared; the global fight against POLIO met with mixed success; CHOLERA infected thousands in earthquake-ravaged Haiti; the benefits of PROPHYLACTIC MASTECTOMY were questioned; and researchers published the results of the largest analysis to date of genetic factors linked to HEART DISEASE.

and protect themselves against HIV infection. Researchers also found that girls could be protected against HIV infection by being lifted from poverty. Impoverished African schoolgirls were less likely to have sex, and thus less likely to become infected with HIV, if they and their families received small monthly payments. A study conducted in Malawi concluded that the girls would be less likely to offer sex in exchange for gifts or money if they received the monthly cash payments from a program sponsored by the World Bank. Efforts to develop an AIDS vaccine reIV and AIDS. While re- (CAPRISA). Though further study was ceived a boost after scientists identified searchers in 2010 re- needed to confirm the results, re- antibodies that were able to destroy ported progress in the searchers and public health officials more than 90% of the strains of the treatment and prevention were encouraged because the use of virus. Researchers from the U.S. Naof AIDS—from a promis- such a gel could represent the first time tional Institute of Allergy and Infecing new vaccine to a preventative vagi- that women would be able to control tious Diseases reported that the natunal gel—drug-resistant strains of rally occurring antibodies could HIV threatened to create a new A three-dimensional X-ray crystallographic image lead to the development of new set of challenges for the world showing a broadly neutralizing antibody (green) treatments. HIV was immune to health community. A study pub- bound to a vaccine target (yellow) on the surface of nearly all existing vaccines, lished online in January in the an HIV molecule (red). which were often made with anjournal Science raised concerns tibodies, because it could mutate that a flood of new infections and continue infecting cells, decould occur in the next few years spite increased concentrations of owing to strains of drug-resistant HIV-attacking antibodies in the HIV originating from San Franbody. The newly identified anticisco. Researchers from the Cenbodies, known as “broadly neuter for Biomedical Modeling at tralizing,” however, were able to the University of California, Los bind to a part of the virus that Angeles, reported that many rarely mutates and thus were drug-resistant strains that had more effective in killing it than evolved from San Francisco were were other types of antibody. Afmore easily transmitted from ter reporting the results online person to person. The study’s auin the journal Science, the lead thors were also concerned that researcher said, “I am more opdrug-resistance levels could sigtimistic about an AIDS vaccine nificantly increase in many at this point in time than I have African countries, where treatbeen probably in the last 10 ment was relatively recent comyears.” pared with the U.S. and Europe. Polio. Outbreaks of polio in AnScientists working in sub-Sahagola and the Republic of the ran Africa reported that HIV inCongo threatened to spread to fection rates among women and parts of those countries that had girls could be significantly rebeen free of the disease. In Anduced through the use of a vagigola, where 29 cases were renal microbicidal gel. The gel, ported during the year, the govwhich contains an antiretroviral ernment responded with an medication known as tenofovir, emergency campaign to vaccireduced rates of infection by nate all children under age five. 54% when used regularly. The Angola’s polio outbreak began in study was conducted over the 2007 but had not been under course of two and a half years by control owing to poor vaccinathe Centre for the AIDS Program tion campaigns, according to the of Research in South Africa Global Polio Eradication Initia-

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Health and Disease Ramon Espinosa/AP

tive. In some areas more than one-third of the children had missed out on receiving oral vaccinations. In Congo an outbreak of an imported strain of the virus had left more than 200 people dead by early December. The outbreaks in Angola and Congo were the only ones spreading within the continent at the time. Outside Africa an outbreak hit the country of Tajikistan, where 458 cases had been reported by December. There was progress in controlling polio elsewhere, however. In Nigeria, for example, over the course of 2010, polio cases dropped by more than 99%— from 384 to 11. Two polio-endemic states in India, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, had not reported any cases for more than six months. Still, global polio-eradication efforts were hampered by a lack of funds, according to officials. A strategic plan for 2010–12 was $1.3 billion short of its needed funding. The shortfall led to a 25% reduction in disease surveillance and immunization campaigns. Globally, the number of new polio cases as of Dec. 28, 2010, was 908. In 2009 there were 1,531 cases. Successful eradication campaigns in Nigeria and India were responsible for the drop. Ebola. An experimental vaccine tested in monkeys was found to be effective against three strains of the deadly Ebola virus. Researchers at the Vaccine Research Center at the U.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases reported that the vaccinated monkeys showed no signs of the disease after being exposed to the three strains of the virus. In contrast, monkeys that were exposed to the strains of virus but that were not vaccinated developed the signs and symptoms typical of Ebola. The researchers said that they still needed to understand how and why the vaccine was effective before they could begin work on a vaccine that afforded protection against all five strains of the virus. Tuberculosis. In 2010 cases of drug-resistant tuberculosis reached record levels worldwide, with some regions reporting that one in four people infected could not be treated with standard medications. WHO reported that the multidrug-resistant form of the disease (MDR-TB) had affected nearly half a million people, with an estimated 50% of the cases in China and India. The highest level of drug-resistant infection occurred in northwestern Russia, where 28% of those newly diagnosed had MDR-TB. In Africa 69,000 cases were documented. The statistics were based on cases reported in 2008, the

Patients in St. Marc, Haiti, suffering from cholera symptoms are helped by other residents as they wait for treatment at St. Nicholas Hospital, which was overwhelmed with new arrivals. latest year for which numbers were available, and were published in a WHO report titled Multidrug and Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis: 2010 Global Report on Surveillance and Response. Whereas the number of tuberculosis cases grew in some regions, WHO reported declining rates of infection in Estonia and Latvia, as well as in Orel and Tomsk, two regions in the Russian Federation. Cholera. About 10 months after it was hit by a deadly earthquake, Haiti experienced a cholera outbreak, and health officials feared that the disease would continue to spread in early 2011. More than 1,400 people were reported to have died, and by late fall 2010 an estimated 34,000 had been hospitalized with the disease. Health officials believed that the outbreak was centred near St. Marc, a city 97 km (60 mi) north of Port-au-Prince. Cases later emerged, however, in the capital city, as well as in other rural areas. Health officials were investigating whether the outbreak had been caused by unsanitary conditions in tent cities, where an estimated 1.5 million people who were displaced by the earthquake lived. A natural disaster in Pakistan, this time flooding, was thought to have been responsible for a cholera outbreak there as well. The Ministry of Health reported about 100 cases in regions affected by the flood, including Sindh, Punjab, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces.

Malaria. Flooding in Pakistan was also linked to an outbreak of malaria in rural areas where millions of displaced people were exposed to mosquitoes because of poor shelter and living conditions. WHO reported that more than 300,000 malaria cases had emerged between July and October, when flooding began. Malaria was endemic in some areas of rural Pakistan, and the number of cases typically peaked in these areas at two different times each year— August and October. Health officials, however, said that the number of malaria cases in rural Pakistan in 2010 was slightly higher than usual and that the increase could be attributed to flood-related problems, including large amounts of stagnant water, which provides a breeding ground for mosquitoes. An outbreak of malaria was also reported in neighbouring India in October. At that time an epidemic there had given rise to more than 600 new cases of the disease, most of which were confirmed in rural areas and were associated with heavy rains and flooding. The cases were mostly in the Bhattu Kalan, Ratia, and Tohana areas of the Fatehabad district in the northwestern region of the country. (See MAP on page 446.) Researchers reported that a new drug used to treat the most severe cases of malaria lowered death rates by nearly 23% compared with standard treatment. The drug, called artesunate, was found to work better than quinine, the drug 241

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most commonly used to treat malaria. The study, published in the British medical journal The Lancet, recommended that artesunate be the drug of choice for children and adults worldwide, which could save thousands of lives. An earlier study had found that for people with severe malaria, those treated with artesunate had a lower death rate than those treated with quinine. Dengue Fever. An outbreak of dengue fever in the Caribbean led to an estimated 17,000 cases of the disease and more than 30 deaths, most of which occurred in the Dominican Republic. Health officials in the U.S. were concerned that the disease could reach the country after five people on the Florida island of Key West had confirmed cases of the virus. Warm weather and an early flooding season were thought to have been responsible for the spread of the mosquito-borne disease. Puerto Rico and Trinidad and Tobago saw increases in reported cases, as did French Guiana, Guadeloupe, and Saint-Martin. Hepatitis C. An increasing rate of hepatitis C infections in Egypt, which already had the highest incidence of the disease in the world, raised major concerns about the inability of the country’s existing control efforts to stem the spread of the disease. Researchers reported that 500,000 new cases of the disease occurred each year in the country, which was home to about 80 million people. Nearly one out of every 10 people there was infected. A study released by the National Academy of Sciences in the U.S. suggested that the infections were the result of poor hygiene and inadequate medical care. The virus could trigger liver failure and cirrhosis of the liver. Many people who are infected do not realize that they have the disease until symptoms appear. Cancer. While a growing number of women at high risk of breast cancer decided to have their breasts removed as a preventative measure (prophylactic mastectomy), two studies released in 2010 concluded that there was little or no benefit associated with this extreme procedure. One study, published online in February in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute, found that those who were likely to benefit from prophylactic mastectomy often were under age 50 and had early-stage breast cancers known as estrogen-receptor-negative cancers. These cancers, which affected a very small percentage of women, carried a poor prognosis because they did not require estrogen to grow. According to the second study, 242

women with two specific genetic mutations that predisposed them to breast cancer who elected to have their breasts removed as a preventative measure neither lived longer nor experienced reduced odds of disease occurrence when compared with women who carried these same mutations but did not have their breasts removed. The findings, reported by researchers at the Erasmus University Medical Centre in Rotterdam, Neth., were released at the European Breast Cancer Conference in Barcelona in March. The genetic mutations, in the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2, were known to significantly increase the risk of breast cancer. For women who carried these mutations, understanding the risks and benefits of prophylactic mastectomy was vitally important. Another study released at the conference in Europe found that women who chose preventative mastectomies said that they did not fully understand the risks and that they believed they were reducing their chances of developing breast cancer by electing to have the surgery. One of the largest and most comprehensive studies of cell-phone use and brain tumours drew controversy and confusion over the mixed results of its findings. The study, which covered a 10-year period and included cell-phone users in 13 countries, found inconclusive evidence that cell-phone use was linked to the development of glioma and meningioma, the two most common types of brain tumour. The study, however, did find that people who were considered “heavy users”—those spending an average of 30 minutes per day on their cell phones and having used the phones for 10 years—had a slightly increased risk of tumour development compared with non-cell-phone users. The study was coordinated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer and published in the International Journal of Epidemiology. The study joined a number of previously published investigations of possible links between cell-phone use and brain tumours, and according to the National Cancer Institute, the majority of these studies had not found any association. Cardiovascular Disease. In 2010 an international team of researchers published the largest analysis to date of genetic factors connected to heart attack and coronary artery disease. The project, called the Coronary Artery Disease Genome-Wide Replication and MetaAnalysis (CARDIoGRAM) study, published the results of its first comprehensive analysis on genetics and heart

disease in August in the journal Circulation: Cardiovascular Genetics. In the paper the team described the discovery of several genetic mutations that play a role in heart disease. One of these mutations was shown to increase the risk of heart attack by as much as 29%. The researchers identified these mutations during their search for genetic variants known to lead to disease or to increase susceptibility to a disease. The analysis was drawn from data in every published whole-genome study that had examined genetic mutations in heart attack or coronary artery disease risk. The researchers focused their study on people of European descent. They identified 22,000 individuals who had heart disease or who had experienced heart attacks and compared the genes of these individuals against the genes of 60,000 control subjects. The number of people included in the study was more than 10 times the number of the nextlargest such study. By pooling more international data together in future analyses, the researchers hoped to make new discoveries about genetic factors that contribute to cardiovascular disease. The team planned to examine tens of thousands of wholegenome studies in their future work. In 2010 there emerged the strongest evidence yet that air pollution was a significant risk factor in heart attack and stroke. The American Heart Association (AHA) released a warning that people who were already at high risk of cardiovascular “events” should limit their exposure. The warning was published in Circulation: Journal of the American Heart Association, as an update to a 2004 scientific statement on air pollution. Since the association’s original statement, many studies had confirmed and strengthened the findings. The AHA published a comprehensive view of the latest studies to support its statement. For susceptible people, exposure to fine particulate matter can trigger heart attack, stroke, and irregular heartbeat. Long-term exposure to high concentrations of pollution can contribute to heart disease and reduce life expectancy. Fine particulate matter, which comes from the burning of fossil fuels, carries the highest risk factor. “Particulate matter appears to directly increase risk by triggering events in susceptible individuals within hours to days of an increased level of exposure, even among those who otherwise may have been healthy for years,” according to the lead author of the AHA’s report.

Health and Disease

Vaccines. There were several major developments in the ongoing controversy over whether childhood immunization vaccinations could cause autism. In February the highly regarded British medical journal The Lancet officially retracted a study published in 1998 that frightened some parents into withholding measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccinations from their children because they believed that it could lead to autism. The study was criticized as being poorly designed and conducted when it was originally published, and 10 of the 13 coauthors had withdrawn their support of the work. In May Polish researchers published a study that found no link between the measles vaccine and autism. The study concluded that regardless of whether vaccines against measles were given alone or as part of the MMR vaccine, children were not at any greater risk of autism than if they had not been vaccinated. In the absence of vaccination, however, these children were at significantly higher risk of infection with the measles virus. Adding to the growing body of evidence refuting a link between vaccines and autism, an American research team provided a further conclusion that the vaccine preservative thimerosal, which contains trace

amounts of mercury, did not heighten the risk of autism, as some had feared. The supposed autism-vaccination link also was to be considered indirectly by the U.S. Supreme Court, which agreed to hear a case that addressed vaccine safety and manufacturer liability. In the late 1980s the U.S. established a system by which victims could be compensated by companies if the victims had suffered from complications and injuries that had been officially recognized as being caused by vaccinations. This system, known as vaccine court, considered compensation claims. Because the vaccine-autism link had not been established, however, hundreds of lawsuits seeking compensation for people afflicted with autism were at issue. A new vaccine for men suffering from advanced prostate cancer was approved for use in April by the FDA. Early studies revealed that the vaccine, Provenge (sipuleucel-T), had few side effects and extended the lives of those who received it. Provenge was a therapeutic vaccine intended to prevent the spread of the disease without the often-difficult side effects that were triggered by chemotherapy or radiation treatments. It was approved for use in those whose cancer had spread and was resistant or unresponsive to hormone therapy. The

A patient with advanced prostate cancer undergoes treatment in August with Provenge (sipuleucel-T) at the American Red Cross in Dedham, Mass. The $93,000 treatment added about four months to the lives of those with incurable tumours.

manufacturer of the vaccine, Dendreon, paid for the study that examined survival rates. The results were published in The New England Journal of Medicine. In early December the first vaccine to provide sustained immunity against Neisseria meningitidis serogroup A was made available to people living in Africa’s “meningitis belt”—countries across north-central sub-Saharan Africa that were heavily affected by infectious meningococcal meningitis. The serogroup A bacteria were implicated in some 90% of outbreaks in the meningitis belt. Pharmaceuticals. A drug known as rosiglitazone (Avandia), which was widely used to treat diabetes, was taken off the market in Europe and its use severely restricted in the U.S. after studies revealed that it could increase the risk of heart attack or stroke. According to one study, from 1999 to 2009 the drug caused an estimated 47,000 people to suffer from heart attack, heart failure, stroke, or death. While sales of the drug were suspended in Europe, patients in the U.S. were allowed to continue using Avandia only if their prescribing physicians could attest that no other drug worked and that the patients understood the risk. Use was also restricted to patients with type 2 diabetes and those already taking the drug. The FDA ordered the drugmaker, GlaxoSmithKline, to submit its clinical trial data for independent review. The European Medicines Agency said that it would continue to ban the sale of the drug until new evidence showed that the drug’s benefits outweighed its risks. Alzheimer Disease. As the incidence of Alzheimer disease continued to increase worldwide, the cost of caring for those afflicted rose to an estimated $604 billion annually and was likely to increase another 85% by 2030, according to the World Alzheimer Report 2010, released in September by Alzheimer’s Disease International. The report stated that the cost of caring for patients with Alzheimer disease represented about 1% of the world’s GDP. This figure included the cost of medical care, residential care, social services, and even unpaid care from family and friends for patients with Alzheimer disease and related dementias. The low- and middleincome countries were expected to see higher costs more quickly, since a dramatic increase in the number of dementia cases in those areas was anticipated in the coming years. The author (continued on page 245)

Elise Amendola/AP

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The Provisions of the Landmark 2010 U.S. Health Care Reform Legislation After decades of discussion and sometimes venomous disagreements and a year of rancorous and polarizing debate, both in Washington and across the United States, the U.S. Congress narrowly enacted the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, the most far-reaching health care reform since the passage of Medicare in 1965. The measure, which was followed by a separately signed reconciliation package, was a centrepiece of Pres. Barack Obama’s domestic agenda, but passage of the 2,074-page bill did not come easily. Soon after his inauguration in early 2009, President Obama called for quick action by Congress, citing a century of failed health care reform efforts. He did not spell out a plan of his own but instead left that to the lawmakers. What ensued was a wrenching roller-coaster ride during which Congress held virtually nonstop debates, local town-hall meetings rang with acrimony, and five congressional committees passed three separate versions of comprehensive reform. In March 2010, just as the historic measure teetered on the brink of defeat, Obama and Democratic leaders, notably Majority Leader Harry Reid in the Senate and Speaker of the House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi, mounted an all-out last-ditch campaign, followed by legislative maneuvering that resulted in passage of reform without the support of a single Republican member of Congress. The final legislation would extend coverage to some 32 million additional Americans by 2019, leaving about 6% of legal residents uninsured, according to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). The overhaul would require most individuals to secure health insurance or pay fines, make coverage easier and less costly to obtain, crack down on abusive practices of insurers, and, its backers hoped, start to rein in the relentless rise of health care costs. It did not, however, create what many advocates had wanted most—a single-payer system or a federal government-run insurance option. Instead, there would be new state-run health insurance marketplaces called exchanges. The CBO estimated that the plan would cost $938 billion over the next 10 years but would reduce the budget deficit by $143 billion in that period and by another $1.2 trillion over the following decade. The sweeping changes would be paid for primarily by savings in Medicare, new approaches to health care generally, and new taxes on wealthy Americans and on high-priced workplace insurance policies. While some provisions of the new law would not take full effect for several years, many began in 2010. These included: • Insurance plans no longer were able to deny coverage of preexisting conditions in children, nor could insurance providers put a lifetime limit on payouts. People who were uninsured because of preexisting conditions could get insurance through a temporary high-risk pool. • Within six months of the bill’s signing, all existing health plans and any new ones were required to cover dependent children of policyholders until age 26. • The “doughnut hole” gap in Medicare coverage for prescription drugs would start to be closed and would be entirely wiped out by

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2020. Medicare recipients who reached the gap in 2010 would receive a $250 rebate, and seniors were promised discounts on brand-name drugs in future years. • Private insurance plans were required to offer minimum packages of benefits that would be determined by the federal government. Several additional changes were slated to phase in starting in 2014, including: • Most Americans would be required to have a minimum level of health insurance or pay a penalty starting at $95 a year. Individuals and households below the tax-filing threshold would be among those exempt. • By 2014 states would have to create health insurance exchanges that would be open to people who did not have coverage through their job and to employers with 100 or fewer workers. To help lowand middle-income Americans (those with annual incomes up to $43,320 for individuals and $88,200 for a family of four) buy insurance at exchanges, the government would provide tax credits for premiums and out-of-pocket costs. • An estimated 16 million uninsured people would become eligible for Medicaid, the federal-state program for the poor. This included anyone earning less than 133% of the poverty level ($29,327 a year for a family of four). From 2014 to 2016, as this provision took effect, the federal government would foot the entire bill for newly insured recipients, but the federal share would gradually decrease to about 90%. Washington paid an average of 57% of Medicaid costs in 2009. • Although businesses would not absolutely have to offer health insurance to employees, those with 50 or more workers would be assessed a penalty starting in 2014 if they did not offer benefits and if any of their workers bought subsidized coverage through the new exchanges. Two controversial limitations were imposed on the use of federal money under the reform law. Federal funds could not be used for abortions except in the case of rape or incest or if the life of the pregnant woman was in danger. Meanwhile, illegal immigrants would not be able to buy insurance from subsidized exchanges even if they paid the full cost themselves. To finance the health care overhaul, several new fees and taxes would be levied. An excise tax would be imposed on the most expensive employer-sponsored health insurance plans (those with premiums costing more than $10,200 for individuals and $27,500 for families). Beginning in 2013, the Medicare payroll tax would be increased from 1.45% to 2.35% for high-salaried employees, who also would have to pay a new 3.8% tax on unearned income, including stock dividends and capital gains. Meanwhile, the reform sought to start reducing health care costs by rewarding doctors for keeping patients healthy rather than just treating them when they became sick. Other provisions were designed to cut expenditures by encouraging money-saving innovations in Medicare and by reducing some Medicare benefits, especially those paid by government-subsidized private Medicare Advantage plans. (DAVID M. MAZIE)

Health and Disease

million people had been infected since tinued to decrease in 2010, particularly of the report urged governments around the outbreak’s start in April 2009. The in less-developed countries (LDCs) the world to develop new policies and update also indicated that between where improvements in health care national plans to deal with dementia. 8,870 and 18,300 Americans died as a had contributed to progress in treating An American study found that blacks result of infection with the H1N1 in- many childhood diseases. A report and Hispanics had the highest risk of de- fluenza virus. The death toll, however, published in The Lancet estimated the veloping Alzheimer disease. Relative to was less than reported in previous number of deaths at 7.7 million in whites, blacks were about twice as likely years from other strains of the flu. In 2010, compared with 11.9 million in and Hispanics about one and a half fact, each year in the U.S., seasonal in- 1990 and 16 million in 1970. The detimes as apt to develop the disease, ac- fluenza claimed the lives of about cline was even more marked than cording to 2010 Alzheimer’s Disease 36,000 people, on average. For the researchers had anticipated, owing Facts and Figures, a report released by H1N1 strain, however, far more people largely to improved research and the Alzheimer’s Association in March. were hospitalized following infection analysis. The study, conducted by reOne of the reasons for this dissearchers at the Institute for parity in risk, the report dis- Barbara Walton—EPA/Landov Health Metrics and Evaluation closed, was that blacks and Hisat the University of Washington, panics were more vulnerable to found that increased funding for high blood pressure and diabetes, immunization, malaria control, risk factors for Alzheimer disease. and prevention of HIV transA study that was published in mission from mother to newmid-December uncovered an asborn contributed to the decline. sociation between increased levAnother report published in The els of high-density lipoproteins Lancet, which analyzed data (HDL), which are considered the from 2008, found that pneumohealthy form of cholesterol, and nia, diarrhea, malaria, and lowered risk of Alzheimer disblood poisoning were responsiease. The researchers, from Coble for more than two-thirds of lumbia University, New York the deaths among 8.8 million City, followed a population of children under age five. Almost more than 1,000 people over the half of those deaths occurred in age of 65, whose brain function Africa. was considered normal at the The decline in children’s death time the study began. The rerates was accompanied by more searchers measured levels of encouraging news about pregHDL, LDL (low-density lipopronancy-related deaths. The numtein), and total cholesterol and ber of deaths among pregnant assessed the subjects’ risk of women before and during childAlzheimer disease. High LDL birth had declined significantly and total cholesterol levels were in the past 20 years. According to known to be associated with a a report released in September, variety of diseases. However, the estimated number of deaths whereas high HDL was linked to had dropped from 546,000 to a reduced risk of Alzheimer dis358,000—a decline of 34%—beease, high LDL and total cholestween 1990 and 2008. The report, terol were not linked to risk. The A nurse cares for a refugee newborn while its released by WHO, UNICEF, the findings suggested that more mother’s blood pressure is checked at the Mae Tao United Nations Population Fund, emphasis should be placed on a Clinic in Mae Sot, Tak province, Thai., where health and the World Bank, indicated person’s HDL levels when evalu- care is provided free of charge to refugees from that women in LDCs remained at ating Alzheimer risk and rein- neighbouring Myanmar (Burma). the highest risk. They were 36 forced the importance of physitimes more likely to die of pregcal activity and a healthy diet nancy-related complications than that boosts HDL levels (i.e., a diet rich than were typically hospitalized as a re- women in developed countries. The main foods such as vegetables and fish) in sult of seasonal influenza. The deaths jor causes of pregnancy-related deaths staving off disease. and hospitalizations associated with included severe bleeding after childH1N1 Flu Pandemic Subsides. Fears that H1N1 occurred largely among patients birth, infections, hypertensive disorthe H1N1 flu pandemic (or swine flu who already had chronic health prob- ders, and unsafe abortions. The report pandemic) that began in 2009 would lems or other underlying conditions. also concluded that more needed to be continue spreading in 2010 subsided as While the number of H1N1 cases done to address the 1,000 maternal the number of new cases dwindled. By seemed to be falling, health officials deaths that continued to occur each day. February U.S. states were no longer re- warned against a false sense of security Efforts recommended to improve this porting widespread infection. Still, in and believed that H1N1 could become situation included reaching out to areas an update issued in May 2010, health a strain of seasonal influenza. where women were at greatest risk, such officials with the Centers for Disease Decline in Children’s and Pregnancy-Re- as in rural areas, poor households, and Control and Prevention (CDC) esti- lated Death Rates. The number of conflict zones, where access to health mated that between 43 million and 89 deaths of children under age five con- care was difficult. (KEVIN DAVIS) (continued from page 243)

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Life Sciences Scientists decoded the APPLE GENOME, discovered the FIRST PHOTOSYNTHETIC ANIMAL, named the link between the hominid genera Australopithecus and Homo, showed that PROGESTERONE also occurs in plants, created a SYNTHETIC CELL, published the NEANDERTHAL NUCLEAR GENOME sequence, and determined that TRICERATOPS was actually a younger member of TOROSAURUS.

riod with those taken one to three decades earlier, they found that 12% of the local populations were extinct. They expanded their investigation and developed models applicable to lizard species at more than 1,200 additional localities in South America, Africa, Europe, and Australia. They concluded that 4% of the local populations of lizards had gone extinct globally and that within 60 years the proportion of local population loss will be 39%. The investigators also revealed that the rate of global warming will be too rapid for lizards to adapt through an evolutionary adjustment response, and they proZOOLOGY specimens exposed to sunlight, which jected that by 2080 as much as 20% of he year 2010 began with the suggested that the sea slugs were man- the world’s lizard species will have gone announcement of the world’s ufacturing the pigment themselves. extinct in response to climate change. first photosynthetic animal In May, Barry Sinervo of the UniverIn July, Neal E. Cantin and colleagues by Sidney K. Pierce of the sity of California, Santa Cruz, and col- from the Woods Hole (Mass.) OceanoUniversity of South Florida leagues provided strong empirical evi- graphic Institution investigated the imat Tampa and colleagues in a study of dence of a relationship between global pact of rising sea surface temperatures the North American sea slug, the east- warming and local extinctions of Mex- in the Red Sea on coral growth. Reern emerald elysia (Elysia chlorotica). ican lizard populations. They compared searchers used a submersible hydraulic Found along the Atlantic coast, the sea current and historical records of lizard drill to take skeletal cores from six slug is a mollusk that feeds on the algal species at particular study sites where colonies of the reef-building coral species Vaucheria litorea. In an unusual global warming had been documented. Diploastrea heliopora. By using threebiological relationship, the sea slug in- By comparing population surveys of 48 dimensional CT scanning, they visualgests the alga’s plastids—most notably species in the genus Sceloporus taken ized the annual high- and low-density the chloroplasts—and they remain in at 200 localities over a three-year pe- growth bands that are retained within the epithelium of the sea slug’s the massive coral skeletons and digestive tract. Chloroplasts are measured historical skeletal pigmented organelles that are in- Chloroplasts (pigmented organelles involved in growth rates relative to sea survolved in photosynthesis and the photosynthesis) that were appropriated from algae face temperatures from 1925 to manufacture of food within a allowed the eastern emerald elysia (Elysia 2008. Recent increases in ocean plant’s cell, and their incorpora- chlorotica) to make its own food. temperature were observed to tion into the sea slug gives the have had a noticeable negative animal a greenish colour. These effect on the upward growth of borrowed organelles were previthe colony’s skeleton, which had ously thought to allow the slug to decreased since 1998 by approxcontinue to photosynthesize for imately 30% in association with several months, even though the prolonged exposure to thermally nuclear genome of the alga was stressful temperatures. It was no longer present. However, this shown that calcium carbonate was only part of the story. To production rates declined by function properly, chloroplasts about 18%. Using global warmrequire a steady stream of ing projections based on global chlorophyll a, the photosyntheclimate models from the Intersizing pigment in green plants, governmental Panel on Climate and Pierce and his colleagues disChange and the derived relacovered that the sea slugs had detionship between coral growth veloped a chemical pathway to and sea surface temperatures, synthesize it. Inserting amino the researchers predicted that D. acids ensconced with a radioacheliopora will cease all skeletal tive tracer into specimens that growth in the Red Sea within did not consume food for six the next 50 years when average months, Pierce showed that the summer temperatures exceed tracer later appeared in the present-day values by approxichlorophyll a molecules found in mately 1.85 °C (3.33 °F).

T

Mary Tyler—Mary Rumpho/University of Maine

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In July climate change and global warming were also examined in terms of demography, seasonal behavioral changes, and population ecology of the yellow-bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris), a mammal that hibernates. On the basis of a mark-recapture study in Colorado lasting more than 30 years, Arpat Ozgul and Tim Coulson of Imperial College London and colleagues examined changes in dates of emergence from hibernation, body mass, survival, and reproduction in response to gradual warming trends. Because marmots now emerge from hibernation earlier and females give birth earlier in the season, the animal’s foraging and growing periods are longer. Thus, marmots tend to be heavier upon entering hibernation than they were in the past. For the last seven years of study, the researchers found that these changes led to increased survival and reproductive rates in larger females, which in turn resulted in stronger and healthier offspring and an increase in population size. A major conservation concern in 2010 was the spread of an invasive fungal disease that caused white-nose syndrome (WNS) in several species of cave-hibernating North American bats. Winifred F. Frick of Boston University and the University of California, Santa Cruz, and colleagues analyzed three decades of research data from bat colonies at 22 hibernation sites in five northeastern U.S. states. They also estimated population changes of little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus) on the basis of a 16-year markrecapture study. WNS is caused by a cold-tolerant fungus (Geomyces destructans) that is hypothesized to have been inadvertently introduced from Europe to North America by humans. The fungus grows on the skin of bats during hibernation, and it was believed to cause maladaptive physical activity and behaviour that can result in the loss of winter fat reserves. The little brown bat, one of the most common bat species, ranges across North America, and investigators noted the presence of WNS in as many as 115 of the bat’s hibernation sites. Their analyses demonstrated that the disease had caused exceptionally high mortality in some colonies— averaging 73% but rising as high as 99%. The investigators developed models based on little brown bat demographic data and assumed a continuation of worst-case scenarios; the model results placed the bat’s chances of regional extinction from WNS within 16 years at almost 100%. Even if mortality rates dropped considerably, the popula-

Several North American bat species, such as this little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus) found in a cave near Greeley Mine in Vermont, have contracted whitenose syndrome, a fungal disease that may be responsible for erratic behaviour in bats during their winter hibernation periods. tion would be reduced to less than 1% of its current estimated level of 6.5 million individuals. The study called attention to the serious implications of introduced diseases that act rapidly and severely to affect common widespread wildlife species that are key components of natural ecosystems. Daniel J. Salkeld of Stanford University and colleagues used data from black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) colonies in Colorado to develop computational models that simulated periods of epidemics (epizootic phase) and quiescence (enzootic phase) in the plague bacterium (Yersinia pestis) transmitted by the prairie dog flea (Oropsylla hirsuta). The investigators considered two basic hypotheses to explain the contrasting epizootic-enzootic patterns observed in plague and other transmittable epidemic diseases. One hypothesis was that the pathogen has more than one host species; one host species is conspicuous (e.g., prairie dog) because of its susceptibility and resulting high levels of mortality. The alternative hypothesis was that epizootic events result from an increased pathogen load in host animals after the pathogens have been activated by changes in the environment, changes in host population behaviour, or shifts in abundance and distribution patterns of host (e.g., prairie dog) and vector (e.g., flea) of the disease. Simulation models based on field research with plague and prairie dogs re-

vealed that the first hypothesis is applicable because the prairie grasshopper mouse (Onychomys leucogaster), which overlaps geographically with prairie dogs and on which flea density increases during plague epidemics. Although prairie dogs perish in high numbers during an epidemic, grasshopper mice do not suffer the high mortality observed among prairie dogs. Thus, the mice persisted as a reservoir for fleas and plague bacteria that perpetuate their spread throughout prairie dog colonies in an area. The authors determined that a second host (the grasshopper mice in this case) can be responsible for an alternating pattern of epidemics. They also inferred that similar patterns may appear when observing hantaviruses and anthrax. Park Hyung-Min and Choi Hae-Cheon of Seoul National University investigated the aerodynamics of darkedgedwing flying fish (Cypselurus hiraii) taken from the Sea of Japan. The purpose of the study was to investigate lift-to-drag ratios (the relationship of horizontal distance traveled relative to vertical descent) by examining how flying fish glide above the sea surface for long distances of up to 400 m (about 1,300 ft) in a half minute. The researchers selected five freshly killed fish, stuffed them with urethane, and placed the pectoral and pelvic fins in various positions suitable for gliding. The gliding capabilities of the fish were tested during simulated 247

Life Sciences

flights in a wind tunnel to determine how wing morphology and body orientation affected a fish’s aerodynamic performance. The flying fish glided most effectively when the pectoral fins were spread and the body was parallel and close to the water’s surface. The study revealed that the lift-to-drag ratio was further enhanced by the animal’s cylindrical body and jetlike flow between the pectoral and pelvic fins. (J. WHITFIELD GIBBONS)

In February parallels between plant and animal chemistry were highlighted by the report of the discovery of the sex hormone progesterone in a plant. Progesterone is a steroid hormone involved in animal reproduction. It was previously thought to be exclusive to animals; however, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectroscopy were used by scientists to spot progesterone in the leaves of the walnut tree (Juglans regia) and Adonis aleppica of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). “The significance of the unequivocal identification of progesterone from a higher plant cannot be overstated,” said Guido F. Pauli at the University of Illinois at Chicago. “New discoveries [such as this] indicate that plants and animals are more closely related than previ-

gave plant breeders an important resource for enhancing the apple’s texture, flavour, juice, and health properties. The work also enabled researchers to trace the origin of all roughly 7,500 apple varieties back to about 4,000 years ago to its common wild ancestor M. sieversii, which grew in the mountains of southern Kazakhstan. The researchers also discovered that the relatively huge size of the apple genome appeared after the duplication of nearly all of its chromosomes. This explains why the genomes of the apple BOTANY and the closely related pear (Pyrus) The conventional theory of how plants have 17 chromosomes, whereas all capture and channel energy from sunother fruit plants in the same Rosaceae light for photosynthesis was overturned family have between 7 and 9 chromoin February 2010 by a radical theory somes. “By duplicating almost all of its based on quantum mechanics. Proteins genome, apples now have very different called antennae absorb light enfruit characteristics to related Image courtesy Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ergy, which excites electrons. Acplants such as peaches, raspbercording to classical ideas, the reries, and strawberries,” exsulting energy is passed by plained Sue Gardiner, a member energy hops down a molecular of the research team based at energy ladder. It eventually New Zealand’s Plant and Food reaches proteins known as reacResearch. “This suggests that a tion centres, where chemical enmajor environmental event ergy is generated. This operation forced certain species, including is so fast that it is almost 100% apple, to evolve for survival.” efficient; however, the details Evolutionary analysis dates the have long remained a mystery. A timing of the duplication to team of scientists at the Univerabout 50 million years ago. sity of Toronto stimulated the Research into wheat genetics photosynthetic antennae from almade considerable progress in gae with laser pulses lasting only 2010. Data from the first atfemtoseconds (millionths of a biltempt to sequence the wheat lionth of a second) to mimic the genome, performed by a team of absorption of sunlight. In experiBritish scientists at the Universiments with dozens of antennae ties of Liverpool and Bristol and attached to one reaction centre, (From left) Akihito Ishizaki, Birgitta Whaley, the John Innes Centre in Northey discovered that the energy Mohan Sarovar (seated) and Graham Fleming of wich, were released in August. flowed through many different the University of California, Berkeley, successfully The team sequenced 16 billion paths simultaneously to find the observed and described quantum entanglement in nucleotides in the largest most efficient route—a phenom- photosynthetic bacteria. genome decoded to date. The enon known as quantum coherwheat genome was particularly ence. The quantum coherence, in complex because it was grouped which energy exists in multiple linked ously thought.” The discovery sup- into three sets of chromosomes, and states at the same time, lasted around ported the idea that progesterone and each set originated from different an400 femtoseconds, or about 20 times other steroid hormones were inherited cestors of the original wheat plant. longer than expected. “We were aston- from an ancient common ancestor of Thanks to recent advances in DNA ished to find clear evidence of long-lived plants and animal. technology, the genome was sequenced quantum mechanical states involved in The genome of the apple (Malus × do- in only one year, compared with 13 moving the energy,” said Greg Scholes, mestica) was decoded by researchers years for the significantly smaller huleader of the research group. Similar from Italy, France, New Zealand, Bel- man genome. The researchers planned quantum coherence was also discovered gium, and the United States. In a re- to compare the genomes of different in July in photosynthetic bacteria by a port published in August, they an- wheat varieties to find the segments of team at the University of California, nounced the complete genome DNA that control particular traits, such Berkeley, and the Lawrence Berkeley sequence of around 13 billion nu- as fungal-disease resistance and tolerNational Laboratory. These findings cleotides, the building blocks of DNA, ance to heat and drought. The earliest raised the possibilities for creating arti- in the Golden Delicious variety of ap- benefits were likely to emerge from ficial versions of photosynthesis by us- ple. Among the approximately 57,000 conventional breeding using DNA ing quantum coherence for making genes identified, the complete set of markers, which will allow breeders to highly efficient solar cells and vastly im- 992 genes responsible for disease re- link desirable traits to segments of proving computer processor speeds. sistance was revealed. This research DNA and help them to pick plants for 248

Life Sciences Tom Deerinck and Mark Ellisman of the National Center for Microscopy and Imaging Research at the University of California at San Diego

crossing. Wheat accounts for about 30% of global grain production, second to rice as the main human food crop. “It is predicted that within the next 40 years world food production will need to be increased by 50%. Developing new, low input, high-yielding varieties of wheat will be fundamental to meeting these goals,” said University of Liverpool professor and team member Anthony Hall. At the end of 2009, scientists at Kew Gardens and the Natural History Museum in London proposed that many plants can behave like animals. They said that carnivory in plants may be far more widespread than previously thought and suggested that many cultivated plants are at least partly carnivorous. For example, many petunias (Petunia) and some potato species have sticky hairs that trap insects. Other sticky-leaved species such as some geraniums (Geranium) have been shown to produce digestive enzymes that can absorb the remains of insects. The team suggested that there is a sliding scale of carnivory, ranging from mildly carnivorous forms, such as petunias, to full carnivores with active traps, such as the Venus’ flytrap (Dionaea muscipula). (PAUL SIMONS)

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND GENETICS The First Synthetic Cell? In May 2010 a team of scientists led by American biochemists Daniel Gibson and J. Craig Venter published a paper in the journal Science describing their successful assembly and transfer, into a mycobacterial host, of an entire genome whose original building blocks had been chemically synthesized. While touted in the wave of press conferences and opinion pieces that followed as the first creation of a “synthetic cell” or even “the first self-replicating species we’ve had on the planet whose parent is a computer,” the accomplishment was more of a technical tour de force than a conceptual breakthrough. That said, this achievement demonstrated the rapidly accelerating pace of technical possibility in the world of molecular genomics and provided a glimpse of the public fears, hopes, and false expectations that could follow in its wake. Gibson, Venter, and colleagues chemically synthesized a large set of fragments of DNA that together encompassed the entire 1.08 × 106 base pair genome of a naturally occurring microbe called Mycoplasma mycoides. They assembled the

A scanning electromicrograph of cells of Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0—a synthetic bacterium. overlapping fragments in precisely the right order into larger and larger pieces until the full-length M. mycoides genomic sequence had been achieved. They transferred the final product into a closely related recipient microbe called Mycoplasma capricolum. To aid the facilitation of the whole-genometransfer process, the recipient microbes were modified to remove restriction enzymes that would otherwise have degraded the “invading” M. mycoides DNA. Further, the assembled M. mycoides genomic DNA was designed to include a gene encoding resistance to the antibiotic tetracycline, a gene not otherwise found in M. capricolum. The occasional recombinant M. capricolum that had incorporated an assembled M. mycoides genome therefore could be selected from amid a sea of nonrecombinant M. capricolum by plating the culture onto medium containing tetracycline; only the recombinant cells survived the drug to give rise to colonies. Analyses of tetracycline-resistant colonies resulting from the genome-transfer process revealed that the genome-transfer process was a success. The introduced M. mycoides genome was sufficient to support life and replication. But were these truly the first “synthetic cells”? The answer is “no.” Fragments of DNA synthesized on machines had been incorporated into the genomes of living cells for decades. In addition, the recipient cells used in the genome transfer entered the process as living cells—the offspring of other living cells—not a computer. Furthermore, that an artificially synthesized,

biologically assembled, and chemically transferred genome was able to support the life of a microbe dispels the idea that genomes are magical or beyond comprehension. The feat teaches, perhaps, that the real magic lies in the molecules themselves and in the fundamental chemical principles that make them work. The Link Between Neanderthals and Modern Humans. One of the many applications of improved DNA sequencing platforms has been a dramatically increased ability to identify and compare DNA sequences between individuals and between species. This technology has been applied to myriad genomes, including the human genome, providing insights into evolutionary relationships, migration patterns, familial origins, biomedical risks, and forensic connections. In May American evolutionary biologist Richard Green, Swedish biologist Svante Pääbo, and colleagues published a draft of the Neanderthal (or Neandertal) nuclear genome sequence and thereby completed a major step in the journey of understanding the human family tree. Neanderthals were a population of archaic humans, now extinct, whose ancestors diverged between 440,000 and 270,000 years ago from the family tree leading to modern humans. Fossil records have shown that Neanderthals inhabited parts of Eurasia and the Middle East from about 400,000 years ago until about 30,000 years ago, when they disappeared. Archaeological records have also shown that during the last 50,000 years of their existence, Nean249

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derthals coexisted in the same geographic locations with modern humans. Archaeologists and anthropologists have long argued about the fate of the Neanderthals and about the relationship between neighbouring populations of Neanderthals and modern humans. Did they coexist peacefully, or did modern humans drive their cousins to extinction? Analysis of the newly released Neanderthal genomic DNA sequence added a new twist to the story; it appeared that, at least in some instances, the neighbouring cousins interbred. To elucidate the genomic DNA sequence of Neanderthals, Green, Pääbo, and colleagues analyzed small segments of DNA isolated and amplified by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from tiny fragments of Neanderthal bones discovered in the Vindija Cave in Croatia. Carbon dating and subsequent genetic analysis indicated that the original set of bones studied derived from three separate women who each lived more than 38,000 years ago. The scientists faced an onslaught of technical challenges, including that the DNA isolated from the bone fragments was largely degraded. But perhaps the greatest fear was of possible contamination of the Neanderthal DNA with modern human DNA originating inadvertently from the researchers themselves. This possibility was especially troubling because of the high degree of homology anticipated between Neanderthals and modern humans, meaning it could be difficult to distinguish modern contaminants from genuine Neanderthal sequences. The extent of this problem was ascertained by comparing mitochondrial DNA sequences amplified from the Neanderthal libraries with those of modern humans; because mitochondrial genomes are so small, they are much easier to amplify, and prior work had already demonstrated that Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA sequences were distinct from those of modern humans. Comparing the mitochondrial sequences from ostensibly Neanderthal DNA libraries with those of modern humans produced a reassuring result: the contamination rate was less than 1%. Once the draft Neanderthal genome sequence had been assembled, Green, Pääbo, and colleagues began a series of analyses to ask whether there was evidence of Neanderthal DNA sequence to be found in the genomes of modern humans. Toward this end, the researchers scanned genomic sequences from close to 50 modern humans of 250

Eurasian ancestry looking for regions that were unusually variable; because older sequences have had a longer time to accumulate small changes than younger sequences, the degree of variability of a segment of genomic sequence can be an indicator of how old that sequence is. The researchers looked at the DNA of Eurasians because fossil records indicate that Neanderthals overlapped with modern humans only in Eurasia and the Middle East but not in Africa. Thirteen candidate “ancient” regions of the genome were selected. Next, the researchers compared sequences from those regions in their Eurasian samples with the corresponding genomic regions from 23 individuals of African descent and identified sequence variants for each region that were present in the Eurasian samples but not in the African samples. Finally, the researchers looked at the sequences of these same genomic regions in their Neanderthal samples and found 10 of the 13 “ancient” variants. While not proof, this was compelling evidence that the variants were Neanderthal in origin. By comparing the degree of sequence divergence between modern Eurasians and Neanderthals and the degree of sequence divergence between two independent Neanderthal samples derived from different archaeological sites, the researchers were able to estimate that as much as 1–4% of the genome sequence in modern Eurasians might be traced to Neanderthals. The results of the work were significant for two reasons. First, the technological feat of retrieving workable human genomic DNA from bones that were more than 38,000 years old was astounding; it redefined the limits of paleogenetics and stands almost as a challenge to push the envelope even farther. Second, the realization that modern humans and Neanderthals are likely to have interbred while they were neighbours may not be surprising, but knowing that modern Eurasians still carry the genetic remnants of that history may give some an unexpected moment of self-reflection. (JUDITH FRIDOVICH-KEIL)

PALEONTOLOGY In February 2010 two reports comparing feathered dinosaurs and modern birds from China provided the first evidence of colour in fossil feathers. For a number of years, exceptionally wellpreserved fossils of birds and nonavian

theropod dinosaurs from China had demonstrated the presence and structure of fossil feathers; however, the determination of colour in such feathers had been elusive. Fucheng Zhang of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing and colleagues investigating Early Cretaceous fossils from the Jiufotang Formation—a cluster of geologic formations in northeastern China—reported the preservation of melanosomes (colour-bearing organelles) in the pennaceous, or contour, feathers of both early birds and theropod dinosaurs. Since melanosome density and shape partially determine feather colour, the fossils provided a method for estimating the colour of fossil feathers. As a result, the report determined that the dark stripes on the tail of the theropod Sinosauropteryx had chestnut to reddish brown tones. A similar investigation conducted by Quanguo Li of the Beijing Museum of Natural History and colleagues mapped the feather colour patterns of a Late Jurassic basal paravian theropod. A report authored by Xing Xu of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing and others examined the development of early feathers in two specimens of the oviraptorosaur theropod Similicaudipteryx from the Early Cretaceous Yixian Formation of western Liaoning, China. It was discovered that the feathers of the first specimen, an early juvenile, differed greatly from the second, older-juvenile specimen. The pennaceous feathers of the wing and tail of the older dinosaur contained a central shaft that ran the entire length of the feather. The feathers of the early juvenile, however, resembled the pennaceous feathers of the late juvenile only at the tip; the other end possessed a flat stem. In addition, tail feathers in the younger juvenile were larger than the wing feathers, a configuration opposite to that of the older specimen. Jonah N. Choiniere of George Washington University, Washington, D.C., and his associates discovered a new theropod from the Late Jurassic of western China that appeared to be the earliest-known member of the Alvarezsauroidea. The investigation also demonstrated that this group was a basal member of the Maniraptora, the clade containing birds and their closest theropod relatives. The unnamed taxon also showed that the anatomical similarities between birds and some alvarezsauroids were highly convergent. Until 2010 ceratopsian, or horned, dinosaurs were known only from the

Life Sciences Mike Hutchings—Reuters/Landov

Late Cretaceous of Asia and North America. In May 2010, however, Attila Osi from the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in Budapest, Richard J. Butler from the Bavarian State Collection for Palaeontology and Geology in Munich, and David B. Weishampel from Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Md., reported the discovery of a new small horned dinosaur, Ajkaceratops, dating from the Late Cretaceous near Iharkut, Hung. Previous hypotheses suggested that Europe’s Late Cretaceous fauna differed from that of North America and Asia owing to geographic isolation. While some Late Cretaceous European groups have affinities with animals on the other northern continents, these fossils did not share a close geographic relationship with North American and Asian animals during that time period. Ceratopsians are known exclusively from the Late Cretaceous, an interval when much of Europe was divided up into numerous small islands. The authors suggested that Ajkaceratops arrived at the Iharkut site by dispersing from island to island across the Tethys Sea. In a paper published in July, John Scannella and Jack Horner of Montana State University suggested that the differences between the genera Torosaurus and Triceratops represented distinct growth stages within a single genus. Torosaurus appeared to be the fullgrown version of Triceratops. The first tyrannosaurid from a southern continent was reported in March by a team of researchers led by Roger B.J. Benson from the University of Cambridge. The specimen, dated to the Early Cretaceous of Victoria, Australia, was represented by only a single pubis. The bone was small in size, but it still possessed some of the advanced morphological features of tyrannosaurids. The authors contended that the existence of these features and the specimen’s small size might be indicative of a wide distribution across the globe prior to the emergence of gigantic North American and Asian tyrannosaurids during the Late Cretaceous. In February a report by Romain Amiot of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing and coauthors examined oxygen isotope ratios in the teeth of the spinosaur, Baryonyx, and concluded that this dinosaur possessed a lifestyle that was much more aquatic than previously thought. While it had been suggested previously that, owing to the presence of conical rather than serrated teeth, this animal was a fish

The fossilized skull of a young male of the previously unclassified hominin species Australopithecus sediba went on display at the Iziko South African Museum in Cape Town on April 21. eater, an analysis of partial stomach contents in one specimen showed a combination of fish scales and dinosaur and pterosaur remains. The study also compared ratios of oxygen18 (18O) to oxygen-16 (16O) in the teeth of Baryonyx with other dinosaurs, crocodiles, and turtles from the Cretaceous. It is known that animals that spend most of their time in drier environments lose water through respiration (breathing) and evaporation from the skin. Because 16O is lighter than 18O, it declines more rapidly in organisms that lose water to the environment as vapour, such as in exhaling terrestrial animals, than 18O. As a result, 18O is more concentrated in the teeth of terrestrial animals than 16O. The teeth of Baryonyx, however, showed 18O levels similar to those found in the crocodilians, a semiaquatic group, and they were significantly lower than the ratio typically found in terrestrial dinosaurs. A similar analysis of oxygen isotopes was released in June. Aurélien Bernard from the University of Lyon, France, and coauthors compared the oxygen isotope composition found in the tooth phosphate of large marine ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and mosasaurs of the Mesozoic Era with that of fishes from the same interval. After analyzing the results, the authors claimed that the large marine reptiles from the Mesozoic were able to maintain high and constant body temperatures in the range of 35–39 °C (95–102 °F) in both warmer and colder regions of the oceans.

Although the large marine reptiles of the Mesozoic evolved piscivorous and carnivorous forms convergent with some modern dolphins and whales, they lacked large plankton-eating forms similar to the most massive of all of the modern whales. The only reported large planktivores known from the Mesozoic were part of a group of extinct pachycormid fishes that lived for only a short period of time during the Jurassic. A study by a group of researchers led by Matt Friedman of the University of Oxford noted the discovery of several new types of these giant bony fishes in Asia, Europe, and North America. In addition to the new detailed anatomical information that accompanied such findings, the fossils also provided evidence that pachycormid fishes had lived for more than 100 million years between the Middle Jurassic and the end of the Cretaceous period. In April a paper by Lee R. Berger of the University of the Witwatersrand, S.Af., and his collaborators announced the discovery of a new species of primitive hominin, Australopithecus sediba, from South Africa. The taxon, dated to 1.95 million to 1.78 million years ago, was represented by two partial skeletons recovered from cave deposits at the Malapa site. The authors suggested that this species evolved from A. africanus and that it possessed more features in common with early members of genus Homo than any other australopithecine. (WILLIAM R. HAMMER) 251

Literature The deterioration of the ARABIC LANGUAGE was a concern in Arabic literature, AUTOFICTION and BIOFICTION competed for attention with RISQUÉ STORIES in France, and QUIRKY subjects were in evidence in a number of British novels. Meanwhile, E-BOOKS continued to challenge printed books for supremacy in the market. The year’s deaths included those of Nobelist José SARAMAGO, Russian poets Bella AKHMADULINA and Andrey VOZNESENSKY, and Americans J.D. SALINGER and Louis AUCHINCLOSS.

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nited Kingdom. In 2010 the Englishman’s famous love of arcane pastimes was very much in evidence in nonfiction books, including a memoir about angling, a chronicle of a man’s obsessive attempt to spot all 59 species of British butterfly in a single summer, and a book of affectionate musings by a famous British naturalist on the subject of weeds. Blood Knots, by The Observer newspaper’s dance critic Luke Jennings, was a memoir of days spent fishing in the stygian blackness of London’s canals, the Sussex ponds of his childhood, and the icy-clear Hampshire chalk streams, interwoven with thoughts on poet T.S. Eliot, boarding school, and the nature of valour. The Butterfly Isles: A Summer in Search of Our Emperors and Admirals, similarly evocative of the British landscape, showed its author, Patrick Barkham (helped along by an underworld cast of butterfly aficionados), master the difference between pearlbordered and small pearl-bordered fritillaries and how to spot hairstreak eggs in February in a blackthorn hedge. As in Blood Knots, the author’s preoccupation was mixed with autobiography and travelogue; discourses on butterfly sociability rested amid lyrical memories of childhood rambles and Marmite sandwiches. Meanwhile, Weeds: How Vagabond Plants Gatecrashed Civilisation and Changed the Way We Think About Nature saw nature writer Richard Mabey bring almost 40 years’ experience of ambling in the “unofficial 252

countryside”—derelict urban spaces and abandoned scraps of land—to a study of plants. Mabey’s erudite meditations melded global environmental insights, cultural references from the Garden of Eden to the novel The Day of the Triffids, and a very English pleasure in the marvel of small things. Britain’s enduring interest in World War II could be seen in the nonfiction realm. Michael Burleigh’s highly acclaimed Moral Combat: A History of World War II explored morality and its absence during the last global conflict, from the ethical framework of Nazis who perpetrated heinous crimes to Churchill’s quandary over the Royal Air Force’s attacks on German cities. Less weighty but equally engaging was Ben Macintyre’s Operation Mincemeat. Combining the virtues of a well-paced narrative, vivid characterization, and impeccable research, Operation Mincemeat recounted the tale of how British spies transformed the corpse of a homeless man into the body of a fictitious Marine officer, complete with theatre stubs and fake letters to military leaders in North Africa, and slipped it into the sea near Spain. When the body was recovered by the Germans, the spurious intelligence planted on it changed the course of the war. Macintyre’s achievement, said a critic in The Times, was to “strip away the veils of jingoistic self-satisfaction and official secrecy and tell the story . . . in precise detail and with conclusive accuracy.” In fiction, however, few novels were furnished with a historical backdrop, and the World War II theme seemed to be exhausted. One ex-

ception was Rosie Alison’s The Very Thought of You (2009), a rite-of-passage novel about a girl evacuated to a mansion on the Yorkshire moors to avoid the London Blitz. Alison’s debut attracted no attention from the literary establishment until it was unexpectedly short-listed for the women-only Orange Prize. Reviews were mixed, with critics finding it uneven, overloaded with third-person commentary, and at times descending into “artless melodrama.” Indeed, the Orange Prize short list was oddly split between newcomers and literary heavyweights. Besides Alison, the former category included first-time American novelist Attica Locke for her 1980s Houston-based thriller Black Water Rising (2009), described by judges as “the most obvious beach read,” and Monique Roffey for her second novel, The White Woman on the Green Bicycle (2009), about a British journalist and his Valium- and rum-dependent wife living in Trinidad. Roffey was lauded for her ear for Trinidadian patois and for her sense of the way in which public events affect private lives. More serious contenders for the prize were Hilary Mantel (see BIOGRAPHIES) for her 2009 Man Booker Prize-winning Wolf Hall (2009), about the rise of Thomas Cromwell during the reign of King Henry VIII; American Lorrie Moore for her much-admired A Gate at the Stairs, set just after the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the U.S.; and the winner, American Barbara Kingsolver for The Lacuna (2009), a novel set amid the Mexican revolution and the 1950s American communist witch hunts. Orange Prize chair Daisy Goodwin grabbed newspaper headlines when she complained of the barrage of “misery literature”—featuring rape, child abuse, and bereavement—that she encountered in the 129 entries for the prize. She observed, “I was surprised at how little I laughed.” Goodwin’s comments sparked a lively debate in the press about “serious” women’s literature, the current preponderance of sexual-abuse novels, and the need for humour to balance dark topics in fiction. The debate about comedy in fiction took a pleasant turn when Howard Jacobson’s The Finkler Question became one of the few comic novels to have won the Man Booker Prize in its 42year history. Jacobson, who had been

Literature Lefteris Pitarakis/AP

the bookies’ outsider precisely because of his humour, remarked before winning the prize, “There is a fear of comedy in the novel today.” John Dugdale in The Guardian backed up this assertion by publishing a list of comic novels that had been neglected by Booker judges in recent years. The response to Jacobson’s win was largely ecstatic, with commentators embracing his use of humour as a serious medium. The Independent noted, “Jacobson cunningly crafts sublime pathos from comedy.” The Finkler Question also distinguished itself as one of the few English novels to explore British Jewishness. It was set in present-day London and focused on the lives of three friends: a English author Howard Jacobson won the Man Jewish philosopher and TV pun- Booker Prize for The Finkler Question, a comic dit called Sam Finkler, an old novel about Jewish identity. Jewish Czech teacher and sometime biographer of Hollywood icons, and a failed BBC producer and who inherits his father’s passion for celebrity look-alike who longs to be early radio transmission, works as a Jewish. Themes of Judaism and the wireless operator in World War I spotimpact of Israel on Jewish identity ran ter planes over the front, and is finally alongside explorations of loss and sep- sent to Egypt to set up an imperial aration, belonging and exclusion, and broadcasting network. The actual subthe complexities of friendship. Jacob- jects of the novel, however, were ideas son reported, “I wanted to show the about transmission, reception, codes warmth with which many English non- and connectedness, and the dense netJews view Jewishness, how much re- work of symbols and leitmotifs through spectful curiosity and even affection which these were conveyed. While the there is for it in this country.” New York Times found C “contrived” Acclaimed British writer Andrea Levy and “self-conscious,” a reviewer in The also made the Man Booker Prize short Telegraph enthused, “It seems highly list for her long-awaited novel The Long unlikely that anyone will publish a betSong, set in a 19th-century sugarcane ter novel this year.” plantation before and after emancipaDuring the year the Booker Prizetion. The Long Song took the form of a awarding body created a one-off Lost memoir written by a former mulatto Man Booker Prize to honour the novels slave to her son. Levy’s mastery of the of 1970 that had missed consideration rhythms of Jamaican creole, her au- for the prize owing to a shift in the time thentically antiquated style, and her of year it was awarded. The clear winmeticulous research invited rapturous ner was Troubles (1970), the first in the reviews. Like Jacobson, Levy lifted her Empire Trilogy by J.G. Farrell, set in a treatment of a serious subject, in this decaying hotel in Northern Ireland just case black exploitation, with ebullience after World War I. The Guardian wrote and humour. The Observer celebrated that it was the “feeling of the particular Levy’s gift for comic timing and “scenes reflecting the universal, a feeling so sucof virtuoso Jamaican farce,” and the cessfully pervading page after page of New York Times praised her “humane this clever book that makes it a tour de sense of comedy.” Reviewers were force.” Meanwhile, the playfully titled sharply divided, however, at the inclu- Not the Booker Prize, judged by readers sion on the Man Booker short list of of The Guardian books blog, was jointly avant-garde writer Tom McCarthy’s won by Canadian Matthew Hooton’s Deanti-liberal-humanist C, a novel influ- loume Road and London-based Lee enced by modernists such as Eliot and Rourke’s The Canal, about a man who James Joyce, the Italian Futurists, leaves his job to sit on a canal-side Freud, Samuel Beckett, and Thomas bench in Hackney, London. Rourke’s Pynchon. C sketched the life of a man themes included boredom and the at-

tempts made by individuals to construct meaning in an incomprehensible world. Unusually, the 2009 Costa Book of the Year award went to a volume of poetry. The four sequences of Christopher Reid’s A Scattering (2009) were written shortly before, and in the aftermath of, his wife Lucinda’s death from cancer. Critics applauded Reid’s “lucid, cogent panorama of grief and loss” and powerful tribute to Lucinda’s memory. It was perhaps fitting that another major event in poetry in 2010 was the publication of an unknown poem by Ted Hughes, whose letters Reid was editing at the time of Lucinda’s death. Hughes’s “Last Letter” described the three days leading up to the suicide of his first wife, poet Sylvia Plath. Poet laureate Carol Ann Duffy said, “It seems to touch a deeper, darker place than any poem he’s ever written.” The chair of the Forward Poetry Prize judges, Ruth Padel, meanwhile, called 2010 “an astonishing year for poetry, with an unusually wide range as well as high standard.” The Forward Poetry Prize for the best poetry collection went to Irish writer Seamus Heaney for Human Chain. The celebrity autobiography that headed the best-seller lists was former prime minister Tony Blair’s memoir, which sold more than 100,000 copies in its first week. Far from adopting a judicious, statesmanlike tone, A Journey affected a confiding manner; Blair confessed to his fear in office, his gift for manipulation, and his use of alcohol as a stress-management tool. Yet reviewers found him cagey on the topic of the U.S.-led Iraq War. Antiwar detractors set up a wide campaign to encourage people to move A Journey to the crime section in bookshops. The Literary Review, meanwhile, nominated A Journey for its annual Bad Sex Award for “poorly written, redundant or crude passages of a sexual nature.” In contrast, reviewers of The Fry Chronicles, actor Stephen Fry’s memoir of his Cambridge years and subsequent rise to fame, unanimously judged Fry “a jolly good egg” as well as an engaging writer. Fry’s memoir provided showbiz anecdotes, vivid stories of adolescent delinquency, and musings on his past addictions to sweets, credit cards, cigarettes, and vintage cars. (continued on page 256)

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Literature

WORLD LITERARY PRIZES 2010 All prizes are annual and were awarded in 2010 unless otherwise stated. Currency equivalents as of July 1, 2010, were as follows: >1 = $1.225; £1 = $1.500; Can$1 = $0.947; ¥1 = $0.011; SKr 1 = $0.128; DKr 1 = $0.164; and 1 Russian ruble = $0.032.

Nobel Prize for Literature

Orange Prize for Fiction

Awarded since 1901; included in the behest of Alfred Nobel, who specified a prize for those who “shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction.” The prizewinners are selected in October by the Swedish Academy and receive the award on December 10 in Stockholm. Prize: a gold medal and an award that varies from year to year; in 2010 the award was SKr 10 million.

Established in 1996. Awarded to a full-length novel written by a woman in English and published in the U.K. during the 12 months ended March 31. Prize: £30,000 and a bronze figurine called the “Bessie.”

Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru) International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award First awarded in 1996; this is the largest international literary prize and is open to novels written in or translated into English. The award is a joint initiative of Dublin City Council, the Municipal Government of Dublin City, and the productivity-improvement company IMPAC. It is administered by Dublin City Public Libraries. Prize: >100,000, of which 25% goes to the translator if the book was not written in English, and a Waterford crystal trophy. The awards are given in Dublin in May or June. The Twin by Gerbrand Bakker (Netherlands), translated by David Colmer (Australia) Neustadt International Prize for Literature Established in 1969 and awarded biennially by the University of Oklahoma and World Literature Today. Novelists, poets, and dramatists are equally eligible. Prize: $50,000, a replica of an eagle feather cast in silver, and a certificate.

The Lacuna by Barbara Kingsolver (U.S.) Frank O’Connor International Short Story Award The prize was first awarded in 2005 and recognizes a collection of short stories in English by a living author and published in the 12 months ended August 31. The award is organized by the Munster Literature Centre in Cork, Ire., and underwritten by the Cork City Council. Prize: >35,000, shared by the writer and the translators (if any). Burning Bright by Ron Rash (U.S.) Bollingen Prize in Poetry Established in 1948 by Paul Mellon. It is awarded to an American poet every two years by the Yale University Library. Prize: $100,000. Allen Grossman (2009 prize) PEN/Saul Bellow Award

Duo Duo (China)

With this award, the PEN American Center recognizes a living American author of fiction for his or her body of work in a variety of genres. The award, named for Saul Bellow, was first presented in 2007. Prize: $25,000.

Man Booker International Prize

Don DeLillo

This prize is awarded every other year (beginning in 2005) to a living author of fiction of any nationality who writes in English or whose work is widely translated into English for the body of his work. The prize is supported by the Man Group PLC. Winners are announced in midyear. Prize: £60,000.

PEN/Faulkner Award

Alice Munro (Canada), awarded in 2009 Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award for Literature This award, first bestowed in 2003 by the government of Sweden, is given annually to one or more living authors who, in the words of the organizers, “in their writing have produced literature for children and young people of absolutely the highest artistic quality and in the humanistic spirit associated with Astrid Lindgren.” Organizations that contribute to the literary welfare of children and young people are also eligible. Prize: SKr 5 million. Kitty Crowther (Belgium) Commonwealth Writers’ Prize Established in 1987 by the Commonwealth Foundation. In 2010 there was one award of £10,000 for the best book submitted, as well as an award of £5,000 for the best first book. In each of the four regions of the Commonwealth, two prizes of £1,000 are awarded: one for the best book and one for the best first book. Best Book Solo by Rana Dasgupta (U.K.) Best First Book Siddon Rock by Glenda Guest (Australia) Regional winners—Best Book Africa The Double Crown by Marié Heese (South Africa) Caribbean & Canada Galore by Michael Crummey (Canada) Europe & South Asia Solo by Rana Dasgupta (U.K.) Southeast Asia & Pacific The Adventures of Vela by Albert Wendt (Samoa) Man Booker Prize Established in 1969, sponsored by Booker McConnell Ltd. and, beginning in 2002, the Man Group PLC; administered by the Booker Prize Foundation in the U.K. Awarded to the best full-length novel written by a citizen of the Commonwealth, the Republic of Ireland, or Zimbabwe and published in the U.K. during the 12 months ended September 30. Prize: £50,000. The Finkler Question by Howard Jacobson Costa Book of the Year Established in 1971 as the Whitbread Literary Awards (from 1985 Whitbread Book of the Year); Costa Coffee assumed sponsorship in 2006. The winners of the Costa Book Awards for Poetry, Biography, Novel, and First Novel as well as the Costa Children’s Book of the Year each receive £5,000, and the winner of the Costa Book of the Year prize receives an additional £30,000. Winners are announced early in the year following that of the award. A Scattering by Christopher Reid (2009 award)

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The PEN/Faulkner Foundation each year recognizes the best published works of fiction by contemporary American writers. The award, named for William Faulkner, was founded by writers in 1980 to honour their peers. Prize: $15,000. War Dances by Sherman Alexie Pulitzer Prizes in Letters and Drama Begun in 1917. Awarded by Columbia University, New York City, on the recommendation of the Pulitzer Prize Board for books published in the previous year. Five categories in letters are honoured: fiction, biography, and general nonfiction (authors of works in these categories must be American citizens); history (the subject must be American history); and poetry (for original verse by an American author). The drama prize is for “a distinguished play by an American author, preferably original in its source and dealing with American life.” Prize: $10,000 for each award. Fiction

Tinkers by Paul Harding

Drama

Next to Normal by Tom Kitt (music) and Brian Yorkey (book and lyrics)

History

Lords of Finance: The Bankers Who Broke the World by Liaquat Ahamed

Poetry

Versed by Rae Armantrout

Biography

The First Tycoon: The Epic Life of Cornelius Vanderbilt by T.J. Stiles

General Nonfiction

The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy by David E. Hoffman

National Book Awards Begun in 1950 and awarded by the National Book Foundation, a consortium of American publishing groups. Categories have varied, beginning with 3—fiction, nonfiction, and poetry—swelling to 19 in 1983, and returning to the following 4 in 1996. Prize: $10,000 and a bronze sculpture in each category. Fiction

Lord of Misrule by Jaimy Gordon

Nonfiction

Just Kids by Patti Smith

Poetry

Lighthead by Terrance Hayes

Young People’s Literature

Mockingbird by Kathryn Erskine

Frost Medal Awarded annually since 1930 by the Poetry Society of America for distinguished lifetime achievement in American poetry. Lucille Clifton

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WORLD LITERARY PRIZES 2010 (continued)

Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC) Awards

Planeta Prize

The ALSC, a branch of the American Library Association (ALA), presents a series of awards each year for excellence in children’s literature. The two best-established and best-known are the following:

Premio Planeta de Novela. Established in 1951 by the Planeta Publishing House for the best unpublished original novel in Spanish. Awarded in Barcelona in October. Prize: >601,000. Riña de gatos: Madrid 1936 by Eduardo Mendoza

The Newbery Medal, first bestowed in 1922 (the oldest award in the world for children’s literature), honours the author of the most distinguished contribution in English to American literature for children. The award consists of a bronze medal. Rebecca Stead, for When You Reach Me The Caldecott Medal, first bestowed in 1938, is awarded to the artist of the most distinguished picture book for children. The award consists of a bronze medal. Jerry Pinkney, for The Lion & the Mouse Governor General’s Literary Awards Canada’s premier literary awards. Prizes are given in 14 categories altogether: fiction, poetry, drama, translation, nonfiction, and children’s literature (text and illustration), each in English and French. Established in 1937. Prize: Can$25,000. Fiction (English) Cool Water by Dianne Warren Fiction (French) Ru by Kim Thúy Poetry (English) Boxing the Compass by Richard Greene Poetry (French) effleurés de lumière by Danielle Fournier Griffin Poetry Prize Established in 2000 and administered by the Griffin Trust for Excellence in Poetry. The award honours first-edition books of poetry published during the preceding year. In 2010 the usual prize of Can$50,000 each for the two awards was doubled in honour of the prize’s 10th anniversary. Canadian Award Pigeon by Karen Solie International Award The Sun-fish by Eiléan Ni Chuilleanáin (Ireland) Büchner Prize

Camões Prize Prémio Camões. Established in 1988 by the governments of Portugal and Brazil to honour a “representative” author writing in the Portuguese language. Prize: >100,000. Ferreira Gullar (Brazil) Russian Booker Prize Awarded since 1992; the Russian Booker Prize has sometimes carried the names of various sponsors—e.g., Smirnoff in 1997–2001. In 2004 it was underwritten by the Open Russia Charitable Organization and called the Booker/Open Russia Literary Prize. Awards: 600,000 rubles for the winner, 60,000 rubles for each finalist. Tsvetochny krest (“The Flower Cross”) by Yelena Kolyadina Big Book Prize Premiya Bolshaya Kniga. First given out in 2006; it is sponsored by the government of Russia and underwritten by a number of prominent businessmen, who also serve as the jury. Awards: 3 million rubles for first prize, 1.5 million for second, and 1 million for third. Pavel Basinsky for his novel Lev Tolstoy: begstvo iz raya (“Leo Tolstoy: Flight from Paradise”) Naguib Mahfouz Medal for Literature Established in 1996 and awarded for the best contemporary novel published in Arabic. Prize: $1,000 and a silver medal. The winning work is translated into English and published in Cairo, London, and New York. Buruklin Hayits (“Brooklyn Heights”) by Miral al-Tahawi (Egypt) Caine Prize for African Writing

Georg-Büchner-Preis. Awarded for a body of literary work in the German language. First awarded in 1923; now administered by the German Academy for Language and Literature. Prize: >40,000. Reinhard Jirgl (Germany) Hooft Prize P.C. Hooft-prijs. The Dutch national prize for literature, established in 1947. Prize: >60,000. Charlotte Mutsaers

The Caine Prize for African Writing is awarded annually for a short story written by an African writer and published in English. The prize is named for Sir Michael Caine, longtime chairman of Booker PLC, the publishing company, and chairman of the Booker Prize management committee for 25 years. The Caine Prize was first given out in 2000. Award: £10,000 plus a travel allowance. Olufemi Terry (Sierra Leone) for “Stickfighting Days” Man Asian Literary Prize

Puhdistus by Sofi Oksanen (Finland)

This prize, inaugurated in 2007, is awarded annually for a novel written by an Asian author, written in or translated into English, and published in the previous year. In 2010 it was announced that as part of a new format, the previous year’s winner would be announced in the spring. The prize is underwritten by the Man Group PLC. Prize: $10,000 for the author and $3,000 for the translator, plus publication and distribution of the work if other arrangements have not been made.

Prix Goncourt

The Boat to Redemption by Su Tong (China) (2009 award)

Prix de l’Académie Goncourt. First awarded in 1903 from the estate of French literary figure Edmond Huot de Goncourt, to memorialize him and his brother, Jules. Prize: >10. La Carte et le territoire by Michel Houellebecq

Jun’ichir§ Tanizaki Prize

Nordic Council Literature Prize Established in 1961. Selections are made by a 10-member jury from among original works first published in Danish, Norwegian, or Swedish during the previous two years or in other Nordic languages (Finnish, Faroese, Sami, etc.) during the previous four years. Prize: DKr 350,000.

Tanizaki Jun’ichir§ Sh§. Established in 1965 to honour the memory of novelist Jun’ichir§ Tanizaki. Awarded annually to a Japanese author for an exemplary literary work. Prize: ¥1,000,000 and a trophy.

Prix Femina

Kazushige Abe for Pisutoruzu (“Pistols”)

Established in 1904. The awards for works “of imagination” are announced by an all-women jury in the categories of French fiction, fiction in translation, and nonfiction. Announced in November together with the Prix Médicis. Prize: not stated.

RyÜnosuke Akutagawa Prize

French Fiction

La Vie est brève et le désir sans fin by Patrick Lapeyre

Strega Prize Premio Strega. Awarded annually since 1947 for the best work of prose (fiction or nonfiction) by an Italian author in the previous year. The prize is supported by the beverage company Strega Alberti Benevento. Prize: >5,000. Canale Mussolini by Antonio Pennacchi Cervantes Prize for Hispanic Literature Premio Cervantes. Established in 1975 and awarded by the Spanish Ministry of Culture for a body of work in the Spanish language. Announced in November or December and awarded the following April. Prize: >125,000. Ana María Matute (Spain)

Akutagawa RyÜnosuke Sh§. Established in 1935 and now sponsored by the Association for the Promotion of Japanese Literature; the prize is awarded in January and June for the best serious work of fiction by a promising new Japanese writer published in a magazine or journal. Prize: ¥1,000,000 and a commemorative gift. No award for second half of 2009 Otome no mikkoku (“The Anonymous Tip of a Virgin”) by Akiko Akazome (143rd prize, first half of 2010) Mao Dun Literature Prize Established in 1981 to honour contemporary Chinese novels and named after novelist Shen Yanbing (1896–1981), whose nom de plume was Mao Dun; awarded every three years. The latest awards were given on Oct. 25, 2008. Qinqiang (“Qin Opera”) by Jia Pingwa Ergun he you an (“The Right Bank of the Argun River”) by Chi Zijian Hu guang shan se (“The Scenery of Lakes and Mountains”) by Zhou Daxin An suan (“Plotting”) by Mai Jia

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Sir Salman Rushdie returned to children’s writing after a 20-year hiatus with Luka and the Fire of Life, written for his son. It embellished a traditional quest structure with details from video games, puns, rhymes, and exuberant nonsense, telling the tale of a boy’s mission to the World of Magic in search of the fire of life to rouse his unwaking father. The 2010 Carnegie Medal for children’s fiction went to Neil Gaiman’s The Graveyard Book, a spooky retelling of Kipling’s The Jungle Book in which a toddler, whose family was murdered, is raised by graveyard ghosts. The future of popular science writing seemed threatened as its only award, the Royal Society Prize for Science Books, failed to find a new commercial sponsor for 2011. Steve Jones, the 1994 prizewinner (referring as well to concurrent cuts in science research funding), called it “an emblematic piece of bad news in a week when British science has been, perhaps terminally, trashed.” The winner of the 2010 award was Nick Lane’s Life Ascending: The Ten Great Inventions of Evolution (2009), which charted life from its early dawn through 10 key evolutionary innovations, including warm blood, photosynthesis, and sex. Maggie Philbin, chair of the judges, commended Lane for writing a book that challenged readers to develop their scientific thinking. No award was needed to draw attention to Stephen Hawking’s first book in a decade: The Grand Design (2009), cowritten by popular science writer Leonard Mlodinow. The work stirred up furious debate with its casual assertion that no God was needed to create the universe. Pitting science against religion, however, was far from Hawking’s purpose, which was to bring into harmony the disjunction between subatomic quantum physics and the physics of huge galaxies using something called M-theory. In contrast to Hawking’s accessible volume, world-famous mathematical physicist Sir Roger Penrose’s Cycles of Time: An Extraordinary New View of the Universe was thick with equations and diagrams. Cycles of Time posited Penrose’s theory of conformal cyclical cosmology, formulating the Big Bang as an endlessly recurring event. (CAROL PEAKER) United States. A nearly 200% increase in the sale of e-books in 2010 suggested that the time for digital books in the United States had arrived. Though the technology of book publishing seemed to be changing at an ever-increasing 256

American writer Jonathan Franzen sought to capture the zeitgeist in the sprawling Freedom, one of the mostdiscussed novels of the year. rate, American writers appeared to be moving at the usual pace for serious artists, producing the best work they could in the shortest period of time, which for most of them meant years rather than digital seconds. Jonathan Franzen, for example, waited nearly 10 years before he brought out another novel following the publication of his National Book Award-winning The Corrections (2001). When his new novel, Freedom, came out in late summer, it seemed for awhile to catch the attention of a serious fictionreading audience. Franzen appeared on the cover of Time magazine, and his book became the focus of an almost entirely laudatory number of reviews. (The main dissenting critiques came from NPR’s evening news program All Things Considered, the Washington Post, The Nation, and The Atlantic Monthly.) His reconciliation with media star Oprah Winfrey, following his embarrassing refusal to appear on her show nine years earlier, also made the news and increased his income exponentially. Though commercially successful and brilliant in execution, Franzen’s novel was by no means the best book of the year; his work was not even selected as a nominee for the National Book Award. Just as brilliant and much more intellectually and emotionally satisfying was Jennifer Egan’s latest novel, A Visit from the Goon Squad. As the work begins to unfold, the theme seems to

centre on urban youth and their love for punk music, but it quickly expands to reveal time’s comical and relentless permutations at work on children and adults of several generations. The Surrendered, by Chang-rae Lee, stood as one of the most powerful novels of the year, with its story of a young Korean War orphan who makes her way through life, first in her home country and eventually in the United States. Philip Roth mined the history of his New Jersey hometown in Nemesis, the story of the 1940s polio epidemic and its immediate effect during that time on (mostly) Jewish life. First-time novelist Karl Marlantes portrayed the Vietnam War with power, if some awkwardness, in Matterhorn. In Driving on the Rim, which focused on the moral struggles faced by a small-town Montana doctor, Thomas McGuane showed off his characteristic bittersweet style, rich character development, and undisputed mastery for creating settings. Though few American writers had written successful works about wealthy people, those who did so—including Edith Wharton, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Truman Capote, and Dominick Dunne—often had spectacular results. A new name was added to this illustrious list—New York novelist Jonathan Dee, whose latest book, The Privileges, recounted a story of a special marriage in a time quite close to the present day. Cynthia Ozick, with her novel Foreign Bodies, had readers conjuring up Henry James as she worked a contemporary variation on the plot of James’s The Ambassadors. Brady Udall’s second novel, The Lonely Polygamist, offered a sprawling portrait of the American family. The character referred to in the title, Golden Richards, oversees four wives and 27 living children in the renegade Mormon territory of the Virgin River valley in southwestern Utah. Novelist Robert Stone published a first-rate collection of short stories, Fun with Problems, only his second in his long career as a writer. The book’s title seemed to belie the fate of the major characters— lawyers, drug smugglers, software magnates, and honeymooners—who drown in Caribbean waters, in swimming pools, or in enough alcohol to fill a swimming pool itself, if not an ocean. A title novella and 15 stories made up the nearly 400 pages of Joyce Carol Oates’s Sourland, a collection with an obsessive focus on the plight mainly of naive young female adolescents and newly bereaved women in a world of pain, suffering, loss, and dangerous af-

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fections. Earlier in the year, the prolific Oates had also released a novella, Fair Maiden, and a book of essays and reviews, In Rough Country. Another collection worthy of note was T.C. Boyle’s Wild Child, a characteristic virtuoso offering, with each of the stories quite different from every other and each beautifully delivered. Among other fiction works of notable achievement were Walter Mosley’s The Last Days of Ptolemy Grey, the story of a nonagenarian suffering from dementia who, before his death, is able to muster a few months of lucidity (via an experimental medical treatment) in the company of a 17-year-old female friend of his family; Jim Harrison’s The Farmer’s Daughter, which contained wonderfully entertaining novellas; Louise Erdrich’s Shadow Tag, an almost embarrassingly confessional novel about a disintegrating marriage; and Kevin Canty’s muted but powerful novel—Everything—about love and loss of affections in contemporary Montana. In The Cookbook Collector, Allegra Goodman concocted a serious but very entertaining story that opens on the verge of the new millennium and tells of the lives and loves of two sisters in an intelligent mode somewhat akin to that of Jane Austen but with an R rating. Lan Samantha Chang bestowed on readers All Is Forgotten, Nothing Is Lost, a slender but evocative novel about the education of an American poet and the toils of art and life. The outsized talent Rick Moody brought out a preposterously overlong send-up of a 1960s science-fiction horror movie titled The Four Fingers of Death. Paul Auster published Sunset Park, his warmest novel in years. The story, among other narrative lines, involves a father-son relationship that moves outside the normal borders of demarcation. Eric Puchner signed in with Model Home, an appealing novel about a disintegrating southern California family. Short-story writers Richard Bausch and David Means published new collections, Something Is Out There and The Spot, respectively. John Edgar Wideman experimented with a volume of short tales titled Briefs: Stories for the Palm of the Mind. Benjamin Percy’s first novel, The Wilding, showed off his burgeoning powers in the story of a father-son-grandson bear hunt in the mountains of Oregon. Danielle Evans drew critical praise for her first book, a collection of stories called Before You Suffocate Your Own Fool Self. For sheer poundage Adam

Levin’s 1,000-page The Instructions took the prize for weightiest first book—and the most experimental. The New Yorker magazine fiction editor Deborah Treisman’s compilation 20 Under 40 featured stories by a number of younger writers, including Daniel Alarcón, Sarah Shunlien Bynum, Philipp Meyer, and Karen Russell. Though Treisman remarked that “the habit of list-making can seem arbitrary or absurd,” she also noted that “good writing speaks for itself, and it speaks over time . . . yet the lure of the list is deeply ingrained.” The year saw a plethora of vampire books. Award-winning storyteller Justin Cronin picked up nearly $4 million for The Passage, the first volume of a projected vampire trilogy, and another nearly $2 million for the movie rights. Whether many readers would be infected by this trilogy was another question. A more likely blockbuster was the more direct and smoothly written trilogy by film director Guillermo del Toro and popular novelist Chuck Hogan. The first volume, The Strain (2009), showed seriously engaging power with this traditional material, and volume two, The Fall, sustained the same high level. Among other serious entertainments, Stephen King published a collection of four long stories in Full Dark, No Stars, and Karen Joy Fowler offered What I Didn’t See, short stories written in a mode somewhere between Argentine short-story writer Jorge Luis Borges and the American science-fiction writer Ursula K. Le Guin. There were a number of new poetry collections during the year. Kay Ryan, U.S. poet laureate 2008–10, released The Best of It, and former poet laureate Robert Hass came out with The Apple Trees at Olema. For good measure, Elizabeth Hun Schmidt edited The Poets Laureate Anthology, with selections of verse by laureates beginning with Joseph Auslander (1937–41) and covering W.S. Merwin (appointed in 2010) and everyone in between. Anne Carson presented readers with her experimental Nox, an exploration of her grief following her brother’s death. Edward Hirsch released The Living Fire: New and Selected Poems. Henri Cole’s Pierce the Skin: Selected Poems appeared, as did Margaret Gibson’s Second Nature, Tony Hoagland’s Unincorporated Persons in the Late Honda Dynasty, and Gerald Stern’s Early Collected Poems. Stephen Sandy came out with Overlook, his 12th book of verse. Avant-garde writer Harry Mathews published his first book of po-

ems in nearly 20 years, titled The New Tourism. Among translations, Nobel Prize laureate Wislawa Szymborska’s Here was rendered into English by Clare Cavanagh and Stanislaw Baranczak. Editor Benjamin Taylor put together Saul Bellow: Letters, the proverbial fascinating glimpse into the private life of one of the century’s great writers. Native American writer Leslie Marmon Silko’s The Turquoise Ledge was one of the more interesting memoirs to appear because of the way in which she mixed personal revelation with observations about her environment. Ian Frazier scouted out a distinctly different terrain in his nonfiction Travels in Siberia. Norris Church Mailer, who died in November, brought writing very close to home in her autobiography A Ticket to the Circus, which explored her marriage to novelist and journalist Norman Mailer. Japaneseborn American Kyoko Mori produced Yarn (2009), a volume that presented her essays on life and knitting and was unique among recent nonfiction. Prizewinning poet C.K. Williams wrote a pithy biography, On Whitman, an intense work of celebratory criticism about the great poet’s work. Jerome Loving focused squarely on his subject in Mark Twain: The Adventures of Samuel L. Clemens. Bill Morgan and David Stanford edited Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg: The Letters. John McIntyre edited Memorable Days: The Selected Letters of James Salter and Robert Phelps. The 2010 Pulitzer Prize for fiction went to Paul Harding for his novel Tinkers (2009), and Rae Armantrout took the Pulitzer in poetry for Versed (2009). The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy (2009) by David E. Hoffman won the award for general nonfiction. The PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction went to Sherman Alexie (see BIOGRAPHIES ) for his story collection War Dances (2009). Edward P. Jones and Nam Le shared the PEN/Malamud Award for Excellence in the Short Story. The five nominees for the National Book Award for Fiction were experimentalists Karen Tei Yamashita (I Hotel), with her dense, relatively undramatic linked novellas about political and intellectual life among Asian Americans in the San Francisco Bay Area during the tumultuous 1960s and beyond, and Jaimy Gordon, for her racetrack novel (Lord of Misrule), as well as meditative fiction about the individual in history, general and personal, from Nicole Krauss (Great House), Peter 257

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American author Jaimy Gordon won the National Book Award for Fiction for her novel Lord of Misrule, which centred on the world of horse racing. Carey (Parrot and Olivier in America), with a lively learned novel about a journey between Old World and New, and Lionel Shriver (So Much for That) for her novel about Americans caught up in the failure of the health care system. The prize went to Gordon. The finalists in the nonfiction category were Barbara Demick (Nothing to Envy: Ordinary Lives in North Korea), John W. Dower (Cultures of War: Pearl Harbor, Hiroshima, 9-11, Iraq), Patti Smith (Just Kids), Justin Spring (Secret Historian: The Life and Times of Samuel Steward), and Megan K. Stack (Every Man in This Village Is a Liar: An Education in War). The winner was Smith. The poetry nominees included Kathleen Graber (The Eternal City), Terrance Hayes (Lighthead), James Richardson (By the Numbers), C.D. Wright (One with Others), and Monica Youn (Ignatz). Hayes claimed the prize. Among the deaths during the year were those of J.D. Salinger, best known for his classic novel The Catcher in the Rye (1951); Barry Hannah, who was praised for his darkly comic novels and short stories; Louis Stanton Auchincloss, a noted novelist, short-story writer, and critic; Robert Brown Parker, creator of two popular detective series featuring private eye Spenser and police chief Jesse Stone; and Carolyn M. Rodgers, a poet who found her voice in the Black Arts movement. (See OBITUARIES.) Children’s writer Sid Fleischman, noted for 258

the tall tales he told in the McBroom book series, also left the scene. (ALAN CHEUSE) Canada. Double meanings structured many Canadian works of fiction in 2010. Avner Mandelman’s The Debba (the name of a mythological shapeshifting hyena-like creature who steals Jewish children and thus represents evil to Jews but who is a national hero to Arabs) symbolized the state of Israel, where no act has one simple meaning. Kathleen Winter’s Annabel featured a child born both male and female; history and fiction were juxtaposed in Joan Thomas’s Curiosity, in which the discovery of a giant fossil brings together two very disparate people; and the laying bare of the bones, physical and emotional, of dinosaurs and diggers informed Kathy Page’s The Find. Past and present framed Jane Urquhart’s Sanctuary Line, a recounting of one family’s myths, legends, and implacable fates. The past appeared to have smothered the tiny hamlet of Juliet, Sask., until Dianne Warren plumbed its human depths in Cool Water; the book won a Governor General’s Literary Award for English-language fiction. Yann Martel’s Beatrice & Virgil used a story of a donkey and a monkey as an allegory for the Holocaust. Richard B. Wright dug into history in Mr. Shakespeare’s Bastard, imaginatively bringing the Bard’s shadowy life to light. Katherine Govier also turned a spotlight on the past in The Ghost Brush, about a talented Japanese painter who fears she will never escape the shadow of her famous father. Novels in a contemporary setting included Tom Rachman’s debut, The Imperfectionists, about the lives and antics of the staff of a Rome-based Englishlanguage newspaper, and The Matter with Morris by David Bergen, in which a grieving newspaper columnist attempts various means to hold despair at bay. The Don Valley ravine, only a short distance from the corporate towers of downtown Toronto, was the setting for Alissa York’s Fauna, an examination of sanctuary. Sandra Birdsell’s Waiting for Joe was the story of two people overwhelmed by debt and obligations who take to the road, while in Drew Hayden Taylor’s Motorcycles & Sweetgrass, the arrival of a stranger on an Indian Chief motorcycle, like a stone thrown into a slough, rocks the interlocked lives of the denizens of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwa) town of Otter Lake. Emma Donoghue’s Room revealed through the eyes of a

young boy that cramped quarters need not constrict the inner world. The Massey Lectures for 2010 consisted of Douglas Coupland’s Player One: What Is to Become of Us: A Novel in Five Hours, a real-time five-hour story set in an airport cocktail lounge during a global disaster; it was launched on CBC Radio. Short stories included several debut collections: Light Lifting by Alexander MacLeod, which married flexible prose with strong story lines centred on lifedefining moments; This Cake Is for the Party, Sarah Selecky’s depictions of young adults whose best intentions, entangled in unacknowledged conflicts, too often come to naught; and Crisp by R.W. Gray, in which the unexpected presents opportunities disguised as crises in the protagonists’ lives. Danila Botha’s Got No Secrets, a challenging walk through the gritty alleys of the drug-addicted and abuse-haunted, and Billie Livingston’s Greedy Little Eyes, which covered much the same territory, were also first collections of short stories. Most readers of Kelley Armstrong’s Tales of the Otherworld, however, were already familiar with her characters and fantasy universe. Among the poetry collections of 2010 were those of Trinidad-born Dionne Brand (Ossuaries); Fraser Sutherland (The Philosophy of As If); Keith Garebian (Children of Ararat), with his disturbing accounts of the Armenian massacre of 1915; and Douglas Burnet Smith (Learning to Count). Michael Harris’s latest poetry collection, Circus, examined life in the centre ring to shed light on the human condition. Daryl Hine’s &: A Serial Poem consisted of some 300 10-line lyric poems loosely linked by the ampersand. Also unusually named, [sic] by Nikki Reimer was a debut volume that satirized everything from alienation to zealotry. From a very different perspective, Melanie Siebert’s first collection, Deepwater Vee, followed the course of some of Canada’s great northern rivers into the heart of the country. Richard Greene’s third volume of poetry, Boxing the Compass, won the 2010 Governor General’s Literary Award for English-language poetry. (ELIZABETH RHETT WOODS) Other Literature in English. Among English-language literature of note in 2010 were works by authors from Australia, New Zealand, and sub-Saharan Africa representing a variety of genres. South African writer, political activist, and Nobel laureate in literature Nadine Gordimer brought out Telling Times:

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Writing and Living, 1954–2008, which collected for the first time all of her nonfiction work in a single volume. South African Kopano Matlwa (Coconut, 2007) shared with Nigerian Wale Okediran (Tenants of the House, 2009) the third biennial Wole Soyinka Prize for Literature, named in honour of Africa’s first Nobel laureate in literature. Afrikaans author Antjie Krog presented her third book of autobiographical writings, Begging to Be Black (2009), a unique mix of correspondence and memoir, philosophy, and poetry in addressing racial, political, and historical issues in contemporary South Africa. Former South African president Nelson Mandela released Conversations with Myself (foreword by U.S. Pres. Barack Obama), a personal collection of notes, letters, and diaries from prison, which offered revealing and moving details of his epic battle for freedom. Nigerian native son Chinua Achebe (Things Fall Apart, 1958), widely regarded as the father of contemporary African literature, published The Education of a British-Protected Child (2009), a compilation of 17 autobiographical essays. Poet, essayist, journalist, and social critic Odia Ofeimun, also from Nigeria, received the 2010 Fonlon-Nichols Award for excellence in creative writing and for contributions to the struggle for human rights and freedom. Countryman Helon Habila also dealt with socially conscious issues in Oil on Water, a novel that focused on environmental and human rights abuses in the Niger delta. Elsewhere, Ethiopian-born writer Dinaw Mengestu secured his standing as an important emerging author with the release of his second novel, How to Read the Air, and Sierra Leone’s Olumfemi Terry garnered the Caine Prize for his short story “Stickfighting Days.” Other finalists for the award included Ken Barris (South Africa), Lily Mabura (Kenya), Namwali Serpell (Zambia), and Alex Smith (South Africa). New Zealand honoured many of its best and most-promising writers with the New Zealand Post Book awards. The recipients for 2010 were Encircled Lands: Te Urewera, 1820–1921 (2009), by Judith Binney (book of the year); As the Earth Turns Silver (2009), by Alison Wong (fiction); Just This (2009), by Brian Turner (poetry); Relief (2009), by Anna Taylor (best first book of fiction); and Fast Talking PI (2009), by Selina Tusitala Marsh (best first book of poetry).

Australian-born novelist Peter Carey was short-listed for the Man Booker Prize for Parrot and Olivier in America, a witty “improvisation” inspired by the life of the 18th-century French historian Alexis de Tocqueville. In neighbouring Australia celebrated poet Les Murray brought out Taller When Prone, his first new verse collection since 2006, which was lauded for its versatility and grace in providing “traveller’s tales, elegies, meditative fragments and satirical sketches.” Glenda Guest won the 2010 Commonwealth Writers’ Prize for best first book for her novel Siddon Rock (2009), cited for its vast array of odd characters and depiction of the fantastic along with the everyday. Australian-born author Peter Carey demonstrated his full powers of wit and inventiveness to make the short list for the Man Booker Prize with his latest novel, Parrot and Olivier in America, in which he models a character on French social historian Alexis de Tocqueville. Colleen McCullough of New South Wales, noted especially for her blockbuster novel The Thorn Birds (1977), as well as her Masters of Rome historical fiction series, offered the yearend release of Naked Cruelty, the third volume in her Carmine Delmonico detective series. (DAVID DRAPER CLARK)

GERMAN One of the most important Germanlanguage novels of 2010 was set in Paris: Michael Kleeberg’s Das amerikanische Hospital. The work dealt with an American military officer suffering from Gulf

War syndrome owing to his horrific experiences in the Persian Gulf War (1990–91). The story line involves a highly intelligent and cultivated officer who meets and befriends a young French woman who, largely at the behest of her husband, is undergoing a painful and ultimately unsuccessful process of in vitro fertilization in an effort to give birth to a much-wanted child. The meeting between these two very different people—observed and in the end told by a narrator who turns out to be the French woman’s German husband, in many ways a stand-in for the author Kleeberg himself—leads to a process of intercultural negotiation and recognition that ultimately enlightens, even if it does not completely satisfy, all participants. The novel contained remarkable descriptions of a Paris metro strike, along with visually stunning accounts of scenes from the Persian Gulf War; it confirmed Kleeberg’s status as one of the major contemporary authors working in the German language. Another well-received novel of the year, Thomas Lehr’s September: Fata Morgana, also dealt with intercultural problems, notably the experience of being an American in the contemporary era. One of the novel’s protagonists was a German American history professor whose daughter dies in the U.S. World Trade Center terrorist attack on Sept. 11, 2001. The story of this father and daughter is intertwined with that of a similar scenario in the Middle East involving an Iraqi doctor whose daughter dies in a suicide attack in 2004. One of the most-talked-about novels of the year was Helene Hegemann’s Axolotl Roadkill, a succès de scandale that told a confused and confusing story of anomie and hopelessness in contemporary Berlin. The semiautobiographical protagonist engages in aimless sex, drug use, and philosophical-cultural speculation. The scandal arose not because of the novel’s content but because of well-founded accusations that the 17-year-old author had plagiarized parts of the text from others, particularly the Berlin blogger Airen. The debate that ensued touched on important issues of what constituted plagiarism in a digital age characterized by frequent “sampling” and on the differences between older- and younger-generation writers and their perspectives on the ethics of copying. In the end Hegemann’s publishing house put out an updated edition of the novel with clear indications as to which parts of the text had been copied from other sources. 259

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Martin Mosebach’s novel Was davor geschah was the most successful depiction of contemporary German social mores to be published in 2010. The novel dealt with the foibles and vanities of the very rich, or of those who would like to be very rich. Underneath a veneer of freedom, the seemingly privileged figures in Mosebach’s novel behave with a rigidity that reveals the strict rules under which they operate, rules that dominate not only the business world but also the world of social, family, and erotic relationships. In this depiction the contemporary German world does not seem particularly freer than the baroque world of the 17th century with its elaborate social codes. Christa Wolf, undoubtedly the bestknown living writer from the former German Democratic Republic (GDR), published her first novel after a lengthy silence, Stadt der Engel, oder, The Overcoat of Dr. Freud. Like most of Wolf’s other fiction, this was an autobiographical story; it dealt above all with Wolf’s residency in Los Angeles in 1992, two years after German reunification, at a time when the author’s complicity with the GDR’s Ministry of State Security, the so-called Stasi, became a controversial issue in Germany. The novel explored the author’s disappointment at the failure of both the socialist dream and the hopes connected with German reunification. In October Wolf was awarded the Thomas Mann Prize for lifetime achievement. Judith Zander’s novel Dinge, die wir heute sagten also dealt with the GDR and its problems; it was set in a small provincial town in northern Germany and addressed the lives of that town’s citizens as told to a former resident who had left years earlier for Ireland. Peter Wawerzinek’s novel Rabenliebe also recounted the problems of the GDR; its semiautobiographical protagonist is deserted by his mother as a young child and forced to live in the GDR without her. The surprise winner of the German Book Prize for 2010 was Melinda Nadj Abonji, a Swiss-based author who was born in Serbia in 1968. Abonji’s novel, Tauben fliegen auf, told of the problems associated with the war in Yugoslavia in the 1990s and of the lives of the Hungarian minority in northern Serbia, as well as of the difficulties that immigrants from southeastern Europe sometimes have adjusting to life in a more prosperous European country such as Switzerland.

Thomas Hettche’s novel Die Liebe der Väter was a moving account of the problems of fathers in contemporary society, while Andreas Maier’s Das Zimmer was an account of the life of its narrator’s uncle and of the provincial milieu near Frankfurt in which he lived. Finally, Georg Klein’s short-story collection, Die Logik der Süsse, told about a dystopian world in the near future. (STEPHEN M. BROCKMANN)

FRENCH France. The one literary sensation in the year 2010 was the long-awaited publication of Michel Houellebecq’s fifth novel, La Carte et le territoire, which many critics hailed as his best work yet. Readers expecting to find Houellebecq’s notorious use of sordid sexuality to express his pessimism with modern life were surprised to find instead a more mature, postsexual form of cynicism, which had, however, lost none of its humorous bite in its examination of whether in our consumerist world reproduction has now surpassed reality. The sexual battle to find a mate that defined Houellebecq’s previous novels is lost; solitude is inevitable and love impossible in a world in which authenticity is just a faded artifact of the past. The Prix Goncourt committee—yielding to public outcry that it had twice passed up awarding its most prestigious of French prizes to Houellebecq, the most widely read and respected French author in the world—at last crowned him its winner. The only other novel to rival Houellebecq’s in reader anticipation was the winner of the Prix Renaudot, Apocalypse bébé by Virginie Despentes, an author celebrated as the leading feminist voice in contemporary French literature. Like Houellebecq’s, Despentes’s reputation was built on the obscenity of her work, starting with the 1993 Baisemoi, and like that earlier novel, Apocalypse bébé features a duo of women on a journey through the underbelly of society, an incompetent private detective and a lesbian bounty hunter tracking down a rampant rich girl gone missing. Besides these two runaway best sellers, French literature was also strongly marked by the autofiction—authors’ novelization of their own lives—that had been prevalent for nearly two decades. For example, in the autofictional Qu’astu fait de tes frères?, Claude Arnaud recounted his adventures in sex, drugs, and freedom in France after 1968 and throughout the 1970s as he wallowed in pleasure while his family disintegrated

in tandem with conservative France. Writing about writing in Arrière-fond, Pierre Guyotat novelized the few days in 1955 when the author, then 15 years old on a trip to England, mixed sensuality, masturbation, and literature in the fateful way that would forever consecrate his life to the poetry of language. There were also major works of a genre related to autofiction, known as biofiction, in which authors novelize others’ lives instead of their own. For example, in La Sentinelle tranquille sous la lune, Soazig Aaron wrote about her grandfather, who had returned home from World War I inexplicably late and mysteriously changed. Gathering stories she had heard about him when she was a girl, Aaron tried in her novel to piece together his wartime miseries, ultimately in vain. In Sévère, Régis Jauffret reimagined the real-life headline-grabbing murder of rich banker Édouard Stern. In 2005 he was found murdered in his latex sadomasochism bodysuit, shot to death by his dominatrix, Cécile Brossard. Meanwhile, in the more hypothetical La Nuit du monde, Patrick Roegiers imagined the sparkling deep conversation that could have taken place be-

Michel Houellebecq, one of France’s most controversial yet respected authors, won the Prix Goncourt for his long-awaited novel La Carte et le territoire.

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tween authors James Joyce and Marcel Proust, had their meeting at a party in 1922 gone better and led to something more than the brief exchange of banalities that actually occurred. Besides novelizations of real-life occurrences, French literature also featured best sellers of pure imagination. Antoni Casas Ros’s Enigma, for example, told the story of four people with problematic relationships with literature who band together to rewrite the endings of books that they have judged unsatisfactory and then reintroduce them into circulation. The celebrated satirist Éric Chevillard published Choir, an attack on Christianity, in which the miserable inhabitants of a filthy island create the tale of a messiah, the only one of their insular kind ever to have escaped, in the hope that he will one day come back for them. The novel was more strident and less humorous than his previous works. In Avec Bastien, Mathieu Riboulet’s narrator falls in love with a gay porn star he has seen only in movies. He names his imagined version of the star Bastien and invents an entire life for him, from his cross-dressing beginnings as a child to his loves as a grown man. With Le Testament d’Olympe, Chantal Thomas published her most beautiful work yet, set in her era of predilection, the 18th century. In this novel young Apolline pines in her convent for her elder sister, Ursule, who has been kidnapped to provide sexual entertainment for King Louis XV. When Ursule’s meteoric rise at court is followed by her equally spectacular fall into misery and death, Apolline reads her sister’s journal, the fresco of a century that sacrificed women to royal splendour on the eve of the revolution that was to wash it all away. Maylis de Kerangal won the Prix Médicis for Naissance d’un pont, in which a small California town begins construction of a colossal bridge. Gathered from all corners of the globe, the workers, whose polyphonic voices—violent, greedy, and at the same time grandiose—illustrate the excesses, both beautiful and hideous, of the presentday United States. The Prix Femina went to Patrick Lapeyre for his La Vie est brève et le désir sans fin. The novel—in which two men, one in London and the other in Paris, suffer from their love for a would-be actress, Nora, who strings them along as she swings back and forth between them—was a rewriting of the 18th-century French classic Manon Lescaut. (VINCENT AURORA)

Canada. Both reevaluations of the past and concerns about the present preoccupied French Canadian writers in 2010. The 40th anniversary of the October Crisis, which was provoked by the kidnapping of a British diplomat and the murder of a Quebec government minister by French Canadian separatists, was marked by the publication of Louis Hamelin’s massive novel La Constellation du Lynx and by many more or less credible exposés debating the real meaning of the event. Historians, popular and academic, also turned their attention to the Quiet Revolution, the period of rapid reform in Quebec that began in the early 1960s. The controversial and generally reviled figure of strongman premier Maurice Duplessis, who died in 1959, was reevaluated in Duplessis, son milieu, son époque, edited by historians Xavier Gélinas and Lucia Ferretti. JeanFrançois Nadeau examined Quebec’s flirtation with fascism in the 1930s with his Adrien Arcand, führer canadien. Meanwhile, writers organized to oppose the federal Conservative government’s proposed copyright legislation that would give an educational exception to organizations wanting to use writers’ works for free under the fair dealing (fair use) exemption. New women novelists picked up two of French Canada’s main prizes. Kim Thúy won the Governor General’s Literary Award for French-language fiction for her short autobiographical work Ru (2009), which presented a Vietnamese perspective on the aftermath of the Vietnam War; her earlier acceptance of the 2010 Grand Prix RTL/Lire prize (sponsored by RTL Radio and Lire magazine) in France had boosted her standing in Quebec. The other title by a newcomer was Perrine Leblanc’s L’Homme blanc, which won the Grand Prix du Livre de Montreál. Like Thúy’s work, Leblanc’s tense, chiseled novel set in the dark days of the Soviet Union removed readers from a familiar setting. Lévesque Éditeur, a publishing house founded in 2010 by longtime publisher Gaëtan Lévesque, ushered in the return of novelist Sergio Kokis, with the shortstory collection Dissimulations. On a sombre note, the Haiti earthquake of 2010 united Haitian writers living in Quebec in the effort to provide material help for their Caribbean homeland. Once again, writer and publisher Rodney Saint-Éloi was in the forefront with his new book Haïti, kenbe la! (DAVID HOMEL)

ITALIAN Several Italian novels published in 2010 revolved around recent Italian history and contemporary society. Canale Mussolini by Antonio Pennacchi, recipient of the Strega Prize, narrated the saga of the Peruzzi family, which was among those thousands of people who answered Mussolini’s call, and descended from the North to reclaim and colonize the marshy land of Agro Pontino (south of Rome) in the 1930s. Avoiding easy wisdom after the event, the narrator described how the socialist Peruzzis became fervent fascists and supported Mussolini’s endeavours until they too suffered the tragic consequences of the war. With Le due chiese, Sebastiano Vassalli published his first novel in the 20 years since La chimera. Le due chiese described the transformation of the impoverished community of Rocca di Sasso—through World War I, fascism, World War II, the Resistance, and the postwar economic boom—into a ski resort. The alteration to the town, which represents the change to all of Italy, is symbolized by the destruction of two churches built by war veterans to make space for a large parking lot. A small mountain community was also at the centre of Maurizio Maggiani’s Meccanica celeste. As he waited for the birth of his baby girl, the narrator celebrated the spirit unique to his people (the inhabitants of Garfagnana), which remained intact throughout centuries of wars, invasions, and migrations. Garfagnana, an enclave in northern Tuscany protected by steep Apuan Alps, was, in Maggiani’s view, an isolated microcosm that nevertheless experienced repercussions from distant events. The stories of the narrator and his fellow villagers about World War II, the Resistance, and the Italian Diaspora intersected with tales from the Amazonian forest and from Newcastle, Eng. An infernal urban setting was the backdrop of Laura Pariani’s Milano è una selva oscura, which was set in Milan during the student and worker protest movement of 1969. The city, marked by the signs of the previous decade’s economic miracle and upset by strikes, uprisings, and police repression, came to life in the protagonist’s observations and reflections. Dante, a man of culture and a former dealer in antique books, is now a tramp and a proud free thinker. He pictured Milan through the lenses of his personal and literary memories. After the international success of his film Il divo (2008), acclaimed director 261

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Paolo Sorrentino published his first novel, Hanno tutti ragione, in which the deep contradictions that characterized Italian society at the end of the 20th century were filtered through the disenchanted, cynical—yet at times sentimental—gaze of Tony Pagoda, a cocaine addict and singer. Life in the suburbs and in provincial Italy was a subject common to several novels published during the year. Silvia Avallone’s Acciaio (the winner of the Campiello Prize for first novel) attracted remarkable attention. It was the story of two working-class girls in Piombino, a small Tuscan town that revolved around its famous steel factory. Brought up in families marked by financial hardship and troubled relationships, 13-year-old Anna and Francesca were exposed daily to violence, exploitation, petty crimes, fraud, death on the job, and sexism and had to negotiate the power and dangers of their blossoming beauty. In Francesco Recami’s Prenditi cura di me, set in a Florence suburb, objective financial difficulties (related to Italy’s high unemployment rate), the protagonist’s inability to achieve his goals, and a society in which seeming is more important than being put an already fragile mother-son relationship to the test. Rosa Matteucci’s Tutta mio padre was a tribute to the narrator’s father, who was anything but a hero or a role model; a

The Campiello Prize was awarded to Italian writer Michela Murgia for her novel Accabadora, which contemplated questions of ethics.

gambler, squanderer, and self-proclaimed alchemist, he spent his life pursuing the invention of the century but ended by contributing to the family’s ruin. Tutta mio padre also provided a picaresque and tragicomic account— told in an eclectic style—of the complete financial and physical decadence of an eccentric aristocratic family from the province of Orvieto. A high school teacher, Alessandro D’Avenia, became a literary (and YouTube) sensation with his first novel, Bianca come il latte, rossa come il sangue. It was written in journal form and in the voice of a 16-year-old boy who weathers a painful experience and eventually learns how to follow his authentic passions. With Accabadora (2009; the title is a Sardinian word meaning “she who terminates”), Michela Murgia—the winner of the Campiello Prize—touched on a controversial issue in contemporary Italy; in telling the story of Bonaria Urrai, an old woman who takes the lives of the irremediably ill, Murgia posed the question of whether individuals should have the right to decide when to die. Cesarina Vighy’s Scendo: Buon proseguimento was a collection of e-mail messages the author sent to various addressees during the last phase of her illness. The work documented the making of L’ultima estate, which won the Campiello Prize for a first novel in 2009. Vighy died on May 1, only a few days after the release of her second book. Another loss in May was that of Edoardo Sanguineti (see OBITUARIES)—poet, literary critic, and leader of the avant-garde movement Gruppo 63. (CRISTINA GRAGNANI)

SPANISH Spain. The year 2010 capped a decade during which women became an increasingly strong presence in Spain’s literary scene. Authors also continued to show their interest in exploring the country’s recent history. In Inés y la alegría, Almudena Grandes paid homage to the men and women who fought against the dictatorship of Gen. Francisco Franco. It was the first of six volumes projected by Grandes, which together would be called Episodios de una guerra interminable and would cover the period 1939–64, from the end of the Spanish Civil War to the 25th anniversary of Franco’s accession to power. Clara Sánchez received the Nadal Prize for her psychological thriller Lo que esconde tu nombre, a novel about a couple who have buried their Nazi past by living Luigi Costantini/AP

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Spanish writer Eduardo Mendoza received the Planeta Prize for Riña de gatos: Madrid 1936, a novel set on the brink of the Spanish Civil War. anonymously in a pleasant town on the coast of Spain. Eduardo Mendoza was awarded the Planeta Prize for his novel Riña de gatos: Madrid 1936. Set in the country’s capital on the eve of the devastating civil war, it centres on a British art expert who discovers what is thought to be a previously unknown (but immensely valuable) painting by 17th-century artist Diego Velázquez. Elvira Lindo’s Lo que me queda por vivir revolves around Antonia, a 20something mother who finds herself raising her toddler alone in Madrid during the 1980s, a period that saw great change as the city left behind the legacy of Franco’s dictatorship. Enrique Vila-Matas released Dublinesca, a novel about Samuel Riba, a retired publisher who is preoccupied with what he considers the impending end of the industry to which he has devoted his life. For Riba, the city of Dublin provides an answer. Dime quién soy, a novel by Julia Navarro, was a panoramic history of 20th-century Spain told through the story of a journalist who researches her great-grandmother’s life. Intrigue, tragedy, passion, and fantasy were the ingredients of Fernando Marías’s Todo el amor y casi toda la muerte, which was awarded the Primavera Prize. It describes a man who is searching for his identity and three women who refuse to submit to the authority of others. The National Prize for Narrative went to Javier Cercas for

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Anatomía de un instante (2009), a novel about Adolfo Suárez González, a Franco loyalist who in 1976 became Spain’s youngest prime minister; Gen. Manuel Gutiérrez Mellado, who as first prime minister for defense rebuffed a military coup in 1981; and Santiago Carrillo, a prominent Communist Party member who helped organize opposition to Franco in the 1970s—all of whom, during their lives, set aside their former ideals to embrace the future and were consequently criticized as traitors. Cercas’s novel was a powerful depiction of Spain’s shift from dictatorship to democracy. The Cervantes Prize went to Ana María Matute, the third woman awarded the Spanish-speaking world’s most prestigious literary prize. Matute was considered by many to be one of Spain’s best post-Civil War writers. A loss to Spanish letters was the death of another postwar writer and Cervantes Prize winner, Miguel Delibes. (See OBITUARIES.) (VERÓNICA ESTEBAN) Latin America. Latin American novelists oscillated between two approaches to their craft in 2010: they pursued traditional realism, whereby they sought to document what they considered to be reality, whether historical or contemporary, or they sought to overcome stereotypes of magic realism by reworking or otherwise freshening this narrative strategy. Argentine writer Ricardo Piglia published Blanco nocturno, a novel in the tradition of his country’s rural literature, which includes José Hernández’s El gaucho Martín Fierro (1872) and some short stories by Jorge Luis Borges, among other classics. Piglia’s novel is set in a small town, where the reader can clearly recognize the typical negative features of human societies: racism, envy, and corruption. There is a crime to solve, a charismatic chief of police, a journalist who arrives from Buenos Aires, and a delirious idealist who intends to bring industrialization to an agricultural society. Argentine journalist Sergio Olguín’s thriller Oscura monótona sangre took its title from a line of verse by Italian poet Salvatore Quasimodo. The protagonist, a man of middle age, is obsessed with a young Paraguayan immigrant who has become a prostitute in a marginal neighbourhood in Buenos Aires. Nostalgia impels him to drive through the young immigrant’s neighbourhood on his way to his factory and to start a relationship with her that ends in tragedy. Olguín’s novel won the Premio Tusquets Editores de Novela in 2009.

Chilean author Hernán Rivera Letelier won the Alfaguara Prize with El arte de la resurrección, a novel that features elements of traditional magic realism but that takes as its subject a historical figure, a madman in the Atacama Desert who during the 1940s pretended to be Jesus Christ. The townspeople, ignorant and exhausted by their work in the local mines, call him the Christ of Elqui and believe in his absurd sermons. The same figure had inspired Sermones y prédicas del Cristo de Elqui (1977) by Chilean poet Nicanor Parra. Los concuñados del cuarenta y siete, a novel by Luisa Moreno Sartorio, a Paraguayan Argentine author, is set in Paraguay in 1947, when the Liberal Party launched a revolt against the country’s president and the ruling Colorado Party that resulted in a devastating civil war. The poignant narrative centres on a family affiliated with the Liberals whose members are destroyed by the government. Adolfo Cáceres Romero, a historian of Bolivian literature, was awarded Bolivia’s Premio Nacional de Novela for El charanguista de Boquerón (2009), a novel that provides accounts of both real and fictional soldiers in the Chaco War (1932–35) between Bolivia and Paraguay. The title alludes to a musician who encouraged his comrades in one of the war’s bloodiest battles. Some authors masked reality by depicting utopias or dystopias. Nicaraguan novelist Gioconda Belli was awarded the La Otra Orilla Prize for the utopia she described in El país de las mujeres, a story of the women who, as members of the Party of the Erotic Left, take political power in a country somewhat similar to Nicaragua. In contrast, the Premio Biblioteca Breve, awarded by the publisher Seix Barral, went to Argentine Guillermo Saccomanno for the dystopic El oficinista, in which an antihero roams an apocalyptic setting that has a certain resemblance to Buenos Aires. The suspenseful El Mañana, by Argentine author Luisa Valenzuela, is a novel about language and the feminine condition—particularly the manner in which feminine identity can be acquired through language and through resistance to patriarchal attempts to suppress it. The title alludes to the name of the ship on which a group of women writers are sequestered so as to silence them. Other authors followed the postmodern tendency to insert themselves as characters in their own narratives. Bo-

livian novelist Homero Carvalho Oliva depicted himself as a character conversing with a colleague in El árbol de los recuerdos, in which reality is filtered through delirium and madness. In Guatemalan Eduardo Halfon’s La pirueta, the winner of the José María de Pereda Prize, the protagonist shares some biographical features with the author. He is fascinated by Milan Rakic, a pianist of Serbian and Roma (Gypsy) descent who travels widely and, after meeting the protagonist, sends postcards to him from different parts of the world. When the postcards cease, the protagonist goes to Belgrade to look for him. The narrative has a nightmarish tone. Colombian Fernando Vallejo, a talented literary sniper who used violent language to debunk principles dear to the good consciences of his readers, published El don de la vida, in which author and narrator get mixed up in the enumeration of hideous sins. Celebrated Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. (See NOBEL PRIZES.) His novel El sueño del celta takes as its subject a historical figure, the Irishman Roger Casement, a British consul in the Congo and Amazonia who became famous for his reports on human rights abuses there. Later he was accused of treason for his controversial methods in attempting to secure Ireland’s independence—he looked for help from Germany—and then was subsequently stripped of his knighthood and executed in London in 1916. Vargas Llosa’s narrator is sympathetic to Casement, but he does not omit his darker side. (LEDA SCHIAVO)

PORTUGUESE Portugal. In May 2010 the most important trophy of Portuguese-language literatures, the Camões Prize, was awarded to Brazilian poet, essayist, and playwright Ferreira Gullar. His long career in poetry encompassed the collections Poema sujo (1976; Dirty Poem, 1990), Crime na flora, ou, Ordem e progresso (1986), and 2010’s Em alguma parte alguma. Among Gullar’s influential essays were Teoria do não-objeto (1959), Cultura posta em questão (1965), and Argumentação contra a morte da arte (1993). In 1966 Gullar and coauthor Oduvaldo Viana Filho published Se correr o bicho pega, se ficar o bicho come, the acclaimed masterpiece of modern Brazilian theatre. Internationally prominent Portuguese novelist António Lobo Antunes pub263

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lished his latest novel, the multivoiced Sôbolos rios que vão, which echoed the title and themes of a long poem by the Renaissance poet Luís de Camões. Younger writer Gonçalo M. Tavares rewrote Camões’s epic poem Os Lusíadas (1572; The Lusiads, 1878) for the postmodern era in his verse novel Uma viagem à Índia. Also in dialogue with Camões was Angolan writer José Eduardo Agualusa, whose novel Milagrário pessoal could be read as a celebration of the multicultural legacy of the Portuguese language. The heritage of Portuguese women’s writing was celebrated with the first critical edition of the collectively authored feminist text Novas cartas portuguesas (1972; The Three Marias: New Portuguese Letters, 1975), with the new version edited by poet and critic Ana Luísa Amaral. Luísa Costa Gomes published her seventh novel, Ilusão (ou o que quiserem) (2009), and tied with Dulce Maria Cardoso (O chão dos pardais) for the 2009 Portuguese PEN Club Prize for fiction. Joint PEN prizes were also awarded to Maria da Saudade Cortesão Mendes (O desdobrar da sombra: seguido de fragmentos de um labirinto) and Antonio Manuel Pires Cabral (Arado) for poetry and Maria da Conceição Caleiro (O cão das ilhas) and Ricardo Gil Soeiro (Iminência do encontro: George Steiner e a leitura responsável) for first work. When Nobel laureate José Saramago died on June 18, 2010, the Portuguese government honoured him with two days of national mourning. (See OBITUARIES.) Among his most celebrated novels were Memorial do convento (1982; Baltasar and Blimunda, 1987) and Ensaio sobre a cegueira (1995; Blindness, 1997). His most controversial works, O evangelho segundo Jesus Cristo (1991; The Gospel According to Jesus Christ, 1991) and Caim (2009), generated debates that highlighted Saramago’s identity as a liberal, politically engaged writer with deep-seated anticlerical convictions. A documentary, José e Pilar (2010), directed by Miguel Gonçalves Mendes, was a portrait of the author’s married life and his relationship with his wife, Pilar del Río. (VICTOR K. MENDES) Brazil. Among the new works of Brazilian fiction in 2010 was Zeca Fonseca’s Pandemonium. In it Fonseca continued the saga of José Lemok (the protagonist of his previous novel), a sexually obsessed womanizer who feigns being a romantic and cites Friedrich Nietzsche and Vladimir Nabokov with equal ease. Carlos Orsi 264

Brazilian poet, playwright, television writer, and theorist Ferreira Gullar took the Camões Prize in 2010. Leonardo Aversa—Agencia O Globo/EPA/Landov

published Guerra justa, a work of science fiction set in the mid-21st century. Its plot is set in motion by a natural disaster, after which leadership is assumed by an awe-inspiring mystical figure whose integration of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish beliefs allows him to predict where future disasters will occur. Everyday tragedies were the subject of Histórias desagradáveis, a new collection of short stories by Gladstone Machado de Menezes. The actor Rosaly Papadopol developed and acted in Hilda Hilst—o espírito da coisa, a dramatic monologue that captured the life, works, and existential philosophy of the poet Hilda Hilst (1930–2004). Another fascinating work of 2010 was a made-for-television movie, De corpo inteiro—entrevistas, which recreated a series of interviews (conducted in 1968–69) of leading Brazilian cultural figures by the eminent novelist Clarice Lispector (1920–77) for Manchete magazine. Although some of the figures originally interviewed were still living, all the roles in the film were played by contemporary actors. The result was a curious mix of documentary and fiction. Among the winners of the year’s literary prizes were the poet Ferreira Gullar, who received the 2010 Camões Prize, the top prize for Portugueselanguage literature, awarded by the Portuguese government. Nélida Piñon earned the Brazilian Literature award

from the Cuban Casa de las Américas for her volume of memoirs Aprendiz de Homero (2008). The São Paulo Literature Prize for 2010 was awarded to the novelist Raimundo Carrero for his novel A minha alma é irmã de Deus (2009). The 2010 Jabuti Prize for fiction was awarded to Chico Buarque for his novel Leite derramado (2009). Luiz Costa Lima: Uma obra em questão, organized by writer and teacher Dau Bastos, is an homage to that outstanding literary critic and theorist. It takes the form of interviews he gives to Brazilian colleagues (e.g., Silviano Santiago, Haroldo de Campos), international scholars, and former students. Each interviewer discusses with Costa Lima his contribution to a specific field of literary studies and his evolving ideas and theories. Also of note in the field of literary criticism was the death of renowned Brazilian critic Wilson Martins, whose five decades of experience as a professor of Brazilian and French literatures—both in Brazil and in the United States—and as a syndicated columnist writing on contemporary Brazilian literature were truly remarkable. (IRWIN STERN)

RUSSIAN Mikhail Shishkin’s novel Pismovnik (“A Compilation of Letters”) was the work of fiction that perhaps best exemplified Russian literature in 2010. Like his excellent Vzyatie Izmaila (2000; “The Taking of Izmail”), Pismovnik depicted an imaginary world that combined elements from various eras of Russian history. The novel comprised letters written by lovers who were suddenly separated from each other. As their letters did not reach the intended recipients, each writer presented his or her own story. The man’s letters described the horrors of a war taking place somewhere in China (for which Shishkin made use of authentic journals from the Boxer Rebellion period), while the woman’s letters described the miseries of her daily life over several decades. The 2009 discussion of the role played by large publishers in the absence of attention to aesthetically and intellectually complex creations in favour of more immediately accessible prose continued in 2010. Perhaps in reaction to it, the publisher Kolibri inaugurated a new series called Uroki russkogo (“Russian Lessons”), which published volumes of short stories from Anatoly Gavrilov (Berlinskaya fleyta; “The Berlin Flute”), Dmitry Danilov (Cherny i ze-

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leny; “Black and Green”), and Oleg Zobern (Shyr; “Toss It”). In reality, however, these works had little to distinguish them from those of other publishers. Danilov’s hyperrealist prose—in both this collection and his novel Gorizontalnoye polozheniye (“Horizontal Position”), also published in 2010—received special attention by the critics. The Russian Booker Prize was won by Tsevtochny krest (2009; “A Cross of Flowers”), a novel-fable by the Vologda writer Yelena Kolyadina set in the 17th century at the northeastern fringe of the Russian Empire. The short list included Dom, v kotorom . . . (2009; “The House in Which . . .”), a magic realist novel by ethnic Armenian Mariam Petrosyan that told the “exemplary”—and tormented—millennium-long story of a home for disabled children; Schaste vozmozhno (2009; “Happiness Is Possible”) by Oleg Zayonchkovsky, who was known as “the bard of everyday life”; Puteshestviye Khanumana na Lolland (“Hanuman’s Voyage to Lolland”), a picaresque novel by the Tallinn-based writer Andrey Ivanov that described the fantastic adventures in Denmark of a Russian poet from Estonia and his Nepalese companion; Margarita Khemlin’s Klotsvog (2009), an intense and at times shocking narrative about the fate of a Jewish Ukrainian woman born in a shtetl; and Chechen writer German Sadulaev’s novel about the Chechen war, Shalinsky reid (“The Shalinsky Raid”). The novels of Zayonchkovsky and Sadulaev also made the short list for the Big Book Prize. Others on the short list were Pers (“The Persian”), by Aleksandr Ilichevsky, about a physicist’s chance encounter with an ethnic Iranian boyhood friend who was entertaining thoughts of world revolution; Latunnaya luna (“The Brass Moon”) from the renowned shortstory writer and first-rate stylist Asar Eppel; and T (2009), the latest novel from the 1990s trendsetter Viktor Pelevin. First prize, however, was taken by Pavel Basinsky’s Lev Tolstoy: begstvo iz raya (“Leo Tolstoy: Flight from Paradise”), about Tolstoy’s departure from Yasnaya Polyana, the family estate. As expected, the winner of the 2009 Big Book Prize was Leonid Yuzefovich, for Zhuravli i karliki (2008; “Cranes and Dwarfs”). The 2010 National Bestseller Prize, whose jury was composed not of literary professionals but of a mishmash of celebrities, went to theatre artist Eduard Kochergin for his autobiographical Kreshchennye krestami (2009; “Baptized with Crosses”). The 2010 Andrey Bely prizes went to Nikolay Kononov for

poetry, Anatoly Barzakh for prose, Natalya Avtonomova for humanistic studies, Aleksandr Ulanov for criticism, and Aleksandr Chernoglazov for translation. Among the writers short-listed for a Bely, Sergey Stratanovsky, Igor Bulatovsky, Sergey Zavyalov, and Polina Barskova all had new books issued in 2010. Novaya Slovesnost (known as NOS), a prize established in 2010, was awarded to the prose writer Lena Eltang for her novel Kamenny kleny (2008; “The Stone Maples”). Biographies remained a productive literary genre. In addition to Basinsky’s aforementioned biographical work on Tolstoy, a new, expanded version of Yuzefovich’s Samoderzhets pustyny (“Lord of the Desert”), originally published in 1993, was issued. It was a biography of the Russian adventurer and White Guard general Baron Roman von Ungern-Sternberg, who in the 1920s invaded Mongolia and expelled the Chinese but soon became known for his reign of terror. The most notable work devoted to the study of contemporary literature was Lyudmila Zubova’s Yazyky sovremennoy poezy (“Languages of Contemporary Poetry”). The central Web portal of literary discourse, OpenSpace (openspace.ru), went bankrupt in the spring and was shut down, but by August it was back up and running. Four noted Russian poets died in 2010. These included Yelena Shvarts, whose last major work, Krylatyi tsiklops (“The Winged Cyclops,” a biography of the Italian writer and political leader Gabriele D’Annunzio) was published shortly before she died; and Aleksandr Mironov, who like Shvarts was a major poet of the Russian underground of the 1970s and ’80s. The other two deaths were those of Andrey Voznesensky and Bella Akhmadulina, two popular poets of the Soviet 1960s. (See OBITUARIES.) Other notable deaths included those of critic I.Z. Serman, novelist Dmitry Gorchev, and dramatist Mikhail Roshchin. (VALERY SHUBINSKY)

PERSIAN Literary activity in Iran took an ominous turn in 2010 when personnel were reshuffled within the ministries that supervised Persian literature and the arts as one Islamic faction suppressed and censored the work of the others. During the first two days of the 23rd Tehran International Book Fair (May 5–15), government officials—accompanied by paramilitary enforcers—liter-

ally removed boxes of printed material from the stalls in which they were being sold. The confiscated materials ranged from works on Zen Buddhism to those that substituted Arabian Gulf for Persian Gulf, and they included all works written by authors viewed as opposition figures. One result of the political climate was a palpable movement to safer genres, such as children’s literature and biographies of religious figures. Mueammad hasan-Baygl’s Muhammad, a novel based on the life of the Prophet, led the way in biographies, while certain previously published children’s works were reissued in new editions. Afs)nah Sha!ban-nizh)d’s Zang, )kh zang (“Bell, Oh Bell”) was a new children’s work written in verse. Meanwhile, Mehdl Z)ri!’s doomsday story 0khirin daqlqaha-ye )khir al-zam)n (“The Last Minutes of the Apocalypse”) provided a temporal counterpoint to the aforementioned religious biographies. An official ceremony celebrating the life and works of Parvln I!tiÆ)ml (1907–40), held on March 2, 2009, inaugurated a series of state-sponsored cultural events aimed at redirecting women’s literary output in new, more religious or traditional directions. Prizes were given to Maryam Ja!farlZam)nl’s collection of poems titled Piano and Glt) Garak)nl’s fictional work FaÆl-e )khir (“Last Chapter”). Hlv) Masle’s Kit)b-e hlch (“The Book of Nothing”), which included efforts to cloak traditional mystical discourses in the garb of poetic modernism, became the most notable collection of poetry published in Iran. ýarrah (“Particle”), a novel by Sohayla Beski, published in Germany, was the most innovative work in the emerging feminist discourse, and Tardastl-ye hurÜf-e maedÜd (“The Magic of Constrained Letters”) by Sanaz Zaresani was another significant literary product of the expatriate Farsi-speaking community in Germany. Reza Aslan’s Tablet & Pen: Literary Landscapes from the Modern Middle East offered a sampling of contemporary literature of the region in English translation. Among the noteworthy writers who died in 2010 were fiction writer Mueammad AyyÜbl, expatriate poet MansÜr Khaksar (by his own hand), and poet Blzhan Ilahl. (AHMAD KARIMI-HAKKAK)

ARABIC Literature in the Arab world was dominated in 2010 by concern that 265

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Modern Standard Arabic (al-fuÆe)) was deteriorating, as evidenced by the proliferation of poetry written in colloquial Arabic (al-!)mmiyyah), the widespread use of a weak prose style, and the growing presence of al-!)mmiyyah in the public sphere. Among those expressing this concern was Egyptian poet Ahmad !Abd al-Mu!Òl Heg)zl, who had long considered this deterioration to be the cause of the demise of classical Arabic poetry. Despite his pessimism, his project for a meeting place for poets finally materialized, and in May the Bayt alShi!r (House of Poetry) was inaugurated in Cairo. In July Morocco’s House of Poetry bestowed the Argana International Poetry Award on Moroccan French poet and novelist Tahar Ben Jelloun for his body of work. Modern technology provided Arabic poetry in Algeria with great support as poets made use of the social networking Web site Facebook to debate each other in the tradition of the mun)øarah, especially popular during the Umayyad dynasty (7th–8th century CE) with the poets Jarlr and al-Farazdaq. In Saudi Arabia a play by Raj)# al!Utaybl that centred on the pre-Islamic poet ×arafah ibn al-!Abd was performed at the SÜq !Uk)ø poetry festival, which was itself a revival of a pre-Islamic tradition. The play tackled contemporary

Moroccan French poet and novelist Tahar Ben Jelloun was granted the Argana International Poetry Award for his outstanding contribution to Moroccan poetry.

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issues related to murky politics in the Arab world. The novel remained the major literary platform used by Arab writers to debate major national and personal issues, although the short story and nonfiction works were also important. Religious extremism was at the centre of !Izz alDln Shukrl Fashlr’s AbÜ !Umar al-MiÆrl (“AbÜ !Umar the Egyptian”), the third novel in a trilogy. It is the story of a man trapped by difficult circumstances that transformed him into a hard-liner. Faww)z hadd)d, a Syrian, echoed similar preoccupations in JunÜd All)h (“God’s Soldiers”): the religious characters defend, in their own way, a faith threatened by its enemies, pitting a son against his father, whom he sees as misguided. Similar concerns were also echoed in Le Jour de Vénus (2009; “Venus’s Day”) by Moroccan novelist Mohamed Leftah. The novel, which was published posthumously, revolves around the kidnapping of a feminist woman by a group of Muslim extremists. Jordanian Ibr)hlm NaÆrall)h’s Shurfat al-!)r (“The Balcony of Disgrace”) dealt with the issue of honour killings, stressing the injustice that befalls women at the hands of men who claim to protect them. The struggles of the Palestinian people could be found at the core of many works, particularly Susan Abulhawa’s novel Mornings in Jenin, a revised version of her The Scar of David (2006), in which the unending political conflict between Israelis and Palestinians causes human tragedies. Suad Amiry relied on humour to describe the daily aggravations of life in the West Bank in Nothing to Lose but Your Life, her nonfiction account of a Palestinian worker’s illegal crossing into Israel. In RaFw) !AshÜr’s novel Al-×anÒÜriyyah (“The ×antÜriyyah Woman”), the protagonist narrates the ordeals of Palestinian exile and displacement. A different tone is heard from Israeli Arab writers, as their concerns involve issues of identity and of lives filled with contradictions. These concerns are eloquently described by Iyad Barghouti in “Ris)lat i!tidh)r” (“A Letter of Apology”), which appeared in his collection of short stories Bayna al-buyut (“Between the Houses”). Mlr)l al-×ae)wl’s BurÜklln H)yits (“Brooklyn Heights”) focuses on life in the United States, following a trend that began with Íun! All)h Ibr)hlm’s Amrlk)nll (2003), Alaa Al Aswany’s Shlk)jÜ (2007; Chicago), W)slnl alA!raj’s SÜn)t) li-ashb)e al-Quds (2009;

“Sonata for the Ghosts of Jerusalem”), and Rabl! J)bir’s Amlrk) (2009; “America”). Al-×ae)wl’s novel draws comparisons between the life of a single mother in New York City and her life in an Egyptian village, revealing two societies with different problems but similar hardships. Nearing retirement, Jam)l al-GhlÒ)nl ruminated in S)!)t (“The Hours”) on trips he took, faces he saw but never knew, and half-erased memories, all in a style that charms the reader through the originality of its metaphors and the flow and depth of its concise phrasing. YÜsuf AbÜ Rayyah’s posthumously published Lay)ll al-b)njÜ (“Banju Nights”) and Khayrl Shalabl’s IsÒ)slyyah are novels concerned with Egyptian country life. True to his Bedouin origins, hamdl AbÜ Gulayyil described in his collection of short stories ×ayy al-khiy)m (“Folding of Tents”) the dying traditions of his people; he used a humorous style while exploring the conflicts between peasants and Bedouins. The Arab world mourned the loss of Muhammad Arkoun, a French citizen of Algerian descent, who was a wellknown scholar of Islam. Other deaths included the Moroccan critic Mueammad !0bid al-J)birl, the Algerian novelist al-×)hlr WaÒÒ)r, and the Saudi writer and politician Gh)zl !Abd al(AIDA A. BAMIA) Raem)n QuÆaybl.

CHINESE In mainland China so-called Internet literature (wangluo wenxue) grew rapidly in 2010—perhaps more so than anywhere else in the world. It was estimated that Internet literature represented half of all literary production, with well over half of the year’s new fiction alone being released first online. Shengda Literature Ltd., the corporation that owned the most Web sites that published Chinese literature, reported that the total amount of new fiction published on its sites increased daily by at least 50 million Chinese characters in 2010. But the most important literary event of the year did not occur online. A new literary journal, published on paper, went on sale in July after a significant delay. Its editor was Han Han, a young, famous writer living in Shanghai whose blog posts often drew up to 20 million visits within weeks, especially when his writing sharply criticized the Chinese government. Han created a new term that became the Chinese title of the journal: Duchang tuan (“Chorus of Solos”), an expression of what the Chi-

Literature Kyodo/Landov

nese people had dreamed about mats, rather than competing with for literature as well as society each other, would instead reach since the early 20th century. The different audiences and promote journal also carried a title in the growth of the book market as English: Party. a whole. This argument was, The first issue of Duchang tuan, however, familiar to Japanese which ran to 128 pages, included readers, who had heard the same fiction, nonfiction, and photoreasoning from manufacturers of graphs. It ended with the first the many e-book readers intropart of a novel, 1988: Wo xiang duced since the 1990s. But withhe zhege shijie tantan (“1988: I out the support of major book Would Like to Talk with This distributors and bookstores, who World”), written by Han himself. believed that they would lose This excerpt, with its first-person their positions in the market, narrator, began with a story nothese e-book readers were unable table for its black humour: a to be successful. The situation crowd of policemen break down seemed little changed at the time the door of a cheap hotel room, of the iPad’s introduction, and the where the narrator, identified fate of e-books in Japan looked to only as “I,” has been sleeping be dependent on the collaborawith a young pregnant prostitute tion of authors, publishers, disfrom the countryside. As the tributors, and bookstores, all of young man is being handcuffed, whom had been labouring under the police photographer, whose severely depressed sales for more task is to record the event so as than a decade. to show the achievements of the The year’s first Akutagawa police, finds that he forgot to re- Japanese writers Akiko Akazome (left) and Ky§ko Prize, awarded twice a year for a move the lens cap of his camera. Nakajima were honoured in July for their recent work by a promising Japanese Thus, the arrest must be re- novels. Akazome won the Akutagawa Prize for writer, went to Akiko Akazome’s peated: the policemen again Otome no mikkoku, while Nakajima won the Naoki Otome no mikkoku (“A Maiden’s break down the door and re- Prize for Chiisai o-uchi. Betrayal”), a story about a colhandcuff the man. As a reward lege student and her professor. It for his cooperation in the reenwas first published in the June actment, the man is freed without JAPANESE 2010 issue of the literary magazine Haruki Murakami was in 2010 re- Shinch§. Shirin Nezammafi, an Iranian penalty after signing a paper that reads, “Any problem with my body that ap- sponsible for the year’s most notable writer who had lived in Japan since pears in the future is unrelated to what work in Japanese literature: the third 1999, received her second prize nomivolume of 1Q84. Its publication was nation with Hakud§ (“Pulsation”). the policemen did today.” Another attraction of the issue was a marked by the same frenzy of public Among other remarkable literary question-and-answer column, “Suoyou interest that had greeted the novel’s works of 2010 were Haha (“Mother”) ren wen suoyou ren” (“Everyone Asks first two volumes in 2009. In the third by Kang Sang-Jung (Sanjun Kan in Everyone”), which occupied nine pages volume, the two protagonists, Aomame Japanese), a professor at the University and included three full-page cartoons. and Tengo, finally meet again after of Tokyo, a semiautobiographical story Among the questions were several po- their decadeslong separation. It is not based on his mother’s life; Kujikenaide litically sharp (and even defiant) ones obvious, however, whether their meet- (“Don’t Lose Heart”), a debut volume of aimed at government officials that ad- ing occurs in a real or a virtual world, poems by 98-year-old Toyo Shibata; dressed the national education system, and their fates remain ambiguous: se- and Chiisai o-uchi (“A Small Home”) the management of prisons, family cret agents are pursuing them, intent by Ky§ko Nakajima. T§ Ubukata’s on depriving Aomame of her unborn Tenchi meisatsu (2009; “Universal Perplanning policies, and other issues. Duchang tuan, which sold some 1.5 child. Although the three volumes to- ception”) won the Booksellers Award, million copies, became an eye-catching gether amounted to more than 1,600 an annual prize designating the best symbol of the maturation of a new type pages, Murakami’s third volume left book as selected by sales clerks of of Chinese literary writing that mixed open the possibility that the story Japanese bookstores. political seriousness with a cynical might be continued. Kaoru Takamura’s Taiy§ o hiku uma Questions about the future of the e- (2009; “The Horse Drawing the Sun”) remoral uncertainty. It was widely believed that Han would continue to de- book preoccupied Japanese authors and ceived the Yomiuri Prize for Literature. velop the literary and cultural space readers alike. In May 2010, just days be- The Yasunari Kawabata Prize went to that Duchang tuan had opened, but he fore the Japanese release of Apple’s iPad, Nobuko Takagi’s short story “Tomosui” declared at the end of December that the prominent mystery writer Nat- (the name of a fictional sea creature). he had abandoned plans to publish a suhiko Ky§goku announced that his Deaths in 2010 included playwright second issue because he was unable to publisher would release his new novel, and novelist Hisashi Inoue and Tetsuo secure a publisher, either within main- Shineba ii noni (“You’d Better Die”), in Miura, famous for his novel Shiland China, where publishers were con- an electronic format for the tablet com- nobugawa (1961; Shame in the Blood), puter as well as in a traditional paper which won the Akutagawa Prize. trolled by the state, or outside it. (WANG XIAOMING) format. Ky§goku said that the two for(YOSHIHIKO KAZAMARU) 267

Military Affairs A MAJOR OFFENSIVE against the Taliban was launched in Afghanistan, and a U.S.-Russian ARMS-CONTROL agreement was signed. Military forces conducted ANTI-INSURGENCY CAMPAIGNS in Central Africa, Colombia, Yemen, and elsewhere. World navies acted against PIRACY off the Horn of Africa.

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he war in Afghanistan intensified in 2010, with deaths of civilians and military personnel at their highest levels since the U.S.-led invasion that toppled the Taliban regime in 2001. In the first half of the year alone, more than 500 Afghan National Army and Afghan National Police personnel were killed. In all of 2010, 710 foreign troops were killed. The UN reported that conflict-related civilian casualties in the first six months of the year increased 31% over those in the same period in 2009. NATO’s International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was reinforced to over 150,000 troops to counter the Taliban’s resurgence. However, growing disenchantment with the war forced some allies to reconsider their commitment. The Netherlands withdrew all of its 1,950 troops in August, and France and Italy announced that they would begin returning their troops home in 2011. In June Gen. Stanley McChrystal (see BIOGRAPHIES) was fired as commander of U.S. and ISAF forces in Afghanistan after critical comments that he made about senior government officials were published by the news media. He was replaced by Gen. David Petraeus.

WMD, ARMS CONTROL, AND DISARMAMENT On April 8 U.S. Pres. Barack Obama and Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev signed the New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START) to replace START I, which had expired in December 2009. If ratified by both countries, the new treaty would limit each country to 1,550 deployed strategic nuclear warheads (compared with 6,000 each under START I). The U.S. Senate ratified New START in December, and 268

Russia’s parliament, the Duma, began debating the treaty the same month. The Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM), which banned the use of weapons that scatter bomblets over a wide area, entered into force on Aug. 1, 2010. By the end of the year, 108 countries had signed the CCM, though major producers of cluster munitions—including Brazil, China, India, Israel, Pakistan, Russia, and the U.S.—had not.

CONFLICTS Africa. The 7,200 troops of the beleaguered African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) continued to battle militant Islamist groups—chiefly alShabaab—that controlled much of Somalia. Violence there had killed at least 18,000 civilians since 2007, and an estimated 1.5 million people were internal refugees. Somalia had not had an effective government since 1991. AMISOM’s mission was to support transitional authorities until a stable government could be established. Although the level of fighting in southern Sudan decreased significantly in 2010, the 22,000 uniformed personnel of the joint United Nations–African Union Mission in Darfur (UNAMID) maintained an unstable truce between separatist rebels and Sudanese government forces and their allied Janjawid militias. An estimated 300,000 people had been killed and another 2.7 million forced from their homes since violence erupted in Darfur in 2003. The Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sudan, and Uganda agreed to form a joint military force to combat the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), a rebel group with no clear political goals. For most of the period since it formed in 1987, the LRA had confined its attacks to

civilian targets inside Uganda, but since 2005 it had spread terror to other countries in the region. In the first 10 months of 2010, the LRA conducted an estimated 240 attacks, killing at least 344 people. The Americas. Mono Jojoy, the military commander of Colombia’s largest rebel group, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), was killed in a raid on his jungle camp in September. (See OBITUARIES.) Over three million people had been displaced and thousands killed since 1964, when the FARC began its campaign to overthrow the government and install a Marxist regime. In Mexico more than 10,000 people died in drug-related violence in 2010 despite the presence of 50,000 soldiers and police deployed countrywide to suppress organized crime. That made 2010 the bloodiest year since Pres. Felipe Calderón launched his campaign against the drug trade in 2006. Middle East. Seven years after the U.S.led invasion of Iraq, the last American combat brigade was withdrawn from the country in August. Approximately 50,000 U.S. troops, as well as up to 7,000 American private security contractors, remained. Bloodshed and instability continued, although reduced substantially from the peak in 2006–07. Global attention turned to Yemen as it grappled with two internal conflicts and the presence of the militant organization al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP). In northern Yemen, Shi!ite Muslim rebels known as al-Huthis battled Yemeni and Saudi forces along the border between the two countries. In southern Yemen there were clashes between security forces and separatists. In response to AQAP’s presence, a U.S. Navy ship in December 2009 launched a cruise missile strike against suspected terrorists. (See Special Report on page 180.) East Asia. The sinking of the South Korean corvette Cheonan in March in the Yellow Sea, with the deaths of 46 sailors, raised tensions with North Korea. Although North Korea was the suspected culprit according to an international investigation, the UN Security Council refrained from placing blame for the incident. Four South Koreans, including two marines, died in November when North Korea launched an unexpected artillery attack against the island of

Mike Cassidy/U.S. Air Force

Yeonpyeong, near the two counnumber of attacks on ships in the tries’ maritime border. South China Sea, however, rose South and Central Asia. In April, to 30 between January and SepMaoist rebels (known locally as tember 2010, triple the number Naxalites) ambushed paramiliduring the same period in 2009. tary troops in the Indian state of BAE Systems, the U.K.’s largest Chhattisgarh, killing at least 75 defense manufacturer, admitted soldiers. More than 20 of India’s to two criminal charges and 28 states were affected by the inagreed to pay a total of £286 milsurgency, which had killed more lion (about $435 million) in fines than 6,000 people in four to the U.K. and U.S. governdecades of fighting. ments. The U.K.’s fine was the Southeast Asia. Several long-runlargest ever for a corporate ning insurgencies continued in crime there. The charges related the Philippines. Negotiations to bribes the company had paid with the Moro Islamic Liberation to foreign officials in order to Front (MILF), the largest rebel In May the X-51A WaveRider test aircraft, built by win contracts. force, stalled. Although weak- Boeing and Pratt & Whitney Rocketdyne for the Dozens of Polish senior officers ened by years of joint Philippine- U.S. Air Force, set a new record for the longest and government officials died U.S. military operations, Abu scramjet-powered hypersonic flight. The unmanned when their plane crashed in RusSayyaf, a small Islamist sepa- WaveRider flew for about 200 seconds at Mach 5 sia in April. Among the dead ratist group, persisted in kidnap- (five times the speed of sound). were Gen. Franciszek Gagor, pings and terror attacks. Also, an chief of the general staff; Lieut. ambush by the Maoist New PeoGen. Andrzej Blasik, head of the ple’s Army (NPA) that killed 11 soldiers ing base to Afghanistan to test a series air force; Vice Adm. Andrzej Karweta, in March was evidence that its decades- of energy-efficient systems, such as tents head of the navy; Maj. Gen. Tadeusz equipped with solar panels. The goal of Buk, land forces commander; and Aleklong struggle was not over. Thailand declared martial law, and the experiment was to determine how sander Szczyglo, national security the army was deployed to suppress an much it would reduce frontline troops’ chief. occupation of Bangkok’s city centre by dependency on convoys of fuel for genThe whistle-blowing Web site Wikitens of thousands of antigovernment erators and other electrical equipment. Leaks created a global controversy protesters known as red shirts. Bouts of when in October it released approxiviolence during the protests—which mately 400,000 secret U.S. military files lasted from mid-March to mid-May, ARMED FORCES AND POLITICS documenting the conflict in Iraq. Following a dispute over airline land- Among the revelations were records when the army finally took the red shirts’ camp—left 91 people dead and ing rights in Canada, the United Arab that documented some 109,000 violent Emirates forced the Canadian military deaths between 2004 and the end of nearly 2,000 wounded. to leave a base in the U.A.E. by the end 2009, including those of more than of 2010. Camp Mirage, near Dubai, had 66,000 civilians. Prior to the leak, the MILITARY TECHNOLOGY been a supply centre for Canadian op- U.S. had denied keeping records of Russia’s first new-generation fighter erations in Afghanistan. civilian deaths in Iraq. Earlier in 2010 jet since the end of the Cold War made U.S. Cyber Command became fully WikiLeaks editor in chief Julian Asits maiden flight in January. The T-50, operational in November. The new or- sange (see BIOGRAPHIES) had released designed by Sukhoy, was intended to ri- ganization had responsibility for de- 90,000 documents covering the same val the ability of such competitors as fending all 15,000 U.S. military com- period in the war in Afghanistan. Forced by economic woes, the U.K. the U.S. F-22 Raptor and the Euro- puter networks against cyberwar attack. government announced that it was cutfighter Typhoon to avoid radar detec- (See Special Report on page 182.) ting defense spending by 8% over four tion and cruise at supersonic speeds for years. In addition to eliminating 42,000 extended periods. civilian and military jobs in the MinIn February the American experimen- MILITARY AND SOCIETY Lawlessness in Somalia allowed piracy istry of Defence, the cuts included retal Airborne Laser (ABL) destroyed a ballistic missile in flight during its first to thrive in the coastal waters off Africa. tirement of the navy’s flagship, the airsuch test. The ABL, mounted on a mod- As many as 40 warships representing craft carrier HMS Ark Royal, and the ified Boeing 747 jetliner, failed two the European Union, NATO, China, In- fleet of Harrier vertical- or short-takedia, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and off-and-landing jets. tests later in the year, however. U.S. Pres. Barack Obama signed into A solar-powered unmanned aerial ve- the U.S were present on any given day hicle (UAV) built by British defense- to protect commercial shipping in the law the Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell Repeal Act technology company QinetiQ quadru- Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. In to overturn a long-standing ban that pled the previous record for the longest addition, Japan announced that it was prevented gays and lesbians from unmanned flight, set in 2008. The building its first overseas military base openly serving in the U.S. armed Zephyr 7 UAV had a wingspan of 22.5 since World War II—a facility in Dji- forces. Over 13,000 military personnel m (74 ft) but weighed only about 50 kg bouti to support Japanese navy ships. had been discharged from the armed The combined international effort re- forces since the ban on open homosex(110 lb); it flew for about 336 hours. In October the U.S. Marine Corps de- duced the number of pirate attacks uality came into effect in 1993. (PETER SARACINO) ployed an experimental forward operat- slightly from the record set in 2009. The 269

Performing Arts Sir Andrew Lloyd Webber’s PHANTOM sequel, LOVE NEVER DIES, opened in London; RACE continued to obsess American playwrights; and attendance was up at the STRATFORD SHAKESPEARE FESTIVAL. Somali-born hip-hop star K’NAAN topped global charts with his World Cup anthem WAVIN’ FLAG, while dance floor diva LADY GAGA posted one of the year’s top-grossing concert tours. Audio engineer William Savory’s TREASURE TROVE of recordings was purchased, and saxophonists Sonny Rollins and Ornette Coleman TURNED 80. Opera lovers mourned the passing of DAME JOAN SUTHERLAND.

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lassical. The year in classical music was nothing if not operatic. Filled in equal parts with tragedy, comedy, bombast, passion, silliness, grand visions and grander falls from grace, daft subplots, and tender moments, it played itself out as if the world were its stage, with the men and women—and orchestras, opera companies, critics, the general public, and others—merely players. Transcending the merely tragic was the death of Dame Joan Sutherland on October 10. Hailed at one time by the late tenor Luciano Pavarotti as the “voice of the century,” Sutherland was one of the signature voices of her era. From the 1950s through the 1980s, the Australian vocalist personified the world of opera, her dramatic coloratura soprano and passionate delivery enlivening performances of such operas as Gaetano Donizetti’s Lucia di Lammermoor and Vincenzo Bellini’s Norma, among many others. In 1960 her performance in George Frideric Handel’s Alcina, at the Teatro La Fenice in Venice, elicited from listeners the nickname by which she would be known for the rest of her career: “La Stupenda.” (See OBITUARIES.) In addition to the enduring legacy of her onstage performances and recordings, Sutherland was also a force in the resurgence of the bel canto repertoire, bringing new life and energy to that fabled form. In tribute to that legacy, New

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York’s Metropolitan Opera (the Met) in October broadcast a full day of her historic performances with the company over its Sirius XM satellite radio channel. The Met also dedicated its 2010 performance of Jacques Offenbach’s The Tales of Hoffmann to Sutherland. Moving from the sublime to the ridiculous, the Met was also involved in one of the more embarrassing artistic fiascos of the year. In April its opening night performance of Giuseppe Verdi’s La traviata drew critical catcalls for the alleged shortcomings of conductor Leonard Slatkin, director of the Detroit Symphony Orchestra (DSO) and a longtime mainstay on the musical scene. Slatkin was accused by some of being unprepared for the production and frequently out of sync with the rest of the performers. Slatkin quickly stepped down and issued a statement via a representative announcing that he “has decided to withdraw from the Metropolitan Opera production of Verdi’s La traviata, believing that his artistic contribution, which he feels he has thoroughly prepared, does not however coincide with the musical ideas of the ensemble.” That was hardly the end of the controversy. It subsequently emerged that Slatkin had originally been scheduled to lead a performance of John Corigliano’s Ghosts of Versailles, but that work was suddenly replaced by La traviata in a cost-cutting move by the company. One of the Met’s largest donors, financier Alberto Vilar, experienced a downfall of operatic proportions when

he was sentenced to nine years in prison for having defrauded investors of a reported $20 million. Vilar, who donated huge sums to various performing arts companies around the world, including London’s Royal Opera, was also ordered to pay $44 million in restitution. All was not woe at the Met, however. In August the company announced that it had added 300 movie houses to its successful series of theatrical screenings of its productions. For the 2010–11 season, the company planned to simulcast 12 productions in high definition to 1,500 theatres in 46 countries. No year in classical music would be complete without some sort of controversy emanating from Germany’s Bayreuth Festival. In October Bayreuth officials withdrew a proposal for the Israel Chamber Orchestra to appear at the 2011 festival when various Israeli Holocaust survivor groups protested the ensemble’s participation in the event, which was devoted to performances of the works of Adolf Hitler’s favourite composer, Richard Wagner. Festival director Katharina Wagner (the composer’s great granddaughter) canceled a trip to Israel, where she was scheduled to formally announce the invitation. Amid all the extramusical hoopla and folderol, music itself reared its head during 2010. In January Russian pianist Kirill Gerstein was honoured with the 2010 Gilmore Artist Award. The prestigious award—given every four years to a promising pianist—came with a grant of $300,000. Jennifer Higdon’s Violin Concerto won the Pulitzer Prize for music in April, marking the first time that the prize had gone to an orchestral score by a self-published composer. Two of the leading stars of the opera world, sopranos Deborah Voigt and Renée Fleming, announced projects that amounted to stunning role reversals. In July Voigt, known mostly for her dramatic roles in operas by Wagner and Richard Strauss, announced that she would take on the title role in a 2011 production of the musical Annie Get Your Gun at the Glimmerglass Opera Festival near Cooperstown, N.Y. In March Fleming said that she would release an album of rock and pop songs by such artists as Canadian songwriter Leonard Cohen, the Indie rock band

Performing Arts: Music

Arcade Fire, and British alternative rock band Muse. In a statement, Fleming pointedly noted that “there’s not a hint of middle ground” on the album. Instead, the soprano said that she had pursued a “completely different style of singing” to interpret the songs. Opera’s top 10 in the United Kingdom underwent a reshuffling when BBC Radio 3 announced that according to a poll it had conducted, the most popular aria was “When I Am Laid in Earth,” from English baroque composer Henry Purcell’s 1689 opera Dido and Aeneas. Purcell’s aria won out over such warhorses as “Dove sono,” from Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart’s The Marriage of Figaro, “Liebestod,” from Wagner’s Tristan und Isolde, and “E lucevan le stelle,” from Giacomo Puccini’s Tosca, which placed second, third, and fourth, respectively. A pop-culture icon was the subject of a new opera that was unveiled by BBC4 in August. Anna Nicole—the Opera detailed the rise and fall of Anna Nicole Smith, whose marriage to oil magnate J. Howard Marshall in 1994 generated worldwide headlines as a result of the more than 60 years in age that separated them. The story closed in 2007 when Smith died of a drug overdose at age 39. The production, which was scheduled to debut in early 2011, was a collaboration between BBC Productions, the Royal Opera House, and composer Mark Anthony Turnage. Dutch soprano Eva-Maria Westbroek was cast in the title role. In April the Dallas Opera staged an operatic version of the Herman Melville novel Moby Dick, with Canadian tenor Ben Heppner in the role of Captain Ahab, the crazed skipper in pursuit of the great white whale. The opera was composed by Jake Heggie, whose previous works include Dead Man Walking and Three Decembers. The work, which was commissioned by the company to mark the inauguration of its new Winspear Opera House, was also scheduled to be staged in San Diego, San Francisco, and Calgary, Alta. American composer Nico Muhly announced in March that he was teaming with librettist Stephen Karam on a new opera about Mormonism. Dark Sisters, a recounting of a woman’s confrontation with the church at the start of the 20th century, was scheduled to debut in a production by New York’s Gotham Chamber Opera in November 2011. Also in March, composer Michael Berkeley said that he had begun work, along with poet-librettist Craig Raine,

on an operatic adaptation of British author Ian McEwan’s best-selling 2001 novel Atonement. The opera was scheduled to be staged by an unidentified German opera company in 2013. And amid the influx of new works, Opera Australia announced in August that it would stage Wagner’s 15-hour Ring cycle (Der Ring des Nibelungen) in a production set for Melbourne’s State Theatre in 2013. The rest of the classical world was not without its own difficult moments during the year. The financially strapped Detroit Symphony Orchestra (DSO) endured months of drama in a series of stormy negotiations between its musicians and management centring on the orchestra’s $9 million budget deficit and ways in which it could be reduced. The dispute, which unfolded as other major orchestras looked on to see how the DSO would handle the crisis in the tough economic environment, came to a head when the musicians went on strike in October. The Chicago Symphony Orchestra (CSO) addressed other social concerns when it began an outreach program that included a collaboration with the Illinois Department of Juvenile Justice and a local music theatre workshop focused on “at-risk” youths. In January the orchestra recruited renowned cellist Yo-Yo Ma as a creative consultant. Ma, along with musicians from the CSO, began working with inmates at

the Warrenville, Ill., correctional centre. The result, in November, was a series of five performances with the musicians and their young charges. British artist Luke Jerram conducted an outreach effort of his own when his installation Play Me, I’m Yours went to New York. The project, which debuted in the U.K. in 2008, centred on a set of pianos that were placed on streets throughout the city for passersby to play. The new pianos, which were decorated by local artists and students, were subsequently donated to community organizations when the installation closed in July. It was also scheduled to appear in other U.S. cities, including San Jose, Calif.; Cincinnati, Ohio; and Grand Rapids, Mich. New York’s Orpheus Chamber Orchestra reached out to the public during the year for suggestions for its commissioning competition, Project 440, a celebration of the ensemble’s 40th anniversary. To do that, it teamed with local classical radio station WQXR, forming a selection panel that nominated 60 composers. WQXR then offered the composers’ biographies and audio clips of their works on its Web site for the public to study. Music by 30 semifinalists was subsequently aired in a 24-hour broadcast on WQXR’s Internet station. The four winners—Alex Mincek, Clint Needham, Andrew Norman, and Cynthia Lee Wong—were announced in October at

Japanese conductor Seiji Ozawa, who was diagnosed with esophageal cancer in January, briefly returned to the podium on September 5 to conduct part of Tchaikovsky’s Serenade for Strings with Japan’s Saito Kinen Orchestra at its annual summer festival, which he cofounded in 1984.

The Yomiuri Shimbun/AP

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the orchestra’s season-debut concert at Carnegie Hall. The conducting world was busy as usual, with its perennial game of musical chairs. In September Spanish tenorconductor Plácido Domingo announced that he was stepping down as general director of the Washington National Opera after 15 years with the company; that same month Domingo renewed his contract for another three years in the same position with the Los Angeles Opera. In August Russian composer and conductor Vassily Sinaisky was named to the top musical post at Moscow’s Bolshoi Theatre after leading the company in June in a production of Tchaikovsky’s Iolanta at the Dresden Music Festival. Also in August, Oscar-Tony-Emmy– winning composer-songwriter Marvin Hamlisch was picked to lead California’s Pasadena POPS orchestra. In September the new music director of the CSO, Riccardo Muti, drew 30,000 listeners to his debut concert in Chicago’s Millennium Park. Switzerland’s Suisse Romande Orchestra announced in October that Estonian conductor Neeme Jarvi would become its new artistic director. That same month 35-year-old Yannick Nézet-Séguin made his debut as designated music director of the Philadelphia Orchestra a week after he became the first Canadian-born guest conductor to lead the Berlin Philharmonic. Three titans of the conducting world endured setbacks during the year. In October Muti was forced to withdraw from performance for the rest of the year owing to what doctors said was “extreme exhaustion as a result of prolonged physical stress.” In January Japanese conductor Seiji Ozawa was diagnosed with esophageal cancer and forced to cancel six months of concert engagements. He returned to the stage briefly in September, leading the first movement of Tchaikovsky’s Serenade for Strings at the opening of Japan’s Saito Kinen Festival. And in the spring James Levine, music director of the Met and the Boston Symphony Orchestra, was forced to cancel performances with both to undergo back surgery. In addition to Sutherland, the world of classical music lost several other beloved figures, including Russian mezzo-soprano Irina Konstantinova Arkhipova, British tenor Philip Gordon Langridge, Australian conductor Sir Charles Mackerras, German soprano Anneliese Rothenberger, Canadian contralto Maureen Katherine Stuart Forrester, German opera director and impresario Wolfgang Manfred Martin 272

Wagner, and American mezzo-soprano Shirley Verrett. (See O BITUARIES.) Other losses included Russian-born conductor and violist Rudolf Barshai and German-born impresario of the Los Angeles Philharmonic Ernest Fleischmann. (HARRY SUMRALL) Jazz. Among the headline-stealing stories of 2010 was the acquisition by the National Jazz Museum in Harlem (NJMH), New York City, of a collection of rare swing-era recordings. During the late 1930s, when live jazz and popmusic performances were regularly aired over the radio, audio engineer William Savory recorded more than 100 hours of jazz broadcasts, including a “blues jam” featuring Louis Armstrong, Fats Waller, and Jack Teagarden; performances by such other notables as Lester Young, Billie Holiday, and Coleman Hawkins; a 1938 jazz festival; and most plentifully, the Benny Goodman band. Critic Dan Morgenstern called the Savory collection a “treasure trove.” Upon receipt of the recordings in April, the NJMH began to digitize the material and explore ways of making the music available to the public. The release of a smaller treasure trove was announced by the Creative Music Studio (CMS), the institution that pioneered education in free jazz in the 1970s and ’80s. The studio was founded by vibraphonist Karl Berger, singer Ingrid Sertso, and Ornette Coleman in Woodstock, N.Y. Its faculty included a veritable who’s who in exploratory improvisation, including Don Cherry, John Cage, Cecil Taylor, the Art Ensemble of Chicago, and Carla Bley. According to Berger, selected works from the studio’s archive of concerts would appear on a projected series of 12 CDs. The first album was released in February, with music by bassist David Izenzon and composer-saxophonist Oliver Lake with the CMS Orchestra. Meanwhile, flamboyant composertrumpeter Wynton Marsalis took the spotlight with performances of two of his unfinished symphonies. Five of the proposed seven movements of his Blues Symphony (Symphony No. 2) were finally performed in January by the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Robert Spano, after the premiere had been postponed three times. In June Marsalis’s Swing Symphony (Symphony No. 3) was premiered in Berlin by his own Jazz at Lincoln Center Orchestra with the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Sir Simon Rattle; the next day a second perform-

ance was broadcast live over the Internet. According to Marsalis, previous fusions of jazz and classical styles, which included works by Duke Ellington and George Gershwin, were “halfhearted.” Marsalis also composed the musical accompaniment to Daniel Pritzker’s silent film Louis, about Louis Armstrong’s early years in New Orleans, and he led a 10-piece band when the film made a five-city tour in August. There was certainly nothing halfhearted about Non-Cognitive Aspects of the City for baritone and orchestra, composed by Roscoe Mitchell. Its text, by poet-composer-saxophonist Joseph Jarman, had been interpreted far differently by Jarman himself on an important 1966 recording. The sensitive performance of the Mitchell composition by singer Thomas Buckner and the Janacek Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Petr Kotik, appeared on the album Spectrum, which also included Muhal Richard Abrams’s orchestral composition Mergertone. Composer and flutist Nicole Mitchell released the albums Emerald Hills by her quartet Sonic Projections and Xenogenesis Suite by her nine-piece Black Earth Ensemble. In September Mitchell’s silver flute and piccolo and her sideman David Young’s trumpet were stolen after a concert in Milan. In other news, two major jazz figures, saxophonist Sonny Rollins and the multitalented Coleman, both turned 80 years old in 2010. Rollins celebrated with a concert at New York City’s Beacon Theater, where Coleman joined him in a free interpretation of the standard blues tune “Sonnymoon for Two.” It was probably the first time the two ever played together. Pianist Jason Moran became the most recent jazz artist to be awarded a MacArthur Foundation “genius” fellowship. Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II unveiled a life-size bronze statue of Canadian pianist Oscar Peterson sitting at a grand piano outside the National Arts Centre in Ottawa. After losing its large annual jazz festival in 2009, New York City once again had a major jazz festival for 10 days in June. This one was named the CareFusion Jazz Festival, sponsored by CareFusion, the same health care company that sponsored other jazz festivals across the United States. By contrast, Europe’s economic woes resulted in a lack of funding that led bandleader Mathias Rüegg to disband the Vienna Art Orchestra after 33 years. Guitarist Pat Metheny introduced his “orchestrion,” a one-man band that in-

Performing Arts: Music Jon Hrusa—EPA/Landov

cluded pianos, marimbas, vibraphones, other percussion, blown bottles, and various other instruments triggered by solenoid switches and pneumatics. This modern version of an early 20thcentury mechanical band appeared in Metheny’s concerts and on his album Orchestrion. Israeli-born clarinetist Anat Cohen offered Clarinetwork: Live at the Village Vanguard by her quartet. Spanish pianist Agustí Fernández and British bassist Barry Guy improvised an album of duets, Some Other Place, and saxophonist Fred Anderson released his final album, Black Horn Long Gone. Popular singer Lena Horne, who had worked with many jazz artists during her long career, died in 2010, as did guitarist Herb Ellis, pianist Hank Jones, singer Abbey Lincoln, tenor saxophonists James Moody and Fred Anderson, trumpeter Bill Dixon, Dutch bandleader Willem Breuker, British bandleader Sir John Dankworth, and comic book writer and jazz critic Harvey Pekar. (See OBITUARIES.) Multiinstrumentalist Buddy Collette also left the scene. (JOHN LITWEILER) Popular. International. The year 2010 in popular music was marked by bold international collaborations and fusions of different styles. The most intriguing world music project came from Afro Cubism, a band of Malian and Cuban musicians who finally recorded and performed together after a 14-year delay. In 1996 the British producer Nick Gold had planned to fly two of Mali’s finest instrumentalists to Havana—n’goni player Bassekou Kouyate and guitarist Djelimady Tounkara—to work with local musicians. The Malians never arrived, for reasons that were never fully explained, and a very different band was hastily assembled, involving veteran Cuban musicians and the American guitarist Ry Cooder. They called themselves the Buena Vista Social Club and became a best-selling international phenomenon. Gold at last revived the original project, with Kouyate and Tounkara joined by other Malian stars, including the celebrated kora player Toumani Diabaté and singer Kasse Mady Diabaté, along with the Cuban Buena Vista star Eliades Ochoa and his band. The result was an intriguing mixture of West African and Cuban styles that included a subtle and delicate improvisation on that well-known Cuban classic Guantanamera, with Ochoa’s guitar matched against the traditional Malian instruments, the n’goni and the kora. It was a year of celebration in much of Africa, both because 17 countries

Colombian pop singer Shakira, whose “Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)” was the official song of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, performs in Johannesburg on June 10 at a concert to kick off the sporting event. across the continent commemorated their 50th anniversary of independence and because South Africa hosted the association football (soccer) World Cup—the first African country to do so. The event was marked by a concert that was seen by television viewers around the world, and it brought international success to the Somali-born singer and hip-hop star K’Naan. (See BIOGRAPHIES.) His song “Wavin’ Flag,” an official anthem for the World Cup, became a worldwide best seller. Outside Africa there was a bravely experimental fusion recording from the veteran Irish traditional band the Chieftains. San Patricio told the story of Irish soldiers—many of them conscripts—who deserted the American army in the Mexican-American War, changing sides after realizing that they were fighting against fellow Roman Catholics. The project involved a brave clash of styles, with Irish whistles, fiddles, and uillean pipes matched against banjo, trumpets, and guitars played by Mexican musicians, and vocals from the 90-year-old Mexican star Chavela Vargas, as well as Cooder. Elsewhere in the Americas, there were adventurous new projects by Brazilian musicians, with the country’s former minister of culture Gilberto Gil first releasing an exuberant acoustic album, BandaDois, which was followed by a series of acoustic concerts in the U.S. He

then dramatically changed styles for a concert in London, in which he was backed by fiddle and accordion to concentrate on forró, the music of his country’s arid northeast. There was also a change of direction from Seu Jorge, the Brazilian star who had become as well known for his acting as his singing, thanks to his appearances in films such as City of God and The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou, in which he famously sang David Bowie songs in Portuguese. On his album Seu Jorge and Almaz, he was joined by an amplified trio that included members of the band Nação Zumbi for a set that mixed samba with psychedelic rock and included new versions of songs that ranged from Jorge Ben’s “Errare Humanum Est” to Michael Jackson’s “Rock with You.” Brazilian singersongwriter Roberto Carlos (see BIOGRAPHIES) celebrated a half century in the music business with a 22-date North and South American tour. There were further experiments involving musicians from the Middle East and Asia. British guitarist and producer Nick Page, best known for his work with Ethiopian musicians in Dub Colossus, founded a new band, Syriana. Its debut album, The Road to Damascus, matched Page’s guitar lines against a Syrian string section and qanun solos from the Syrian star Abdullah Chhadeh on atmospheric songs such as “Black Zil” and “The Great Game.” In the U.S. the 273

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ever-experimental Kronos Quartet from the frothy summer anthem “California Rascal Flatts (see BIOGRAPHIES) guiSan Francisco released an album in Gurls.” Well-scrubbed indie rock quar- tarist Joe Don Rooney appealed to his which they collaborated with both the tet Vampire Weekend notched a num- fans on the social networking site TwitAfghan rubab player Homayun Sakhi ber one album, as did Canadian rapper ter: “Everyone please pray for Nashville. and the Azerbaijani father-and-daugh- Drake. Kanye West, whose public antics The flooding is horrible, and the rain is ter team of Alim and Fargana Qasimov, sometimes overshadowed his musical still coming.” Despite that blow—and famous for their dramatic and emo- accomplishments, topped many critics’ despite Chesney’s having skipped his antional singing. Chinese sensation Li year-end “best of” lists with his sprawl- nual summer tour in favour of select Yuchun (see BIOGRAPHIES) proved that ing and complex My Beautiful Dark festival dates—country music enjoyed there was still a place for pop in the in- Twisted Fantasy. another robust year. Paisley and Taylor ternational scene, and she parSwift filled stadiums, and Swift’s Evan Agostini/AP layed her musical success into an Speak Now, released in October, acting career. became the fastest-selling album Deaths during the year included since 2005, with more than one that of celebrated Canadian million first-week sales. By July singer-songwriter and folk musicountry-pop ensemble Lady Ancian Kate McGarrigle, best tebellum had moved 2.3 million known for her work with her siscopies of Need You Now, on track ter Anna as the McGarrigle Sisto be one of the year’s top sellers. ters. (See OBITUARIES.) Also leavOn September 28 the Grand Ole ing the scene were German-born Opry reopened with an all-star British singer Ari Up, leader of show, and Rascal Flatts hit the the punk girl group the Slits and top of the country charts with Caribbean soca star Alphonsus Nothing like This in December. Cassell, better known as Arrow, The music industry continued who recorded the soca dance hit to decipher ways in which to “Hot Hot Hot.” turn a profit in the digital do(ROBIN DENSELOW) main. Paul McGuinness, U2’s United States. Though rapper manager, wrote an essay for the Lil Wayne had been ubiquitous British edition of GQ (an in 2009, propelled by his bestabridged version was reprinted selling 2008 album Tha Carter III, in Rolling Stone) suggesting that Dwayne Michael Carter spent the solution lies in collecting most of 2010 in a New York jail Pop musician and tween idol Justin Bieber sings fees from Internet service after having pleaded guilty to a for a sold-out crowd at Madison Square Garden in providers. Income would be genweapons charge. Lukewarm re- New York City on August 31. erated when subscribers upviews greeted Rebirth, the rockgraded services to download tinged album he released prior to music more efficiently. his March incarceration, but his followBeyoncé took home six gold GramoThe Jonas Brothers proved less invinup I Am Not a Human Being reached cible than previously believed, cancel- phones during the 2010 Grammy the top of the Billboard charts just ing several summer dates. Bono’s emer- Awards, the largest single-night haul weeks before his November release gency back surgery forced U2 to ever made by a female artist; her “Sinfrom prison. postpone the North American leg of its gle Ladies” won song of the year. Swift Lady Gaga (see BIOGRAPHIES) stepped “U2 360°” stadium tour until 2011. earned four awards, including best alinto the breach as American popular Meanwhile, Jay-Z headlined the mas- bum for Fearless. Collecting three each music’s obsession. The former Stefani sive Bonnaroo festival in Tennessee and were Kings of Leon—their single “Use Joanne Angelina Germanotta cemented teamed with Eminem for four celebrity- Somebody” won record of the year—the her reigning “It Girl” status by moving studded stadium concerts in Detroit Black Eyed Peas, and Jay-Z. Country another million copies of 2008’s The and New York City. Hirsute Kentucky hybrid the Zac Brown Band won best Fame, decorating magazine covers, rockers My Morning Jacket graduated new artist en route to a breakout year. meeting the queen of England, offend- to arena headlining status, while Pink Musicians mourned the passing during the New York Yankees baseball Floyd bassist and lyricist Roger Waters ing the year of influential Box Tops and team during a locker-room visit, selling rebuilt “The Wall” for a high-tech 30th- Big Star singer-guitarist-songwriter out her elaborate “electro-pop opera” anniversary fall tour that sold out im- Alex Chilton, hard rock vocalist Ronnie Monster Ball Tour through spring 2011, mediately. Classic power trio Rush did James Dio, avant-garde rocker Captain and earning Madonna comparisons. big business with a 30th-anniversary Beefheart, jazz singers Lena Horne and Elsewhere, young fans of 16-year-old celebration of the landmark Moving Abbey Lincoln, soul pioneer Solomon tween heartthrob Justin Bieber rioted at Pictures album. Burke, Sex Pistols impresario Malcolm promotional appearances and snapped In May record rains overflowed the McLaren, “What a Wonderful World” up more than 1.5 million copies of My Cumberland River, flooding large and “The Lion Sleeps Tonight” comWorld 2.0, the “second half” of his 2009 swaths of Nashville. Water swamped the poser George David Weiss, and country debut. Katy Perry, who with husband Grand Ole Opry, Kenny Chesney’s resi- legends Hank Cochran and Jimmy Russell Brand constituted pop culture’s dence, and a facility that stored instru- Dean. (See OBITUARIES.) Other notable latest power couple, relieved herself of ments and stage gear belonging to Brad deaths include those of rapper Guru of the dreaded “one-hit wonder” tag with Paisley, Keith Urban, and Vince Gill. Gang Starr, bassists Paul Gray of Slip274

Performing Arts: Dance Lai Seng Sin/AP

Pop star Katy Perry, who topped the Billboard singles chart three times in 2010, performs on July 31 in Petaling Jaya, Malay. knot and Andy Hummel of Big Star, Little Feat drummer Richie Hayward, former James Brown and ParliamentFunkadelic guitarist Catfish Collins, and photographer Herman Leonard, whose smoke-wreathed black-andwhite images visually captured the essence of jazz. Rappers once again dominated legal proceedings. T.I. emerged from a weapons-related prison sentence to promote, without irony, the violent bank heist flick Takers. A September 1 arrest on drug charges resulted in the revocation of his parole, and he was returned to jail the following month. Platinum-selling, Grammy-nominated rapper Mystikal hit the comeback trail after having served six years on a sexual battery charge in Louisiana. Chris Brown was denied a visa for a British tour, thanks to his guilty plea the previous year for a felony assault involving his then girlfriend Rihanna. (KEITH SPERA)

DANCE North America. The U.S. White House focused on dance briefly in 2010, presenting the National Medal of Arts to the School of American Ballet in February and launching in September what promised to be the first in a series of dance events. The opener, entitled “A Tribute to Judith Jamison,” included a workshop for nine performing arts schools as well as a performance featuring six professional dance com-

panies. Prominent among these troupes was the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater (AAADT), which Jamison had directed since the death of Ailey in 1989. She announced that she would leave AAADT in 2011, and Robert Battle was named as her successor. The White House dance series was directed by former New York City Ballet (NYCB) principal dancer Damian Woetzel, who went to the event fresh from the Vail (Colo.) International Dance Festival, which he also directed. The Vail festival featured, among other events, two programs centred on the tango, in which the much-admired Gabriel Missé claimed the spotlight. Additional news from AAADT included the appointment of Tracy Inman and Melanie Person as co-directors of the Ailey School. The pair replaced Denise Jefferson, who died in July. American Ballet Theatre (ABT) marked its 70th anniversary grandly with a series of mixed bills and full-program ballets during its spring-summer season at New York City’s (NYC’s) Metropolitan Opera House. In addition to its first-time presentation of John Neumeier’s Lady of the Camellias, the company offered ballet programs featuring the works of Sir Frederick Ashton and George Balanchine. A special gala salute was also given to ABT veteran Alicia Alonso, whose connections with ABT had endured, despite her half-century association with the Ballet Nacional de Cuba. In November ABT made a rare visit to the Havana Inter-

national Ballet Festival, and in December it unveiled a new production of The Nutcracker by artist in residence Alexei Ratmansky. (See BIOGRAPHIES.) More Ashton offerings came from the Houston Ballet (HB), which presented La Fille mal gardée, and Chicago’s Joffrey Ballet (JB), which performed Ashton’s Cinderella at home and on tour. Eveninglong additions to HB’s repertory included its first staging of Balanchine’s Jewels. The story of a onetime HB dancer, Chinese-born Li Cunxin, became the subject of a film, Mao’s Last Dancer. NYCB’s spring season, “Architecture of Dance,” featured visual designs by architect Santiago Calatrava, but ironically, the most successful of the seven new ballets presented in the series was Ratmansky’s Namouna, a Grand Divertissement, which did not use a Calatrava design. Also included in the spring season were special farewell programs for dancers who were retiring from the stage: Yvonne Borree, Albert Evans, Philip Neal, and Darci Kistler. After the company’s summer stint in Saratoga Springs, N.Y., principal dancer Nilas Martins also left the company, without special fanfare. NYCB held an unusual fall season in September, presenting The Magic Flute, a foray by ballet master in chief Peter Martins into the world of 19th-century ballet pastiche. The 1974 collaboration between Balanchine and Alexandra Danilova for Coppélia was given a revival and staged for the first time by Pacific Northwest Ballet (PNB; Seattle), as well as by Boston Ballet (BB). BB also gave firsttime performances of La Bayadère (in a less-known staging by Florence Clerc after the more familiar version by Marius Petipa). JB wrapped up a year of programming called “Season of Legends” with a bill entitled Eclectica, featuring two world premiere commissions—Pretty BALLET by Canada’s James Kudelka and Crossed by Jessica Lang—plus a revival of Joffrey cofounder Gerald Arpino’s Reflections. Ballet Hispanico celebrated its 40th anniversary with a two-week NYC season. The Paul Taylor Dance Company spent the better part of its year celebrating the 80th birthday of its namesake. The most prominent of the celebrations was the one held in July at the American Dance Festival (ADF; Durham, N.C.), where Taylor unveiled his latest dance, Phantasmagoria. ADF’s season was entitled “What Is Dance Theater?” and included the presentation of Angel Reapers by Martha Clarke, recipient of the 2010 Samuel H. Scripps 275

Performing Arts: Dance Andrea Mohin—The New York Times/Redux

Mikhail Baryshnikov performs Alexei Ratmansky’s Valse-Fantasie, part of a program of solo dances held at the Baryshnikov Arts Center in New York City in May. American Dance Festival Award, in collaboration with Alfred Uhry. Among the highlights of the final years of the Merce Cunningham Dance Company, which commenced its Legacy Tour in February, was a revival of Roaratorio, a grand collaboration between Cunningham and John Cage from 1983, which it presented in Los Angeles. Part of this run and a related one in NYC included the appearance of Mikhail Baryshnikov as a guest artist for special benefit performances. A wide variety of events were presented at the Baryshnikov Arts Center (BAC) in NYC, most taking place in the centre’s newly opened Jerome Robbins Theater. The offerings included a revival of Necessary Weather, a 1994 collaboration between choreographer-dancers Sara Rudner and Dana Reitz and lighting designer Jennifer Tipton, as well as a program of solos featuring Baryshnikov himself. BAC also helped to celebrate the Trisha Brown Dance Company’s 40th anniversary, as did NYC’s Whitney Museum of American Art, the Dia: Beacon (N.Y.) galleries, and the 2010 Bard Summerscape (Annandaleon-Hudson, N.Y.) festival, with presen276

tations of a wide range of Brown’s dances. The Mark Morris Dance Group’s year included a premiere at the Brooklyn Academy of Music (BAM) of Morris’s Socrates and a run of the choreographer’s much-admired L’Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato at NYC’s Mostly Mozart Festival. NYC’s City Center offered the second installment of a program called “Kings of the Dance,” featuring David Hallberg, Marcelo Gomes, José Manuel Carreño, Denis Matvienko, Guillaume Côté, Desmond Richardson, and Nikolai Tsiskaridze. The theatre’s fall season included an extended run of Matthew Bourne’s Swan Lake. At the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, Washington, D.C., Moscow’s Bolshoi Ballet appeared in a weeklong run of the Soviet classic Spartacus, and a number of smaller-scale groups (HB, JB, PNB, Aspen Santa Fe Ballet, Ballet Arizona, Ballet Memphis, North Carolina Dance Theatre, the Suzanne Farrell Ballet, and Tulsa Ballet) performed under the banner “Ballet Across America.” Jacob’s Pillow kicked off its summer festival with Nina Ananiashvili and her State Ballet of Georgia. Also featured was the Trey McIntyre Project dance company, which Boise, Idaho, Mayor David Bieter named as its first Economic Development Cultural Ambassador. The Martha Graham Dance Company played a one-week engagement in NYC that featured a reconception of Graham’s 1938 American Document. At BAC the Limón Dance Company celebrated the 100th anniversary of the birth of renowned American choreographer Anna Sokolow. Tanztheater Wuppertal performed Full Moon at BAM’s Next Wave Festival, marking the troupe’s first appearance there since the death in 2009 of its founder, Pina Bausch. In addition to winning a Tony Award for his choreography for Fela! on Broadway, choreographer and director Bill T. Jones received a Kennedy Center Honor as well as the 2010 Jacob’s Pillow Dance Award. Broadway also saw the run of Twyla Tharp’s Frank Sinatra-inspired Come Fly Away. At PNB a triple bill of all-Tharp choreography was featured. National Ballet of Canada (NBC) offered Santo Loquasto’s newly designed production of John Cranko’s Onegin. NBC also presented Marie Chouinard’s 24 Preludes by Chopin at the Vancouver Olympic Winter Games. Alberta Ballet’s The Fiddle and the Drum, by artistic director Jean Grand-Maître, who choreographed the opening and closing cere-

monies of the Olympics, opened the 2010 Cultural Olympiad, also in Vancouver. In the Olympic spirit, the Vancouver International Dance Festival and Toronto’s Luminato Festival of Arts and Creativity offered international dance performances. Ballet British Columbia, which in March came under the permanent artistic direction of Emily Molnar, presented a mixed bill in Vancouver with William Forsythe’s Herman Schmerman, Itzik Balili’s Things I Told Nobody, and Crystal Pite’s Short Works: 24. Alberta Ballet capped its 2009–10 season with its own Love Lies Bleeding, inspired by the music of Sir Elton John. Ottawa’s Canada Dance Festival featured a broad spectrum of performances on its first night that ranged from break dancing to ballet. Following a public memorial in honour of the company’s late former artistic director, Arnold Spohr (see OBITUARIES), the Royal Winnipeg Ballet marked its 70th anniversary by touring Israel. Aside from the deaths of Jefferson and Spohr, the year’s losses included Ilona Copen, founder of the New York International Ballet Competition; Jonathan Wolken, founder of Pilobolus Dance Theater; Raymond Serrano, a 20-year veteran of ABT; and Jill Johnston, dance columnist. (See OBITUARIES.) (ROBERT GRESKOVIC) Europe. After directing Spain’s Compañía Nacional de Danza for 20 years, Nacho Duato announced—evidently amid disputes with the government over the group’s funding and artistic emphases—that he would leave the company in July 2010. Just a few weeks after his departure, he further surprised his followers by signing a fiveyear contract as chief choreographer at St. Petersburg’s Mikhailovsky Ballet, to begin in January 2011. Meanwhile, the Ballet Corella Castilla y León, based in the Spanish province of Segovia and led by Angel Corella, mounted Swan Lake in Valladolid, Spain, and in March the company made its first visit to New York City. The Bolshoi Ballet played a threeweek season in July and August at Covent Garden, London, dancing to sold-out houses and winning critical acclaim. The stars of the season were Natalya Osipova and Ivan Vasiliev, both newly promoted to principal rank. In December the Bolshoi expanded its repertory through the addition of George Balanchine’s Rubies and William Forsythe’s Herman Schmerman. Between overseas visits, the Mariinsky Ballet staged a new full-evening

Performing Arts: Dance

Dancers Vadim Muntagirov (left) and Daria Klimentova perform in the English National Ballet’s production of Swan Lake at London’s Royal Albert Hall in June. The company celebrated its 60th anniversary in 2010. David Jensen—PA Photos/Landov

work by Alexei Ratmansky (see BIOGRAPHIES ), Anna Karenina, with Uliana Lopatkina in the title role. The company also revived Leonid Yakobson’s Spartacus, a spectacular pioneering work from the 1950s featuring the female characters dancing in flat shoes or sandals rather than on pointe. In July the Mikhailovsky Ballet completed a critically successful season in London, with repertoire that included Soviet-era revivals: the Alexander Gorsky version of Swan Lake and a revised production of Vakhtang Chabukiani’s Laurencia. In October Leonid Sarafanov, a principal and lead classical dancer of the Mariinsky Ballet, announced that he would join the Mikhailovsky Ballet as a principal dancer in January 2011. Choreographer Heinz Spoerli, director of the Zürich Ballet since 1996, announced that he would leave the company at the end of the 2011–12 season, to be replaced by Christian Spuck, resident choreographer of the Stuttgart Ballet. Switzerland’s city of Lausanne, meanwhile, voted to allocate funds to support the Béjart Ballet Lausanne and the Mudra School for the next three years. The Vienna State Opera Ballet received both a new general director, Dominique Meyer, and a new director of ballet, Manuel Legris, former étoile (principal dancer) at the Paris Opéra. Nine premieres were promised for the 2010–11 season, with the first new program including ballets by Balanchine, Forsythe, and Twyla Tharp. Outgoing ballet director Gyula Harangozo’s final

premiere was A Midsummer Night’s Dream, the first full-evening work by the Finnish-born, Boston-based choreographer Jorma Elo. During its autumn season, the National Ballet of Finland celebrated the 40-year career of the contemporary Finnish choreographer Jorma Uotinen with a triple bill of his works. The troupe also presented Blood Wedding by the British-born Cathy Marston, in a double-bill with a version of Scheherazade by the company’s artistic director, Kenneth Greve. The highlight of the Royal Danish Ballet’s year was the back-to-back presentation of M/K Ballerina and M/K Danseur Noble, which showcased the company’s female and male dancers, respectively. Each of the programs consisted of a cluster of short works or solos followed by Eidolon, a new creation by Kim Brandstrup that was danceable either by women or by men and was cast accordingly. In addition to premiering Invitus Invitam, Brandstrup’s second creation for the main stage at Covent Garden, London’s Royal Ballet staged the choreographic debuts of two of its own dancers, Jonathan Watkins and Liam Scarlett. Watkins’s episodic As One was danced to a commissioned score by Graham Fitkin, while Scarlett used music by Francis Poulenc for the three movements of his Asphodel Meadows. In March the company revived La Fille mal gardée in celebration of the 50th anniversary of Sir Frederick Ashton’s version of the work. Also that month, the

troupe paid tribute to Sir Kenneth MacMillan in the form of a mixed bill of his ballets. At the end of the season, 20year-old Sergei Polunin was promoted to principal dancer. In June and July the company toured Japan and Spain. English National Ballet celebrated 60 years since its foundation as Festival Ballet and received widespread praise for its standard of dancing under artistic director Wayne Eagling. Aside from touring nationally, the company played four seasons at the London Coliseum and presented its arena version of Swan Lake at the Royal Albert Hall. It also revived Mary Skeaping’s Giselle, Michael Corder’s Cinderella, and Rudolf Nureyev’s Romeo and Juliet. The company’s new recruit Vadim Muntagirov was prominent in the casting and was promoted to first soloist at the end of his first season. Eagling produced a new version of The Nutcracker, which premiered in December. Birmingham Royal Ballet staged a Christmas offering in the form of a new full-length Cinderella, choreographed by the company’s artistic director, David Bintley. The Paris Opéra Ballet premiered two new full-evening works. The first of these was Siddharta, based on the book by Hermann Hesse and created for the company by choreographer Angelin Preljocaj. The beauty of the scenic effects and the skill of the dancers drew plaudits for the production, but the work seemed unlikely to have the staying power of Le Parc, Preljocaj’s previous full-evening creation for the Opéra. The second of the company’s premieres, staged in June and July, was Jiri Kilián’s Japanese-inspired Kaguyahime. Also in June, Stéphane Bullion was promoted to étoile following his performance in Nureyev’s La Bayadère. Japan provided the theme for the Hamburg Ballet Days, which featured premieres of two Japanese-flavoured works by director John Neumeier as well as a visit from the Tokyo Ballet. Elsewhere in Germany, the Berlin Ballet, under director Vladimir Malakhov, staged Malakhov’s La Péri, with choreography based on Romantic-era lithographs. In sharp contrast, the Stuttgart Ballet presented Wayne McGregor’s Yantra, created specially for the company, while Stuttgart’s independent Gauthier Dance staged Spuck’s Poppea//Poppea—after the Monteverdi opera. Deaths included British dancer, choreographer, and director Wendy Toye and Russian dancer Marina Semyonova. (See OBITUARIES.) The dance 277

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world also lost Philippe Braunschweig, founder of the Prix de Lausanne, and Spanish dancer Susana Audeoud. (JUDITH CRUICKSHANK)

by producer Cameron Mackintosh to revisit the show they had once molded with the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC), and Nunn made clear his feelings of upset and betrayal. Instead, Nunn concentrated on a revival of Lloyd Webber’s Aspects of Love at the Menier Chocolate Factory and came up with a winningly persuasive chamberscale version that was a vast improvement on his original, overinflated West End production of 1989. Another milestone of musical theatre was Stephen Sondheim’s 80th birthday. He was honoured with a concert at the Proms in the Albert Hall (participants included Dame Judi Dench, Bryn Terfel, Maria Friedman, Simon Russell Beale, Daniel Evans, and Jenna Russell) as well as three Sondheim revivals: a delightful pocket-sized Anyone Can Whistle at the little Jermyn Street Theatre; a glorious version of Into the Woods in the Open Air Theatre, Regent’s Park; and a new look at Passion at the Donmar Warehouse starring Argentine actress Elena Roger. As the subsidized theatre sector in Britain steeled itself for extensive cuts following the new coalition government’s pledge to reduce public spending, the amount of outstanding new work seemed to expand exponentially. Mike

Bartlett’s Earthquakes in London at the National Theatre caught the sense of economic doom by presenting an environmental apocalypse in an auditorium (the Cottesloe) reconfigured to resemble a lap-dancing club and casino; the play THEATRE was a dramatic roller coaster about cliGreat Britain and Ireland. Andrew Lloyd mate change, political despair, and cryoWebber’s long-awaited sequel to The genic preservation, filtered through the Phantom of the Opera finally opened in story of three sisters and their father. 2010 at the Adelphi Theatre in London. The director of Earthquakes, Rupert Love Never Dies continued the story of Goold, was responsible for Enron the Phantom and Christine 10 years (2009). Goold was a key player too at later on Coney Island, where the masked the reawakening RSC in Stratfordmysterious maestro now runs the pleaupon-Avon, where the new Royal sure palace from his lavish Art Deco Shakespeare Theatre opened on budget eyrie; Christine, having long retired and on time at the end of November. from the stage, returns to give one more His canny and fizzing new Romeo and performance, with the now dissolute Juliet (the leads played by Sam Raoul in tow and, crucially, a young boy Troughton and Mariah Gale) was one whose paternity was not clear. of the spring hits in the temporary Although the show attracted an enorCourtyard Theatre and launched, along mous range of reactions, including a with artistic director Michael Boyd’s devastating review from the New York less-ecstatically received Antony and Times, it featured Lloyd Webber’s maCleopatra (with Darrell D’Silva and jor, deeply felt musical score, boosted Kathryn Hunter), the company’s London season at the Roundhouse in Noby neat lyrics by Glenn Slater and a vember and December, respectively. wonderful fairground design by Bob The RSC also offered two fascinating Crowley. Jack O’Brien’s production gal“responses to Shakespeare” at Hampvanized all the elements into an enterstead Theatre in London. In David tainment comparable to the Phantom Greig’s Dunsinane, a sequel to Macbeth, but in no way a retread. There rethe hero’s wife is reborn as a defiant mained some bumpy narrative probwitch in the insurgency after lems to iron out, and the ending Malcolm’s coronation, and Denwas perhaps too melodramatic, nis Kelly’s The Gods Weep, a but the score was brilliant. Ramin Karimloo (left) and Sierra Boggess share a modern King Lear, featured Love Never Dies was a complex, scene in Love Never Dies, Andrew Lloyd Webber’s Jeremy Irons as a Savile Rowdemanding musical, exactly the sequel to his celebrated musical The Phantom of suited businessman dividing his opposite of Legally Blonde, which the Opera (1986), which opened in London in accounts between warring facbreezed pinkly into the Savoy March. tions while it also explored the Theatre and provided the next “end of the world” theme. stop for hen parties that had alOverall, the National had anready seen such hit shows as other outstanding year, balancMamma Mia! and Dirty Dancing. ing a number of superb revivals Jerry Mitchell’s garish, energetic with new work. Beale and Fiona production (with notable priShaw led a delightful romp mary-coloured designs by David through Dion Boucicault’s LonRockwell) boasted a winning perdon Assurance, directed by formance by Sheridan Smith as Nicholas Hytner; Howard Davies Elle Woods, the jilted California extended his Russian repertoire sorority girl who follows her with a mighty production of The snooty boyfriend to Harvard Law White Guard, Mikhail Bulgakov’s School. Smith might have been a lacerating study in counterrevotad too old and knowing for the lutionary turmoil; and Marianne part, and the stage show replaced Elliott directed a hypnotic fullthe charm of the original movie text version of Thomas Middlewith a relentless, finally exhaustton’s dark-hearted masterpiece ing, cheeriness. Women Beware Women (with A touring slimmed-down reHarriet Walter as the lusty vival of Les Misérables marked widow Livia). Thea Sharrock the 25th anniversary of the mustaged a revelatory revival of Afsical in the Barbican Centre on ter the Dance, Terence Rattigan’s the stage where it all began. Di“lost” 1939 play, the author’s secrector Trevor Nunn and designer ond, which nailed the alcoholic John Napier had not been invited Joel Ryan/AP

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hedonism and frenzied despair of the interwar Bright Young Things on the brink of catastrophic upheavals at home and abroad. Its premiere was one of the truly great nights in the National’s history, not least for the stylish performances of Benedict Cumberbatch and Nancy Carroll. The Old Vic finally settled down under the artistic direction of Kevin Spacey. Though Sam Mendes’s Bridge Project productions of The Tempest and As You Like It received a muted response, there were warm plaudits for three classy revivals: John Guare’s Six Degrees of Separation; Tom Stoppard’s The Real Thing, starring Toby Stephens and Hattie Morahan; and Noël Coward’s Design for Living, a still piercingly modern love story between three good friends. While the West End came up with only two worthwhile new plays all year—Douglas Carter Beane’s Broadway import The Little Dog Laughed, with Tamsin Greig laying down the law as a lesbian movie agent, and Nunn’s staging of Sebastian Faulks’s great novel of World War I, Birdsong—the National preceded Earthquakes with no fewer than three estimable new dramas. Tamsin Oglesby’s Really Old, Like Forty Five faced issues of curing and caring for those suffering from senile dementia with fierce wit and a concern shared universally, while Canadian playwright Drew Pautz’s Love the Sinner discussed homosexuality in the Christian church at a conference of bishops in Africa and spun an unusually good plot. Moira Buffini’s Welcome to Thebes, directed with panache by Richard Eyre, was a spirited evocation of politics in the developing world recast in the distorted mythology of Antigone, Creon, Polyneices, and even Tiresias, performed by a large, mostly Anglo-African company in the shadow of a deteriorating palace. Still, the Royal Court would not be denied its place at the high table of new writing and countered with arguably the two best plays of the year: Laura Wade’s Posh and American playwright Bruce Norris’s Clybourne Park. The first, presented on the eve of the general election won by David Cameron’s Conservative Party in alliance with the Liberal Democrats, anatomized the sort of exclusive, snobbish, riotous dining club to which Cameron and the new chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, belonged when at the University of Oxford. The second was similarly scabrous, jumping off in the first

act, set in 1959, from Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun, with black servants sensing a chance of change and ownership on the all-white housing estate; the tables were turned in the second act, 50 years later, with the now all-black housing cooperative casting a critical eye over a white couple’s application. Clybourne Park, first seen in New York at the Playwrights Horizon, was rich in possibly uncomfortable jokes about racism but proved another spectacular box-office success for artistic director Dominic Cooke, whose outstanding cast included Martin Freeman, Sophie Thompson, Steffan Rhodri, and Lorna Brown, all playing across the time gap in different roles. Another precocious new Royal Court talent declared itself in teenager Anya Reiss’s Spur of the Moment, a brutally raw and funny comedy of female adolescence in a fractured domestic set-up, presented in the Court’s upstairs studio. A revival in the West End of David Hirson’s La Bête starring Mark Rylance, David Hyde Pierce, and Joanna Lumley was not the stylish treat promised in a play about the theatre—Molière’s theatre, to be precise—written in rhyming couplets. Other West End revivals fared much better, notably Kim Cattrall (who later went north to play Cleopatra in Liverpool) and Matthew Macfadyen in Coward’s Private Lives, David Suchet and Zoë Wanamaker in Arthur Miller’s All My Sons, Jeff Goldblum and Mercedes Ruehl in Neil Simon’s The Prisoner of Second Avenue, and Michael Gambon in Samuel Beckett’s Krapp’s Last Tape. Here was a feast of fine acting, joined by Beale playing the bitterly inventive writer Sidney Bruhl in Ira Levin’s 1978 thriller Deathtrap, alongside Jonathan Groff, a likeable cast member of the American TV show Glee, and the gloriously batty Estelle Parsons. Shakespeare’s Globe had another great summer season, featuring an oldfashioned spooky and spiritual Macbeth (the witches popped up in almost every scene) directed by Lucy Bailey; a fascinating pairing of Shakespeare’s Henry VIII pageant and Howard Brenton’s new Anne Boleyn drama; and a raucous, rollicking version of both parts of Henry IV, with RSC alumnus Roger Allam as the best-spoken, though not the fattest, Falstaff in living memory. The Young Vic celebrated its 40th anniversary (not bad for a “temporary” adjunct to Laurence Olivier’s Old Vic) with great revivals of August Wilson’s Joe Turner’s Come and Gone and Martin McDonagh’s The Beauty Queen of Leenane.

The Edinburgh Festival, the fourth under the artistic directorship of Jonathan Mills, welcomed two established avant-garde troupes from New York, the Wooster Group in Tennessee Williams’s Vieux Carré and the Elevator Repair Service in Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises. The Fringe responded with the National Theatre of Scotland’s new boxing play, Beautiful Burnout by Bryony Lavery (with physical theatre input from Frantic Assembly), and a remarkable one-man show at the Traverse Theatre, Daniel Kitson’s It’s Always Right Now, Until It’s Later. The Dublin Theatre Festival presented world premieres of a new version of Jean Racine’s Phaedra from Lynne Parker’s Rough Magic company and of Frank McGuinness’s new version of Henrik Ibsen’s John Gabriel Borkman at the Abbey Theatre starring Alan Rickman, Fiona Shaw, and Lindsay Duncan. The Gate Theatre presented a season of short plays by Beckett, Harold Pinter, and David Mamet, while Garry Hynes’s Galway-based Druid company offered a revival of Sean O’Casey’s The Silver Tassie. (MICHAEL COVENEY) U.S. and Canada. In 2010 theatre in the United States continued its intense scrutiny of the subject of race. Racial injustice may indeed be the predominant moral theme coursing through American history and literature, but no art form was more willing than the theatre to engage with its topical complexities and human dimensions. That willingness dates at least to George L. Aiken’s 1852 stage adaptation of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, the 19th-century staple revived during the season at New York City’s Metropolitan Playhouse. David Mamet headlined the trend with his bluntly titled Broadway outing Race, about a wealthy white man accused of having raped a black woman. Critics and audiences were more interested, though, in subtler and more imaginative treatments of racial themes, such as newcomer Bruce Norris’s era-hopping satire Clybourne Park, set in the same all-white Chicago neighbourhood as that depicted in Lorraine Hansberry’s 1959 classic A Raisin in the Sun. Norris’s resonant liberal-baiting riff on gentrification and racial unease played early in the year at Off-Broadway’s Playwrights Horizons and Washington, D.C.’s Woolly Mammoth Theatre Company before heading to London’s Royal Court Theatre. It was scheduled to move to the West End in 2011. A pair of new musicals, Memphis and The Scottsboro Boys, parlayed signifi279

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cant moments in the history of race relations into successful present-day entertainments. David Bryan and Joe DiPietro’s commercial production Memphis, loosely based on the story of a pioneering white disc jockey who in the 1950s dared to play music by African American artists, evoked the early civil rights movement. Memphis outclassed another musical with racial overtones, the celebratory South African revue Fela!, to win four 2010 Tony Awards, including best musical. A postscript to the oeuvre of John Kander and Fred Ebb, the more formally adventurous The Scottsboro Boys (on which the fabled team was working, with book writer David Thompson, when Ebb died in 2004) tackled the sensational real-life 1931 case of nine black men falsely accused of rape. By choosing to couch the tale in the Brechtian framework of a minstrel show, the show’s creators invited controversy—and got it, in the form of critical resistance and even a brief protest demonstration. Nevertheless, the show won an impressive spate of Off-Broadway awards and moved from its berth at the downtown Vineyard Theatre to enjoy a modest commercial run. Actor-playwright Tracy Letts’s Superior Donuts—which depicted a budding cross-racial, cross-generational friendship between an aging 1960s radical who owns a rundown donut shop and his troubled young African American assistant—originated at Chicago’s Steppenwolf Theatre Company in 2008, but its attention-getting 2009–10 run in New York under Tina Landau’s direction generated a half dozen or more spin-off productions at regional theatres from Florida to California. The voice of one of the country’s most authoritative writers on race, that of the late August Wilson, continued to be heard in scores of productions, including director Kenny Leon’s revival of Fences, which won Tony Awards for lead actors Denzel Washington and Viola Davis. Leon was also busy in Washington, D.C., where he helmed the premiere of every tongue confess by emerging 32year-old writer Marcus Gardley, this time utilizing the star power of longtime television actress Phylicia Rashad. Gardley’s inquiry into the spate of arsons that hit black churches in the South in the 1990s, framed as a fairy tale, was praised for its epic feel and gospel rhythms, and marked him as a newcomer to watch. Gardley’s drama had the additional distinction of christening a distinctive 280

Denzel Washington (right) and Viola Davis won the Tony Awards for leading actor and actress in a play, respectively, for their powerful performances in the Broadway revival of August Wilson’s Fences. new theatre building, Arena Stage of D.C.’s Arlene and Robert Kogod Cradle, an oval 200-seat forum for just-hatched plays. The Cradle was part of the flagship company’s multimillion-dollar redesign, known as the Mead Center for American Theater and engineered under the leadership of artistic director Molly Smith. She baptized the complex’s renovated in-the-round Fichandler Stage with a wildly popular mixed-race staging of Rodgers and Hammerstein’s classic musical Oklahoma!, ending the theatrical year on a high note in the country’s capital. Among the new playwrights to emerge in 2010, none made a bigger splash than 29-year-old Annie Baker, whose compassionate comedy Circle Mirror Transformation, about the denizens of a summer amateur drama class, captivated critics and audiences in its debut at New York’s Playwrights Horizons and went on to become the second mostproduced American play of 2010–11 (as tallied by the service organization Theatre Communications Group). Her somewhat grubbier three-hander The Aliens, about disenchanted young men, stirred up similar excitement.

The year’s most unlikely hit may have been GATZ, a more than six-hour wordfor-word adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby. Developed and performed in the U.S. and abroad by the experimental company Elevator Repair Service over the previous few years, GATZ had until recently been prohibited by the Fitzgerald estate from performance in New York City, and a powerful buzz preceded its soldout run at the Public Theater. Set in a drab, fluorescent-tinged industrial office and performed with a dinner break, the show captivated lovers of American literature, marathoners, and ordinary theatregoers alike. Leadership changes in 2010 included the appointment of widely admired New York producer Jenny Gersten as artistic director of the Williamstown Theatre Festival of Massachusetts. Gersten succeeded Nicholas Martin, who pulled out all the stops in the final production of his three-year tenure, an Our Town with a cast of 40, led by Campbell Scott, who was ideally cast as the Stage Manager. Joy Zinoman, founding artistic director of Studio Theatre in Washington, D.C., left that organization after 35 years (her final offering was a revival of Mamet’s American Buffalo) to be succeeded by David Muse, who had helmed many productions at the theatre in recent years. Irene Lewis, the feisty 19-year veteran artistic director of Centerstage in Baltimore, Md., also announced that she would leave that company at season’s end. New developments in the Canadian theatre scene included the partnership of David Mirvish, the largest producer of commercial theatre in Toronto, and not-for-profit impresario Dan Brambilla, CEO of that city’s Sony Centre, which had far-reaching implications for Toronto audiences. Mirvish and Brambilla were sharing ticket offerings for each other’s shows, collaborating on publicity, and making the 3,200-seat Sony venue available for occasional commercial productions. At the venerable Stratford Shakespeare Festival, attendance was up 40% for Shakespeare shows, according to artistic director Des McAnuff, and attendance at Canadian-authored plays, such as Michel Tremblay’s For the Pleasure of Seeing Her Again, rose a whopping 87%. McAnuff’s staging of The Tempest with Christopher Plummer as Prospero was the season’s biggest hit, drawing more than 82,000 to Stratford and screening to 20,000 in cinemas across Canada.

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Deaths affecting the North American theatre community included those of actress Lynn Redgrave and child-star legend June Havoc (see OBITUARIES), as well as actress Nan Martin; Craig Noel, founding director of the Old Globe of San Diego; theatre historian Helen Krich Chinoy; Michael Kuchwara, longtime theatre critic for the Associated Press; dancer Doris Eaton Travis, the last surviving Ziegfeld Girl; Stanley E. Williams and Quentin Easter, cofounders of the Lorraine Hansberry Theatre of San Francisco; director Israel Hicks; and veteran manager Edgar Rosenblum of Long Wharf Theatre in New Haven, Conn. (JIM O’QUINN)

MOTION PICTURES United States. The resurgent 3-D phenomenon increased its grip in 2010, with some 25 films released in the format during the year. In London even Queen Elizabeth II donned 3-D spectacles for a gala screening of the latest Narnia fantasy, The Chronicles of Narnia: The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (Michael Apted). Tim Burton’s 3-D Alice in Wonderland, an imaginary sequel to the original, received heavy promotion, but the director’s gothic vision and the heavy swathes of digital effects often worked against the material’s interests. The brightest and most widely enjoyed 3-D release of 2010 was Toy Story 3 (Lee Unkrich), a mature and vividly emotional finale to the animation saga begun in 1995. Other sequels during the year included the superior Twilight Saga installment Eclipse (David Slade); Sex and the City 2 (Michael Patrick King), which strained patience; and Oliver Stone’s Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps, less finger-wagging than the original, with Michael Douglas back in the role of financier Gordon Gekko. The Karate Kid (Harald Zwart), aimed at family audiences, successfully revamped another past hit. The most eagerly awaited sequel was Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 1 (David Yates), the series’ penultimate film, darker and more serious in tone than previous Harry Potter adventures. Among straightforward factory product, some motion pictures of daring and distinction emerged. Christopher Nolan’s visually and cerebrally dazzling Inception piled multiple surreal twists into the story of Leonardo DiCaprio’s “extractor,” hired to invade the dreams of business giants. Danny Boyle’s exciting 127 Hours, based on a true story, cleverly sustained visual interest

despite the hero’s confined position trapped in a canyon’s crevice. Under intense scrutiny throughout, James Franco delivered a bravura performance. Writer-directors Joel and Ethan Coen suitably applied plenty of grit in the remake of True Grit; Jeff Bridges (see BIOGRAPHIES) put his own stamp on John Wayne’s role of the aging U.S. Marshall Reuben J. (“Rooster”) Cogburn. Darren Aronofsky’s Black Swan featured some audacious thrills and a brave performance by Natalie Portman as an obsessive young ballerina. Lowkey melancholy coloured Sofia Coppola’s rewarding Somewhere, featuring Stephen Dorff as a spent screen actor in Beverly Hills, Calif.; the film won the top prize, the Golden Lion, at the Venice Film Festival. Los Angeles life was also scrutinized in Greenberg (Noah Baumbach)—a comedy on the surface, a drama underneath. Another comedy with serious overtones was The Kids Are All Right (Lisa Cholodenko), with Annette Bening and Julianne Moore as a longtime lesbian couple whose two teenage children

Natalie Portman starred as troubled ballerina Nina Sayers in the psychological thriller Black Swan, directed by Darren Aronofsky.

seek out their sperm-donor father. David Fincher’s The Social Network, written by Aaron Sorkin, investigated the Internet and the development of the social networking site Facebook. Featuring speedy dialogue, rounded characters, and a caustic view of American enterprise, this was one of the year’s smartest entertainments. David O. Russell’s The Fighter, a film with more energy than cohesion, was set in working-class Massachusetts and featured the tale of a boxer (Mark Wahlberg) hemmed in by his dysfunctional family. Clint Eastwood’s unusual and deft Hereafter crossed the world pursuing three parallel stories about the ties between the living and the dead. No independent film struck deeper chords than Debra Granik’s lean and compelling Winter’s Bone, which examined the lives of an impoverished Missouri family. Martin Scorsese kept the tension high during Shutter Island, but his expertise seemed wasted on the thriller’s creaky plot. Eat Pray Love (Ryan Murphy), based on Elizabeth Gilbert’s popular memoir about a life rescued from depression, coasted along on the minor pleasures of foreign travel, exotic food, and Julia Roberts. Bruce Willis, another mature star attraction, appeared in Red (Robert Schwentke), a lightly amusing caper about aging CIA veterans. Matt Damon fizzed with energy in the uneven Green Zone (Paul Greengrass), set in Baghdad during the U.S.led invasion. In Unstoppable director Tony Scott served up basic thrills with a runaway freight train carrying toxic cargo toward a populated area; more ambitiously, his brother Ridley Scott offered Russell Crowe as Robin Hood, a drably realistic revisionist treatment of a much-told tale. Solid laughter was generally in short supply, but the engaging Date Night (Shawn Levy) offered Steve Carell (see BIOGRAPHIES) and Tina Fey pleasantly teamed as a suburban couple enduring a dangerous night in New York City. Revolving around a TV news show, the romantic comedy Morning Glory (Roger Michell) contained winning performances from Harrison Ford, Diane Keaton, and Rachel McAdams, and character comedy sparkled in The Extra Man (Robert Pulcini, Shari Springer Berman) with Kevin Kline. In the animation field, How to Train Your Dragon (Dean DeBlois, Chris Sanders) told its story about a teenage Viking with dazzling visuals and unexpected dramatic depth.

© 2010 Fox Searchlight Pictures; all rights reserved

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British Isles. A small number of British films rose to prominence despite a hard economy and the British government’s abolition of the UK Film Council, its film development and funding agency. Mike Leigh crafted one of his bestbalanced films in Another Year, a mellow portrait of a year’s daily round among London family and friends. Tom Hooper’s finely acted The King’s Speech neatly mixed heritage trappings with irreverence in the true story of King George VI (Colin Firth) battling against his stammer. In another register, new director Gareth Edwards made a splash with Monsters, an unusually convincing zero-budget drama about squidlike monsters infesting Mexico, featuring editing and special effects engineered on the director’s laptop computer. Mark Romanek’s Never Let Me Go crafted a delicately tragic love story from Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel about children bred as scientific specimens. More muscular filmmaking was displayed in Neds, Peter Mullan’s riveting realist portrait of a bright boy’s descent into crime. Landscapes and strenuous close-ups dominated Peter Weir’s The Way Back, the visually impressive but dramatically lax story of wartime prisoners walking to freedom from Siberia during World War II. Didacticism won out over entertainment in Ken Loach’s Iraq war drama Route Irish, while Sally Hawkins’s spunky performance energized Made in Dagenham, Nigel Cole’s otherwise mechanical account of female car factory workers struggling for wage equality. In the experimental vein, Clio Barnard’s inventive and compassionate The Arbor fused theatre and documentary techniques to re-create the late playwright Andrea Dunbar’s turbulent working-class life. Ireland’s boldest offering was writer-director Carmel Winters’s Snap, a nervous spin through crime, abuse, and dysfunctional family life. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Few Canadian films balanced their ingredients as rewardingly as Louis Bélanger’s Route 132, the universal story, set in Quebec, of a father’s life unraveling after the death from meningitis of his young son. Quebec took on a different colour in Les Amours imaginaires (Heartbeats), a sensuously textured, hyperstylized romantic comedy from the young and gifted Xavier Dolan. Incendies (Scorched; Denis Villeneuve) made powerful cinema out of Wajdi Mouawad’s distinguished, if wordheavy, play about two Canadian siblings born in the Middle East, search282

ing into their mother’s past. Richard J. Lewis’s Barney’s Version only skated the surface of Mordecai Richler’s intricate comic novel, but Paul Giamatti pleased as the Jewish curmudgeon with a tangled life. Australia’s output was dominated by writer-director David Michôd’s remarkably assured first feature, Animal Kingdom, a compelling drama about a disintegrating Melbourne crime family, acted and paced with brooding intensity. Ben C. Lucas, another debuting director, impressed with his handling of Wasted on the Young, a thriller about teenage bullying. New Zealand kept fairly quiet, though The Warrior’s Way (Sngmoo Lee) made a splash with its reckless potpourri of martial arts action and romantic fairy tale. Western Europe. French cinema lost two of its veteran directors, Claude Chabrol and Eric Rohmer, in 2010. (See O BITUARIES.) Another veteran, Jean-Luc Godard, continued to battle from the fringes with Film Socialisme (Socialism), a didactic collage mostly viewed by YouTube Web site visitors, in a version squeezed into four minutes. Olivier Assayas’s Carlos, which premiered jointly on the cinema screen and pay-TV, spent more than five hours painting an exciting and psychologically acute portrait of the Venezuelan terrorist Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, popularly known as “the Jackal.” Calmer in visual style, Xavier Beauvois’s Des hommes et des dieux (Of Gods and Men), winner of the Cannes Festival’s Grand Prix, adapted its rhythms to the daily round of Cistercian monks who are beleaguered and ultimately kidnapped by Islamist revolutionaries during the 1996 Algerian civil war. Beauvois led the viewer straight into his characters’ minds and hearts, a considerable achievement. Bertrand Tavernier also impressed with La Princesse de Montpensier (The Princess of Montpensier), a refreshingly unapologetic period drama based on a novel by Madame de La Fayette. Tout ce qui brille (All That Glitters), written and directed by Hervé Mimran and actress Géraldine Nakache, scored at the box office with its ebullient tale of working-class girls trying to gate-crash the Parisian elite. Audiences also warmed to Jean Becker’s heart-tugging La Tête en friche (My Afternoons with Margueritte), featuring Gérard Depardieu as a rural ignoramus saved by the wonders of French literature. Angelo Cianci’s Dernier étage, gauche, gauche (Top Floor, Left Wing) explored the fractious relationship between French

authorities and the suburbs, and Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy’s strict French immigration policy inspired Romain Goupil’s Les Mains en l’air (Hands Up). The esteemed Iranian filmmaker Abbas Kiarostami made his first film outside his home country with the absorbing relationship drama Copie conforme (Certified Copy), shot in Italy, for which Juliette Binoche won Cannes’s best actress prize. Belgium offered a blast of audacity with Gust Van den Berghe’s En waar de sterre bleef stille staan (Little Baby Jesus of Flandr), a religious parable about the limits of spirituality, performed in part by actors with Down syndrome. In the Netherlands more spectators were enticed by a father’s midlife crisis in Rudolf van den Berg’s Tirza. In Germany, Tom Tykwer provided food for thought and some laughter in Drei (Three), a precisely observed tapestry of social and sexual life among Berlin’s sophisticates. Actors Bruno Ganz and Senta Berger added some depth to Sophie Heldman’s story of a long-established marriage in crisis, Satte Farben vor Schwarz (Colors in the Dark). Germany also provided the studio space for Roman Polanski’s The Ghost (also released as The Ghost Writer), a political thriller about a ghostwriter hired to work on the memoirs of a former British prime minister. Despite murky colours and implausibilities, the film won six prizes at the 2010 European Film Awards. Italy generated no international successes, though Hai paura del buio (Afraid of the Dark), a thoughtful drama set in the Italian south, marked an impressive feature debut by director Massimo Coppola. More contentiously, Daniele Luchetti’s La nostra vita (Our Life) aimed to please with a shallow treatment of working-class lives. Spanish films continued to mine two productive seams: period history and contemporary social problems. Icíar Bollaín’s powerful También la lluvia (Even the Rain) took aim at capitalism, social inequality, and Latin America’s dispossessed. Andrucha Waddington’s Lope celebrated the Golden Age writer Lope de Vega with pretty set pieces but insufficient narrative gusto. Agustí Vila’s La mosquitera (The Mosquito Nest) took a clinical look at a Catalan family’s perversities, while the unsettling Elisa K (Judith Colell, Jordi Cadena) treated the aftereffects of child abuse. Simpler issues were at stake in Rodrigo Cortés’s English-language Buried, set inside a coffin. Portugal came forward with the

massive and opulent Mistérios de Lisboa (Mysteries of Lisbon), carved from Camilo Castelo Branco’s 19th-century novel and directed with a connoisseur’s eye by Raoul Ruiz. In Sweden devoted followers of Stieg Larsson’s popular Millennium crime novels and their film versions pounced on Daniel Alfredson’s Luftslottet som sprängdes (2009; The Girl Who Kicked the Hornet’s Nest). Hotly paced but with only limited physical action, it satisfied its captive audience. Meatier fare was available in Snabba Cash (Easy Money), Daniel Espinosa’s realistic thriller set in Stockholm’s underworld—a considerable box-office success. In Denmark director Susanne Bier handled serious moral issues in Hævnen (In a Better World), a powerful drama pitting idealism against conflicting human impulses. Thomas Vinterberg’s Submarino, solidly grim, looked without judgment on the damaged lives of two offspring of an abusive mother. Greenland produced its first homegrown feature film in Nuummioq (2009; Otto Rosing, Torben Bech), a contemplative account of one man’s journey toward self-awareness and wider horizons. From Finland, Jalmari Helander’s Rare Exports spun a sparky, slightly menacing story about an evil Santa Claus accidentally released from his Arctic home during an archaeological dig. Eastern Europe. Romania’s cinematic renaissance continued in 2010. Florin Serban’s tightly-focused Eu cand vreau sa fluier, fluier (If I Want to Whistle, I Whistle), Jury Grand Prix winner at Berlin, concerned the troubles of a young man about to be released from juvenile detention. Marian Crisan’s Morgen won the Special Jury Prize at the Locarno festival for its quietly perceptive coverage of average lives seen through the prism of a border town. From the Czech Republic, Jan Hrebejk’s brilliantly acted Kawasakiho ruze (2009; Kawasaki’s Rose) deftly handled the lingering guilt of collaborators with the former Czechoslovakia’s communist regime, while Irena Pavlaskova’s solidly entertaining Zemsky raj to na pohled (An Earthly Paradise for the Eyes) found black absurdist comedy in the turmoil and hardships of the 1968 Russian invasion. Poland generated nothing to top the brilliance of Wojciech Smarzowski’s Dom zly (The Dark House), a gritty drama of crime and corruption released late in 2009, but Jerzy Skolimowski’s international co-production Essential Killing fitfully impressed. Vincent Gallo won the best actor prize at the Venice

Spanish actor Javier Bardem, as a cancer-stricken crook, comforts his onscreen daughter in Alejandro González Iñárritu’s meditative drama Biutiful. Roadside Attractions/Everett Collection

Film Festival for his rigorous performance as an Afghan prisoner on the run in eastern Europe. In a weak year for Russian cinema, Aleksey Popogrebsky’s Kak ya provyol etim letom (How I Ended This Summer) extracted solid human drama from the tale of two meteorologists stationed in the Arctic. In Georgia, Levan Koguashvili’s Quchis dgeebi (Street Days), a tale of heroin and corruption in Tbilisi, offered stark and powerful neorealist drama. Bal (Honey), the concluding installment in a trilogy from Turkish director Semih Kaplanoglu, crawled slowly through the lonely mountain life of a beekeeper’s son; surprisingly, it won the Berlin festival’s top prize, the Golden Bear. From Greece, Athina Rachel Tsangari’s Attenberg presented an offbeat drama about sex and death; Ariane Labed won the best actress award at Venice for her hypnotic central performance. Latin America. After two international ventures, leading Mexican director Alejandro González Iñárritu returned to Spanish-language filmmaking in 2010 with Biutiful, the slow, harrowing tale of a Barcelona crook trying to straighten out his life before cancer claims him. Javier Bardem’s tactile, precisely detailed performance won him the best actor prize at Cannes. María Novaro’s Las buenas hierbas (The Good Herbs) offered fitfully penetrating treatment of a family coping with Alzheimer disease. Michael Rowe exerted a more rigorous grip over Año bisiesto (Leap Year), a minimalist but lusty study in sexual abandon and urban loneliness. In Argentina audiences flocked to Sin retorno (No Return), Miguel Cohan’s subtly woven thriller about the consequences of a hit-and-run road accident. A step removed from commercial cin-

ema, writer-directors Santiago Loza and Iván Fund scored well with Los labios (The Lips), an absorbing account of three female social workers trying to help poor families in Santa Fe province. Daniel Burman’s Dos hermanos (Brother and Sister), featuring veteran actors Graciela Borges and Antonio Gasalla, took a wry but affectionate look at the strained relationship between two siblings following their mother’s death. Costa Rica and Colombia joined forces for Del amor y otros demonios (2009; Of Love and Other Demons), a surprisingly successful attempt to capture the magic realism of Gabriel García Márquez’s novel about a colonial aristocrat’s daughter suspected of demonic possession. Handsomely performed and photographed, the film showcased the ambition and confidence of its debuting director, Hilda Hidalgo. From Chile, Pablo Larraín’s tautly controlled but emotionally compelling drama Post Mortem, set during the 1973 military coup d’état that brought Gen. Augusto Pinochet to power, investigated the country’s soul through the unusual prism of a mortuary attendant. Peru came forward with Octubre (October), a promising first feature from Daniel and Diego Vega Vidal, set in the Lima slums. Gustavo Pizzi, in Brazil, made his own feature directing debut with Riscado (Craft), an intelligent portrait of an actor’s struggles. In Cuba audiences enjoyed the breezy comedy of Fina Torres’s Habana Eva, co-produced with Venezuela. Middle East. Iraq took a step forward toward renewed cinema production with Oday Rasheed’s Qarantina, its first homemade commercial film in 20 years. (continued on page 286)

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INTERNATIONAL FILM AWARDS 2010

Golden Globes, awarded in Beverly Hills, California, in January 2010 Best drama Avatar (U.S./U.K.; director, James Cameron) Best musical or comedy The Hangover (U.S./Germany; director, Todd Phillips) Best director James Cameron (Avatar, U.S./U.K.) Best actress, drama Sandra Bullock (The Blind Side, U.S.) Best actor, drama Jeff Bridges (Crazy Heart, U.S.) Best actress, musical or comedy Meryl Streep (Julie & Julia, U.S.) Best actor, musical or comedy Robert Downey, Jr. (Sherlock Holmes, U.S./Germany) Best foreign-language film Das weisse Band (The White Ribbon) (Austria/Germany/France/Italy; director, Michael Haneke) Sundance Film Festival, awarded in Park City, Utah, in January 2010 Grand Jury Prize, dramatic film Grand Jury Prize, documentary Audience Award, dramatic film Audience Award, documentary World Cinema Jury Prize, dramatic film World Cinema Jury Prize, documentary U.S. directing award, dramatic film U.S. directing award, documentary

Winter’s Bone (U.S.; director, Debra Granik) Restrepo (U.S.; directors, Tim Hetherington and Sebastian Junger) Happythankyoumoreplease (U.S.; director, Josh Radnor) Waiting for “Superman” (U.S.; director, Davis Guggenheim) Animal Kingdom (Australia; director, David Michôd) Det røde kapel (The Red Chapel) (Denmark; director, Mads Brügger) Eric Mendelsohn (3 Backyards, U.S.) Leon Gast (Smash His Camera, U.S.)

Berlin International Film Festival, awarded in February 2010 Golden Bear Silver Bear, Jury Grand Prix Silver Bear, best director Silver Bear, best actress Silver Bear, best actor

Bal (Honey) (Turkey/Germany; director, Semih Kaplanoglu) Eu cand vreau sa fluier, fluier (If I Want to Whistle, I Whistle) (Romania/Sweden; director, Florin Serban) Roman Polanski (The Ghost Writer, France/Germany/U.K.) Shinobu Terajima (Kyatapirâ [Caterpillar], Japan) Grigoriy Dobrygin (Kak ya provyol etim letom [How I Ended This Summer], Russia); Sergey Puskepalis (Kak ya provyol etim letom [How I Ended This Summer], Russia)

British Academy of Film and Television Arts, awarded in London in February 2010 Best Best Best Best Best Best Best

film director actress actor supporting actress supporting actor foreign-language film

The Hurt Locker (U.S.; director, Kathryn Bigelow) Kathryn Bigelow (The Hurt Locker, U.S.) Carey Mulligan (An Education, U.K./U.S.) Colin Firth (A Single Man, U.S.) Mo’Nique (Precious: Based on the Novel “Push” by Sapphire, U.S.) Christoph Waltz (Inglourious Basterds, U.S./Germany) Un Prophète (A Prophet) (France/Italy; director, Jacques Audiard)

Césars (France), awarded in Paris in February 2010 Best film Best director Best actress Best actor Most promising actress Best first film

Un Prophète (A Prophet) (France/Italy; director, Jacques Audiard) Jacques Audiard (Un Prophète [A Prophet], France/Italy) Isabelle Adjani (La Journée de la jupe [Skirt Day], France/Belgium) Tahar Rahim (Un Prophète [A Prophet], France/Italy) Mélanie Thierry (Le Dernier pour la route [One for the Road], France) Les Beaux Gosses (The French Kissers) (France; director, Riad Sattouf)

Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (Oscars; U.S.), awarded in Los Angeles in February 2010 Best Best Best Best Best Best Best

film director actress actor supporting actress supporting actor foreign-language film

Best animated film

The Hurt Locker (U.S.; director, Kathryn Bigelow) Kathryn Bigelow (The Hurt Locker, U.S.) Sandra Bullock (The Blind Side, U.S.) Jeff Bridges (Crazy Heart, U.S.) Mo’Nique (Precious: Based on the Novel “Push” by Sapphire, U.S.) Christoph Waltz (Inglourious Basterds, U.S./Germany) El secreto de sus ojos (The Secret in Their Eyes) (Argentina/Spain; director, Juan José Campanella) Up (U.S.; director, Pete Docter)

Cannes Festival, France, awarded in May 2010 Palme d’Or Grand Prix Jury Prize Best director Best actress Best actor Caméra d’Or

Loong Boonmee raleuk chat (Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives) (Thailand/U.K./France/Germany/Spain/Netherlands; director, Apichatpong Weerasethakul) Des hommes et des dieux (Of Gods and Men) (France; director, Xavier Beauvois) Un Homme qui crie (A Screaming Man) (France/Belgium/Chad; director, Mahamat-Saleh Haroun) Mathieu Amalric (Tournée [On Tour], France) Juliette Binoche (Copie conforme [Certified Copy], France/Italy/Iran) Javier Bardem (Biutiful, Spain/Mexico); Elio Germano (La nostra vita [Our Life], Italy/France) Año bisiesto (Leap Year) (Mexico; director, Michael Rowe)

Performing Arts: Motion Pictures

INTERNATIONAL FILM AWARDS 2010 (continued)

Locarno International Film Festival, Switzerland, awarded in August 2010 Golden Leopard Special Jury Prize Best actress Best actor

Han jia (Winter Vacation) (China; director, Li Hongqi) Morgen (Romania/France/Hungary; director, Marian Crisan) Jasna Djuricic (Beli, beli svet [White, White World], Serbia/Germany/Sweden) Emmanuel Bilodeau (Curling, Canada)

Montreal World Film Festival, awarded in September 2010 Grand Prix of the Americas (best film) Best actress Best actor Best director Special Grand Prix of the Jury Best screenplay International film critics award

Adem (Oxygen) (Belgium/Netherlands; director, Hans Van Nuffel) Eri Fukatsu (Akunin [Villain], Japan) François Papineau (Route 132, Canada) Maria Sødahl (Limbo, Norway); Pascal Elbé (Tête de turc [Turk’s Head], France) Dalla vita in poi (From the Waist On) (Italy; director, Gianfrancesco Lazotti) De la infancia (From Childhood) (Mexico; screenplay by Silvia Pasternac, Fernando Javier León Rodríguez, and Carlos Carrera) Das Lied in mir (The Day I Was Not Born) (Germany/Argentina; director, Florian Micoud Cossen)

Venice Film Festival, awarded in September 2010 Golden Lion Special Jury Prize Volpi Cup, best actress Volpi Cup, best actor Silver Lion, best director Marcello Mastroianni Award (best new young actor or actress) Luigi De Laurentiis Award (best first film)

Somewhere (U.S.; director, Sofia Coppola) Essential Killing (Poland/Norway/Ireland/Hungary; director, Jerzy Skolimowski) Ariane Labed (Attenberg, Greece) Vincent Gallo (Essential Killing, Poland/Norway/Ireland/Hungary) Álex de la Iglesia (Balada triste de trompeta [The Last Circus], Spain/France) Mila Kunis (Black Swan, U.S.) Cogunluk (Majority) (Turkey; director, Seren Yuce)

Toronto International Film Festival, awarded in September 2010 Best Canadian feature film Best Canadian first feature Best Canadian short film International film critics award People’s Choice Award

Incendies (Scorched) (director, Denis Villeneuve) The High Cost of Living (director, Deborah Chow) Les Fleurs de l’âge (Little Flowers) (director, Vincent Biron) Beautiful Boy (U.S.; director, Shawn Ku) The King’s Speech (U.K./Australia; director, Tom Hooper)

San Sebastián International Film Festival, Spain, awarded in September 2010 Best film Special Jury Prize Best director Best actress Best actor Best cinematography New directors prize International film critics award

Neds (U.K./France/Italy; director, Peter Mullan) Elisa K (Spain; directors, Jordi Cadena and Judith Colell) Raoul Ruiz (Mistérios de Lisboa [Mysteries of Lisbon], Portugal/France/Brazil) Nora Navas (Pa negre [Black Bread], Spain/France) Conor McCarron (Neds, U.K./France/Italy) Jimmy Gimferrer (Aita, Spain) Carlos César Arbeláez (Los colores de la montaña [The Colors of the Mountain], Panama/Colombia) Genpin (Japan; director, Naomi Kawase)

Vancouver International Film Festival, awarded in October 2010 Most Popular Canadian Film Award People’s Choice Award National Film Board Most Popular Canadian Documentary Award ET Canada Award for Best Canadian Feature Film Environmental Film Audience Award Dragons and Tigers Award for Young Cinema

Two Indians Talking (director, Sara McIntyre) Waste Land (Brazil/U.K.; directors, Lucy Walker, Karen Harley, and João Jardim) Leave Them Laughing (director, John Zaritsky) Incendies (Scorched) (director, Denis Villeneuve) Force of Nature: The David Suzuki Movie (Canada; director, Sturla Gunnarsson) Good Morning to the World! (Japan; director, Hirohara Satoru)

Chicago International Film Festival, awarded in October 2010 Gold Hugo, best film Gold Hugo, best documentary Silver Hugo, Special Jury Award

Kak ya provyol etim letom (How I Ended This Summer) (Russia; director, Aleksey Popogrebsy) Beautiful Darling (U.S.; director, James Rasin) En ganske snill mann (A Somewhat Gentle Man) (Norway; director, Hans Petter Moland)

European Film Awards, awarded in December 2010 Best European film Best actress Best actor

The Ghost Writer (France/Germany/U.K.; director, Roman Polanski) Sylvie Testud (Lourdes, Austria/France/Germany) Ewan McGregor (The Ghost Writer, France/Germany/U.K.) (PATRICIA

BAUER)

Performing Arts: Motion Pictures

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The country’s upheavals made location shooting difficult, and the sound track needed reconstitution in Germany, but solid matter remained in the symbolic story of a family seeking refuge in an abandoned Baghdad house. In Iran government bureaucracy continued to control film activities, and the arrest and imprisonment of the filmmaker Jafar Panahi stirred much world attention. Homayoun Asadian scored some small social points in his Tala va mes (Gold and Copper), a drama of simple eloquence about a trainee mullah trying to care for his family. In Israel Dover Kosashvili’s powerful drama Hitganvut yehidim (Infiltration) avoided easy stereotypes in its treatment of army recruits in 1956 suffering the rigours of basic training, and Nir Bergman’s HaDikduk ha-pnimi (Intimate Grammar) looked back in melancholy at an adolescent’s domestic problems in the 1960s. A brooding spirit also dominated the Egyptian film Hawi, a jigsaw puzzle depicting struggling lives in Alexandria, by the independent-minded talent Ibrahim El-Batout. A rosier view of Alexandria appeared in Microphone, Ahmad Abdalla’s rough-edged film about a returning exile’s exposure to the city’s underground youth culture. India. The growing fashion for Hindi films with international horizons continued in 2010 with My Name Is Khan (Karan Johar), a compulsively watchable emotional roller coaster featuring the Indian star Shahrukh Khan as an émigré Muslim with Asperger syndrome who is treated with suspicion after the September 11 attacks. Absurdities mounted in Endhiran (S. Shankar), a riotously unbuttoned mixture of science-fiction spectacle, songs, dance, and romance—reportedly India’s most expensive film. Refined films were few, but Srijit Mukherji’s Autograph, in Bengali, dealt sensitively with the pressures of media fame, and Peepli Live (Anusha Rizvi, Mahmood Farooqui) spiked its rural comedy with serious issues and social satire. East and Southeast Asia. Thai director Apichatpong Weerasethakul, maker of teasingly enigmatic films, reached wide attention when his Loong Boonmee raleuk chat (Uncle Boonmee Who Can Recall His Past Lives), a seductive dreamlike fantasia on themes of spiritualism and rebirth, won the coveted Palme d’Or at Cannes. Other prominent Asian films followed orthodox commercial formulas. China scored a local box-office hit with Feng Xiaogang’s 286

Tangshan dadizhen (Aftershock), a spectacular emotional drama about the impact of the deadly Tangshan earthquake of 1976. Martial arts fans flocked to the Hong Kong co-production Yip Man 2: chung si chuen kei (Ip Man 2: Legend of the Grandmaster; Wilson Yip), an aggressively entertaining installment in the series that was inspired by the martial arts master Yip Man. Quieter sensibilities were in evidence in Zhang Yimou’s Shanzhashu zhilian (Under the Hawthorn Tree), an understated romantic drama set during the Cultural Revolution. Actor Chow Yun-Fat, usually encountered instigating violence, successfully changed gears to play the philosopher Confucius in Hu Mei’s handsome biopic Kongzi (Confucius). In Japan the busy animation industry allied visual fireworks to flimsy narratives in the futuristic adventures Sama wozu (2009; Summer Wars; Mamoru Hosoda) and Redline (2009; Takeshi Koike). On a higher plane, Hitoshi Yazaki created a small miracle in Suito ritoru raizu (Sweet Little Lies), an elegant investigation into the rituals and infidelities of a superficially happy marriage. Jusan-nin no shikaku (13 Assassins), from the dangerously prolific Takashi Miike, offered solid samurai drama. Takeshi Kitano, another maverick director, bounced back from selfindulgence with the extravagantly violent and stylish Autoreiji (Outrage), a tale of struggle among Tokyo crime families. South Korean audiences soaked up the bloody violence in Lee Jeong-Beom’s Ajeossi (The Man from Nowhere), a popular vehicle for the pinup actor Won Bin. Increased sophistication arrived with Kim Dae-Woo’s elegantly cynical period drama Bang-Ja Jeon (The Servant) and Hanyeo (The Housemaid—2010), Im Sang-Soo’s artfully packaged remake of Kim Ki-Young’s 1960 classic about the much-abused maid of an upper-class household. Lee Chang-Dong showed greater sensitivity in Si (Poetry), the subtly moving story of a woman struggling with Alzheimer disease and a difficult grandson. Hong Sang-Soo’s Hahaha, surprise winner of the Cannes Un Certain Regard prize (given to reward innovation and distinctive achievement), offered jokes about filmmakers and filmmaking, but not everyone laughed. In the Philippines, Adolfo Alix, Jr., directed Chassis, a strikingly compassionate and observant drama about a homeless young mother determined to give her young daughter a better life. Africa. Africa’s cinematic drought continued in 2010, though Mahamat-Saleh

Haroun’s Un Homme qui crie (A Screaming Man), set in Chad during the civil war and co-produced by Chad, France, and Belgium, explored with tender care and artistry the subject of family betrayal. Two more commercial international ventures also made a mark. Rwanda, South Africa, and the United Kingdom joined forces for Africa United (Debs Gardner-Paterson), an energetic road movie about three Rwandan children traveling to South Africa for the 2010 World Cup. South Africa’s Life, Above All (Oliver Schmitz), co-produced with Germany, forcefully told the story of a plucky young village girl fighting religious prejudice. (GEOFF BROWN) Documentary Films. In 2010 documentaries covered a wide range of issues and subjects. Taking the financial establishment and both major political parties to task, Charles Ferguson’s Inside Job, narrated by actor Matt Damon, explored the causes of the 2008 global economic meltdown. In Gasland, winner of the Special Jury Prize at Sundance, filmmaker and theatre director Josh Fox traveled across the country to investigate the consequences of the current wave of natural gas drilling. Restrepo by Tim Hetherington and Sebastian Junger—winner of the Documentary Grand Jury Prize at Sundance—observed members of a U.S. Army platoon serving in one of Afghanistan’s most dangerous outposts. In A Film Unfinished, Yael Hersonski probed the mysteries behind Nazi “documentary” footage depicting life in the Warsaw ghetto during 1942. Discovery of a reel of outtakes brought new revelations about the production, including the use of actors and staged scenes. In Jean-Michel Basquiat: The Radiant Child, Tamra Davis created a personal portrait of the renowned American artist who died in 1988 at age 27. In Waste Land, winner of the International Documentary Association’s award for distinguished feature, Lucy Walker followed Brazilian-born Brooklyn artist Vik Muniz as he created art from items found in the largest trash dump in the world (outside Rio de Janeiro). Waiting for “Superman” by Davis Guggenheim explored the chronic problems of the American education system through the lives of five schoolchildren. In Babies, the opening film at the Hot Docs Festival, French director Thomas Balmès observed the first year in the lives of four infants—from Namibia, Mongolia, San Francisco, and Tokyo—concentrating on their firsttime experiences. (BEN LEVIN)

Physical Sciences Chemists advanced the development of ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS and discovered a novel technique for studying the NANOSCALE STRUCTURE of water on solid surfaces. Physicists found possible variation in the FINE-STRUCTURE CONSTANT and accurately measured the atomic mass of NOBELIUM. Astronomers discovered the largest known STAR and an EXTRASOLAR PLANET close enough to its star to have liquid water. NASA’s planned missions to the MOON were canceled, and a MARS ROVER became the longest-lasting probe on that planet.

structure of water in contact with solid surfaces at room temperature. The interaction of water with solid surfaces is central to many processes in corrosion and in atmospheric and geologic chemistry. Water typically adheres to surfaces only weakly at room temperature, and its structure is easily perturbed by probes, so researchers generally had to resort to cooling their study samples in order to coax water layers to stay in place while they were being analyzed. Heath’s group found, however, that by humidifying mica and covering it with a layer of graphene (an atom-thick sheet of carbon) at room temperature, they could readily image the structures formed by water trapped beneath the graphene. Using atomic force microscopy, they found that the water formed a single layer of atomically flat CHEMISTRY the method by recording tomographic plateaus two molecules (0.37 nanomehysical Chemistry. Several ad- images and videos that depicted a ring- tre) thick and that the water had the vances in imaging tech- shaped carbon nanotube wiggling and structure of ice. At higher humidity levniques reported in 2010 undergoing rhythmic motions in re- els, a second icelike layer formed on boosted researchers’ abilities sponse to sudden heating pulses. top of the first, but subsequent layers to discern molecular-scale In another study conducted at Cal- had a liquidlike structure. details of materials. Ahmed H. Zewail tech, James R. Heath and co-workers In another development concerning and co-workers at Caltech coupled a devised a way to overcome the diffi- imaging techniques, Ruslan Temirov procedure for generating three-dimen- culty in determining the nanoscale and colleagues at the Jülich Research sional electron microscopy imCentre in Germany reported that ages with ultrafast measurement the attachment of a hydrogen or methods. The new time-resolved The light blue patches are microscopic structures of deuterium molecule to the probe imaging technique, known as water that were imaged through atomic force tip of a scanning tunneling mifour-dimensional (4-D) electron microscopy by trapping the water beneath a sheet of croscope could greatly enhance tomography, provided three-di- carbon one atom thick. the microscope’s resolution of mensional views of nanometrecomplex organic molecules. The scale specimens evolving on the improvement resulted from hytimescale of one femtosecond drogen’s ability to serve as a (10–15 second). Conventional tonanoscale sensor of electronic mography methods could be repulsion in the vicinity of an orused to build up three-dimenganic molecule and as a transsional representations of an obducer that converts those repulject by integrating a series of sive forces into variations in the two-dimensional projections tunneling conductance. recorded over a range of viewing Nuclear Chemistry. The seventh angles. These representations row of the periodic table of the could then reveal insights into elements was completed in 2010 the object’s geometric and strucas a result of a high-energy nutural properties that could not be clear synthesis experiment that derived from flat projections succeeded in creating a few nualone. Such tomography methclei of element 117. To produce ods were limited, however, in nuclei of the elusive superheavy that they provided time-averaged element, an international team pictures of static objects. In conled by Yury Oganessian of the trast to that, the 4-D method Joint Institute for Nuclear Rehighlighted the dynamics of search in Dubna, Russia, fired nanoscale specimens undergoing beams of calcium-48 ions at a transient motions and structural target of radioactive berkeliumchanges. The team demonstrated 249 nuclei. In general, such

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Physical Sciences

atom-smashing experiments generate an enormous number of energetic particles, including some types that survive only very briefly before disintegrating through α-decay and spontaneous fission. By monitoring the positions and times at which these events occurred and by measuring the products’ kinetic energies, the Dubna team discovered a few series of correlated events that marked the creation and subsequent disintegration of two isotopes of the new element: 293117 and 294117. As with other heavy-element discoveries since the early 1990s, the findings in the element-117 study placed the theory for a so-called island of stability on ever-firmer footing. That theory refers to the existence of a grouping of heavy-element nuclides predicted to be more stable and longer-lived than nuclides containing lower or higher numbers of neutrons. Some of the nuclides might be stable enough that researchers would be able to probe their reactivities and other chemical properties, which is not possible with other heavy-element nuclides. Also in 2010 the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry officially approved the name copernicium, with symbol Cn, for element 112. The originally proposed symbol, Cp, was not used because it had previously been used for an alternative name of another element. Organic Chemistry. A time-honoured principle of organic chemistry that describes an important class of reaction mechanisms may need to be revised. For decades chemistry textbooks taught that bimolecular nucleophilic substitutions, known in chemistry parlance as SN2 reactions, cannot take place at a tertiary carbon centre—that is, a carbon atom bonded to three other carbon atoms. The reasoning behind the principle is that molecular crowding at the site of the tertiary carbon centre blocks the sequence of molecular events that underlies the SN2 mechanism. Furthermore, stable ions containing carbon, such as those formed from tertiary carbon species, facilitate an alternate reaction known as SN1. Mark Mascal, Nema Hafezi, and Michael D. Toney at the University of California, Davis, however, showed that chemistry is not always constrained by that rule. The researchers investigated the reaction of the tertiary alkyl oxonium salt 1,4,7trimethyloxatriquinane with azide anions (N3–) and concluded that the tertiary carbon centres in that unusual compound succumb to SN2 attack. To 288

support its contention, the team examined the reaction’s dynamics and found them to be consistent with second-order kinetics, as expected for the SN2 reaction mechanism. Applied Chemistry. Solar cells that converted light to electricity by means of photosensitive semiconducting organic polymers and other organic molecules had been known since the 1990s. Until 2008, however, they had not been considered serious contenders for the commercial production of photovoltaic (PV) power because their power conversion efficiency (a measure of their effectiveness at converting light to electricity) had typically been less than 6%. By modifying the combination of electron donor and acceptor materials that form the photosensitive junction in organic PV cells, a team of researchers led by Luping Yu of the University of Chicago and Yang Yang of UCLA boosted the conversion efficiency of organic PV cells. In a breakthrough study published at the end of 2009, the team made a novel fluorinated copolymer by reacting a benzodithiophene compound with a thienothiophene and paired that material with PCBM (a fullerene-derived material) in an organic PV cell. The device efficiency reached 6.8%. Yu’s group then reported just over 7% efficiency in follow-up work on the same family of polymers. By July 2010 Solarmer Energy, a California start-up company that licensed organic PV technology from UCLA and the University of Chicago, had set a new organic solar-cell efficiency record of 8.13%. Unlike conventional inorganic PV devices, which were rigid and expensive, organic PV cells could be fabricated at low cost on thin, flexible plastic sheets. Those characteristics made it possible to give windows and such ordinary objects as backpacks and handbags the ability to serve as inexpensive power generators, and they were helping to drive commercialization of the technology. Industrial Chemistry. Metal-organic framework (MOF) compounds have been widely studied in industry and academia for applications in gas storage and purification, catalysis, and chemical sensing. Those compounds comprise metal ions or clusters connected by organic linkers, and their key features include crystallinity, large surface area, and exceptional porosity. New research showed that MOFs could be made that were also edible. A research team that included Ronald A. Smaldone and Sir J. Fraser Stoddart of Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill., and Omar M.

Yaghi of UCLA synthesized new types of MOFs from food-grade γ-cyclodextrin (a compound produced commercially from starch), potassium chloride (a table-salt substitute), and ethanol (grain spirits). That approach marked an environmentally beneficial departure from standard preparation methods, which relied on transition metals and organic starting materials derived from nonrenewable petrochemical feedstocks. One of the key challenges in using “green” starting materials was that many natural building blocks are inherently asymmetrical, which poses a difficulty in using them to synthesize crystalline porous products. The NorthwesternUCLA team bypassed the problem by linking γ-cyclodextrin—a symmetrical oligosaccharide composed of asymmetrical units—with potassium ions and other alkali ions. The newly created family of MOF compounds could offer cost savings and extend the range of commercial uses of MOFs to pharmaceutical and food-science applications. (MITCH JACOBY)

PHYSICS Fundamental Physics. In 2010, for the first time, the result of an experiment differed markedly from the quantum electrodynamics (QED) prediction. QED, the quantum theory of the interaction between light and matter, has produced some of the most numerically accurate predictions in physics of any physical theory over the past 50 years. When Randolf Pohl of the Max Planck Institute for Quantum Optics, Garching, Ger., and colleagues from five other countries measured the size of the proton in a sophisticated experiment using a muonic hydrogen atom (an atom in which the electron is replaced by a much heavier muon), the result was 4% smaller than the QED prediction. Should the discrepancy be confirmed, it may well point toward a new quantum physics. In physics there are certain “fundamental constants” (for example, the charge of the electron) that are thought to be unvarying. However, a team led by John Webb of the University of New South Wales, Sydney, reported that one of these constants—the spectroscopic fine-structure constant—appears to vary across the universe. This finding was based on a study of many quasars using the Very Large Telescope in Chile. If confirmed, the result would have dramatic implications for basic theories, including relativity.

Physical Sciences

A specific prediction of Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity is that clocks in gravitational fields run more slowly. Holger Müller and Steven Chu at the University of California, Berkeley, and Achim Peters at Humboldt University of Berlin tested this prediction to 10,000 times greater precision than previously tested by using single cesium atoms traveling slightly different paths in Earth’s gravitational field. The confirmation of Einstein’s theory would be of use in the study of theories that aimed to reconcile relativity with quantum mechanics. Atomic Imaging. The development of lasers that can produce pulses as short as a few attoseconds (10−18 second) has made possible the investigation of the inner workings of atoms and molecules. Giuseppe Sansone of the department of physics at the University of Milan and co-workers from other institutes investigated in real time the dissociative ionization of hydrogen (H2) and deuterium (D2) molecules. Eleftherios Goulielmakis at the Max Planck Institute for Quantum Optics and colleagues used a similar technique to study the real-time motion of valence electrons in atomic krypton ions. Such experiments pointed the way to direct investigation of physical, chemical, and biological processes in molecular systems. A different approach used femtosecond (10−15 second) pulses of X-rays. The Linac Coherent Light Source at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, Calif., now produced coherent X-rays at a brightness nearly 10 billion times greater than previous sources. Linda Young of Argonne (Ill.) National Laboratory and colleagues used the source to model interactions between X-rays and atoms. In their first experiments they studied the electronic response of a free neon atom to the unprecedentedly high-intensity radiation. A single X-ray pulse produced “hollow” atoms by ejecting electrons from the inner electron shell. The scientists successfully modeled these X-ray–atom interactions, which meant that their work could be applied to more complex systems. Christine Boeglin of the University of Strasbourg, France, and co-workers used the BESSY (Berlin Electron Storage Ring Company for Synchrotron Radiation) to study the spin and orbital components of the magnetic moment of electrons in ferromagnetic thin films that were excited by femtosecond laser pulses and then probed by an X-ray pulse.

Direct Mass Measurements of Superheavy Atoms. Superheavy elements—elements with atomic numbers from 100 to 118—were of considerable interest. However, owing to their short lifetimes, it was difficult to measure their nuclear binding energies and hence their nuclear structure. Michael Block of the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research, Darmstadt, Ger., and coworkers developed a mass spectrometer that captured single atoms of such elements in the combined electrical and magnetic fields of a Penning trap and so enabled direct measurements of their masses. They were able to measure the masses of the isotopes of nobelium (atomic number 102) with a precision of around 0.05 parts per million. The technique could be used with atoms of heavier elements. Graphene. The study of graphene, a material consisting of a one-atom-thick lattice of carbon atoms laid on a substrate, was one of the fastest-growing areas of condensed state physics. Yu-Ming Lin of IBM’s T.J. Watson Research Center, Yorktown Heights, N.Y., and colleagues created a graphene field-effect transistor (FET) that switches at more than twice the speed of current silicon transistors. The same group also developed a highly sensitive graphene photodetector. Current designs for graphene transistors were limited by irregularities and impurities in graphene sheets. Lei Liao and co-workers at the University of California, Los Angeles, produced a

graphene transistor that overcomes this problem. The transistor is self-aligned in such a way that it is not affected by any defects that arise in the fabrication of the graphene. Ismael Diez-Perez of Arizona State University and collaborators developed a method of synthesizing molecules consisting of 13 linked benzene rings, which could lead to nanometre-scale FETs. Jingwei Bai and co-workers at the University of California, Los Angeles, produced a graphene “nanomesh” that could lead to the production of graphene-based circuits. Similar structures in other materials were developed. Alexander Balandin and colleagues at the University of California, Riverside, investigated atomically thin flakes of bismuth telluride that might be able to be “tuned” for different uses. Photonics. Light-emitting transistors made from organic materials could provide a new method of lighting. Michele Muccini and colleagues at the National Research Agency, Bologna, Italy, produced such an organic lightemitting transistor and, as expected, found that it was much more efficient than present light-emitting diodes. The development of optical negativeindex metamaterials (NIMs), with applications such as invisibility, was the subject of intense research. Shumin Xiao and colleagues at the Birck Nanotechnology Center at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind., incorporated material that amplified light into a

These laser beams were used as part of an experiment at the Paul Scherrer Institute in Villigen, Switz., that found that the proton radius was smaller than expected.

Aldo Antognini, Paul Scherrer Institut (Switzerland)—Max Planck Institut für Quantenoptik (Germany)/The CREMA collaboration

289

Physical Sciences

metamaterial to produce an optical NIM that absorbed only a small amount of light. Entanglement. In quantum entanglement, two or more particles are linked such that, even when they are spatially separated, a measurement on one instantly affects the others. This subject was of great interest for the fields of quantum computing and information processing. C.L. Salter of Toshiba Research Europe, Cambridge, Eng., and colleagues devised an efficient source of entangled photon pairs by embedding a quantum dot in a light-emitting diode. Adrien Dousse and colleagues at Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Marcoussis, France, produced a similar result by coupling a quantum dot to an optical cavity. Devices of this type could form a basis for a practical quantum computer. If entangled photons are produced, there has to be some way of signaling their production. Stefanie Barz and colleagues of the University of Vienna “heralded” a prepared entangled state by detecting auxiliary photons. One approach to producing a quantum computer involves the trapping of very cold atoms in a three-dimensional lattice produced by intersecting laser beams. However, the precise positions of the atoms have to be determined. Two teams, one led by Stefan Kuhr at the Max Planck Institute for Quantum Optics and the other by Markus Greiner of Harvard University, succeeded in imaging individual rubidium atoms in such a lattice. Each atom could store one bit of information, offering greater information storage density and hence greater speed than other methods. Any form of quantum computing requires memory. Morgan P. Hedges of the Australian National University, Canberra, and colleagues reported a lownoise, high-efficiency storage device. This quantum memory employs the production of a highly absorbing but very sharp spectral feature in a lightly doped silicon oxide crystal. Pointing the way to practical optical computing circuits, M. Ferrera and colleagues at the Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Varennes, Que., developed a monolithic optical temporal integrator. The device integrated any optical waveform with a resolution of a few picoseconds and was compatible with current electronic technology. Skyrmions. In the 1950s English physicist Tony Skyrme formulated field equations that predicted field patterns of 290

“whirls” around a stable core rather like the eye of a hurricane, moving in a group like a single particle. However such “skyrmions” remained theoretical constructs until Xiuzhen Yu of the National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba, Japan, and colleagues observed a skyrmion in a magnetic crystal Fe0.5Co0.5Si. Under certain conditions the magnetic spins, rather than aligning in parallel or antiparallel formation, can form a stable skyrmion, which was recorded by means of electron microscopy. (DAVID G.C. JONES)

ASTRONOMY Solar System. During 2010 a variety of new discoveries were made concerning both the recent and the long-term history of the Moon. Probably the most startling find, which was made by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), was that the Moon is shrinking. Using its ultrahigh-resolution mapping camera, LRO found what are called “thrust faults.” These were surface structures that were two to three kilometres (one to two miles) in length but only tens of feet high. They indicated to lunar geologists that the Moon had shrunk by about 200 m (700 ft). In its earliest days the asteroid and comet bombardment of the Moon was frequent and perhaps even kept the Moon’s surface molten. The rate of these impacts decreased greatly, however, between one billion and two billion years ago. Because of the freshness of the thrust faults, the reported shrinkage would have occurred over the past billion years. Furthermore, the shrinkage may be ongoing. The LRO high-resolution camera also took an image of a man-made lunar crater created on April 14, 1970, when the 14-ton booster of the Apollo 13 mission hit the Moon. The LRO images showed the remnant crater to be about 30 m (98 ft) across. Venus is the only planet like Earth in size in the solar system. Its very thick atmosphere obscures its hot surface from direct observation at visual wavelengths. However, its atmosphere is transparent in the near-infrared. During the past 20 years, various near-infrared observations showed that Venus has relativity few impact craters compared with the Moon and Mercury. Scientists speculated that lava flows from volcanic activity could have covered over Venus’s craters. In 2010 thermal infrared observations of Venus by the European Space Agency’s Venus Express spacecraft suggested that there

were hot spots on Venus resembling those associated with volcanoes on Earth. These observations implied that volcanic activity over the past three million years smoothed its surface. This process was quite different from the plate tectonic activity that had shaped Earth’s surface features. Scientists also suggested that this Venusian volcanic activity was still happening. Stars and Extrasolar Planets. Probably the most exciting announcement in astronomy during 2010 was the reported discovery of a planet orbiting a relatively nearby star in its “habitable” zone, a region where liquid water could exist on a planet’s surface. About 500 extrasolar planets orbiting nearby stars Earth Perihelion and Aphelion, 2011 Jan. 3

Perihelion, approx. 19:001

July 4

Aphelion, approx. 15:001

Equinoxes and Solstices, 2011 March 20

Vernal equinox, 23:211

June 21

Summer solstice, 17:161

Sept. 23

Autumnal equinox, 09:051

Dec. 22

Winter solstice, 05:301

Eclipses, 2011 Jan. 4

Sun, partial (begins 06:401), the beginning visible in most of Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East; the end visible in central Asia, western China, and western Siberia.

June 1

Sun, partial (begins 19:251), the beginning visible in Siberia and northern China; the middle visible in northern North America, the Arctic Ocean, and Greenland; the end visible in eastern Canada.

June 15

Moon, total (begins 17:231), the beginning visible in the western Pacific Ocean, Australia, Asia (except the northernmost part), the Middle East, the Indian Ocean, and central and eastern Africa; the end visible in Africa, Europe (except the northernmost part), most of the Atlantic Ocean, and South America (except the northwesternmost part).

July 1

Sun, partial (begins 07:531), visible in the Southern Ocean south of Africa.

Nov. 25

Sun, partial (begins 04:231), the beginning visible in the southernmost part of Africa; the middle visible in Antarctica; the end visible in New Zealand and Tasmania.

Dec. 10

Moon, total (begins 11:311), the beginning visible in North America, most of the Pacific Ocean, Australia, and most of Asia; the end visible in Europe and Africa (except the westernmost part).

1 Universal time. Source: The Astronomical Almanac for the Year 2011 (2010).

Physical Sciences NASA—JPL/ESA

had been found to date. Many of these were very hot giant gaseous planets similar in mass to Jupiter and Saturn. A team of astronomers from the University of California, Santa Cruz, and from the Carnegie Institution of Washington used over a decade of observations of the red dwarf star Gliese 581 made with the HIRES spectrometer mounted on the large Keck 1 telescope at the Keck Observatory at Mauna Kea, Hawaii. This instrument could measure very precisely the star’s radial velocity toward and away from Earth. Small observed changes in this speed could indicate the presence of one or more planets orbiting the star. The team reported the presence of two new planets around Gliese 581, bringing the total number of planets to six. The planet Gliese 581g has a mass of at least 3.1 times that of Earth and orbits the star every 36.56 days. Interestingly, Gliese 581g is tidally locked to the star, meaning that it always presents the same face to the star, just as the Moon does to Earth. This discovery, along with others, suggested that 10 to 20% of all stars in the galaxy had planets that could support life. Other planet-hunting groups made novel extrasolar planetary discoveries during 2010. A group using the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher attached to the 3.6-m (11.8-ft) telescope of the European Southern Observatory (ESO) at La Silla, Chile, announced that the Sun-like star HD 10180 has at least five and possibly seven (or more) planets in orbit about it. The five definite planets have masses of 13–25 Earth masses—about that of the planet Neptune—and orbit HD 10180 with periods of between 6 to 600 days. NASA’s Kepler spacecraft, launched in 2009, used an alternative technique to discover extrasolar planets. It monitored approximately 150,000 stars, looking for transits of those stars by planets orbiting them. However, the stars themselves could also vary in brightness either because they were members of binary star systems or because they had intrinsic brightness variations. Therefore, scientists waited until repeated periodic brightness variations had been observed before being certain that they were caused by one or more extrasolar planets. By year’s end at least 700 planet candidates had been found. At least five of these have more than one transiting planet. One star, Kepler 9, has two Saturn-sized planets in orbit about it. The major announcement of new planetary discoveries made by the Kepler spacecraft was ex-

The orange and red areas in this picture of Idunn Mons taken by a visible and infrared thermal imaging spectrometer on board the Venus Express spacecraft show evidence of recent volcanic activity on Venus. pected in January 2011. Meanwhile, NASA announced that the spacecraft also made important stellar discoveries. Thousands of new variable stars were found among those being monitored. In addition, stellar pulsations in other stars were seen that were similar to the surface oscillations seen in the Sun. To date, normal, nuclear-burning stars had been observed with masses ranging from about one-tenth to about 100 times the mass of the Sun. There is a theoretical upper limit to the mass of stars before they radiate so strongly that they blow off their outer layers. This “Eddington limit” had been calculated to be about 100 times the mass of the Sun. It was a surprise in 2010, therefore, when an international team of astronomers using ESO’s Very Large Telescope (VLT) reported the detection of a star with a mass of 265 solar masses. The star, R136a1, is located in the 30 Doradus nebula, a young stellar grouping in the nearby Large Magellanic Cloud galaxy. At birth—several million years ago—the star would have been more than 320 solar masses. R136a1 was also the most luminous star ever found, some 10 million times the luminosity of the Sun. Galaxies and Cosmology. Astronomers using the South Pole Telescope reported the discovery of the most massive cluster of galaxies ever seen. The cluster, SPT-CL J0546-5345, is located in the direction of the southern constellation Pictor. It lies at a redshift of about 1.07, or a distance of some seven billion light-years. It has a mass of about 800 trillion times that of the Sun. To put this figure into perspective, the entire Milky Way Galaxy has a mass of 100 billion–200 billion times the mass

of the Sun. The existence of such large structures could be used to set constraints on current models of how galaxies are born, develop, and evolve. Astronomers using the ESO VLT also reported that they had determined the distance to the most remote galaxy observed to date. The Hubble Space Telescope first detected the galaxy in its Hubble Ultra Deep Field survey, but measuring its distance required ground-based observations. The galaxy was formed when the universe was a mere 600 million years old. The present age of the universe is 13.7 billion years. This galaxy has a redshift of 8.6, slightly higher than the previous redshift record of 8.2, which was held by an object from which a gamma-ray burst had been detected in 2009. This galaxy formed at a very early stage in the evolution of the universe, just after the hydrogen and helium left over from the big bang could condense into galaxies. Most of the universe (95%) consists of dark matter and dark energy that cannot be seen directly but can be inferred by its gravitational effects on the motion of visible galaxies. About half of the 5% of the universe that is supposed to be made up of “ordinary” matter had not been detected until 2010. Using X-ray observations of a vast collection of clusters of galaxies called the Sculptor Wall, astronomers reported absorption of Xrays by hot intergalactic gas of about the correct amount to account for the missing half of ordinary matter. This missing mass makes up 2.5% of the universe. Now astronomers were left with the task of determining the nature of the other 95% of the matter and energy in the universe. (KENNETH BRECHER) 291

Physical Sciences

SPACE EXPLORATION Manned Spaceflight. Confusion reigned in the U.S. space program after Pres. Barack Obama on Feb. 1, 2010, terminated the Constellation manned space program that was intended to take the U.S. back to the Moon and later to Mars. In its place, Obama’s advisers outlined a major redirection of the U.S. space program in which private spacecraft would be used to transport astronauts to Earth orbit, while a new NASA program would explore asteroids and eventually Mars. Opposition within the space community was strong, and some elements of the Constellation program, such as the Orion capsule, which would be used as a vehicle designed solely for astronauts to escape the International Space Station (ISS) in an emergency, were retained, though in highly modified forms. Three space shuttle and four Soyuz missions were flown to the International Space Station, in which crews were exchanged and supplies and spare parts added. STS-130 gave the ISS crew a room with a view. The Tranquility module, the third and final node in the portion of the ISS assembled by the U.S., includes a cupola, which was built in Italy, with seven windows that allow panoramic views of Earth. The primary purpose, though, was to give station crews enhanced visibility of the station during outside operations by humans and robots. STS-131 used the Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module to take up more supplies, including a replacement ammonia coolant tank. The shuttle crew engaged in three spacewalks to replace the failed tank. These were frustrated by balky connections between the tank and a truss. The shuttle also returned with space exposure payloads that had been mounted outside the European and Japanese lab modules. STS132 expanded the station a bit more with addition of the long-delayed Russian Rassvet Mini-Research Module 1 to the Zarya module. Rassvet contained several biology and physics experiments and added an additional port where Soyuz and unmanned Progress spacecraft could dock with the ISS. Astronauts on the ISS performed six spacewalks in 2010. Three of these spacewalks replaced a broken ammonia pump, a key part of the ISS’s cooling system. The Soyuz TMA-18, -19, -01M, and -20 spacecraft each launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan with three-person crews who replaced other astronauts on the ISS at the end 292

of their six-month rotations. Soyuz TMA-01M was an upgraded spacecraft in which several analog computers, some dating back to the 1980s, were replaced with a streamlined digital system. The year saw the ISS virtually completed, save for a Russian lab module, which was scheduled to be added at the end of 2011. Space Probes. Akatsuki, a Japanese mission to Venus, launched on May 21, was the only new interplanetary mission launched during the year. A unique instrument would have imaged the planet 30,000 times a second to capture evidence of lightning flashes. Other instruments would have monitored cloud patterns—including super-rotating cloud structures in the upper atmosphere— and atmospheric water vapour, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide in search of evidence for active volcanoes. However, on December 7 it failed to enter orbit around Venus because the rocket that would have slowed it down did not fire long enough. Another attempt would be made to place Akatsuki in Venus orbit at its next encounter in 2016.

Launched alongside Akatsuki was the IKAROS (Interplanetary Kite-craft Accelerated by Radiation of the Sun) spacecraft, an experimental 14 × 14-m (46 × 46-ft) solar sail, which used the pressure of sunlight hitting the sail as its means of propulsion. IKAROS was the first successful solar sail. It was deployed after Akatsuki left Earth for Venus and by June 10 had fully unfurled its sail. Its six-month mission was to demonstrate this as a low-energy approach to exploring the solar system, in particular, Jupiter and the Trojan asteroids. China reached for the Moon again with the Chang’e 2 mission, which was launched on October 1 and arrived in lunar orbit five days later. It used highresolution cameras and an altimeter to map landing areas for the Chang’e 3 spacecraft, which would include a rover and was planned for 2013. NASA’s Cassini spacecraft orbiting Saturn completed its first two-year mission extension, the Cassini Equinox Mission, and started the Cassini Solstice Mission, which should run

Human Spaceflight Launches and Returns, 2010 Country

Flight

Crew 1

Dates 2

Mission/payload

U.S.

STS-130

February 8–21

delivery of Tranquility module

Russia

Soyuz TMA-16 (down) Soyuz TMA-18 (up)

George D. Zamka Terry Virts Kathryn P. Hire Stephen Robinson Nicholas Patrick Robert L. Behnken Maksim Surayev Jeffrey Williams, NASA Aleksandr Skvortsov Mikhail Korniyenko Tracy Caldwell-Dyson, NASA Alan Poindexter James Dutton Richard Mastracchio Dorothy M. Metcalf-Lindenburger Stephanie Wilson Naoko Yamazaki, JAXA Clayton Anderson Kenneth Ham Dominic A. (“Tony”) Antonelli Garrett Reisman Michael T. Good Stephen G. Bowen Piers Sellers Oleg Kotov Timothy Creamer, NASA Soichi Noguchi, JAXA Douglas H. Wheelock, NASA Fyodor Yurchikhin Shannon Walker, NASA Aleksandr Skvortsov Mikhail Korniyenko Tracy Caldwell-Dyson, NASA Aleksandr Kaleri Scott J. Kelly, NASA Oleg Skripochka Douglas H. Wheelock, NASA Fyodor Yurchikhin Shannon Walker, NASA Dmitry Kondratyev Catherine Coleman, NASA Paolo Nespoli, ESA

March 18

crew exchange

April 2

crew exchange

April 5–20

Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module with supplies

May 14–26

Russian Mini-Research Module

June 2

crew exchange

June 16

crew exchange

September 25

crew exchange

October 8

crew exchange

November 26

crew exchange

December 15

crew exchange

Russia

U.S.

STS-131

U.S.

STS-132

Russia

Soyuz TMA-17 (down)

Russia

Soyuz TMA-19 (up)

Russia

Soyuz TMA-18 (down)

Russia

Soyuz TMA-01M (up)

Russia

Soyuz TMA-19 (down)

Russia

Soyuz TMA-20 (up)

¹ For shuttle flights, mission commander and pilot are listed first. For Soyuz flights, ISS commander is listed first. ² Flight dates for shuttle; Soyuz launch or return dates for ISS missions.

Physical Sciences JPL-Caltech—UMD/NASA

through 2017. The names reThe big space mystery for the ferred to the positions of Saturn year was the U.S. Air Force’s Xrelative to the Sun. (Cassini’s ar37B Orbital Test Vehicle, which rival in 2004 was during the resembled a miniature, unnorthern hemisphere winter.) manned space shuttle and was During the year it executed 17 the first vehicle since the space flybys of Saturn’s moons, with shuttle designed to return to nine of Titan, five of Enceladus, Earth for a runway landing. The and one each of Rhea, Dione, air force, however, said little and Helene. about its mission other than that The Mars Exploration Rover it made space access more afOpportunity continued surface fordable and was able to return operations on the red planet and experiments, or even its status. set the longevity record for acThe X-37B Orbital Test Vehicle tivity on Mars’s surface. Since had executed at least two major landing on Mars on Jan. 24, orbital changes since its launch 2004, it had driven more than 24 on April 22 by an Atlas V rocket km (15 mi) and was working its from Vandenberg Air Force way toward Endeavour crater, a Base, California. Amateur space 22-km (14-mi)-wide crater about watchers recovered it after both 12 km (7 mi) southeast of its changes, but its brief disappearlanding point. The Spirit Mars ances led to speculation that it rover became mired in fine sand had landed without any anon April 23, 2009, and on Jan. nouncement from the air force. 26, 2010, after nine months of The X-37B landed at Vandenberg trying to free the rover, NASA on December 3. announced that it would operate Launch Vehicles. The Falcon 9 Spirit as a stationary science launch vehicle scored its first base. However, since March 22 success with a launch on June 4 there had been no contact from from Cape Canaveral, Florida, the rover, and NASA considered into orbit with a test model of it dead. The two Mars rovers Comet Hartley 2 as seen by the Deep Impact the Dragon spacecraft. Falcon 9, were to operate only 90 days, spacecraft of the EPOXI mission on November 4. developed privately by entrepreand Opportunity was approach- The spacecraft came within 700 km (435 mi) of the neur Elon Musk’s SpaceX corpoing seven years. ration, was derived from the cometary nucleus. As part of the EPOXI mission— smaller Falcon 1 vehicle and the Extrasolar Planet Observaused nine Merlin engines in its tion and Characterization and the Deep could affect Earth’s atmosphere and first stage and one in its second. It was Impact Extended Investigation—the thus terrestrial communications. designed to place up to 10,450 kg Deep Impact spacecraft executed a France’s Picard solar satellite (23,000 lb) in low Earth orbit from close flyby of Comet Hartley 2 on No- (launched on June 15) carried comple- Cape Canaveral. A second flight carryvember 4. The probe passed within 700 mentary instruments. The 11-cm (4-in)- ing a working prototype of the Dragon km (435 mi) of the comet’s nucleus. diameter SODISM telescope measured cargo carrier was launched on DecemUnmanned Satellites. The principal the Sun’s diameter, oblateness, and ro- ber 8. Missions that approached and space science missions of 2010 were tation with great precision. The SOVAP then docked with the International two solar observatories and one deep- and PREMOS instruments measured Space Station, followed by routine respace survey telescope. NASA’s highly the total solar irradiance and variations supply missions, were scheduled for ambitious Solar Dynamics Observatory in the Sun’s output in the infrared and 2011. (SDO) was launched into Earth’s orbit visible spectrum. Flight testing of Virgin Galactic’s on February 11. The SDO’s three inThe Wide-Field Infrared Survey Ex- space tourism craft started during struments—the Helioseismic and Mag- plorer (WISE; launched on Dec. 14, 2010. The WhiteKnightTwo Eve carrier netic Imager (HMI), the Atmospheric 2009) carried an array of four cryo- aircraft was tested in 2008–10. Virgin Imaging Assembly (AIA), and the Ex- genically cooled infrared detectors ob- Space Ship Enterprise had a captive treme Ultraviolet Variability Experi- serving the sky at 3.4, 4.6, 12, and 22 flight test on March 22 and carried out ment (EVE)—generated a torrent of microns as the spacecraft rotated. After its first drop and landing test on Octodata. The HMI observed oscillations in 10 months of operations, the spacecraft ber 10. Enterprise and its sister crafts the solar atmosphere caused by sound had completed one and a half surveys would carry two pilots and six passenrefracting through the Sun. From these of the entire sky. As its liquid helium gers to an altitude of more than 100 km oscillations scientists could reconstruct coolant ran out, NASA extended the (62 mi), which was considered to be the the interior of the Sun. The AIA carried mission to search for near-Earth ob- edge of space for the purpose of recorda battery of four two-in-one telescopes jects, which were significantly warmer keeping. Virgin Galactic said that more observing in eight bands of the ultravi- than the background sky the spacecraft than 370 customers had paid deposits olet spectrum every 10 seconds. EVE was designed to survey. WISE already to reserve their seats in advance of the observed variations in solar irradiance had proved adept at detecting asteroids first flights. in the extreme ultraviolet spectrum that during its primary mission. (DAVE DOOLING) 293

Religion against Muslims and THREATS issued by Muslims against other groups, new revelations of SEXUAL ABUSE involving ROMAN CATHOLIC institutions in several European countries, and church-state CONTROVERSIES pertaining to the public display of RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS were some of the major developments on the religious SCENE in 2010. ATTACKS

I

slamic Issues. Plans to build an Islamic community centre in New York near the site of the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center drew opposition from several religious and political figures who said that it would be a symbol of Islamist triumphalism and a show of disrespect for the victims of the attacks and their families. In September the imam behind the plan, Feisal Abdul Rauf (see BIOGRAPHIES), wrote in the New York Times that canceling plans for the centre in the face of the controversy would be conceding to radicals on both sides. Meanwhile, the Rev. Terry Jones, pastor of the small independent Dove World Outreach Center in Gainesville, Fla., set off an international furor when he announced plans to burn copies of the Qur#an on the anniversary of the World Trade Center attacks. Following appeals from religious leaders and government officials from around the world, he changed his mind and promised that he would never set fire to the Islamic holy book. In the days immediately following September 11, however, rumours that the Qur#an had been burned in the U.S. sparked violent demonstrations in parts of the Islamic world. Two people were killed in Afghanistan when police fired on demonstrators who attacked a NATO base; in Indian-administered Kashmir, 18 died after a riot erupted following the rumour of a purported Qur#an burning in New York City. Responding to the controversy over the New York community centre and Jones’s plan, about three dozen clergy held an interfaith gathering in Washington, D.C., in September to denounce what they called “derision, misinformation and outright bigotry” aimed at American Muslims. Some members of the group later met with Attorney General Eric H. 294

Holder, Jr., and urged him to prosecute religious hate crimes vigorously. Also that month, Pope Shenouda III, the leader of Egypt’s Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, issued an apology for what he called “inappropriate” comments by a bishop that cast doubt on the origin of some verses in the Qur#an. Bishop Bishoy, the church’s second highest clergyman, had said that verses within the Islamic holy book that dispute the divine nature of Jesus Christ had been inserted by one of the Prophet Muhammad’s successors after his death. This contradicted the Islamic belief that the Qur#an is the revealed word of God. In an address to the UN General Assembly’s annual ministerial meeting in September, Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak called for a Global Movement of the Moderates. “The real issue is not between Muslims and non-Muslims,” he said, “but between the moderates and extremists of all religions, be it Islam, Christianity, or Judaism.” Fifteen leading Islamic scholars from several countries meeting in Mardin, Tur., in March declared that a medieval fatwa (opinion on a matter of Islamic law) could not be used to justify killing. Referring to Osama bin Laden’s invocation of a 14th-century fatwa in calls for the overthrow of the Saudi monarchy and for jihad (“holy war”) against the United States, the scholars said, “Anyone who seeks support from this fatwa for killing Muslims or non-Muslims has erred in his interpretation.” In April a posting on the Islamist Web site RevolutionMuslim.com published a thinly veiled warning addressed to the creators of the South Park television series for an episode that depicted Muhammad wearing a bear suit. Molly Norris, a cartoonist in Seattle who had promoted an “Everybody Draw Mohammed Day” for

May, went into hiding and changed her name after her life was threatened by Islamist extremists. In a video posted on militant Web sites in October, U.S.-born al-Qaeda spokesman Adam Gadahn urged Muslim immigrants in the United States and Europe to attack what he called “the Zio-Crusader interests.” In the November election 70% of Oklahoma voters approved an amendment to the state’s constitution that would bar state justices from considering Shari!ah, or Islamic law, in decisions. A federal district court justice issued a temporary injunction later that month, blocking the implementation of the “Save Our State” amendment pending further review. In August the Board of Supervisors of the town of Sidney, N.Y., voted to investigate burials in a cemetery on the land of a nearby Sufi community centre. Although one supervisor had questioned the cemetery’s legality, the worshippers had acquired necessary permits and town approval several years earlier, and after a public outcry, the board dropped the issue. Sexual Abuse. In March, Dutch Roman Catholic bishops said that they would support an independent inquiry into more than 200 reported cases of sexual abuse of children by priests, and German government officials announced an investigation into allegations of such abuse in 18 of the country’s 27 Catholic dioceses. Pope Benedict XVI expressed “shame and remorse” to victims of sexual abuse perpetrated by priests in Ireland but stopped short of calling for discipline of any church leaders. Bishops in England and Wales issued an apology to all victims of abuse perpetrated by Catholic leaders. They said that because Catholics belong to a single church worldwide, “these terrible crimes, and the inadequate response by some church leaders, grieve us all.” Several bishops resigned over their roles in the scandals, including Irish Bishops John Magee of Cloyne and James Moriarty of Dublin and Belgian Bishop Roger Vangheluwe of Bruges. Belgian police investigating the sex scandals raided church headquarters in Mechelen in June, confiscated files, and detained bishops for several hours. Those actions were denounced by Tarcisio Cardinal Bertone (see BIOGRAPHIES), the Vatican secretary of state, and by the pope, who called the moves

Religion Czarek Sokolowski/AP

“surprising and deplorable.” An in April shortly after Pres. Lech appeals court subsequently ruled Kaczynski and other officials that the raids were illegal and were killed in a plane crash in that the documents that had Russia stirred controversy, as did been seized could not be used initial attempts to have it reby prosecutors. Later in June moved. Polish officials relocated the Vatican rebuked Austrian the cross to the presidential Christoph Cardinal Schönborn palace chapel in September and for having accused a former Vatlater installed it permanently at a ican secretary of state, Angelo nearby church. A ruling by the Cardinal Sodano, of blocking a U.S. Supreme Court in April aschurch investigation into the late sisted efforts to keep a cross Austrian Hans Hermann Cardierected as a war memorial in the nal Groer, who had been accused Mojave National Preserve in Calof abusing boys at a seminary. In ifornia. In a 5–4 decision the its rebuke the Vatican said that court ruled that a federal judge only the pope could make such had erred in striking down a fedaccusations against a cardinal. In eral law that authorized transfer July the Vatican issued revisions of the land on which the cross sits to its internal rules that would to a private party. In the majority make it easier to discipline opinion the high court said, “The priests accused of sexual abuse, goal of avoiding governmental but the document drew criticism endorsement does not require for its inclusion of attempts to or- Supporters of Polish Pres. Lech Kaczynski and eradication of all religious symdain women in a list of grave of- Roman Catholic groups prevented Polish bols in the public realm.” fenses that included pedophilia, authorities from removing this cross and other In another 5–4 ruling, issued in heresy, apostasy, and schism. In religious emblems placed in front of the presidential June, the Supreme Court upheld late August the German bishops palace in Warsaw to commemorate Kaczynski and a requirement at the University issued guidelines requiring that other victims of a plane crash in April. The cross of California’s Hastings College suspected cases of sexual abuse was ultimately relocated to a nearby church. of the Law that registered stuof minors by clergy or other dent organizations had to accept church workers be reported to any student as a member or poprosecutors. Peter Adriaenssens, the veil, at both public and private universi- tential leader. The case involved an aphead of a Belgian church commission ties. An official said that the order was peal by a campus chapter of the Chrismonitoring complaints, announced in intended to protect the country’s secular tian Legal Society, which barred September that sexual abuse of children identity. In October, France’s Constitu- homosexuals and non-Christians from was widespread in the church and had tional Council approved a newly enacted joining. U.S. District Judge Barbara driven at least 13 victims to suicide. law that banned full-face veils in public Crabb ruled in April in Madison, Wis., The Roman Catholic Church was not while cautioning that it could not be en- that a federal law authorizing a Nathe only religious group to deal with forced in places of worship. Although tional Day of Prayer was unconstitusexual abuse scandals in 2010. The an- the law did not mention Islam, it had tional. The judge, who stayed her innual synod of the Christian Reformed been promoted as a means of protecting junction pending appeals, said that by Church, meeting in June in Palos women from being forced to wear such enacting the law “the government has Heights, Ill., adopted a resolution of re- veils as burqas and niqabs. The resolu- taken sides on a matter that must be pentance for having failed to respond tion that had been passed by the French left to individual conscience.” justly and compassionately to abuse Parliament in May had declared that the Indonesia’s Constitutional Court ruled victims and asked denominational staff ban was necessary “to ensure the pro- in April that a 45-year-old law banning to develop materials to help local con- tection of women who are subjected to blasphemy was constitutional. The law gregations deal with allegations of sex- violence and pressure,” although it did allowed the attorney general’s office to ual abuse properly. In September not specify the source of such pressure. ban religious groups that “distort” or Bishop Eddie Long, pastor of the Eleven European countries and 33 “misrepresent” the country’s officially 25,000-member New Birth Missionary members of the European Parliament recognized religions: Islam, ProtesBaptist Church in Lithonia, Ga., an- urged the European Court of Human tantism, Catholicism, Buddhism, Hinnounced that he would fight four law- Rights to overturn its ruling of Novem- duism, and Confucianism. In May the suits accusing him of having used his ber 2009 that banned the display of cru- European Parliament adopted a resoluposition to coerce young males into sex- cifixes in schools. The court had de- tion in Strasbourg, France, asserting ual acts. Kenneth William Storheim, clared that such displays could be that Pakistan’s blasphemy laws were archbishop of the Canadian archdiocese disturbing to non-Christian pupils and “often used to justify censorship, crimof the Orthodox Church in America, would violate the European Convention inalization, persecution and, in certain was charged with two counts of sexual on Human Rights. Italian Foreign Min- cases, the murder of members of politassault after surrendering to police in ister Franco Frattini called the case “a ical, racial and religious minorities.” A Winnipeg, Man., in November. great battle for freedom and for the iden- week later three UN human rights inChurch-State Issues. In July the Syrian tity of our Christian values.” The setting vestigators said that official discrimigovernment issued a ban against wear- up of a cross in a public square outside nation in Pakistan against the Ahmadi ing the niqab, a face-covering Islamic Poland’s Presidential Palace in Warsaw sect of Islam had led to violent attacks 295

Religion

against its adherents there. Human Rights Watch issued a report in New York in April urging the government of Senegal to act against Islamic schools that it said forced tens of thousands of children to beg and kept them in conditions “akin to slavery.” Although the government passed legislation in 2005 that outlawed forced begging, the report concluded that the authorities had failed to implement it. A court in Uttar Pradesh, India, ruled in September that the site of a demolished 16th-century mosque in Ayodhya would be split between Hindus and Muslims, with Hindus receiving twothirds of the land, including a temple that had been built over the demolished dome, and one-third going to Muslims. The destruction of the mosque in 1992 by Hindu nationalists, who claimed that the spot was the birthplace of the deity Rama, led to riots in which about 2,000 people were killed. Farouk Hosni, Egypt’s minister of culture, announced in March that his government agency would restore the country’s 11 synagogues because it viewed Jewish sites as much a part of Egypt’s culture as mosques or churches. Britain’s Charity Commission granted charitable status to the Druid Network in October. The action gave the pagan group official recognition as a religion and entitled it to tax breaks, although leaders of the organization said that it did not earn enough revenue to benefit from the action. In Jerusalem in June the Israeli Supreme Court’s decision to desegregate a statefunded ultra-Orthodox Jewish girls’

school led to a massive protest. Sephardic (of Middle Eastern and Mediterranean ancestry) parents complained that their daughters were being discriminated against by being kept separate from Ashkenazic (eastern and central European descent) students. Ashkenazic parents countered that the difference in ritual traditions rather than ethnicity was the reason for the separation. In Chicago in November a U.S. appeals court ruled that a 50-member group calling itself the Orthodox Baha#i Faith (OBF) could continue to use that name and Baha#i sacred symbols despite a challenge from the mainstream Baha#i organization. The appeals court struck down a 1966 court decision, which a justice called a “wrongheaded” attempt at resolving a religious dispute, against a previous splinter group. Baha#i faith, which claimed more than seven million members worldwide, had sought to prevent the OBF from using both the name Baha#i and traditional symbols that its adherents consider sacred. Interfaith and Interchurch Relations. A survey of religion in sub-Saharan Africa released in April by the Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life found that Muslims in the region were significantly more positive in their assessment of Christians than Christians were in their assessment of Muslims. At the same time, the survey of 19 countries found that many Muslims said that they were more concerned about Muslim extremism than they were about Christian extremism, and Christians in four countries declared that

Students from an ultra-Orthodox Jewish girls’ school in Jerusalem gather on the rooftops on June 17, to watch a street demonstration against an Israeli Supreme Court ruling that ordered the desegregation of one such school.

Oded Balilty/AP

296

they were more concerned about Christian extremism than about Muslim extremism. In September the results of another Pew Forum study, the “U.S. Religious Knowledge Survey,” demonstrated a higher incidence of knowledge of the beliefs of various traditions and of church-and-state issues among atheists and agnostics than among practicing Christians. A Gallup Poll released in January found that 43% of Americans admitted to feeling at least “a little” prejudiced against Muslims. Religious strife erupted in Malaysia in January following a decision by the High Court on the last day of 2009 that overturned a government ban on use by Roman Catholics of the term Allah for God in the Malay-language edition of their main newspaper. Several Muslim leaders maintained that the word Allah should be used only by Muslims and that its use by Christians could trick some Muslims into converting. In the month after the ruling, 11 churches were attacked, and the severed heads of wild boars, the meat of which is proscribed in Islam, were left at two mosques. An attack on the Syrian Catholic cathedral in Baghdad in late October by a group called the Islamic State of Iraq left 58 people dead and 75 injured. The attacks came several weeks after a Vatican synod on the church in the Middle East expressed the fear that attacks on Christians would increase their departure from the region. Benedict XVI made the first state visit by a pope to the historically Protestant United Kingdom in September. During his four days there, he met with Queen Elizabeth II, who was both the head of state and the titular head of the Church of England, and beatified John Henry Cardinal Newman, a 19th-century Anglican convert to Catholicism. The 11th Assembly of the Lutheran World Federation, meeting in Stuttgart, Ger., in July, asked Mennonites for forgiveness for the 16th-century persecution by Lutherans of Anabaptists, the Mennonites’ spiritual ancestors. The Central Conference of American Rabbis, which represented nearly 2,000 Reform Jewish leaders, announced at its annual convention in San Francisco in March that it would respond to intermarriage as a given that called for increased outreach and understanding rather than as a threat to Jewish identity that had to be resisted. The gathering acknowledged that studies had found that as many as half of American Jews married outside their faith. Claremont (Calif.) School of Theology, a historically Christian insti-

Religion

tution, announced in June that it would add clergy training for Muslims and Jews to its curriculum, making it a multifaith seminary. In September the largest Mormon church accommodated Jewish groups by revising its procedures for performing proxy baptisms of the dead in order to preclude the baptism of Holocaust victims. A major tenet of Mormon belief was that nonMormons could be baptized after death and thus offered a chance at salvation; extensive genealogical research was often undertaken in order to identify prospective candidates for baptism. After many Jewish organizations objected to the procedure, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) agreed to upgrade the software of its genealogical database in order to make the candidacy of a Holocaust victim for proxy baptism less likely. Internal Conflicts. In Saudi Arabia religious and government officials debated the interpretation of Islamic teachings and their applicability to public life throughout 2010. Sheikh Ahmad alGhamdi, the head for the Mecca region of the kingdom’s religious police, sparked controversy in December 2009 when he declared that nothing in Islam forbids men and women from mixing in public places such as schools and business offices. The Commission for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice removed Ghamdi from his position but later reversed that decision. In August, King !Abd Allah issued a royal decree stating that only the Council of Senior !Ulama may issue fatwas that apply to religious practices within the country. The announcement came in response to a rash of such rulings made by independent clerics whose interpretations often contradicted each other. A new denomination, the North American Lutheran Church, was formed in Grove City, Ohio, in August at a gathering of more than 1,100 people, most of whom had left the 4.5-million-member Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ECLA) in the wake of its decision the previous year to permit the ordination as pastors of church members in monogamous same-sex relationships. Lutheran CORE, the organization that had spearheaded the move, said that it would continue to exist as “a confessional and confessing unity movement for all Lutherans regardless of church body.” In a series of interviews with a German journalist, published as a book in November, Pope Benedict said that the use of condoms could be justified in some circumstances to help stop the

spread of HIV/AIDS. Pope Benedict’s statement was a departure from previous dismissals of the effectiveness of condoms in stopping the spread of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases and received a mixed response from church groups. The Rev. Federico Lombardi, a Vatican spokesman, noted a few days later that the church continued to teach that condoms should not be used as a means of artificial birth control. The General Synod of the Church of England, meeting in July in York, affirmed a plan for women to become bishops while rejecting provisions that would have enabled male bishops opposed to the measure to exercise joint oversight of dioceses with women. The measure was sent to diocesan synods for their votes and would return to the General Synod for final approval if it was endorsed by a two-thirds majority of dioceses. In response to this decision, five bishops left the Church of England in November and converted to Roman Catholicism under the administrative structure implemented by the Vatican a year earlier to admit disaffected traditionalist Anglicans. In June, Anglican Archbishop Nicholas Oko, the primate of the Church of Nigeria, approved the ordination of women as deacons in some functions but not as priests. In November the Church of England’s General Synod voted in London to approve a proposed covenant to resolve differences in the worldwide Anglican Communion and sent it to dioceses for consideration. The covenant aimed at restoring unity to a religious organization whose members had been embroiled in tense disputes over the biblical warrant for blessing same-sex unions and for ordaining women and open homosexuals as bishops. Traditionalists from churches within the communion, however, declared that the text of the covenant was a “fatally flawed” and inappropriate although earnest attempt to mend the rift in global Anglicanism. People in the News. Francisco J. Ayala (see BIOGRAPHIES), a professor of biological science and philosophy at the University of California, Irvine, and a former Dominican priest, won the $1.5 million Templeton Prize, which goes to “a living person who has made exceptional contributions to affirming life’s spiritual dimension.” Ayala was noted as a champion of mutual respect between science and religion, which he said “cannot be in contradiction because [they] concern different matters, and each is essential to human under-

standing.” The Rev. Martin Junge of Chile succeeded the Rev. Ishmael Noko in November as general secretary of the Lutheran World Federation (LWF), whose 145 member churches represented 70.1 million people in 79 countries. The Rev. Munib A. Younan of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land succeeded Bishop Mark S. Hanson of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America as president of the LWF. The Rev. Matthew Harrison, director of disaster response for the Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod, was elected president of the 2.5-millionmember denomination at its convention in Houston in July. He defeated the incumbent Rev. Gerald Kieschnick, who had served three terms. Bishop Margot Kassmann of Hanover, Ger., the first woman to head the 24-million-member Evangelical Church in Germany, resigned from that position in February, four months after she was elected and several days after she was arrested for a drunk-driving offense. In July Bishop Maria Jepsen of the North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church, the first woman to be elected a Lutheran bishop, resigned from that position in Hamburg following allegations that she had failed to properly investigate accusations of sexual abuse in the church. She had served as bishop since 1992. The Rev. Sheila Schuller Coleman succeeded her father, the Rev. Robert H. Schuller, in July as lead pastor of the 10,000-member Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove, Calif. In October the church filed for bankruptcy protection. Prominent religious figures who died in 2010 included Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Muhammad Hussein Fadlallah, the top Shi!ite cleric in Lebanon; Conservative rabbis and influential Hebrew Bible scholars Moshe Greenberg and Jacob Milgrom; United Methodist Bishop Abel T. Muzorewa, who served as prime minister of the transitional government of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia from 1979 to 1980; Moishe Rosen, founder of the Jews for Jesus movement; Sheikh Muhammad Sayyid Tantawi, the head of Egypt’s al-Azhar University; radical feminist theologian Mary Daly, author of Beyond God the Father: Toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation (1973); atheist-turned-deist philosopher of religion Antony Flew; American Hindu leader Daya Mata; and the Rev. Raimon Panikkar, a Catholic priest who promoted interfaith dialogue and combined Hindu and Buddhist elements in his theology. (See (DARRELL J. TURNER) OBITUARIES.) 297

Religion

ANALYZING THE MEGACENSUS OF RELIGIONS, 1900–2010 Each year since 1750, churches and religions around the world have generated increasing volumes of new statistical data. Much of this information is uncovered in decennial governmental censuses; half the countries of the

world have long asked their populations to state their religions, if any, and they still do today. The other major source of data each year consists of the decentralized censuses undertaken by many religious headquarters. Each

year almost all Christian denominations ask and answer statistical questions on major religious subjects. A third annual source is the total of 27,000 new books on the religious situation each in a single country, as well

Worldwide Adherents of All Religions by Six Continental Areas, Mid-2010 Africa Christians Affiliated Roman Catholics Protestants Independents Orthodox Anglicans Marginal Christians Doubly affiliated Unaffiliated Muslims Hindus Nonreligious (agnostics) Buddhists Chinese folk-religionists Ethnoreligionists Atheists New religionists Sikhs Jews Spiritists Daoists (Taoists) Baha#is Confucianists Jains Shintoists Zoroastrians Other religionists Total population

488,880,000 463,320,000 170,484,000 136,631,000 98,239,000 44,507,000 50,215,000 3,667,000 −40,423,000 25,560,000 421,938,820 2,945,000 5,995,000 258,000 133,000 109,592,000 594,000 117,000 74,000 134,000 2,900 0 2,178,000 20,200 95,100 0 980 85,000 1,033,043,000

Asia 350,822,000 346,770,000 139,526,000 88,765,000 146,423,000 15,832,000 865,000 3,136,000 −47,777,000 4,052,000 1,083,354,900 935,753,000 504,352,000 455,412,000 452,762,000 153,565,000 116,204,000 59,611,000 22,496,000 5,980,000 2,100 8,412,000 3,433,000 6,433,000 5,056,000 2,700,000 148,000 245,000 4,166,741,000

Europe

Latin America

Northern America

Oceania

584,809,000 559,393,000 276,688,000 67,710,000 10,839,000 200,620,000 26,428,000 4,113,000 −27,005,000 25,416,000 40,174,000 991,000 84,652,000 1,777,000 438,000 1,150,000 15,390,000 364,000 500,000 1,914,000 143,000 0 142,000 15,500 18,800 0 5,700 275,000 732,759,000

544,592,000 538,553,000 470,622,000 58,769,000 42,669,000 1,038,000 865,000 11,239,000 −46,649,000 6,039,000 1,599,000 789,000 16,941,410 760,000 189,000 3,802,000 2,901,000 1,744,000 6,900 963,000 13,330,000 0 902,000 490 1,400 7,800 0 120,000 588,649,000

283,308,000 229,796,000 84,400,000 60,206,000 71,227,000 7,262,000 2,795,000 11,820,000 −7,914,000 53,512,000 5,598,000 1,867,000 43,211,700 3,845,000 781,000 1,246,000 2,013,000 1,747,000 613,000 5,720,000 247,000 12,700 572,000 0 102,000 64,200 21,400 690,000 351,659,000

28,205,000 23,759,000 8,941,000 7,714,000 1,271,000 968,000 4,883,000 668,000 −686,000 4,446,000 524,000 526,000 4,629,100 573,000 101,000 368,000 462,000 101,000 48,600 113,000 7,600 4,400 110,000 47,600 3,200 0 2,500 12,000 35,838,000

World

%

2,280,616,000 33.0 2,161,591,000 31.3 1,150,661,000 16.7 419,795,000 6.1 370,668,000 5.4 270,227,000 3.9 86,051,000 1.2 34,643,000 0.5 −170,454,000 −2.5 119,025,000 1.7 1,553,188,720 22.5 942,871,000 13.6 659,781,210 9.6 462,625,000 6.7 454,404,000 6.6 269,723,000 3.9 137,564,000 2.0 63,684,000 0.9 23,738,500 0.3 14,824,000 0.2 13,732,600 0.2 8,429,100 0.1 7,337,000 0.1 6,516,790 0.1 5,276,500 0.1 2,772,000 0.0 178,580 0.0 1,427,000 0.0 6,908,689,000 100.0

Change Number of Rate (%) Countries 1.20 1.24 1.06 1.48 2.04 0.34 1.44 1.74 1.06 0.64 1.79 1.38 0.48 0.86 0.56 1.44 −0.17 0.21 1.42 0.69 0.89 0.52 1.56 0.45 −0.04 1.32 0.83 1.31 1.19

232 232 231 229 220 136 161 217 174 226 209 125 231 150 119 145 220 119 55 139 57 6 221 16 19 8 27 79 232

Continents. These follow current UN demographic terminology, which now divides the world into the six major areas shown above. See United Nations, World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision (New York: UN, 2009), with populations of all continents, regions, and countries covering the period 1950–2050, with 100 variables for every country each year. Note that "Asia" includes the former Soviet Central Asian states, and "Europe" includes all of Russia eastward to the Pacific. Change rate. This column documents the annual change in 2010 (calculated as an average annual change from 2000 to 2010) in worldwide religious and nonreligious adherents. Note that in 2010 the annual growth of world population was 1.19%, or a net increase of 79,284,600 persons. Countries. The last column enumerates sovereign and nonsovereign countries in which each religion or religious grouping has a numerically significant and organized following. Adherents. As defined in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, a person's religion is what he or she professes, confesses, or states that it is. Totals are enumerated for each of the world's 232 countries following the methodology of the World Christian Encyclopedia, 2nd ed. (2001), and World Christian Trends (2001), using recent censuses, polls, surveys, yearbooks, reports, Web sites, literature, and other data. See the World Christian Database (www.worldchristiandatabase.org, Brill) and World Religion Database (www.worldreligiondatabase.org, Brill) for more detail. Religions (including nonreligious and atheists) are ranked in order of worldwide size in mid-2010. Atheists. Persons professing atheism, skepticism, disbelief, or irreligion, including the militantly antireligious (opposed to all religion). A flurry of recent books have outlined the Western philosophical and scientific basis for atheism. Ironically, the vast majority of atheists today are found in Asia (primarily Chinese communists). Buddhists. 56% Mahayana, 38% Theravada (Hinayana), 6% Tantrayana (Lamaism). Chinese folk-religionists. Followers of a unique complex of beliefs and practices that may include universism (yin/yang cosmology with dualities earth/heaven, evil/good, darkness/light), ancestor cult, Confucian ethics, divination, festivals, folk religion, goddess worship, household gods, local deities, mediums, metaphysics, monasteries, neoConfucianism, popular religion, sacrifices, shamans, spirit-writing, and Daoist (Taoist) and Buddhist elements. Christians. Followers of Jesus Christ, enumerated here under Affiliated, those affiliated with churches (church members, with names written on church rolls, usually total number of baptized persons including children baptized, dedicated, or undedicated): total in 2010 being 2,161,591,000, shown above divided among the six standardized ecclesiastical megablocs and with (negative and italicized) figures for those Doubly affiliated persons (all who are baptized members of two denominations) and Unaffiliated, who are persons professing or confessing in censuses or polls to be Christians though not so affiliated. Independents. This term here denotes members of Christian churches and networks that regard themselves as postdenominationalist and neoapostolic and thus independent of historical, mainstream, organized, institutionalized, confessional, denominationalist Christianity. Marginal Christians. Members of denominations who define themselves as Christians but on the margins of organized mainstream Christianity (e.g., Unitarians, Mormons, Jehovah's Witnesses, Christian Science, and Religious Science). Confucianists. Non-Chinese followers of Confucius and Confucianism, mostly Koreans in Korea. Ethnoreligionists. Followers of local, tribal, animistic, or shamanistic religions, with members restricted to one ethnic group. Hindus. 68% Vaishnavites, 27% Shaivites, 2% neo-Hindus and reform Hindus. Jews. Adherents of Judaism. For detailed data on "core" Jewish population, see the annual "World Jewish Populations" article in the American Jewish Committee's American Jewish Year Book. Muslims. 84% Sunnites, 14% Shi!ites, 2% other schools. New religionists. Followers of Asian 20th-century neoreligions, neoreligious movements, radical new crisis religions, and non-Christian syncretistic mass religions. Nonreligious (agnostics). Persons professing no religion, nonbelievers, agnostics, freethinkers, uninterested, or dereligionized secularists indifferent to all religion but not militantly so. Other religionists. Including a handful of religions, quasi-religions, pseudoreligions, parareligions, religious or mystic systems, and religious and semireligious brotherhoods of numerous varieties. Total population. UN medium variant figures for mid-2010, as given in World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision.

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as some 9,000 printed annual yearbooks or official handbooks. Together, these three major sources of data constitute a massive annual megacensus, although decentralized and uncoordinated. The two tables below combine all these data on religious affiliation.

The first table summarizes worldwide adherents by religion. The second goes into more detail for the United States of America. This year there are two new publications both supporting and mapping the data below. First, the Atlas of Global Christianity (Edinburgh

University Press) puts Christian data in the context of 1910–2010. Second, the World Religion Database (Brill) offers sources and analysis of global religious dynamics. (DAVID B. BARRETT, TODD M. JOHNSON, PETER F. CROSSING)

Religious Adherents in the United States of America, 1900–2010 1900

%

Christians 73,260,000 96.4 Affiliated 54,425,000 71.6 Independents 5,850,000 7.7 Roman Catholics 10,775,000 14.2 Protestants 35,000,000 46.1 Marginal Christians 800,000 1.1 Orthodox 400,000 0.5 Anglicans 1,600,000 2.1 Doubly affiliated 0 0.0 Evangelicals 32,068,000 42.2 evangelicals 11,000,000 14.5 Unaffiliated 18,835,000 24.8 Nonreligious (agnostics) 1,000,000 1.3 Jews 1,500,000 2.0 Muslims 10,000 0.0 Black Muslims 0 0.0 Buddhists 30,000 0.0 New religionists 10,000 0.0 Hindus 1,000 0.0 Atheists 1,000 0.0 Ethnoreligionists 100,000 0.1 Baha#is 2,800 0.0 Sikhs 0 0.0 Spiritists 0 0.0 Chinese folk-religionists 70,000 0.1 Shintoists 0 0.0 Zoroastrians 0 0.0 Daoists (Taoists) 0 0.0 Jains 0 0.0 Other religionists 10,200 0.0 U.S. population 75,995,000 100.0

mid-1970

%

189,873,000 90.6 152,754,000 72.9 34,702,000 16.6 48,305,000 23.1 58,568,000 28.0 6,114,000 2.9 4,395,000 2.1 3,196,000 1.5 −2,526,000 −1.2 35,117,000 16.8 45,500,000 21.7 37,119,000 17.7 10,270,000 4.9 6,700,000 3.2 800,000 0.4 200,000 0.1 200,000 0.1 560,000 0.3 100,000 0.0 200,000 0.1 70,000 0.0 138,000 0.1 10,000 0.0 0 0.0 90,000 0.0 3,000 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 450,000 0.2 209,464,000 100.0

mid-1990

%

217,487,600 85.3 175,182,600 68.7 66,900,000 26.2 56,500,000 22.2 60,216,000 23.6 8,940,000 3.5 5,150,000 2.0 2,450,000 1.0 −24,973,400 −9.8 38,400,000 15.1 90,656,000 35.6 42,305,000 16.6 21,442,000 8.4 5,535,000 2.2 3,500,000 1.4 1,250,000 0.5 1,880,000 0.7 1,155,000 0.5 750,000 0.3 770,000 0.3 780,000 0.3 600,000 0.2 160,000 0.1 120,000 0.0 76,000 0.0 5,000 0.0 50,000 0.0 14,400 0.0 10,000 0.0 530,000 0.2 254,865,000 100.0

mid-2000

%

236,127,200 82.0 192,704,000 66.9 63,877,000 22.2 62,970,000 21.9 57,544,000 20.0 10,085,000 3.5 5,516,000 1.9 2,300,000 0.8 −9,588,000 −3.3 39,588,000 13.8 95,900,000 33.3 43,423,200 15.1 33,083,000 11.5 5,442,000 1.9 4,034,000 1.4 1,650,000 0.6 2,522,000 0.9 1,503,000 0.5 1,245,000 0.4 1,178,000 0.4 988,000 0.3 439,000 0.2 242,000 0.1 197,000 0.1 101,000 0.0 74,800 0.0 58,100 0.0 16,400 0.0 11,500 0.0 580,000 0.2 287,842,000 100.0

mid-2010

%

257,334,700 81.0 209,433,000 65.9 70,169,000 22.1 70,465,000 22.2 56,716,000 17.9 11,296,000 3.6 6,254,000 2.0 2,191,000 0.7 −7,658,000 −2.4 40,957,000 12.9 106,063,000 33.4 47,901,700 15.1 39,395,000 12.4 5,242,000 1.7 4,806,000 1.5 1,850,000 0.6 3,348,000 1.1 1,663,000 0.5 1,479,000 0.5 1,329,000 0.4 1,110,000 0.3 525,000 0.2 286,000 0.1 230,000 0.1 111,000 0.0 87,400 0.0 64,200 0.0 18,000 0.0 12,700 0.0 600,000 0.2 317,641,000 100.0

Annual Change, 2000–2010 Natural Conversion Total Rate (%) 2,444,500 1,995,000 661,300 651,900 595,700 104,400 57,100 23,800 −99,300 409,800 992,800 449,500 332,100 56,300 41,800 17,100 36,500 15,600 12,900 12,200 10,200 4,500 2,500 2,000 1,000 800 600 200 100 6,000 2,980,000

−323,700 −322,100 −32,100 97,600 −678,500 16,700 16,700 −34,700 292,300 −272,900 23,500 −1,600 329,100 −76,300 35,400 2,900 16,100 400 10,500 2,900 2,000 4,100 1,900 1,300 0 500 0 0 0 −4,000 0

2,120,800 1,672,900 629,200 749,500 −82,800 121,100 73,800 −10,900 193,000 136,900 1,016,300 447,900 661,200 −20,000 77,200 20,000 52,600 16,000 23,400 15,100 12,200 8,600 4,400 3,300 1,000 1,300 600 200 100 2,000 2,980,000

0.86 0.84 0.94 1.13 −0.14 1.14 1.26 −0.48 −2.22 0.34 1.01 0.99 1.89 −0.37 1.77 1.15 1.40 1.02 1.74 1.21 1.17 1.81 1.68 1.56 0.95 1.57 1.00 0.94 1.00 0.34 0.99

Methodology. This table extracts and analyzes a microcosm of the world religion table. It depicts the United States, the country with the largest number of adherents to Christianity, the world’s largest religion. Statistics at five points in time from 1900 to 2010 are presented. Each religion’s Annual Change for 2000–2010 is also analyzed by Natural increase (births minus deaths, plus immigrants minus emigrants) per year and Conversion increase (new converts minus new defectors) per year, which together constitute the Total increase per year. Rate increase is then computed as percentage per year. Structure. Vertically the table lists 30 major religious categories. The major categories (including nonreligious) in the U.S. are listed with largest (Christians) first. Indented names of groups in the “Adherents” column are subcategories of the groups above them and are also counted in these unindented totals, so they should not be added twice into the column total. Figures in italics draw adherents from all categories of Christians above and so cannot be added together with them. Figures for Christians are built upon detailed head counts by churches, often to the last digit. Totals are then rounded to the nearest 1,000. Because of rounding, the corresponding percentage figures may sometimes not total exactly to 100%. Religions are ranked in order of size in 2010. Christians. All persons who profess publicly to follow Jesus Christ as God and Savior. This category is subdivided into Affiliated (church members) and Unaffiliated (nominal) Christians (professing Christians not affiliated with any church). See also the note on Christians to the world religion table. The first six lines under “Affiliated Christians” are ranked by size in 2010 of each of the six megablocs (Anglican, Independent, Marginal Christian, Orthodox, Protestant, Roman Catholic). Evangelicals/evangelicals. These two designations—italicized and enumerated separately here—cut across all of the six Christian traditions or ecclesiastical blocs listed above and should be considered separately from them. The Evangelicals (capitalized “E”) are mainly Protestant churches, agencies, and individuals who call themselves by this term (for example, members of the National Association of Evangelicals); they usually emphasize 5 or more of 7, 9, or 21 fundamental doctrines (salvation by faith, personal acceptance, verbal inspiration of Scripture, depravity of man, Virgin Birth, miracles of Christ, atonement, evangelism, Second Advent, et al.). The evangelicals (lowercase “e”) are Christians of evangelical conviction from all traditions who are committed to the evangel (gospel) and involved in personal witness and mission in the world. Jews. Core Jewish population relating to Judaism, excluding Jewish persons professing a different religion. Other categories. Definitions are as given under the world religion table.

299

Sports and Games Two major international competitions dominated the sports world in 2010, the WINTER OLYMPICS in Vancouver and the FIFA association football (soccer) WORLD CUP in South Africa. Later in the year, Singapore hosted the inaugural YOUTH OLYMPIC GAMES, and India was the site of the XIX COMMONWEALTH GAMES.

many rule changes for the sport. The new points system rewarded the top 10 drivers in a race while giving the winner 25 points. The second-place driver earned 18 points, followed by 15, 12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, and 1. The FIA also decided to impose a ban on refueling during races in order to reduce costs, putting greater emphasis on tire management. The top qualifiers were at a disadvantage at the start of races because they had to race on the tires they used to qualify, while those outside the top 10 were able to start with fresh tires. Drivers also had to AUTOMOBILE RACING races, and Button, who won twice, fin- use one set of hard tires and one softer Grand Prix Racing. In 2010 the Federa- ished fourth and fifth with 240 and 214 option during the race, which meant tion Internationale de l’Automobile points, respectively. Vettel and Webber that one pit stop was mandatory. Dou(FIA) Formula One (F1) world drivers’ also helped Red Bull win its first con- ble diffusers, which manage air flow unchampionship was won by Sebastian structors’ championship, earning 498 der the car, were back despite having Vettel of Germany. The 23-year-old Red points to defeat McLaren (454) and caused trouble in 2009 as teams had Bull driver became the youngest cham- Ferrari (396). Ferrari had gone two full trouble interpreting rules that regulated pion in F1 history as he secured the ti- seasons without any title; the team’s the design of the diffusers. The KERS tle when he won the season-ending Abu record 16th constructors’ title was in power-boost system was banished after Dhabi (U.A.E.) Grand Prix on Novem- 2008, and Kimi Raikkonen of Finland many teams had spent large amounts of ber 14, his third victory in four races. last won the drivers’ championship for money to develop the technology in Vettel, who finished second to Jenson Ferrari in 2007. 2009, though only Ferrari and McLaren Button of the U.K. in the 2009 drivers’ The point totals for drivers were much used it on a regular basis. standings, was six months younger higher in 2010 on the basis of one of Grand Prix racing welcomed back a than Britain’s Lewis Hamilton veteran in 2010 as seven-time F1 was when he won the champichampion Michael Schumacher onship in 2008. With an un- German race car driver Sebastian Vettel, of the Red returned after three years in reprecedented four drivers still in Bull racing team, celebrates winning the seasontirement to race for Mercedes GP. contention for the title heading ending Abu Dhabi (U.A.E.) Grand Prix on The 41-year-old German had into the race in Abu Dhabi, Vet- November 14 and becoming, at age 23, the youngest tried to make a comeback in tel won his season-leading 10th world drivers’ champion in Formula One history. 2009, when he was set to fill in pole to put pressure on points for Brazilian Felipe Massa at Ferleader Fernando Alonso (Ferrari) rari after Massa was involved in of Spain. In order to grab the tia near-fatal crash while attempttle, Vettel had to either win the ing to qualify for the Hungarian race and have Alonso finish outGrand Prix. Schumacher, howside the top four, or place second ever, was unable to race owing to and have both Alonso and Red lingering effects of neck and back Bull teammate Mark Webber of injuries he had suffered in an earAustralia (ranked second going lier motorcycle crash. Schuin) finish even farther behind macher was ninth in the 2010 him. Vettel ran a smooth race for standings with 72 points, finishhis fifth victory of the season, ing a season-best fourth in three while Alonso finished seventh afraces, but he failed to earn a victer Ferrari made a poor decision tory, pole position, podium spot, to direct him to pit early, and he or fastest lap for the first time got stuck behind a pair of other since making his debut in 1991. drivers for nearly 40 laps. At the Hungarian Grand Prix in Vettel finished the 19-race seaAugust, Schumacher, who in the son with 256 points, 4 more than past had been condemned for his Alonso, who also won five races. racing tactics, had an incident Webber, with four victories and with former teammate Rubens 242 points, was eighth in Abu Barrichello of Brazil. Race stewDhabi and third overall for the ards said that Schumacher “illeseason. McLaren teammates gitimately impeded” Barrichello Hamilton, who prevailed in three on the 66th lap after appearing to Luca Bruno/AP

300

Sports and Games: Automobile Racing

try to force the Brazilian into a concrete pit wall. Massa, meanwhile, returned from his horrific accident to finish sixth in the standings with 144 points, landing on the podium five times. He was embroiled in some controversy, though, at the German Grand Prix on July 25, the one-year anniversary of his accident. Massa led 49 of 67 laps before allowing teammate Alonso to pass him, following Ferrari radio instructions. Alonso went on to win the race, and Ferrari was subsequently fined $100,000 by the FIA for having issued illegal team orders during the race. The World Motor Sport Council met in September but decided not to strip Alonso of the victory, dock the team points, or impose another fine. The 2010 season saw the debut of three new teams: Virgin, Lotus, and Hispania. Virgin drivers were Timo Glock (Germany) and Lucas di Grassi (Brazil). Jarno Trulli (Italy) and Heikki Kovalainen (Finland) were with Lotus. Karun Chandhok (India), Christian Klien (Austria), Sakon Yamamoto (Japan), and Bruno Senna (Brazil)— nephew of three-time F1 champion Ayrton Senna—all drove for Hispania. Following the season the Williams team announced that Nico Hulkenberg had left the team following his F1 debut season. The 23-year-old German, who took the pole at the Brazilian Grand Prix, finished 14th in the drivers’ championship. Williams also said that it would bring back Barrichello after he finished 10th in the standings. (PAUL DIGIACOMO) U.S. Auto Racing. Jimmie Johnson, the 35-year-old son of a heavy-machinery operator and a school bus driver, raced his Rick Hendrick Chevrolet Impala into NASCAR history in 2010 by winning the Chase for the Sprint Cup championship by 39 points. The contest, in stock-appearing cars, was the closest in the history of the Sprint Cup series. The team of Johnson and chief mechanic Chad Knaus had 6 victories in the 36race Sprint series to 8 for Joe Gibbs Toyota Camry driver Denny Hamlin, but Hamlin’s mistake in Phoenix, at the penultimate NASCAR event, cost him the crown. He pitted for fuel late in the 400-mi race unnecessarily, letting Johnson and others pass. It was Johnson’s fifth straight drivers’ championship, a feat never before accomplished, and the 10th title for the Hendrick team. Johnson earned $7,264,780 for the season, moving ahead of 44 other Sprint Cup series million-dollar earners. His achievement came in a year of diminishing viewership and fewer moneyed sponsors for all of the major pro-

fessional types of racing. That led to a surplus of experienced drivers because owners garaged sponsorless cars. Brad Keselowski, who finished number 25 in Sprint Cup points, won the subsidiary Nationwide Series. In the Camping World Truck Series, veteran Todd Bodine, number 53 in Sprint Cup earnings, won that series’ point championship, while Kyle Busch, who ranked 8th among the Sprint Cup millionaires, used various drivers, including himself, to take the truck owner money title. The 94th Indianapolis 500 was won for the second time by Scotsman Dario Franchitti of the Target Chip Ganassi team. The jewel of IZOD single-seater Indy Racing League (IRL) competition proved crash-strewn, but Franchitti led 155 of the 200 laps on the two-and-ahalf-mile Indianapolis Motor Speedway to control the event, with an average speed of 161.623 mph. Franchitti passed his chief rival, Penske’s Will Power of Australia, on the first turn of the race. Marco Andretti of Andretti Autosport was third. The event ended under caution because of a crash in the 199th lap. Only 22 cars of the 33 that started the race were still running at the end. Franchitti’s victory earned him $2,752,055. Although he won only two other events in the 17-race IRL season, Franchitti secured his second consecutive drivers’ title (his third in four years), a slim five points ahead of Power, who scored five victories. The most successful team owner in American competition, Floyd (“Chip”) Ganassi, Jr., became the first owner in history to win both the Indy 500 and NASCAR’s Daytona 500 in the same year. Ganassi rehired NASCAR driver Jamie McMurray for his Chevy Impala after McMurray was dropped by the Roush Fenway team. McMurray won the Daytona 500 at Daytona Beach, Fla., edging Dale Earnhardt, Jr., in a Hendrick Chevrolet. The race was marred because emergency patching of potholes on the oval at the Daytona International Speedway did not hold. McMurray also won the Brickyard 400 at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway for Ganassi. (ROBERT J. FENDELL) Rallies and Other Races. In road racing, Ganassi paired with Felix Sabates to sponsor the BMW-Riley, which dominated the 2010 Grand American Rolex sports car series (American Scott Pruett and Mexico’s Memo Rojas were their drivers). However, they lost the Rolex 24 at Daytona on the Daytona International Speedway’s road course by 52 seconds to a newly formed Action Ex-

press team featuring an American-modified Porsche Cayenne V-8 on a Riley chassis. The team was established when Brumos Racing decided to rely on the Porsche flat-six engine that had dominated the series as its lone entry. Lead driver João Barbosa had been dropped by Brumos for the 24-hour race, which featured many of the best drivers from NASCAR and Indy as well as others from overseas. There were 53 lead changes among 29 drivers. SpeedSource Castrol Syntec Mazda RX-8 won the GT class. The race started under caution after a two-hour deluge made the wet Daytona road course treacherous through the night. In the U.S.’s oldest endurance race, the 12 Hours of Sebring (Fla.), Peugeot’s factory team dominated, taking first and second and completing at least three laps more than the thirdplace Lola, the only other Prototype One to finish in the top 10. The winning drivers in this, the most famous of the American Le Mans Series competitions—Spaniard Marc Gené, Briton Anthony Davidson, and Austrian Alexander Wurz—rarely competed in the U.S. The European trio completed 367 laps of the old airport course. In the 2010 World Rally Championship (WRC), Sébastien Loeb (Citroën Total) of France secured a record seventh drivers’ title with 276 points, over 100 points more than his closest rival, Jari-Matti Latvala (Ford) of Finland. Loeb and co-driver Daniel Elena of Monaco won 8 of the 13 WRC races, clinching the overall title with two races left and then winning those to raise their career total to 62 victories. Mikko Hirvonen of Finland took the season-opening Sweden Rally. Latvala and Frenchman Sébastien Ogier of the Citroën Junior Team split the remaining four races, with two wins each. Norway’s Petter Solberg, the last driver to hold the overall title before Loeb’s incredible seven-year run, drove a Citroën for his own world rally team and earned enough points to finish third in the rankings, just two points behind Latvala. Citroën Total finished well ahead of Ford for its third consecutive manufacturers’ championship. Audi returned to the winner’s circle in the 24-hour Le Mans (France) Grand Prix d’Endurance after having been upset by Peugeot in 2009. Two German drivers, Timo Bernhard and Mike Rockenfeller, joined with Romain Dumas of France in an Audi R15 to take the checkered flag. (ROBERT J. FENDELL; MELINDA C. SHEPHERD) 301

Sports and Games: Baseball Kirthmon F. Dozier—MCT/Landov

BASEBALL North America. Major League Baseball. Punctuating what was widely hailed as “the year of the pitcher,” the San Francisco Giants stifled the Texas Rangers 3–1 on Nov. 1, 2010, before 52,045 spectators in Arlington, Texas, to capture the Major League Baseball (MLB) World Series four games to one. Pitcher Tim Lincecum, a mainstay of San Francisco’s strong starting rotation, worked eight innings and yielded just three hits to record his second victory in the bestof-seven series, and reliever Brian Wilson, who led MLB with 48 saves during the regular season, finished the game with a perfect ninth inning. Although it was the sixth championship in the team’s history, it was the Giants’ first World Series title since 1954 and the only one since the franchise moved from New York City in 1958. Edgar Renteria, who had registered the gamewinning hit for the Florida Marlins in the 1997 World Series, slammed a three-run home run in the seventh inning to break a scoreless tie and was voted the series MVP. In game one, in San Francisco on October 27, the Giants beat the Rangers 11–7, defeating Cliff Lee, a left-hander who had never previously lost a postseason game. Juan Uribe hit a threerun home run for the Giants, who capitalized on four Texas errors after the Rangers had mounted an early 2–0 lead against Lincecum. One night later the Giants again routed the visiting Rangers 9–0 as Matt Cain pitched into the eighth inning and yielded just four hits. Renteria hit a home run in the fifth inning for the Giants, who scored seven runs in the eighth inning. In game three on October 30, play moved to Arlington, where the Rangers defeated the Giants 4–2 behind a threerun home run by Mitch Moreland and the pitching of Colby Lewis, who yielded five hits into the eighth inning. The next night the Giants’ 21-year-old rookie left-hander Madison Bumgarner pitched eight scoreless innings and won game four 4–0, supported by home runs from Aubrey Huff and NL Rookie of the Year Buster Posey. Play-offs. The Giants did not secure a play-off berth until they clinched first place in the National League (NL) West division on the final day of the regular season. The team beat the Atlanta Braves, the wild card with the National League’s second best record, three games to one and then gained the franchise’s first pennant since 2002 by defeating the defending league champion 302

Umpire Jim Joyce (centre) tearfully apologizes on June 3 to Detroit Tigers pitcher Armando Galarraga (right) as Cleveland Indians bench coach Tim Tolman (left) looks on. A bad call by Joyce in the ninth inning of the previous day’s game cost Galarraga a perfect game. Philadelphia Phillies four games to two in the NL Championship Series (NLCS). Cody Ross of the Giants was voted the NLCS MVP. Philadelphia had swept the Reds in three games to face San Francisco. The Rangers earned the first pennant in the franchise’s 50-year history by eliminating the defending world champion New York Yankees, the American League (AL) wild card, four games to two in the AL Championship Series (ALCS). Josh Hamilton of Texas was named MVP of the ALCS. In the first round of the AL play-offs, Texas defeated the Tampa Bay Rays three games to two, with the road team winning each game. The Yankees swept the Minnesota Twins in three games. Individual Accomplishments. In the NL Division Series opener, the Phillies beat the Reds 4–0 on a no-hitter by Roy Halladay (see BIOGRAPHIES), who had pitched a perfect game during the regular season. Halladay faced 28 batters, one more than the minimum, having issued a walk in the fifth inning. Don Larsen, who hurled a perfect game for the Yankees against the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1956, was the only other pitcher to have registered a postseason no-hitter. Halladay’s exemplary achievements earned him unanimous selection as the NL Cy Young Award winner. Before Halladay’s play-off no-hitter, there were five others during the regular season, including two perfect games in one month. Dallas Braden of the Oakland A’s recorded the 19th perfect game in MLB history in a 4–0 defeat of Tampa Bay on May 9, and the 20th perfect game, thrown by Halladay, followed

on May 29 when he vanquished the Marlins 1–0. There was nearly a third perfect game on June 2, when Armando Galarraga of the Detroit Tigers retired the first 26 Cleveland Indians. The 27th batter, Jason Donald, was called safe on a close play at first base by umpire Jim Joyce, who later viewed the tape and admitted that he had ruled incorrectly. Galarraga then retired the 28th batter for a 3–0 shutout. Joyce apologized to Galarraga, who graciously accepted, precipitating one of the most publicized incidents of the 2010 season. Hamilton received MVP honours in the AL for his MLB-leading .359 batting average; Colorado’s Carlos Gonzalez, with a .336 average, topped the NL. Jose Bautista of the AL Toronto Blue Jays slammed in 54 home runs, which made him the 26th MLB player to hit more than 50 in a season. Albert Pujols of the St. Louis Cardinals led the NL with 42 homers and 118 runs batted in (RBIs), but Tigers slugger Miguel Cabrera topped him with 126 RBIs to lead the AL. Pujols failed to win his third straight NL MVP award, however; Cincinnati slugger Joey Votto, who finished at or near the top in 11 offensive categories, was the overwhelming favourite for that honour. Pitchers Halladay and C.C. Sabathia of the Yankees each won 21 games, closely followed by the Cardinals’ Adam Wainwright with 20. Felix Hernandez of the Seattle Mariners led the MLB with a 2.27 earned run average and secured the AL Cy Young Award, but his 232 strikeouts fell one short of the league-leading 233 hurled by Jered Weaver of the Los Angeles Angels.

Sports and Games: Basketball

The Yankees’ Alex Rodriguez became the seventh player to hit 600 career home runs; he finished the season with 613 to pass Sammy Sosa on the alltime list. On September 7 Trevor Hoffman of the Milwaukee Brewers registered his record 600th save. Stephen Strasburg, a highly touted rookie with the Washington Nationals, struck out 14 Pittsburgh Pirates in his major league debut, but his season was shortened because of a subsequent injury. Ichiro Suzuki, who left Japan in 2001 to sign with the Mariners, became the first MLB player with 10 consecutive seasons of 200 or more hits. All-Star Game. The NL defeated the AL 3–1 on July 13 before 45,408 spectators at Angel Stadium in Anaheim, Calif., to seize its first victory in the annual AllStar Game since 1996. Braves catcher Brian McCann stroked a three-run double in the seventh inning against Matt Thornton of the Chicago White Sox and was voted MVP. Ubaldo Jimenez of the Colorado Rockies was the starting pitcher for the NL, and he and AL starter David Price of Tampa Bay each pitched two scoreless innings. Washington’s Matt Capps registered the victory, and Jonathan Broxton of the Los Angeles Dodgers, the ninth NL pitcher of the game, recorded the save by hurling a scoreless ninth. The AL’s only run, which came in the fifth inning, was unearned after Dodgers pitcher HongChih Kuo made a wild throw to first base for an error. The NL led the series 41–38, with two ties. Members of the Yankees on the AL All-Stars wore black armbands in memory of George Steinbrenner, the team’s owner since 1973, who had died of a heart attack earlier in the day. Other notable deaths in the year included former managers Ralph Houk and Sparky Anderson and pitcher Bob Feller. (See OBITUARIES.) Little League World Series. A team representing Tokyo’s Edogawa Minami Little League registered a 4–1 victory by triumphing over Waipio Little League from Waipahu, Hawaii, on August 29 in South Williamsport, Pa., to capture the Little League World Series (LLWS). The victory ended a five-year winning streak by teams from the U.S. and made Japan the first international LLWS champion since Curaçao in 2004. Ryusuke Ikeda, the starting pitcher for Japan, struck out five and yielded four hits to receive credit for the win. Hawaii had collected 29 runs in three previous games but was able to score only once in the final on a sacrifice bunt in the fourth inning. Konan

Tomori hit a home run and batted in three for Japan, which had won the LLWS in 2003. In the consolation game Kaohsiung, Taiwan, routed Pearland, Texas, by a score of 14–2 in a contest that was halted after four innings because of the 10-run rule. (ROBERT WILLIAM VERDI) Latin America. The 2010 Caribbean Series was held in Isla de Margarita, Venez., February 2–7. The Escogido Lions (Leones), representing the Dominican Republic, won the championship with a 5–1 record. Puerto Rico’s Mayagüez Indians (Indios) finished second with a 4–2 mark. Mexico’s Hermosillo Orangemen (Naranjeros) were in third place with a 2–4 record, while the host team, the Caracas Lions (Leones), finished last with a 1–5 record. In Cuba, Industriales defeated Villa Clara four games to three to win the 49th Serie Nacional (National Series). Industriales had defeated Sancti Spiritus four games to one in the quarterfinals and Havana Province four games to two in the semifinals to advance. It was the 12th Serie Nacional title for Industriales. Granma outfielder Alfredo Despaigne won the batting title with a .404 average and led the league in home runs (31) and doubles (37). Sancti Spiritus’ Angel Peña posted a 2.14 earned run average (ERA) to top the league. The Saltillo Sarape Makers (Saraperos) defeated the Puebla Parrots (Pericos) four games to one to win the team’s second consecutive Mexican League title. Saltillo won the deciding game 21–2 and surpassed the record for the most runs scored in a Mexican League final series game. The previous mark of 19 was held by three teams. Puebla first baseman Willis Otañez won the batting title with a .393 average. Japanese-born Chihuahua pitcher Mac Suzuki, who previously played with four Major League Baseball teams and a Japanese team, led the league with an ERA of 2.89. (MILTON JAMAIL) Japan. The Chiba Lotte Marines edged the Chunichi Dragons 8–7 in 12 innings in game seven on Nov. 7, 2010, to win the best-of-seven Japan Series four games to two after game six ended in a 2–2 tie that lasted 15 innings and 5 hours 43 minutes. Under rookie manager Norifumi Nishimura, Lotte became the first team in Japanese baseball history to bounce back from a third-place finish in the regular season to claim the championship. Third baseman Toshiaki Imae earned his second Japan Series MVP award after hitting .444 (12-for-27) with six runs batted in.

The Marines had last won in 2005 under then manager Bobby Valentine. In the Pacific League (PL) Climax Series play-offs, the Marines swept the second-place Seibu Lions two games to none and then defeated the first-place Softbank Hawks four games to three in the final stage. The Dragons were looking for their first Japan Series title in three years after having ousted the defending champion Yomiuri Giants four games to one in the final stage of the Central League (CL) Climax Series. During the regular season, Hanshin Tigers outfielder Matt Murton, with 214 hits, broke Ichiro Suzuki’s single-season record of 210, set in 1994. Norichika Aoki of the Yakult Swallows collected 209 hits and thereby became the first player in Japanese history to achieve two 200-hit seasons. Kenta Maeda of the Hiroshima Carp won the Sawamura Award as the best pitcher after topping the CL with 15 wins, a 2.21 earned run average, and 174 strikeouts. Orix Buffaloes outfielder Takahiro Okada hit a PL-leading 33 home runs. (HIROKI NODA)

BASKETBALL Professional. The Los Angeles Lakers captured the NBA championship with an 83–79 victory over the Boston Celtics on June 17, 2010, on their home court at Staples Center. The Lakers opened the best-of-seven series with a victory and then traded wins with Boston to stand tied at two apiece. After losing game five, Los Angeles came back strongly in game six and then closed out the epic series in a stirring seventh game. In the end the Lakers celebrated their fifth championship in 11 seasons—and their 11th title since relocating from Minneapolis, Minn., to Los Angeles—leaving them with a total of 16, just one behind Boston’s 17. This was also the 12th time Los Angeles and Boston had faced off in the NBA Finals but just the third time the Lakers had been victorious. In addition, Lakers coach Phil Jackson picked up his 11th championship, tying the 11 won by former Celtics centre Bill Russell. The Lakers’ Kobe Bryant earned his fifth NBA championship and was named the MVP of the Finals for the second consecutive year. Although Bryant averaged a team-best 28.6 points per game in the series, he shot just 6 of 24 in game seven. His teammates, however, helped fuel a comeback from a 13point deficit. Ron Artest scored 20 points in the final matchup, and Pau Gasol added 19 points and 18 rebounds. 303

Sports and Games: Basketball

After topping the Western Conference with a 57–25 win–loss record in the regular season, the Lakers ousted the upstart Oklahoma City Thunder in six games in the opening round of the play-offs. The Lakers then swept the Utah Jazz in four games before a hardfought six-game series victory over the Phoenix Suns in the conference finals. Los Angeles won the first two games and then dropped two straight before rallying to win the final two games to advance to the NBA Finals for the third straight year. The Celtics had a stunning postseason run after finishing the regular season at 50–32, good enough to win their division but only fourth best in the Eastern Conference. The Celtics defeated the Miami Heat in five games and followed with a six-game victory over the Cleveland Cavaliers in the conference semifinals and another six-game series win over the Orlando Magic in the conference finals. When the most important game of the season began against the Lakers in game seven of the Finals, however, the Celtics had to play without injured centre Kendrick Perkins. Paul Pierce scored 18 points and grabbed 10 rebounds, and Kevin Garnett scored 17 points and Rasheed Wallace chipped in with 11 points. The Seattle Storm captured its first WNBA title since 2004 with a threegame sweep against the Atlanta Dream. Seattle won 79–77 in the opening game and then took the next two games by the same 87–84 margin. The Storm did

not lose one game through the entire play-offs, becoming the first team to do that since the Los Angeles Sparks had a 6–0 record in 2002. Seattle’s Lauren Jackson, who scored 67 points in the three games, was named the MVP of the Finals. Atlanta advanced to the Finals in just its third season. (ANDY JASNER) College. Duke University, one of the true Goliaths of college basketball, won its fourth NCAA men’s championship on April 5, 2010, narrowly beating Butler University 61–59 in a game that no one in the crowd of 70,930 in the stands of Indianapolis’s massive Lucas Oil Stadium or the millions watching on television was likely ever to forget. As the final buzzer sounded with Duke up by two points, underdog Butler’s sophomore star Gordon Hayward had a half-court shot in the air right on line to the rim. If the shot had gone in, Butler—the little school playing just down the road from its Indianapolis campus—would have produced the greatest championship-game ending in sports history, but the ball bounced off the rim to the floor, and Duke attained its victory. Duke junior Kyle Singler, who was voted Most Outstanding Player of the Final Four, contributed a much-needed 19 points and nine rebounds in the championship game. The Butler Bulldogs (33–5) had won 25 consecutive games, including tournament victories over Syracuse, Kansas State, and Michigan State, to advance to the championship game. Although coach Mike Krzyzewski’s Duke squad

NBA stars (from left to right) Chris Bosh, LeBron James, and Dwyane Wade show off their Miami Heat uniforms at a joint interview in September. After the end of the 2009–10 season, free-agent players Bosh and James left their respective teams in order to join forces with Wade in Miami.

Wilfredo Lee/AP

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Duke University’s Kyle Singler takes a shot during the men’s NCAA basketball final against Butler University on April 5. Singler, the Most Outstanding Player of the Final Four, scored 19 points and nine rebounds in the championship game as Duke narrowly defeated Butler 61–59 for the title. Rich Clarkson—NCAA Photos/AP

(35–5) did not have any of the superstars that it had on its previous championship teams, the number oneseeded Blue Devils had a relatively easy route to the regional championship game, a tough match against Baylor. After Butler edged out Michigan State 52–50 in the first game of the Final Four, Duke overwhelmed Big East champion West Virginia 78–57. Going into the 2010 women’s NCAA championship game against Stanford University on April 6 in San Antonio, Texas, the University of Connecticut had won 77 consecutive games, including a 90–50 rout of Florida State in the regional final and a 70–50 drubbing of Baylor in its first game of the Final Four. So dominant was coach Geno Auriemma’s team that not a single one of those 77 games had been decided by fewer than 10 points. Thus, it shocked everyone when UConn trailed Stanford at halftime with a score of 20–12, but in the second half the remarkable UConn recovered to win 53–47. The victory brought Connecticut (39–0) its seventh NCAA title, one shy of

Sports and Games: Bobsleigh, Skeleton, and Luge

Tennessee’s record eight. Stanford (36–2) won every game that it played all season except against the Connecticut Huskies, who had beaten the Cardinal in the regular season before their faceoff in the championship game. UConn star Maya Moore had 18 of her 23 points against Stanford in the second half. Moore, a junior who added Most Outstanding Player to her second consecutive Wade Trophy as the women’s college basketball player of the year, was set to return in 2010–11 for her senior year as UConn defended another national title and tried to improve on its 78-game winning streak. Legendary coach and player John Wooden died in June. (See (DICK JERARDI) OBITUARIES.) International. The U.S. men’s and women’s international teams both regained the Fédération Internationale de Basketball (FIBA) world championship titles in 2010 by beating the host countries in their respective tournaments. With the two victories, the U.S. qualified for both the men’s and the women’s competitions at the 2012 London Olympic Games. The American men retained head coach Mike Krzyzewski, who guided them to the gold medal at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, but they took a new squad of 12 players to the 2010 world championships in Turkey. The 12 newcomers swept unbeaten through the tournament. Kevin Durant scored 33 points in the 89–79 U.S. victory over Russia in the quarterfinals, and his 38 points underpinned an 89–74 win over Lithuania in the semifinals to earn the U.S. its first gold medal game in the world championships since 1994. The hugely patriotic Turkish crowd lifted the national team from a slow start to overwhelm Slovenia 95–68 in the quarterfinals and reach its first-ever world championship semifinal. Down 82–81 against Serbia with 4.3 seconds on the clock, the Turks lost their inbounds ball, but Karem Tunceri reacted quickest to grab possession and laid up with half a second to play for a win that guaranteed Turkey’s first medal in the event. In the final in Istanbul on September 12, the U.S. claimed the gold with ease, winning 81–64 against Turkish players who appeared drained by their desperate semifinal victory over Serbia. Durant, with 28, was again the top scorer. Lithuania defeated Serbia 99–88 to finish third. At the women’s world championship, held in the Czech Republic, the U.S., defeated by Russia in the semifinal in 2006, was rarely even threatened. The unbeaten American women, led by head

coach Geno Auriemma, scored more than 100 points in four of their nine games, including a 106–44 thrashing of South Korea in the quarterfinals and a 106–70 victory over Spain in the semifinals. In the final in Karlovy Vary on October 3, the U.S. overpowered the Czech Republic 89–69. Spain topped Belarus 77–68 for the bronze medal. (RICHARD TAYLOR)

BOBSLEIGH, SKELETON, AND LUGE Bobsleigh. American bobsleigh pilot Steven Holcomb’s consistent driving throughout the 2009–10 World Cup season, in which he collected seven medals, earned both the four-man and the combined World Cup season titles. Janis Minins of Latvia and Germany’s André Lange finished second and third in the four-man rankings, respectively. Ivo Rüegg of Switzerland captured the two-man season title and was second in the combined with seven World Cup medals. Holcomb also drove USA1 to victory in the four-man event at the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver, the first U.S. Olympic gold in four-man since 1948. Lange finished second behind Holcomb and took gold in the two-man event. After having finished second in the World Cup two-man rankings and third in the combined rankings, Thomas Florschütz of Germany won the silver in the Olympic two-man event. Sandra Kiriasis of Germany won her eighth World Cup season title with

podium finishes in six of eight World Cup races, but she finished fourth at the Olympics. Canadian Kaillie Humphries won gold in her Olympic debut, with the fastest times in the first three heats. Fellow Canadian Helen Upperton took the silver ahead of American bronzemedalist Erin Pac. Humphries also finished second overall in the World Cup season rankings. Skeleton. Martins Dukurs of Latvia slid to the top of the 2009–10 skeleton World Cup standings by finishing on the podium in seven of eight races. Dukurs also won silver at the Vancouver Winter Olympics. German sliders Frank Rommel and Sandro Stielicke finished in second and third place, respectively, in the overall World Cup rankings. The Olympic gold medal went to Jon Montgomery of Canada, with Russia’s Aleksandr Tretyakov earning the bronze. Canadian Mellisa Hollingsworth, who missed the medal stand in only one World Cup race, secured the overall title, but she failed to medal in Vancouver. The top Olympic honour went to British slider Amy Williams, who was followed by two Germans, Kerstin Szymkowiak and Anja Huber. Shelley Rudman of Great Britain was second in the overall World Cup rankings, with Szymkowiak third. (JULIE PARRY) Luge. Germany finished one-two-three in the 2009–10 women’s luge World Cup standings as Tatjana Hüfner (see BIOGRAPHIES ), en route to her third straight overall title, Natalie Geisen-

At the Vancouver Olympic Winter Games in February, German bobsleigh pilot André Lange (right) and brakeman Kevin Kuske celebrate their second consecutive Olympic gold medal in the men’s two-man bobsleigh.

Michael Sohn/AP

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Sports and Games: Boxing Mathieu Belanger—Reuters/Landov

berger, and Anke Wischnewski swept the podium in four races. On the men’s side, Armin Zöggeler of Italy earned his eighth title and fifth in a row, with Russian Albert Demchenko and Germany’s Felix Loch also on the overall podium. André Florschütz and Torsten Wustlich of Germany raced to doubles gold in the standings, finishing in the top two in five out of eight races. Germany’s Patric Leitner and Alexander Resch took the doubles silver, followed by Italians Christian Oberstolz and Patrick Gruber. At the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver, Hüfner followed up her World Cup title with an Olympic gold, bettering her bronze from Turin, Italy, in 2006. Austria’s Nina Reithmayer and Geisenberger raced to the silver and bronze, respectively. Loch won the men’s Olympic gold. His teammate David Möller took the silver, and two-time Olympic champion Zöggeler settled for the bronze. Austrian brothers Wolfgang and Andreas Linger repeated as Olympic doubles champions, ahead of Latvian siblings Andris and Juris Sics, with Leitner and Resch capturing the bronze. Following the death in Vancouver of Georgian slider Nodar Kumaritashvili, who was killed in a crash during training, an additional wall was added, the ice profile was changed, and all lugers took off from a lower start on the track. Men began from the women’s start, and women and doubles raced from the junior’s start. (JANELE M. MAREK)

BOXING The failure in 2010 to make a match between Manny Pacquiao (Philippines) and Floyd Mayweather, Jr. (U.S.), widely considered the two best boxers in the world, was a major disappointment that deprived the sport of what could have been the richest fight in boxing history. Mayweather fought just once in 2010, winning a 12-round decision on May 1 over Shane Mosley (U.S.) in front of a crowd of 15,117 fans at MGM Grand in Las Vegas. According to HBO cable TV network, the welterweight bout sold approximately 1.4 million pay-per-view packages, generating some $78 million in TV revenue. Despite the financial success of the bout and considerable public interest in Mayweather’s fighting Pacquiao next, negotiations broke down. Moreover, the likelihood of a Pacquiao-Mayweather match in the foreseeable future was significantly damaged when on September 10 a warrant for Mayweather’s arrest was issued, stemming from an alleged altercation 306

In December, 45-year-old American Bernard Hopkins (left) batters 28-year-old Jean Pascal of Canada, the WBC and Ring magazine light heavyweight champion, in an attempt to become the oldest boxer to win a major title. Pascal narrowly retained his titles in a majority draw. between the boxer and the mother of three of his children that occurred at Mayweather’s Las Vegas home. Pacquiao, meanwhile, went from one success to another. He won a 12-round decision on March 13 over welterweight contender Joshua Clottey (Ghana) at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas. Although Clottey was not a particularly well-known fighter, the bout, which was sanctioned by the little-regarded World Boxing Organization, attracted a reported 50,994 fans and sold approximately 700,000 payper-view packages. Immediately upon his return to the Philippines, Pacquiao launched a political campaign for a seat in the Philippines House of Representatives, which he won by getting almost twice as many votes as his opponent. He took the oath of office on June 28, but he showed no desire to announce his retirement from the ring. Pacquiao returned to Cowboys Stadium on November 13 for a WBC junior-middleweight title match against Antonio Margarito (Mexico), a larger man who outweighed Pacquiao by 5½ lb at the official weigh-in but had a 17lb weight advantage in the ring after re-hydrating overnight. Although Pacquiao won a unanimous decision and the title by scores of 120–108, 119–109, and 118–110, it was a grueling fight. Margarito’s right eye was so badly damaged that he was taken to the hospital, where he underwent surgery to repair a fractured orbital bone. Attendance for the Pacquiao-Margarito fight was 41,734, significantly less than the Pacquiao-Clottey fight at the same venue. The pay-per-view was much larger, however, with approximately 1.1

million pay-per-view packages sold, generating about $64 million. While the heavyweight division remained moribund in the U.S., the Ukrainian brothers Wladimir and Vitali Klitschko continued to be major attractions in Germany, where they scheduled their respective bouts. Wladimir, the holder of The Ring magazine and International Boxing Federation (IBF) titles, pounded out a methodical 12th-round knockout of Eddie Chambers (U.S.) on March 20 before a sold-out crowd of 51,000 fans at the ESPRIT arena in Düsseldorf. In his next defense, on September 11, Wladimir stopped Samuel Peter (Nigeria) in the 10th round at the Commerzbank Arena in Frankfurt. Older brother Vitali made two successful defenses of the WBC title, starting with a 10th-round knockout of Albert Sosnowski of Poland on May 29 in Gelsenkirchen. Sosnowski gave a plucky effort but was eventually worn down and stopped by the larger, stronger titleholder, much to the delight of approximately 50,000 spectators at the Veltins Arena. Vitali defended the title again on October 16 against Shannon Briggs (U.S.) in Hamburg. Vitali handed out such a one-sided beating en route to a 12-round decision victory that the 38year-old Briggs went to the hospital after suffering a broken left orbital bone, a broken nose, and torn left biceps, which necessitated surgery. While German fans and television networks were happy to pay handsomely to watch the Klitschko brothers easily defeat a string of woeful challengers, the heavyweight bout the rest of the world sought was between either of the brothers and WBA titleholder

Sports and Games: Cricket

David Haye (U.K.). After protracted negotiations to arrange a match with one of the Klitschkos were unsuccessful, Haye tallied a ninth-round knockout of former WBA titlist John Ruiz (P.R.) on April 3 in Manchester, Eng. Then, on November 13, in front of a sold-out crowd of 20,000 fans at the MEN Arena in Manchester, Haye scored a thirdround knockout of former Olympic gold medalist Audley Harrison (U.K.). Light heavyweight Jean Pascal (Canada) won the vacant Ring championship and defended the WBC light heavyweight title on August 14 in Montreal, beating previously undefeated Chad Dawson (U.S.) via an 11th-round technical decision. In his next fight, Pascal was challenged by former middleweight and light heavyweight champion Bernard Hopkins (U.S.), who at 45 was attempting to become the oldest man to win a major boxing title. The match, which took place on December 18 in front of a capacity crowd of more than 16,000 fans at the Pepsi Coliseum in Quebec City, ended in a controversial 12-round draw that allowed Pascal to retain his titles. Pascal scored knockdowns in the first and third rounds, but Hopkins rallied strongly, taking the steam out of Pascal with a steady body attack and generally outworking the 28year-old Canadian. One judge voted for Hopkins, but the other two saw it even, making it a majority draw. Sergio Martínez (Argentina) captured The Ring and WBC middleweight titles on April 17, winning a unanimous 12round decision over Kelly Pavlik (U.S.) in Atlantic City, N.J. Martínez reinforced his position as middleweight champion on November 20 with a spectacular second-round one-punch knockout of Paul Williams (U.S.) in Atlantic City. Juan Manuel Márquez (Mexico) maintained his status as the best lightweight by making two successful defenses of The Ring and WBA lightweight titles in Las Vegas. On July 31 he won a 12-round decision over Juan Diaz (U.S.), and on November 27 he scored a 9th-round technical knockout of Michael Katsidis (Australia) in one of the year’s most exciting fights. (NIGEL COLLINS)

CRICKET The 2009–10 cricket season—a year in which India asserted its domination of Test and one-day cricket, England won its first international One-day trophy, and Australia continued to struggle—was overshadowed by new allegations of “spot fixing” involving three

Pakistan players. During the final Test of the English summer, at Lord’s Cricket Ground in August 2010, a tabloid newspaper claimed that two Pakistan bowlers, Mohammad Amir and Mohammad Asif, had been paid to bowl no-balls to order, potentially the source of huge profits in the illegal Asian betting markets. Video evidence produced by an undercover reporter showed a middle man, Mazhar Majeed, receiving £150,000 (about $231,000) in cash to ensure that three no-balls were bowled at prearranged moments in the match. One no-ball bowled by Amir was so pronounced that it was remarked on by the television commentators at the time. (Amir, one of the rising stars of Pakistan cricket, had rarely bowled no balls in the past.) The new Pakistan captain, Salman Butt, was also implicated in the scandal and, along with Amir and Asif, was later suspended by the International Cricket Council (ICC), pending internal and criminal investigations. Pakistan cricket had been bedeviled by rumours of match fixing in recent years, with several players having been suspended by the Pakistan Cricket Board, but the idea of “spot fixing” highlighted the murky world of illegal bookmaking in South Asia and opened up a new set of troubles for the game’s authorities. Pakistan players, who were less well rewarded than many other international stars and more subject to threats, were obvious targets for unscrupulous gamblers and bookmakers who could make huge profits from knowing the outcome of certain balls, individual scores, or patterns of play. “Spot fixing” was a much easier way of making money than fixing whole matches, which had been at the root of a bookmaking scandal involving Johannes (“Hansie”) Cronje of South Africa a decade earlier. Already unable to play international matches in their home country because of the threat of terrorism, Pakistan’s players arrived in England in July to face Australia in the first “neutral” series since 1912. Inspired by Amir, a leftarm swing bowler of precocious talent, Pakistan’s victory over Australia in the second of two Tests and a spirited comeback in the subsequent tour against England—though the Test series was lost 3–1—seemed to herald a bright new age for Pakistan cricket. By the end of the tour, however, Pakistan’s cricketers were once again regarded as the pariahs of the international game. Trouble also hit the Indian Premier

League (IPL) when Lalit Modi, the driving force behind the glitzy Twenty20 tournament, was charged with corruption over the allocation of new IPL franchises, a scandal that also forced the resignation of an Indian government minister. Just minutes after the Chennai Super Kings won their second consecutive IPL trophy, Modi was suspended by the Board of Control for Cricket in India, which ran the competition. When two teams, the Rajasthan Royals (the inaugural winners in 2008) and the Kings XI Punjab, were thrown out of the league for financial irregularities, the whole future of the IPL, which had turned the top players into multimillionaires almost overnight, was under threat. On the field, India maintained its position as the number one Test team in the world with victories over Sri Lanka and Bangladesh and a hard-fought drawn series against South Africa. Twenty-one years after he made his Test debut as a 16-year-old, Sachin Tendulkar enjoyed one of the finest years of his career, scoring two centuries against South Africa and, in the oneday series, becoming the first player in history to record a double century in a 50-over match. Tendulkar was also the leading scorer in the IPL, with 618 runs. Surprisingly, India failed in the Twenty20 world cup held in the West Indies, which was won by England, led by captain Paul Collingwood. England beat Australia in the final to win its first international one-day trophy. The early stages of the tournament were notable for the spirited displays of a team hailing from Afghanistan, whose players learned cricket in the refugee camps on the Pakistan border, using shoes for stumps and balls made out of cloth. In the Test match arena, England also enjoyed a good year, managing a draw with South Africa and beating Pakistan and Bangladesh twice each. Graeme Swann, an off-spinner who developed into a proven match winner for England, was the leading wicket taker in the series in South Africa, with 21 wickets (average 31.38); South Africa’s fast-bowling pair of Dale Steyn and Morne Morkel took 34 wickets between them for the home side. Having twice held out for draws with only one wicket left and having won the second Test by an innings, England held its lead until the final Test in Johannesburg, when a century by captain Graeme Smith set up South Africa’s victory. At the insistence of the ICC, the series again featured the controversial system of refer307

Sports and Games: Curling

ral that gave both sides three chances each innings to refer on-field decisions to a TV umpire, but neither side seemed comfortable with the results. Australia beat New Zealand by three runs to win the second women’s Twenty20 world cup, held in parallel with the men’s tournament in the West Indies. The year also saw the retirement of Sri Lankan spin bowler Muttiah Muralitharan, who, with the final ball of his 133rd and final Test, took his 800th Test wicket on his home ground in Galle. His great spin rival, Australian Shane Warne, who retired from Test cricket in 2007 with a then record 708 wickets, said Murali’s total would never be beaten. (ANDREW LONGMORE)

ter a minute trace of the substance was found in a test taken on July 21, three days before the race’s finish in Paris. Contador, winner of the race in 2007 and 2009, took the leader’s yellow jersey from Schleck on the 187.5-km (about 116-mi) 15th stage in the Pyrenees after his rival lost time through a mechanical problem when attacking on the final climb of the day. Seven-time winner Lance Armstrong of the U.S., who returned to action in 2009 after a fouryear retirement, finished 23rd overall. Ivan Basso, who served a two-year doping suspension after his victory in the 2006 race, won his native Giro CYCLING d’Italia (Tour of Italy) for the second The subject of doping continued to time, with an advantage of 1 min 51 sec dominate competitive cycling in 2010, over second-place David Arroyo of especially with the news that Alberto Spain. Six different riders wore the CURLING Contador, the winner of the sport’s pre- leader’s jersey before Basso moved Canada, led by skip Kevin Martin, mier event, the Tour de France, had ahead after the 19th of the 21 stages. won the men’s curling gold medal at tested positive for the banned steroid One of those six, Italy’s Vincenzo Nithe 2010 Olympic Winter Games in clenbuterol during the three-week 20- bali, finished third and then went on to Vancouver with a 6–3 victory over Nor- stage, 3,642-km (about 2,263-mi) race. victory in the Vuelta a España (Tour of way’s Thomas Ulsrud in the final. Swe- The Spanish rider, who had a winning Spain). den’s Anette Norberg, who captured margin of 39 sec over Andy Schleck of Thor Hushovd became Norway’s first the women’s gold medal at the 2006 Luxembourg, was provisionally sus- winner of the men’s elite road race tiTurin (Italy) Winter Olympics, de- pended by the sport’s governing body, tle at the UCI world road championfended her crown by stealing a point in the Union Cycliste Internationale ships, which were jointly hosted by an extra end against Canada’s Cheryl (UCI), pending further investigation af- Melbourne and Geelong, Australia. Bernard for a 7–6 victory. SwitHushovd prevailed in a sprint zerland’s Markus Eggler and Italian cyclist Ivan Basso, sporting the overall between 18 surviving contenders China’s Wang Bingyu earned the leader’s pink jersey, heads the pack through the after 257.2 km (about 160 mi) of Olympic men’s and women’s Italian Alps on May 29 during the penultimate stage racing. Fabian Cancellara of bronze medals, respectively. Switzerland won a record fourth of the 21-stage Giro d’Italia (Tour of Italy). Basso, Canada also won the 2010 the victor in 2006, won the race for the second time men’s time trial title. men’s world curling champi- after having served a two-year doping suspension. At the UCI world track championship in Cortina d’Ampezzo, onships, held in March in BalItaly, with Kevin Koe beating lerup, Den., Australia topped the Norway’s Torger Nergard 9–3. standings with six gold medals, Scotland’s Warwick Smith took including the 500-m women’s the bronze. Germany’s Andrea team sprint, in which Kaarle McSchöpp secured her second Culloch and Anna Meares set a women’s world title 22 years afnew world record of 32.923 sec. ter she captured her first, deBritain’s Victoria Pendleton capfeating Scotland’s Eve Muirhead tured her fifth women’s sprint ti8–6 in the final in Swift Current, tle. Although Australia won the Sask. The bronze went to Jenwomen’s 3,000-m team pursuit, nifer Jones of Canada. the New Zealand trio of Rushlee At the world senior and mixed Buchanan, Lauren Ellis, and Alidoubles championships held in son Shanks broke the world Chelyabinsk, Russia, Paul Pustorecord with a time of 3 min var of the U.S. gained the men’s 21.552 sec to beat the U.S. in the title with a 4–3 victory over ride-off for third place. Two Canada’s Bruce Delaney. The months later Americans Dotsie women’s title went to Canada Bausch, Sarah Hammer, and when Colleen Pinkney doubled Lauren Tamayo improved the Switzerland’s Renate Nedkoff record to 3 min 19.569 sec at the 8–4. Australia’s Hugh Millikin Pan American Championships in took the men’s bronze medal, Aguascalientes, Mex., just one with Ingrid Meldahl of Sweden day after Hammer had lowered earning the women’s. The host the individual record for the discountry won the mixed gold as tance to 3 min 22.269 sec. Russians Petr Don and Yana (JOHN R. WILKINSON) Nekrosova defeated New Zealand siblings Sean Becker and Bridget Becker 9–7 in the final. Zhang Zhipeng and Sun Yue of China finished third. Sweden’s Anna Hasselborg earned the world women’s junior title in Flims, Switz., where the Swedes beat Canada’s Rachel Homan 8–3 in the final. The junior men’s title went to Switzerland’s Peter de Cruz, who edged Scotland’s Ally Fraser 7–6. Canada’s Jake Walker and Alexandra Carlson of the U.S. were the respective junior men’s and women’s bronze medalists. (DONNA SPENCER)

Carlo Ferraro—EPA/Landov

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Sports and Games: Equestrian Sports Morry Gash/AP

EQUESTRIAN SPORTS Thoroughbred Racing. United States. As the 2010 American Thoroughbred racing season came to an end, Zenyatta, in losing the 20th and final race of her career in a quest to retire undefeated, proved that perfection was not a requisite for greatness. The mighty mare’s patented stretch kick, an irresistible force in 19 starts over four years, was withstood for the first time in the defense of her title in the Breeders’ Cup Classic on November 6 at historic Churchill Downs, Louisville, Ky. Despite a late charge by Zenyatta, under jockey Mike Smith, four-year-old Blame, ridden by Garrett Gomez, held her off by a head. A year earlier Zenyatta had become the first female Thoroughbred in the 26-year history of the Classic to emerge victorious, the highlight of a campaign that earned her a second consecutive Eclipse Award as champion older mare. Zenyatta would certainly go down as one of the greatest Thoroughbreds in history, with 13 Grade I stake victories and career earnings of $7,304,580, which made her the all-time leader among females with at least one start in North America. The six-year-old Zenyatta was retired at season’s end and sent to Lane’s End Farm near Versailles, Ky., where she would be bred in 2011. On May 1 Calvin Borel, at the age of 44, became the first jockey to win the Kentucky Derby three times in four years when he guided Super Saver to a 2½-length triumph over a sloppy track in the 136th running of the fabled “Run for the Roses” at Churchill Downs. The charismatic Borel, who had won the 1¼-mi classic in 2007 aboard Street Sense and in 2009 with Mine That Bird, was tied for fourth on the list of alltime winningest Kentucky Derby jockeys, behind the legendary Eddie Arcaro and Bill Hartack (five wins each) and Bill Shoemaker (four). The drought of American Triple Crown champions continued for a record 32 years when two weeks later at Pimlico racetrack in Baltimore, Md., Super Saver finished eighth in a field of 12 horses in the Preakness Stakes, which was won by Lookin At Lucky and jockey Martin Garcia. Lookin At Lucky gave trainer Bob Baffert his fifth career triumph in the second jewel of American Thoroughbred racing’s Triple Crown. The 2010 spring classic season proved anticlimactic when neither Super Saver nor Lookin At Lucky was entered in the Belmont Stakes on June 5. The 1½-mi “Test of the Champion” went to

Zenyatta (8), ridden by Mike Smith, comes up short in her final race as Blame, with Garrett Gomez aboard, holds her off by a head in the Breeders’ Cup Classic on November 6. It was the six-year-old mare’s only loss in a 20-race career. Drosselmeyer, with Smith aboard, in a 13–1 upset. Rachel Alexandra—whose highly anticipated match race against Zenyatta for a proposed $5 million purse in the Apple Blossom Invitational Stakes at Oaklawn Park, Hot Springs, Ark., never materialized—was retired in September following a disappointing 2010 campaign. The four-year-old filly was never able to recapture the magic she had displayed as a three-year-old, when her eight victories in an undefeated 2009 campaign included Grade I stakes wins over male horses in the Preakness, Haskell Invitational, and Woodward Stakes. The racing industry was shaken when New York City Off-Track Betting Corp. was shut down on December 7. Earlier that day the New York state Senate had rejected a plan to rescue the multimillion-dollar operation, which had been operating under Chapter 9 bankruptcy protection since December 2009. A groundbreaking ceremony was held October 28 for a “racino” operation at New York City’s Aqueduct Race Track. The first 1,600 video lottery terminals were scheduled to be in operation by May 2011. The facility, called Resorts World New York, was expected to generate more than $650 million in gross gaming revenue when it became fully operational. In the wake of persistent drainage problems with two different synthetic track installations since 2007, Santa Anita Park, Arcadia, Calif., reverted to a traditional dirt track for its 2010–11 racing season.

Hall of Fame jockey John Sellers died on July 2 at age 72. Between 1955 and 1977 Sellers had won 2,797 races and purses totaling nearly $18 million, but he was best known as the regular rider of Carry Back, on which he won the Kentucky Derby and Preakness Stakes in 1961. (JOHN G. BROKOPP) International. Meydan, one of the world’s most ambitious Thoroughbred racecourse projects, opened on schedule in Dubai, U.A.E., on Jan. 28, 2010. With a grandstand accommodating 60,000 and incorporating a five-star hotel with 290 rooms, the enterprise had been completed in less than 10 months on the site of Nad al-Sheba racecourse. The introduction of Tapeta, an artificial racing surface developed by the Maryland-based former trainer Michael Dickinson, was the most controversial innovation. Tapeta was reported to offer the closest experience to racing on turf. As such, there were claims that it prejudiced the chances of North American runners more familiar with traditional dirt tracks. Tapeta was also blamed for some surprise results, notably in the Dubai World Cup, which was captured by Brazilian-bred French-trained Gloria de Campeao. Nine rivals were within three lengths of the seven-year-old winner in the tightest of finishes. On World Cup day, 9 North American horses contested five races, compared with 12 horses in 2009. Significantly, the winner of the Golden Shaheen sprint race, Kinsale King, was trained on Tapeta at Golden Gate Fields, Berkeley, Calif., 309

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one of two tracks in the U.S. that had installed the surface. Kinsale King went on to contest two races in England. He finished 3rd behind Coolmore’s Australian sprinter Starspangledbanner in the Group 1 Golden Jubilee Stakes at Royal Ascot but 12th behind the same horse in the July Cup at Newmarket. Johnny Murtagh, who rode Starspangledbanner in both victories, resigned as Coolmore jockey in November. He had held the post for three years. Trainer Aidan O’Brien saddled the first three finishers in the Irish Derby. Cape Blanco, which won, gave O’Brien his eighth success in the race since 1997. Cape Blanco beat Workforce in the Group 2 Dante Stakes, but Workforce went on to give Sir Michael Stoute his fifth training success in the Epsom Derby and his first in the Prix de l’Arc de Triomphe. Workforce ran fifth behind another Stoute horse, Harbinger, in the King George VI & Queen Elizabeth Stakes. Harbinger, which won the race by 11 lengths over Cape Blanco, suffered a career-ending injury 13 days later. Richard Hannon beat Stoute and O’Brien to be champion trainer on earnings in Britain for the third time. Hannon sent out 214 winners, three fewer than the leader, Mark Johnston. O’Brien topped both categories in Ireland, where he had been champion trainer every year since 1995. Pat Smullen won his sixth Irish jockeys’ championship, and Paul Hanagan won his first British title. André Fabre, champion trainer in France every year from 1987 to 2007, regained his title, and Ioritz Mendizabal was France’s leading jockey for the fourth time. Alain de Royer-Dupre, who had deprived Fabre of the top spot in 2008, became the first French trainer to claim the Melbourne Cup. His winner, Americain, was gaining his fifth consecutive success—three in France and two in Australia. So You Think, the local Australian champion and Cup favourite, built a sequence of four Group 1 victories in six weeks, including his second straight Cox Plate, before finishing third behind Americain. Descarado won the Caulfield Cup, in which neither Americain nor So You Think was entered. Goldikova equaled Miesque’s European record when she gained her 10th Group 1 success at Deauville on August 1. The French mare made it a total of 12 Group 1 victories in November when she won her third consecutive 310

Breeders’ Cup Mile. Just a few days later Goldikova was named European Horse of the Year in the Cartier Racing Awards. Freddie Head, who rode Miesque to all 10 victories, was Goldikova’s trainer. Olivier Peslier rode her in all 21 career starts, of which she won 15. Special Duty completed a rare double. She finished second in the English 1,000 Guineas and in its French equivalent, the Poule d’Essai des Pouliches. On each occasion, however, the threeyear-old filly was awarded the race because of interference in running. Criquette Head-Maarek, her trainer, was the sister of Goldikova’s trainer. Eamon Tyrrell and Jason Behan, an Irish trainer and jockey, respectively, were banned for three years from October 6 for “deliberately preventing a horse from winning” in connection with the running of Casela Park, Newcastle, Eng., on August 4. It was the first suspension for stopping a horse in Britain since 1991. Tyrrell’s appeal was pending at year’s end. In Canada, Ontario-bred Big Red Mike powered to victory in the 151st Queen’s Plate, the first leg of the Canadian Triple Crown, as Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II sat in attendance. Golden Moka, a Panamanian horse making his North American debut, took the Prince of Wales Stakes, with favourite Big Red Mike finishing third. Neither horse ran in the Breeders’ Stakes, which was won by 65–1 longshot Miami Deco. (ROBERT W. CARTER) Harness Racing. Rock N Roll Heaven vaulted to the top of North American harness racing in the fall of 2010 as he charged to victories in major pacing events, including the Little Brown Jug on September 23, the Breeders Crown on October 9, and the Tattersalls Pace on October 23. Rock N Roll Heaven had problems early in June. In a race on a foggy night in Ontario, he was pacing for the lead on the backstretch when an electric timer flashed the half-mile time brightly through the fog. The colt spooked, turned abruptly to the right, and made a circle before driver Daniel Dube could bring him under control. Rock N Roll Heaven finished the race well behind, and the judges then ruled that he had to demonstrate his manners in a nonpurse race. This disrupted his preparation for the $1,455,000 North America Cup, in which he was fourth behind Sportswriter. After he finished second to One More Laugh in the $1 million Meadowlands Pace in July, Rock N Roll Heaven went on a winning

streak, gaining recognition as the year’s best horse in the sport. Earlier in the year Shark Gesture had been ranked number one. The veteran pacer was retired for breeding purposes in 2007 after three seasons of racing, but he failed to get ample patronage as a stallion and was returned to the track. Shark Gesture earned $1,853,890 in 2009 and 2010 to bring his career earnings to just over $2.8 million. He placed first or second in his first 10 starts of 2010, with 7 victories. Later in the year, however, an old injury reappeared and forced his retirement, and Rock was given his chance to shine. Muscle Massive won the Hambletonian Trot at the Meadowlands on August 7, defeating his rival Lucky Chucky. Muscle Massive’s come-from-behind victory was overshadowed by concerns about the future of harness racing’s flagship track, which had been owned and operated by New Jersey. A government report advocated ending state support of the track, setting off protests from the horse community and prompting plans for private operation of the track, which had hosted many major harness races since it opened in 1976, including the annual Meadowlands Pace. After having won the 2010 Meadowlands Pace, One More Laugh, a gelding guided by young driving ace Tim Tetrick, triumphed in the Cane Pace on September 6 at the Freehold Raceway. In European racing Oyonnax scored a major upset in late January in the Prix d’Amerique, the world’s most spectacular trotting event. Eighteen horses, starting without assigned post positions, raced 2,700 m (about 15/8 mi) over a track with both uphill and downhill sections. Oyonnax and driver Sébastien Ernault, sent off by bettors at odds of 172–1, defeated Quaker Jet (104–1) in a tight finish. Favourite Meaulnes du Corta, the 10-year-old defending champion, was third. In May six-year-old Swedish trotter Iceland scored an upset in the Elitlopp at the Solvalla Racecourse in Stockholm. Sixteen of the world’s best trotters started in two elimination heats, with the top four finishers returning for the final. Ilaria Jet won the first heat over Triton Sund and Nu Pagadi; defending champion Torvald Palema defeated the German entrant Brioni and Iceland in the second heat. Swedish driver Örjan Kihlström, who had driven both Triton Sund and Iceland in their elimination heats, drove Triton Sund in the final. Iceland was driven to victory by Johnny Takter.

Sports and Games: Football Martin Meissner/AP

In Australia, Blacks A Fake won the prestigious Inter Dominion Pacing Final for a record fourth time, prompting horsemen to search for superlatives to describe his career. Driver Natalie Rasmussen said simply, “He is just the best.” In beating the best pacers from Australia and New Zealand, Blacks A Fake pushed his earnings past A$4 million (about U.S.$3.9 million). (DEAN A. HOFFMAN) Steeplechasing. Kauto Star won the 2010 King George VI Chase by 36 lengths, the fourth consecutive time that the 10-year-old horse had captured that race. He also was the hot favourite to claim his third Cheltenham Gold Cup but fell four fences from the finish, and Imperial Commander was left to take the Cup, finishing seven lengths ahead of the 2008 winner, Denman. Paul Nicholls, who handled both Kauto Star and Denman, was champion trainer for the fifth time, while Denman’s jockey, A.P. (“Tony”) McCoy, won his 15th jockeys’ championship. McCoy steered Don’t Push It to victory in the Grand National, a first success for the jockey in his 15th attempt. Ruby Walsh, who was Kauto Star’s regular rider, was Irish champion for the seventh time. In Ireland Walsh rode primarily for trainer Willie Mullins, who sent out a record 146 winners in the 2009–10 season. Polar Rochelais was a surprise victor of the Grand Steeple-Chase de Paris. (ROBERT W. CARTER)

FOOTBALL Association Football (Soccer). Europe. European countries dominated the FIFA World Cup finals in South Africa during the summer of 2010. (See Sidebar.) Spain defeated the Netherlands 1–0 in the final on July 11 with an overtime goal in the 116th minute from Andrés Iniesta. Germany defeated Uruguay 3–2 in the match for third place. The incident in the first knockout round when the England team, playing against Germany, was denied an obvious goal reinforced the argument for introducing technology to the game to settle such goal-line disputes. UEFA, the sport’s European governing body, had already experimented in its new Europa League with an extra official behind each bye-line, as both UEFA and FIFA were reluctant to continue trials involving a microchip in the ball itself and a computerized sensor on the goal line. In the wake of the World Cup, there were two notable casualties among Europe’s coaches. Significantly, it con-

Spain’s Andrés Iniesta (in navy blue) kicks the winning goal past Rafael van der Vaart of the Netherlands to secure Spain’s 1–0 victory in the FIFA World Cup final match in Johannesburg on July 11. cerned the 2006 finalists, Italy and France, neither of which made it out of the group stage in 2010. Italian manager Marcello Lippi announced his intention of resigning his post, and French coach Raymond Domenech was dismissed and replaced by Laurent Blanc, a former international player. The French squad revolted in South Africa and refused to train after French striker Nicolas Anelka was expelled from the tournament. As a punishment, several players, including Anelka, were suspended in August, and the entire 23man squad was excluded from being on the roster for France’s next match, played that month in Norway. UEFA was also active in the disciplinary area. The FYR Macedonia club FK Pobeda was banned for eight years for match fixing, the case dating back to a Champions League fixture with FC Pyunik of Armenia in 2004. The Pobeda president was banned for life from participating in any football capacity. In addition, the Spanish club RCD Mallorca was prevented from taking part in the UEFA Europa League in 2010–11 for having failed to comply with license regulations. Spain’s hope of winning the Champions League in 2010 was dashed in the semifinal when Milan’s Internazionale defeated the favoured Barcelona with a shrewd tactical plan devised by the Italian club’s Portuguese coach José Mourinho, who had led Portugal’s FC Porto to the Champions League title in 2004.

On May 22 a crowd of 73,710 in the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium, the home field of Real Madrid, and an estimated TV audience of 36,949,000—including, for the first time, viewers from the U.S. on a national terrestrial network—watched Inter and Germany’s Bayern Munich play the first Champions League final to be scheduled on a Saturday. Overall viewing figures were down nearly 20% from the previous year. Bayern was expected to take the initiative from the kickoff, but Internazionale’s response was not as well defined, given the tactical genius of Mourinho. In fact, the pattern of play was soon evident, as Inter was content to concede territory and rely on counterattacking. It was Bayern that came closest to opening the score. Only quick reaction by Inter’s Argentine defender Walter Samuel snuffed out the threat from forward Ivica Olic of Croatia. Dutch midfielder Arjen Robben on the right flank was a danger to the Italian team with his strength in possession and continual movement inside, but once Inter detailed two players to track him, the problem lessened. After 35 minutes Inter scored. As Brazilian goalkeeper Júlio César cleared up field, Diego Milito headed on to his Dutch teammate Wesley Sneijder, who returned the ball perfectly in Milito’s path for the Argentine striker to clip the ball over the advancing Bayern goalkeeper, Jörg Butt. Sneijder might have added to the score but instead hit a free kick straight at 311

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FIFA World Cup 2010 On July 11, 2010, a crowd of 84,490 spectators at the Soccer City Stadium in Johannesburg and an estimated television audience of 700 million association football (soccer) fans watched Spain beat the Netherlands 1–0 in the Fédération Internationale de Football (FIFA) World Cup final, the first staged on the African continent. The match was marred by a series of foul tackles chiefly by an overly aggressive Dutch team and frustrated retaliation by Spain, whose normal passing game was frequently interrupted. English referee Howard Webb struggled to control the match, showing 14 yellow cards plus one red to the Dutch defender Johnny Heitinga. The overtime goal came in the 116th minute when Cesc Fàbregas seized on a slip by Rafael van der Vaart to find Andrés Iniesta, who hit a rightfoot shot from close range. It was Spain’s first World Cup triumph and unique for a European country playing outside that continent. Spain weaved neat, attractive midfield patterns when allowed to do so, with Xavi (Xavier Hernández) ever the architect. Lone striker David Villa was isolated, which suited the Netherlands, using limited possession to launch swift counterattacks.With few real scoring chances around, Arjen Robben of the Netherlands, unmarked in the penalty area, chose to place rather than bury his shot. Spain’s goalkeeper Iker Casillas dived the wrong way, but the ball struck his right leg. Crowds averaged 49,670 per game despite poor corporate ticket sales. Amid colourful settings, fans trumpeted a cacophony of noise from the ever-present vuvuzelas (horns). Group play saw the shocking elimination of defending 2006 champion Italy and runner-up France. South Africa became the first World Cup host not to Butt, one of only five Germans on the Bayern side. (There were no Italian players in Inter’s starting 11.) The second half mirrored much of the first, and Bayern patiently kept the same formation, though having to channel its attacks from other areas rather than relying on Robben. In the 70th minute, Inter added its second goal, with Cameroonian forward Samuel Eto’o feeding Milito, who turned his Belgian defender Daniel Van Buyten and made it 2–0. Nine days after clinching a unique treble for an Italian club—winning the Serie A, Coppa Italia, and Champions League titles—Mourinho signed a contract to coach Real Madrid. He also ended the season with the unusual statistic of having completed 136 home matches without defeat as a coach with three clubs (Porto, England’s Chelsea, and Internazionale) in eight years. After the Europa League final in Hamburg on May 12, there was another coaching departure. Roy Hodgson left Fulham FC for another England team, Liverpool, after Fulham’s 2–1 defeat by Atlético de Madrid in the first title game of the revamped tournament (previously the UEFA Cup). With limited previous experience in 312

progress, as only Ghana of the African teams qualified. A spirited U.S. topped its group, while New Zealand retired unbeaten with three ties. South American teams began well, but Argentina was beaten 4–0 by a fast-raiding Germany in the quarterfinals. Brazil and Paraguay also lost in the quarterfinal round, leaving just Uruguay—led by Diego Forlán (see BIOGRAPHIES), the eventual Golden Ball winner as the tournament’s best player—to advance to the semifinals, where it fell to the Netherlands 3–2 before losing by the same score to Germany in the match for third place. Surprisingly, there was minimal contribution from such stars as the world’s most expensive player, Cristiano Ronaldo of Portugal, Spain’s Fernando Torres, Kaká (Ricardo Izecson dos Santos Leite) of Brazil, Wayne Rooney of England, and the reigning FIFA Player of the Year, Argentina’s Lionel Messi. Germany’s Thomas Müller, age 20, won the Golden Boot as the top scorer, with five goals and three assists. Controversy surrounded a disallowed England goal against Germany in the round of 16: video replays showed that the ball had crossed over the line and prompted calls for the use of goal-line technology. The Jabulani ball used in the tournament also caused problems in flight, especially to goalkeepers. Spain’s 1–0 win over Germany in their semifinal provided the best technical exhibition. Although Portugal scored seven goals against North Korea, the average was only 2.27, even lower than the 2.30 in 2006. Overall, fewer cautions were issued. There were 254 yellow and 17 red. (JACK ROLLIN)

European competitions, Fulham battled through 19 matches to reach the final, where Atlético quickly put pressure on the Fulham defense. The Spanish side might have opened the scoring as early as the 12th minute, but an effort by Uruguayan international Diego Forlán (see BIOGRAPHIES) struck an upright. Atlético went ahead 20 minutes later when Sergio Agüero of Argentina took advantage of a defensive error, and though he miscued his shot, the ball fell to Forlán, who racked up the goal. The lead lasted just five minutes before Welshman Simon Davies equalized the score from a centre by Hungarian international Zoltan Gera. Fulham gained confidence from this goal and came more into contention early in the second half, when only a smart reaction by the Atlético goalkeeper, Spaniard David de Gea, prevented Davies from adding to his score. The London club replaced English forward Bobby Zamora with Clint Dempsey, who thus became the first American player to appear in a major European final. There was no further score until overtime, when in the dying moments Agüero caught defender Chris Baird of Northern Ireland off balance and slipped the

ball to Forlán, who with the lightest of touches diverted it into the goal past Fulham’s Australian goalkeeper, Mark Schwarzer. Leading the summer spending spree among English clubs was Manchester City, which spent >154 million (>1 = about $1.25) on seven new players while unloading the Brazilian international Robinho to AC Milan. When the 2010–11 season kicked off, it was estimated that the 20 English Premier League clubs’ starting lineups represented a market value of >1.2 billion. Meanwhile, Barcelona paid Valencia >40 million for Spain’s World Cup star, David Villa. In a move to curb the spiral of trading fees and foreign imports, the Premier League introduced a limit of 25 players per squad, 8 of whom were required to have been brought up through clubs’ youth programs, but with no limit on players under age 21. Europe’s Golden Boot winner was Lionel Messi, the Argentine international playing for Barcelona. He scored 34 goals during the season. Luis Suárez, the Uruguayan striker with Ajax of Amsterdam, had 35, but because of the lower rating of the Dutch Eredivisie, he did not qualify.

Sports and Games: Football

In domestic competition, FC Santa Coloma in Andorra was unbeaten in 20 league matches; Partizan Belgrade did even better in Serbia, with 30 games without a defeat. Botev Plovdiv just survived in Bulgaria’s First Division until the winter break because of serious financial problems, and its remaining fixtures were awarded 0–3 to the opposing teams. In Croatia there was a strict scrutiny of clubs promoted to the top level to gauge their viability. In Ireland, Cork City was relegated for having become insolvent. (JACK ROLLIN) The Americas. At the 2010 FIFA association football (soccer) World Cup finals in South Africa, Uruguay was defeated by Germany in the battle for third place, despite a strong game from Diego Forlán. (See BIOGRAPHIES.) Mexico lost in the round of 16, while Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay fell in the quarterfinals. (See Sidebar.) Argentine and Brazilian clubs shared the international honours in South America. In the year’s only meeting between South America’s biggest national rivals, Argentina gained a rare victory (1–0) over Brazil. Brazilian club Internacional of Porto Alegre won the Libertadores Cup for the second time, beating Mexico’s Chivas of Guadalajara 5–3 on aggregate over home and away legs. In the South American Cup final, Argentina’s Independiente beat Brazil’s Goiás on penalties after a 3–3 aggregate score. Brazil dominated women’s football, winning the South American championship, while Santos FC retained the women’s Libertadores Cup. Liga Deportiva Universitaria (LDU) of Quito stayed in the international limelight, the first club from Ecuador to do so. As the 2009 South American Cup champion, it retained the Recopa (played annually between the Libertadores and the South American Cup winners from the previous year) by beating Argentina’s Estudiantes de La Plata on a 2–1 aggregate. LDU was arguably the best team in the 2010 South American Cup again, but it had to play four matches in the week of the semifinals and was beaten by Independiente. LDU also won Ecuador’s domestic championship. Rio de Janeiro’s Fluminense won the national championship in Brazil after almost being relegated the previous year. In Argentina traditional big clubs and title winners were again eclipsed, with Argentinos Juniors winning the 2009–10 season’s closing championship and Estudiantes the 2010–11 opening championship.

The CONCACAF (Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football) Champions Cup had an all-Mexican final for the fourth time in five years; Pachuca beat Cruz Azul by scoring more goals away from home in the 2–2 aggregate. Monterrey and Toluca won the Mexican opening and closing tournaments, respectively. In the U.S. the Colorado Rapids won the franchise’s first Major League Soccer title, and the Seattle Sounders retained the U.S. Open Cup. (ERIC WEIL) Africa and Asia. Six African (Algeria, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and South Africa) and three Asian (Japan, North Korea, and South Korea) teams participated in the monthlong FIFA World Cup finals held in South Africa in 2010. (See Sidebar.) South Korea and Ghana made it out of the group stage, with the latter reaching the quarterfinals, where it lost to Uruguay. Ghana striker Asamoah Gyan, a standout with his physical presence and willingness to shoot on sight, was the pick of the African players in the tournament. In August Gyan was traded by his French club, Rennes, to Sunderland in the English Premier League for >16 million (about $20.4 million). Ghana’s assembly line of talent had already been underlined in 2009 when its team won the FIFA Under-20 World Cup title, defeating Brazil 4–3 in a shoot-out after a 0–0 draw. In the 2010 Ghana Premier League championship, the newly promoted Aduana Stars achieved a unique success as the first newcomers to win the title. That team also did so after having scored just 19 goals in 30 games and conceding 10. Aduana finished level with Ashanti Gold (with 53 points) but won and drew, respectively, its two matches against that rival. The Saudi Arabia Premier League champion was Al-Hilal (The Crescent) with its 12th such title, taking its number of trophies to some 50. Despite its success, the club had had 16 different coaches during the past 10 years. (JACK ROLLIN) U.S. Football. College. Auburn—and Heisman Trophy-winning quarterback Cam Newton—defeated Oregon 22–19 in the 2010–11 Bowl Championship Series (BCS) championship game on Jan. 10, 2011, in Glendale, Ariz. Newton passed for 265 yd and two touchdowns while also rushing for 64 yd, but true freshman running back Michael Dyer stole the show and was named the game’s offensive Most Outstanding Player, with 143 rushing yards for Auburn’s Southeastern Conference

(SEC) champion Tigers. Dyer completed a memorable 37-yd rush on the final drive, continuing to run even after most of the players on the field believed that he was down by contact although the officials had not whistled the play dead. Newton and Dyer then combined to reach Oregon’s one-yard line and set up Wes Byrum’s winning field goal just as time expired. Auburn (14–0) became national champion for the first time since 1957 with its win over the Pacific-10 champion Ducks (12–1) to leave the SEC on top for the fifth straight year. The Rose Bowl saw Texas Christian University (TCU) follow up its second straight unbeaten regular season with a 21–19 win over Big Ten cochampion Wisconsin (11–2). The Mountain West Conference champion TCU Horned Frogs (13–0) earned their first BCS victory. Ohio State (12–1), which shared the Big Ten title, won 31–26 over Arkansas (10–3) in the Sugar Bowl for its second straight BCS bowl victory. Five Buckeyes, including game MVP Terrelle Pryor, were allowed to play in Auburn University quarterback and 2010 Heisman Trophy winner Cam Newton bounds out of reach of an attempted tackle by South Carolina’s Akeem Auguste in the Southeastern Conference championship game on December 4.

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the bowl despite having been suspended for five games by the NCAA for selling memorabilia and getting discounts on tattoos. (They would have to serve the suspensions during the 2011–12 season.) The Orange Bowl pitted Pac-10 runner-up Stanford (12–1) against Atlantic Coast Conference champion Virginia Tech (11–3), and the Cardinal came away with a 40–12 rout of the Hokies as Stanford’s Heisman Trophy runner-up Andrew Luck completed 18 of 23 passes for 287 yd and four touchdowns. In the Fiesta Bowl, Big 12 champion Oklahoma (12–2) ended a string of five straight BCS bowl losses with a 48–20 drubbing of Big East champion Connecticut (8–5). Penn State coach Joe Paterno scored his 400th career victory in November, a Division 1 record. At the end of the season, however, the college-football coaching carousel was again prevalent. Among the changes, Michigan fired Rich Rodriguez after going 15–22 in three seasons. Rodriguez’s last game was a 52–14 loss to Mississippi State in the Gator Bowl, the Wolverines’ worst bowl defeat in their storied history. Florida’s Urban Meyer resigned in December 2009 and then decided to return, but the two-time national champion coach again called it quits after beating Paterno’s Nittany Lions 37–24 in the Outback Bowl to cap a 64–15 record in six seasons with the Gators. In addition to the Heisman, Newton won the Maxwell Award for most outstanding player, the Walter Camp Player of the Year Award, and the Davey O’Brien National Quarterback Award. Hawaii’s Bryant Moniz led the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) with 5,040 passing yards and 39 touchdown throws. LaMichael James of Oregon, who finished third in the Heisman Trophy voting, won the Doak Walker Award for top running back after having finished first in the FBS with 1,731 yd rushing and second with 21 touchdowns on the ground behind the 22 amassed by Chad Spann of Northern Illinois. Oklahoma State’s Justin Blackmon won the Fred Biletnikoff Award for most outstanding wide receiver, with 111 catches for 1,782 yd and an FBSbest 20 touchdowns. Greg Salas of Hawaii topped the country with 1,889 yd receiving, while Oklahoma’s Ryan Broyles finished first in the nation with 131 receptions. Louisiana State’s Patrick Peterson won both the Chuck Bednarik Award for defensive player of the year and the Jim Thorpe Award for most outstanding defensive back. 314

Da’Quan Bowers of Clemson took the Bronko Nagurski Trophy for defensive player of the year and the Ted Hendricks Award for defensive end of the year. Professional. The NFC New Orleans Saints defeated the AFC Indianapolis Colts 31–17 in Super Bowl XLIV in Miami on Feb. 7, 2010, winning their firstever NFL championship. Quarterback Drew Brees (see BIOGRAPHIES) captured the Super Bowl MVP award after completing a Super Bowl record-tying 32 of 39 passes for 288 yd and two touchdowns while not throwing one interception. New Orleans went 11–5 in the 2010–11 season and reached the playoffs as a wild card facing the NFC West champion Seattle Seahawks (7–9), who became the first team to finish with a losing record and still earn a play-off spot. Indianapolis (10–6) won the AFC South for the seventh time in eight seasons and headed to the opening round of the play-offs against another wildcard team, the sixth-seeded New York Jets (11–5), who were out to avenge their loss to the Colts in the 2009–10 AFC championship game. The New England Patriots (14–2) finished with the best record in the NFL and won the AFC East for the seventh time in eight seasons behind the play of quarterback Tom Brady, who threw a league-high 36 touchdowns to just four interceptions. The Pittsburgh Steelers and the Baltimore Ravens each posted the next-best record in the NFL at 12–4, but the Steelers won the AFC North over the Ravens with a tiebreaker. The Kansas City Chiefs (10–6) won the AFC West for the first time since 2003 and were set to square off against Baltimore in the wild-card round. The Atlanta Falcons (13–3) finished with the top record in the NFC and won that conference’s South Division for the first time since 2004. The Chicago Bears (11–5) won the NFC North to reach the postseason for the first time since losing 29–17 to Indianapolis in Super Bowl XLI in February 2007. They finished one game better in the division than the wild-card Green Bay Packers (10–6), who were scheduled to face the NFC East champion Philadelphia Eagles (10–6) in the first round of the play-offs. Other clubs had disappointing seasons—none more than the Minnesota Vikings (6–10). Minnesota had lost to New Orleans in the 2009–10 NFC championship game, but with quarterback Brett Favre returning, the Vikings had their sights set on a Super Bowl

appearance. Things did not go as planned, however, as Minnesota started 3–7 and fired coach Brad Childress. Favre endured the worst statistical season of his 20-year career, suffered a shoulder injury that ended his NFLrecord consecutive-start streak at 297 games, missed the last two games with a concussion, and was fined $50,000 by the NFL for his lack of cooperation in its investigation into allegations that he sent inappropriate text messages and photos to former Jets in-game host Jenn Sterger in 2008 when both were with the organization. Favre, who had flirted with retirement numerous times, said that the 2010–11 season would be his last. He would leave the league with three MVP awards, two Super Bowl appearances—one a championship—and NFL records that included victories by a starting quarterback (186), yards passing (71,838), completions (6,300), and touchdown passes (508). Childress, who was replaced by defensive coordinator Leslie Frazier, was not the only NFL coach to lose his job in the 2010–11 season. The Dallas Cowboys (6–10) fired Wade Phillips after opening 1–7 and gave the job to offensive coordinator Jason Garrett. The San Francisco 49ers (6–10) let Mike Singletary go before the final game of the season. The Carolina Panthers had the worst record in the NFL (2–14) and at season’s end fired John Fox, the franchise’s winningest coach, who had led the Panthers to their only Super Bowl appearance after the 2003 season. The Denver Broncos (4–12) got rid of Josh McDaniels following a 3–9 start. Also let go were Eric Mangini of the Cleveland Browns (5–11) and Tom Cable of the Oakland Raiders (8–8). (PAUL DIGIACOMO) Canadian Football. The Montreal Alouettes won the Canadian Football League (CFL) championship for the second straight season over the Saskatchewan Roughriders by posting a 21–18 Grey Cup victory on Nov. 28, 2010, at Commonwealth Stadium in Edmonton, Alta. The game was attended by 63,317 fans—a record for the contest when held in Edmonton and fifth largest in Grey Cup history. Quarterback Anthony Calvillo led Montreal to its third title in nine years as he completed 29 of 42 passes for 336 yd. His biggest completion was to receiver Jamel Richardson, whose 37-yd reception in the fourth quarter set up running back Avon Cobourne’s second rushing touchdown of the day, which gave the Alouettes a 21–11 lead. Richardson was named MVP after catching eight passes for 109

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yd. Saskatchewan defensive lineman Keith Shologan, who registered two quarterback sacks, was honoured as the Most Valuable Canadian. Montreal (12–6) topped the CFL’s East Division and thrashed the Toronto Argonauts (9–9) by a score of 48–17 in the Playoffs Finals to qualify for the Grey Cup. Saskatchewan (10–8) reached the Grey Cup with a 41–38 overtime win against the B.C. Lions (8–10) in the Playoffs Semi-Finals and a 20–16 victory over the West Division champion Calgary Stampeders (13–5) in the other Playoff Final. Calgary quarterback Henry Burris won his first regular-season Most Outstanding Player Award after throwing for 4,945 yd and a league-leading 38 touchdowns to end Calvillo’s two-year reign as the CFL’s top player. The Stampeders also boasted the Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman in Ben Archibald. The Most Outstanding Canadian was receiver Andy Fantuz of Saskatchewan. (PAUL DIGIACOMO) Australian Football. Collingwood smashed a 20-year drought on Oct. 2, 2010, when it comprehensively defeated St. Kilda by 52 points in the Australian Football League (AFL) Grand Final Replay at the Melbourne Cricket Ground after a thrilling draw in the Grand Final on September 25. A total of 193,869 people watched the two matches— 100,016 at the Grand Final and 93,853 at the Replay. Collingwood went into the finals as the solid favourite after a powerful 22-game home-and-away series that saw the Magpies finish at the head of the standings. Collingwood had a reputation of failing in big finals, however, and those fears flared when the St. Kilda Saints came from behind to draw the first Grand Final 9.14 (68)–10.8 (68). St. Kilda’s Lenny Hayes won the Norm Smith Medal as the game’s best player. The following Saturday Collingwood kept St. Kilda to only one goal to halftime and had the match well in its grasp by three-quarter time before powering to a 16.12 (108)–7.10 (52) victory. This time the Norm Smith Medal went to Collingwood’s Scott Pendlebury. The Brownlow Medal for the homeand-away season’s best and fairest player was awarded to Carlton’s Chris Judd. Richmond’s Jack Riewoldt, with 78 goals, received the Coleman Medal as the season’s leading goalkicker (in home-and-away rounds). The Leigh Matthews Trophy, the AFL Players’ Association MVP Award, went to Collingwood’s Dane Swan. Daniel Hannebery of the Sydney Swans earned the Rising

Star Award for the best young player, and Hawthorn’s Luke Hodge was named All-Australian captain. (GREG HOBBS) Rugby Football. After a stunning 2010 season, New Zealand’s All Blacks were confirmed as the best Rugby Union side in the world, and they would undoubtedly go into the 2011 Rugby Union World Cup as the red-hot favourites. Under the International Rugby Board’s (IRB’s) Coach of the Year, Graham Henry, the All Blacks lost only one of 14 Tests in 2010, and that one was to Australia in Hong Kong after New Zealand had already been crowned Tri-Nations champion for the 10th time. New Zealand completed the first Tri-Nations Grand Slam (winning every match) since the competition was enlarged in 2006 to six matches per team. New Zealand also beat England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland on the team’s November tour as the All Blacks swept the U.K. and Ireland unbeaten for the fourth time in the side’s history, more times than any other country. Meanwhile, Dan Carter became the world’s highest Test match scorer, when he racked up 12 points against Wales in New Zealand’s final game of the year, taking him to 1,188 points in 79 Tests, nudging ahead of England’s Jonny Wilkinson (1,178 points). New Zealand’s Tri-Nations rivals, Australia and South Africa, also were expected to be formidable opponents at the World Cup. Australia saved the best until last in 2010, scoring an incredible 46 unanswered points against France in the second half of the Wallabies’ final Test of the year to win 59–16 in Paris. South Africa also finished the season on a high with a 21–11 win over England at Twickenham Stadium in London. France claimed its ninth Six Nations Grand Slam. French teams also dominated the Heineken Cup as Toulouse won the tournament for the fourth time, beating Biarritz 21–19, in the final in Paris. Only one English team, Northampton, made the quarterfinals. South Africa continued its domination of the Super 14 tournament in the last season before the Melbourne Rebels were set to join the competition. In an all-South Africa final, the Pretoria-based Bulls beat the Cape Townbased Stormers 25–17. Morne Steyn of the Bulls ended the competition as the leading scorer, with 263 points, an incredible 92 points ahead of the Reds goalkicker Quade Cooper. Leicester became English champions for the ninth time, beating Saracens with the final

move of the match in the Guinness Premiership final. New Zealand retained the Women’s Rugby Union World Cup, beating host England 13–10 in the final on September 5 in front of a crowd of 13,000 spectators at the Twickenham Stoop outside London. In rugby sevens New Zealand captured the gold medal at the Commonwealth Games, but it was Samoa’s turn to take centre stage with its first IRB Sevens World Series crown. Rugby lost a number of favourite sons in 2010, most notably legendary Scottish commentator Bill McLaren, who was the BBC’s “voice of rugby” for nearly 50 years. Other deaths included South African Ruben Kruger from the 1995 World Cup-winning side and mercurial English player Andy Ripley. (PAUL MORGAN)

GOLF In 2010 three of the four major golf championships were captured by players who had never before tasted such success. It was a terrible year, however, for Eldrick (“Tiger”) Woods, the most recognizable figure in the sport. With 14 major championships to his name, 10 more than any of his contemporaries and only 4 short of the all-time record held by fellow American Jack Nicklaus, Woods had dominated golf for more than a decade, but in 2010 he struggled with personal and professional setbacks. After having admitted in 2009 to multiple marital infidelities, which resulted in the loss of a number of lucrative sponsorship contracts and a subsequent divorce from his Swedish wife after less than six years of marriage, Woods missed the first three months of the 2010 season. On his return he failed to add to his collection of majors for the second successive year, was part of a losing U.S. Ryder Cup side, went through the entire year without a victory, and saw his record reign of almost 5½ years as the world number one golfer ended by England’s Lee Westwood. Another American, Phil Mickelson (see BIOGRAPHIES), was expected to replace Woods at the top of the rankings, but while that accomplishment eluded the left-hander, he did have the satisfaction of achieving his third victory in seven years in the Masters Tournament at the Augusta (Ga.) National Golf Club in April. It was an emotional triumph with his wife, who recently had been undergoing treatment for breast cancer, waiting to greet him by the final green 315

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after he beat Westwood by three ing two lengthy rain delays—Mcstrokes with a 16-under-par total Dowell beat Hunter Mahan in of 272. One particular shot at the the final singles game for a long 13th hole, played off pine 14½–13½ home victory. straw through a gap in the trees Mahan, in tears after bogeying and then over Rae’s Creek 180 m the penultimate hole, had been (about 197 yd) away to within all smiles in August when he 1.5 m (about 5 ft) of the flag, landed his first World Golf would live long in the spectators’ Championships (WGC) title at memories. In his first appearthe Bridgestone Invitational in ance of the year, Woods finished Akron, Ohio. The other WGC in a tie for fourth place. events went to England’s Ian Northern Ireland’s Graeme McPoulter (Accenture Match Play), Dowell was not certain of his South African Ernie Els (CA place in the U.S. Open, held at Championship), and Italian Pebble Beach, Calif., in late June, Francesco Molinari (HSBC until less than a month beforeChampions). hand when he held on to a place The richest single prize of the in the world’s top-50 rankings by PGA season went to American 0.05 point. The confidence that Jim Furyk, whose victory in the he took from winning the EuroTour Championship at East Lake pean Tour’s Celtic Manor Wales in Atlanta gave him the $10 milOpen early that month, however, lion FedExCup play-off bonus— served the 30-year-old McDowell an unexpected achievement for well. With Woods finishing in ansomeone who had been disqualiother tie for fourth place, Mc- American golfer Dustin Johnson hits the ball out of fied from the first leg of the fourDowell was the one to take ad- a bunker on the final hole of the PGA tournament series after his alarm vantage of American Dustin championship in August. Johnson missed a play-off did not go off and he missed a teeJohnson, who led by three when he received a two-stroke penalty for off time. The bonus did not count strokes after three rounds before grounding his club in the bunker, although he toward the PGA Tour money list, crashing to a closing-round 82. complained that the actions of spectators made it however, and it was Ryder Cup McDowell shot only 74 himself impossible for him to recognize the area as such. teammate Matt Kuchar who finon the final day, but with a levelished as number one with par aggregate of 284, he nar$4,910,477. The European Tour’s rowly defeated France’s Gregory Havret failure at the U.S. Open. He reached the number one player was Kaymer with by one stroke. final tee with a one-shot lead, and after £3,806,024 (about $6 million). South African Louis Oosthuizen was bogeying the hole he finished with an On the Ladies’ Professional Golf Asranked 54th in the world entering the 11-under-par 277 to slip into a play-off sociation (LPGA) Tour, newly married British Open championship, played in with compatriot Bubba Watson and Lorena Ochoa of Mexico announced July on the Old Course at St. Andrews, Germany’s Martin Kaymer. PGA offi- that she was retiring from the game at Scot., on the 150th anniversary of the cials imposed a two-stroke penalty on the age of 28 after a three-year reign at first staging of golf’s oldest major. In Johnson, however, for grounding his the top of the world rankings. Her final eight previous major starts, he had club in what was deemed a bunker. major was in early April at the Kraft missed the cut seven times and had fin- Johnson proclaimed that he thought it Nabisco Championship in Rancho Miished last on the other occasion, yet was merely “a piece of dirt,” given that rage, Calif., where she finished in only once since 1913 had his seven- spectators had been walking through it fourth place five shots behind Taiwan’s stroke margin of victory at St. Andrews all day, but his bogey five became a Yani Tseng. The 21-year-old Tseng, who been bettered. First-day honours be- seven, and Kaymer defeated Watson had captured the LPGA Championship longed to 21-year-old Rory McIlroy of over three extra holes to become only in 2008, went on to add the British Northern Ireland, with a major record- the second German golfer to win a ma- Open at Royal Birkdale, Eng.—it made equaling score of 63. He followed up jor. (Bernhard Langer triumphed in the her the youngest woman golfer to have the next day with an 80 in strong winds, Masters in 1985 and 1993.) won three majors. American Cristie however, as Oosthuizen produced a 67 For the first time in his career, Woods Kerr had a record 12-stroke victory in to be five clear at the halfway point. did not qualify automatically for the the LPGA Championship at Locust Hill The South African was never seriously Ryder Cup, held October 1–3 at Celtic in Pittsford, N.Y., and compatriot Paula threatened after that and secured his Manor, Wales. There was even debate Creamer finally broke through with a win with a 16-under-par total of 272. over whether he should be given a wild four-shot triumph in the U.S. Women’s Westwood again finished runner-up, card in view of not only his form but Open in Oakmont, Pa. In Ochoa’s abdespite a torn calf muscle, an injury also the fact that the U.S. had won back sence the number one spot was held in that flared up again a month later and the trophy from Europe while he was turn by Shin Jiyai of South Korea, led to his withdrawal from the Profes- out injured in 2008. U.S. team captain Japan’s Ai Miyazato, and Kerr, all of sional Golfers’ Association (PGA) cham- Corey Pavin did select him, and Woods whom had at least two spells at the top pionship at Whistling Straits in Kohler, won three points out of four to be joint during the season. The LPGA’s top Wis. In Westwood’s absence Johnson top-scorer, but it was not enough. In a earner, though, was another South Kohad a chance to make amends for his dramatic climax—on a Monday follow- rean, Choi Na-Yeon, with $1,871,166. 316

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In amateur golf the world team championships were held in Argentina in October. France claimed the men’s Eisenhower Trophy over Denmark and the U.S. A week earlier South Korea had captured the women’s Espirito Santo Trophy over the second-place U.S. by an astonishing 17-stroke margin. American Peter Uihlein won the U.S. men’s amateur championship, and the British amateur title went to South Korea’s Jeong Jin. They both qualified for the Masters, where Jeong’s predecessor as amateur champion, Matteo Manassero of Italy, just prior to his 17th birthday, became the youngest player ever to make the halfway cut. In October Manassero’s victory at the Castello Masters in Spain made him the youngest winner in European Tour history. American Danielle Kang, the 17-year-old U.S. women’s amateur champion, qualified for and made the cut in the U.S. Women’s Open. Kelly Tidy became the first English winner of the ladies British amateur title since Rebecca Hudson in 2002. (MARK GARROD)

GYMNASTICS At the 2010 artistic gymnastics world championships, held in October in Rotterdam, Neth., China earned the most medals—nine, including four gold. The U.S. and Russia each secured six medals (one gold and two gold, respectively), while Japan took four medals (one gold). In a dramatic finish to the women’s team finals competition, Russia came

out on top, scoring 175.397 points to take its first world team title in women’s gymnastics. The U.S., the defending champion, finished a close second with a score of 175.196, and China, the 2008 Olympic champion, was third with 174.781 points. Newcomer Aliya Mustafina of Russia easily triumphed in the women’s all-around competition; China’s Jiang Yuyan earned the silver, and American Rebecca Bross, who had taken second at the 2009 world championships, got the bronze. In the women’s apparatus finals, American Alicia Sacramone prevailed in the vault ahead of Mustafina and Brazil’s Jade Fernandes Barbosa. Britain’s Elizabeth Tweddle won the uneven bars title, followed by Mustafina and Bross. Romania’s Ana Porgras defeated defending world champion Deng Linlin of China on the balance beam, and Bross and Deng tied for the silver. The floor exercise title went to Australia’s Lauren Mitchell, and Mustafina and Romania’s Diana Maria Chelaru finished in a second-place tie. China continued its dominance in men’s gymnastics, winning the team title with a score of 274.997. Japan was second with 273.769 points, and Germany (271.252) finished third. Kohei Uchimura of Japan defended his allaround title from the 2009 world championships. Germany’s Philipp Boy took the all-around silver, and American Jonathan Horton earned the bronze. Gymnasts from China triumphed in three of the six men’s individual events. Chen Yibing and Yan Mingyong took

Gold medalist Kohei Uchimura of Japan soars above the parallel bars during the men’s individual all-around final at the artistic gymnastics world championships in Rotterdam, Neth., in October.

1–2 in still rings, followed by Italy’s Matteo Morandi. Feng Zhe and Teng Haibin were 1–2 on parallel bars, with Uchimura in third place. Zhang Chenglong won the high bar ahead of Epke Zonderland of the Netherlands and Germany’s Fabian Hambüchen. The floor title went to Greece’s Eleftherios Kosmidis; Uchimura settled for the silver, and Daniel Purvis of the U.K. earned the bronze. Hungary’s Krisztian Berki moved up from his second-place finish in 2009 to secure the pommel horse title, followed by Britain’s Louis Smith and Prashanth Sellathurai of Australia. France’s Thomas Bouhail won gold in the vault, with Russian Anton Golotsutskov and Dzmitry Kaspiarovich of Belarus taking the silver and bronze, respectively. Russia dominated at the rhythmic gymnastics world championships, held in Moscow in September, with 14 medals (8 gold) and the team title. Belarus was second in the team competition, and Azerbaijan finished third. Russian Yevgeniya Kanayeva, who prevailed in all six events in 2009, defended her all-around title and two events, hoop and ball. Russian teammate Dariya Kondakova took second in the all-around final and won the rope title, and Dariya Dmitriyeva of Russia was first in ribbon. Melitina Staniouta of Belarus earned the all-around bronze. (LUAN PESZEK)

ICE HOCKEY North America. The longest championship drought in the NHL came to an end on June 9, 2010, when a dynamic core of young ice hockey players brought Chicago its first Stanley Cup since 1961 in dramatic fashion. In overtime of a thrilling game-six finale against the Philadelphia Flyers, Blackhawks winger Patrick Kane slipped the winner past goaltender Michael Leighton from a bad angle to set off a celebration that had been 49 years in the making. At first Kane, age 21, seemed to be the only person in Philadelphia’s Wachovia Center (now the Wells Fargo Center) that night who knew the puck was in the net—it was lodged, out of sight, under the goal’s padding—but soon the entire team scrambled off the Chicago bench to join in the euphoria. The Blackhawks won the game 4–3 and took the best-ofseven final series in six games. Chicago’s sublimely talented 22-yearold centre Jonathan Toews (see BIOGRAPHIES ), who was the second

Dylan Martinez—Reuters/Landov

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youngest captain to lead his team to a 1998 and Niedermayer in 2004. Also of the champion Blackhawks, as their Stanley Cup, was awarded the Conn among those retiring were forwards general manager. In player movement, Smythe Trophy as the MVP in the post- Keith Tkachuk of St. Louis and Car- the Blackhawks retained their blosseason. Toews had 29 points in 22 play- olina’s Rod Brind’Amour. soming stars but dismantled much of off games. From the moment he and The Hockey Hall of Fame broke new their championship roster owing to Kane entered the league as rookies, ground by including women for the salary-cap concerns. Other off-season joining one of the NHL’s worst teams first time when it announced its induc- dealings included defenseman Sergei for the 2007–08 season, Blackhawk tion class of 2010. Going into the Hall Gonchar’s leaving Pittsburgh to sign management built a strong supporting were American Cammi Granato and with Ottawa, defenseman Anton cast around them. A once-storied fran- Canadian Angela James, once fierce ri- Volchenkov’s jumping from Ottawa to chise that had for years been defined by vals on the ice. Granato played on the New Jersey, and forward Olli Jokinen’s small crowds and civic apathy quickly U.S. national team for 15 years and returning to Calgary after a stint with became a huge success story both on won an Olympic gold medal in 1998. the New York Rangers. High-scoring and off the ice in the Windy City. James was a four-time gold medalist winger Ilya Kovalchuk, the best player The 47 goals scored in the final series for Canada when women were first al- available as a free agent, signed a 17were the most in 30 years and the third lowed to compete in world champi- year, $102 million contract to stay with highest in NHL history, and there was onships in the 1990s but was unex- the New Jersey Devils. After the NHL no shortage of subplots. Winger Marian pectedly excluded from Canada’s 1998 head office rejected the deal on the Hossa, who had just joined Chicago in Olympic ice hockey team. Also going grounds that it circumvented the 2009, finally won his first champi- into the Hall of Fame was Dino Cic- league’s collective bargaining agreeonship after having been on the losing carelli, who scored 608 goals over 19 ment, he signed a restructured 15-year, team’s roster in the previous two finals. NHL seasons before retiring during the $100 million contract. Goaltender Antti Niemi became the 1998–99 season. International. Canadian ice hockey star first Finnish netminder to backstop his Typically, the off-season brought sev- Sidney Crosby elevated himself to nateam to a Stanley Cup, and defenseman eral key moves, including some good tional hero in the gold medal match at Duncan Keith, who lost seven teeth to news for the league’s two franchises the Vancouver Olympic Winter Games an errant shot in the previous round, based in Florida. Tampa Bay hired in February 2010. In a brilliantly played further solidified himself as one of the highly regarded Steve Yzerman away finale to what many called the best ice league’s top defenders. from Detroit to serve as its general hockey tournament ever staged, it was The regular season, in which the manager, while the Florida Panthers in- Crosby who scored the winning goal afWashington Capitals (54–15) were the stalled Dale Tallon, the main architect ter Canada’s championship showdown league’s best team, also showagainst the U.S. careened into cased the talents of one of the overtime. The Canadian team, league’s best young players. Goaltender Jessie Vetter of the U.S. fails to block the shut out of the men’s medals at Tampa Bay’s Steven Stamkos, puck from going into the net as Canadian Mariethe 2006 Games in Turin, Italy, age 20, became the second Philip Poulin scores in the women’s ice hockey final had been under tremendous youngest player to lead the NHL at the Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver. Poulin, pressure to win gold in 2010, esin goals when he tied Pittsburgh aged 18, accounted for both goals in Canada’s 2–0 pecially with the tournament’s star Sidney Crosby with 51. Hen- gold-medal-winning victory over the Americans. being staged on home ice. The rik Sedin, a veteran at 29, betension was palpable when came the first member of the American Zach Parise tied the Vancouver Canucks to lead the game at 2–2 with just 25 seconds league in points, with 112. In a remaining in regulation time. At vote by the media, he was also 7 minutes 40 seconds into extra awarded the Hart Trophy as the time, Crosby took a pass off the regular season’s MVP. Washingboards from teammate Jarome ton’s Alexander Ovechkin won Iginla and fired a shot from a the Ted Lindsay Award—fortough angle that beat U.S. goalmerly the Lester B. Pearson tender Ryan Miller for a Canada Award—as the best player se3–2 win. The standing-roomlected by the players. Buffalo deonly crowd at Vancouver’s fenseman Tyler Myers was Hockey Canada Place erupted in named the top rookie in the euphoric celebration, as did livleague, while teammate Ryan ing rooms and sports bars from Miller was acknowledged as the coast to coast. best goaltender. Capturing the gold medal Two of the greatest defensemen was vindication for goaltender of recent vintage announced Roberto Luongo, who was given their retirement at the end of the the start over the legendary Marseason. Anaheim’s Scott Niedertin Brodeur after Brodeur strugmayer and San Jose’s Rob Blake gled in a 5–3 loss to the Ameristepped aside after a combined cans during the preliminary 38 seasons in the league. Both round. Miller was named the won a Norris Trophy as the Olympics’ top goaltender and NHL’s best defender, Blake in tournament MVP, and fellow Adrian Wyld—Canadian Press/AP

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Sports and Games: Ice Skating Jerry Lampen—Reuters/Landov

American Brian Rafalski got the nod as the top defenseman. Canada’s Jonathan Toews, who later led the Chicago Blackhawks to the NHL championship, was acknowledged as the top forward. In the bronze medal game, Finland battled back from a 3–1 deficit to defeat Slovakia 5–3. Olli Jokinen scored twice in the third period, including the game winner, to pace the Finnish attack. Finland, silver medalist in Turin, was the only country to repeat as a men’s hockey medalist. On the women’s side, Canada defeated the U.S. 2–0 in the final to make it an Olympic gold medal sweep for the host country. Behind a 28-save performance from goaltender Shannon Szabados, Marie-Philip Poulin, age 18, scored both goals for Canada, which had breezed through its three preliminaryround games by a cumulative score of 41–2, an imbalance that caused some to question whether women’s hockey belonged at the Olympics. In the bronze medal game, Karolina Rantamaki scored in overtime to give Finland a 3–2 victory over Sweden. Canadian forward Meghan Agosta was named the tournament MVP, scoring an Olympic record nine goals, a mark matched by Switzerland’s Stefanie Marty. While it was overshadowed by the Winter Olympics, the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) men’s world championship was held in Cologne, Ger., in May. Russia’s push for a third consecutive world title was thwarted by the Czech Republic, which beat Russia 2–1 in the gold medal game, thanks to goals from Jakub Klepis and Tomas Rolinek and an excellent 35-save performance from Czech goaltender Tomas Vokoun. Sweden beat Germany 3–1 to win the bronze medal. German goaltender Dennis Endras was named tournament MVP. At the IIHF under-20 tournament, the Canadians’ dream of a sixth consecutive gold medal fell short as the U.S. beat them 6–5 in an overtime thriller in Saskatoon, Sask., in January. In a gold medal match replete with momentum swings and wild end-to-end action, tournament MVP Jordan Eberle of Canada scored two late goals in regulation time to erase a 5–3 American lead and push the game into extra time. That set the stage for American defenseman John Carlson, who scored his second goal of the game and secured the victory. In another high-scoring contest, Sweden defeated Switzerland 11–4 for the bronze medal. (PAUL HUNTER)

ICE SKATING Figure Skating. The sport of figure skating took centre stage at the Vancouver Olympic Winter Games in February 2010, with South Korea’s Kim Yu-Na putting on one of the best performances of all time to win the ladies’ gold medal and American Evan Lysacek (see BIOGRAPHIES) taking the men’s gold in an upset. Kim amassed an amazing 228.56 points to break her previous world record by more than 18 points and give her country its first Winter Olympics medal in a sport other than speed skating. Kim’s main rival, Mao Asada of Japan, finished 23.06 points behind to claim the silver medal, and Canada’s Joannie Rochette’s courageous skating earned her the bronze just four days after her mother’s death. By beating defending champion Yevgeny Plushchenko of Russia by a mere 1.31 points, Lysacek became the first American man since 1988 to win the Olympic gold medal. Daisuke Takahashi, the first Japanese man to win a figure skating medal at the Olympics, earned the bronze. Ice dancers Tessa Virtue and Scott Moir (see BIOGRAPHIES) took the gold medal in their home country, just the third time since it became an Olympic sport in 1976 that someone other than a Russian or Soviet couple had captured the top prize in ice dance. Meryl Davis and Charlie White of the U.S. earned the silver, and Russians Oksana Domnina and Maksim Shabalin claimed the bronze. After having won the bronze at the previous two Olympics, married couple Shen Xue and Zhao Hongbo took first place in pairs to give China its first gold in figure skating. Their compatriots Pang Qing and Tong Jian earned the silver, and Germany’s Aliona Savchenko and Robin Szolkowy took the bronze. At the International Skating Union (ISU) world figure skating championships in Turin, Italy, about a month after the Olympics, Asada turned the tables to win the women’s title ahead of Kim, with Laura Lepistö taking the bronze to give Finland its first medal for an individual skater at the world level. Takahashi won the men’s gold in front of Canada’s Patrick Chan and 2007 champion Brian Joubert of France. Virtue and Moir earned their first world title in dance as Davis and White finished second and Federica Faiella and Massimo Scali claimed the bronze in their home country. Pang and Tong won the gold in pairs, with Savchenko and Szolkowy taking the sil-

Ice dancer Tessa Virtue gracefully balances on the back of her partner, Scott Moir, in their risky signature lift—“the goose”—during the freedance portion of their competition at the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Games. The Canadian duo became the first non-European couple to win the Olympic gold in ice dancing. ver and Russians Yuko Kavaguti and Aleksandr Smirnov placing third. A month prior to the Olympics, Plushchenko won the men’s gold at the European figure skating championships, held in Tallinn, Est. Two-time world champion Stéphane Lambiel of Switzerland secured the silver, and Joubert took the bronze. Carolina Kostner of Italy finished first on the women’s side, with Lepistö earning the silver medal in front of Elene Gedevanishvili of Georgia. Domnina and Shabalin claimed the gold in ice dance over Faiella and Scali, and Kavaguti and Smirnov beat out Savchenko and Szolkowy to take the top spot in pairs. Speed Skating. American Shani Davis was again the star of the 2009–10 speedskating season, winning the 1,000-m and 1,500-m World Cup titles for the third consecutive season. Davis won all seven 1,000-m World Cup races (Mark Tuitert of the Netherlands was second overall), as well as five of the six 1,500m races to beat out second-place fin319

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isher Håvard Bøkko of Norway. At the Winter Olympics, Davis captured his second straight gold medal in the 1,000 m to join Eric Heiden and Irving Jaffee as the only American men to have won more than one long-track speed-skating gold. Davis then earned the silver behind Tuitert in the 1,500 m, giving him four Olympic medals for his career. Dutch world-record holder Sven Kramer (see BIOGRAPHIES) remained dominant in the 5,000 m and 10,000 m, claiming his fourth straight all-around speed-skating title. A mistake by his coach cost Kramer Olympic gold in the 10,000 m, however, after he had already triumphed in the 5,000 m, and at season’s end Bøkko gained the 5,000 m/10,000 m World Cup title on points after Kramer skated in only four of the six events. Tucker Fredricks of the U.S. won the World Cup season title in the 500 m, with South Korea’s Mo Tae-Bum taking Olympic gold at that distance. On the women’s side, a pair of Canadians continued to dominate in the 1,000- and 1,500-m events. Christine Nesbitt took her second straight 1,000m World Cup title, and Kristina Groves won the 1,500-m crown for the third year in a row. Nesbitt also captured an Olympic gold medal in the 1,000 m, and Groves took a silver in the 1,500 m and a bronze in the 3,000 m. Germany’s Jenny Wolf won her fifth consecutive season title in the 500 m but settled for a silver medal in that distance at the Olympics. Martina Sablikova of the Czech Republic took the 3,000-m/5,000m season title and claimed Olympic gold in those distances, as well as a bronze in the 1,500 m. In short-track speed skating, Chinese women snatched all four of their events at the Olympics, including three gold (500 m, 1,000 m, and 3,000-m relay) for Wang Meng. In the men’s competition, South Korea’s Lee Jung-Su won the 1,000 m and 1,500 m, with Canadian Charles Hamelin securing the 500 m and a share of Canada’s gold medal in the 5,000-m relay. Although American Apolo Anton Ohno failed to earn any gold in Vancouver, his three medals (one silver and two bronze) gave him a record eight career Olympic medals and made him the most decorated American athlete in the history of the Winter Olympics. (PAUL DIGIACOMO)

SAILING (YACHTING) During February 2010 the 33rd America’s Cup finally shifted from a courtroom battle over arcane Deed of Gift 320

The American team BMW Oracle (left) sails the trimaran USA-17 to victory ahead of the Swiss defending champion’s Alinghi 5 during race two of the America’s Cup, held off the coast of Valencia, Spain, in February. Daniel Ochoa de Olza/AP

details to on-the-water multihull yacht racing off the coast of Valencia, Spain. In a highly contested best-of-three series, the American challenger of record, Golden Gate Yacht Club (GGYC), sponsored BMW Oracle Racing’s 27.5-m (90-ft) trimaran USA-17, which dominated the event, defeating Alinghi 5, the entry of the Swiss defender, Société Nautique de Genève, in two straight races. The first race, on February 12, was held on smooth seas. Light sixknot conditions underscored the value of featherweight carbon-fibre hulls and skyscraper spars. USA-17’s 68-m (223ft) wing mast added up to big dividends in boat speed, which at several points in the first race hit 22 knots, despite the fact that the true wind velocity remained in the single digits. The best demonstration of the trimaran’s performance edge came when USA-17, behind at the start, took the lead by the end of the first leg. BMW Oracle Racing’s American crew, under skipper James Spithill, increased their lead in race two, on February 14, and crossed the finish line with a winning margin of 5 min 26 sec. It was the fourth America’s Cup victory for BMW Oracle Racing CEO Russell Coutts, who was the winning skipper in 1995, 2000, and 2003. With victories on both the litigious and sailing sides of the event, the GGYC returned the Cup to the U.S. and initiated plans for the next America’s Cup, to be held in 2013.

Key West Race Week in January once again gave snowbound sailors from colder climes a chance to enjoy the warm waters of the Florida Keys. Among the most competitive in the 11-class regatta were the Division I fleets comprising the IRC-1, Farr 40, IRC-2, and Melges 32 classes. Standouts included Bella Mente’s overall first-place finish in IRC-1, John Kilroy’s victory with Samba Pa Ti in the Melges 32 class, and the Italian entry Joe Fly’s dominating control of the Farr 40 fleet. In Division II, Uka Uka Racing, another Italian entry, nudged ahead of the Swiss team sailing Blu Moon to grab the win in the 21-boat Melges 24 class. The seven-boat multihull class was won by Bob Harkrider and his crew, who sailed a Gulfstream 35 to a perfect score of 10 first-place finishes. After more than a century of biennial Newport–Bermuda Yacht Racing, many felt that the event represented the epitome of efficiently organized yacht racing. In 2010 settled weather with a few errant Gulf Stream squalls spirited 183 competitors along on the 1,023-km (635-mi) sprint. Carina, owned and sailed by Rives Potts and a crew of family and friends, chalked up a substantial overall victory to take the St. David’s Lighthouse Trophy. The 1969 alloy-built 14.6-m (48-ft) McCurdy and Rhodes sloop benefited from a favourable rating under the ORR handicap system, but the ship’s 3-hr 35-min lead over the second-place Sarah demonstrated superior boat handling and decision making by Carina’s all-amateur crew. Capt. Mark Schrader and his crew aboard the S/V Ocean Watch scored a great success with their yearlong Around the Americas research expedition. Setting sail from Seattle on May 31, 2009, the crew voyaged into the icechoked Northwest Passage and exited into storm-force conditions off Greenland. Next, the crew of the 19.5-m (64ft) steel sailboat made their way southward, rounding Cape Horn in January 2010 and arriving back in Seattle on June 17. The voyage included an ongoing Web-based educational program and more than 30 onshore stops to promote environmental ocean awareness. (RALPH NARANJO)

SKIING Alpine Skiing. During the 2009–10 Alpine skiing season, American Lindsey Vonn again showed why she was one of the world’s most dominant athletes as she won her third straight International Ski Federation (FIS) World Cup overall

Sports and Games: Squash Bela Szandelszky/AP

crown as well as two medals—the the U.S. reach the Nordic skiing downhill gold and the supergiant podium for the first time. slalom (super G) bronze—at the Switzerland’s Simon Ammann 2010 Olympic Winter Games in (see BIOGRAPHIES) took the season crown in ski jumping and Vancouver. Vonn edged out Gerboth individual gold medals in many’s Maria Riesch for the secVancouver. ond straight season to become Freestyle Skiing. Anton Kushnir the first American woman—and of Belarus and Li Nina of China the third woman in history—to won, respectively, the men’s and take three consecutive overall tiwomen’s overall and aerials tles. She also won her third World Cup titles in 2010, and straight World Cup downhill title Ophélie David of France won her and second consecutive super G seventh straight women’s season crown while earning her first in title in ski cross. Australia’s Dale super combined, making her the Begg-Smith took the moguls first American to win three World crown for the fourth time in five Cup discipline titles in a single years, but he had to settle for silseason. Overall, Vonn won 11 ver behind Canadian Alexandre World Cup races in 2009–10, thus Bilodeau at the Vancouver breaking her own American Olympics. Switzerland’s Michael record of 9 set the previous seaSchmid won both the men’s season, and surpassed Bode Miller’s son title and the Olympic gold in American mark with her 33rd caski cross. Canada’s Jennifer Heil reer World Cup victory. Vonn actook the season title in moguls complished all these feats despite Gold medalist Maëlle Ricker of Canada charges but was second to American racing with a badly bruised right down the snowboardcross (SBX) course at the Hannah Kearney in Vancouver. shin that almost sidelined her at Vancouver Winter Olympics in February. Ricker Snowboarding. Austria’s Benthe Olympics and despite having also captured the World Cup season title in SBX jamin Karl won the overall suffered a broken finger in a and was the women’s overall World Cup snowboard World Cup snowboarding title in crash at the Games. champion. 2009–10, as well as the season Although Riesch lost again to crown and a silver medal in parVonn for the overall title, she won the slalom season crown for the Miller’s achievement with a gold medal allel at the Vancouver Olympics. Maëlle second consecutive year, as well as in super G, a silver in downhill, and a Ricker of Canada was the women’s Olympic gold medals in slalom and su- bronze in GS. Janka was victorious in overall winner and earned the season per combined. Kathrin Hölzl of Ger- the GS; Italy’s Giuliano Razzoli won the title in snowboardcross (SBX) to go many took the season title in giant slalom; and Didier Defago of Switzer- with her gold medal in Vancouver. The slalom (GS), and compatriot Viktoria land took the gold in downhill. Croatia’s men’s SBX season title went to France’s Rebensburg won the Olympic gold in Ivica Kostelic was a double silver medal- Pierre Vaultier. Justin Lamoureux of Canada won the halfpipe title, and Austhat discipline. Austria’s Andrea Fisch- ist, in slalom and super combined. Nordic Skiing. Petter Northug of Nor- tria’s Stefan Gimpl took the big air bacher struck Olympic gold in super G. Other women who shone in Vancouver way had an impressive 2009–10 cross- crown for the third straight season. were American Julia Mancuso (with sil- country season by winning the overall Nicolien Sauerbreij of the Netherlands ver medals in super combined and Nordic World Cup title as well as the secured the women’s crown and the downhill) and Slovenia’s Tina Maze (sil- distance crown and earning four medals Olympic gold in parallel, and China’s at the Vancouver Winter Olympics. Swe- Cai Xuetong was the season champion ver medals in GS and super G). Carlo Janka (see BIOGRAPHIES) be- den’s Emil Jönssen won the men’s sea- in halfpipe but finished far behind came the first Swiss man to earn the son sprint title. In the women’s field, Torah Bright of Australia at the overall World Cup title since 1992 and Poland’s Justyna Kowalczyk captured Olympics. Only the Americans Shaun the youngest overall champion since the overall and distance titles for the White (halfpipe) and Seth Wescott Norway’s Kjetil André Aamodt, who was second straight season while also taking (SBX) repeated as Olympic snowalso 23 when he took the title in 1994. the crown in sprint and earning three boarding champions after having won Janka finished second for the downhill Olympic medals. Marit Bjørgen of Nor- at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, season title (won by compatriot Didier way finished in second place behind Italy. (PAUL DIGIACOMO) Cuche), as well as for GS (behind Amer- Kowalczyk in all three season disciican Ted Ligety) and super combined plines but earned five medals, including (behind Benjamin Raich of Austria). three gold, in Vancouver, the most of SQUASH It was a strong year for Egyptian Austria’s Reinfried Herbst was the over- any athlete competing there. all slalom champion, and Erik Guay of France’s Jason Lamy Chappuis was squash in 2010 and a great one for Canada took the super G title. At the dominant in Nordic combined, secur- Nicol David of Malaysia and England’s Olympics, Miller, who struggled in 2009, ing the overall World Cup title and the Nick Matthew. Egyptian players swept made a comeback to capture a gold Olympic gold. The Americans had a all before them at the men’s world junmedal in super combined, a silver in su- rare solid performance at the Olympics, ior championship in Quito, Ecuador, per G, and a bronze in downhill. Aksel with Bill Demong and Johnny Spillane taking all three individual medals. Amr Lund Svindal of Norway matched combining for five medals and helping Khaled Khalifa defeated Ali Farag 8–11, 321

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11–9, 12–10, 11–7 for the gold medal, and Marwan El Shorbagy took the bronze. The team title also went to Egypt with a 2–1 final win over defending champion Pakistan; Canada beat England 2–1 to secure the bronze. Matthew, who was briefly world number one earlier in the year, became the first English world champion when he won the men’s World Open, held in early December in Al-Khubar, Saudi Arabia. In the semifinals he upset defending champion Amr Shabana from Egypt before beating countryman James Willstrop 8–11, 11–6, 11–2, 11–3 in the first all-English final. The women’s World Open crown was won by David in Sharm al-Shaykh, Egypt, during her 50th consecutive month as world number one. David beat Egyptian Omneya Abdel Kawy 11–5, 11–8, 11–6 for her record-equaling fifth title. Australia, led by five-time world champion Sarah Fitz-Gerald, upset England 2–1 in the women’s world team final in Palmerston North, N.Z. The women’s world junior individual title went to American Amanda Sobhy, who fended off a challenge from another Egyptian, Nour El Tayeb, in the final in Cologne, Ger. In other major tournaments, David beat England’s Jenny Duncalf to win the individual women’s crown at the Commonwealth Games in Delhi, India; she later added the Asian Games gold in Guangzhou, China, where Hong Kong’s Annie Au was the losing finalist. England’s trio of Matthew, Willstrop, and Peter Barker took the men’s singles gold, silver, and bronze, respectively, in Delhi, and Malaysian Mohamad Azlan Iskandar beat Pakistan’s Aamir Atlas Khan in the men’s final in Guangzhou. (ANDREW SHELLEY)

suits by the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) and the mandatory return to textile suits on Jan. 1, 2010, the orgy of record breaking came to an abrupt end. Four major long-course international meets and the short-course world championships at year’s end provided both the opportunity and the incentive to swim fast in 2010, but for the first time since 1905, not a single longcourse world record was broken. The biennial Pan Pacific championships, held in Irvine, Calif., on August 18–22, turned out to be the fastest meet of the year. It was there that the U.S. reaffirmed its status as the world’s leading swimming power, winning 19 of the 26 Olympic events and all six relays. American friends and rivals Ryan Lochte and Michael Phelps battled to determine the world’s best male swimmer in 2010. Both men were untouchable, but Lochte emerged on top, having won six gold medals to Phelps’s five. Lochte’s most impressive swim was the 200-m individual medley (IM), where his time of 1 min 54.43 sec just missed breaking his own world record. His performance at the Pan Pacs earned Lochte male World Swimmer of the Year honours from Swimming World magazine. American Rebecca Soni appeared to be just as invincible in the women’s breaststroke events, dominating a very strong field with a three gold-medal performance that brought her female World Swimmer of the Year recognition. Two other swimmers swam to impressive double-gold

victories. Japan’s Kosuke Kitajima took the 100- and 200-m breaststroke and clocked the fastest textile times ever: 59.04 sec and 2 min 8.36 sec, respectively. Australian teen Emily Seebohm stroked to victory in both the 100-m backstroke and the 200-m IM. The European championships, held in Budapest on August 9–15, produced five world-leading times for 2010, but one swimmer towered over the tournament—25-year-old “overnight sensation” Camille Lacourt of France. The 2m (6-ft 7-in)-tall Frenchman swam a blistering 52.11 sec in the 100-m backstroke, bettered only by American Aaron Peirsol’s world record of 51.94 sec, set in 2009 in a high-tech suit. Lacourt picked up two additional gold medals, winning the 50-m backstroke in 24.07 sec, just 0.03 sec off the world record, and swimming the leadoff leg on France’s victorious 4 x 100-m medley relay. The European Swimming Federation named Sweden’s Therese Alshammar, age 33, female European Swimmer of the Year after she blazed to victory in the 50-m freestyle and the 50-m butterfly. Lacourt took the corresponding honour for men. Athletes from 71 national teams, most of them representing former British colonies, gathered in New Delhi in October for the quadrennial Commonwealth Games. Historically one of the world’s outstanding international sports events, the 2010 games were likely to be remembered more for their problems than for the athletes’ performances.

Triple gold medalist Camille Lacourt of France pushes off in the men’s 50-m backstroke final at the European swimming championships in Budapest in August. Lacourt’s three gold medals in Budapest—in that race, the 100-m backstroke, and the 4 × 100-m medley relay—helped earn him the title of male European Swimmer of the Year.

SWIMMING There were no new long-course (50m) and only four short-course (25-m) swimming records set in 2010, a huge change from 2009, when long-course world records were broken an astonishing 73 times and short-course marks fell 74 times. The total of 147 world records was, by far, the most ever in one year. With global standards having been lowered on 108 occasions in 2008, world records fell no fewer than 255 times in 23 frantic months, an average of more than once every three days. This was due in large part to the introduction of performance-enhancing high-tech swimsuits in early 2008, but with the subsequent banning of those Michael Sohn/AP

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The Youth Olympic Games of 2010 On Aug. 14, 2010, some 3,600 young athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 gathered in Singapore with family, friends, and officials of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) for the opening ceremony of the inaugural Youth Olympic Games (YOG). By the end of the 12-day Games, teenagers representing 204 National Olympic Committees—from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe—had competed in 201 events in 26 summer Olympic sports: aquatics (swimming and diving), archery, athletics, badminton, basketball (a three-on-three half-court version), boxing, canoe-kayak, cycling, equestrian, fencing, field hockey, association football (soccer), gymnastics (artistic, rhythmic, and trampoline), handball, judo, modern pentathlon, rowing, sailing, shooting, table tennis, taekwondo, tennis, triathlon, volleyball, weightlifting, and wrestling. China topped the final standings with 51 medals (including 30 gold) of the 1,151 awarded. The top individual athlete was 17-year-old swimmer Tang Yi of China, who captured six gold medals in six finals (her relay team was disqualified for a false start in a seventh event). The YOG in Singapore was the culmination of years of lobbying by the IOC president, Jacques Rogge, who had long supported such a high-level sporting event for young people. He proposed a competition that would not only build physical skills among athletes who did not qualify to compete in the Olympics but also educate and inspire greater involvement by young people in their communities and the

These problems included construction delays, uninhabitable athlete accommodations, and pool water so cloudy that swimmers had difficulty with their turns. An ailment dubbed “Delhi belly”—upset stomach and diarrhea— struck many of the swimmers, knocking some out of the competition. Nonetheless, there were several outstanding performances in the pool, notably Canadian Brent Hayden’s world-leading 47.98 sec in the 100-m freestyle. Kenya’s Jason Dunford won the 50-m butterfly to become his country’s first-ever medalist in Commonwealth Games swimming. At the Asian Games, which took place in Guangzhou, China, in mid-November, the Chinese women took gold in 14 of the 16 individual events, sweeping the top two spots in 8 events. Only the 200-m breaststroke and the 50-m butterfly eluded their grasp. The breaststroke event was won by South Korea’s Jeong Da-Rae as the top five finishers touched within seven-tenths of a second of each other. Singapore’s Tao Li triumphed in the sprint butterfly, taking the race in 26.10 sec. The men’s competition featured a classic team battle between Japan and China as well as some superb individual performances. Despite a lacklustre performance by Kitajima, Japan’s men edged their hosts with eight gold medals to China’s

world at large. In July 2007 the IOC General Session held in Guatemala City authorized the creation of the Youth Olympic Games, the first new IOC event since the Winter Games began in 1924. The YOGs were to be held every four years, alternating in opposite years with the Summer and Winter Olympics. Thus, the first Summer YOG, awarded to Singapore, was held about six months after the conclusion of the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics. The inaugural Winter YOG, comprising seven sports, was granted to Innsbruck, Austria, in January 2012, ahead of the London Olympics later that year. In keeping with Rogge’s desire for a simultaneous cultural and educational component, the 2010 Singapore YOG also encompassed a Culture and Education Programme (CEP) that focused on five themes: “Olympism and Olympic values, skills development, well-being and healthy lifestyle, social responsibility, and expression through digital media.” In addition to the sports competitors, hundreds of teenaged journalists, ambassadors, and other nonathletes shared in the CEP activities throughout the 12-day period. At the closing ceremony in Singapore’s Marina Bay on August 26, Rogge took special pride in praising the “superb job” done by the local organizing committee and the more than 20,000 volunteers. He also handed over the symbolic Olympic flag to the mayor of Nanjing, China, where the next Summer YOG was due to take place in 2014. (MELINDA C. SHEPHERD)

five in individual events. South Korea took the remaining three. The 10th FINA short-course world championships, held December 15–19 in Dubai, U.A.E., produced some spectacular swimming, notably from Lochte, who won all five of his individual races (two in world-record time) and sparked the American 4 × 100-m medley relay to a come-from-behind victory for his sixth gold. He claimed a record seventh medal, a silver, as part of the American 4 × 200-m freestyle relay. Lochte’s record swims in the 200-m IM (1 min 50.08 sec) and 400-m IM (3 min 55.50 sec) were the only individual global marks set in Dubai. Spain’s Mireia Belmonte captured both the women’s 200-m and 400-m IM and the 200-m butterfly. Soni matched Belmonte’s triple, sweeping the three breaststroke events. Brazil’s César Cielo took the men’s 50-m and 100-m freestyle events, and Ranomi Kromowidjojo of the Netherlands proved to be the championship’s fastest woman in the freestyle sprints. World records were set in both of the 4 × 200-m freestyle relays: by Russia in the men’s event (6 min 49.04 sec) and by China in the women’s (7 min 35.94 sec). The U.S. topped the team medal count with 25 (12 gold), followed by Russia, Spain, China, France, the Netherlands, and Brazil.

Diving. China’s dominance of international diving showed no sign of slipping in 2010 as the undisputed masters of the 3-m springboard and the 10-m platform twisted and somersaulted to an overwhelming victory at the year’s top meet, the 17th FINA Diving World Cup, held in Changzhou, China, on June 2–6. The meet saw the Chinese divers win seven of the eight official events contested, matching their performance at the 2007 world championships and the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. Only Australia’s Matt Mitcham, duplicating his stunning performance in Beijing on the 10-m platform, prevented a total Chinese sweep. In fourth place after two dives, Mitcham scored a perfect 10 from every judge on his third dive. He wound up accruing 562.80 points, edging Olympic synchronized-diving champion Huo Liang by seven points. Olympic champion He Chong, ignoring a painful knee injury, defeated teammate Qin Kai in the men’s 3-m springboard. Qin and his new partner, Luo Yutong, took the 3-m synchro. China’s Cao Yuan and Zhang Yanquan earned gold in the 10-m synchro. In the meet’s biggest upset, He Zi took the women’s 3-m springboard, easily defeating teammate and Olympic legend Wu Minxia. He and Wu then joined forces to score a decisive victory in the 323

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women’s 3-m synchro event. The 10-m platform went to Hu Yadan, who upset Chen Ruolin. Chen partnered with Wang Hao to take the 10-m synchro event. A test team event, featuring one man and one woman per team, was won by the American duo of David Boudia and Haley Ishimatsu. Synchronized Swimming. The year’s premier international synchronized swimming meet—the 12th FINA Synchronized Swimming World Cup—was held in Changshu, China, on September 16–19. Russia, using a combination of power, flexibility, grace, and precise timing, reasserted its claim as the world’s top country in the sport and overwhelmed China and Canada to take the team crown. Russian Nataliya Ishchenko was even more dominant in the solo competition, amassing 98.25 points, nearly three points more than runner-up Shi Xin of China. Russia also took gold in the combination. China celebrated its first gold medal in world synchronized swimming competition when the Jiang twins—Tingting and Wenwen—won the duet, delighting the capacity crowd. Russia did not enter the event. (PHILLIP WHITTEN)

TENNIS Spain’s indefatigable tennis star Rafael Nadal stood in a class by himself in 2010 as he captured the French Open, All-England (Wimbledon), and U.S. Open titles in succession, becoming the first man to realize that considerable feat since Australia’s Rod Laver secured his second Grand Slam in 1969. Moreover, Nadal joined Swiss rival Roger Federer as one of only seven men to have won all four major championships in the course of a career. Despite failing to win a major, Caroline Wozniacki became the first woman from Denmark to finish a year at number one. Federer was victorious at the Australian Open, equaling a record previously shared between Sweden’s Björn Borg (1974–81) and American Pete Sampras (1993–2000) by winning at least one major for the eighth year in a row. Francesca Schiavone stepped forward at the French Open as the first woman from Italy ever to win a Grand Slam championship, while Kim Clijsters of Belgium cemented her comeback at the U.S. Open. Serena Williams of the U.S. added two singles majors, moving past American Billie Jean King to sixth place on the all-time women’s list with 13 major titles. Nadal was the 324

year’s top prize-money earner among the men at $10,171,998. Clijsters led the way among the women with $5,035,060. Australian Open. Britain’s Andy Murray seemed destined to take the season’s inaugural Grand Slam event in Melbourne in January. Murray dropped only one set on his way to the final, having toppled defending champion Nadal in the quarterfinals. The number five seed approached his final-round match against Federer with cautious optimism, having beaten his formidable rival in 6 of 10 previous meetings. The redoubtable Federer, however, overwhelmed Murray 6–3, 6–4, 7–6 (11) with one of his vintage performances, reading Murray’s every move, serving with fluidity, and hitting through the ball cleanly for his 16th Grand Slam tournament singles victory. Serena Williams confronted old rival and former world number one Justine Henin of Belgium in the women’s final. Henin had emerged from retirement at the start of the season after 20 months’ absence. The Belgian gave Williams a stern contest before losing her bid for an eighth Grand Slam title. At one stage late in the second set and early in the third, Henin swept 15 points in a row. With her revamped attacking game and unflagging spirit, Henin seemed ready to dismantle the defending champion. Williams weathered the storm, however, and reestablished her superiority, taking a fifth Australian Open singles crown with a 6–4, 3–6, 6–2 triumph. In the semifinals Williams and Henin both faced Chinese players, with Williams ousting the determined Li Na and Henin stopping Zheng Jie. French Open. Having lost to Sweden’s towering Robin Söderling at Roland Garros in the fourth round in 2009, Nadal was determined to rule again on the red clay. En route to Paris, he had won a string of prestigious clay court events at Monte Carlo, Rome, and Madrid and thus headed into the premier clay court tournament without having lost a match on that surface all year. He performed at peak efficiency across a dazzling fortnight, refusing to concede a set in seven matches and concluding with a brilliant 6–4, 6–2, 6–4 dissection of number five Söderling in the championship match. Nadal upended a fellow left-hander, Austria’s Jürgen Melzer, 6–2, 6–3, 7–6 (6) in the semifinals. Söderling triumphed over number 15 Tomas Berdych of the Czech Republic in a five-set semifinal. The match that overshadowed all others, however, was

Söderling’s overpowering 3–6, 6–3, 7–5, 6–4 quarterfinal win over the topseeded Federer. The Swiss defending champion had set an astonishing record by reaching at least the semifinals in his previous 23 Grand Slam events and had been in every Roland Garros final since 2006. Schiavone was seeded 17th at Roland Garros and had never advanced beyond the quarterfinals in 38 previous appearances at Grand Slam events. Nearly 30, she crowned her career by overpowering number seven seed Samantha Stosur of Australia 6–4, 7–6 (2) in the final. Schiavone performed with extraordinary panache, approaching the net creatively and leaving seasoned observers astonished at her inventiveness. Before losing to Schiavone, Stosur knocked out four-time former champion Henin in a come-from-behind three-set win in the fourth round and then saved a match point in a stirring 6–2, 6–7(2), 8–6 upset over top-seeded Serena Williams. Wimbledon. After surpassing Federer in an epic final on the lawns of the All England Club in 2008, Nadal did not defend his crown the following year, as tendinitis in his knees kept him away from Wimbledon. He returned in 2010 with confidence and secured a second title with a blazing finish. Nadal was extended to five sets in his second- and third-round contests against the uninhibited Robin Haase of the Netherlands and Germany’s Philipp Petzschner. Thereafter, he conceded only one set in his last four matches, taking apart number 12 seed Berdych 6–3, 7–5, 6–4 in the final and not losing his serve even once for the second time in a row at a Grand Slam final. Berdych reached the final by upsetting the top-seeded Federer in a four-set quarterfinal and defeating number three seed Novak Djokovic of Serbia in a straight-set semifinal, while Nadal played the big points magnificently in besting number four seed Murray 6–4, 7–6 (6), 6–4 in the other semifinal. The top-seeded Serena Williams swept through the field without losing a set in seven matches. She beat unseeded Petra Kvitova of the Czech Republic 7–6 (5), 6–2 in the semifinals before crushing number 21 seed Vera Zvonareva of Russia 6–3, 6–2 in the final to collect a fourth title. Williams celebrated one of the great serving tournaments of her career. In 14 sets she was broken only three times, releasing 89 aces. Only days later Williams injured her foot, and she did not compete again in an official tournament for the rest of the

Sports and Games: Track and Field Alastair Grant/AP

American John Isner (left) relaxes with Nicolas Mahut of France on June 24 after their marathon first-round match at the All-England (Wimbledon) tennis championship. The 183-game match, the longest in tennis history, lasted a record 11 hours 5 minutes over three days before Isner won 6–4, 3–6, 6–7 (7), 7–6 (3), 70–68. year. On the opposite half of the draw, Zvonareva upset number eight seed Clijsters in the quarterfinals and defeated Bulgaria’s Tsvetana Pironkova in three sets in the semifinals. U.S. Open. All eyes were on Nadal as he set his sights on his first U.S. Open triumph. In the end he turned his dream into reality with a devastatingly potent brand of backcourt tennis and the biggest serving he had ever displayed. He lost his serve only twice in six matches on his way to the final and did not lose a set in that stretch. Then he beat Djokovic 6–4, 5–7, 6–4, 6–2 in an exhilarating final, becoming the first left-hander to capture the U.S. Open since American John McEnroe in 1984 and the first Spaniard to take the tournament since Manuel Orantes prevailed in 1975. Djokovic gave one of the grittiest performances of his career in the semifinals, holding back Federer 5–7, 6–1, 5–7, 6–2, 7–5 and thus preventing the Swiss champion from reaching a seventh final in a row. Clijsters, seeded number two, sparkled from beginning to end and secured her second consecutive Open title and third overall, taking apart the number seven seed Zvonareva 6–2, 6–1 in under an hour. In the semifinals Clijsters beat number three seed and two-time champion Venus Williams of the U.S. 4–6, 7–6 (2), 6–4 in a gripping encounter. Zvonareva took her semifinal in straight sets over top-seeded Wozniacki.

Other Events. Federer closed his 2010 campaign in style, taking the seasonending Barclays ATP World Tour Finals in London, defeating Nadal for only the eighth time in 22 career meetings 6–3, 3–6, 6–1 in the final. Clijsters was victorious at the women’s season-ending tournament, stopping Wozniacki in a three-set final at the WTA Tour championships in Doha, Qatar. Defending champion Italy—led by Schiavone and Flavia Pennetta—captured the Fed Cup with a 3–1 final-round win over the U.S. in San Diego. Serbia became only the 13th country to win the Davis Cup, beating France 3–2 in the final at home in Belgrade, with Djokovic recording two singles victories. (STEVE FLINK)

TRACK AND FIELD SPORTS (ATHLETICS) In an effort to make the slate of annual invitational track and field meets more cohesive, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) premiered its new Diamond League series of high-level competitions in 2010. Kenyan David Rudisha cut the most outstanding individual swath of the season. Rudisha, age 21, ran undefeated in 12 high-level 800-m finals, the first unbeaten streak in the event since Kenyan-born Dane Wilson Kipketer managed the feat in 1999. Twice in August Rudisha lowered the 800-m world record, first with a 1-min 41.09-sec run

in Berlin that cut 0.02 sec from the old record held by Kipketer. A week later in Rieti, Italy, Rudisha improved his mark to 1 min 41.01 sec. World Indoor Championships. Frenchman Teddy Tamgho, age 20, set a world indoor record in the triple jump at the 13th IAAF world indoor championships, held March 12–14 in Doha, Qatar. The triple jump was still being contested after the last of the meet’s running events had finished, and many spectators were leaving. Tamgho put on a show anyway. He jumped a seasonleading 17.41 m (57 ft 1½ in) in the first round only to watch Cuban Yoandri Betanzos take the lead with 17.69 m (58 ft ½ in) on the next jump. On his final attempt Tamgho claimed the gold as he bounded 17.90 m (58 ft 8¾ in), 7 cm (2¾ in) farther than the former world record, set by Cuban Aliecer Urrutia in 1997 and equaled by Swede Christian Olsson in 2004. Two other men claimed meet records: Dayron Robles of Cuba in the 60-m hurdles (7.34 sec) and Steve Hooker of Australia in the pole vault. Hooker’s winning vault of 6.01 m (19 ft 8½ in) exceeded German runnerup Malte Mohr’s best by 31 cm (1 ft ¼ in), the largest world indoor championships victory margin ever in the event. Three women also set meet records. American Lolo Jones’s 7.72-sec time in the 60-m hurdles equaled the fifth best time ever, while her 0.14-sec victory margin was the largest in the event’s history. Belarusian Nadzeya Ostapchuk’s winning mark in the shot put, 20.85 m (68 ft 5 in), brought both a meet record and a defeat for New Zealand’s Valerie Adams (née Vili), who had won 28 consecutive meets since September 2007, including the 2008 Olympic and 2009 world championship titles. In the pentathlon Briton Jessica Ennis’s 2-min 12.55-sec time in the 800 m, the final event, left her 54 points shy of the world mark but gave her a meet record of 4,937 points. Ethiopian Meseret Defar (see BIOGRAPHIES) won the women’s 3,000 m for a fourth consecutive time, a record win streak at the indoor championships. High jumper Blanka Vlasic of Croatia won her second consecutive world indoor title. International Competition. The Diamond League, a series of 14 meets in Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and the U.S. offering $6.63 million in prize money, partially succeeded in its mission of creating excitement around head-to-head matchups of the sport’s top stars. IMG Media, the IAAF’s broadcasting partner, reported that worldwide television 325

Blanka Vlasic of Croatia clears the high jump bar at the IAAF world indoor championships in March. After winning her second straight indoor title and 18 of her 20 meets, Vlasic was named the women’s Athlete of the Year. Dominic Ebenbichler—Reuters/Landov

viewership totals for the series meets nearly tripled over the meets’ combined 2009 figures. Under a format in which each meet included 16 Diamond League disciplines—except London, which hosted all 32 disciplines on the series program over two days—athletes in any given discipline had seven chances to score series points as they vied for supremacy within that discipline. Although Vlasic was the sole seven-meet champion, American sprinter Allyson Felix entered a total of nine Diamond League races, five at 200 m and four at 400 m. She won eight of them and came away with series titles in both events to earn two Diamond Trophies and $166,000. Four other event champions were six-meet winners: Jeremy Wariner of the U.S. in the men’s 400 m, David Oliver of the U.S. in the men’s 110-m hurdles, Andreas Thorkildsen of Norway in the men’s javelin, and Ostapchuk in the women’s shot put. Oliver placed third in the world indoor championships 60-m hurdles but went on to make the Diamond League the centrepiece of a spectacularly consistent 15-meet unbeaten outdoor season. He ran five sub-13-sec times in the 110-m hurdles, second in history only to world-record holder Robles’s total of seven in 2008. At the Eugene, Ore., Diamond League meet, Oliver ran 12.90 sec. Thirteen days later in Paris, he improved to 12.89 sec. Only Robles (twice) and China’s Liu Xiang, the 2004 Olympic champion, had ever run the 110-m hurdles faster. The IAAF and the American magazine Track & Field News concurred in naming Rudisha and Vlasic men’s and women’s Athletes of the Year. Although Rudisha secured his two world records 326

in meets that were not part of the Diamond League, his unbeaten campaign included four victories at Diamond League meets and the 800-m title for the series. Vlasic won 18 of her 20 meets and leaped 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in), equal to the 11th best mark in history. American sprinter Tyson Gay showed that Jamaica’s Usain Bolt, far and away the sport’s biggest star in 2008 and 2009, could be beaten. Although Gay’s 9.84-sec victory over Bolt in the Stockholm Diamond League 100-m race drew major headlines, the American also was undefeated in six 100-m finals, ran a season-leading time for the distance (9.78 sec), and secured the Diamond League 100-m title. In May in Manchester, Eng., Gay set a world record, 19.41 sec, for the rarely run straightaway (no turn) 200 m. Shot putter Christian Cantwell of the U.S. had a long, prolific season that was nearly perfect. In addition to winning the world indoor title, which he had taken previously in 2004 and 2008, he won 22 of 24 competitions and the Diamond League event crown. Cantwell lofted the iron ball a season-leading 22.41 m (73 ft 6¼ in). Diamond League organizers precontracted 14 elite stars, dubbed “Diamond League Ambassadors,” for the series meets. The promotional effort met with mixed results. Felix, Vlasic, Thorkildsen, Gay, and the Czech Republic’s Barbora Spotakova—series winner in the women’s javelin—brought star power to their disciplines, but injury, illness, malaise, and a failed doping test negated the buzz around several ambassadors. Kenenisa Bekele of Ethiopia and Russian Yelena Isinbaeva, worldrecord holders in the men’s 5,000 m

and 10,000 m and the women’s pole vault, respectively, canceled their seasons before the first Diamond League meet in Doha. Bekele had a calf injury, and Isinbaeva said that she needed time off after stunning defeats at the 2009 world championships and 2010 world indoor championships. American 400-m runner Sanya Richards, who claimed a share of the IAAF’s former premier series, the Golden League, in 2009, missed the 2010 Diamond League meets owing to injury. World and Olympic women’s 100-m champion Shelly-Ann Fraser of Jamaica tested positive for oxycodone, a non-performance-enhancing yet nonetheless banned painkiller, in Shanghai, the series’ second meet, and had to sit out the rest of the summer. Bolt won two Diamond League starts but ended his season before the climactic final three series meets, citing a back injury. Jamaica’s Asafa Powell, Bolt’s predecessor as 100m world-record holder, suffered the same fate even earlier in the season. After 11 months of uncertainty, the IAAF in July cleared South African Caster Semenya to compete as a woman. Semenya, the 2009 world champion in the women’s 800 m, had come under medical scrutiny by the IAAF amid rumours that she had an intersex condition that might impart a competitive advantage. Citing privacy concerns, the IAAF declined to discuss the findings of their medical tests. Semenya ran six summer 800-m races and won four of them. Her seasonal best time, 1 min 58.16 sec, equaled the fifth best performance of the season but did not approach her 1-min 55.45sec world-leading time of 2009. Cross Country and Marathon Running. The rush of fast marathon times that began in 2003 when Kenyan Paul Tergat became history’s first sub-2-hr 5min marathoner continued in 2010. African runners dominated. Of the record 91 marathons run in less than 2 hr 9 min, 88 were recorded by Africans, and Kenyans were responsible for an astounding 51 of these performances. In the World Marathon Majors, a series scored on a two-year basis in which athletes collect points for placings in five major city marathons—London, Boston, Berlin, Chicago, and New York—plus the Olympics and world championships races, 2008 Olympic champion Samuel Wanjiru of Kenya, who won the 2010 Chicago Marathon, defended his men’s overall title. The 2009–10 women’s title went to Liliya Shobukhova of Russia. Each collected

Sports and Games: Wrestling

$500,000 for winning. Shobukhova won the London and Chicago marathons in 2010—the latter in the season-leading time of 2 hr 20 min 25 sec. World-record holder Haile Gebrselassie of Ethiopia dropped out of the New York Marathon with a knee injury and abruptly announced his retirement. A week later Gebrselassie changed his mind and said that he would continue running through the 2012 London Olympic Games. At the world cross country championships, held in Bydgoszcz, Pol., on March 28, Kenya swept the team and individual titles. Joseph Ebuya won the senior men’s race, the first Kenyan in 11 years to do so. Emily Chebet won the senior women’s title. (SIEG LINDSTROM)

VOLLEYBALL In men’s indoor volleyball Brazil dominated the Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) World League in 2010 with its seventh title in eight seasons and ninth overall following a 25–22, 25–22, 16–25, 25–23 triumph over Russia in the championship match on July 25 in Córdoba, Arg. Serbia claimed the bronze medal after downing Cuba. Brazil’s Murilo Endres, known as Murilo, was selected as the tournament MVP. Brazil captured its third consecutive FIVB men’s world championship with a 25–22, 25–14, 25–22 victory over Cuba on October 10 in the final in Rome. Serbia defeated host Italy to earn the bronze. Brazil became the second team to win three straight world titles. (Italy accomplished the feat in 1990, 1994, and 1998.) Murilo was again recognized as the MVP. In August the American women garnered their third FIVB World Grand Prix title with a perfect 5–0 record after downing Japan 26–24, 25–20, and 25–23 in their last match at the six-team roundrobin final round in Ningbo, China. Foluke Akinradewo of the U.S. captured the MVP award. At the women’s world championship, held in Tokyo in November, Russia retained its title following a 21–25, 25–17, 20–25, 25–14, 15–11 triumph over Brazil. Host Japan earned its first world championship medal since 1978 with a win over the U.S. for the bronze. Yekaterina Gamova of Russia was named tournament MVP. The U.S. beach volleyball duo of Phil Dalhausser and Todd Rogers finished atop the men’s SWATCH-FIVB World Tour points standings after winning nine World Tour titles in 2010. The

Brazilian tandem of Emanuel Rego and Alison Cerutti finished second in the point standings. Meanwhile, Brazil’s Larissa França and Juliana Felisberta da Silva placed first in the women’s SWATCH-FIVB World Tour points standings, ahead of fellow Brazilians Maria Antonelli and Talita Antunes. Dalhausser and Silva were named, respectively, the most outstanding players in the men’s and women’s competitions. (RICHARD S. WANNINGER)

WEIGHTLIFTING In September 2010 Antalya, Tur., hosted the 78th men’s and the 21st women’s International Weightlifting Federation world championships. The competition involved 312 weightlifters from 63 countries in the men’s division and 203 women representing 50 countries. A total of 11 senior world records were broken: 9 in the women’s division and 2 in the men’s, both by Liao Hui of China. In the women’s competition China dominated, with Chinese athletes taking 17 (7 gold, 6 silver, and 4 bronze) of the 63 available medals. China was followed in the standings by Russia with 12 medals (5 gold, 3 silver, and 4 bronze) and Turkey with 11 (3 gold, 6 silver, and 2 bronze). Kazakhstan had five medals, all of them gold. In all, 11 countries claimed at least one medal. Russia’s Tatyana Kashirina took the gold in the superheavyweight category with a 315-kg (694.5-lb) overall total. In the men’s division athletes from Europe captured 40 of the 72 medals, and 17 countries recorded at least one. China topped the team rankings with 15 medals (7 gold, 6 silver, and 2 bronze), followed by Russia with 13 (4 gold, 5 silver, and 4 bronze) and Poland with 7 (3 gold, 1 silver, and 3 bronze). Behdad Salimikordasiabi from Iran won the superheavyweight category with an overall total of 453 kg (998.7 lb). (DRAGOMIR CIOROSLAN)

WRESTLING Freestyle and Greco-Roman. The Russian men and Japanese women dominated the competition at the Fédération Internationale des Luttes Associées (FILA) world wrestling championships held in Moscow on Sept. 6–12, 2010. In the freestyle competition, all seven Russian men won medals, with six making it to the final match and four taking the gold. Russia (with 66 points) easily captured the team title to out-

distance Azerbaijan (42 points). Japan won the women’s freestyle competition with a 61–39 margin over Russia. The Greco-Roman tournament was somewhat closer, but Russia still prevailed 46–32 over second-place Turkey, which was paced by Selcuk Cebi’s second straight gold medal at 74 kg. Despite the overall Russian domination, two Greco-Roman wrestlers—Hamid Surian-Reyhanpur of Iran at 55 kg and Mijain López of Cuba at 120 kg—each won his fifth career gold medal. It was a historic low point for the United States, which failed to collect a single medal in the men’s freestyle competition and finished in 23rd place, marking the first time that it had not been in the top 10 in the final standings. The Greco-Roman squad did little better, earning no medals and placing 13th. The U.S. women’s freestyle team secured a respectable fifth-place finish, however, with Elena Pirozhkova earning a silver medal at 63 kg and Tatiana Padilla taking the bronze at 55 kg. (J. CARL GUYMON) Sumo. Yokozuna (grand champion) Asashoryu won his 25th Emperor’s Cup in the New Year basho (grand tournament) in January 2010, but allegations of an assault on a nightclub owner forced the Mongolian’s premature retirement from sumo. Another Mongolian, yokozuna Hakuho, then strung together 63 consecutive wins, taking the next four basho—in March, May, July, and September—with perfect records. Hakuho finally lost to Kisenosato on day two of the seasonending Kyushu basho in November. Nevertheless, he prevailed for his fifth championship of the year, tying his remarkable 86–4 record from 2009. A different scandal erupted midyear when ozeki (champion) Kotomitsuki, who was accused of gambling on baseball, became embroiled in blackmail by elements of organized crime. He and a prominent stablemaster were expelled, and a number of other high-ranking wrestlers were suspended for the July basho. Live broadcast of the matches was discontinued, and there was a public outcry to reform the administration of Japan’s national sport. Veteran ozeki Kaio surpassed 1,000 victories and set a new record with a career total of 114 salaried tournaments. Kaido Hoovelson of Estonia (known as Baruto) became the second European to reach ozeki rank. Notable retirements included Chiyotaikai, Kitazakura, Kaiho, and Iwakiyama. (KEN COLLER) 327

Sporting Record ARCHERY FITA Outdoor World Target Archery Championships* Year

2005 2007 2009

Men’s individual

Men’s team

Women’s individual

Women’s team

Winner

Points

Winner

Points

Winner

Points

Winner

Points

Chung Jae Hun (S.Kor.) Im Dong Hyun (S.Kor.) Lee Chang-Hwan (S.Kor.)

102 110 113

South Korea South Korea South Korea

244 224 222

Lee Sung Jin (S.Kor.) N. Valeeva (Italy) Joo Hyun-Jung (S.Kor.)

111 108 113

South Korea South Korea South Korea

251 226 224

*Olympic (recurve) division.

AUTOMOBILE RACING

Terry Renna/AP

Formula One Grand Prix Race Results, 2010 Winner’s time (hr:min:sec)

Race

Driver

Bahrain GP Australian GP Malaysian GP Chinese GP Spanish GP Monaco GP Turkish GP Canadian GP European GP British GP German GP Hungarian GP Belgian GP Italian GP Singapore GP Japanese GP Korean GP Brazilian GP Abu Dhabi GP

F. Alonso (Spain) J. Button (U.K.) S. Vettel (Ger.) J. Button (U.K.) M. Webber (Austl.) M. Webber (Austl.) L. Hamilton (U.K.) L. Hamilton (U.K.) S. Vettel (Ger.) M. Webber (Austl.) F. Alonso (Spain) M. Webber (Austl.) L. Hamilton (U.K.) F. Alonso (Spain) F. Alonso (Spain) S. Vettel (Ger.) F. Alonso (Spain) S. Vettel (Ger.) S. Vettel (Ger.)

1:39:20.396 1:33:36.531 1:33:48.412 1:46:42.163 1:35:44.101 1:50:13.355 1:28:47.620 1:33:53.456 1:40:29.571 1:24:38.200 1:27:38.864 1:41:05.571 1:29:04.268 1:16:24.572 1:57:53.579 1:30:27.323 2:48:20.810 1:33:11.803 1:39:36.837

WORLD DRIVERS’ CHAMPIONSHIP: Vettel 256 points; Alonso 252 points; Webber 242 points. CONSTRUCTORS’ CHAMPIONSHIP: RBR-Renault 498 points; Mclaren-Mercedes 454 points; Ferrari 396 points.

National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR) Sprint Cup Champions Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

J. Johnson J. Johnson J. Johnson

Daytona 500 Avg. speed in mph

Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

R. Newman M. Kenseth J. McMurray

152.672 132.816 137.284

IndyCar Champions Year

Indy Racing League

2008 2009 2010

S. Dixon (N.Z.) D. Franchitti (Scot.) D. Franchitti (Scot.)

Indianapolis 500 Year

Winner

Avg. speed in mph

2008 2009 2010

S. Dixon (N.Z.) H. Castroneves (Braz.) D. Franchitti (Scot.)

143.567 150.318 161.623

Le Mans 24-Hour Grand Prix d’Endurance Year

Car

Drivers

2008

Audi R10

2009

Peugeot 908

2010

Audi R15

R. Capello, T. Kristensen, A. McNish D. Brabham, M. Gené, A. Wurz T. Bernhard, R. Dumas, M. Rockenfeller

Monte-Carlo Rally Year

Car

Driver

2008 Citroën C4 WRC 2009* Peugeot 207 S2000 2010* Ford Fiesta S2000

S. Loeb (Fr.) S. Ogier (Fr.) M. Hirvonen (Fin.)

*Race not considered part of the World Rally Championship series.

Indianapolis 500 winner Dario Franchitti of Scotland celebrates his second consecutive and third career Indy Racing League drivers’ championship.

BADMINTON All England Open Championships—Singles

Thomas Cup (men)

Year

Men

Women

Year

Winner

Runner-up

Uber Cup (women) Year

Winner

Runner-up

2008 2009 2010

Chen Jin (China) Lin Dan (China) Lee Chong Wei (Malay.)

T. Rasmussen (Den.) Wang Yihan (China) T. Rasmussen (Den.)

2005–06 2007–08 2009–10

China China China

Denmark South Korea Indonesia

2005–06 2007–08 2009–10

China China South Korea

Netherlands Indonesia China

World Badminton Championships Year

Men’s singles

2007 Lin Dan (China) 2009 Lin Dan (China) 2010 Chen Jin (China)

328

Women’s singles

Men’s doubles

Women’s doubles

Mixed doubles

Zhu Lin (China) Lu Lan (China) Wang Lin (China)

M. Kido, H. Setiawan (Indon.) Cai Yun, Fu Haifeng (China) Cai Yun, Fu Haifeng (China)

Yang Wei, Zhang Jiewen (China) Zhang Yawen, Zhao Tingting (China) Du Jing, Yu Yang (China)

N. Widianto, L. Natsir (Indon.) T. Laybourn, K. Rytter Juhl (Den.) Zheng Bo, Ma Jin (China)

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

BASEBALL Final Major League Standings, 2010

Caribbean Series

AMERICAN LEAGUE East Division

Central Division Won

Lost

G.B.†

96 95 89 85 66

66 67 73 77 96

— 1 7 11 30

Won

Lost

G.B.†

97 91 80 79 69

65 71 82 83 93

— 6 17 18 28

*Tampa Bay *N.Y. Yankees Boston Toronto Baltimore

West Division

Won

Lost

G.B.†

94 88 81 69 67

68 74 82 93 95

— 6 13 25 27

Won

Lost

G.B.†

91 86 77 76 75 57

71 76 85 86 87 105

— 5 14 15 16 34

*Minnesota Chicago W.Sox Detroit Cleveland Kansas City

Won

Lost

G.B.†

90 81 80 61

72 81 82 101

— 9 10 29

Won

Lost

G.B.†

92 90 83 80 65

70 72 79 82 97

— 2 9 12 27

*Texas Oakland L.A. Angels Seattle

Year

Winning team

Country

2008

Licey Tigers (Tigres) Aragua Tigers (Tigres) Escogido Lions (Leones)

Dominican Republic Venezuela

2009 2010

Dominican Republic

NATIONAL LEAGUE East Division

Central Division

*Philadelphia *Atlanta Florida N.Y. Mets Washington

*Cincinnati St. Louis Milwaukee Houston Chicago Cubs Pittsburgh

West Division

*San Francisco San Diego Colorado L.A. Dodgers Arizona

*Qualified for play-offs. †Games behind.

World Series*

Japan Series*

Year

Winning team

Losing team

Results

Year

Winning team

Losing team

Results

2008 2009 2010

Philadelphia Phillies (NL) New York Yankees (AL) San Francisco Giants (NL)

Tampa Bay Rays (AL) Philadelphia Phillies (NL) Texas Rangers (AL)

4–1 4–2 4–1

2008 2009 2010

Seibu Lions (PL) Yomiuri Giants (CL) Chiba Lotte Marines (PL)

Yomiuri Giants (CL) Nippon-Ham Fighters (PL) Chunichi Dragons (CL)

4–3 4–2 4–2†

*AL—American League; NL—National League.

*CL—Central League; PL—Pacific League. †Seven-game series included one tie game.

BASKETBALL NBA Final Standings, 2009–10 EASTERN CONFERENCE Won Lost G.B.†

Won

Atlantic Division *Boston Toronto New York Philadelphia New Jersey

Lost G.B.†

Central Division 50 40 29 27 12

32 42 53 55 70

— 10 21 23 38

*Cleveland *Milwaukee *Chicago Indiana Detroit

WESTERN CONFERENCE Northwest Division

Won Lost G.B.†

Members of the Seattle Storm jump for joy after their three-game sweep of the Atlanta Dream earned the franchise its first WNBA title since 2004.

Southeast Division 61 46 41 32 27

21 36 41 50 55

— 15 20 29 34

*Orlando *Atlanta *Miami *Charlotte Washington

*Dallas *San Antonio

Pacific Division

59 53 47 44 26

23 29 35 38 56

— 6 12 15 33

55

27

—

50

32

5

42

40

13

Southwest Division

*Denver

53

29

—

*L.A. Lakers

57

25

—

*Utah

53

29

—

*Phoenix

54

28

3

*Portland

50

32

3

L.A. Clippers

29

53

28

Houston

*Oklahoma City

50

32

3

Golden State

26

56

31

Memphis

40

42

15

Minnesota

15

67

38

Sacramento

25

57

32

New Orleans

37

45

18

*Qualified for play-offs. †Games behind.

National Basketball Association (NBA) Championship Season

Winner

Runner-up

Results

2007–08 2008–09 2009–10

Boston Celtics Los Angeles Lakers Los Angeles Lakers

Los Angeles Lakers Orlando Magic Boston Celtics

4–2 4–1 4–3

Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) Championship Season

Winner

Runner-up

Results

2008 2009 2010

Detroit Shock Phoenix Mercury Seattle Storm

San Antonio Silver Stars Indiana Fever Atlanta Dream

3–0 3–2 3–0 Eric S. Lesser/AP

329

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

BASKETBALL (continued)

BILLIARD GAMES

Division I National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Championship—Men

Division I National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Championship—Women

World Three-Cushion Championship* Year

Winner

Year

Winner

Runner-up

Score

Year

Winner

Runner-up

Score

2008 2009 2010

Kansas North Carolina Duke

Memphis Michigan State Butler

75–68 89–72 61–59

2008 2009 2010

Tennessee Connecticut Connecticut

Stanford Louisville Stanford

64–48 76–54 53–47

2008 2009 2010

M. Zanetti (Italy) F. Kasidokostas (Greece) D. Sánchez (Spain)

*Union Mondiale de Billard champion.

World Basketball Championship—Men

World Basketball Championship—Women

WPA World Nine-Ball Championships

Year

Winner

Runner-up

Year

Winner

Runner-up

Year

Men’s champion

2006 2008* 2010

Spain United States United States

Greece Spain Turkey

2006 2008* 2010

Australia United States United States

Russia Australia Czech Republic

2008 2009 2010

not held not held F. Bustamante (Phil.)

Year

Women’s champion

2008 2009 2010

Lin Yuan-chun (Taiwan) Liu Shasha (China) Fu Xiaofang (China)

*Olympic champion.

*Olympic champion.

World Professional Snooker Championship Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

R. O’Sullivan (Eng.) J. Higgins (Scot.) N. Robertson (Austl.)

BOBSLEIGH AND LUGE Bobsleigh and Skeleton World Championships Year

Two-man bobsleigh

Four-man/driver

Women’s bobsleigh

Men’s skeleton

Women’s skeleton

Team

2008 2009

A. Lange, K. Kuske (Ger.) I. Rüegg, C. Grand (Switz.)

A. Huber (Ger.) M. Trott (Ger.)

Germany Germany

A. Lange, K. Kuske (Ger.)

S. Kiriasis, R. Logsch (Ger.) N. Minichiello, G. Cooke (Gr.Brit.) K. Humphries, H. Moyse (Can.)

K. Bromley (Gr.Brit.) G. Stähli (Switz.)

2010*

Germany/A. Lange United States/ S. Holcomb United States/ S. Holcomb

J. Montgomery (Can.)

A. Williams (Gr.Brit.)

*Olympic champions.

Luge World Championships* Year

Men

Women

Doubles

Team

2008 2009

F. Loch (Ger.) F. Loch (Ger.)

T. Hüfner (Ger.) E. Hamlin (U.S.)

Germany Germany

2010†

F. Loch (Ger.)

T. Hüfner (Ger.)

A. Florschütz, T. Wustlich (Ger.) G. Plankensteiner, O. Haselrieder (Italy) A. Linger, W. Linger (Austria)

*Artificial track. †Olympic champions.

BOWLING USBC Open Bowling Championships—Regular Division

World Tenpin Bowling Championships—Men

Year

Singles

Score

All-events

Score

Year

Singles

Doubles

Trios

2008 2009 2010

B. Young B. Goergen T. Syring

832 862 833

J. Futrell R. Vokes M. McNiel

2,183 2,321 2,326

2006 2008 2010

R. Ong (Sing.) W.R. Williams, Jr. (U.S.) B. O’Neill (U.S.)

Sweden United States Sweden

South Korea United States South Korea United States United States United States

Team (fives)

USBC Women’s Bowling Championships—Classic Division*

World Tenpin Bowling Championships—Women

Year

Singles

Score

All-events

Score

Year

Singles

Doubles

Trios

Team (fives)

2008 2009 2010

C. Ham M. Feldman K. Howard

736 816 792

L. Johnson R. Romeo J. Woessner

2,113 2,172 2,330

2005 2007 2009

E. Cheah (Malay.) S. O’Keefe (U.S.) S. Nation (U.S.)

Germany South Korea South Korea

Taiwan Sweden Taiwan

Taiwan Malaysia South Korea

*From 2010 overall scratch champions.

PBA Tournament of Champions

PBA World Championship

Year

Champion

Year

Winner

2007–08 2008–09 2009–10

M. Haugen, Jr. P. Allen K. Kulick

2007–08 2008–09 2009–10

N. Duke N. Duke T. Smallwood

330

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

BOXING World Heavyweight Champions No Weight Limit

World Super Middleweight Champions Top Weight 168 Pounds

World Welterweight Champions Top Weight 147 Pounds

WBA

WBA

WBA

David Haye (U.K.; 11/7/09)

IBF

Mikkel Kessler (Den.; 6/21/08) declared super champion in 2009 Dimitri Sartison (Ger.; 11/21/09) Andre Ward (U.S.; 11/21/09; defeated Kessler) declared super champion in 2009

Wladimir Klitschko (Ukr.; 4/22/06)

WBC

World Cruiserweight Champions Top Weight 200 Pounds

Carl Froch (U.K.; 12/6/08) Mikkel Kessler (Den.; 4/24/10) declared champion emeritus in 2010 Carl Froch (U.K.; 11/27/10)

Antonio Margarito (Mex.; 7/26/08) declared super champion in 2008 Yuriy Nuzhnenko (Ukr.; 10/3/08) Shane Mosley (U.S.; 1/24/09; defeated Margarito) declared super champion in 2009 stripped of title in 2010 Vyacheslav Senchenko (Ukr.; 4/10/09; defeated Nuzhnenko)

WBC Vitali Klitschko (Ukr.; 10/11/08)

WBA Guillermo Jones (Pan.; 9/27/08)

IBF Lucian Bute (Can.; 10/19/07)

WBC Andre Berto (U.S.; 6/21/08) IBF Jan Zaveck (Slvn.; 12/11/09)

WBC Zsolt Erdei (Hung.; 11/21/09) gave up title in 2010 Krzysztof Wlodarczyk (Pol.; 5/15/10) IBF

World Middleweight Champions Top Weight 160 Pounds WBA

World Junior Welterweight Champions Top Weight 140 Pounds (also called super lightweight)

WBA

Felix Sturm (Ger.; 4/28/07) declared super champion in 2010 Gennady Golovkin (Kazakh.; 12/16/10)

Amir Khan (U.K.; 7/18/09)

WBC

Devon Alexander (U.S.; 8/1/09)

World Light Heavyweight Champions Top Weight 175 Pounds

Kelly Pavlik (U.S.; 9/29/07) Sergio Martínez (Arg.; 4/17/10)

IBF

WBA

IBF

Gabriel Campillo (Spain; 6/20/09) Beibut Shumenov (Kazakh.; 1/29/10)

Sebastian Sylvester (Ger.; 9/19/09)

WBC

World Junior Middleweight Champions Top Weight 154 Pounds

Tomasz Adamek (Pol.; 12/11/08) gave up title in 2009 Steve Cunningham (U.S.; 6/5/10)

Jean Pascal (Can.; 6/19/09) IBF Tavoris Cloud (U.S.; 8/28/09)

Juan Urango (Colom.; 1/30/09) Devon Alexander (U.S.; 3/6/10) stripped of title in 2010

World Lightweight Champions Top Weight 135 Pounds

(also called super welterweight)

WBA

WBA

Juan Manuel Márquez (Mex.; 2/28/09) declared super champion in 2009 Miguel Acosta (Venez.; 5/29/10)

Yuri Foreman (Israel; 11/14/09) Miguel Cotto (P.R.; 6/5/10) declared super champion in 2010

American boxer David Diaz (right) ducks to avoid a left jab by Humberto Soto of Mexico in their WBC lightweight title bout. Soto beat Diaz in a unanimous 12-round decision to capture the vacant title.

WBC

WBC Vernon Forrest (U.S.; 9/13/08) stripped of title in 2009 Manny Pacquiao (Phil.; 11/13/10) IBF Cory Spinks (U.S.; 4/24/09) Cornelius Bundrage (U.S.; 8/7/10)

WBC Edwin Valero (Venez.; 4/4/09) title declared vacant in 2010 Humberto Soto (Mex.; 3/13/10) IBF Nate Campbell (U.S.; 3/8/08) stripped of title in 2009 Miguel Vázquez (Mex.; 8/14/10)

World Junior Lightweight Champions Top Weight 130 Pounds (also called super featherweight)

WBA Juan Carlos Salgado (Mex.; 10/10/09) Takashi Uchiyama (Japan; 1/11/10) WBC Humberto Soto (Mex.; 12/20/08) gave up title in 2010 Vitali Tajbert (Ger.; 3/17/10) Takahiro Aoh (Japan; 11/26/10) IBF Robert Guerrero (U.S.; 8/22/09) gave up title in 2010 Mzonke Fana (S.Af.; 9/1/10)

David J. Phillip/AP

331

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

BOXING (continued) World Featherweight Champions Top Weight 126 Pounds

World Bantamweight Champions Top Weight 118 Pounds

World Flyweight Champions Top Weight 112 Pounds

WBA

WBA

WBA

Chris John (Indon.; 9/26/03) declared super champion in 2009 Yuriorkis Gamboa (Cuba; 10/10/09) declared unified champion in 2010 Jonathan Barros (Arg.; 12/4/10)

Anselmo Moréno (Pan.; 5/31/08) declared super champion in 2010 Koki Kameda (Japan; 12/26/10)

Denkaosan Kaovichit (Thai.; 12/31/08) Daiki Kameda (Japan; 2/7/10)

WBC Hozumi Hasegawa (Japan; 4/16/05) Fernando Montiel (Mex.; 4/30/10)

WBC Elio Rojas (Dom.Rep.; 7/14/09) declared champion in recess in 2010 Hozumi Hasegawa (Japan; 11/26/10)

IBF

IBF

Yonnhy Pérez (Colom.; 10/31/09) Joseph Agbeko (Ghana; 12/11/10)

Cristóbal Cruz (Mex.; 10/23/08) Orlando Salido (Mex.; 5/15/10) Yuriorkis Gamboa (Cuba; 9/11/10)

World Junior Bantamweight Champions Top Weight 115 Pounds (also called super flyweight)

World Junior Featherweight Champions Top Weight 122 Pounds (also called super bantamweight)

WBA Cristian Mijares (Mex.; 5/17/08) declared unified champion in 2008

WBC Koki Kameda (Japan; 11/29/09) Pongsaklek Wonjongkam (Thai.; 3/27/10) IBF Moruti Mthalane (S.Af.; 11/20/09)

World Junior Flyweight Champions Top Weight 108 Pounds WBA Giovani Segura (Mex.; 6/5/09) declared unified champion in 2010 gave up title in 2010 Juan Carlos Reveco (Arg.; 8/28/10) WBC

Poonsawat Kratingdaenggym (Thai.; 9/26/09) Ryol Li Lee (Japan; 10/2/10)

Nobuo Nashiro (Japan; 9/15/08) Vic Darchinyan (Austl.; 11/1/08; defeated Mijares) declared unified champion in 2008 Hugo Cazares (Mex.; 5/8/10; defeated Nashiro)

Rodel Mayol (Phil.; 11/21/09) Omar Niño (Mex.; 6/19/10) Gilberto Keb Baas (Mex.; 11/6/10)

WBC

WBC

IBF

Israel Vázquez (Mex.; 8/4/07) declared champion emeritus in 2008 Toshiaki Nishioka (Japan; 1/3/09)

Vic Darchinyan (Austl.; 11/1/08) gave up title in 2010 Tomás Rojas (Mex.; 9/20/10)

Brian Viloria (U.S.; 4/19/09) Carlos Támara (Colom.; 1/23/10) Luis Alberto Lazarte (Arg.; 5/29/10)

IBF

IBF

Celestino Caballero (Pan.; 11/21/08) stripped of title in 2010 Steve Molitor (Can.; 3/27/10)

Simphiwe Nongqayi (S.Af.; 9/15/09) Juan Alberto Rosas (Mex.; 7/31/10) Cristian Mijares (Mex.; 12/11/10)

WBA

World Mini-flyweight Champions Top Weight 105 Pounds (also called strawweight)

WBA Román González (Nic.; 9/15/08) gave up title in 2010 Kwanthai Sithmorseng (Thai.; 11/5/10) WBC Oleydong Sithsamerchai (Thai.; 11/29/07) IBF Raúl García (Mex.; 6/14/08) Nkosinathi Joyi (S.Af.; 3/26/10)

CHESS FIDE Olympiad—Open Year

Winner

Runner-up

2006 2008 2010

Armenia Armenia Ukraine

China Israel Russia

FIDE Olympiad—Women Year

Winner

Runner-up

2006 2008 2010

Ukraine Georgia Russia

Russia Ukraine China

Kevin Koe (crouching), skip of Canada’s gold-medal-winning team, concentrates at the world curling championships as skip Torger Nergard of runner-up Norway looks on. Antonio Calanni/AP

332

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

CRICKET Test Match Results, October 2009–September 2010 Host/Ground

Date

Scores

Result

India/Ahmedabad India/Kanpur India/Mumbai

Nov. 16–20 Nov. 24–27 Dec. 2–6

India 426 and 412 for 4; SriL. 760 for 7 dec India 642; SriL. 229 and 269 SriL. 393 and 309; India 726 for 9 dec

Match drawn India won by an innings and 144 runs India won by an innings and 24 runs; India won series 2–0

New Zealand/Dunedin New Zealand/Wellington New Zealand/Napier

Nov. 24–28 Dec. 3–6 Dec. 11–15

N.Z. 429 and 153; Pak. 332 and 218 Pak. 264 and 239; N.Z. 99 and 263 Pak. 223 and 455; N.Z. 471 and 90 for 0

N.Z. won by 32 runs Pak. won by 141 runs Match drawn; series drawn 1–1

Australia/Brisbane Australia/Adelaide Australia/ Perth

Nov. 26–28 Dec. 4–8 Dec. 16–20

Austl. 480 for 8 dec; W.Ind. 228 and 187 W.Ind. 451 and 317; Austl. 439 and 212 for 5 Austl. 520 for 7 dec and 150; W.Ind. 312 and 323

Austl. won by an innings and 65 runs Match drawn Austl. won by 35 runs; Austl. won series 2–0

South Africa/Centurion South Africa/Durban South Africa/Cape Town South Africa/Johannesburg

Dec. 16–20 Dec. 26–30 Jan. 3–7 Jan. 14–17

S.Af. 418 and 301; Eng. 356 and 228 for 9 S.Af. 343 and 133; Eng. 574 for 9 dec S.Af. 291 and 447 for 7 dec; Eng. 273 and 296 for 9 Eng. 180 and 169; S.Af. 423 for 7 dec

Match drawn Eng. won by an innings and 98 runs Match drawn S.Af. won by an innings and 74 runs; series drawn 1–1

Australia/Melbourne Australia/Sydney Australia/Hobart

Dec. 26–30 Jan. 3–6 Jan. 14–18

Austl. 454 for 5 dec and 225 for 8 dec; Pak. 258 and 251 Austl. 127 and 381; Pak. 333 and 139 Austl. 519 for 8 dec and 219 for 5 dec; Pak. 301 and 206

Austl. won by 170 runs Austl. won by 36 runs Austl. won by 231 runs; Austl. won series 3–0

Bangladesh/Chittagong Bangladesh/Dhaka

Jan. 17–21 Jan. 24–27

India 243 and 413 for 8 dec; Bangl. 242 and 301 Bangl. 233 and 312; India 544 for 8 dec and 2 for 0

India won by 113 runs India won by 10 wickets; India won series 2–0

India/Nagpur India/Kolkata

Feb. 6–9 Feb. 14–18

S.Af. 558 for 6 dec; India 233 and 319 S.Af. 296 and 290; India 643 for 6 dec

S.Af. won by an innings and 6 runs India won by an innings and 57 runs; series drawn 1–1

New Zealand/Hamilton

Feb. 15–19

N.Z. 553 for 7 dec and 258 for 5 dec; Bangl. 408 and 282

N.Z. won by 121 runs

Bangladesh/Chittagong Bangladesh/Dhaka

March 12–16 March 20–24

Eng. 599 for 6 dec and 209 for 7 dec; Bangl. 296 and 331 Bangl. 419 and 285; Eng. 496 and 209 for 1

Eng. won by 181 runs Eng. won by 9 wickets; Eng. won series 2–0

New Zealand/Wellington New Zealand/Hamilton

March 19–23 March 27–31

Austl. 459 for 5 dec and 106 for 0; N.Z. 157 and 407 Austl. 231 and 511 for 8 dec; N.Z. 264 and 302

Austl. won by 10 wickets Austl. won by 176 runs; Austl. won series 2–0

England/London (Lord’s) England/Manchester

May 27–31 June 4–6

Eng. 505 and 163 for 2; Bangl. 282 and 382 Eng. 419; Bangl. 216 and 123

Eng. won by 8 wickets Eng. won by an innings and 80 runs; Eng. won series 2–0

West Indies/Trinidad West Indies/St. Kitts West Indies/Barbados

June 10–13 June 18–22 June 26–29

S.Af. 352 and 206 for 4 dec; W.Ind. 102 and 293 S.Af. 543 for 6 dec and 235 for 3 dec; W.Ind. 546 W.Ind. 231 and 161; S.Af. 346 and 49 for 3

S.Af. won by 163 runs Match drawn S.Af. won by 7 wickets; S.Af. won series 2–0

England/London (Lord’s) England/Leeds

July 13–16 July 21–24

Austl. 253 and 334; Pak. 148 and 289 Austl. 88 and 349; Pak. 258 and 180 for 7

Austl. won by 150 runs Pak. won by 3 wickets; neutral series drawn 1–1

Sri Lanka/Galle Sri Lanka/Colombo Sri Lanka/Colombo

July 18–22 July 26–30 Aug. 3–7

SriL. 520 for 8 dec and 96 for 0; India 276 and 338 SriL. 642 for 4 dec and 129 for 3 dec; India 707 SriL. 425 and 267; India 436 and 258 for 5

SriL. won by 10 wickets Match drawn India won by 5 wickets; series drawn 1–1

England/Nottingham England/Birmingham England/London (The Oval) England/London (Lord’s)

July 29–Aug. 1 Aug. 6–9 Aug. 18–21 Aug. 26–29

Eng. 354 and 262 for 9 dec; Pak. 182 and 80 Pak. 72 and 296; Eng. 251 and 118 for 1 Eng. 233 and 222; Pak. 308 and 148 for 6 Eng. 446; Pak. 74 and 147

Eng. won by 154 runs Eng. won by 9 wickets Pak. won by 4 wickets Eng. won by an innings and 225 runs; Eng. won series 3–1

Cricket World Cup Year

Result

1999 2003 2007

Australia Australia Australia

133 for 2 359 for 2 281 for 4

Pakistan India Sri Lanka

132 234 215 for 8

CURLING World Curling Championship—Men

World Curling Championship—Women

Year

Winner

Runner-up

Year

Winner

Runner-up

2008 2009 2010

Canada Scotland Canada

Scotland Canada Norway

2008 2009 2010

Canada China Germany

China Sweden Scotland

333

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

CYCLING Cycling Champions, 2010 Event

Winner

Country

WORLD CHAMPIONS—TRACK

Event

Winner

Country

WORLD CHAMPIONS—MOUNTAIN BIKES

Men

Men

Sprint Individual pursuit Kilometre time trial Points Team pursuit Keirin Team sprint Madison Scratch Omnium

G. Bauge T. Phinney T. Mulder C. Meyer J. Bobridge, R. Dennis, M. Hepburn, C. Meyer C. Hoy R. Forstemann, M. Levy, S. Nimke L. Howard, C. Meyer A. Rasmussen E. Clancy

France United States Netherlands Australia Australia

Keirin Team sprint Scratch Omnium

Australia Denmark Great Britain

V. Pendleton S. Hammer A. Meares T. Whitten A. Ankudinoff, S. Kent, J. Tomic S. Krupeckaite K. McCulloch, A. Meares P. Jeuland T. Whitten

Great Britain United States Australia Canada Australia Lithuania Australia France Canada

WORLD CHAMPIONS—ROAD Men Individual road race Individual time trial

T. Hushovd F. Cancellara

Norway Switzerland

G. Bronzini E. Pooley

Italy Great Britain

Women Individual road race Individual time trial

J.A. Hermida S. Hill T. Slavik T. Litscher, R. Walder, K. Leumann, R. Naef

Spain Australia Czech Republic Switzerland

M. Wloszczowska T. Moseley C. Buchanan

Poland Great Britain Australia

Women Great Britain Germany

Women Sprint Individual pursuit 500-m time trial Points Team pursuit

Cross-country Downhill 4-cross Cross-country team relay

Cross-country Downhill 4-cross

MAJOR ELITE ROAD-RACE WINNERS Tour de France Tour of Italy Tour of Spain Tour of Switzerland Milan–San Remo Tour of Flanders Paris–Roubaix Amstel Gold Liège–Bastogne–Liège Flèche Wallonne Vattenfall Cyclassics GP Ouest-France San Sebastian Classic Tour of Lombardy Paris–Nice Ghent–Wevelgem Tour of Romandie Critérium du Dauphiné Tirreno–Adriatico

A. Contador I. Basso V. Nibali F. Schleck O. Freire F. Cancellara F. Cancellara P. Gilbert A. Vinokourov C. Evans T. Farrar M. Goss L. Sánchez P. Gilbert A. Contador B. Eisel S. Spilak J. Brajkovic S. Garzelli

Spain Italy Italy Luxembourg Spain Switzerland Switzerland Belgium Kazakhstan Australia United States Australia Spain Belgium Spain Austria Slovenia Slovenia Italy

WORLD CHAMPIONS—CYCLO-CROSS Men Women

Z. Stybar M. Vos

Czech Republic Netherlands

EQUESTRIAN SPORTS The Kentucky Derby

The Preakness Stakes

The Belmont Stakes

Year

Horse

Jockey

Year

Horse

Jockey

Year

Horse

Jockey

2008 2009 2010

Big Brown Mine That Bird Super Saver

K. Desormeaux C. Borel C. Borel

2008 2009 2010

Big Brown Rachel Alexandra Lookin At Lucky

K. Desormeaux C. Borel M. Garcia

2008 2009 2010

Da’ Tara Summer Bird Drosselmeyer

A. Garcia K. Desormeaux M. Smith

2,000 Guineas

The Derby

The St. Leger

Year

Horse

Jockey

Year

Horse

Jockey

Year

Horse

Jockey

2008 2009 2010

Henrythenavigator Sea The Stars Makfi

J. Murtagh M. Kinane C.-P. Lemaire

2008 2009 2010

New Approach Sea The Stars Workforce

K. Manning M. Kinane R. Moore

2008 2009 2010

Conduit Mastery Arctic Cosmos

F. Dettori T. Durcan W. Buick

Triple Crown Champions—U.S.

Triple Crown Champions—British

Melbourne Cup

Year

Horse

Year

Winner

Year

Horse

Jockey

Year Horse

1973 1977 1978

Secretariat Seattle Slew Affirmed

1918 1935 1970

Gainsborough Bahram Nijinsky

2008 2009 2010

Viewed Shocking Americain

B. Shinn C. Brown G. Mosse

2008 Deweycheatumnhowe R. Schnittker 2009 Muscle Hill B. Sears 2010 Muscle Massive R. Pierce

334

The Hambletonian Trot Driver

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

EQUESTRIAN SPORTS (continued) Major Thoroughbred Race Winners, 2010 Race

Won by

Jockey

United States Acorn Stakes Alabama Stakes Alcibiades Stakes American Oaks Invitational Apple Blossom Handicap Arkansas Derby Arlington Million Ashland Stakes Beldame Stakes Belmont Stakes Beverly D. Stakes Blue Grass Stakes Breeders’ Cup Classic Breeders’ Cup Dirt Mile Breeders’ Cup Filly and Mare Sprint Breeders’ Cup Filly and Mare Turf Breeders’ Cup Juvenile Breeders’ Cup Juvenile Fillies Breeders’ Cup Ladies’ Classic Breeders’ Cup Mile Breeders’ Cup Sprint Breeders’ Cup Turf Breeders’ Futurity Carter Handicap CashCall Futurity Champagne Stakes Cigar Mile Handicap Clark Handicap Coaching Club American Oaks Diana Stakes Donn Handicap Eddie Read Stakes Florida Derby Flower Bowl Invitational Haskell Invitational Hollywood Derby Hollywood Gold Cup Hopeful Stakes Jockey Club Gold Cup Joe Hirsch Turf Classic Invitational Just A Game Stakes Kentucky Derby Kentucky Oaks Man o’ War Stakes Manhattan Handicap Matriarch Stakes Metropolitan Handicap Mother Goose Stakes Pacific Classic Personal Ensign Stakes Preakness Stakes Queen Elizabeth II Challenge Cup Ruffian Handicap Santa Anita Derby Santa Anita Handicap Secretariat Stakes Spinster Stakes Stephen Foster Handicap Sword Dancer Invitational Stakes Travers Stakes Turf Classic Stakes Turf Mile Stakes United Nations Stakes Vosburgh Stakes Whitney Handicap Wood Memorial Woodward Stakes Yellow Ribbon Stakes

Race

Won by

Jockey

Makfi Special Duty* Workforce Snow Fairy Arctic Cosmos Fame and Glory Rite of Passage Twice Over Harbinger

C.-P. Lemaire S. Pasquier R. Moore R. Moore W. Buick J. Murtagh P. Smullen T. Queally O. Peslier

Canford Cliffs Rip Van Winkle Twice Over

R. Hughes J. Murtagh T. Queally

Lope de Vega Special Duty* Lope de Vega Sarafina Behkabad Plumania Makfi Midday Workforce Wootton Bassett

M. Guyon S. Pasquier M. Guyon C.-P. Lemaire G. Mosse O. Peslier C. Soumillon T. Queally R. Moore P. Hanagan

Gentoo

C.-P. Lemaire

Canford Cliffs Bethrah Cape Blanco Snow Fairy Cape Blanco Sans Frontieres

R. Hughes P. Smullen J. Murtagh R. Moore S. Heffernan O. Peslier

Worthadd Rainbow Peak

M. Demuro N. Callan

Buzzword Night Magic Scalo

R. Ffrench F. Minarik O. Peslier

Descarado So You Think Americain

C. Munce S. Arnold G. Mosse

Gloria de Campeao Dar Re Mi Al Shemali

T. Pereira W. Buick R. Ffrench

Rose Kingdom* Collection Lizard’s Desire

Y. Take D. Beadman K. Shea

Big Red Mike Golden Moka Miami Deco Court Vision Joshua Tree

E. Da Silva A. Stephen R. Dos Ramos R. Albarado C. O’Donoghue

England Champagne d’Oro Blind Luck Wickedly Perfect Harmonious Zenyatta Line of David Debussy Evening Jewel Life At Ten Drosselmeyer Éclair de Lune Stately Victor Blame Dakota Phone Dubai Majesty Shared Account Uncle Mo Awesome Feather Unrivaled Belle Goldikova Big Drama Dangerous Midge J.B.’s Thunder Warrior’s Reward Comma to the Top Uncle Mo Jersey Town Giant Oak Devil May Care Proviso Quality Road The Usual Q. T. Ice Box Ave Lookin At Lucky Haimish Hy Awesome Gem Boys At Tosconova Haynesfield Winchester Proviso Super Saver Blind Luck Gio Ponti Winchester Gypsy’s Warning Quality Road Devil May Care Richard’s Kid Persistently Lookin At Lucky Harmonious Malibu Prayer Sidney’s Candy Misremembered Paddy O’Prado Acoma Blame Telling Afleet Express General Quarters Gio Ponti Chinchon Girolamo Blame Eskendereya Quality Road Hibaayeb

M. Garcia J. Rosario R. Bejarano M. Garcia M. Smith J. Court W. Buick K. Desormeaux J. Velazquez M. Smith J. Alvarado A. Garcia G. Gomez J. Rosario J. Theriot E. Prado J. Velazquez J. Sanchez K. Desormeaux O. Peslier E. Coa F. Dettori S. Bridgmohan J. Leparoux C. Nakatani J. Velazquez C. Velasquez S. Bridgmohan J. Velazquez M. Smith J. Velazquez V. Espinoza J. Lezcano J. Castellano M. Garcia G. Gomez D. Flores R. Dominguez R. Dominguez C. Velasquez M. Smith C. Borel R. Bejarano R. Dominguez C. Velasquez J. Rosario J. Velazquez J. Velazquez M. Smith A. Garcia M. Garcia J. Rosario J. Velazquez J. Talamo M. Garcia K. Desormeaux A. Garcia G. Gomez G. Gomez J. Castellano R. Bejarano R. Dominguez G. Gomez A. Garcia G. Gomez J. Velazquez J. Velazquez R. Bejarano

Two Thousand Guineas One Thousand Guineas Epsom Derby Epsom Oaks St. Leger Coronation Cup Ascot Gold Cup Coral-Eclipse Stakes King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Diamond Stakes Sussex Stakes Juddmonte International Stakes Champion Stakes France Poule d’Essai des Poulains Poule d’Essai des Pouliches Prix du Jockey-Club (French Derby) Prix de Diane (French Oaks) Grand Prix de Paris Grand Prix de Saint-Cloud Prix Jacques Le Marois Prix Vermeille Prix de l’Arc de Triomphe Prix Jean-Luc Lagardère– Grand Critérium Prix Royal-Oak Ireland Irish Irish Irish Irish Irish Irish

Two Thousand Guineas One Thousand Guineas Derby Oaks Champion Stakes St. Leger

Italy Derby Italiano Gran Premio del Jockey Club Germany Deutsches Derby Grosser Preis von Baden Preis von Europa Australia Caulfield Cup Cox Plate Melbourne Cup United Arab Emirates Dubai World Cup Dubai Sheema Classic Dubai Duty Free Asia Japan Cup Hong Kong Gold Cup Singapore Airlines International Cup Canada Queen’s Plate Stakes Prince of Wales Stakes Breeders’ Stakes Woodbine Mile Canadian International Stakes *Original winner demoted.

335

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

FENCING

FIELD HOCKEY

World Fencing Championships—Men Year

Individual

World Cup Field Hockey Championship—Men

Team

Foil 2008* B. Kleibrink (Ger.) 2009 A. Baldini (Italy) 2010 P. Joppich (Ger.)

Épée

Sabre

Foil

Épée

Sabre

Year

Winner

Runner-up

M. Tagliariol (Italy)

Zhong Man (China)

Italy

France

France

A. Avdeyev (Russia)

N. Limbach (Ger.)

Italy

France

Romania

2002 2006 2010

Germany Germany Australia

Australia Australia Germany

N. Novosjolov (Est.)

Won Woo-Young (S.Kor.)

China

France

Russia

*Olympic champions, except for team foil.

World Fencing Championships—Women Year

Individual

Team

Foil 2008* V. Vezzali (Italy) 2009 A. Shanayeva (Russia) 2010 E. Di Francisca (Italy)

Épée

Sabre

Foil

Épée

Sabre

B. Heidemann (Ger.) L. Shutova (Russia) M. Nisima (France)

M. Zagunis (U.S.)

Russia

France

Ukraine

M. Zagunis (U.S.)

Italy

Italy

Ukraine

M. Zagunis (U.S.)

Italy

Romania

Russia

*Olympic champions, except for team épée.

World Cup Field Hockey Championship—Women Year

Winner

Runner-up

2002 2006 2010

Argentina Netherlands Argentina

Netherlands Australia Netherlands

Andres Stapff—Reuters/Landov

At the 2010 women’s World Cup field hockey championship, Noel Barrionuevo (right) of Argentina shoots to score in her team’s 3–1 victory over the Netherlands.

FOOTBALL FIFA World Cup—Men Year

Result

2002 2006 2010

Brazil Italy* Spain

2 1 1

Germany France Netherlands

0 1 0

*Won on penalty kicks.

FIFA World Cup—Women Year

Result

1999 2003 2007

United States* Germany Germany

0 2 2

China Sweden Brazil

0 1 0

*Won on penalty kicks.

Association Football National Champions, 2009–10 Nation

League Champions

Cup Winners

Nation

League Champions

Cup Winners

Algeria Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Cameroon Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Côte d’Ivoire Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Ecuador England Finland France Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Honduras Hungary Ireland Israel Italy Japan

MC Alger Banfield (Opening) Sydney Salzburg Anderlecht Jorge Wilstermann Fluminense Litex Cotonsport Universidad Catolica Shandong Luneng Atlético Júnior (Opening) Saprissa ASEC Dinamo Zagreb Sparta Prague FC Copenhagen LDU Quito Chelsea HJK Helsinki Marseille Olimpi Rustavi Bayern Munich Aduana Stars Panathinaikos Marathón (Opening) Debrecen Shamrock Rovers Hapoel Tel Aviv Internazionale Nagoya Grampus

ES Setif Argentinos Juniors (Closing)

Mexico Morocco Netherlands New Zealand Nigeria Northern Ireland Norway Paraguay Peru Poland Portugal Qatar Romania Russia Saudi Arabia Scotland Senegal Serbia Slovakia Slovenia South Africa South Korea Spain Sweden Switzerland Tunisia Turkey Ukraine United States (MLS) Uruguay Venezuela

Monterrey WAC Casablanca Twente Waitakere United Enyimba Linfield Rosenborg Guaraní (Opening) Universidad de San Martín Lech Poznan Benfica Al-Gharrafa Cluj Zenit Al Hilal Rangers Diaraf Partizan Belgrade Zilina Koper Supersport United Seoul Barcelona Malmo Basel ES Tunis Bursaspor Shakhtar Donetsk Colorado Rapids Peñarol Caracas

Toluca FUS Rabat Ajax

336

Sturm Graz Gent Oriente Petrolero Santos Beroe Fovu Municipal Iquique Once Caldas (Closing) Africa Sports Hajduk Split Viktoria Plzen Nordsjaelland Chelsea TPS Turku Paris Saint-Germain WIT Georgia Bayern Munich Panathinaikos Olimpia (Closing) Debrecen Sligo Rovers Hapoel Tel Aviv Internazionale

Kaduna United Linfield Fredrikstad Libertad (Closing) Jagiellonia Porto Al-Arabi Cluj Zenit Al-Hilal Dundee United Red Star Belgrade Slovan Bratislava Maribor Wits University Sevilla Gefle Basel Olympique Beja Trabzonspor Tavriya

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

FOOTBALL (continued) UEFA Champions League

UEFA Europa League*

Season

Result

2007–08 2008–09 2009–10

Manchester United (Eng.)* 1 FC Barcelona (Spain) 2 Internazionale Milan (Italy) 2

Chelsea (Eng.) Manchester United (Eng.) Bayern Munich (Ger.)

1 0 0

*Won on penalty kicks.

Season

Result

2007–08 2008–09 2009–10

FC Zenit St. Petersburg (Russia) Shakhtar Donetsk (Ukr.)† Atlético de Madrid (Spain)†

*UEFA Cup until 2009–10.

Libertadores de América Cup

2 2 2

Rangers FC (Scot.) Werder Bremen (Ger.) Fulham FC (Eng.)

†Won in overtime.

Copa América

Year

Winner (country)

Runner-up (country)

Scores

Year

Winner

Runner-up

Score

2008

Liga de Quito (Ecua.)

4–2, 5–5

2009

Estudiantes La Plata (Arg.) Internacional (Braz.)

Fluminense Rio de Janeiro (Braz.) Cruzeiro (Braz.)

0–0, 2–1

2001 2004 2007

Colombia Brazil Brazil

Mexico Argentina Argentina

1–0 2–2, 4–2* 3–0

Chivas Guadalajara (Mex.)

2–1, 3–2

*Winner determined in penalty shoot-out.

2010

0 1 1

MLS Cup

U.S. College Football National Championship*

Year

Result

2008 2009 2010

Columbus Crew Real Salt Lake* Colorado Rapids†

3 1 2

New York Red Bulls Los Angeles Galaxy FC Dallas

1 1 1

Season

Result

2008–09 2009–10 2010–11

Florida Alabama Auburn

*Won on penalty kicks. †Won in overtime.

*BCS championship game.

Rose Bowl

Orange Bowl

Season

Result

2008–09 2009–10 2010–11

Southern California Ohio State Texas Christian

38 26 21

Penn State Oregon Wisconsin

24 17 19

Fiesta Bowl

Season

Result

2008–09 2009–10 2010–11

Virginia Tech Iowa Stanford

24 37 22

Oklahoma Texas Oregon

14 21 19

20 24 40

Cincinnati Georgia Tech Virginia Tech

7 14 12

31 51 31

Alabama Cincinnati Arkansas

17 24 26

Sugar Bowl

Season

Result

2008–09 2009–10 2010–11

Texas Boise State Oklahoma

24 17 48

Ohio State Texas Christian Connecticut

21 10 20

Season

Result

2008–09 2009–10 2010–11

Utah Florida Ohio State

NFL Final Standings, 2010–11 AMERICAN CONFERENCE East Division

North Division Won

Lost

Tied

14 11 7 4

2 5 9 12

0 0 0 0

Won

Lost

Tied

10 10 6 6

6 6 10 10

0 0 0 0

*New England *New York Jets Miami Buffalo

*Pittsburgh *Baltimore Cleveland Cincinnati

South Division Won

Lost

Tied

12 12 5 4

4 4 11 12

0 0 0 0

Won

Lost

Tied

11 10 6 6

5 6 10 10

0 0 0 0

*Indianapolis Jacksonville Houston Tennessee

West Division Won

Lost

Tied

10 8 6 6

6 8 10 10

0 0 0 0

Won

Lost

Tied

13 11 10 2

3 5 6 14

0 0 0 0

*Kansas City San Diego Oakland Denver

Won

Lost

Tied

10 9 8 4

6 7 8 12

0 0 0 0

Won

Lost

Tied

7 7 6 5

9 9 10 11

0 0 0 0

NATIONAL CONFERENCE East Division

North Division

*Philadelphia New York Giants Dallas Washington

*Chicago *Green Bay Detroit Minnesota

South Division

*Atlanta *New Orleans Tampa Bay Carolina

West Division

*Seattle St. Louis San Francisco Arizona

*Qualified for play-offs.

CFL Grey Cup*

NFL Super Bowl Season

Result

XLII

2007–08

XLIII

2008–09

XLIV

2009–10

New York Giants 17 (NFC) Pittsburgh Steelers 27 (AFC) New Orleans Saints 31 (NFC)

New England Patriots (AFC) Arizona Cardinals (NFC) Indianapolis Colts (AFC)

Year

Result

14

2008

23

2009

17

2010

Calgary Stampeders (WD) Montreal Alouettes (ED) Montreal Alouettes (ED)

22 28 21

Montreal Alouettes 14 (ED) Saskatchewan Roughriders 27 (WD) Saskatchewan Roughriders 18 (WD)

*ED—Eastern Division; WD—Western Division.

337

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

FOOTBALL (continued) AFL Grand Final Year

Result

2008 2009 2010*

Hawthorn Hawks 18.7 (115) Geelong Cats 12.8 (80) Collingwood Magpies 16.12 (108)

Geelong Cats St. Kilda Saints St. Kilda Saints

11.23 (89) 9.14 (68) 7.10 (52)

*Grand Final Replay after Grand Final ended in a draw: Collingwood 9.14 (68)–St. Kilda 10.8 (68).

Rugby Union World Cup

Rugby League World Cup

Year

Result

Year

Result

1999 2003 2007

Australia England South Africa

1995 2000 2008

Australia Australia New Zealand

35 20 15

France Australia England

12 17 6

16 40 34

Six Nations Championship England New Zealand Australia

8 12 20

Year

Result

2008 2009 2010

Wales* Ireland* France*

*Grand Slam winner.

Philippe Wojazer—Reuters/Landov

French player Morgan Parra (centre) passes the ball during France’s Six Nations Rugby Union match against England. France defeated all five other teams to take the title as a Grand Slam winner.

GOLF Masters Tournament Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

T. Immelman (S.Af.) A. Cabrera (Arg.) P. Mickelson (U.S.)

United States Open Championship (men)

British Open Tournament (men)

U.S. Professional Golfers’ Association (PGA) Championship

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

T. Woods (U.S.) L. Glover (U.S.) G. McDowell (N.Ire.)

2008 2009 2010

P. Harrington (Ire.) S. Cink (U.S.) L. Oosthuizen (S.Af.)

2008 2009 2010

P. Harrington (Ire.) Yang Yong-Eun (S.Kor.) M. Kaymer (Ger.)

United States Amateur Championship (men)

British Amateur Championship (men)

United States Women’s Open Championship

Women’s British Open Championship

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

D. Lee (N.Z.) An Byeong-Hun (S.Kor.) P. Uihlein (U.S.)

2008 2009 2010

R. Saxton (Neth.) M. Manassero (Italy) Jeong Jin (S.Kor.)

2008 2009 2010

Park In-Bee (S.Kor.) Ji Eun-Hee (S.Kor.) P. Creamer (U.S.)

2008 2009 2010

Shin Ji-Yai (S.Kor.) C. Matthew (Scot.) Y. Tseng (Taiwan)

Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA) Championship

United States Women’s Amateur Championship

Ladies’ British Amateur Championship

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

Y. Tseng (Taiwan) A. Nordqvist (Swed.) C. Kerr (U.S.)

2008 2009 2010

A. Blumenherst (U.S.) J. Song (U.S.) D. Kang (U.S.)

2008 2009 2010

A. Nordqvist (Swed.) A. Muñoz (Spain) K. Tidy (Eng.)

World Cup (men; professional)

Solheim Cup (women; professional)

Ryder Cup (men; professional)

Year

Winner

Year

Result

Year

Result

2008 2009 2010

Sweden (R. Karlsson and H. Stenson) Italy (E. Molinari and F. Molinari) not held

2005 2007 2009

United States 15½, Europe 12½ United States 16, Europe 12 United States 16, Europe 12

2006 2008 2010

Europe 18½, United States 9½ United States 16½, Europe 11½ Europe 14½, United States 13½

338

Sports and Games: Sporting Record Kyodo/AP

GYMNASTICS World Gymnastics Championships—Men Year

All-around team

2008* China 2009 not held 2010 China Year

Pommel horse

2008* Xiao Qin (China) 2009 Zhang Hongtao (China) 2010 K. Berki (Hung.)

All-around individual

Horizontal bar

Parallel bars

Yang Wei (China) K. Uchimura (Japan) K. Uchimura (Japan)

Zou Kai (China) Zou Kai (China) Zhang Chenglong (China)

Li Xiaopeng (China) Wang Guanyin (China) Feng Zhe (China)

Rings

Vault

Floor exercise

Chen Yibing (China) Yan Mingyong (China)

L. Blanik (Pol.) M. Dragulescu (Rom.)

Zou Kai (China) M. Dragulescu (Rom.)

Chen Yibing (China)

T. Bouhail (Fr.)

E. Kosmidis (Greece)

*Olympic champions.

World Gymnastics Championships—Women Year

All-around individual

Balance beam

2008* China 2009 not held 2010 Russia

All-around team

N. Liukin (U.S.) B. Sloan (U.S.) A. Mustafina (Russia)

S. Johnson (U.S.) Deng Linlin (China) A. Porgras (Rom.)

Year

Vault

Floor exercise

Hong Un-Jong (N.Kor.) K. Williams (U.S.) A. Sacramone (U.S.)

S. Izbasa (Rom.) E. Tweddle (U.K.) L. Mitchell (Austl.)

Uneven parallel bars

2008* He Kexin (China) 2009 He Kexin (China) 2010 E. Tweddle (U.K.) *Olympic champions.

Women’s champion Mao Asada of Japan performs at the world figure skating championships.

ICE HOCKEY NHL Final Standings, 2009–10 EASTERN CONFERENCE Northeast Division

†Buffalo †Ottawa †Boston †Montreal Toronto

Atlantic Division Won

Lost

45 44 39 39 30

27 32 30 33 38

Won

Lost

52 44 47 40 32

22 24 29 32 35

OTL* 10 6 13 10 14

†New Jersey †Pittsburgh †Philadelphia †N.Y. Rangers N.Y. Islanders

Southeast Division Won

Lost

48 47 41 38 34

27 28 35 33 37

Won

Lost

49 43 40 38 27

28 30 32 36 47

OTL* 7 7 6 11 11

†Washington Atlanta Carolina Tampa Bay Florida

Won

Lost

54 35 35 34 32

15 34 37 36 37

Won

Lost

51 50 46 39 37

20 25 27 32 31

OTL* 13 13 10 12 13

WESTERN CONFERENCE Central Division

†Chicago †Detroit †Nashville St. Louis Columbus

Northwest Division OTL* 8 14 6 10 15

†Vancouver †Colorado Calgary Minnesota Edmonton

Pacific Division OTL* 5 9 10 8 8

†San Jose †Phoenix †Los Angeles Anaheim Dallas

OTL* 11 7 9 11 14

*Overtime losses, worth one point. †Qualified for play-offs.

The Stanley Cup Season

Winner

Runner-up

Results

2007–08 2008–09 2009–10

Detroit Red Wings Pittsburgh Penguins Chicago Blackhawks

Pittsburgh Penguins Detroit Red Wings Philadelphia Flyers

4–2 4–3 4–2

World Ice Hockey Championship—Men

World Ice Hockey Championship—Women

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

Russia Russia Czech Republic

2008 2009 2010*

United Statesa United States Canada

*Olympic champion.

ICE SKATING World Figure Skating Champions—Men

World Figure Skating Champions—Women

World Figure Skating Champions—Pairs

World Ice Dancing Champions Year

Winners

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

Year

Winners

2008

2008 2009 2010

J. Buttle (Can.) E. Lysacek (U.S.) D. Takahashi (Japan)

2008 2009 2010

M. Asada (Japan) Kim Yu-Na (S.Kor.) M. Asada (Japan)

2008

A. Savchenko, R. Szolkowy (Ger.) A. Savchenko, R. Szolkowy (Ger.) Pang Qing, Tong Jian (China)

I. Delobel, O. Schoenfelder (Fr.) O. Domnina, M. Shabalin (Russia) T. Virtue, S. Moir (Can.)

2009 2010

2009 2010

339

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

ICE SKATING (continued) World Ice Speed-Skating Records Set in 2010 on Major Tracks*

World Ice Speed-Skating Records Set in 2010 on Short Tracks*

Event

Event

Name

Country

Result

MEN

MEN

none

none

WOMEN

WOMEN

none

1,000 m 3,000-m relay

Name

Country

Time

Zhou Yang China (Sun Linlin, Wang Meng, Zhang Hui, Zhou Yang)

China China

1 min 29.049 sec 4 min 06.610 sec

*May include records awaiting ISU ratification at year’s end.

World All-Around Speed-Skating Champions Year

Men

Women

2008 2009 2010

S. Kramer (Neth.) S. Kramer (Neth.) S. Kramer (Neth.)

P. van Deutekom (Neth.) M. Sablikova (Cz.Rep.) M. Sablikova (Cz.Rep.)

World Short-Track Speed-Skating Championships—Overall Winners Year

Men

Women

2008 2009 2010

A.A. Ohno (U.S.) Lee Ho-Suk (S.Kor.) Lee Ho-Suk (S.Kor.)

Wang Meng (China) Wang Meng (China) Park Seung-Hi (S.Kor.)

World Speed-Skating Sprint Champions Year

Men

Women

2008 2009 2010

Lee Kyou-Hyuk (S.Kor.) S. Davis (U.S.) Lee Kyou-Hyuk (S.Kor.)

J. Wolf (Ger.) Wang Beixing (China) Lee Sang-Hwa (S.Kor.)

Eric Jamison/AP

Trevor Brazile lassos a calf in the tie-down roping competition at the National Finals Rodeo. Brazile earned the rodeo Triple Crown in 2010: the tie-down and team roping titles as well as his record eighth all-around cowboy championship.

JUDO

RODEO

World Judo Championships—Men Year

Open weights

60 kg

66 kg

73 kg

2007 2009 2010

Y. Muneta (Japan) T. Riner (Fr.)* D. Kamikawa (Japan)

R. Houkes (Neth.) G. Zantaraia (Ukr.) R. Sobirov (Uzbek.)

J. Derly (Braz.) T. Hashbaatar (Mong.) J. Morishita (Japan)

Wang Ki-Chun (S.Kor.) Wang Ki-Chun (S.Kor.) H. Akimoto (Japan)

Year

81 kg

90 kg

2007 2009 2010

T. Camilo (Braz.) I. Tsirekidze (Geo.) I. Nifontov (Russia) Lee Kyu-Won (S.Kor.) Kim Jae-Bum (S.Kor.) I. Iliadis (Greece)

100 kg

+100 kg

L. Corrêa (Braz.) M. Rakov (Kazakh.) T. Anai (Japan)

T. Riner (France) T. Riner (France) T. Riner (France)

*Competition held separately in December 2008.

World Judo Championships—Women Year

Open weights

48 kg

52 kg

57 kg

2007 2009 2010

M. Tsukada (Japan) Tong Wen (China)* M. Sugimoto (Japan)

R. Tamura Tani (Japan) T. Fukumi (Japan) H. Asami (Japan)

Shi Junjie (China) M. Nakamura (Japan) Y. Nishida (Japan)

Kye Sun-Hui (N.Kor.) M. Ribout (Fr.) K. Matsumoto (Japan)

Year

63 kg

70 kg

78 kg

+78 kg

2007 2009 2010

D. González (Cuba) Y. Ueno (Japan) Y. Ueno (Japan)

G. Emane (Fr.) Y. Alvear (Colom.) L. Decosse (Fr.)

Y. Laborde (Cuba) M. Verkerk (Neth.) K. Harrison (U.S.)

Tong Wen (China) Tong Wen (China) M. Sugimoto (Japan)

*Competition held separately in December 2008.

340

Men’s World All-Around Rodeo Championship Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

T. Brazile T. Brazile T. Brazile

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

ROWING World Rowing Championships—Men Year

Single sculls

Min:sec

Double sculls

Min:sec

Quadruple sculls

Min:sec

Coxed pairs

Min:sec

2008*

O. Tufte (Nor.)

6:59.83

6:27.77

Poland

5:41.33

M. Drysdale (N.Z.)

6:33.35

6:07.02

Poland

5:38.33

2010

O. Synek (Cz.Rep.)

6:47.49

N. Cohen, J. Sullivan (N.Z.)

6:22.63

Croatia

6:15.78

G. Bergen, J. Dunaway (Can.) T. Kepper, H. Rummel (U.S.) C. Morgan, D. Grimm (Austl.)

7:06.69

2009

D. Crawshay, S. Brennan (Austl.) E. Knittel, S. Krüger (Ger.)

Year

Coxless pairs

Min:sec

Coxless fours

Min:sec

Eights

Min:sec

2008*

D. Ginn, D. Free (Austl.) E. Murray, H. Bond (N.Z.) E. Murray, H. Bond (N.Z.)

6:37.44

Great Britain

6:06.57

Canada

5:23.89

6:15.93

Great Britain

5:47.28

Germany

5:24.13

6:30.16

France

6:45.38

Germany

5:33.84

2009 2010

6:53.58 7:03.32

*Olympic champions, except coxed pairs.

World Rowing Championships—Women

The Boat Race*

Year

Single sculls

Min:sec

Coxless pairs

Min:sec

2008* 2009 2010

R. Neykova (Bulg.) Ye. Karsten-Khodotovich (Bela.) F. Svensson (Swed.)

7:22.34 7:11.78 7:47.61

G. Andrunache, V. Susanu (Rom.) Z. Francia, E. Cafaro (U.S.) J. Haigh, R. Scown (N.Z.)

7:20.60 7:06.28 7:17.12

Year

Double sculls

Min:sec

Coxless fours

Min:sec

2008*

7:07.32

Belarus

6:39.89

2009 2010

C. Evers-Swindell, G. Evers-Swindell (N.Z.) M. Fularczyk, J. Michalska (Pol.) A. Watkins, K. Grainger (Gr.Brit.)

6:47.18 7:04.70

Netherlands Netherlands

6:31.34 7:21.09

Year

Quadruple sculls

Min:sec

Eights

Min:sec

2008* 2009 2010

China Ukraine Great Britain

6:16.06 6:18.41 7:12.78

United States United States United States

6:05.34 6:05.34 6:12.42

Year

Winner

Winner’s time (min:sec)

Margin of victory

2008 2009 2010†

Oxford Oxford Cambridge

20:53 17:00 17:35

6 lengths 3½ lengths 11/ 3 lengths

*Annual race between the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford. †Historical record: Cambridge 80, Oxford 75, 1 draw.

*Olympic champions, except coxless fours.

SAILING (YACHTING) America’s Cup Year

Winning yacht

Owner

Skipper

Losing yacht

Owner

2003 2007 2010

Alinghi (Switz.) Alinghi (Switz.) USA-17 (U.S.)

Alinghi Swiss Challenge Alinghi BMW Oracle Racing

R. Coutts B. Butterworth J. Spithill

New Zealand (N.Z.) New Zealand (N.Z.) Alinghi 5 (Switz.)

Team New Zealand Team New Zealand Alinghi

World Class Boat Champions, 2010

Bermuda Race*

Transpacific Race*

Class

Winner

Country

Year

Winning yacht

Owner

Year

Winning yacht

Owner/Skipper

Etchells 22 Finn J/24 Laser Laser Women RS:X (men’s boards) RS:X (women’s boards) 470 (men’s) 470 (women’s)

J. Bertrand E. Wright T. Healy T. Slingsby S. Multala P. Myszka B. Manchon M. Belcher/M. Page L. Westerhof/ L. Berkhout I. Martínez/ X. Fernández J. Ruf S. Payne I. Percy/A. Simpson R. Gaebler/N. Gaebler M. Mezzaroma Quantum Racing (T. Hutchinson)

Australia Great Britain United States Australia Finland Poland Spain Australia Netherlands

2006

Sinn Fein† Lively Lady II‡ Sinn Fein Carina

P. Rebovich W. Hubbard III P. Rebovich R. Potts

2005 2007 2009

Rosebud Reinrag2 Samba Pa Ti

R. Sturgeon T. Garnier J. Kilroy, Jr.

49er 2.4 metre Moth Star Tornado Farr 40 Transpac 52 (TP52)

2008 2010

*Overall winner based on corrected time. *St. David’s Lighthouse Trophy winner. †Winner under Offshore Rating Rule (ORR) scoring. ‡Winner under IRC scoring.

Spain United States Great Britain Great Britain Germany Italy United States

341

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

SKIING World Alpine Skiing Championships—Slalom Year

Men’s slalom

2007 M. Matt (Austria) 2009 M. Pranger (Austria) 2010* G. Razzoli (Italy)

Men’s giant slalom

Men’s supergiant slalom

Women’s slalom

Women’s giant slalom

Women’s supergiant slalom

A. Svindal (Nor.) C. Janka (Switz.) C. Janka (Switz.)

P. Staudacher (Italy) D. Cuche (Switz.) A. Svindal (Nor.)

S. Zahrobska (Cz.Rep.) M. Riesch (Ger.) M. Riesch (Ger.)

N. Hosp (Austria) K. Hölzl (Ger.) V. Rebensburg (Ger.)

A. Pärson (Swed.) L. Vonn (U.S.) A. Fischbacher (Austria)

Team Austria canceled

*Olympic champions.

World Alpine Skiing Championships—Downhill

World Alpine Skiing Championships—Combined

Year

Women

Year

Men

Women

A. Pärson (Swed.) L. Vonn (U.S.) L. Vonn (U.S.)

2007 2009 2010*

D. Albrecht (Switz.) A. Svindal (Nor.) B. Miller (U.S.)

A. Pärson (Swed.) K. Zettel (Austria) M. Riesch (Ger.)

Men

2007 A. Svindal (Nor.) 2009 J. Kucera (Can.) 2010* D. Defago (Switz.) *Olympic champions.

*Olympic champions.

World Nordic Skiing Championships—Men Year

Sprint

2007 J.A. Svartedal (Nor.) 2009 O.V. Hattestad (Nor.) 2010* N. Kriyukov (Russia)

Team sprint

Double pursuit

15 km

30 km

50 km

Relay

Italy Norway Norway

A. Teichmann (Ger.)

L. Berger (Nor.) A. Veerpalu (Est.) D. Cologna (Switz.)

P. Northug (Nor.) M. Hellner (Swed.)

O.-B. Hjelmeset (Nor.) P. Northug (Nor.) P. Northug (Nor.)

Norway Norway Sweden

15 km

30 km

Relay

J. Kowalczyk (Pol.) M. Bjørgen (Nor.)

V. Kuitunen (Fin.) J. Kowalczyk (Pol.) J. Kowalczyk (Pol.)

Finland Finland Norway

*Olympic champions.

World Nordic Skiing Championships—Women Year

Sprint

2007 A. Jacobsen (Nor.) 2009 A. Follis (Italy) 2010* M. Bjørgen (Nor.)

Team sprint

Double pursuit

10 km

Finland Finland Germany

O. Savyalova (Russia)

K. Neumannova (Cz.Rep.) A.-K. Saarinen (Fin.) C. Kalla (Swed.)

*Olympic champions.

World Nordic Skiing Championships—Ski Jump Year

Normal hill*

Alpine World Cup

Women (normal hill)

Large hill†

2007 A. Malysz (Pol.) S. Ammann (Switz.) 2009 W. Loitzl (Austria) A. Küttel (Switz.) L. Van (U.S.) 2010‡ S. Ammann (Switz.) S. Ammann (Switz.)

Year

Nordic combined (mass start; 10 km)

2007 2009 T. Lodwick (U.S.) 2010‡

Nordic combined (10 km)

Nordic combined (15 km)

Team jump (large hill)

Nordic combined (7.5 km)

Austria Austria Austria

H. Manninen (Fin.)

*100-m hill in 2007 and 2009; 106-m hill in 2010.

Nordic combined Team

B. Demong (U.S.) B. Demong (U.S.)

Finland Japan Austria

†134-m hill in 2007 and 2009; 140-m hill in 2010. ‡Olympic champions.

Nordic World Cup

Men

Women

2008 2009 2010

B. Miller (U.S.) A. Svindal (Nor.) C. Janka (Switz.)

L. Kildow Vonn (U.S.) L. Vonn (U.S.) L. Vonn (U.S.)

Freestyle Skiing World Cup

Nordic combined (large hill; 10 km)

R. Ackermann (Ger.) T. Lodwick (U.S.) J. Lamy Chappuis (France)

Year

Snowboard World Cup

Year

Men

Women

Year

Men

Women

2008 2009 2010

L. Bauer (Cz.Rep.) D. Cologna (Switz.) P. Northug (Nor.)

V. Kuitunen (Fin.) J. Kowalczyk (Pol.) J. Kowalczyk (Pol.)

2008 2009 2010

B. Karl (Austria) S. Grabner (Austria) B. Karl (Austria)

N. Sauerbreij (Neth.) D. Günther (Austria) M. Ricker (Can.)

Year

Men

Women

2008 2009 2010

S. Omischl (Can.) A. Bilodeau (Can.) A. Kushnir (Bela.)

O. David (Fr.) O. David (Fr.) Li Nina (China)

Swiss ski jumper Simon Ammann rejoices after winning the first of his two gold medals at the Vancouver Winter Olympics.

SQUASH British Open Championship—Men

British Open Championship—Women

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

D. Palmer (Austl.) N. Matthew (Eng.) not held

2008 2009 2010

N. David (Malay.) R. Grinham (Austl.) not held

World Open Championship—Men

World Open Championship—Women

Year

Winner

Year

Winner

2008 2009 2010

R. Ashour (Egypt) A. Shabana (Egypt) N. Matthew (Eng.)

2008 2009 2010

N. David (Malay.) N. David (Malay.) N. David (Malay.) Frank Gunn—CP/AP

342

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

SWIMMING World Swimming Records Set in 2010 in 25-m Pools* Event

Name

Country

World Swimming Records Set in 2010 in 50-m Pools Time

Event

MEN

Name

Country

Time

MEN

200-m individual medley 400-m individual medley 4 × 200-m freestyle relay

Ryan Lochte Ryan Lochte Russia (Nikita Lobintsev, Danila Izotov, Yevgeny Lagunov, Aleksandr Sukhorukov)

United States United States Russia

China (Chen Qian, Tang Yi, Liu Jing, Zhu Qianwei)

China

1 min 50.08 sec 3 min 55.50 sec 6 min 49.04 sec

none WOMEN none

WOMEN 4 × 200-m freestyle relay

7 min 35.94 sec

*May include records awaiting FINA ratification at year’s end.

World Swimming and Diving Championships—Men Freestyle Year

50 m

100 m

200 m

400 m

800 m

1,500 m

2005 2007

R. Schoeman (S.Af.) B. Wildman-Tobriner (U.S.) C. Cielo (Braz.)

F. Magnini (Italy) F. Magnini (Italy)

M. Phelps (U.S.) M. Phelps (U.S.)

G. Hackett (Austl.) P. Stanczyk (Pol.)*

G. Hackett (Austl.) M. Sawrymowicz (Pol.)

C. Cielo (Braz.)

P. Biedermann (Ger.)

G. Hackett (Austl.) Park Tae-Hwan (S.Kor.) P. Biedermann (Ger.)

Zhang Lin (China)

O. Mellouli (Tun.)

2009

Backstroke

2005 2007 2009

Breaststroke

50 m

100 m

200 m

50 m

100 m

200 m

A. Grigoriadis (Greece) G. Zandberg (S.Af.) L. Tancock (U.K.)

A. Peirsol (U.S.)

A. Peirsol (U.S.)

M. Warnecke (Ger.)

B. Hansen (U.S.)

B. Hansen (U.S.)

A. Peirsol (U.S.) J. Koga (Japan)

R. Lochte (U.S.) A. Peirsol (U.S.)

O. Lisogor (Ukr.) C. Van der Burgh (S.Af.)

B. Hansen (U.S.) B. Rickard (Austl.)

K. Kitajima (Japan) D. Gyurta (Hung.)

50 m

100 m

200 m

200 m

400 m

4 × 100-m freestyle

R. Schoeman (S.Af.) R. Schoeman (S.Af.) M. Cavic (Serbia)

I. Crocker (U.S.) M. Phelps (U.S.) M. Phelps (U.S.)

P. Korzeniowski (Pol.) M. Phelps (U.S.) M. Phelps (U.S.)

M. Phelps (U.S.) M. Phelps (U.S.) R. Lochte (U.S.)

L. Cseh (Hung.) M. Phelps (U.S.) R. Lochte (U.S.)

United States United States United States

4 × 200-m freestyle

4 × 100-m medley

1-m springboard

3-m springboard

Platform

3-m synchronized

United States United States United States

United States Australia United States

A. Despatie (Can.) Luo Yutong (China) Qin Kai (China)

A. Despatie (Can.) Qin Kai (China) He Chong (China)

Hu Jia (China) China G. Galperin (Russia) China T. Daley (U.K.) China

Butterfly

2005 2007 2009

Individual medley

Team relays

Diving

2005 2007 2009

10-m synchronized Russia China China

*Original winner stripped after failing drug test.

World Swimming and Diving Championships—Women Freestyle Year

50 m

100 m

200 m

400 m

800 m

1,500 m

2005 2007 2009

L. Lenton (Austl.) L. Lenton (Austl.) B. Steffen (Ger.)

J. Henry (Austl.) L. Lenton (Austl.) B. Steffen (Ger.)

S. Figues (Fr.) L. Manaudou (Fr.) F. Pellegrini (Italy)

L. Manaudou (Fr.) L. Manaudou (Fr.) F. Pellegrini (Italy)

K. Ziegler (U.S.) K. Ziegler (U.S.) L. Friis (Den.)

K. Ziegler (U.S.) K. Ziegler (U.S.) A. Filippi (Italy)

50 m

100 m

200 m

50 m

100 m

200 m

G. Rooney (Austl.) L. Vaziri (U.S.) Zhao Jing (China)

K. Coventry (Zimb.) N. Coughlin (U.S.) G. Spofforth (U.K.)

K. Coventry (Zimb.) M. Hoelzer (U.S.) K. Coventry (Zimb.)

J. Edmistone (Austl.) J. Hardy (U.S.) Yu. Efimova (Russia)

L. Jones (Austl.) L. Jones (Austl.) R. Soni (U.S.)

L. Jones (Austl.) L. Jones (Austl.) N. Higl (Serbia)

50 m

100 m

200 m

200 m

400 m

4 × 100-m freestyle

D. Miatke (Austl.) T. Alshammar (Swed.) M. Guehrer (Austl.)

J. Schipper (Austl.) L. Lenton (Austl.)

O. Jedrzejczak (Pol.) J. Schipper (Austl.)

K. Hoff (U.S.) K. Hoff (U.S.)

K. Hoff (U.S.) K. Hoff (U.S.)

Australia Australia

S. Sjöström (Swed.)

J. Schipper (Austl.)

A. Kukors (U.S.)

K. Hosszu (Hung.)

Netherlands

Backstroke

2005 2007 2009

Breaststroke

Butterfly

2005 2007 2009

Individual medley

Team relays

Diving

2005 2007 2009

4 × 200-m freestyle

4 × 100-m medley

1-m springboard

3-m springboard

Platform

3-m synchronized

10-m synchronized

United States United States China

Australia Australia China

B. Hartley (Can.) He Zi (China) Yu. Pakhalina (Russia)

Guo Jingjing (China) Guo Jingjing (China) Guo Jingjing (China)

L. Wilkinson (U.S.) Wang Xin (China) P. Espinosa (Mex.)

China China China

China China China

343

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

TABLE TENNIS World Table Tennis Championships—Men

World Table Tennis Championships—Mixed

Table Tennis World Cup

Year

St. Bride’s Vase (singles)

Iran Cup (doubles)

Year

Heydusek Prize

Year

Men

2005 2007 2009

Wang Liqin (China) Wang Liqin (China) Wang Hao (China)

Kong Linghui, Wang Hao (China) Chen Qi, Ma Lin (China) Chen Qi, Wang Hao (China)

2005 2007 2009

Guo Yue, Wang Liqin (China) Guo Yue, Wang Liqin (China) Cao Zhen, Li Ping (China)

2008 2009 2010

Wang Hao (China) V. Samsonov (Bela.) Wang Hao (China)

Year

Women

2008 2009 2010

Li Xiaoxia (China) Liu Shiwen (China) Guo Yan (China)

World Table Tennis Championships—Women Year

G. Geist Prize (singles)

W.J. Pope Trophy (doubles)

2005 2007 2009

Zhang Yining (China) Guo Yue (China) Zhang Yining (China)

Wang Nan, Zhang Yining (China) Wang Nan, Zhang Yining (China) Guo Yue, Li Xiaoxia (China)

World Table Tennis Championships—Team Year

Swaythling Cup (men)

Corbillon Cup (women)

2006 2008 2010

China China China

China China Singapore

TENNIS Australian Open Tennis Championships—Singles

All-England (Wimbledon) Tennis Championships—Singles

Year

Men

Women

Year

Men

Women

2008 2009 2010

N. Djokovic (Serbia) R. Nadal (Spain) R. Federer (Switz.)

M. Sharapova (Russia) S. Williams (U.S.) S. Williams (U.S.)

2008 2009 2010

R. Nadal (Spain) R. Federer (Switz.) R. Nadal (Spain)

V. Williams (U.S.) S. Williams (U.S.) S. Williams (U.S.)

Australian Open Tennis Championships—Doubles

All-England (Wimbledon) Tennis Championships—Doubles

Year

Men

Women

Year

Men

Women

2008 2009 2010

J. Erlich, A. Ram B. Bryan, M. Bryan B. Bryan, M. Bryan

A. Bondarenko, K. Bondarenko S. Williams, V. Williams S. Williams, V. Williams

2008 2009 2010

D. Nestor, N. Zimonjic D. Nestor, N. Zimonjic J. Melzer, P. Petzschner

S. Williams, V. Williams S. Williams, V. Williams V. King, Y. Shvedova

French Open Tennis Championships—Singles

United States Open Tennis Championships—Singles

Year

Men

Women

Year

Men

Women

2008 2009 2010

R. Nadal (Spain) R. Federer (Switz.) R. Nadal (Spain)

A. Ivanovic (Serbia) S. Kuznetsova (Russia) F. Schiavone (Italy)

2008 2009 2010

R. Federer (Switz.) J. del Potro (Arg.) R. Nadal (Spain)

S. Williams (U.S.) K. Clijsters (Belg.) K. Clijsters (Belg.)

French Open Tennis Championships—Doubles

United States Open Tennis Championships—Doubles

Year

Men

Women

Year

Men

Women

2008 2009 2010

P. Cuevas, L. Horna L. Dlouhy, L. Paes D. Nestor, N. Zimonjic

A. Medina Garrigues, V. Ruano Pascual A. Medina Garrigues, V. Ruano Pascual S. Williams, V. Williams

2008 2009 2010

B. Bryan, M. Bryan L. Dlouhy, L. Paes B. Bryan, M. Bryan

C. Black, L. Huber S. Williams, V. Williams V. King, Y. Shvedova

Davis Cup (men) Year

Winner

Runner-up

Results

2008 2009 2010

Spain Spain Serbia

Argentina Czech Republic France

3–1 5–0 3–2

Fed Cup (women) Year

Winner

Runner-up

Results

2008 2009 2010

Russia Italy Italy

Spain United States United States

4–0 4–0 3–1

John Angelillo—UPI/Landov

Belgian tennis star Kim Clijsters stretches for the ball in her U.S. Open final against Vera Zvonareva of Russia. Clijsters beat Zvonareva for her second consecutive title in that tournament. 344

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

TRACK AND FIELD SPORTS (ATHLETICS) World Outdoor Track and Field Championships—Men

World Outdoor Track and Field Championships—Women

Event

2007

2009

Event

2007

2009

100 m 200 m 400 m 800 m 1,500 m 5,000 m 10,000 m steeplechase 110-m hurdles 400-m hurdles

T. Gay (U.S.) T. Gay (U.S.) J. Wariner (U.S.) A.K. Yego (Kenya) B. Lagat (U.S.) B. Lagat (U.S.) K. Bekele (Eth.) B.K. Kipruto (Kenya) Liu Xiang (China) K. Clement (U.S.)

U. Bolt (Jam.) U. Bolt (Jam.) L. Merritt (U.S.) M. Mulaudzi (S.Af.) Y.S. Kamel (Bahrain) K. Bekele (Eth.) K. Bekele (Eth.) E. Kemboi (Kenya) R. Brathwaite (Barb.) K. Clement (U.S.)

marathon 20-km walk 50-km walk 4 × 100-m relay

L. Kibet (Kenya) J. Pérez (Ecua.) N. Deakes (Austl.) United States (D. Patton, W. Spearmon, T. Gay, L. Dixon) United States (L. Merritt, A. Taylor, D. Williamson, J. Wariner) D. Thomas (Bah.) B. Walker (U.S.) I. Saladino (Pan.) N. Évora (Port.) R. Hoffa (U.S.) G. Kanter (Est.) I. Tikhon (Bela.) T. Pitkämäki (Fin.) R. Sebrle (Cz.Rep.)

A. Kirui (Kenya) V. Borchin (Russia) S. Kirdyapkin (Russia) Jamaica (S. Mullings, M. Frater, U. Bolt, A. Powell) United States (A. Taylor, J. Wariner, K. Clement, L. Merritt) Y. Rybakov (Russia) S. Hooker (Austl.) D. Phillips (U.S.) P. Idowu (Gr.Brit.) C. Cantwell (U.S.) R. Harting (Ger.) P. Kozmus (Slov.) A. Thorkildsen (Nor.) T. Hardee (U.S.)

100 m 200 m 400 m 800 m 1,500 m 5,000 m 10,000 m steeplechase 100-m hurdles 400-m hurdles marathon 20-km walk 4 × 100-m relay

V. Campbell (Jam.) A. Felix (U.S.) C. Ohuruogu (Gr.Brit.) J. Jepkosgei (Kenya) M.Y. Jamal (Bahrain) M. Defar (Eth.) T. Dibaba (Eth.) Ye. Volkova (Russia) M. Perry (U.S.) J. Rawlinson (Austl.) C. Ndereba (Kenya) O. Kaniskina (Russia) United States (L. Williams, A. Felix, M. Barber, T. Edwards) United States (D. Trotter, A. Felix, M. Wineberg, S. Richards) B. Vlasic (Cro.) Ye. Isinbaeva (Russia) T. Lebedeva (Russia) Y. Savigne (Cuba) V. Vili (N.Z.) F. Dietzsch (Ger.) B. Heidler (Ger.) B. Spotakova (Cz.Rep.) C. Klüft (Swed.)

S.-A. Fraser (Jam.) A. Felix (U.S.) S. Richards (U.S.) C. Semenya (S.Af.) M.Y. Jamal (Bahrain) V. Cheruiyot (Kenya) L.C. Masai (Kenya) M. Domínguez (Spain) B. Foster-Hylton (Jam.) M. Walker (Jam.) Bai Xue (China) O. Kaniskina (Russia) Jamaica (S. Facey, S.-A. Fraser, A. Bailey, K. Stewart) United States (D. Dunn, A. Felix, L. Demus, S. Richards) B. Vlasic (Cro.) A. Rogowska (Pol.) B. Reese (U.S.) Y. Savigne (Cuba) V. Vili (N.Z.) D. Samuels (Austl.) A. Wlodarczyk (Pol.) S. Nerius (Ger.) J. Ennis (Gr.Brit.)

4 × 400-m relay

high jump pole vault long jump triple jump shot put discus throw hammer throw javelin throw decathlon

World Indoor Track and Field Championships—Men Event

2008

2010

60 m 400 m 800 m 1,500 m 3,000 m 60-m hurdles 4 × 400-m relay

O.A. Fasuba (Nigeria) T. Christopher (Can.) A. Kaki Khamis (Sudan) D. Mekonnen (Eth.) T. Bekele (Eth.) Liu Xiang (China) United States (J. Davis, J. Torrance, G. Nixon, K. Willie) S. Holm (Swed.) Ye. Lukyanenko (Russia) G.K. Mokoena (S.Af.) P. Idowu (Gr.Brit.) C. Cantwell (U.S.) B. Clay (U.S.)

D. Chambers (Gr.Brit.) C. Brown (Bah.) A. Kaki Khamis (Sudan) D. Mekonnen (Eth.) B. Lagat (U.S.) D. Robles (Cuba) United States (J. Torrance, G. Nixon, T. Tate, B. Jackson) I. Ukhov (Russia) S. Hooker (Austl.) F. Lapierre (Austl.) T. Tamgho (France) C. Cantwell (U.S.) B. Clay (U.S.)

high jump pole vault long jump triple jump shot put heptathlon

4 × 400-m relay

high jump pole vault long jump triple jump shot put discus throw hammer throw javelin throw heptathlon

Triple jumper Teddy Tamgho of France leaps to the world record and wins the gold medal at the IAAF world indoor championships in Doha, Qatar.

World Indoor Track and Field Championships—Women Event

2008

2010

60 m 400 m 800 m 1,500 m 3,000 m 60-m hurdles 4 × 400-m relay

A. Williams (U.S.) O. Zykina (Russia) T. Lewis (Austl.) Ye. Soboleva (Russia) M. Defar (Eth.) L. Jones (U.S.) Russia (Yu. Gushchina, T. Levina, N. Nazarova, O. Zykina) B. Vlasic (Cro.) Ye. Isinbaeva (Russia) N. Gomes (Port.) Y. Savigne (Cuba) V. Vili (N.Z.) T. Hellebaut (Belg.)

V. Campbell-Brown (Jam.) D. Dunn (U.S.) M. Savinova (Russia) K. Gezahegne (Eth.) M. Defar (Eth.) L. Jones (U.S.) United States (D. Dunn, D. Trotter, N. Hastings, A. Felix) B. Vlasic (Cro.) F. Murer (Braz.) B. Reese (U.S.) O. Rypakova (Kazakh.) N. Ostapchuk (Bela.) J. Ennis (Gr.Brit.)

high jump pole vault long jump triple jump shot put pentathlon

Kamran Jebreili/AP

345

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

TRACK AND FIELD SPORTS (ATHLETICS) (continued) 2010 World Indoor Records—Men*

Boston Marathon

Event

Competitor and country

Performance

Year

Men

hr:min:sec

triple jump heptathlon

Teddy Tamgho (France) Ashton Eaton (U.S.)

17.90 m (58 ft 8¾ in) 6,499 points

2008

R. (Kipkoech) Cheruiyot (Kenya) D. Merga (Eth.) R. (Kiprono) Cheruiyot (Kenya)

2:07:46

2009 2010

*May include records awaiting IAAF ratification at year’s end.

2010 World Indoor Records—Women* Event

Competitor and country

Performance

4 × 800-m relay

Moscow (Tatyana Andriyanova, Oksana SukhachovaSpasovkhodskaya, Yelena Kofanova, Yevgeniya Zinurova)

8 min 12.41 sec

2:08:42 2:05:52

Year

Women

hr:min:sec

2008 2009 2010

D. Tune (Eth.) S. Kosgei (Kenya) T. Erkesso (Eth.)

2:25:25 2:32:16 2:26:11

London Marathon

*May include records awaiting IAAF ratification at year’s end.

Year

Men

hr:min:sec

2010 World Outdoor Records—Men*

2007 2009 2010

M. Lel (Kenya) S. Wanjiru (Kenya) T. Kebede (Eth.)

2:05:15 2:05:10 2:05:19

Year

Women

hr:min:sec

2008 2009 2010

I. Mikitenko (Ger.) I. Mikitenko (Ger.) L. Shobukhova (Russia)

2:24:14 2:22:11 2:22:00

Event

Competitor and country

Performance

200 m† 800 m

Tyson Gay (U.S.) David Rudisha (Kenya) David Rudisha (Kenya) Leonard Komon (Kenya) Leonard Komon (Kenya) Zersenay Tadese (Eritrea) Zersenay Tadese (Eritrea) Samuel Kosgei (Kenya)

19.41 sec 1 min 41.09 sec 1 min 41.01 sec 26 min 44 sec 41 min 13 sec 55 min 21 sec 58 min 23 sec 1 hr 11 min 50 sec

10-km road race 15-km road race 20-km road race half marathon‡ 25-km road race

*May include records awaiting IAAF ratification at year’s end. ‡Not an officially ratified event; best performance on record.

†200-m straight (no turn).

2010 World Outdoor Records—Women* Event

Competitor and country

Performance

25-km road race hammer throw

Mary Keitany (Kenya) Anita Wlodarczyk (Pol.)

1 hr 19 min 53 sec 78.30 m (256 ft 10 in)

*May include records awaiting IAAF ratification at year’s end.

World Cross Country Championships—Men Year

Individual

Team

2008 2009 2010

K. Bekele (Eth.) G. Gebremariam (Eth.) J. Ebuya (Kenya)

Kenya Kenya Kenya

World Cross Country Championships—Women Year

Individual

Team

2008 2009 2010

T. Dibaba (Eth.) F. Kiplagat (Kenya) E. Chebet (Kenya)

Ethiopia Kenya Kenya

Berlin Marathon Year

Men

hr:min:sec

2008 2009 2010

H. Gebrselassie (Eth.) H. Gebrselassie (Eth.) P. Makau (Kenya)

2:03:59 2:06:08 2:05:08

Year

Women

hr:min:sec

2008 2009 2010

I. Mikitenko (Ger.) A. Habtamu Besuye (Eth.) A. Kebede (Eth.)

2:19:19 2:24:47 2:23:58

Chicago Marathon Year

Men

hr:min:sec

2008 2009 2010

E. Cheruiyot (Kenya) S. Wanjiru (Kenya) S. Wanjiru (Kenya)

2:06:25 2:05:41 2:06:24

Year

Women

hr:min:sec

2008 2009 2010

L. Grigoryeva (Russia) L. Shobukhova (Russia) L. Shobukhova (Russia)

2:27:17 2:25:56 2:20:25

New York City Marathon Year

Men

hr:min:sec

2008 2009 2010

M. Gomes dos Santos (Braz.) M. Keflezighi (U.S.) G. Gebremariam (Eth.)

2:08:43 2:09:15 2:08:14

Year

Women

hr:min:sec

2008 2009 2010

P. Radcliffe (U.K.) D. Tulu (Eth.) E. Kiplagat (Kenya)

2:23:56 2:28:52 2:28:20

VOLLEYBALL Beach Volleyball World Championships

World Volleyball Championships

Year

Men

Women

Year

Men

Women

2005 2007 2009

M. Araujo, F. Magalhães (Braz.) P. Dalhausser, T. Rogers (U.S.) J. Brink, J. Reckermann (Ger.)

M. May-Treanor, K. Walsh (U.S.) M. May-Treanor, K. Walsh (U.S.) J. Kessy, A. Ross (U.S.)

2006 2008* 2010

Brazil United States Brazil

Russia Brazil Russia

*Olympic champions.

346

Sports and Games: Sporting Record

WEIGHTLIFTING World Weightlifting Champions, 2010 MEN

WOMEN

Weight class

Winner and country

Performance

Weight class

Winner and country

Performance

56 kg (123.5 lb) 62 kg (136.5 lb) 69 kg (152 lb) 77 kg (169.5 lb) 85 kg (187 lb) 94 kg (207 lb) 105 kg (231.5 lb) +105 kg (+231.5 lb)

Wu Jingbiao (China) Kim Un-Guk (N.Kor.) Liao Hui (China) Tigran Gevorg Martirosyan (Arm.) Adrian Zielinski (Pol.) Aleksandr Ivanov (Russia) Marcin Dolega (Pol.) Behdad Salimikordasiabi (Iran)

292 kg (643.8 lb) 320 kg (705.5 lb) 358 kg (789.3 lb) 373 kg (822.3 lb) 383 kg (844.4 lb) 403 kg (888.5 lb) 415 kg (914.9 lb) 453 kg (998.7 lb)

48 kg (106 lb) 53 kg (117 lb) 58 kg (128 lb) 63 kg (139 lb) 69 kg (152 lb) 75 kg (165 lb) +75 kg (+165 lb)

Nurcan Taylan (Tur.) Chen Xiaoting (China) Deng Wei (China) Maiya Maneza (Kazakh.) Svetlana Shimkova (Russia) Svetlana Podobedova (Kazakh.) Tatyana Kashirina (Russia)

214 kg (471.8 lb) 222 kg (489.4 lb) 237 kg (522.5 lb) 248 kg (546.8 lb) 256 kg (564.4 lb) 295 kg (650.4 lb) 315 kg (694.5 lb)

WRESTLING World Wrestling Championships—Freestyle Year

55 kg

60 kg

66 kg

74 kg

2008* 2009 2010

H. Cejudo (U.S.) Yang Kyong-Il (N.Kor.) V. Lebedev (Russia)

M. Batirov (Russia) B. Kudukhov (Russia) B. Kudukhov (Russia)

R. Sahin (Tur.) M. Taghavi (Iran) S. Kumar (India)

B. Saytiyev (Russia) D. Tsargush (Russia) D. Tsargush (Russia)

Year

84 kg

96 kg

120 kg

2008* 2009 2010

R. Mindorashvili (Geo.) Z. Sokhiev (Uzbek.) M. Ganev (Bulg.)

S. Muradov (Russia) K. Gatsalov (Russia) K. Gazyumov (Azer.)

A. Taymazov (Uzbek.) B. Makhov (Russia) B. Makhov (Russia)

*Olympic champions.

World Wrestling Championships—Greco-Roman Style Year

55 kg

60 kg

66 kg

74 kg

2008* 2009 2010

N. Mankiyev (Russia) H. Soryan-Reihanpour (Iran) H. Soryan-Reihanpour (Iran)

I.-B. Albiyev (Russia) I.-B. Albiyev (Russia) H. Aliyev (Azer.)

S. Guénot (Fr.) F. Mansurov (Azer.) A. Vachadze (Russia)

M. Kvirkelia (Geo.) S. Cebi (Tur.) S. Cebi (Tur.)

Year

84 kg

96 kg

120 kg

2008* 2009 2010

A. Minguzzi (Italy) N. Avluca (Tur.) H. Marinov (Bulg.)

A. Khushtov (Russia) B. Kiss (Hung.) A. Aliakbari (Iran)

M. López (Cuba) M. López (Cuba) M. López (Cuba)

*Olympic champions.

Sumo Tournament Champions, 2010 Tournament

Location

Winner

Hatsu Basho (New Year’s tournament) Haru Basho (spring tournament) Natsu Basho (summer tournament) Nagoya Basho (Nagoya tournament) Aki Basho (autumn tournament) Kyushu Basho (Kyushu tournament)

Tokyo Osaka Tokyo Nagoya Tokyo Fukuoka

Asashoryu Hakuho Hakuho Hakuho Hakuho Hakuho

Winner’s record 13–2 15–0 15–0 15–0 15–0 14–1

Max Rossi—Reuters/Landov

Cuban players try to block the shot as Leandro Vissotto Neves of Brazil spikes the ball in the final of the men’s world volleyball championship. 347

The World in 2010

In southern Pakistan’s Sindh province, survivors displaced from their homes by the massive flooding of the Indus River take refuge in August on a narrow strip of dry embankment. Kevin Frayer/AP

World Affairs The economic DOWNTURN continued to PLAGUE many countries, especially the so-called PIIGS. New LEADERSHIP took over in Australia, Poland, the U.K., and elsewhere, while Brazil and Costa Rica each elected its FIRST WOMAN president. Meanwhile, Haiti and Chile were CRIPPLED by EARTHQUAKES, Iceland suffered a VOLCANIC ERUPTION, Indonesia was assailed by a TSUNAMI and a volcanic burst that occurred on opposite ends of the country, PAKISTAN coped with massive FLOODING, and HUNGARY was beset by a river of TOXIC SLUDGE. A number of African countries celebrated 50 YEARS of independence, as did Cyprus.

ment of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) had fielded 15 peacekeeping operations comprising 121,639 personnel, of which 99,212 were in uniform. The total approved peacekeeping budget was set at $7.26 billion for the period from July 1, 2010, to June 30, 2011. By Oct. 31, 2010, however, the peacekeeping budget was about $3.15 billion in arrears for the year. Some 116 member states contributed uniformed personnel, with the largest numbers offered by Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India, followed by Nigeria, Egypt, and Nepal. The UN’s work continued in postconflict peacebuilding centred around the Peacebuilding Commission, established in 2005, and the Peacebuilding Support Office in the Secretariat. The world body operated 12 political and peacebuilding missions: UN Assistance UNITED NATIONS humanitarian crises of near-unprece- Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA), UN he year 2010 marked the 65th dented levels in Haiti (see Sidebar on Integrated Office in Burundi (BINUB), anniversary of the United Na- page 407) and Pakistan (see MAP on UN Regional Centre for Preventive tions and brought forth new page 446). Diplomacy for Central Asia (UNRCCA), Peace and Security. The year was a busy UN Integrated Peacebuilding Office in challenges as the UN system pushed forward with a com- one for UN peace and security opera- the Central African Republic (BINUCA), plex global agenda in the context of con- tions. As of October 31, the UN Depart- UN Integrated Peacebuilding Office in tinuing global economic and Guinea-Bissau (UNIOGBIS), UN financial uncertainty. The year Assistance Mission for Iraq (UNbegan with the prospect of the re- In the midst of the United Nations Climate Change AMI), Office of the UN Special turn to greater engagement in Conference in Cancún, Mex.—held in late Coordinator for Lebanon (UNmultilateral affairs of the U.S., led November–early December—an activist advertises SCOL), Office of the UN Special by the administration of Pres. his opposition to the UN Collaborative Programme Coordinator for the Middle East Barack Obama. As the year drew on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and (UNSCO), UN Mission in Nepal to a close, however, the midterm Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UNMIN), UN Integrated Peacecongressional elections dealt (UN-REDD). building Office in Sierra Leone Obama and his ruling Democrats (UNIPSIL), UN Political Office a substantial blow. (See Sidebar for Somalia (UNPOS), and Ofon page 482.) The year reprefice of the Special Representative sented the culmination of the Inof the Secretary-General for ternational Decade for a Culture West Africa (UNOWA). A total of Peace and Non-Violence for the of 4,139 personnel were serving Children of the World (2001–10) in these missions, only 352 of and was the designated Internawhom were uniformed persontional Year for the Rapprochenel. There were 1,069 interment of Cultures. The General national civilians, 2,587 local Assembly also named 2010 as the civilians, and 131 UN Volunteers. International Year of Biodiversity The Peacebuilding Commission and, beginning in August, the Inwas engaged in efforts in five ternational Year of Youth: Diacountries—Burundi, the Central logue and Mutual Understanding. African Republic, GuineaIn September the member states Bissau, Liberia, and Sierra of the UN met in summit format Leone. The UN Peacebuilding in New York City to take stock of Fund provided financial assisprogress toward attainment of tance to countries emerging the Millennium Development from conflict. As of February, the Goals (MDGs) and lay the founfund had allocated more than dation for further action. UN $196 million to 16 countries for agencies responded vigorously to a total of 115 projects.

T

Jorge Silva—Reuters/Landov

350

World Affairs: United Nations

In addition, the UN led or assisted in more than 20 preventive diplomacy and mediation processes worldwide. It bolstered its activities in providing political support to UN country teams working in complex conflict environments and put in place a strategy to promote more effective participation of women in peace processes. The UN’s peacemaking efforts during 2010 focused heavily on Africa and the Middle East. The UN, in conjunction with regional organizations, worked to promote a return to peace and stability in Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Madagascar, and Niger. The UN also sought to facilitate the peace process in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and to help settle border disputes between Cameroon and Nigeria and between Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. In addition, the UN provided electoral assistance to more than 50 states in 2009–10. The Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons was held in New York City during May 3–28. The parties to the treaty agreed on a final outcome document, which contained limited but important substantive recommendations for future actions on complex issues, such as nuclear disarmament, but it was more difficult to garner consensus over language on nonproliferation and peaceful uses for nuclear energy. Negotiators could not reach consensus on the actual review portion of the final document. The Security Council continued its pressure on Iran to make more transparent its nuclear activities under the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty convention of which Iran was a member. At the first Meeting of States Parties to the Convention on Cluster Munitions in November, governments agreed to a 66-point action plan for concrete steps to implement the treaty. Piracy. Maritime piracy reached crisis proportions in 2010 as Somali pirates carried out a record number of attacks and hijackings. While piracy was a worldwide problem, the situation off the coast of Somalia was of special concern. The Security Council moved unanimously on April 27 to adopt a resolution calling on all member states to criminalize acts of piracy in their domestic legal systems and to consider prosecuting pirates in domestic courts. The Council furthermore called on Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon to prepare a report on the possible options for the prosecution of pirates in the future and to investigate the feasibility of establishing a regional or international tri-

bunal to prosecute them. Under a European Union–UN Office of Drugs and Crime (UNODC) counterpiracy program, UN-backed regional courts were established in both Kenya and the Seychelles to prosecute suspected pirates captured by EU naval forces. On November 23 the Security Council renewed for another 12 months the authorization to grant states and regional organizations the right to enter Somalia’s territorial waters and “use all necessary means” to fight piracy. Humanitarian Affairs and Human Rights. Secretary-General Ban reported in mid2010 that the UN system responded to 43 new emergencies in 2009: 33 natural disasters, 9 armed conflicts, and 1 epidemic. Most of these new emergencies were centred in Africa (15) and Asia and the Pacific (14). Unfortunately, humanitarian workers increasingly came under attack, and the number of UN staff deaths and kidnappings rose. By mid-2010 UN worldwide appeals had resulted in a $10 billion increase over the previous year, with 71% being actually funded. This represented a doubling of the 2007 figures. Funding for the UN Central Emergency Response Fund declined from $453 million in 2008 to $402 million in 2009, but 23 countries increased their contributions in their national currencies. Decreases in funding largely resulted from exchange-rate fluctuations. The two most devastated countries in the world in terms of humanitarian crises were Haiti and Pakistan. In January Haiti was hit by a massive magnitude-7.0 earthquake that destroyed much of Port-au-Prince, the country’s capital, and killed more than 220,000 people, including 101 staff members of the UN Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH); more than a million Haitians were also displaced. The Security Council responded immediately by sending 3,500 additional peacekeepers to join the 9,000 already in place. The UN held a donors’ conference in March and raised pledges of almost $10 billion. By December, however, only part of that money had actually been delivered. In early November in the midst of an emerging cholera epidemic, tropical storm Tomas struck Haiti, threatening hundreds of thousands of people with deadly floodwaters and further devastation. In July Pakistan was hit by massive floods resulting from monsoon rains. Nearly 20% of the country was under water at one point; approximately 2,000 people were killed, and

some 20 million were affected. WHO estimated that 10 million persons were forced to survive on unsafe water. Ban called the situation the worst disaster he had ever seen and launched an initial appeal for $460 million in emergency relief funding. The UN reported that by November nearly $1.8 billion had been committed by donors, with much more aid flowing in from governments and nongovernmental organizations in the form of nonmonetary assistance. According to UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) statistics, 43.3 million persons had been forcibly displaced by the end of 2009. This was the highest number since the mid-1990s. The year ended with 10.4 million refugees under the care of UNHCR and 4.8 million receiving assistance from the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). An overwhelming number— about 80%—were located in less-developed countries ill-equipped to deal with them. Pakistan, Iran, and Syria hosted the largest numbers of refugees worldwide with 1.7 million, 1.1 million, and 1.05 million refugees, respectively. UNHCR asked states to resettle more than 128,000 refugees, and about 80,000 of the 84,000 resettled were accepted by the United States. Governments reported that an additional 28,400 refugees had been resettled without the assistance of UNHCR. Development and the MDGs. Five years remained until the 2015 target deadline for achieving the MDGs. In September member states of the UN held a summit in New York City to take stock of progress toward attainment of the MDGs. In the words of Ban, “Success is still within reach but not guaranteed. . . . Progress is uneven, gaps are significant and new challenges have emerged.” In the face of the recent financial and economic crises, the progress that had been made between 1990 and 2005 in reducing the number of persons living in extreme poverty (i.e., living on less than $1.25 a day), had been blunted, and the World Bank estimated that an additional 64 million people would fall into extreme poverty by the end of 2010. The food and energy crises occurring in various parts of the world further complicated the picture. Though the number of undernourished persons had increased since 1990, there were fewer in 2010 than in 2008. With regard to achieving full and productive employment and decent work for all, the picture was equally bleak. In sub-Saharan Africa, for ex351

World Affairs: European Union

ample, nearly two-thirds of those with jobs lived in extreme poverty. The proportion had fallen only slightly—from 66.1% in 2000 to 63.5% in 2009. In South Asia the situation was only slightly better, with 51.3% of working persons living on less than $1.25 per day. On the more positive side, important strides had been recorded in getting and retaining children in school, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. In the health area, key progress was charted in dealing with HIV, malaria, and measles. Yet while many countries were moving ahead, the 2010 MDG Report warned that “unmet commitments, inadequate resources, lack of focus and accountability, and insufficient dedication to sustainable development have created shortfalls in many areas.” Health. In its November 2010 Global Report on HIV/AIDS, UNAIDS reported that significant global progress had been made in halting the spread of AIDS. UNAIDS declared that 56 countries had either stabilized or made significant progress in reducing the rate of new infections by more than 25% since 2001. In 2009, 2.6 million people became newly infected with HIV; that figure represented a 20% decline from the peak of the pandemic in 1999. At the same time, the number of persons living with AIDS had increased to 33.3 million—the largest ever. A main factor in this increase was attributed to the prolongation of life by the use of antiretroviral drugs and other treatments. The number of HIV-positive people in low- and middle-income countries receiving antiretroviral therapy increased 10-fold. Over the previous five years, the number of persons dying from AIDS had declined from 2.1 million in 2004 to 1.8 million. The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria and the U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief had led the global effort that provided 5.2 million infected persons with antiretroviral drugs in 2009. This number, however, represented only about one-third of those in need. Polio reemerged full-square on the global agenda, five years after the disease had been declared eradicated in most countries around the world. As the year drew to a close, for example, polio cases continued to rise in Pakistan. On a positive note, two of the four countries where polio was still endemic—Nigeria and India—experienced significantly lower levels of the disease, with a 98% decline in Nigeria and a 90% reduction in India. UNICEF and WHO kept up their efforts to erad352

icate polio with a 15-country campaign in Africa during which 290,000 medical personnel went door-to-door in an effort to immunize 72 million children. Environment. After the failure of the December 2009 UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, Ban promised to overhaul and streamline the negotiating process. To energize the political process, he launched a HighLevel Advisory Group on Climate Change Financing to identify possible new sources of finance and initiated a High-Level Panel on Global Sustainability to create a “new blueprint for achieving low-carbon prosperity in the twenty-first century.” The parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change met in Cancún, Mex., from November 29 to December 10 to try to work out important differences. The strategy at Cancún was to target smaller issues, such as deforestation and renewable energy. In regard to biodiversity, an agreement—the Nagoya Protocol—was reached in October 2010 that set a goal of cutting the current extinction rate of plant and animal species by half or more by 2020. Under the agreement, rich and poor countries agreed to share the profits for pharmaceutical and other products derived from genetic materials. Administration and Reform. Progress was made in regard to several of the recommendations set out by Ban in 2009 for improving the UN’s peacebuilding functions, including the deployment of leadership teams in the field, the development and implementation of integrated strategic frameworks for peace consolidation in field locations, and the improvement of collaboration with the World Bank. In the wake of the global financial crisis, the UN budget was under great strain. As of October, member states were more than $4.1 billion in arrears for unpaid dues. This figure was almost double the amount owed yearon-year in 2009. Of the 192 member states, 119 had paid their dues to the regular budget, but only 13 members had paid all of their contributions to all the UN budgets. Even though the U.S. had paid its dues in full and on time since the Obama administration came into office, the country remained the largest debtor because of past arrears. While the UN claimed that U.S. arrears totaled $1.2 billion, the U.S. government disputed that amount because of contested past debts. In January Ban opened the new temporary UN headquarters as renovations began for a major reconstruction effort. (ROGER A. COATE)

EUROPEAN UNION Eleven years after the introduction of the euro in 11 member countries of the European Union, the entire venture was thrown into crisis in 2010 by a combination of national economic mismanagement and global instability. When the EU launched its single currency as a noncash monetary unit on Jan. 1, 1999, the grand idea was to bind those countries’ economies closer together while making it easier and cheaper for businesses to trade across national borders inside the “euro zone.” There also was a wider political goal. For those who had always wanted to fold Europe’s nation states into a fullblown political and economic union, the creation of one currency was an essential step along the road. In the intervening years the euro had replaced the local currency as the sole legal tender in 16 EU member countries, with another, Estonia, scheduled to join the euro zone on Jan. 1, 2011. Rather than serving as a continued spur to the goal of “ever-closer union,” of which its founders had dreamed, however, the euro’s structural weaknesses were exposed in 2010—when it became a point of vulnerability in the entire European venture—and its survival was called into question. The year began with the Greek economy in crisis, struggling under spiraling debts and gripped by uncertainty about how to finance them. As the markets lost faith, they forced up interest charges on government bonds, adding to the dire financial position. Ireland also ran into difficulties, and near year’s end there were signs that Spain and Portugal could be heading the same way. (See Sidebar.) In mid-November the problems for the euro remained so grave that the community’s first permanent president, Herman Van Rompuy of Belgium, entertained the possibility that the euro and the EU could both collapse. “We all have to work together in order to survive with the euro zone,” he said. “Because if we don’t survive with the euro zone we will not survive with the European Union.” On Dec. 1, 2009, the 27-country bloc celebrated the formal coming into force of the much-debated (and muchargued-over) Lisbon Treaty—a new miniconstitution that created the posts of permanent president and foreign policy chief and set the stage for the EU to have its own diplomatic service. The treaty also aimed to simplify the way decisions were made and to give the EU a sharper presence and clearer

World Affairs: European Union

The Debt Crisis in the Euro Zone In 2010 the turbulence in sovereign debt markets of Portugal, Ireland, Greece, and Spain—known collectively as the PIGS and later joined by Italy to constitute the PIIGS—created unprecedented funding pressures that spread to the national banks of the eurozone countries and the European Central Bank (ECB). In May efforts to generate confidence in the financial markets and mitigate the sovereign risk through massive liquidity and credit support helped contain the crisis. The PIIGS announced strong fiscal reforms and painful austerity measures, but toward the end of the year, the euro once again came under pressure. In November Ireland was persuaded to accept an international bailout to restructure its banks in order to prevent further chaos and contagion in financial markets. That was despite an earlier three-year emergency package of >110 billion (about $143 billion) put together for Greece by the European Union and the IMF, as well as a >440 billion (roughly $540 billion) fund called the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF), which was put in place by the euro-zone countries in the event that other indebted members could not raise money in the bond markets. Talk of enlarging the euro zone gave way to speculation that some countries might leave it. Abandoning the euro so that countries could return to their former devalued currencies was not a viable option, however, since the countries’ debt was in euros. The complacency of the developed western European countries, which had enjoyed high wages and generous welfare systems, was being replaced by fears of increasing job losses, the need to work longer to qualify for state pensions, and cuts in all types of benefits. Pension reforms were long overdue and badly needed to counter the effects of the increasing proportion of elderly who were dependent on shrinking workforces. Austerity measures in many European countries were beginning to cause hardship. As social conditions deteriorated, the popularity of many political leaders declined, and the measures provoked frequent protests and strikes, including some that caused deaths and serious injuries in Greece and the closure of 12 oil refineries in France. Only in the U.K., which was a member of the EU but not the euro zone, did the newly elected coalition government receive the tacit support of most of its electorate for its austerity measures. The financial problems of the PIIGS differed. Bank insolvency was an ongoing problem in Ireland. Since it joined the euro zone in 2001, Greece had exceeded the 3%-of-GDP limit on budget deficits imposed by the EU. Huge inflows of foreign capital had driven rapid economic growth until 2007, after which those deficits became unsustainable. In February 2010 Greece persuaded the EU and IMF to come to its rescue, but delays in launching the rescue packages until May increased volatility and fears of a domino effect. Portugal, the smallest and poorest country of the PIIGS, was at risk of contagion, although its public finances were in reasonably good shape and spending cuts were expected to reduce the deficit to 4.6% in

voice on the world stage. As the institutional overhaul took place, however, it was obscured by a more immediate and urgent problem—Greece. The

2011. In Spain, as in Ireland, budget surpluses had been the norm until 2008, when the many years of strong economic growth associated with the housing boom ended, and there was a growing deficit (11.3% in 2009). In Italy the deficit, at 5.3%, was more contained, but the cost of servicing its debt was predicted to reach 120% of GDP in 2011, and the government announced severe public spending cuts and a crackdown on tax evasion. In July the results were reported on stress tests conducted on 91 financial institutions across the EU to measure their ability to withstand further economic weakness in the sovereign, corporate, and household sectors. Given the exposure to sovereign debt in the southern countries, the tests were criticized for having been neither sufficiently rigorous nor transparent. The losses of the 91 banks over two years totaled >566 billion (about $730 billion). Seven banks— five Spanish, one Greek, and one German—failed the test that required a minimum 6% ratio of Tier 1 capital (cash, stocks, and certain other securities) to assets. Although many German banks were in a poor state, with the 10 largest reportedly needing capital injections of >105 billion (about $135 billion), strong financial support from the German government ensured that they could borrow cheaply. Any increasing confidence in financial markets generally was overshadowed, however, by the dependence of many banks on the ECB’s promise of unlimited liquidity, at least until early 2011. By the end of September, lending by the ECB had fallen from >860 billion (about $1.1 trillion) to >592 billion (about $780 billion), with the PIGS borrowing 61% of the total although they accounted for only 18% of euro-zone GDP. The euro zone returned to turmoil in September after Ireland had spent some >50 billion (about $68 billion) to bail out the Anglo Irish Bank, Allied Irish Banks, and the Irish Nationwide Building Society—a rescue that pushed its budget deficit to about 32% of GDP. German Chancellor Angela Merkel’s late-October statement that private creditors in euro-zone countries should be forced to take some of the losses as part of debt restructuring—a statement she later reiterated—sparked more fears of contagion. Although Dublin initially refused the EU’s proffered bailout as unnecessary, the turmoil in bond markets eventually pushed the cost of Ireland’s borrowing to the highest level since the creation of the euro, which forced the country to agree to the bailout. By the end of the year, euro-zone finance ministers had agreed to set up a European Stability Mechanism—a permanent mechanism that would under strict conditions help restructure the debt of insolvent euro-zone countries. Meanwhile, the strong economic growth in Germany—which accounted for nearly half of all EU exports to the booming Chinese market and enjoyed its lowest unemployment rate in nearly two decades—was causing an ever-widening divergence between northern and southern euro-zone countries. (JANET H. CLARK)

Greeks, it turned out, had misled Brussels about the state of their national economy, but under pressure the alarming truth emerged. The country

was found to be running a deficit of 15.4% of GDP and a debt ratio of 115%. Under the rules for euro-zone members, deficits were originally supposed 353

World Affairs: Multinational and Regional Organizations

to grow to no more than 3% of GDP and national debts to no more than 60% of GDP. Greece’s problem was not just the existing burden of debt but also the fact that the markets were losing faith in the country’s ability to deal with that burden and were demanding higher interest rates to help it do so. The wider concern was that market doubts would spread to other weak euro-zone economies and that the entire currency area could be infected. Joaquín Almunia, the EU commissioner for economic and monetary affairs, proclaimed in February, “It is not the first time we have heard people saying that the euro is not going to work. For 10 years we have been able to show that economic and monetary union is a success.” Doubts remained, however. Throughout the early part of the year, EU leaders worked on a plan to set up a rescue fund for euro-zone countries that found themselves in financial trouble. Germany initially resisted, and it was not until May that agreement was reached on the final details of a package totaling >750 billion (about $975 billion) to provide loans to EU countries in need. About one-third of that sum was guaranteed by the IMF. As part of the deal, a three-year bailout of >110 billion (about $140 billion) was announced to rescue Greece. In addition, Athens would be required to make major austerity cuts that would involve “great sacrifices” by the Greek people, according to Prime Minister George Papandreou. The EU’s already-battered morale was hit further when U.S. Pres. Barack Obama pulled out of an EU-U.S. meeting scheduled for May. U.S. officials had expressed frustration that the Lisbon Treaty, which was supposed to have made the EU a more effective operator on the world stage, had in fact created several posts for different officials who were all competing for Washington’s attention. There was some good news in May after the U.K. general election left no single party with an overall majority. EU leaders had feared that a strong win for David Cameron’s Conservative Party would lead to the creation of a hard-line euroskeptic U.K. government. As it turned out, however, the Conservatives formed a coalition with the pro-EU Liberal Democrats, and it became clear that one of the Liberal Democrats’ conditions for joining the government was that the Conservatives drop their hard-line antiEU stance. The first months of the coali354

tion saw the U.K. engaging more enthusiastically with the EU than most EU diplomats had imagined possible. In September relations between Brussels and the French government were damaged when EU Justice Commissioner Viviane Reding appeared to compare France’s action in deporting more than 1,000 members of the Roma (Gypsy) community from the country to the persecution of Jews in Nazi-occupied France. “This is a situation I had thought Europe would not have to witness again after the Second World War,” Reding said. “No member state can expect special treatment . . . when fundamental values and European laws are at stake.” French Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy hit back, condemning “the disgusting and shameful words that were used—World War II, the evocation of the Jews—was something that shocked us deeply.” Meanwhile, he vowed to continue France’s policy of dismantling Roma camps. There was relatively slow progress toward the admission of new countries to add to the existing membership of 27; “enlargement fatigue” had beset the EU—particularly two of its founding members, France and Germany. Croatia’s accession discussions crept forward, and Serbia was kept on the road toward opening talks despite suspicions that it could do more to find former Bosnian Serb military chief Ratko Mladic. Turkey’s membership negotiations made little progress, blocked by a dispute over that country’s refusal to open ports to vessels from Cyprus. By the end of the year, arguments were raging over proposals by the European Commission and European Parliament to raise the EU budget by 5.9% for 2011. Cameron, who had wanted the EU budget frozen because national governments were cutting back spending and he believed that the EU should do the same, won the support of 10 other countries for a maximum rise of 2.9%. In a joint statement the 11 countries said that they found the 5.9% demand “especially unacceptable” at a time when members were embarking on national austerity programs. The budget row showed how much the EU was on the defensive as individual members battled to sort out their own domestic problems. Even the FrancoGerman alliance—the motor of European integration—came down firmly against voting for the pay raise that others in the EU wanted. By mid-November Ireland’s economic problems were preoccupying EU lead-

ers, as Greece’s had done earlier. The Irish had enjoyed a massive economic boom in the 1990s, with GDP per capita almost doubling over the decade and a thriving economy that earned Ireland the nickname the “Celtic Tiger.” In recent years, however, the bubble—which had been based to a large extent on soaring real estate prices—had burst spectacularly. Prices slumped, leaving many Irish people owing far more on their properties than they were worth. Ireland’s minister for European affairs, Dick Roche, accepted that Irish banks were having trouble raising enough cash with which to operate, but he stuck to the official line that the country did not need a bailout. With Ireland heading for a deficit of 32% of GDP— more than double that of Greece when it triggered fears about the euro—few expected the country to get through the remainder of the year without a rescue package. At the end of November, Dublin bowed to the inevitable. After intensive negotiations behind the scenes, EU finance ministers agreed to provide >85 billion (about $113 billion) in the form of loans to Ireland—>35 billion (about $47 billion) to help the banks and >50 billion (about $66 billion) to help the government manage spending while cutting its deficit. Prime Minister Brian Cowen, under heavy criticism at home for having led Ireland to the humiliating position where it had been compelled to go cap in hand to Brussels for help, described the bailout as “the best deal for Ireland.” Hopes that Ireland’s bailout would bring a sense of stability proved false, however, as rumours circulated that Portugal and Spain could be next to require help. The year ended with the euro-zone finance ministers agreeing to establish a European Stability Mechanism, a permanent mechanism to help resolve future euro-zone debt crises. (TOBY HELM)

MULTINATIONAL AND REGIONAL ORGANIZATIONS A marked shift occurred in 2010 in the perceptions of the roles of the United States and other major and emerging powers in multinational and regional organizations. This was particularly evident in the shift from the Group of Seven/Eight (G7/8) to the Group of Twenty (G20) as the primary forum for global economic issues. In June the G20 meeting in Toronto overshadowed the G8 summit that preceded it. When the G20 met again in Novem-

ber in Seoul, amid accusations that the U.S. and China were involved in currency manipulation, the growing difficulties in gaining consensus on actions to stabilize the global economy were apparent. Leaders did agree to refrain from competitively devaluing currencies and to give emerging-market countries more seats in the IMF; Western Europe ceded two seats. In January the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) continued its move toward regional economic integration by launching a free-trade area (FTA) with China. As a result, the average tariff on goods from most ASEAN countries to China would be slashed from 9.8% to 0.1% by year’s end. The newest members of ASEAN—Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), and Vietnam—would reduce their tariffs over five years. In October ASEAN leaders invited the U.S. and Russia to begin participating in the annual East Asia Summit (EAS) in 2011. The 2010 EAS, which followed the ASEAN summit, was dominated by the ongoing territorial disputes between China and Japan over islands in the East China Sea and between China and several Southeast Asian countries over islands in the South China Sea. The U.S. views EAS participation as a way to strengthen its economic, political, and security interests in the region, but the U.S.’s inclusion marks a setback for China’s growing influence in the region. At the annual Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit in November, leaders unanimously agreed to the Yokohama Vision, a plan outlining the establishment of an FTA between the 21 member economies. The group further pledged to remove trade barriers erected during the economic crisis of the previous two years and to refrain from raising new ones. The annual meeting of the council of heads of member states of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in June noted the changes taking place in the world and affirmed the continuing importance of the UN in international relations, including the peaceful resolution of the situation in Afghanistan. In reference to the instability in Kyrgyzstan, members reaffirmed their commitment to state sovereignty and noninterference in members’ internal affairs and expressed their willingness to provide assistance and support. Although the League of Arab States backed the U.S.-led effort to restart direct peace negotiations between Israeli and Palestinian leaders in July, the fail-

An investigator surveys the damage to an Ethiopian restaurant in Kampala, Ugan., after a bomb set off by the Somali-based al-Shabaab terrorist group killed at least 15 people there on July 11. Benedicte Desrus—Reuters/Landov

ure to extend Israel’s moratorium on settlement construction beyond September led Arab leaders to support suspension of further negotiations. At the League’s October summit in Libya, leaders affirmed their support for Sudanese Pres. Omar al-Bashir by reiterating condemnation of the International Criminal Court arrest warrant and expressing support for Sudan in the 2011 referendum on independence for southern Sudan. Immediately following the summit, Libya hosted the first African-Arab summit in 30 years. Leaders discussed measures to improve security and economic and environmental cooperation. The African Union (AU) summit occurred in Uganda in late July shortly after al-Shabaab, a Somali-based terrorist group, bombed a restaurant and a rugby field in the capital, Kampala. The attack focused attention on the AU’s peacekeeping force in Somalia (AMISOM) and led leaders to commit 2,000 more troops to the force. AU leaders also called on member states to reject the genocide charges against Bashir. In November AU-mediated talks between northern and southern leaders in Sudan produced a framework document addressing border issues and oilrevenue distribution should the 2011 referendum result in secession. The East African Community (EAC) concluded an agreement in July to form a common market. The pact allowed for goods, people, and capital to move easily among the five members, who hoped to establish a monetary union by 2012 and a common currency by 2015. OPEC celebrated 50 years of existence in 2010. After experiencing a two-year

drop in worldwide oil consumption, prices stabilized between $70 and $80 per barrel as demand rebounded. Despite agreements to maintain oil-production levels through the end of 2010, some member states continued to exceed quotas. In November, Colombia became the eighth country to ratify the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) charter. One more ratification was required for the charter to enter into force, and Uruguay did so later that month. Mercosur resumed trade talks with the EU—stalled since 2004—in Madrid (May), Buenos Aires (June), Brussels (October), and Brasília (December) in an effort to complete an agreement that would eliminate tariffs and liberalize the service and investment industries by mid-2011. Outstanding issues included the impact of European industry and services on Mercosur countries as well as EU concerns about farming policy. (MARGARET P. KARNS)

DEPENDENT STATES Europe and the Atlantic. Greenland’s first prime minister, Jonathan Motzfeldt of the left-of-centre Siumut Party, died in the capital, Nuuk, on Oct. 28, 2010, at age 72. As a young man, Motzfeldt joined other Inuit activists who campaigned for the territory’s independence from Denmark. After Greenland gained home rule (1979), he served as the head of government from May 1979 to March 1991 and again from September 1997 to December 2002. Oil drilling in the Arctic waters around Greenland began in mid-2010. 355

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Licensing agreements were delayed in the summer as environmental concerns grew in response to energy company BP’s Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. (See Special Report on page 174.) In the wake of that massive spill, Greenland, which had secured self-government from Denmark in 2009, issued a demand that all companies seeking a drilling license pay an upfront bond to cover potential cleanup costs in the event of a similar accident. BP pulled out of the bidding on drilling rights, but other companies, notably Scotland-based Cairn Energy, remained. Although Cairn announced the discovery of oil off Greenland in September, it was still uncertain whether operations there would be commercially viable. A month later Cairn shut down operations for the season. Across the world, oil drilling began in February in territorial waters off the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas, despite protests from the Argentine government. Argentina, which maintained its long-held claim on the Britishcontrolled islands, threatened to restrict shipping by requiring that all ships en route to or from the Falklands that used Argentine ports or waters claimed by Argentina obtain special Argentine-issued permits. British officials dismissed Argentina’s protests as irrelevant. Meanwhile, Rockhopper Exploration, Desire Petroleum, and Falkland Oil and Gas established offshore drilling operations in the region, which was believed to have rich hydrocarbon deposits. No proven commercial deposits had yet been found, however, and some exploratory deepwater wells were abandoned. (MELINDA C. SHEPHERD) Caribbean and Bermuda. In April 2010 the U.S. House of Representatives approved a measure that would allow the citizens of Puerto Rico to determine their future relations with the U.S.; the measure was then sent to the U.S. Senate. Two referenda were likely as a result. The first, to be held probably in mid-2011, would determine whether Puerto Ricans wanted any change from the current self-governing commonwealth status with the U.S. If the majority of voters wanted a change, a second poll would be held to choose one of these options: statehood, complete independence, sovereignty in association with the U.S., or the current commonwealth status. The Netherlands Antilles parliament approved in August an amendment to the Kingdom Charter, which governed its relations with the Netherlands. The 356

change, already agreed to by the Dutch parliament, affirmed an October date for the dismantling of the Netherlands Antilles. Accordingly, on October 10 Curaçao and Sint Maarten joined Aruba as independent states within the Netherlands, and Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius reverted to being special municipalities. In Aruba’s oil-refining industry—the island’s main industry after tourism and a key employer—the government and American refiner Valero settled a long-running tax dispute in May. Valero agreed to invest $50 million to bring the 235,000 bblper-day refinery back up to speed and make a one-off tax payment of $112 million, to be followed by payments of $10 million per year. The Anguilla United Movement (AUM), led by former chief minister Hubert Hughes, was returned to office in the February 2010 general election. The AUM won four of the seven elected seats in the House of Assembly. The Anguilla United Front (AUF) became the opposition by obtaining two of the remaining three seats. The British Virgin Islands was lauded by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development in June for having met, and even surpassed, its Tax Information Exchange Agreements obligations, which were designed to make it more difficult for offshore financial jurisdictions to be used as tax shelters for tax evasion. A study commissioned by the Cayman Islands government at the request of the U.K.’s Foreign and Commonwealth Office concluded in March that the imposition of direct taxation on individuals and companies in the traditionally indirectly taxed Cayman Islands would have negative consequences for the colony’s future. The Turks and Caicos faced a tough year in 2010 when the interim government in March was forced to cut all public-sector salaries by 10% following the cancellation of a proposed $85 million loan from a syndicate of local banks. The cancellation occurred because of leaks of confidential information relating to the loan. Bermudan Premier Ewart Brown of the ruling Progressive Labor Party (PLP) stepped down in 2010 after four years in office. Brown had survived a no-confidence vote in 2009. Finance Minister and Deputy Premier Paula Cox won the subsequent PLP leadership election and was sworn in on October 29 as the territory’s fourth premier since the PLP gained power in 1998. (DAVID RENWICK)

Pacific Ocean. American Samoa’s economy deteriorated with the May 2010 announcement of 800 job cuts at the Starkist Cannery, which would employ only 1,200 people after the cuts. This followed the loss in 2009 of 2,100 jobs when Chicken of the Sea closed its cannery. Job cuts and reduced hours in the public sector were likely in order to allow the government to meet its budget, 80% of which was salaries. The government budget depended heavily on federal grant awards of $166 million received from 10 agencies, despite its high-risk status. Government plans to take over a local shipyard were thwarted in June when its operators were granted bankruptcy protection. American Samoa hoped to place at least 500 workers in construction work on Guam, as plans for the relocation of U.S. Marines from Okinawa, Japan, to Guam by 2014 were set to proceed despite uncertainty about the future of the Okinawa base. Meanwhile, 41 years after the last referendum, Guam Gov. Felix Camacho again raised the possibility of the island’s reunification with the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Dependent States1 Australia

United Kingdom

Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Norfolk Island

Anguilla Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Montserrat Pitcairn Islands Saint Helena Tristan da Cunha Turks and Caicos Islands

Denmark Faroe Islands Greenland France French Guiana² French Polynesia Guadeloupe² Martinique² Mayotte New Caledonia Réunion² Saint-Barthélemy Saint-Martin Saint-Pierre and Miquelon Wallis and Futuna Netherlands Aruba Curaçao Sint Maarten

United States American Samoa Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Virgin Islands (of the U.S.)

New Zealand Cook Islands Niue Tokelau Excludes territories (1) to which Antarctic Treaty is applicable in whole or in part, (2) without permanent civilian population, (3) without internationally recognized civilian government (Western Sahara), or (4) representing unadjudicated unilateral or multilateral territorial claims. 2 Legally classified as overseas département of France.

1

World Affairs: Antarctica AOES Medialab/ESA

In the Cook Islands, powerful Cyclone Pat destroyed many homes and hotels in Aitutaki Atoll in February. The dependency’s tourism industry gained a boost from the initiation of new direct flights from Australia. In a bid to capitalize on growing regional tourism, a cultural village to showcase local music and culture was opened on Muri Beach on the Cooks’ main island, Rarotonga. A general election in November returned a new prime minister, Henry Puna, a lawyer turned black-pearl farmer, and a larger majority for the winning party, which was expected to ensure great political stability. Niue, which was hard hit by the global recession with declining tourism and the loss of remittance income from migrants, in October hosted the annual meeting of Pacific Islands Forum finance ministers, which boosted its struggling tourism sector. A more serious problem was Niue’s difficulty in persuading skilled migrants living abroad to return home. Despite these economic difficulties, Niueans collected $43,000 for victims of the September earthquake in New Zealand. French Polynesia was again in political chaos, despite three recent attempts by France to reform the government. The governing coalition sought to replace its parliamentary leader in an election in April but mishandled the procedure and lost power to a minority party led by former president Oscar Temaru. The instability was not helped by corruption charges against veteran politician Gaston Flosse, who was convicted in June and given a one-year suspended sentence. Tourism, already hit by the global recession, was slammed again by an interruption in travel from Europe after the eruption of a volcano in Iceland and by the closure of two major hotel operations after years of strikes. There were growing environmental concerns about nuclear contamination of the sea as part of Moruroa Atoll, the scene of 30 years of French nuclear testing, was beginning to sink. (CLUNY MACPHERSON) Indian Ocean. On April 1, 2010, British Foreign Secretary David Miliband announced the creation of a Marine Protected Area (MPA) in the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT). The 544,000sq-km (210,000-sq-mi) MPA would include a “no-take” zone in which all commercial fishing would be prohibited. The U.S. military base on the island of Diego Garcia would not be affected. Chagos Islanders, who were forcibly evicted from the BIOT in the

late 1960s and early 1970s, protested that the environmental protections in the marine reserve would prevent their return even if they won the legal case that at year’s end was pending before the European Court of Human Rights. After the U.K. election in May, the new foreign minister, William Hague of the Conservative Party, and Liberal Democratic leader Nick Clegg, both of whom had previously expressed support for the Chagossians, indicated that the new coalition government would not change the previous Labour government’s plans in regard to the MPA. A U.S. diplomatic cable from May 2009 released by the Web site Wikileaks in December revealed that at least some Foreign Ministry officials were aware in advance that establishing the MPA would “effectively end the islanders’ resettlement claims.” Australian officials reported that some 130 boats filled with asylum seekers were intercepted off Christmas Island in 2010. The influx of nearly 6,400 asylum seekers left detention centres on the island overcrowded as the Australian government struggled to process the backlog of refugees. In midDecember a wooden boat carrying some 90 men, women, and children foundered and sank off Christmas Island, killing an estimated 48 Iraqi, Iranian, and Kurdish asylum seekers. (MELINDA C. SHEPHERD)

ANTARCTICA Ice averaging roughly 2,160 m (7,085 ft) in thickness covers more than 98% of the continent of Antarctica, which has an area of 14 million sq km (5.4 million sq mi). There is no indigenous human population, and there is no land-based industry. Human activity consists mainly of scientific research. The 48-nation Antarctic Treaty is the managerial mechanism for the region south of latitude 60° S, which includes all of Antarctica. The treaty reserves the area for peaceful purposes, encourages cooperation in science, prescribes environmental protection, allows inspections to verify adherence, and defers the issue of territorial sovereignty. At the 33rd Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM), held in Punta del Este, Uruguay, on May 3–14, 2010, approximately 350 diplomats, Antarctic program managers, logistics experts, and polar scientists from 48 countries—including the 28 consultative parties with a scientific presence in Antarctica—gathered to discuss issues ranging from protecting the environ-

ESA’s Earth Explorer CryoSat mission, launched on April 8, was designed to track changes in the ice sheets that cover Greenland and Antarctica and areas of floating marine ice that surround these regions. ment to the effects and implications of climate change for the continent. Representatives of 16 international and intergovernmental organizations also participated as observers. During the ATCM the Committee for Environmental Protection also met and discussed new and revised management plans for Antarctic Specially Protected Areas. During the 2009–10 austral summer, 36,875 tourists visited the continent, with some 36,303 arriving by ship. Of those, 21,277 landed in the Antarctic Treaty area. About 233 participated in multiday land-based expeditions to the continental interior, and another 345 traveled by air and ship to Antarctica and landed on the continent. In December 2010 the expedition ship Clelia II encountered rough seas while traveling north through the Drake Passage. A wave 9 m (30 ft) high struck the ship, breaking a window, disabling communications, and affecting the engines. No passengers were injured, and as seas calmed, the ship was able to proceed with its transit back to Argentina. In January 2010 a joint New Zealand and U.S. project that constructed three wind turbines at New Zealand’s Scott Base on Ross Island was dedicated, and 357

World Affairs: Arctic Regions

in February those generators began to supply electricity to Scott Base as well as to the U.S. McMurdo Station. Engineers estimated that the wind farm would cut fuel consumption by about 463,000 litres (122,000 gal) per year. Wind-generated electricity was expected to account for up to 15% of McMurdo Station’s annual electricity demand but more than 85% of the supply for the smaller Scott Base. Until then, all of the electrical and heat demand for both stations had come from diesel generators and diesel-fired boilers. South Korea’s first icebreaker, the Araon, made its maiden voyage from Korea to East Antarctica and arrived there in January. The icebreaker was able to continuously break ice one metre (3.3 ft) thick at a speed of 5.6 km/hr (3.5 mph) and could accommodate up to 85 people. During its first trip, scientists conducted research in East Antarctica and searched for a possible location for Korea’s new research station. During 2010 Russian scientists mapped the bottom of Lake Vostok, the largest-known subglacial Antarctic lake, by using seismic and radar techniques. They found that the lake appeared to be a trough with an irregular bottom. The average depth was 800 m (2,625 ft), with a maximum depth of some 1,050 m (3,450 ft), and it had an area of about 15,500 sq km (6,000 sq mi). Lake Vostok was surrounded by some three dozen smaller subglacial lakes that appeared not to be connected to the larger water body. In West Antarctica, Pine Island Glacier was rapidly losing mass. The glacier’s flow velocity had nearly doubled since the 1970s, although the cause of this was unclear. American scientists, using a glaciological model, suggested that increased exposure to warm ocean currents was causing the ice shelf to thin and the grounding line (where floating ice meets ice sitting on bedrock) to retreat, increasing the speed at which the ice stream was flowing into the sea. A field study by British investigators used an unmanned submarine to see underneath the ice shelf and found that Pine Island Glacier once sat on a ridge 300 m (980 ft) high. When the glacier was attached to the ridge, the friction restrained the flow of the glacier. The glacier had become detached, however, and the ice flow into the ocean had increased. Pine Island Glacier was in a region where land ice was melting rapidly. Researchers believed that the accelerating seaward flow of West Antarctic glaciers 358

was contributing about 10% of the observed rise in mean sea levels around the world. At Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, an international consortium of researchers, using the IceCube neutrino detector, studied the long-standing question of whether the distribution of cosmic-ray bombardment was uneven across the southern sky, as it was in the Northern Hemisphere. Although IceCube was designed to record neutrinos traveling through the Earth when muons were formed from the collision of neutrinos with the ice, the data were dominated by a large background of cosmic-ray muons arriving from above the detector. Using that information, researchers were able to determine that a disproportionate number of cosmic rays were arriving from some parts of the sky but were not evenly distributed. It was known that ocean bottom water, the coldest seawater, was relatively isolated from warming trends in shallower waters because it took such a long time for water to sink to the bottom. Recent observations, however, showed that bottom water was warming faster than expected. Japanese researchers, using computer simulations, provided insight into the mechanisms that were thought to be speeding up the process. Their simulation postulated a connection between changes in the surface-to-air heat transfer off the Adélie Coast and the warming of bottom water in the North Pacific Ocean, suggesting that the waters around Antarctica had a more significant role in determining how much and how rapidly the atmosphere warmed deep ocean water. In the Antarctic Peninsula region, scientists had already recorded changes in marine ecosystems caused by ocean warming. Rising ocean temperatures and a corresponding decrease in sea-ice cover was affecting Adélie penguins, which had moved farther south to cooler waters. U.S., British, and Swedish scientists observed a species of king crab moving from the deep ocean into the warming continental-slope region, where the animal community (clams, snails, sea urchins, sea stars) had little protection from their crab predators. Scientists believed that the freezing cold temperatures of the peninsula’s continental shelf waters had previously served as a barrier to the cold-blooded crabs but that rising temperatures along the slope were attracting the deepwater crab species. (WINIFRED REUNING)

ARCTIC REGIONS The Arctic regions may be defined in physical terms (astronomical [north of the Arctic Circle, latitude 66° 30´ N], climatic [above the 10 °C (50 °F) July isotherm], or vegetational [above the northern limit of the tree line]) or in human terms (the territory inhabited by the circumpolar cultures—Inuit [Eskimo] and Aleut in North America and Russia, Sami [Lapp] in northern Scandinavia and Russia, and 29 other peoples of the Russian North, Siberia, and East Asia). No single national sovereignty or treaty regime governs the region, which includes portions of eight countries: Canada, the United States, Russia, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, and Greenland (part of Denmark). The Arctic Ocean, 14.09 million sq km (5.44 million sq mi) in area, constitutes about two-thirds of the region. The land area consists of permanent ice cap, tundra, or taiga. The population (2010 est.) of peoples belonging to the circumpolar cultures is about 530,000 (Aleuts [in Russia and Alaska], more than 4,000; Athabascans [North America], 40,000; Inuits [or Eskimos, in Russian Chukhotka, North America, and Greenland], 150,000; Sami [Northern Europe], 85,000; and 41 indigenous peoples of the Russian North, totaling about 250,000). International organizations concerned with the Arctic include the Arctic Council, the Barents Euro-Arctic Council, the Inuit Circumpolar Council, and the Indigenous Peoples’ Secretariat. International scientific cooperation in the Arctic is the focus of the International Arctic Research Center of the University of Alaska at Fairbanks and the University of the Arctic, a circumpolar network of member institutions. On April 14, 2010, the Eyjafjallajökull volcano erupted in Iceland. Meltwater from the glacier covering the volcano caused the eruption to send a cloud of ash as high as 11 km (about 7 mi) into the atmosphere, where the ash entered into the jet stream and interfered with air traffic. The ash cloud coverage extended from North America to the Mediterranean to the Russian Arctic. Much of European airspace was closed during the following week. Arctic ocean shipping interest and activity continued to increase in 2010. Once again, summer sea ice melt allowed for greater shipping activity in the Northwest and Northeast passages. The first-ever Arctic transit of a supertanker took place when the Baltica carried 70,000 metric tons of gas from Murmansk, Russia, to China. The transit took 11 days, or roughly half the time that it would take to sail through the Suez Canal. At the same time, the first passenger ferry crossing of the Arctic took place in Russian waters, from St. Petersburg to Vladivostok.

World Affairs: Arctic Regions Fiona Stewart/Garett McIntosh/AP

Nuclear-powered Russian icebreakers escorted the sailings as a precaution. In 2010 both of the U.S. Polar class icebreakers were sidelined. The Polar Star was dry-docked for a major overhaul anticipated to take several years, and the Polar Sea had unexpected engine malfunctions. Several shipping accidents also occurred during the year. In the Northwest Passage there were three incidents of groundings, two by Canadian oil tankers and one by a cruise ship. In the Northeast Passage, two Russian oil tankers collided in July while attempting to sail early in the ice-free season. There were no injuries or spills reported in any of these incidents, but in response Canada announced stricter regulations for the Northwest Passage to improve safety. The Baltic and International Maritime Council, the world’s largest private-shipping organization, challenged these regulations as interfering with the right of innocent passage. Early in 2010 the five countries that border the Arctic Ocean—the U.S., Russia, Norway, Denmark (Greenland), and Canada—met to discuss sovereignty. The five governments agreed to work cooperatively to map the Arctic seabed, despite the fact that there were competing claims from neighbouring countries regarding offshore boundaries. The five-country meetings were criticized by northern indigenous organizations and by the three remaining members of the Arctic Council (Sweden, Finland, and Iceland), which were not invited. As interest in the Arctic increased, other countries (e.g., China and some members of the European Union) had requested observer status with the Arctic Council, but the organization had not ruled on those requests. Arctic boundary offshore claims had been submitted to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. In 2010 the U.S. was the only Arctic country that had not yet signed the convention, but it did continue to map its seabed. In particular, Canada and the U.S. worked cooperatively to map the Beaufort Sea. In September Canada announced that it had gathered enough scientific evidence to claim the Lomonosov Ridge, the underwater mountain chain that transects the Arctic Ocean, connecting the Russian and North American continental shelves. Since seabed mineral rights extend from the base of the continental shelf, the Lomonosov Ridge was considered strategic. Russia had already put in a claim for the ridge, and it was expected that Denmark could enter a competing claim as well.

The MV Clelia II tourist ship withstands rough seas north of the South Shetland Islands on December 7. The ship suffered damage to its engine while navigating the Drake Passage between Antarctica and South America. Also in September, Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev and Norwegian Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg signed a border treaty regarding the Barents Sea. The agreement, which resolved a border dispute going back four decades, paved the way for fisheries and oil and natural gas development to proceed. The disputed territory covered 175,000 sq km (about 67,600 sq mi). Arctic offshore oil and gas development were affected by the explosion on April 20 of energy giant BP’s Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in the Gulf of Mexico and the subsequent marine oil spill. (See Special Report on page 174.) Even though most Arctic drilling took place near the shore, many of the major producers in the U.S. waters delayed their operations for the time being. One example was BP’s Liberty rig along Alaska’s North Slope. The Liberty, one of the world’s largest rigs, was scheduled to set a distance record for lateral drilling distance in 2010, but it was put on hold while concerns about offshore spills in the Arctic were addressed. Preliminary studies indicated that oil spills in the Arctic were more persistent and difficult to clean owing to sea ice, insufficient resources, cold temperatures, and other challenging environmental conditions. Despite these concerns, some new exploration and development of offshore oil and gas did occur in the Arctic. Greenland in particular moved closer to offshore development, in part motivated by the desire for an economic base to support Inuit home rule of Greenland.

Northern pipeline development continued in 2010. Competing bids for a proposed Alaska Gas Pipeline (estimated to cost $35 billion–$40 billion) received bids from companies wishing to ship gas. The Mackenzie Valley gas pipeline (estimated to cost some Can$16.2 billion [about U.S.$15.7 billion]) completed the environmental review stage and entered the regulatory phase. Finland approved a $10.6 billion gas pipeline that would connect Russia to Germany. An Alaskan corporation proposed a $1.2 billion fibre-optic telecommunications cable to link Tokyo to London via Alaska and the Northwest Passage. The project was considered feasible because of retreating summer sea ice. In April the European Space Agency launched Cryosat-2 to monitor sea- and land-ice thickness (see photograph on page 357). On September 19, Arctic sea ice reached its annual minimum extent, with 2010 registering the third lowest spatial extent of sea ice in the 32-year satellite record for the Arctic. The National Snow and Ice Data Centre in Colorado estimated that 2010 marked the lowest ice volume on record for the Arctic. According to the centre’s director, Mark Serreze, the underlying trend for shrinkage was clear: “All indications are that sea ice will continue to decline over the next several decades.” Researchers expressed concern that volcanic ash and soot from fires, which land on Arctic ice and snow, would accelerate the melt by absorbing more sunlight. (JOHN STREICKER) 359

World Affairs: Afghanistan

AFGHANISTAN

Area: 652,864 sq km (252,072 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 26,290,000 (excluding Afghan refugees in Pakistan and Iran) Capital: Kabul Head of state and government: President Hamid Karzai

Foreign military support for the Afghan government of Pres. Hamid Karzai peaked at about 150,000 troops during 2010, but insurgent attacks increased in intensity and extent. Afghan support for foreign troops faltered, however, when civilians were killed, and NATO shifted its strategy from counterterrorism, which focused on destroying the enemy, to counterinsurgency, which aimed at protecting civilians and depriving the insurgents of support. U.S. Pres. Barack Obama promised that some U.S. forces would begin to be withdrawn in July 2011. In February 2010 NATO launched an offensive centred on a Taliban stronghold in Helmand province. Taliban control was weakened, but the goal of establishing effective government institutions there remained elusive. In September another NATO operation succeeded in reducing Taliban activity in and around Kandahar. Drawing on its experience of fighting in Iraq, the U.S. proposed arming villagers in areas beyond government control to form village police units to deal with local threats. President Karzai at first opposed the idea, but by summer the plan had been approved, and the first units had been deployed by autumn. In the ninth year of fighting in Afghanistan, it was widely recognized that a purely military solution was unlikely, and resolution of the conflict required other approaches as well. At a conference in London in January 2010, Karzai presented a program for reconciling with and reintegrating insurgents. Those who renounced violence, refused to support al-Qaeda, and accepted Afghanistan’s constitution would be welcomed with aid and jobs. The idea was endorsed by the international community, and in June Karzai summoned a meeting of 1,600 leading Afghans to offer advice on reconciliation. One result was the appointment in September of a 70-member High Peace Council. Pakistan insisted on partici360

pating in any negotiations, but some Afghans distrusted that country because of its close links to the Taliban and looked instead to Saudi Arabia to play an important role. Reports of secret talks involving Afghan, UN, and U.S. officials and Taliban representatives were denied by Taliban spokesmen, who publicly rejected all offers of reconciliation. Human rights activists worried that a deal with the Taliban might come at the expense of hard-won rights for Afghan women. Following the massive fraud that occurred during the 2009 presidential election, the demand for government reform increased, both inside and outside Afghanistan. Entrenched corruption, especially among police and government authorities, turned Afghans against their government and made NATO’s counterinsurgency mission more difficult. The international community had come to see President Karzai as the main obstacle to reform, while Karzai accused non-Afghans of interfering with and ignoring Afghanistan’s sovereignty. He objected to NATO operations that caused many civilian casualties and chafed when pressured by foreigners to adjust his government to accommodate their interests. He also said that aid that donor countries spent without Afghan government oversight was the cause of corruption and, in the case of private security firms contracted by foreigners, a source of violence. In a July conference, Karzai’s finance minister, Omar Zakhilwal, asked that at least half the aid to Afghanistan be channeled through Afghan ministries, and in August Karzai decreed that all private security firms, domestic and foreign, would be banned. Confrontation with Karzai became so serious that some in the U.S. administration felt that a focus on eliminating corruption might conflict with strategic U.S. interests. Elections for the lower house of Afghanistan’s parliament were due in 2010, but the taint of fraud on the previous year’s presidential election put a fair vote in doubt. Karzai insisted that the election be held by May, as the constitution required, but many international leaders demanded a delay, citing the need for electoral reform. In late January Karzai reluctantly agreed to postpone the vote until September 18. The balloting was to be run by an Independent Election Commission (IEC) and a separate Electoral Complaints Commission (ECC), including nonAfghans, to adjudicate fraud cases. In February Karzai moved to take control

of the ECC. The lower house blocked that attempt, and, under pressure from his Western allies, Karzai backed down. By June there were 2,577 candidates, including 405 women, standing for 249 seats. Security concerns kept almost 14% of the polling stations closed, but 5.6 million Afghans defied Taliban threats and voted. Thousands of complaints were filed, and the IEC disqualified nearly one-fourth of the ballots, while the ECC disqualified 19 winning candidates. The final results, announced in November, showed that the Pashtun contingent had lost about 26 seats, prompting fresh claims of vote rigging. In December Karzai established a special tribunal to investigate the complaints. (STEPHEN SEGO)

ALBANIA

Area: 28,703 sq km (11,082 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 3,205,000 Capital: Tirana Chief of state: President Bamir Topi Head of government: Prime Minister Sali Berisha

In early 2010 the opposition Socialist Party of Albania (PS) continued the boycott of the Albanian parliament that it had begun in September 2009 after the government rejected party leader Edi Rama’s demand for a recount of the general election of June 28, 2009. On February 25, responding to mediation efforts by the Council of Europe, the 64 PS deputies returned to the parliament. Nonetheless, PS involvement in actual legislative work was sporadic. Moreover, the opposition launched street protests in April and May with up to 100,000 demonstrators, while some 200 PS supporters, including 22 parliamentarians, began a hunger strike on April 30. The hunger strike lasted more than two weeks before ending at the behest of the EU. The lack of cooperation between the governing coalition and the opposition led in November to an EU rejection of Albanian candidacy for membership, for which it had applied in April 2009. Ultimately, political tensions eased when Rama and Prime Minister Sali Berisha accepted the Council of Europe’s recommendation that the Albanians request the European Com-

World Affairs: Algeria Kadari Mohamed—Xinhua/Landov

mission for Democracy Through Law of the Council of Europe (the “Venice Commission”) to provide an expert opinion on the issue of a recount. Subsequently, PS deputies participated in legislative sessions but refused to vote on draft laws. The parliament adjourned in December without having succeeded in forming a commission to investigate the 2009 election. A controversial constitutional court ruling in February that deemed that former members of the communist-era secret police could not be banned from work as civil servants or as officeholders in the justice system brought harsh criticism from the governing Democratic Party. In other news, even though the government rejected the charges as baseless, on February 23 it agreed to a UN-led investigation into allegations of organ trafficking by the Kosovo Liberation Army. It was alleged that Serbs kidnapped during the war of 1999 had been taken to the Albanian town of Burrel, where their organs were removed. Reflective of Serbia and Albania’s pledge to improve relations, on March 11 Albanian Foreign Minister Ilir Meta and Serbian Interior Minister Ivica Dacic signed an agreement to increase cooperation in fighting organized crime, as well as human and drug trafficking. Owing largely to the global economic downturn and to declines of 4.3% and 9% in the overexpanded construction and telecommunications sectors, respectively, the Albanian economy slowed considerably in 2010, with real GDP growth of only 2.4%. At 13.8%, unemployment remained slightly higher than in 2009, while inflation remained stable at about 3.4%. Albania kept its pledge to its NATO partners to invest 2% of GDP in defense, and in July it dispatched 44 soldiers to Afghanistan, where they became the first Albanian international peacekeepers in the postcommunist era expected to see battle. Albania accepted a U.S. request to allow the immigration of three former prisoners from the detention facility in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, bringing the total number of former prisoners taken in by Albania to 11. The European Union and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development launched a $175 million private-sector development project, and the World Bank approved loans ranging from $425 million to $450 million to stimulate the Albanian economy from 2011 to 2014. The discovery in August in the Apollonia archaeological district north of Vlore, of the bust of a Roman

athlete dating from the 2nd century CE; was hailed as the most important find in 50 years in Albania. Soon thereafter, in September, a 6th-century-CE; tomb was unearthed during the construction of a shopping centre. (FABIAN SCHMIDT)

ALGERIA

Area: 2,381,741 sq km (919,595 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 35,866,000 Capital: Algiers Head of state and government: President Abdelaziz Bouteflika, assisted by Prime Minister Ahmed Ouyahia

The Algerian economy improved throughout 2010 as oil prices recovered from a dip in 2008 that had caused a 34.1% fall in external revenues in 2009 and a budget deficit of 7.5% of GDP, the highest since the 1990s. A wave of strikes over economic conditions that had begun in October 2009 continued into the first half of 2010 despite an increase of 25% in the minimum wage in December 2009. The government, buoyed by a good harvest, which enabled it to avoid cereal imports and even to export excess barley, subsidized 15 consumer staples to ease social discontent. In midyear it also proposed a $286 billion five-year infrastructure and housing-development plan. In the first half of the year, Sonatrach, Algeria’s oil and gas company, was rocked by a corruption scandal in which senior staff were implicated. The incident eventually brought down the country’s long-serving energy minister, Chakib Khelil, whose proposal for a “gas OPEC” raised an international alarm. The resulting government reshuffle in late May also led to the sidelining of long-standing Interior Minister Noureddine Zerhouni. The security establishment was thrown off balance by the murder in late February of the country’s police chief, Ali Tounsi; he was killed by a subordinate over allegations of corruption. Despite repeated clearing operations conducted by the army, low-level violence continued in eastern and central Algeria. In the Sahara, al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghrib (AQIM) was involved in several kidnappings, which climaxed in the execution of a French hostage in

In Algiers in June, a worker oversees barley collected for shipment abroad. A record harvest in Algeria the previous year resulted in the country’s first grain exports in more than 40 years. late July. The Algerian government called for a UN ban on the provision of ransoms to the group after two Spanish kidnapping victims were released in August. In February the Algerian ambassador to Mali was recalled after a local court released two Algerian AQIM members. In late September, Algeria called a meeting of all Sahel and Saharan states to coordinate antiterrorist action. Morocco, to its great annoyance, was excluded, as Algeria supports the Polisario Front in the Western Sahara. In late September the police chief of the Polisario Front in Tindouf, Mustapha Salma Ould Sidi Mouloud, was arrested for having visited Mauritania and having supported Morocco’s autonomy plan for the Western Sahara. Even though Egyptian Pres. Hosni Mubarak made a special visit to Algiers on July 5, ostensibly to offer condolences to Pres. Abdelaziz Bouteflika over the death of his brother, Mustapha, relations between the two countries continued to be strained. Political tensions had escalated in November 2009 amid widespread fan violence when the two long-standing sports rivals finished level in the qualifying round for the 2010 association 361

World Affairs: Andorra

football (soccer) World Cup finals and were forced into a sudden-death playoff match held in neutral Sudan and won by Algeria. Among the ensuing economic repercussions, the Algerian government in May froze a $750 million investment in Egypt’s Ezz Steel. Djezzy, the Algerian subsidiary of the Egyptian mobile phone service provider Orascom Telecom, unsuccessfully challenged government demands for back taxes totaling $597 million. Subsequently, Djezzy faced new levies on its current operations, but when Orascom tried to sell its subsidiary to South Africa-based MTN Group, Algeria blocked the sale. (GEORGE JOFFÉ)

ANDORRA

Area: 464 sq km (179 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 83,900 Capital: Andorra la Vella Heads of state: Co-princes of Andorra, the president of France and the bishop of Urgell, Spain Head of government: Chief Executive Jaume Bartumeu Cassany

Andorra enjoyed several years of double-digit economic growth prior to a decline that started in 2005, and in 2010 the economy continued to slow down, prompting lawmakers to introduce some unprecedented proposals. Those under consideration included a requirement for every Andorran company to publish its accounts so that the government could calculate an exact GDP figure; the imposition of the first-ever direct taxes, in the form of a corporate levy; and the establishment of a new system of value-added taxation of about 4.5%. Because Andorra had to relax its banking-secrecy rules, in accordance with the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, there were worries that that sector of the economy would suffer because it would not be viewed as attractive as a tax haven. Nevertheless, travel guide Lonely Planet named Andorra one of the “world’s 10 happiest places” in 2010, citing the good health and longevity of its population. Andorrans had a life expectancy of 81.7 years—one of the highest in the world. In other news, a Salvador Dalí bronze sculpture, Nobil-

ity of Time, was donated by Enric Sabater (Dalí’s former personal secretary) and installed in the Plaça de la Rotonda, the capital city’s central square. (ANNE ROBY)

ANGOLA

Area: 1,246,700 sq km (481,354 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 18,993,000 Capital: Luanda Head of state and government: President José Eduardo dos Santos, assisted until February 5 by Prime Minister António Paulo Kassoma

Angola began 2010 by hosting the African Cup of Nations association football (soccer) tournament, the most popular sporting event on the continent. On January 10, six heads of neighbouring countries, including Jacob Zuma of South Africa and Joseph Kabila of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), attended the glittering opening ceremony in Luanda. The government showcased the games by building four huge new stadia—with seating capacities ranging from 20,000 to 50,000—in Luanda, Benguela, Lubango, and Cabinda. In part, this effort was meant to demonstrate the impressive strides

that the government had made in economic development since the end of the civil war in 2002 and to attract new investment. Unfortunately, the tournament was marred by tragedy. Two days prior to the beginning of the games, rebels in Cabinda province opened fire on a bus carrying the Togolese team from its training camp in the DRC to Cabinda city, killing two Togolese officials and an Angolan bus driver and wounding several players. Despite players’ willingness to continue, the Togolese government withdrew the team from the competition. The Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) claimed responsibility for the incident involving the Togolese team, highlighting an insurgency in Cabinda province that had simmered in various forms since the 1960s. FLEC had split into rival factions. The Angolan government claimed to have signed peace terms with one faction in 2006, but informed sources believed that this deal was a sham. Meanwhile, in July leaders of the faction known as FLEC-FAC (Armed Forces of Cabinda), exiled in Paris, repeated its rejection of the agreement and called on insurgents to continue resistance. As a result, the government continued to maintain a large military presence in Cabinda. The province, a major driver of the national economy, accounted for 60% of Angola’s oil production and had important reserves of gold, diamonds, uranium, and hardwoods.

The biennial African Cup of Nations association football (soccer) tournament, held in Angola in 2010, kicks off on January 10 with a festive opening ceremony in Luanda.

Amr Abdallah Dalsh—Reuters/Landov

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World Affairs: Argentina

Simultaneously with the African Cup, the National Assembly enacted by a vote of 186 out of 220 a new constitution, which adopted a semiparliamentary system of government similar to that of South Africa. Under its provisions, direct presidential elections and the office of prime minister were abolished. Instead, the victorious party would name the president, who would select the vice president. The main opposition, the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), boycotted the vote, charging the ruling party, the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), with ending democracy. Although the new constitution limited the president to two five-year terms, it started the political process from scratch. Many believed that the new constitution would have the effect of extending the incumbent president’s tenure of office by 10 years. Having been in power for three decades, Pres. José Eduardo dos Santos was the second longest-serving head of state in Africa. In February, Fernando Dias dos Santos, formerly head of the National Assembly and a former prime minister, was sworn in as the country’s first vice president, along with other new government officials. The next election was scheduled to take place in 2012. (LARAY DENZER)

ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA

Area: 442 sq km (171 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 90,300 Capital: Saint John’s Chief of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Dame Louise Lake-Tack Head of government: Prime Minister Baldwin Spencer

ernment, which had earlier seized Stanford’s properties and some of his businesses in Antigua, agreed to compensate the thousands of people who claimed to have lost money in their dealings with Stanford. In June the IMF finally agreed to a three-year, $117.8 million standby agreement for Antigua and Barbuda. The IMF said that this would “support the authorities’ efforts to restore fiscal and debt sustainability.” The twinisland state’s economy had shrunk substantially in 2009. Antigua and Barbuda was one of six Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) members to agree in June to an economic union much deeper than that currently existing in Caricom. The OECS was a subregional offshoot of Caricom, the wider grouping to which OECS countries also belonged. (DAVID RENWICK)

ARGENTINA

Area: 2,780,403 sq km (1,073,520 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 40,666,000 Capital: Buenos Aires Head of state: President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner

In 2010 Argentine Pres. Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and her spouse, former president Néstor Kirchner (2003–07), consolidated their grip on power in the run-up to the 2011 presidential election. While the Peronist Kirchners’ prospects for victory in 2011 increased as the year progressed, the anti-Kirchner Peronist and non-Peronist political opposition often found itself on the defensive as well as increasingly fragmented and subject to internecine feuds. The year began with President Fernández de Kirchner’s attempt to pay foreign debt by using international reserves held by the nominally autonomous Argentine Central Bank. After a series of moves and countermoves, the gambit was ultimately successful but resulted in the dismissal of the Central Bank president, Martín Redrado, as well as further weakened confidence in the country’s institutions. Additional achievements, including a popular bicentennial celebration held in May and the passage in July of Latin America’s first law legalizing same-sex marriage, helped to boost the Kirchners’ approval ratings modestly during 2010. Another accomplishment was a successful debt swap with two-thirds of the “holdout” creditors who had rejected Argentina’s 2005 restructuring of debt upon which the country had defaulted in 2001. This swap, combined with that of 2005, ensured that more than 90% of

On May 25 the Argentine experimental theatrical group Fuerza Bruta (Brute Force) stages a sombre scene in the streets of Buenos Aires to represent the country’s 1982 war with the U.K. over the Falkland Islands/Islas Malvinas. The avant-garde company mounted a massive multigenre production covering 200 years of history as part of Argentina’s bicentennial celebration.

In early 2010 Antigua and Barbuda’s ruling United Progressive Party (UPP) faced the wrath of the Stanford Victims Coalition (SVC), a group representing investors in CDs issued by the nowdefunct Stanford International Bank, which was based in Antigua. Texasbased bank founder Robert Allen Stanford faced trial in the U.S. on charges of financial fraud. The SVC mounted a campaign to persuade tourists to cancel holidays on the island until the govSergio Goya—dpa/Landov

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World Affairs: Armenia

the original bondholders had participated in a restructuring agreement. In addition, Argentina resolved its fiveyear dispute with Uruguay over the construction and subsequent operation of the pulp mill on the Uruguay River in Fray Bentos, Uruguay, across from the Argentine city of Gualeguaychú. The 2011 presidential campaign began in earnest in 2010, with the political system divided roughly into three main sectors. It became clear that either Néstor Kirchner or, less likely, President Fernández de Kirchner would be the candidate of the governing Front for Victory. On October 27, however, Néstor Kirchner who had served as the country’s principal power broker during his wife’s presidency, suffered a fatal heart attack. (See OBITUARIES.) It was uncertain whether President Fernández de Kirchner would press ahead with her candidacy. A second sector, composed of antiKirchner Peronists (Federal Peronism), spent much of the year attempting to persuade Sen. Carlos Reutemann to be their standard-bearer. At the end of the year, they were still awaiting a response, with several less-viable candidates waiting in the wings in the event of a Reutemann declination. The final sector consisted of nonPeronists of the Civic and Social Agreement (ACyS) alliance, which comprised the Radical Civic Union (UCR), the Civic Coalition (CC), and the Socialist Party. The front-runners for the ACyS candidacy, both of the UCR, were Vice Pres. Julio Cobos (whose tiebreaking vote torpedoed agriculturalreform legislation that the Kirchners had supported in 2008) and Ricardo Alfonsín (son of former president Raúl Alfonsín [1983–89]). CC leader Elisa Carrió, whose relationship with her alliance partners worsened during 2010, also announced her candidacy in December. That month Fernández de Kirchner’s leadership was further tested by encounters between immigrant squatters and citizens of Buenos Aires. Argentina enjoyed robust GDP growth (projected at 7%) but experienced its highest rate of inflation since the 2002 currency devaluation; private consultants projected an inflation rate of 25% to 30% for 2010. The national statistics institute, INDEC, continued to operate under government intervention. INDEC’s inflation estimates were considered politically driven and impossibly low by most neutral observers and even by many government allies. (MARK P. JONES)

ARMENIA

Area: 29,743 sq km (11,484 sq mi). About 13% of neighbouring Azerbaijan (including the 4,400-sq-km [1,700-sq-mi] disputed region of Nagorno-Karabakh [Armenian: Artsakh]) has been under Armenian control since 1993. Population (2010 est.): 3,090,000 (plus 142,000 in Nagorno-Karabakh) Capital: Yerevan Chief of state: President Serzh Sarkisyan Head of government: Prime Minister Tigran Sarkisyan

Widespread apathy in Armenia was reflected in the low turnout for a midJanuary 2010 Yerevan by-election that was contested by political prisoner Nikol Pashinian and in low attendance at protest meetings convened by the opposition Armenian National Congress in Gyumri on May 24 and in the capital on June 12. An appeal on March 30 by the parliamentary opposition Heritage party for dialogue and cooperation between leading opposition forces elicited no response. Public apathy diminished, however, and there was a widespread outcry following a series of noncombat deaths in the army in July–August that was apparently the result of hazing or “suicides.” The economy rebounded in 2010 following a 14.4% decline in GDP in 2009. Initial robust growth during the first quarter was offset, however, by a summer slump in agricultural output owing to adverse weather conditions, which resulted in overall GDP growth of just 4%. No further progress was registered in the rapprochement between Armenia and Turkey that began in 2008. On January 12 the Armenian Constitutional Court ruled that the twin protocols on normalizing relations signed in Zürich in October 2009 did not violate Armenia’s 1990 declaration of independence. The Turkish Foreign Ministry on January 18 protested the wording of that ruling as implying that Armenia would continue to lobby for international recognition of the 1915 genocide. The Armenian parliament on February 25 amended the law on international treaties to allow for the suspension or termination of such agreements

that had been signed but not formally ratified. On April 22, Pres. Serzh Sarkisyan announced that he had asked the parliament to remove ratification of those protocols from its agenda. President Sarkisyan and visiting Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev on August 20 signed an amendment to the 1995 treaty regulating Russia’s military basing rights in Armenia. The pact extended those rights until 2044 and provided for Russia to act in conjunction with the Armenian armed forces to deflect threats to Armenia’s security. (ELIZABETH FULLER)

AUSTRALIA

Area: 7,702,501 sq km (2,973,952 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 22,403,000 Capital: Canberra Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Quentin Bryce Head of government: Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and, from June 24, Julia Gillard

Domestic Affairs. Australia in 2010 was gripped by a series of political dramas that saw the unexpected replacement of

Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard attends the opening plenary session of the annual Group of 20 meeting, held in November in Seoul.

Michel Euler—Reuters/Landov

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World Affairs: Australia

Australian Election of 2010 The 2010 federal election was one of the most extraordinary in Australia’s history. The cycle of events started in June when power brokers with the ruling Australian Labor Party urged Deputy Prime Minister Julia Gillard to challenge Prime Minister Kevin Rudd for the party’s leadership, fearing that Rudd might lose the next election because of a steep slide in his public approval ratings. Gillard’s challenge was successful, and on June 24 she became the country’s first female prime minister. She called an election for August 21. After a campaign that focused heavily on workplace reform, a new national broadband network, and economic management, voters produced a hung Parliament, the first in Australia since 1940. For weeks it was unclear who would govern the country. The final decision rested on the allegiances of four independent MPs: Andrew Wilkie, Tony Windsor, Rob Oakeshott, and Bob Katter. Wilkie chose early on to back Labor, but the other three kept Australians guessing until September

Prime Minister Kevin Rudd as Australian Labor Party leader by his deputy, Julia Gillard, who became the country’s first female prime minister. (See BIOGRAPHIES.) Rudd’s removal as head of his party in June, less than three years after his election victory of November 2007, came after a steep fall in his voter approval ratings during the preceding three months. Rudd’s government had begun 2010 with broad popular support because of the positive impact of its sweeping economic stimulus package of October 2008, which had helped Australia avoid a recession during the global financial crisis. In early 2010, however, the government became embroiled in controversy over its handling of the stimulus package after it was revealed that several of the programs had been badly mismanaged, with millions of dollars wasted. The most contentious of these was a job-creation initiative that provided new infrastructure to schools across the country. Although the program created jobs, it was also subject to fraud and inept management that resulted in many schools’ receiving new buildings

7, when each gave his verdict. Katter backed the opposition coalition between the Liberal Party of Australia and the Nationals while Windsor and Oakeshott backed Labor, allowing Gillard to remain as the prime minister with only a one-seat majority. The election was also notable for the rise in the vote of Australia’s third party, the Greens. Disenchantment with the two major parties helped the Greens win a 4% swing in voting for the upper house, the Senate, delivering the Greens the balance of power in the Senate from July 1, 2011. The Greens also won their first seat in the lower house, the House of Representatives, with the election of Adam Bandt for the seat of Melbourne. The election results meant that both Labor and the Liberal-Nationals alliance each held 72 seats in the House of Representatives. Tony Crook, a Western Australian Nationals MP, considered himself an independent and was not counted among the members of the coalition. (CAMERON STEWART)

they did not need at the cost of many millions of taxpayer dollars. Also controversial was Rudd’s proposed introduction of a 40% “super tax” on mining company profits over a certain level. The tax was intended to ensure that the proceeds of Australia’s mining boom were shared more evenly across the country. The mining industry strongly opposed the tax as harmful to the country’s most successful export industry. With public support for Rudd eroding, by June there was a conviction within the Labor Party that he could not win the next election. This prompted a leadership challenge by Gillard, a member of the party’s left wing. Rudd realized that he did not have the support of his party and stepped down; Gillard was elected party leader, and she was sworn in as prime minister on June 24. Within weeks, Gillard called for elections to be held on August 21. (See Sidebar.) Opposition leader Tony Abbott, the Liberal Party’s third head in three years, put up a strong fight in the election, which resulted in a hung Parliament. For several weeks it was not

clear who would form a government. In early September three independent MPs chose to back Labor, giving Gillard 76 seats and Labor a second term in power. Upon her confirmation as prime minister, Gillard promised a more open and consultative style of government. She restored the Labor party’s promise— dropped by Rudd in 2009—to introduce an emissions-trading plan in Australia. She also promised to reduce the mining tax from 40% to 30%. Beginning in September Queensland experienced months of heavy rains that created extensive flooding. In December the southern part of the state saw mass evacuations, and several cities and towns, notably Bundaberg, were inundated. By year’s end seven people had died in the flooding, and the ongoing disaster was expected to continue into the new year. The Economy. During the year the Australian economy recovered steadily but unevenly from the global financial crisis. The country enjoyed modest economic growth and relatively low unemployment but experienced what was described as a “two-speed economy”; the mining boom triggered rapid growth in the resource-rich states of Western Australia and Queensland, but the traditional manufacturing states such as Victoria, New South Wales, and South Australia experienced growth on a smaller scale. The Australian dollar soared during the year, briefly reaching parity with the U.S. dollar, placing pressure on export industries and triggering a slump in the number of international tourists visiting Australia. Foreign Affairs. The ascent of Gillard changed the style but not the substance of Australia’s dealings with the international community. Rudd, a former diplomat and fluent Mandarin speaker, had been an activist on the international stage, seeking a temporary seat for Australia on the UN Security Council as well as closer political, economic, and defense ties with the U.S. When Gillard became prime minister, she admitted that foreign affairs was not her passion, and she appeared awkward in her first overseas visit to Asia in October. In November, however, she hosted U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and Defense Secretary Robert Gates in Melbourne. At their meeting she committed Australia firmly to the ongoing military mission in Afghanistan and to the country’s alliance with the U.S. (CAMERON STEWART) 365

World Affairs: Austria

AUSTRIA

Area: 83,879 sq km (32,386 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 8,382,000 Capital: Vienna Head of state: President Heinz Fischer Head of government: Chancellor Werner Faymann

In 2010 Austria’s grand coalition between the centre-left Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) and the centreright Austrian People’s Party (ÖVP) was characterized by cooperation as the coalition partners worked together to lead the country out of the worst recession it had experienced since World War II. Pres. Heinz Fischer (SPÖ) was reelected to his post in a landslide victory in April. However, following a spate of poor electoral outcomes in 2009, the SPÖ continued to lose ground in local elections in 2010. The SPÖ suffered Thousands of papers bearing the names of Holocaust victims cover the ground outside the Hofburg palace in Vienna in April, part of a demonstration against right-wing presidential candidate Barbara Rosenkranz, who suggested that Austria’s law banning glorification of Nazis and denial of the Holocaust restricted free speech.

Ronald Zak/AP

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losses in municipal elections held in Niederösterreich, Vorarlberg, and Tirol on March 14 and in Steiermark on March 21. On May 30 the Social Democrats also lost their absolute majority in the state assembly in Burgenland. These defeats reflected increasing voter frustration with the party’s performance at the federal level, but there was no clear alternative to the ruling grand coalition. Support for the right-wing Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) was strong, but because of anti-Muslim and anti-Jewish messages employed in some FPÖ electoral campaigns, it was unlikely that any of the mainstream parties would find domestic or international acceptance for a possible partnership with the Freedom Party. Nevertheless, the FPÖ seemed poised to remain one of the largest forces in Austrian politics. By contrast, support for the right-wing Alliance for the Future of Austria (BZÖ) waned. In December 2009 the BZÖ chapter in Kärnten—by far the party’s largest chapter—had split from the national party to join the FPÖ in the Austrian parliament, and backing for the BZÖ continued to fall in 2010. Austria’s economy weathered the financial crisis plaguing much of the euro area relatively well, with resilient domestic demand and the lowest unemployment rate in the European Union. Following a contraction of GDP by 3.9% in 2009, the economy in 2010 returned to a pattern of growth, largely underpinned by the recovery of the large manufacturing sector and resurgent exports. The primary reasons for the increase in Austrian exports were the economic growth of some of Austria’s main trading partners, particularly Germany, as well as the weaker euro, which helped Austria regain international competitiveness. The government continued to implement some fiscal-stimulus measures early in the year, but with GDP once again expanding, it shifted its focus from bolstering demand to supporting the banking industry and reining in the country’s burgeoning budget deficit. On June 25 the Austrian National Bank announced that the country’s bank-aid package—which included guarantees for banks’ assets and interbank loans as well as measures to recapitalize banks if necessary—would be extended until the end of 2011. According to stress tests conducted by the National Bank and the Committee of European Banking Supervisors (CEBS), Austria’s major banks were reasonably well capitalized and could withstand another

economic crisis. Meanwhile, the austerity measures contained in the Budget Framework Act for 2011–14, passed in March 2010, were expected to shrink the deficit from an officially estimated 4.7% of GDP in 2010 to less than 3% of GDP by 2013. Among the measures, a significant proportion of which were to be introduced in 2011, were the freezing of public-sector wages during 2011–12 and the implementation of a number of new taxes, including a levy on banks. Austria’s debt-to-GDP ratio continued to rise in 2010, but it remained significantly below that of some of the European Union’s peripheral countries. Consequently, Austria was not directly affected by the sovereign debt crisis that saw several countries in the euro area come under speculative attack in the international bond markets. (MEGAN GREENE)

AZERBAIJAN

Area: 86,600 sq km (33,436 sq mi), including the 5,500-sq-km (2,100-sq-mi) exclave of Nakhichevan and the 4,400-sq-km (1,700-sq-mi) disputed region (with Armenia) of Nagorno-Karabakh Population (2010 est.): 9,062,000 Capital: Baku Head of state and government: President Ilham Aliyev, assisted by Prime Minister Artur Rasizade

Azerbaijani opposition parties embarked on negotiations in January 2010 on forming one or more blocs to participate in the parliamentary elections scheduled for November 7. Those talks resulted in the collapse in July of the main opposition Freedom (Azadliq) bloc. In all, 33 political parties, 13 of them aligned in five blocs, registered for the parliamentary ballot. The ruling New Azerbaijan Party (YAP) won 74 of the 125 seats, and small opposition parties won 13. The main opposition Azerbaijan Popular Front (AXC) and New Equality (Musavat) parties lost their handful of parliament mandates. International observers, citing voter fraud and other violations, said that the regime failed to create equal conditions for all candidates. Opposition parties unsuccessfully called for the annulment

World Affairs: Bangladesh

of the outcome, and they also clamoured for new elections. Journalist Eynulla Fatullayev, who was serving an 8½-year prison term for extremism, received an additional 2½ years in jail for alleged possession of drugs. Azerbaijan’s Supreme Court annulled the earlier verdict on November 11 in compliance with an April ruling by the European Court of Human Rights. The same court also ruled that the arrest in October 2005 of former economic development minister Farkhad Aliyev on suspicion of having plotted a coup was illegal, and it awarded him a large sum in compensation. Aliyev had been sentenced in 2007 to 10 years’ imprisonment for economic crimes. Also, two bloggers who had been imprisoned in 2009 after they posted a video satirizing the government on the Internet were released from custody in November. GDP growth for the first 11 months of 2010 was 4.5%. On June 7 Turkey and Azerbaijan signed a memorandum of understanding on the export via Turkey of natural gas from Azerbaijan’s Shah Deniz field beginning in 2016. No progress was registered toward resolving the long-standing NagornoKarabakh conflict despite four meetings between Azerbaijani Pres. Ilham Aliyev and his Armenian counterpart, Serzh Sarkisyan, and several visits to the region by the cochairs of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Minsk Group (which was attempting to mediate a political solution to the conflict there). President Aliyev traveled to Moscow in May for talks with Dmitry Medvedev, his Russian counterpart, and in September Aliyev met for the first time with U.S. Pres. Barack Obama. During a visit to Baku by Turkish Pres. Abdullah Gul in August, the two countries signed a new treaty on strategic partnership and mutual assistance. (ELIZABETH FULLER)

BAHAMAS, THE

Area: 13,939 sq km (5,382 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 347,000 Capital: Nassau Chief of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governors-General Arthur Dion Hanna and, from April 14, Sir Arthur Foulkes Head of government: Prime Minister Hubert Ingraham

Despite the likelihood of a substantial reduction in government revenue from import duties, The Bahamas continued to move decisively during 2010 to pursue full WTO membership. According to The Bahamas government spokesmen, the process involving WTO scrutiny of the country’s future trade regime would take three years to complete. By June, The Bahamas had signed Tax Information Exchange Agreements with 22 countries, well beyond the minimum of 12 that met the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s (OECD’s) threshold for compliance with tax-cooperation rules on international money laundering. This effort was lauded by the OECD, which underscored the key role The Bahamas played in offshore banking and finance. In July a joint venture (established in 2009) between energy companies Statoil (of Norway) and the Falkland Islands-registered company BPC Ltd. announced plans to start the search for oil offshore The Bahamas by 2013. Following the evaluation of the results of seismic surveys taken in 2008, BPC seemed particularly optimistic about a Bahamas discovery, having negotiated five other licenses. The last exploration effort offshore ended when in 2006 Kerr-McGee (now Anadarko) halted an unsuccessful drilling program. The government’s privatization policy was reaffirmed in July. An announcement revealed that the sale of 51% of Bahamas Telecommunications Co. would proceed. (DAVID RENWICK)

including the possibility of nominating a prime minister from outside the ruling family and more power for the elected lower house of the parliament, which had to share power with an upper house appointed by the king. In September the government announced the discovery of a plot by a Shi!ite group to perpetrate terror attacks and overthrow the government; the group’s trial began in October. The accusations were rejected by Shi!ites, who claimed that the accused were simply political activists. International human rights organizations raised allegations that the government had arbitrarily arrested and sometimes tortured opposition figures. On October 23 general elections were held for the 40-member lower house of the parliament. The Shi!ite opposition group al-Wifaq (Accord) got 18 seats, one more than in the 2006 election. Two Sunni religious groups, the Muslim Brotherhood-affiliated al-Menbar and the Salafist al-Asalah, won only five seats, reflecting a loss of nine seats from the previous election. Moderate independent Sunnis—likely to support the government—won 17 seats, almost double the number that they had held before. The king immediately charged Khalifah ibn Sulman al-Khalifah—his uncle and Bahrain’s prime minister since the country became independent in 1971—with forming yet another cabinet, indicating little change in policy. (LOUAY BAHRY)

BANGLADESH

BAHRAIN

Area: 757 sq km (292 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,216,000 Capital: Manama Head of state: King Hamad ibn Isa al-Khalifah Head of government: Prime Minister Khalifah ibn Sulman al-Khalifah

It was a turbulent year in Bahrain as the Shi!ite opposition struggled with the Sunni-led government and the Sunni Khalifah ruling family for greater power in 2010. The Shi!ite majority asked for important changes in the government and the constitution,

Area: 147,570 sq km (56,977 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 158,066,000 Capital: Dhaka Head of state: President Zillur Rahman Head of government: Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina Wazed (Wajed)

Bangladesh entered an important phase in its history in 2010 when the government started proceedings to bring to trial the Islamist elements who had committed war crimes—including genocide, murder, and torture—during the country’s 1971 war of independence. An estimated three million people were killed in the liberation struggle. Some of the perpetrators were arrested 367

World Affairs: Barbados Pavel Rahman/AP

6.6% expansion in industry, and healthy performance in the agricultural sector. Inflation remained relatively stable at 6.5%. (INAM AHMED)

BARBADOS

Area: 430 sq km (166 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 276,000 Capital: Bridgetown Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Sir Clifford Husbands Head of government: Prime Ministers David Thompson and, from October 23, Freundel Stuart

On January 28 supporters of Mujibur Rahman, who led Bangladesh’s independence movement, rejoice outside Dhaka’s central jail, where five former military officers have been executed for their role in Rahman’s 1975 assassination. and jailed following independence but gained release after the 1975 military coup in which Pres. Mujibur Rahman was assassinated. Many of them then joined the Jama!at-i Islami, a fundamentalist party, and became entrenched in the country’s politics. Rahman’s killers were executed in January 2010, almost 35 years after the crime. The government set up a war crimes tribunal in March and in July arrested a number of Jama!at leaders. The arrests created tension between the Jama!at and its political ally, the Bangladesh Nationalist Party, the country’s main opposition group. In July the Supreme Court’s appellate division upheld a 2005 High Court ruling that annulled the fifth amendment to the constitution. The amendment, passed in 1979 by the postcoup military government, indemnified the killers of President Rahman, legalized all activities of the military rulers, and removed secularism as a basic principle of the state. The 2010 decision also reinstated an article that prohibited religion-based politics and thus paved the way for a restoration of the previous secular form of the constitution. In addition, the decision provided for a law to bring to trial any military rulers who had engaged in illegal activities and vested Parliament with the power to formulate a law in this regard. Further action 368

quickly ensued; the government formed a committee to restore the original constitution, and family members whose relatives had been convicted in political trials during the military era filed court cases challenging those verdicts. In August the High Court also declared the seventh amendment illegal. The amendment had legitimized the rule of another military dictator, Lieut. Gen. Hussein Mohammad Ershad, who held power from 1982 to 1990. The decision opened the door for victims of the military regime to seek justice. In October more than 800 troopers, who had been involved in the deadly 2009 mutiny in which 74 persons were killed, were indicted. Their trial was set to begin in January 2011. During the year Bangladesh was active in building relations with both China and India. Many regarded this as a prudent strategy to create prosperity, as the country lived in the shadows of the two powers. Bangladesh also signed a transshipment deal with India under which India would transport its goods to its northeastern states through Bangladesh. The deal signified an important step forward in the IndoBangladesh relationship. On the economic front, the country weathered the recession well, and its GDP stabilized at 6%, led by 6.6% growth in the service sector, moderate

Barbados in early 2010 was already leading its fellow Caricom countries in renewable energy, thanks to its aggressive solar water-heating program. It took a step further when in March the government announced that it would seek help from the Inter-American Development Bank for legislation allowing the local power company to purchase electricity from independent power producers generated by renewable means. The government said in March that it could no longer ignore the number of illegal immigrants now residing in Barbados from other Caricom territories and would take steps to repatriate those who could not establish ties with the country. The number of illegals was estimated at about 20,000. At a meeting in Barbados in April, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates pledged $45 million for the Caribbean Basin Security Initiative, the purpose of which was to better prepare countries in the region for fighting terrorism, drug trafficking, and the illegal gun trade. Gates also conceded that the Caribbean countries faced “enormous challenges” in this regard. The arrival in Barbados in June of the first direct flight from Brazil was indicative of the closer relations the Caribbean was trying to forge with an emerging world power. Brazil had increasingly shown interest in moving closer to the region economically. In October 48-year-old Prime Minister David Thompson, who had headed the government since 2008, succumbed to pancreatic cancer. (DAVID RENWICK)

World Affairs: Belgium

BELARUS

Area: 207,595 sq km (80,153 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 9,457,000 Capital: Minsk Head of state and government: President Alyaksandr Lukashenka, assisted by Prime Ministers Syarhey Sidorski and, from December 28, Mikhail Myasnikovich

A fractious presidential election and fluctuating relations with Russia dominated 2010 in Belarus. The relationship with Russia deteriorated as a result of several factors. In April deposed Kyrgyz president Kurmanbek Bakiyev surfaced in Minsk, and Belarusian Pres. Alyaksandr Lukashenka refused to extradite him, angering Russia. In June Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev threatened to cut gas supplies to Belarus by 85% if it did not pay Russia an accumulated debt of $192 million. Lukashenka maintained that Russia owed $200 million in transit fees. Belarus received a $200 million loan from Azerbaijan to pay the debt. The key questions involved Belarus’s participation in the customs union with Russia and Kazakhstan (Common Economic Space, CES), the price for im-

ported Russian gas, and Belarus’s payment of customs duties on imported Russian oil. In addition, Belarus refused Russia’s request to recognize the breakaway Georgian republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Russia’s NTV ran a scathing four-part documentary about Lukashenka called The Godfather, and on October 3 Medvedev denounced Lukashenka in a message on his video blog. On December 9, however, the two presidents met prior to a summit of the Eurasian Economic Community in Moscow. Customs duties were removed—a savings of about $3 billion to Belarus—and Belarus agreed to join the CES by Jan. 1, 2012. Formation of the CES was seen as a major step toward full economic integration, which was expected to include adoption of a single currency. Belarus’s GDP grew by 7.2% between January and November, but the country was in need of short-term loans. In March it received $670 million as the last tranche of a $2.5 billion IMF loan initiated in January 2009. The IMF, however, expressed concern over wage and pension increases as well as the president’s promise to increase the average monthly salary from a governmentreported $400 to $1,000 by 2015. During a visit to Minsk in November, Polish and German Foreign Ministers Radoslaw Sikorski and Guido Wester-

Following allegations of vote rigging in Belarus’s presidential election on December 19, riot police stand guard against protesters attempting to storm the main government building in Minsk.

welle informed Lukashenka that if the presidential election was conducted fairly, Belarus would be eligible for a loan of around $3.8 billion from the European Union and other sources. Some opposition candidates, conversely, sought support from Russia. Ten candidates gathered the requisite 100,000 signatures to be able to run in the election: Viktar Tyareshchanka, an economist; Dzmitry Vus, a businessman; Vital Rymasheuski (Christian Democrats); Ales Mikhalevich, a lawyer and publisher; Ryhor Kastusyou (Popular Front); Mikalay Statkevich (Social Democrats); Lukashenka; Yaraslau Ramanchuk (United Civic Party); Andrei Sannikau (European Belarus); and Uladzimir Nyaklayeu (Speak the Truth). Although the candidates were allowed to campaign freely, observers noted several irregularities during the December 19 election. Moreover, independent opinion polls suggested that Lukashenka led with 30–38% of the vote, denoting the need for a second round, but the Central Election Commission declared Lukashenka’s victory with 79.65% of the vote. After a pro-government exit poll claimed that he had won, thousands of protesters gathered in October Square and then moved to Independence Square. An assault on a main government building, evidently provoked by security forces, resulted in a mass attack on demonstrators by riot police. More than 600 people were arrested. Nyaklayeu and Sannikau were severely beaten, and together with Statkevich, Rymasheuski, and Mikhalevich, they were held in KGB cells. The attacks received widespread condemnation, and the United States refused to recognize the election as legitimate. (DAVID R. MARPLES)

BELGIUM

Area: 30,528 sq km (11,787 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 10,868,000 Capital: Brussels Head of state: King Albert II Head of government: Prime Minister Yves Leterme (acting from April 26)

For two-thirds of 2010, Belgium was effectively ruled by a caretaker governSergei Grits/AP

369

World Affairs: Belize

ment. On April 26 Albert II accepted the resignation of Prime Minister Yves Leterme, who had presided over a fiveparty coalition of French- and Dutchspeaking Christian Democrats and Liberals and French-speaking Socialists for just five months. The coalition collapsed when the Dutch-speaking Liberals and Democrats (Open VLD) withdrew in response to new developments in the long-running dispute over the future of the bilingual Brussels-HalleVilvoorde district. In the general election on June 13, the two biggest winners were the nationalist New Flemish Alliance (N-VA), led by Bart De Wever, which secured 27 seats in the 150-seat assembly, and Elio Di Rupo’s French-speaking Socialist Party (PS), which won 26 seats. Over the next six months, several leading politicians, including De Wever and Di Rupo, tried to form a government, strongly urged on by Albert II behind the scenes. By the end of the year, however, these efforts had come to naught, as pressure by De Wever for more fiscal and political autonomy for Flanders was resisted by all potential French-speaking coalition partners. The caretaker government’s inability to introduce new political initiatives did not impinge on most Belgians’ daily lives, but, embarrassingly, it did coincide with Belgium’s six-month presidency of the EU. With more time to concentrate on their temporary EU responsibilities, however, Belgian ministers met with widely acknowledged success in their EU work. All the while, speculation increased, both at home and abroad, that Belgium would soon split as a state, with unknown consequences for its three regions: Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels. The economic consequences resulting from the political stalemate became apparent toward the end of the year. In November the government was able to adopt only a provisional national budget for 2011, based on the previous year’s spending levels. More significant, the credit-rating agency Standard & Poor’s downgraded Belgium’s outlook from stable to negative in December and warned that it might also cut the sovereignty rating within six months if there was still no government. In contrast, the country was able to raise its economic growth forecasts for 2010 from the 1.3% predicted in June to 2.1% in December. It also expected to reduce its gross borrowing requirement for 2011 by about $4.9 billion from the estimated $59.5 billion for 2010. 370

The year was a turbulent one for the Roman Catholic Church. In April Bishop of Bruges Roger Vangheluwe confessed to having molested a minor many years previously. He resigned shortly after his admission. Godfried Danneels, who had served as primate of Belgium for 30 years before his replacement in January by AndréJoseph Léonard, admitted that he had tried to stop the victim—Vangheluwe’s nephew—from going public. The revelations prompted some 500 complaints to a committee involved in the investigation of alleged abuses by clerics. The disclosure also led to a public apology by Belgian bishops to the country’s Catholic community that acknowledged the failure to respond adequately to the abuses and that requested forgiveness. Léonard’s conservative public pronouncements, particularly on AIDS, also sparked controversy. Belgium and the Netherlands failed in their joint bid to host the 2018 association football (soccer) World Cup. Nevertheless, Belgium found a new sports hero in runner Kevin Borlée, who won the 400 m at the European championships in Barcelona—the third Belgian male athlete to become a European champion. In tennis Kim Clijsters successfully defended her U.S. Open title and won four other Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) titles. After a 16month retirement, Justine Henin reached the final of the Brisbane (Australia) International Tournament and the Australian Open, and three months later she won the Porsche Grand Prix in Stuttgart, Ger. (RORY WATSON)

BELIZE

Area: 22,965 sq km (8,867 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 345,000 Capital: Belmopan Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Sir Colville Young Head of government: Prime Minister Dean Barrow

The year 2010 began with Belize’s economy in recession and an external debt that exceeded 1 billion Belize dollars (about U.S.$500 million). By June GDP had grown a reassuring 2.7%, fu-

eled by an 11% expansion in government services and a 5.3% increase in wholesale and retail spending. The manufacturing sector, however, declined by 2.6%, owing to a reduction in citrus concentrate production. An unprecedented surge in violent crime—largely among urban youth in the economically depressed sections of Belize City—proved to be a major national challenge. A study by a social anthropologist at the University of the West Indies revealed that 91% of urban males between the ages of 9 and 13 had been exposed to gun violence. In response, the government launched a comprehensive anticrime effort called RESTORE (Re-Establish Security Through Outreach Rehabilitation and Education) Belize, which would focus on social assistance, public education, and improved law enforcement. After the Gulf of Mexico oil spill began in April, many Belizeans called for a ban on oil exploration and drilling offshore and in protected areas. On June 29, Maya communities in southern Belize achieved a significant legal victory when the Supreme Court upheld their customary land tenure. (HERMAN J. BYRD)

BENIN

Area: 114,763 sq km (44,310 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 9,056,000 Capital: Porto-Novo (executive and ministerial offices remain in Cotonou) Head of state and government: President Thomas Yayi Boni

In 2010 more than 130,000 people in Benin lost their savings as the result of the largest financial fraud to hit the country since independence in 1960. The scheme involved Investment Consultancy and Computering (ICC) Services, which promised quarterly returns to investors of up to 200%, but by July the firm had been forced to close, and over a dozen employees were arrested. Some members of the government were identified as having links to ICC Services, and on July 7 Pres. Thomas Yayi Boni fired Interior Minister Armand Zinzindohoué for his alleged role in the apparent pyramid scheme. Mass protests by victims took place in Coto-

nou and Porto-Novo, calling for government intervention to reclaim their funds (an estimated $180 million). On July 31, 50 of the National Assembly’s 83 deputies signed a letter accusing President Boni of involvement in the scheme and demanding that the parliament initiate impeachment proceedings against him. In other news, on February 11 the French foreign trade secretary, AnneMarie Idrac, signed an agreement in Cotonou that would provide >9 million (about $11.5 million) in educational aid to Benin. Later that month Benin and Niger agreed to privatize the so-called Benin-Niger Railway and to complete a rail link between the two countries. Though Benin’s food production declined markedly, its overall economy grew 3.5%. In June the IMF stated that it would loan Benin nearly $109 million over the next three years to boost the country’s development efforts. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

BHUTAN

Area: 38,394 sq km (14,824 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 700,000 Capital: Thimphu Head of state: Druk Gyalpo (King) Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuk Head of government: Prime Minister Lyonchen Jigmi Thinley

Bhutanese musicians welcome attendees of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation’s 16th summit, held in Thimphu in late April. Manish Swarup/AP

dition, a program conducted by the Institute of Management Services took place in August to encourage women to enter politics; fewer than 14% of women participated in politics. In foreign affairs the 19th round of Bhutan-China border talks concluded successfully on January 13 in Thimphu. In April Bhutan established diplomatic relations with Afghanistan. Negotiations between Nepal and Bhutan for the repatriation of Bhutanese refugees remained stalled. Since the launch in November 2007 of a resettlement program by the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees, more than 35,000 refugees from Bhutan had departed to the United States and other countries. (KESHAB POUDEL)

BOLIVIA The year 2010 was a historic one for Bhutan, which on April 28–29 in Thimphu hosted the 16th summit of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the first such international conference held in the country. The meeting was attended by eight heads of state and government along with observers from such countries as China, the U.S., Japan, Australia, South Korea, and Iran. Bhutan maintained its robust economic growth by exporting hydropower to India. The two countries finalized four hydroelectric projects— two of them to be completed by 2016. During the year the national census concluded, and the National Statistic Bureau of Bhutan put the total population at 695,819. Bhutan’s parliament passed a bill in March to pave the way for local government elections. In ad-

Area: 1,098,581 sq km (424,164 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 9,947,000 Capitals: La Paz (administrative); Sucre (constitutional) Head of state and government: President Evo Morales Ayma

Social and political tension in Bolivia eased somewhat in 2010 with a radically reformed constitution in place and Pres. Evo Morales reelected in 2009 to a second, five-year term. In January Morales pledged to “deepen and accelerate” change in Bolivia by giving broader rights to the country’s poor and

indigenous majority and a stronger economic role to the state. He pushed ahead with his program of nationalizing key energy resources, expropriating three electricity producers (two of them foreign-owned) and a power-distribution firm. As with previous government takeovers, this led to warnings that private-sector funds would become scarce, and in the much larger naturalgas sector, Bolivia sought investment agreements with state-owned Russian and Chinese firms to allow it to exploit more of its vast reserves. Nationalization boosted state resource revenues and allowed the government to expand the scope of social programs. These included specialized clinics aimed at lowering Bolivia’s mortality rate for pregnant women and new mothers, the second highest in Latin America and the Caribbean (behind Haiti). Authorities moved to end what they described as conditions of servitude and forced labour among Guaraní Indian ranch workers, ordering expropriation of the properties on which they toiled. They also pursued other initiatives aimed at distributing land to impoverished Indians. Morales appointed a former Miss Bolivia, British-born Jessica Anne Jordan, to promote community programs and combat drug trafficking in the Amazon basin, with a budget of $700 million. He also continued to promote development of legal products made from coca leaf, the raw material for cocaine. A Bolivian firm began producing and selling a coca-based soft drink, Coca Colla. On the global front, President Morales pushed for action to address the causes and effects of climate change. An international environmental conference held 371

World Affairs: Bosnia and Herzegovina

in Cochabamba in April called for heavy reductions in the volume of greenhouse gases produced by industrialized countries. Morales presented the meeting’s concluding declaration to the UN in May, commenting, “There are two ways forward: either save capitalism, or save Mother Earth.” Talks continued with the U.S. on normalizing relations, which had been strained since Bolivia’s expulsion of the U.S. ambassador in 2008. Meanwhile, Morales held talks with Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin in Caracas, Venez., and later sent a delegation to Moscow to sign energy and defense agreements. Bolivia and Iran exchanged ambassadors for the first time, raising questions about Iran’s interest in Bolivian uranium deposits. Not all of the reform initiatives proceeded smoothly. Production at Japanese- and U.S.-owned silver mines in the Potosí region was halted for more than two weeks in disputes over a regional boundary and over the lack of government investment in the area. The new constitution granted the right of selfdetermination to 36 ethnic groups, and Indians claiming the right to implement traditional vigilante justice demanded immunity from prosecution after lynching four police officers whom they had accused of corruption. A law banning the use of live animals by circuses came into force, and as a result, activists struggled to find homes for hundreds of animals. Four freed lion cubs were flown to a shelter in the U.S. (PAUL KNOX)

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Area: 51,209 sq km (19,772 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 3,839,000 Capital: Sarajevo Heads of state: Nominally a tripartite (Serb, Croat, Bosniac [Bosnian Muslim]) presidency with a chair that rotates every eight months; members in 2010 were Nebojsa Radmanovic (Serb; chairman from November 10), Zeljko Komsic (Croat; chairman until March 6), Haris Silajdzic (Bosniac; chairman from March 6 to November 10), and, from November 10, Bakir Izetbegovic (Bosniac). Final authority resides in the Office of the High Representative and EU Special Representative, Valentin Inzko (Austria) Head of government: Prime Minister Nikola Spiric 372

In October 2010 more than 56% of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s 3.1 million eligible voters elected representatives to the country’s tripartite presidency, the federal parliament, and the assemblies of the republic’s two entities: the Serbrun Republika Srpska (RS) and the Bosniac-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In addition, voters in the RS elected their republic’s president, and voters in the Federation cast ballots for 10 cantonal assemblies. The election results indicated that ethnic divisions would continue to impede the country’s efforts toward meeting eligibility standards for integration into the EU. The dominant nationalist parties retained their power at nearly every level of government. Although moderates took control of the tripartite presidency with the election of Bakir Izetbegovic (Bosniac; son of the late president Alija Izetbegovic) and the reelection of Zeljko Komsic (Croat; representing the moderate wing of the Social Democratic Party), the presidency’s hard-line Serb representative, Nebojsa Radmanovic, was reelected as well. Radmanovic’s party, the Alliance of Independent Social Democrats (SNSD), continued to advocate a weaker central government and increased autonomy for the RS. The leader of the SNSD and incumbent prime minister of the RS, Milorad Dodik, was elected president of the Serb entity. The October poll was the country’s sixth election since the 1995 Dayton Accords had ended more than three years of war. Among voters’ concerns were unemployment, the possibility of a new constitution, crime, and political corruption and cronyism. Campaigning by moderate voices was clouded by nationalist rhetoric, however, and beleaguered Bosnians continued to express their widespread dissatisfaction with politicians in general. An opinion poll conducted by the U.S.-based National Democratic Institute in August showed that 87% of Bosnians felt that the country was moving in the wrong direction, and the same percentage expressed dissatisfaction with the government’s handling of important issues. Only 12% said that their lives had improved over the preceding four years. The IMF projected real GDP growth of more than 0.5% in 2010—a significant improvement over the 2009 figure of –3.5%—and announced progress in several key sectors of the economy. The EU continued to invest in the country, with more than >1 billion (roughly $1.5 billion) earmarked to finance trans-

portation infrastructure improvements. Bosnia’s power utility, Elektroprivreda BiH, also announced plans to construct 25 hydropower plants by 2025. Yet the government in August reported an unemployment figure of 44%, which, even while taking into account the 30% of Bosnians employed in the large informal sector, was discouragingly high. Regarding predictions of economic recovery with skepticism, some Bosnian observers warned that widespread corruption and inflammatory nationalist rhetoric undermined both reform efforts and the benefits of foreign aid and investment. (MILAN ANDREJEVICH)

BOTSWANA

Area: 582,356 sq km (224,848 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 2,029,000 Capital: Gaborone Head of state and government: President Ian Khama

Though there were signs of an economic upturn, 2010 was a difficult year for Botswana. The ruling Botswana Democratic Party (BDP) continued to be plagued by factionalism between the so-called A-Team, led by Vice Pres. Mompati Merafhe, and the BarathaPhati (“those who love the party”), which was headed by Daniel Kwelagobe. After some members of the latter faction were suspended in March, they founded the Botswana Movement for Democracy. Later in the year, however, the BMD lost two of its six MPs back to the BDP. February saw the death, apparently by suicide, of Louis Nchindo, once the country’s most powerful businessman. Nchindo, the former managing director of the diamond-mining firm Debswana, had been indicted for corrupt land dealing. He allegedly had profited personally after having obtained state land grants under the pretense that the grants were in the national interest and slated for Debswana (half of which was state owned). Charges of cronyism led eventually to the indictment of Ramadeluka Seretse—the minister of defense, justice, and security—for having contracted his own company to provide police equipment. Seretse resigned from the cabinet in August to face charges in court.

World Affairs: Brazil

After media protests, four army corporals were charged with the unlawful killing in 2009 of suspected criminal John Kalafatis. A World Bank audit in May 2010 noted that state security expenses for 2008–09 had been quietly debited against social security funds marked for poverty reduction. In the government budget, some development projects were cut, and civil service salaries were frozen, but ruralelectrification and water-development projects were maintained. In addition, a recovery in the mining industry led to an adjustment in GDP for 2010 from 5% to 7.9%. (NEIL PARSONS)

increased infrastructure investment, and more stringent budget management. Her victory was a testament to the success of Lula’s social and economic policies. On June 4—with attention focused on the elections for president, governorships, the Chamber of Deputies, and two-thirds of the Senate—Lula signed Law No. 135, known as the Clean Slate Law, which prevented the candidacy of convicted felons in leadership elections. The law, a product of a grassroots effort to combat government corruption (some 1.9 million people signed the petition that sought the legislation), had been passed by the Chamber of Deputies on May 5 and by the Senate on May 19. On June 17 the Federal Elections Court ruled the law to be retroactive and applicable to the 2010 elections. This meant that any politician with a felony on record or who had resigned from elected office to avoid prosecution would not be permitted to run for election. Over the course of the year, many politicians with questionable backgrounds tested the validity of the law and its applicability to the 2010 elections. Some took their cases all the way to the Supreme Court. Throughout 2010 there were great advances in hydroelectric, oil, and natural gas development projects. On February 1 the Brazilian Environmental Agency (IBAMA) approved the economic-impact assessment for the planned Belo Monte Hydroelectric Plant. The Belo Monte facility—to be

located on the Xingu River in Pará state—would be the third largest hydroelectric plant in the world. Driven by the great volume of investments needed to extract and produce oil and gas found in the subsalt layer of the Santos Basin, Petrobrás, the Brazilian state oil company, launched the world’s largest initial public offering of stock to date in 2010. With $70 billion raised, Petrobrás became the world’s fourth largest company in terms of market capitalization, with a value of $214 billion, behind Exxon Mobil, Apple, and PetroChina. Petrobrás would apply the new funds to execute its $224 billion capital-investment plan for 2010–14. In advance of these massive investments, BRAZIL the Brazilian legislature debated the new regulatory regime to exploit the subsalt layer, which mandated Petrobrás as the exclusive operator and set the division of royalties for states and municipalities. On November 21 the city of Rio de Area: 8,514,877 sq km (3,287,612 sq mi) Janeiro faced tumult when organizedPopulation (2010 est.): 193,253,000 crime elements seized and destroyed Capital: Brasília vehicles to protest the occupation and Head of state and government: President pacification of criminal strongholds Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and the transfer of prisoners from Rio de Janeiro prisons to prisons in the faroff states of Roraima and Rondonia. On Oct. 31, 2010, more than 100 mil(From these remote locations it was lion Brazilians went to the polls to parmore difficult for imprisoned members ticipate in the second-round runoff of the Red Command to oversee their election for president. More than 55 drug-trafficking operations.) Rio de million of them (56%) cast their vote Janeiro authorities struck back quickly for Dilma Rousseff (see BIOGRAPHIES) and, with the help of armoured Brazilof the Workers’ Party (PT), who was ian navy units, stormed and took conelected the first female presitrol of the Vila Cruzeiro slum dent of Brazil. She defeated on November 25. Shortly beJosé Serra of the Brazilian So- Police patrol the streets of Rio de Janeiro on November fore 8:00 AM the following Sunday, a security force compriscial Democratic Party (PSDB), 29, a day after a massive raid on the city’s Complexo ing members of the state the former governor of São Alemão slum saw dozens of arrests and the seizure of police, army, navy, and federal Paulo state. The election wit- vast quantities of illicit material. police entered the Complexo nessed Pres. Luiz Inácio Lula Alemão slum, to which many da Silva’s active support of of the criminals from Vila Rousseff, his former chief of Cruzeiro had fled. The security staff and the former minister force quickly took control and of mines and energy, who suclaunched a house-to-house cessfully capitalized on Lula’s roundup of criminals, munipopularity with the electorate. tions, drugs, and other contraNevertheless, Rousseff, who band. The taking of the crimehad never run for elective ofridden Complexo Alemão, one fice, was forced into the runoff of the largest slums in Rio de with Serra by the strong firstJaneiro, was of historic imporround finish of Green Party tance as security forces pre(PV) candidate and former PT pared Brazil and Rio de militant Sen. Marina Silva, Janeiro to host, respectively, who received 19% of the vote the 2014 association football to deny Rousseff the more than (soccer) World Cup and the 50% she needed to triumph in 2016 Olympic Games. Over the the first round on October 3. course of this pacification, Rousseff campaigned on a more than 30 people were platform of economic stability, Sergio Moraes—Reuters/Landov

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World Affairs: Brunei

killed as the police seized an estimated 35 metric tons of marijuana, 235 kg (about 520 lb) of cocaine, and more than 200 automatic weapons. As 2010 ended, President-elect Rousseff began to form her cabinet with several holdovers and prominent members of Lula’s administrations, among them Antonio Palocci as chief of staff, Guido Mantega (minister of finance), and Miriam Belchior (minister of planning). The central bank president, Henrique Meirelles, who was recognized as having contributed greatly to Brazilian economic stabilization, stayed to the end of the administration, having completed eight years’ service alongside Lula. To safeguard the central bank from political pressures, Rousseff indicated that the next central bank president would be Alexandre Tombini, a technocrat and central bank director. In 2010 Brazil continued its solid economic growth, based largely on global demand for commodities and the burgeoning domestic market. For the four quarters that ended in September 2010, Brazilian GDP rose 7.5%. Fear of an overheating economy and of inflation, however, drove the Brazilian central bank’s Open Market Committee to raise the benchmark overnight discount rate from 8.75% to 10.75% in a series of interest-rate increases from April through July. In December the central bank raised the compulsory reserve requirement on bank deposits from 15% to 20%, partially in an attempt to stave off the increased indebtedness of the growing consumer class. For the 12 months that ended in November 2010, inflation, as measured by the National Consumer Price Index, reached 5.63%, well within the central bank targets of 2.5–6.5%. (JOHN CHARLES CUTTINO)

details of a March 2009 agreement between his country and Brunei to resolve their territorial disputes. Brunei effectively agreed to drop its claim to Limbang, an area between western and eastern Brunei that had long been in Malaysian hands. In addition, Malaysia agreed to drop its claim to two oil-rich areas in the South China Sea in favour of Brunei, but Brunei agreed to let Malaysia jointly exploit resources there for 40 years. A major government cabinet reshuffle occurred in May. In the mandatory fiveyear rotation, several senior ministers left office, including Pehin Mohammed Zain (religion), Pehin Ahmad Jumat (culture), and 40-year veteran Pehin Dato Abdul Rahman Taib (education), who had promoted the modernization of education. For the first time, a woman was appointed to the cabinet, as the deputy minister for culture, youth and sports. During the year, the Brunei Methanol Co. (BMC) started exporting methanol in commercial quantity, which marked an important milestone on the country’s road to economic diversification. The first shipment, 10,000 metric tons of methanol, was dispatched to China in May. BMC sent additional shipments to the U.S., South Korea, the Philippines, and Taiwan. The five-year marriage of Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah to his third wife, Azrinaz Mazhar Hakim, a former TV3 reporter from Malaysia and the mother of two of his children, ended in divorce in June. The sultan revoked all of her royal titles. (B.A. HUSSAINMIYA)

BULGARIA

BRUNEI

Area: 5,765 sq km (2,226 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 414,000 Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan Head of state and government: Sultan and Prime Minister Sir Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu!izzaddin Waddaulah

In April 2010 former Malaysian prime minister Abdullah Badawi revealed the 374

Area: 111,002 sq km (42,858 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 7,562,000 Capital: Sofia Chief of state: President Georgi Parvanov Head of government: Prime Minister Boiko Borisov

Against the backdrop of Europe’s ongoing financial crisis, Bulgaria’s economy performed well in 2010. Notwithstanding the fact that nearly 30% of Bulgaria’s banks were owned by firms based in Greece (Europe’s most economically troubled country) and that

they were expected to become illiquid, the Bulgarian financial system remained relatively stable. Moreover, in December 2009 Standard & Poor’s upgraded Bulgaria’s credit rating to BBB (neutral) from negative. Annual GDP was projected to increase by 1% and to reverse for Bulgarians the recessionary trends that had afflicted much of the global economy. Indeed, driven by the weak euro, booming Bulgarian exports to non-EU countries—especially China—contributed to significant growth in the first half of 2010. But despite the government’s implementation of fiscal austerity measures, Bulgaria’s budget deficit reached 3.8%. In response, the European Commission issued an ultimatum to Prime Minister Boiko Borisov’s government to shrink the deficit to 3%. The need for deficit reduction, combined with the desire to increase the flexibility of Bulgarian monetary policy, prompted the government to put off accession to euro zone membership. In the realm of tourism— which accounted for 8.7% of the country’s 2010 GDP and grew slightly from 2009 totals—most continued to be of the student and budget-package variety. The ongoing reliance on budget tourism was symptomatic of the Bulgarian economy’s struggle to climb up the quality ladder. In international relations, Bulgaria’s centre-right government backtracked on its announcement that it was pulling out of an agreement with Russia and Greece for a Burgas-Alexandroupolis oil pipeline after Russia threatened to indefinitely delay construction of the South Stream pipeline. Turkey was angered by the $18 billion in reparations sought for property lost by ethnic Bulgarians forced to leave the Ottoman Empire at the onset of World War I. The request for reparations came as a condition for Bulgarian support for Turkey’s application for EU membership. Although the government cracked down on public-sector corruption and deployed special forces to fight organized kidnapping, high-profile killings continued. Notably, journalist Bobi Tsankov was publicly executed by gunmen hired by Bulgaria’s mafia bosses. In sports in 2010, tennis player Tsvetana Pironkova became the first Bulgarian to reach the women’s singles semifinals at Wimbledon. Meanwhile, Bulgarian Veselin Topalov lost to Viswanathan Anand in the world chess championship. (IVA TEIXEIRA; BORIS YOVCHEV)

World Affairs: Cambodia Martina Bacigalupo/AP

BURKINA FASO

more than 8 dead and 50 wounded in 60 grenade attacks. In the June 28 presidential poll, Pres. Pierre Nkurunziza ran as the sole candidate and was reelected, winning 91% of the vote. The CNDD-FDD swept the uncontested parliamentary elections in July, as all opposition parties also boycotted these elections. Fears that a renewed rebel movement was forming were fueled in September by the discovery of seven bodies, apparently hacked to death and dumped in a swamp near Bujumbura, as well as fresh attacks on villagers, leaving five dead, also near the capital. During February nearly 15,000 people faced with starvation were forced to migrate from northern Burundi owing to ongoing drought and famine in the region. In response to the crisis, the African Union provided $200,000 in food aid. (MARY EBELING)

Area: 270,764 sq km (104,543 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 16,287,000 Capital: Ouagadougou Head of state: President Blaise Compaoré Head of government: Prime Minister Tertius Zongo

On March 12, 2010, Burkina Faso Pres. Blaise Compaoré began preparations for the November 21 presidential elections with a minor cabinet reshuffle. On August 7 the ruling Congress for Democracy and Progress Party selected Compaoré as its candidate by acclamation and called for an end to term limits. Despite a massive issuance in 2009 of birth certificates designed to facilitate expansion of the electorate, fewer than half of the country’s estimated 7.5 million eligible voters managed to register. Compaoré won more than 80% of the vote. In response to Compaoré’s bid to revise the 2000 constitution to allow him to run for another term in 2015, 15 opposition parties formed a coalition on April 29 to fight this attempt. Bowing to trade union pressure, the government scrapped plans to privatize the electricity and water industries. The country’s fifth operating gold mine—in the Inata region, 290 km (180 mi) north of the capital—was officially inaugurated on April 8. Skyrocketing prices on the world market made gold Burkina Faso’s largest export, pushing cotton into second place. In efforts to improve the state of public health, the government distributed eight million specially treated mosquito nets without charge. In addition, it was constructing 55,000 public lavatories and other essential sanitary equipment. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

BURUNDI

Area: 27,816 sq km (10,740 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 8,519,000 Capital: Bujumbura Head of state and government: President Pierre Nkurunziza

Dancers at a presidential election campaign rally for Burundian Pres. Pierre Nkurunziza on June 25 perform in costumes adorned with his portrait. Most of 2010 was overshadowed by flawed elections and a deterioration of Burundi’s hard-won peace after the 13year civil war between the Hutu and Tutsi ended with the 2006 cease-fire. Presidential and local elections were blemished by polling violence, voter intimidation, bombings at polling places, election boycotts, and the threat of the reemergence of the rebel movement. The country’s electoral process was fraught from the start. The former rebel National Liberation Forces (FNL) claimed that the only voters who had been registered in January by the UNsupported process were supporters of the ruling National Council for the Defense of Democracy–Forces for the Defense of Democracy (CNDD-FDD). In February international observers as well as opposition parties voiced concern over increased incidents of voter intimidation perpetrated by the police and the youth wing of the CNDD-FDD. During the run-up to local elections in May, the Burundian government expelled the Human Rights Watch representative working in the country. Contentions of fraud over results of the May 24 local elections, in which the ruling party won 64% of the vote, fueled protests and unrest in the capital and led all of the opposition candidates to withdraw their nominations for the presidential election. During June, violence increased dramatically, leaving

CAMBODIA

Area: 181,035 sq km (69,898 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 14,414,000 Capital: Phnom Penh Head of state: King Norodom Sihamoni Head of government: Prime Minister Hun Sen

On July 26, 2010, in Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge Tribunal (officially the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia [ECCC]) reached its first verdict, finding Kaing Guek Eav (known as Duch), the chief of a notorious Pol Pot-era prison, guilty of crimes against humanity and breaches of the Geneva Conventions. Duch was sentenced to an additional 19 years in prison beyond the 1l years he had already served. The court cited significant mitigating factors in deciding not to ask for life imprisonment: “cooperation with the Chamber, admission of responsibility, limited expressions of remorse, the coercive environment in Democratic Kampuchea, and the potential for rehabilitation.” The successful completion of this first trial was lauded, although many Khmer Rouge-period survivors complained that the sentence was too light. Prosecutors planned to appeal, as did Duch himself. On September 15 the court formally indicted four senior Khmer Rouge leaders already in custody: Nuon Chea, 375

Onlookers peer into a makeshift morgue in Phnom Penh, Camb., on November 23. More than 350 people were killed and hundreds of others injured at a water festival the previous evening when attendees on a bridge panicked and stampeded. Sakchai Lalit/AP

Ieng Sary, Khieu Samphan, and Ieng Thirith. Their joint trial was expected to begin in mid-2011. The court was reportedly divided over whether to proceed with five additional cases under review and investigate charges of government interference. The tribunal continued to work slowly and to be plagued by financial difficulties. Cambodia’s relations with Thailand remained tense as a dispute over territory near the ancient Temple of Preah Vihear entered its third year. Shots were exchanged in January at Preah Vihear, and in April at another border site. The dispute became personal at times. In February, Thai Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva said that Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen’s recent statements and actions implicitly acknowledged Thai ownership, an assertion that drew Hun Sen’s ire. In August, when reporters quoted Abhisit as having said that he would use “both democratic and military means” to settle the dispute, Cambodia complained to the UN Security Council about his “obvious threat.” (Abhisit claimed he was misquoted.) While the international community encouraged a bilateral resolution to the issue, Cambodia appealed for international help, and UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon expressed willingness to mediate if both sides requested assistance. Further complicating the situation was Cambodia’s employment of deposed Thai prime minister Thaksin Shinawatra as an economic adviser; Thaksin was wanted in Thailand on corruption charges. Thailand had broken off diplomatic relations with Cambodia over the issue in November 2009 but restored ties immediately after Thaksin’s resignation from the post on August 23. 376

The government continued to take legal action against the political opposition. In January opposition leader Sam Rainsy was tried in absentia and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment for his removal, three months earlier, of several posts marking the CambodianVietnamese border. Rainsy, the target of assassination attempts and legal threats for many years, had left the country following the most recent withdrawal of his parliamentary immunity, in late 2009. In September he was found guilty of falsifying public documents—having displayed maps on his party’s Web site that showed the border posts he removed as located in Cambodian territory—and was sentenced to 10 years in prison. (JOHN A. MARSTON)

CAMEROON

Area: 476,350 sq km (183,920 sq mi), including the 700-sq-km (270-sq-mi) Bakassi Peninsula Population (2010 est.): 19,640,000 Capital: Yaoundé Chief of state: President Paul Biya Head of government: Prime Minister Philemon Yang

On April 10, 2010, 10 opposition parties in Cameroon along with 10 nongovernmental organizations demanded the dissolution of the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) that had overall charge of the 2011 presidential election. They claimed that the IEC’s

appointees were too closely tied to Pres. Paul Biya’s ruling party. Cameroon’s ongoing anticorruption campaign targeted a group of highranking civil servants, who were arrested on January 5 and accused of having misappropriated large amounts of government funds. Two journalists were detained on February 5 by agents of the security service and apparently questioned about the publication of reports based on a leaked memo detailing the purchase of a yacht by the chairman of the state-owned oil corporation. On August 13 it was announced that 40 officials of the Department of Agriculture were to be charged with having embezzled >1 million (about $1.3 million) in subsidies meant for small farmers in the production of corn (maize), the country’s main staple. On May 18 President Biya, speaking before a conference of UN and African Union officials, demanded that at least one permanent seat on the Security Council be granted to Africa. On August 11, Environment Minister Pierre Hélé accused European countries of treating Africa “like a garbage can,” citing evidence that toxic material had been dumped by a ship off the west coast of Africa. In September the worst cholera epidemic in 20 years prompted the government to launch a UN-sponsored program to provide 1.6 million schoolchildren with information on control of the disease. A Nigerian group calling itself the Africa Marine Commando kidnapped seven Chinese fishermen off the coast of the Bakassi Peninsula on March 12. Following meetings with Chinese and Cameroonian diplomats, they were released five days later. The army stationed a rapid response battalion to prevent further incidents. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

CANADA

Area: 9,984,670 sq km (3,855,103 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 34,132,000 Capital: Ottawa Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governors-General Michaëlle Jean and, from October 1, David Johnston Head of government: Prime Minister Stephen Harper

World Affairs: Canada

Domestic Affairs. An unexpected grassroots protest movement emerged in January 2010 in opposition to the prorogation of the Canadian Parliament on Dec. 30, 2009. Prime Minister Stephen Harper had asked Gov.-Gen. Michaëlle Jean to suspend Parliament in preparation for a new session, which would begin following the 2010 Olympic Winter Games in Vancouver. (See Special Report on page 194.) Usually considered a routine function of Parliament, prorogation cleared the government’s legislative agenda prior to a new speech from the throne, and it was rarely contentious or even much noticed by the public. Opposition politicians noted that the governing minority Conservative Party of Canada had prorogued Parliament only one year earlier and argued that the move was designed to frustrate a parliamentary committee that was investigating torture allegations related to the Canadian forces mission in Afghanistan. Political pundits suggested that attempts to turn a complicated parliamentary procedure into an issue around which the opposition parties could mobilize popular support against the government would likely fail. Within weeks of the announcement, however, a group on the social networking site Facebook boasted over 200,000 members who were opposed to prorogation. Then, on January 23, two days before Parliament was originally due to have resumed sitting following the holiday break, more than 60 rallies were held across the country in opposition to the prorogation. More than 25,000 people attended the demonstrations, and solidarity rallies were held in several U.S. cities and in London, Eng. When Parliament reopened on March 3, the government’s speech from the throne announced plans for a period of fiscal restraint that would follow the end of stimulus spending designed to combat the effects of the global economic slowdown in 2008. The speech also confirmed plans for a new biometric passport, for the celebration of the bicentennial of the War of 1812, for a national monument to commemorate those who died at the hands of international totalitarian communism, and for a national Holocaust memorial. One additional matter touched upon in the speech provoked an intense public backlash, however: A proposal to change “O Canada,” the national anthem, to include gender-neutral language was scrapped only two days after it was announced, as the government

was inundated with letters from those who opposed the idea. Indeed, polls taken in the wake of the controversy indicated that almost 75% of Canadians were against changes to the anthem. Provincially, New Brunswick’s governing centre-left Liberal Party of Canada was defeated by the centre-right Conservatives in the election held on September 27. The defeat of Premier Shawn Graham’s Liberals marked the first time in the province’s history that a first-term incumbent government had not been reelected. The government’s stewardship of a highly unpopular hydroelectric-power deal was cited as a central factor in the Liberals’ defeat. Led by David Alward, Conservatives were elected in 42 of New Brunswick’s 55 constituencies. Liberals held on to the other 13. British Columbia Premier Gordon Campbell announced his surprise resignation on November 3. The premier’s governing centre-right Liberals had lost considerable popularity following the introduction of a harmonized sales tax on July 1, and Campbell’s personal approval rating fell under 10% in the weeks prior to his announcement. In spite of having secured their third consecutive majority government in the 2009 provincial election, Campbell’s Liberals faced an enormous backlash when they announced the tax only weeks after having stated they would not introduce it. A group that opposed the tax, led by right-wing former premier Bill Vander Zalm of the Social Credit Party, collected more than half a million signatures and successfully petitioned for a referendum on the tax’s repeal, which was scheduled to be voted upon on Sept. 24, 2011. In late November, having seen his pursuit of a major hydroelectric project for the Lower Churchill River come to fruition, Danny Williams announced that he was stepping down as the premier of Newfoundland and Labrador. Economy. In his March 4 budget, Finance Minister Jim Flaherty revealed his intentions to eliminate the country’s Can$54 billion deficit (Can$1 = about U.S.$0.98) and to return to a surplus by the 2015–16 fiscal year without increasing taxes or cutting funding for some important departments. Although economic stimulus spending was intended to continue in 2010–11, Flaherty planned to cap foreign aid at Can$5 billion (an end to scheduled annual increases that would save Can$4.4 billion over four years), to save Can$2.5 billion by closing tax loopholes, to reduce de-

fense spending by Can$2.5 billion, and to cut an additional Can$8.1 billion from other departments. In January parliamentary budget officer Kevin Page warned that the federal government faced a permanent structural deficit—a portion of the federal government’s budget deficit that would remain regardless of whether the economy was at full capacity. On November 3 Industry Minister Tony Clement announced that the Conservative government would withhold approval for Australia-based BHP Billiton’s U.S.$38.6 billion hostile takeover bid for the Potash Corp. of Saskatchewan. The government’s decision, which contradicted the Conservatives’ long-standing policy of support for foreign investment, came in the face of intense populist pressure in the province of Saskatchewan to reject the bid. The Conservatives held 13 of 14 federal parliamentary seats in the province, where public opinion was overwhelmingly against the bid. The government determined that the offer was not a “net benefit” to Canada. Foreign Affairs and the G8 and G20 Summits. On November 11 Prime Minister Harper announced that Canadian involvement in the NATO mission in Afghanistan would continue beyond a previously announced end date in the summer of 2011. The government said that about 1,000 Canadian troops would remain in the country to continue training the Afghan military. Although the United States had urged Canada to remain in active combat operations beyond 2011, Harper declared that it was not an option. In June Canada hosted summit meetings by both the Group of Eight (G8) and the Group of 20 (G20). Both meetings were initially scheduled to be held in the resort town of Huntsville, Ont., but the G20 summit was ultimately moved to a convention centre in downtown Toronto to better accommodate the volume of participants. Military personnel, private security officers, and more than 5,100 police officers from across the country took part in the largest security event in Canadian history. Security costs were estimated at more than Can$850 million, including Can$5.5 million for a 3-m (10-ft)high fence surrounding a security perimeter. Prior to the conference the news media reported that the Ontario cabinet had approved controversial regulations that would permit the police to arrest persons who refused to provide identi377

World Affairs: Canada David Stobbe—Reuters/Landov

Drilling marks cover the wall of an underground mine owned by Potash Corp. of Saskatchewan as a mine production supervisor examines a chunk of potash, a major ingredient in fertilizer. In November the Canadian government rejected a buyout of the company by Australia’s BHP Billiton Ltd. fication or submit to a police search if they came within 5 m (about 16 ft) of the security perimeter. The new rules, based on a law intended to be used during wartime, were not publicized until a person unaware of the law was arrested. After the summit ended, the Toronto police and the Ontario government revealed that no such regulations existed, however, and that the cabinet directive reported by the media applied only to areas inside the security perimeter. Ontario Chief Justice Roy McMurtry was appointed on September 22 to lead an independent review of the secret law, which was used in response to protests that occurred during the G20 summit. Demonstrations surrounding the summit resulted in the largest mass arrest in the country’s history. More than 900 people were arrested or detained during the conference. Winter Olympics. Tragedy befell the Vancouver Olympic Winter Games only hours before their opening ceremonies when Georgian luger Nodar Kumaritashvili was killed during a practice run on the sledding track on February 12. Although officials suggested that the crash was the result of rider error, some parts of the track’s walls were raised and both the men’s and the women’s starting positions were altered as a precaution. International commentators criticized the track’s design 378

as one that favoured speed over safety and noted that non-Canadian competitors had less access to the track for practice runs than the home team. The accident marked a rocky start to the Games, which also saw technical errors in the opening ceremonies, the cancellation of 28,000 tickets for snowboarding and freestyle skiing events owing to a lack of snow, and criticism of what was viewed by some people as the Canada-centric quality of the Games. Nonetheless, foreign media praised the organizers for the quality of the event and noted the enthusiasm present in Vancouver and Whistler (the latter hosted the skiing events) and among Canadians in general for the Games. Canadians had particular reason to celebrate, as the country’s athletes won 14 gold medals—a new record for the Winter Olympic Games. The result, attributed in part to the team’s “own the podium” program, was especially notable because Canada had hosted two previous Olympic Games in which it had failed to win a single gold medal. Prostitution Ruling. On September 28 Ontario Superior Court Justice Susan Himel struck down several major elements of the federal prostitution law. With a quick appeal initiated by the federal government, the court case was expected to make its way to the country’s Supreme Court. Himel ruled against the

provisions in the criminal code that forbade communication for the purposes of prostitution, pimping, and operating a “common bawdy house”; however, she noted that provisions that prevented child prostitution, procuring, and impeding vehicular and pedestrian traffic still remained in effect. In making her ruling the justice argued that the current laws provided little protection for prostitutes and that the secrecy required to avoid police detection endangered their well-being. The litigants—a dominatrix and two former street prostitutes—suggested that the decriminalization of their work could result in their ability to pay income taxes, claim workers’ compensation, and lobby for health and safety standards in their workspace. The court decision received mixed reaction from women’s groups. Some groups raised alarms over the message that would be sent about human trafficking and the sexual exploitation of women. Others suggested that the ruling would destigmatize sex workers, reduce the rate of sexually transmitted infections, and permit women to better screen prospective clients to avoid violent encounters. Census Controversy. After nearly 40 years of having sent a mandatory longform questionnaire to 20% of Canadian households that received the census, on June 29 the federal government revealed that it would limit the types of questions it asked and use voluntary means to gather additional information. The government called the longform census, which asked questions about ethnicity, labour, and dwellings, an unnecessary invasion of privacy. Punishments for refusal to fill out the long-form census had included fines or jail time. In place of the mandatory long-form census, the government planned to distribute a voluntary survey to one-third of homes scheduled for receipt of the mandatory short-form census. Canada’s chief statistician, Munir Sheikh, resigned on July 21 to protest the new measures. Although he did not reveal the advice he had provided to the government in advance of its new policy announcement, Sheikh stated that a voluntary long-form survey would not be an adequate substitute for a mandatory census. Some demographers and statisticians believed that certain socioeconomic groups would be less likely to return voluntary surveys and that in spite of the increased number of surveys distributed, the results would likely be inaccurate.

World Affairs: Chad

Critics also said that such a drastic change in the methodology of collecting the data would make observing trends by using past data much more difficult. Although the government faced pressure to reinstate the long-form census from a wide variety of groups that used its information—including religious organizations, major charities, several provinces, municipalities, and statisticians and academics—it declined to reverse its decision. The Federation of Francophone and Acadian Communities (FCFA), an organization that represented French-speaking communities, launched an unsuccessful court case in opposition to the move in which it argued that the government’s decision violated the government’s Official Languages Act. The country’s three opposition parties—which constituted a majority of votes in Parliament—planned to support a private member’s bill that would reinstate the mandatory long-form questionnaire before the census was released to homes in 2011. (WILL STOS)

CAPE VERDE

Area: 4,033 sq km (1,557 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 509,000 Capital: Praia Chief of state: President Pedro Pires Head of government: Prime Minister José Maria Neves

Cape Verde remained one of the most stable and best-governed African countries in 2010. In December 2009 the country had become the first to be given the opportunity by the U.S. Millennium Challenge Corporation to develop a second funding proposal. The year 2010 marked the end of the three-year transitional period instituted in 2007 after the UN upgraded the country’s status from least developed to middle income. To ensure that Cape Verde’s exports to Europe would not suffer once the transition period had expired, Prime Minister José Maria Neves met in Brussels with the European Commission to finalize an Economic Partnership Agreement that would allow Cape Verde to continue to enjoy favourable terms for its exports.

Also discussed were a special visa arrangement for Cape Verdeans traveling to Europe and increased funding by the European Commission. Though remittances from Cape Verde’s large diaspora decreased owing to the global recession, they remained substantial. For the first time, however, tourism revenues (about 20% of GDP) became the largest contributor to the economy. In response to the economic downturn, the government funded infrastructural projects and strengthened trade and business ties with Angola. In August it was announced that the country’s best-known singer, Cesária Évora, would return to the stage after recovering from heart surgery. (CHRISTOPHER SAUNDERS)

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Area: 622,436 sq km (240,324 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 4,845,000 Capital: Bangui Head of state: President François Bozizé Head of government: Prime Minister Faustin-Archange Touadéra

Though presidential and legislative elections were scheduled to take place on April 25, 2010, in the Central African Republic (CAR), they were postponed several times during the year. On March 13 a plot was uncovered that allegedly implicated supporters of former president Ange-Félix Patassé in the planning of a coup d’état. Patassé, who had been deposed in 2003 by Pres. François Bozizé, denied involvement. On May 26 the Constitutional Court announced that it would permit the president’s mandate, due to expire on June 11, to continue until the next election, which all factions agreed to hold on Jan. 23, 2011. The UN Security Council voted unanimously on May 25 to withdraw its peacekeepers from CAR and Chad by year’s end. The 3,300-strong force had been put in place in 2009 to protect hundreds of thousands of refugees fleeing the Darfur conflict in Sudan. The unexplained death of rebel leader Charles Massi in a prison near Bangui in January triggered demands by France for an investigation into CAR’s policies on human rights. Patassé

joined the call for a full inquiry into allegations that Massi was tortured to death. Ugandan rebels of the Lord’s Resistance Army continued to operate in CAR during the year, kidnapping men, women, and children from remote villages. On February 4 the UN allocated a further $20 million for reform of the security sector and other peace-building ventures. An army base in Birao, northern CAR, was attacked on July 19 allegedly by a force of former combatants, who had been promised resettlement payments by the government. They were driven off, but no casualty toll was available. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

CHAD

Area: 1,284,000 sq km (495,755 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 11,344,000 Capital: N’Djamena Head of state: President Lieut. Gen. Idriss Déby Head of government: Prime Ministers Youssouf Saleh Abbas and, from March 5, Emmanuel Nadingar

In January 2010 the governments of Chad and Sudan reached a historic agreement that ended years of conflict between them. The pact, signed in the capital of N’Djamena, provided for mechanisms to control the common border and assurances that neither country would allow armed groups to use its territory against the other. Though Chad had maintained a long history of good relations with the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), the main rebel group in the Darfur region of Sudan, Pres. Idriss Déby stood by the agreement and cut his ties with the JEM, which was expelled from its bases in eastern Chad. As a result, the JEM launched attacks into Darfur to establish new bases. Fighting flared up again in April between the Chadian government and rebels in the east, but the rebels were soon crushed. In mid-2010 there were still 170,000 internally displaced people in eastern Chad in 38 camps, 270,000 Sudanese refugees in 12 camps, and 81,000 refugees from the Central African Republic in 11 camps in the southeast. 379

World Affairs: Chile

Although the International Criminal Court (ICC) in 2009 issued an arrest warrant for Sudanese Pres. Omar alBashir, in July he visited Chad, an ICC member. President Déby, apparently unconcerned with donor reaction, disregarded requests to arrest Bashir. Despite the desperate food needs of much of the population, which suffered from ongoing desertification and reduction in food production, Déby also continued to spend much of the money obtained from oil on weapons. (CHRISTOPHER SAUNDERS)

CHILE

Area: 756,096 sq km (291,930 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 16,746,000 Capitals: Santiago (national) and Valparaíso (legislative) Head of state and government: Presidents Michelle Bachelet and, from March 11, Sebastián Piñera

It would be an understatement to say that Chile had an eventful year in 2010. The presidential election brought a major political change, and there was a devastating natural disaster as well as a riveting man-made catastrophe. In the political realm, the election in January to replace highly popular Pres. Michelle Bachelet—who was ineligible for reelection—resulted in the triumph of a right-wing candidate for the first time since 1958. In February, Chile experienced a monumental earthquake, and as if that had not been traumatic enough, in August 33 miners were trapped 700 m (2,300 ft) below ground in a mining accident that captivated the entire country. In the Jan. 17, 2010, presidential runoff election, the two candidates were Sebastián Piñera (see BIOGRAPHIES) of the centre-right Alliance for Chile and former Chilean president (1994–2000) Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the centre-left Concertación coalition; they had secured the most votes in the December 2009 balloting, in which none of the four candidates gained a majority. The results of the January contest were dramatic and signaled a major political shift. Piñera emerged with a 52–48% victory over Frei, who was seen by many as em380

blematic of the fatigue that afflicted the coalition’s leadership, and Piñera broke the Concertación’s string of four consecutive presidencies and 20 years in power. Frei’s candidacy also suffered from competition from two other candidates representing the left. Marco Antonio Enríquez-Ominami, a young renegade whose campaign focused on a critique of “politics as usual,” attracted 20.15% of the first-round vote. Jorge Arrate, who represented a dissident coalition to the left of the Concertación, also sapped potential votes from Frei, whose first-round total was 29.6%. Moreover, Enríquez-Ominami threw his support to Frei only days before the January runoff. Piñera, a wealthy businessman from National Renovation (RN), the more moderate of the two right-wing parties that composed the Alliance, positioned himself in the political centre. Although his family had strong connections to the repressive regime of Augusto Pinochet, Piñera stressed his “no” vote in the 1988 plebiscite that had effectively ended Pinochet’s dictatorship. Piñera’s campaign focused not on criticism of the Concertación program or of the popular Bachelet but instead on Piñera’s ability to increase economic growth, act strongly against crime, and run an efficient administration while continuing many of Bachelet’s social programs. Piñera contrasted his can-do energy with the Concertación’s increasing exhaustion and vulnerability to corruption. On February 27 Chile was devastated by a magnitude-8.8 earthquake, one of the strongest ever recorded. It was centred near the country’s highly populated south-central region, only 105 km (65 mi) from one of Chile’s largest cities, Concepción. The earthquake spawned a tsunami that literally wiped towns and villages off the map. The death toll, estimated at 562 victims, paled next to the vast physical devastation, which left more than a million people homeless and caused extensive damage to roads and bridges, thus isolating some areas from immediate help. Still, the Chilean authorities reacted quickly. Chile’s growing economy, coupled with a rainy-day savings fund established by Bachelet’s administration when copper prices were high, helped fund reconstruction. Once in office, Piñera not only had to respond to the earthquake but also had to oversee rescue efforts for the miners trapped by an August 5 accident at the San José gold and copper mine in the

northern desert. An all-out rescue effort was launched that kept the country and indeed much of the world riveted. On October 13, to great national jubilation, all 33 miners were safely extracted one by one from the mine. (LOIS HECHT OPPENHEIM)

CHINA

Area: 9,572,900 sq km (3,696,100 sq mi), excluding Taiwan and the special autonomous regions of Hong Kong and Macau Population (2010 est., excluding Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau): 1,338,085,000 Capital: Beijing Head of state: President Hu Jintao Head of government: Premier Wen Jiabao

In 2010 China became the world’s second largest economy and held the Expo 2010 Shanghai China. (See Sidebar.) Domestically, China prepared for an expected leadership transition in 2012, while internationally it pursued a more confident foreign policy, particularly in East Asia. Domestic Affairs. Shanghai, China’s most advanced city and the centre of its economic miracle, hosted the exposition, which showcased the city and China’s concomitant rise to the country’s own citizens—much as the Beijing Olympics had done so to the world in 2008. Despite its tremendous success, the expo was criticized by author and former race car driver Han Han for overdeveloping Shanghai, when what the city really needed was greater openness and less control. A fire in a Shanghai apartment building that killed 58 people in mid-November also prompted criticism that Shanghai’s development had sacrificed the welfare and safety of its residents. Dissident artist and activist Ai Weiwei announced a citizen’s investigation of the fire. Ai had been placed briefly under house arrest earlier that month to prevent him from attending an art event he had planned in Shanghai. His installation work Sunflower Seeds was exhibited at the Tate Modern gallery in London, attracting a protest by an expatriate Chinese artist. China tolerated little political dissent during the year as it prepared for a leadership transition in 2012. Promi-

World Affairs: China

The Shanghai Expo On May 1, 2010, the Expo 2010 Shanghai China opened to the urbanization in the 21st century and also highlighted and promotpublic after eight years of preparation and some $50 billion in ed Shanghai as one of the world’s great metropolises. Various expenditures. By the time the event closed on October 31, China’s aspects of urban life, urbanization’s impact already on the Earth, first international exposition, or world’s fair, was believed to have and urbanization into the future were explored in five “theme” attracted a record 73 million visitors, including an estimated 1.03 pavilions. In addition, a portion of the Puxi site was designated the Urban Best Practices Area, where different cities could display varimillion on its biggest single day, October 16. Shanghai was selected as the host city of the 2010 fair in ous innovations in such fields as housing and science and technolDecember 2002 by the Bureau of International Expositions. The site ogy to improve urban life and environmental quality. More than 190 countries and chosen to hold the expo was sit- © Tito Wong/Shutterstock.com some 50 other organizations uated on both sides of the and corporate entities constructHuangpu River in the southern ed pavilions and exhibits of varipart of central Shanghai and ous kinds for the exposition. occupied nearly 5.3 sq km (about Prominent among these was the 2 sq mi). Some three-fourths of Chinese pavilion, which was the exhibition area was on the topped by a red cantilevered eastern (Pudong) side of the roof that evoked the classic river, and the remainder was relChinese bracket (dougong) conegated on the western (Puxi) side. Considerable effort was put struction style. Other notable into preparing the two sites as national pavilions included that well as improving Shanghai’s of the U.K., featuring a 20-m transportation infrastructure. (66-ft)-high cubelike structure Among the notable projects com(the “Seed Cathedral”) completed were those that added posed of tens of thousands of Architect He Jingtang designed the Chinese pavilion for new lines to the Shanghai Metro long thin acrylic rods with plant the Expo 2010 Shanghai China, which opened in May. (light rail) system (including a seeds embedded into the end of spur to the expo site) and each rod; that of Australia, the extended existing lines, expanded terminal capacity at both of the reddish brown exterior of which evoked the country’s renowned city’s international airports, and improved major roads, including Uluru/Ayers Rock landmark; and that of Switzerland, which comthe additions of a new double-deck bridge over the Huangpu River bined an urban-themed interior with a biodegradable soybean and a new tunnel under the river leading to the Pudong site. In addi- exterior curtain wall studded with photoelectric cells and a pastion, a large new multipurpose Culture Center was built along the turelike grass roof. China’s pavilion, the Culture Center, and a few riverbank on the Pudong site. other buildings were designed to be permanent, while the rest The theme chosen by the event’s organizers was “Better City, were temporary structures for the duration of the exposition only. Better Life,” which signified the increasingly important role of (KENNETH PLETCHER)

nent dissident and literary critic Liu Xiaobo was convicted of subversion and sentenced to 11 years’ imprisonment at the end of 2009 for his part in the Charter 08 political-reform manifesto published in December 2008. Two other activists, Huang Qi and Tan Zuoren, were given shorter prison sentences in late 2009 and early 2010, respectively, for their efforts to expose official misfeasance after the May 2008 Sichuan earthquake. In contrast to the wave of repression earlier in the year, Premier Wen Jiabao in August voiced concerns about whether China’s political development was keeping up with its economic development. Symbolically, his call for political reform, although vague, was articulated during a speech marking

the 30th anniversary of the founding of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone, an event generally regarded as the beginning of China’s global economic rise. For the foreseeable future, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) appeared intent on remaining in political control and governing by party consensus rather than through elections. This was demonstrated when, in October, Political Bureau member Xi Jinping (see BIOGRAPHIES) was named vicechairman of the party’s Central Military Commission. The commission controlled China’s military politically, and Xi’s appointment was seen as an important stepping stone in the process for him to succeed Hu Jintao as China’s president when Hu’s term ended in 2012.

Just a few weeks before these leadership changes, however, the Chinese government was severely embarrassed when Liu was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace. (See NOBEL PRIZES on page 64.) Condemning the award, the Chinese government reacted with a wave of repression that included the house arrest of Liu’s wife, overseas travel bans on academics, and restrictions on other prominent dissidents such Ding Ziling, the outspoken mother of a student killed during the 1989 Tiananmen Square crackdown, and Bao Tong, former secretary to purged premier Zhao Ziyang. The Chinese government called on foreign governments to boycott the ceremony. In its official media the Chinese government denounced the award as a “plot” against China and Liu as a 381

World Affairs: China

“Chinese criminal” who was attempting to sabotage China’s political stability, rule of law, and economic progress. Premier Wen was not the only voice calling for reform, however. In March, 11 Chinese newspapers simultaneously ran a joint editorial calling on the government to end the hukou system of household registration that effectively denied rural citizens the right to reside and work or for their children to attend schools in urban areas at a time when tens of millions of domestic migrants were living and working in China’s major cities. The one-child policy, another important social program from the past, was also questioned in 2010, prompted by the firing of a college professor in Beijing after his wife had a second child. Meanwhile, in 2010 China conducted its first census in 10 years; some 6 million census workers were deployed to count the country’s more than 1.3 billion people. While the trouble spots of Xinjiang and Tibet were relatively quiet in 2010, riots broke out in Kunming, Yunnan province, in late March after police were thought to have killed a street vendor there. A string of stabbings at schools by adults raised questions about President Hu’s policy objective of a harmonious society. Eight children were killed at a school in southeastern Fujian province by a deranged man, and seven more stabbings occurring in north-central Shanxi province followed. China’s war on corruption resulted in several convictions in 2010, notably of Wen Qiang, a former high-ranking police and judicial official in Chongqing, who was sentenced to death in April and executed in July. Other trials in the city, involving hundreds of suspects that included dozens of public officials, revealed a culture of corruption there. One of Wen’s associates, Li Qiang, a former city council member and a wealthy businessman, was sentenced to 20 years’ imprisonment. In another case, in Beijing, a police official in charge of monitoring the Internet was given a suspended death sentence for having accepted large bribes from a software company attempting to put a rival out of business. In May, Huang Guangyu, one of China’s wealthiest businessmen, was sentenced to 14 years in jail after he was convicted of conducting business illegally, bribing public officials, and engaging in insider trading. Southwestern China was afflicted by one of the most serious droughts in decades. Crops were destroyed on some 382

7 million ha (17.3 million ac) of farmland in Yunnan and Guizhou provinces, and tens of millions of people there lacked adequate drinking water. The Yangtze River basin flooded during the summer, killing more than 400 people and causing widespread damage. On April 14 a magnitude-6.9 earthquake struck southeastern Qinghai province, killing nearly 3,000 people. Pollution in various forms continued to be a serious problem. Lake Tai, west of Shanghai, one of China’s most scenic features, was fouled by an algae bloom, the third in recent years. Beijing’s notorious air pollution, which had eased during the 2008 Olympics, worsened in 2010, with decreasing numbers of blue-sky days and an airquality index (reported by the U.S. embassy there) that occasionally exceeded the scale’s worst level of 500. Shanghai also recorded several days of high airpollution levels after pollution-abatement measures for the expo were lifted. Much of China’s air pollution was caused by burning coal. Another important source was the increasing number of cars being sold in China. In November a Chinese official confirmed that China was the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases. Economy. China overtook Japan in 2010 to become the world’s second largest economy as annual GDP growth exceeded 10%. Its economic strength translated into increasing financial clout. Just as Japanese banks were the world’s biggest in the 1980s, by 2010 half of the world’s 10 largest banks—including the two biggest—were Chinese. Chinese businesses also increased overseas investments. Chinese firms bought 280 oil and gas companies, and leading Chinese automaker Geely purchased Volvo’s automobile-manufacturing subsidiary from Ford Motor Co. for $1.5 billion. Chinese companies also invested in a number of luxury and recreation brands, including France’s beauty products company L’Occitane International SA and resort owner Club Med and Japan’s sports-equipment manufacturer Honma Golf Co., Ltd. China approved its 12th Five-Year Plan in October. Diverging from the traditional emphasis of past plans on industrial output, the new document added developing China’s cultural assets and reducing greenhouse-gas emissions as national economic goals. Increasing domestic consumption was also a target. Notable infrastructure improvements in 2010 included two new lines in China’s high-speed rail network

connecting Shanghai with Hangzhou and with Nanjing. By 2010 China had an estimated 128 billionaires and 875,000 millionaires, but 16% of its 1.3 billion people lived on less than $1.25 per day. Ordinary people were hit hard in the second half of the year; the consumer price index rose by 4.7% in November alone—including a 10% increase in food prices— prompting the central government to impose price controls on grain, oil, sugar, and cotton. Housing prices also increased by some 8.6% in urban areas after the Chinese government began monitoring currency flows and requiring increased down payments to deter speculation. In March four employees of the Australian-based mining conglomerate Rio Tinto were found guilty in a Beijing court of having paid bribes for information about iron-ore prices, and they received prison sentences of 7 to 14 years. Nonetheless, the state-owned China Power International Development Limited signed a 20-year $60 billion deal with another Australian company to supply China with 30 million tons of coal annually from mines in Queensland. A series of worker strikes hit foreignowned manufacturers in southern China, causing wages to rise sharply. In July Taiwan-based electronics manufacturer Hon Hai, which employed more than 800,000 people in China, increased wages 30% after a wave of employee suicides at its plants in Guangdong province. More than 100 Japanese companies operating in China were also hit by strikes, including Honda Motor Co., which ended its walkout by granting employees a 24% pay hike. Hon Hai subsidiary Foxconn, however, announced plans to move operations north to Zhengzhou in Henan province, where labour costs were significantly lower than in Guangdong. Other technology manufacturers, including Taiwan’s Acer and the U.S.’s Dell Inc. were also aiming to reduce costs by setting up major manufacturing centres in western Sichuan province. On the technology front, U.S. searchengine giant Google Inc. announced in January that it would no longer censor search results in China and in March began directing search traffic to its Hong Kong site. In July, however, the Chinese government renewed Google’s license to operate in the country after Google agreed to stop routing searches to Hong Kong directly. In November, China’s Tianhe-1 became the world’s

World Affairs: China Thibault Camus/AP

fastest supercomputer. During 2010 almost 100 million Chinese played online games, and goods worth some $60 billion were sold online. Foreign Relations. China’s foreign policy for 30 years had been guided by Deng Xiaoping’s advice that it should keep a low international profile, “hiding its power and biding its time.” In 2010, though, China began to diverge from that policy in East Asia by confronting Japan over a disputed archipelago in the East China Sea and setting new core national interests in the region. In September Japan interdicted a Chinese fishing vessel near the islands (called Diaoyu by China and Senkaku by Japan), which were claimed by China and Taiwan but were administered by Japan. After China lodged diplomatic protests and imposed an informal ban on the export of rare earth minerals used to produce high-technology goods, Japanese prosecutors released the ship’s captain and allowed him to return to China. Beijing demanded compensation and an apology. The Japanese government refused, and demonstrators protested in front of the Chinese embassy in Tokyo in October. In response, thousands of Chinese marched in Chengdu and smaller cities in Sichuan. Following the sinking of a South Korean warship in the Yellow Sea in March, China objected strenuously to U.S.–South Korean naval exercises scheduled for July in the sea, and the exercises were moved elsewhere. After North Korea shelled a South Korean island in the Yellow Sea in November, however, further U.S.–South Korean exercises were held in the sea. In public China supported North Korea, refusing to accept allegations that Pyongyang had sunk the South’s ship. North Korea’s leader Kim Jong Il also visited China shortly before his son, Kim JongEun, was publicly identified as the elder Kim’s successor. Privately, though, in diplomatic cables leaked to the public in November, Chinese officials suggested to the U.S. that China did not have a great deal of influence over North Korea. The South China Sea was also an area of contention between China and the U.S. In March, Chinese officials told their U.S. counterparts that the sea— where China, Taiwan, and Vietnam had a long-running territorial dispute over the Paracel Islands—was a core national interest of China’s. In July, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton responded by declaring at a regional se-

(From left) French Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy, French first lady Carla Bruni-Sarkozy, Chinese Pres. Hu Jintao, and his wife, Liu Yongqing, pose for the press at the Élysée Palace in Paris on November 4. Hu’s three-day visit to France was a sign of improvement in the previously strained relations between the two countries. curity conference in Vietnam that freedom of navigation in the South China Sea was a U.S. national interest and offered to broker talks over the disputed islands. China’s relations with Iran were complex. Chinese firms were suspected of supplying technology with military applications to Iran, that country being a major supplier of oil to China. At the same time, though, China generally supported the position taken by the U.S. that Iran’s nuclear ambitions were politically destabilizing. In January China launched a free-trade area with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), in which average tariffs were cut from 9.8% to 0.1%. Other than issues regarding North Korea and Iran, China’s relations with the U.S. were dominated by concerns over trade and currency. In May the Obama administration imposed antidumping tariffs of 30% to 90% on Chinese exporters of steel pipe. China retaliated with similar tariffs on American chicken exports and also investigated American automobile exports. Nonetheless, the total Chinese trade surplus was expected to exceed $20 billion for the year. In September the U.S. House of Representatives passed a bill authorizing import duties on products from countries with undervalued currencies as the weakness of the Chinese renminbi (yuan) became a political issue in the U.S.

At the beginning of 2010, the exchange rate was about 6.83 yuan per U.S. dollar. In June China’s central bank announced a new policy of currency flexibility before the G20 summit in Toronto that month, where, as was expected, the U.S. pressured China to revalue its currency. By December the yuan had risen slightly, to about 6.65. While the U.S. wanted China to allow the yuan to appreciate more, China remained concerned that appreciation would make its exports less competitive and could affect domestic stability. At the same time, China was also concerned that the U.S. monetary policy known as quantitative easing might eat into China’s dollar-denominated investments of its foreign-currency reserves. Those reserves had reached about $2.65 trillion by the third quarter of 2010. While much of those reserves was held in U.S. bonds, China began diversifying its holdings by buying Japanese and South Korean bonds in 2010. In early November, Pres. Hu Jintao made a state visit to France and Portugal. In France he announced orders for 102 Airbus passenger jets. China also tried, however, to pressure European countries not to send representatives to Oslo for the ceremony awarding the Nobel Peace Prize to Liu Xiaobo in December. In the end all EU countries attended, though Liu, imprisoned in China, did not. (MICHAEL R. FAHEY) 383

World Affairs: Colombia

COLOMBIA

Area: 1,141,748 sq km (440,831 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 44,205,000 Capital: Bogotá Head of state and government: Presidents Álvaro Uribe Vélez and, from August 7, Juan Manuel Santos

Colombia held both legislative and presidential elections in 2010, its bicentennial. Three months separated the two elections, with the congressional contest transpiring amid uncertainty about the candidacy of then president Álvaro Uribe. Nonetheless, a pair of parties from the governing coalition, the Social Party of National Unity (PSUN) and the Colombian Conservative Party, rode the coattails of the popular president (whose approval rating was 67% in March) to garner roughly 50% of seats in both houses. After the Constitutional Court ruled against allowing a referendum to be held that would have sought to permit President Uribe to run for office for a third time, his preferred successor, Juan

President-elect Juan Manuel Santos of Colombia prepares to attend a press conference on July 22 during his oneday visit to Mexico City, where he met with the president of the World Bank, among others.

Alexandre Meneghini/AP

384

Manuel Santos (see BIOGRAPHIES), the former minister of defense and PSUN candidate, became a front-runner. Although Green Party candidate Antanas Mockus, the former mayor of Bogotá, finished a distant second in the first round of voting, he faced Santos in the second-round runoff. Santos used the period between the two rounds to shore up alliances and won election. The postelection period was marked by escalating diplomatic conflict with Venezuela, which reached its peak after the Colombian government took a case to the Organization of American States against Venezuela for having provided safe haven for armed guerrillas. The Colombian government’s evidence included photographs and the geographic coordinates of alleged locations of Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and National Liberation Army (ELN) encampments in Venezuela. These claims were quickly dismissed by the Venezuelan government, which broke off diplomatic relations with Colombia. Relations between the two countries were reestablished, however, after Santos assumed office in August and after the Constitutional Court ruled that the bilateral agreement with the United States to give the U.S. access to more military bases in Colombian territory was unconstitutional. Similarly, Ecuadoran charges against Santos regarding the bombing of FARC camps in Ecuador (brought when he was minister of defense) were dropped after he became president. The new government also inherited a pair of scandals: one that involved former minister of interior Sabas Pretelt, who was found guilty of interference with the legislative process that resulted in the approval of the reform allowing for Uribe’s first reelection, and another, called “DAS-gate,” that involved phone tapping by the Department of Administrative Security (DAS) and gained new energy after a DAS agent confessed to having installed surveillance equipment in the main chamber of the Supreme Court. On a brighter note, former presidential candidate Ingrid Betancourt refrained from claiming compensation from the Colombian state for her captivity by the FARC. In terms of macroeconomics, the country showed a marked decrease in consumer price levels, evidenced by a historically low inflation rate of 2% in 2009. The unemployment rate, estimated at 12.6%, remained among the highest in Latin America. Moreover, the growing deficit was projected to reach

4% of GDP by the end of 2010. The Colombian peso, nonetheless, experienced one of the highest revaluations in the region, having gained almost 13% in value against the U.S. dollar from January to July 2010. Foreign direct investment also increased by 9.5% during the first semester of 2010. The FARC killed eight police officers in San Miguel, Putumayo, near the Ecuadoran border, in September. Later that month government forces attacked rebel encampments in the region, killing 27 rebels, including leader Sixto Cabana (also known as Domingo Biojo). The FARC was dealt an even more serious blow when “Mono Jojoy” (Víctor Julio Suárez Rojas; also known as Jorge Briceño), its leader of military operations, was killed less than a week later. He was under indictment by both the Colombian and U.S. governments, with the latter offering a $5 million reward for his arrest. (See OBITUARIES.) Crime continued to be one of Colombia’s greatest challenges. Emergent, nonpolitical organized crime groups gained strength in regions such as Meta, Córdoba, Nariño, and Antioquia, where radical rightist groups had been demobilized. Most dramatically, violence escalated in Medellín as the drug-trafficking organization “Office of Envigado” joined other criminal organizations to control illegal activities in the city. In addition to the FARC and the ELN, other groups—such as the Águilas Negras (“Black Eagles”), the Rastrojos (“Stubble”), and the “Paisas”—engaged in drug trafficking and other illegal activities throughout the country as traditional actors were brought to justice or demobilized. (BRIAN F. CRISP; SANTIAGO OLIVELLA)

COMOROS

Area: 1,862 sq km (719 sq mi), excluding the 374-sq-km (144-sq-mi) island of Mayotte, a de facto dependency of France since 1976 Population (2010 est.): 691,000 (excluding 201,000 on Mayotte) Capital: Moroni Head of state and government: President Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi

Political tensions threatened the relative stability of Comoros for most of

World Affairs: Congo, Democratic Republic of the Geert Vanden Wijngaert/AP

2010. Turmoil ensued when Pres. Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi stated his intentions to enforce a May 2009 constitutional reform mandate to streamline the government by reducing the status of the federal presidents of the semiautonomous Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli islands to governors and extending the term of the union presidency from four to five years. Since 2001 the government had operated within the framework of a power-sharing arrangement, in which the union presidency was rotated between the three islands. Though Sambi was due to step down on May 26, a presidential election was proposed for November 2011. In May the Constitutional Court invalidated the law that extended the president’s term, and a new timetable was agreed on in June. The first round of elections was held by Moheli on November 7, and in the second round, on December 26, Ikililou Dhoinine emerged victorious; he was to take office in 2011. Gen. Salimou Mohammed Amiri, the head of the country’s military, came under suspicion following the assassination on June 13 of senior army official Col. Combo Ayouba. Amiri was removed from his position in late August and placed under house arrest. (MARY EBELING)

CONGO, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE

Area: 2,345,410 sq km (905,568 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 67,827,000 Capital: Kinshasa Head of state and government: President Joseph Kabila, assisted by Prime Minister Adolphe Muzito

Official celebrations in 2010 for the 50th anniversary of independence of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) were restrained. King Albert II of Belgium joined Presidents Jacob Zuma (South Africa) and Robert Mugabe (Zimbabwe) in Kinshasa to mark the occasion. At home and abroad the anniversary sparked a bitter debate about Belgium’s colonial role in Congo; indeed, a team of international lawyers ruffled feathers in Brussels when they sought to prosecute former Belgian

Pres. Joseph Kabila (left) of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Belgium’s King Albert II (right) attend a military ceremony in Kinshasa on June 28. The king was in the DRC to help commemorate the 50th anniversary of the country’s independence from Belgium. colonial administrators, now in their 80s and 90s, on charges relating to the 1961 assassination of Patrice Lumumba, the DRC’s first postindependence prime minister. While Pres. Joseph Kabila endeavoured to use the occasion of the anniversary to revamp the DRC’s negative image, it was virtually impossible to ignore the ongoing conflict in the eastern provinces and the country’s prevailing lack of infrastructure, rampant corruption, poor governance, and deteriorating human rights. For 12 years the DRC had been embroiled in what many viewed as an African “world war,” fought with the assistance of Angola, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Chad against insurgent groups from Uganda and Rwanda. To date, casualties from fighting, disease, and malnutrition were estimated at about three million. In June fears concerning the DRC’s stability deepened when human rights advocate Floribert Chebeya was found dead under suspicious circumstances. Despite such problems, in July the government announced the formation of a new independent national electoral commission to prepare for elections in 2011. The DRC’s economy showed signs of improvement in 2010. In July the World Bank and the IMF approved a $12.3 billion debt-relief agreement. Structural reforms progressed in public financial and oil resource management. The transnational mining firm Rand-

gold Resources announced plans to start mining Africa’s largest undeveloped gold deposit, in Kibali. In three eastern provinces, the government suspended mining indefinitely to curtail illegal production and trade of “conflict” minerals (the mining of which contributes to or benefits from violations of human rights) by armed militias. Meanwhile, the government pressured the UN to begin winding up the activities of its 20,000-strong peacekeeping force (MUNOC) before 2011’s DRC elections. Because of continuing conflict, the Security Council reluctantly agreed to transform the operation into a stabilization mission (MONUSCO), authorized to remain in the country for another year. At the same time, the Security Council stressed that the government had to develop effective nonmilitary solutions to restore state authority. Of particular concern was the need to address endemic violence against women and children. In 2010 the UN reported 8,000 known cases of rapes of women in 2009 in the DRC, which had earned the unenviable title of the “rape capital of the world.” In April the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative revealed that 60% of rape victims in South Kivu province had been gang raped by armed men. More worrying was evidence of the normalization of rape—an increasing proportion of rapes (perhaps as many as one-third) were committed by civilians. (LARAY DENZER) 385

World Affairs: Congo, Republic of the

CONGO, REPUBLIC OF THE

COSTA RICA

CÔTE D’IVOIRE

Area: 342,000 sq km (132,047 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 3,932,000 Capital: Brazzaville Head of state and government: President Denis Sassou-Nguesso

Area: 51,100 sq km (19,730 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 4,516,000 Capital: San José Head of state and government: Presidents Óscar Arias Sánchez and, from May 8, Laura Chinchilla Miranda

Area: 320,803 sq km (123,863 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 21,059,000 De facto capital: Abidjan Head of state: Presidents Laurent Gbagbo and, from December 4, also Alassane Ouattara (parallel administration) Head of government: Prime Ministers Guillaume Soro (from December 4, under Ouattara) and, from December 7, Gilbert N’gbo Aké (under Gbagbo)

On Aug. 15, 2010, UN General Assembly Pres. Ali Abdussalam Treki, along with dignitaries from Africa and France, attended ceremonies in Brazzaville marking the Republic of the Congo’s 50th year of independence from France. In celebration of the event, Pres. Denis Sassou-Nguesso announced that by January 2011 civil servants would begin receiving raises (of 25%) and promotions, both of which had been frozen for 15 years. The IMF and the World Bank agreed in January to jointly provide $1.9 billion in debt relief. Both Italy and the U.S. followed suit by annulling all debts owed to them by Congo, and France forgave Congo’s entire >646 million debt (about $835 million). The IMF approved a disbursement of $1.83 million in international credits as part of its program to assist the world’s most indebted nations. On February 23 the UN Development Programme granted Congo $830,000 for environmental protection and the fight against climate change. The next day the African Union announced that it would contribute $200,000 toward the relief of an estimated 115,000 refugees from the Democratic Republic of the Congo situated in camps in northern Republic of the Congo. A rare polio outbreak, primarily in the port city of Pointe Noire, killed more than 200 people. On March 31, French oil giant Total announced a project to extract up to 300 million bbl from existing offshore wells where production had been halted. Congo, which earned more than >125 million (about $168 million) from its exports of timber to the EU, signed an agreement in May with the EU that committed both parties to the fight against illegal harvesting of hardwoods. On July 8 a >76 million (about $96 million) project was launched in the suburb of Kintélé, 25 km (16 mi) north of the capital, to construct 1,000 housing units over the next four years. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER) 386

The year 2010 in Costa Rica was highlighted by the national elections, held on February 7. For the first time in the history of the country, a woman, Laura Chinchilla (see BIOGRAPHIES) of the incumbent National Liberation Party (PLN), claimed presidential victory, sweeping all but 2 of the country’s 81 cantons and winning 46.9% of the votes cast. Coming in second, with 25.1% of the vote, was Ottón Solís of the Citizen Action Party (PAC), followed by Otto Guevara of the Libertarian Movement Party (PML), with 20.9%. The oncepowerful opposition party, the Social Christian Unity Party (PUSC), was rocked by corruption scandals and received only 3.9% of the vote. Though the PLN won 24 of the 57 seats in the unicameral legislature, far exceeding the PAC’s 11, it was necessary to form a coalition to achieve a majority. Women took nearly 38% of the seats, the highest total in history, and Chinchilla appointed women to two-fifths of the ministerial positions. Voter abstention among the registered electorate declined to 30.9% from a high point of 34.8% in 2006. Chinchilla took office on May 8, promising to focus on problems of security and poverty, which had begun to creep up in recent years. In response to concerns about rising crime, many new police officers were trained, a national antidrug commission was established, and collaboration with other Central American countries and the U.S. increased. A national referendum on same-sex civil unions proposed by conservative elements was quashed by the constitutional court (Sala IV) on the grounds that this matter should be handled by the legislature rather than at the ballot box. The economy rebounded sharply from its declines in 2009 linked to the worldwide recession. Though growth was seen in almost all sectors, by the second half of 2010, it had begun to slow once again. (MITCHELL A. SELIGSON)

After Côte d’Ivoire’s Pres. Laurent Gbagbo dissolved both his government and the independent electoral commission on Feb. 12, 2010, violent demonstrations spread to towns and cities across the country. On February 22, Burkina Faso’s Pres. Blaise Compaoré arrived in Abidjan to mediate the crisis. The next day Gbagbo named a new government, but it contained no opposition members. Talks continued, however, and three days later a new electoral commission, chaired by a member of the opposition, was announced, and nearly half of the 27-person cabinet portfolios went to opposition parties. Presidential and legislative elections scheduled for March were postponed for the sixth time in five years. Negotiations among all factions continued for months, focusing mainly on the hotly disputed question of voter eligibility. Gbagbo had maintained for years that only those born in the country of native-born parents would be counted as citizens. On August 5, Prime Minister Soro declared that the electoral roll had been verified and that the presidential election would take place on October 31. The top two winners in the October election were Gbagbo and former prime minister Alassane Ouattara. The runoff election was held on November 28. After a slight delay, the independent electoral commission announced that Ouattara won, with 54% of the vote, but the country’s Constitutional Council, headed by a Gbagbo ally, rejected a portion of the results and declared Gbagbo to be the winner, with 51% of the vote. The international community maintained that Ouattara was the legitimate winner. Gbagbo, supported by the military and many government officials, was sworn

World Affairs: Croatia

Members of an ad hoc security force stand guard over a polling station in Bouaké, Côte d’Ivoire, during the country’s presidential election on October 31. Rebecca Blackwell/AP

in as president. Undeterred, Ouattara also had himself sworn in as president and formed a parallel government in an Abidjan hotel protected by UN troops. Soro became prime minister under Ouattara, and Gbagbo appointed Gilbert N’gbo Aké to the post in his administration. International pressure on Gbagbo to transfer power to Ouattara mounted. The Economic Community of West African States and African Union suspended the country, and Gbagbo, his family, and associates were the targets of sanctions. The World Bank froze the country’s funding, and the Central Bank of West African States, which held the country’s accounts, blocked Gbagbo’s administration from having access to them. Gbagbo still refused to cede power, and a tense standoff ensued, with fears that the country might be plunged into civil conflict once again. Prior to the election, cocoa—the country’s leading cash crop—had been expected to rebound from a drop in production. With world prices the highest in 30 years, projected growth for the 2011 crop had been forecast at 6%. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

CROATIA

Area: 56,542 sq km (21,831 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 4,426,000 Capital: Zagreb Head of state: Presidents Stipe Mesic and, from February 18, Ivo Josipovic Head of government: Prime Minister Jadranka Kosor

In Croatia the year 2010 began in the midst of presidential elections to replace Stipe Mesic, a member of the Croatian National Party who had overseen a decade of democratization and who had remained popular throughout his presidency. Tensions within the governing Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ) had been illustrated by the party’s difficulty in achieving consensus on a single presidential candidate. In the event, 12 candidates stood in the first round of voting on Dec. 27, 2009. The chosen HDZ candidate, Andrija Hebrang, won only 12% of the vote, while two former HDZ ministers running as independents, Nadan Vidosevic and Dragan Primorac, secured just 11.3% and 5.9%, respectively. The two front-runners who advanced to the second round of voting on Jan. 10, 2010, were the long-standing Zagreb mayor, Milan Bandic, who ran as an independent, and the opposition Social Democratic Party (SDP) candidate, Ivo Josipovic. Bandic garnered 14.8% of the vote in the first round and 40% in the second, while Josipovic won 32.4% in the first round and increased that to 60% in the second, thus securing the presidency. Josipovic, an academic lawyer who had represented Croatia at international tribunals, stood on an anticorruption and pro-human rights platform. During his first months in office, he largely continued the liberal, antinationalist agenda that Mesic had pursued before him. Early on, Josipovic announced his ambition to work with Serbian Pres. Boris Tadic toward withdrawing their mutual genocide suits—stemming from the war that followed the disintegration of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s—at the

International Court of Justice. Later in the year he became the first Balkan leader to support the idea of a regional truth and reconciliation commission. As President Josipovic’s high profile helped to build support for the SDP, the fortunes of the ruling HDZ government declined. Prime Minister Jadranka Kosor had consolidated her power within the party; she had survived an apparent putsch attempt by her predecessor, Ivo Sanader, in January and subsequently had him ejected from the HDZ’s leadership. Nevertheless, Kosor’s personal popularity steadily fell as her government’s response to the ongoing economic crisis was perceived as inadequate and confused. In January Kosor promised government guarantees and central bank support for companies to set up credit schemes, but it took many months to get the program under way, and interest among companies was weak. In April she announced a second anticrisis package. Its primary aims were tax reform, the reduction of the public-sector wage bill by 10% and public-sector employment by 5%, and the privatization of assets remaining in partial state control. The IMF and the World Bank welcomed the plan, as did Josipovic and the country’s central bank. Ultimately, though, Kosor was no more able than her predecessors to win the support of the powerful interest groups that opposed such reforms in Croatia. In July, Kosor’s increasingly fragile minority government lost the support of the Social Liberals. On October 28 her government survived a no-confidence vote initiated by the SDP, which contended that the HDZ was rife with corruption. Progress toward EU accession remained on track in 2010. Kosor’s 2009 resolution of an impasse with Slovenia over the countries’ mutual border briefly appeared in jeopardy as the Slovenes held a referendum on the deal, but ultimately it gained their support. The border agreement, together with a good report in June from Serge Brammertz, chief prosecutor for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, cleared the way for Croatia to join the EU as soon as it completed negotiations. Accession looked likely in 2012, although Croatia still had to resolve some tricky issues regarding competition policy, judicial reform, and the fight against corruption. (LIZ DAVID-BARRETT) 387

World Affairs: Cuba Javier Galeano/AP

CUBA

Area: 109,886 sq km (42,427 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 11,239,000 Capital: Havana Head of state and government: President of the Council of State and President of the Council of Ministers Raúl Castro Ruz

In July 2010 Fidel Castro reemerged as a voice of the Cuban government after four years of relative silence and inactivity brought on by illness that had forced him to turn over the presidency of Cuba to his younger brother, Raúl. Beginning in 2006, Fidel’s role was limited to writing opinion articles in the state media, but on July 12 he appeared on Cuban television, and in the weeks that followed, he visited local landmarks, spoke at the University of Havana, and even addressed the Cuban National Assembly dressed in olive green fatigues, which had long been his signature look. Fidel gained worldwide attention for an interview with an American reporter in which he candidly stated that “the Cuban model doesn’t even work for us anymore,” though he later said that his remarks had been misinterpreted. The first major appearances by the “maximo lider” came against the backdrop of Cuba’s most significant political and economic changes in years. The Cuban government agreed on July 7 to begin releasing 52 political prisoners detained since a crackdown in the spring of 2003, the biggest prisoner release since the visit of Pope John Paul II in 1998. The announcement followed months of negotiations between the cardinal of the Cuban Roman Catholic Church, Jaime Ortega, and Pres. Raúl Castro. Dozens of prisoners flew to Spain in the ensuing weeks. Still, it remained unclear whether the Cuban government would free those dissidents who refused to leave the country upon their release. This dialogue on human rights in Cuba originated with a notable failure: after a hunger strike that lasted more than 12 weeks, jailed Cuban dissident Orlando Zapata died on February 23. Fellow dissident Guillermo Fariñas began his own hunger strike the following day, and the negative international attention attracted by these two cases 388

Cuban dissident Guillermo Fariñas fields questions at his home in Santa Clara in July, three weeks after concluding a 134-day hunger strike in support of political prisoners. contributed to the government’s decision to negotiate a prisoner release with the Roman Catholic Church. Fariñas ended his hunger strike in July, after the release was announced. The pace of reform had lagged throughout the first years of Raúl Castro’s administration, but in 2010 the Cuban government announced some of its most drastic policy changes in decades. After months of hinting that the country’s huge state employment sector was unwieldy and inefficient, Raúl said that a million government jobs would be eliminated in the coming year. An official government statement followed, announcing 500,000 layoffs to take effect by March 2011. The government promised to mitigate the repercussions of the layoffs with increases in self-employment licenses during the same time period. These major policy statements from the Castro government occurred during a year of poor economic performance in Cuba, with growth stagnant at less than 2%. Food production and agricultural imports declined significantly in 2010, with production of beans dropping 27%, according to Cuba’s National Statistics Office. Cuba relied heavily on imports, which supplied two-thirds of

the island’s food needs. With credit sparse and the government facing budgetary shortfalls, Cuba was forced to cut back on food imports, reportedly reducing orders from Vietnam by 100,000 metric tons of rice. Cuba also bought less food from the United States, with imports down 36% from the previous year through July. A loophole in the long-standing U.S. economic embargo of Cuba had allowed agricultural trade, which peaked in 2008 at $710 million. During the first five months of 2010, however, trade between the United States and Cuba totaled only $182.3 million. In general U.S.-Cuba political ties remained cool as the United States maintained a strong political and nonagricultural economic embargo of Cuba. Moreover, the potential for détente deteriorated when Cuban officials arrested a U.S. government contractor, Alan Gross, in December 2009 for distributing technological equipment on the island. The Gross case stymied bilateral relations during 2010 as negotiators from Cuba demanded leniency from Washington in the case of the five Cuban spies currently held in U.S. prisons. Still, dialogue continued as Cardinal Ortega visited Washington twice, meeting with National Security Adviser Gen. Jim Jones and the assistant secretary of state for Western Hemisphere affairs, Arturo Valenzuela. In August, Gov. Bill Richardson of New Mexico visited Havana. (PAUL WANDER)

CYPRUS

Area: 9,251 sq km (3,572 sq mi) for the entire island; the area of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), proclaimed unilaterally (1983) in the occupied northern third of the island, 3,355 sq km (1,295 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): island 1,085,000; TRNC only, 280,000 (including Turkish settlers and Turkish military) Capital: Nicosia (also known as Lefkosia/Lefkosa) Head(s) of state and government: President Dimitris Christofias; of the TRNC, Presidents Mehmet Ali Talat and, from April 23, Dervis Eroglu

In 2010 Cyprus remained divided, but with tension and violence increasingly

World Affairs: Czech Republic Murad Sezer—Reuters/Landov

affected the island. An international flotilla of relief ships en route from Cyprus to Gaza was intercepted by Israel in late May. (See Israel, below.) In the wake of the incident, the Cyprus government stated that while it supported the Gaza cause, it would not allow Gazabound ships to sail from Cyprus. In September the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., opened an exhibit, “Cyprus: Crossroads of Civilization,” to mark 50 years of Cypriot independence. The exhibition featured artifacts covering 11,000 years of the island’s history. (GEORGE H. KELLING)

CZECH REPUBLIC

Turkish Cypriot politician Dervis Eroglu rejoices after his election on April 18 as president of the selfproclaimed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. replaced by interaction and negotiation. In April, Dervis Eroglu (see BIOGRAPHIES) was elected president of Turkish Cyprus, replacing Mehmet Ali Talat. The president-to-president talks with Dimitris Christofias of Greek Cyprus, dating to 2008, continued, but Eroglu took a different approach from Talat’s. Eroglu considered sovereignty for Turkish Cyprus, rather than confederation, essential, but he indicated that the talks could be concluded by year’s end, assuming that the issue of property rights could be solved first. The official talks were cordial, but the war of words continued, as did sporadic intercommunal vandalism. A joint communications room, staffed by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots, was set up to deal with crime and criminals crossing the border. Both sides took action to preserve and rehabilitate churches and mosques and to facilitate pilgrimages from one side to the other. To many Cypriots, the economy overshadowed politics as the world economic crisis reduced tourism while triggering higher public debts, increased unemployment, and inflation. The Greek Cyprus government cut costs and raised government income, which somewhat subdued the crisis, although inflation continued to rise. Similar cutbacks on the Turkish side resulted in riots and strikes. Other global issues also

Area: 78,865 sq km (30,450 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 10,526,000 Capital: Prague Head of state: President Vaclav Klaus Head of government: Prime Ministers Jan Fischer and, from July 13, Petr Necas

The year 2010 brought political change in the Czech Republic as one centrist and two centre-right parties emerged from the May 28–29 elections to the

Chamber of Deputies to form a coalition government with a substantial parliamentary majority. That result was rather surprising, as many pundits had been predicting another stalemate, with the left- and right-wing forces relatively equally divided. The election results were especially crucial, given the important policy decisions facing the new Czech government. The interim government of Prime Minister Jan Fischer, in office since May 2009, had avoided taking any major action on taxes, public expenditure cuts, or the adoption of the euro, leaving this responsibility for the future cabinet. The Czech Social Democratic Party (CSSD) narrowly won the most votes in the May elections but was unable to form a cabinet. The CSSD and its only viable partner, the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia (KSCM), controlled just 82 of the 200 seats in the Chamber of Deputies. In contrast, the CSSD’s chief rival, the Civic Democratic Party (ODS)—together with two newcomers, the right-of-centre Tradition Responsibility Prosperity 09 (TOP 09) and the centrist Public Affairs (VV)—had a comfortable majority of 118 seats. Appointed under the leadership of ODS chairman Petr Necas, the new cabinet had the strongest parliamentary majority of any Czech government since the early 1990s. One factor that helped tilt the balance in favour of the centre-right was the

Petr Necas, leader of the Czech Republic’s Civic Democratic Party, departs a press briefing held in Prague on May 31 to discuss the aftermath of the recent parliamentary elections. Necas became prime minister in July.

Petr David Josek/AP

389

World Affairs: Denmark

exit of the Christian and Democratic Union–Czech People’s Party (KDUCSL), which failed for the first time since the fall of communism to pass the 5% threshold. This development was due in part to the emergence of TOP 09, which had split from the KDU-CSL in 2009 as its parent party shifted toward the left. Recent corruption scandals involving both the ODS and the CSSD also appeared to be a major factor in raising support for TOP 09 and VV. TOP 09 was led by Karel Schwarzenberg, a member of the Czech nobility who was untouched by corruption scandals, despite having served in the government in 2007–09. The leader of VV was Radek John, a writer and journalist who had previously headed the investigative journalism unit at the popular TV Nova, giving him instant celebrity status and helping him forge his reputation as a defender of the Czech public interest. The strong finish for the centre-right seemed to signal the Czech population’s readiness for reforms. As the elections to the Chamber of Deputies approached, the ODS and TOP 09 had presented themselves as fiscally responsible while attacking the “populism” of their leftist competitors. Upon taking office, the Necas cabinet ranked among its top priorities a reduction of fiscal deficits, reforms of the pension and health care systems, and the fight against corruption. The trade unions, however, took a strong stance against the planned budget cuts, holding a large rally in Prague on September 21. By October the general population’s enthusiasm for reform already appeared to be waning, and the ruling parties fared unexpectedly poorly in the country’s municipal and Senate elections, with the centre-left opposition winning control of the upper house. Nonetheless, the government’s strong majority in the Chamber of Deputies gave it the power to override a Senate veto, meaning that reforms would continue, though at a slower pace than previously expected. On the economic front, the Czech Republic continued in 2010 to recover from the global crisis. Industrial production and exports were strong, thanks to rising demand elsewhere in Europe. Domestic household consumption rose only modestly, however, despite a steady drop in unemployment rates. Moreover, investment levels were poor, as firms were reluctant to spend amid continued economic uncertainty. (SHARON FISHER) 390

DENMARK

Area: 43,098 sq km (16,640 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 5,546,000 Capital: Copenhagen Head of state: Queen Margrethe II Head of government: Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen

The 2010 New Year celebrations were barely over when the bitter legacy of the Muhammad cartoon scandal returned to haunt Denmark. Overnight on January1–2 an ax- and knife-wielding Somali Muslim broke into the home of Kurt Westergaard, a cartoonist who had produced one of the infamous drawings under the heading “Muhammad’s Face” that sparked violent protests across the Muslim world in 2006. Westergaard was unharmed in the attack. He escaped to a safe room in his home in Århus, in western Denmark, and alerted the police, who apprehended the attacker after shooting and wounding him. Reportedly, the Somali man had close links to both the radical Islamist Somali alShabaab organization and al-Qaeda in eastern Africa. The assailant was charged with terrorism and attempted murder of Westergaard and a police officer, offenses punishable under Danish law by a life sentence. Westergaard, whose name appeared on Islamic militant death lists with a $1 million price on his head, had lived under police protection since 2008. That the cartoon affair was far from forgotten—and that Denmark remained a target for terrorists—was underlined by the arrests in summer 2010 by Indonesian police of three extremists suspected of having plotted an attack on the Danish embassy in Jakarta. Moreover, on the eve of the ninth anniversary of the September 11 attacks, Danish police apprehended a Chechen Muslim—a resident of Belgium—after he set off a minor explosion in a Copenhagen hotel while apparently preparing a letter bomb to be sent to the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten. In late December police in Denmark and Sweden detained five suspected Islamist militants of Swedish, Tunisian, Lebanese, and Iraqi origin believed to be planning an attack on the Copenhagen offices of the newspaper. According to the Danish Security and Intelligence Service (PET), the suspects,

four of whom were resident in Sweden, all had connections with international terrorist networks and intended to penetrate the newspaper building and “kill as many of those present as possible” in a machine-gun attack. On the political front, the centre-right coalition headed by Liberal Prime Minister Lars Løkke Rasmussen was reeling from criticism of its leadership of the inconclusive UN Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen in December 2009, and it saw its popularity plummet. The centre-left—led by the Social Democrats of Helle Thorning-Schmidt, potentially Denmark’s first female prime minister— was increasingly seen as the favourite in the next general election, to be held by November 2011. Responding to slumping public support for Denmark’s participation in NATO’s International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan (which had by late 2010 resulted in the death of nearly 40 Danish soldiers, one of the highest per capita totals among coalition forces), Rasmussen expressed the hope that the Danish contingent would be out by 2015. With Denmark, like other European countries, faced with an ever-burgeoning budget deficit and sluggish economic revival, Finance Minister Claus Hjort Frederiksen unveiled an austerity program that called for cuts in public spending of some $4.5 billion over the following three years. In addition, he pledged that the government would maintain a tax freeze. (CHRISTOPHER FOLLETT)

DJIBOUTI

Area: 23,200 sq km (8,950 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 833,000 Capital: Djibouti Head of state and government: President Ismail Omar Guelleh, assisted by Prime Minister Dileita Muhammad Dileita

The long-running border skirmish that had started in April 2008 between Djibouti and its northern neighbour, Eritrea, endured during much of 2010. This dispute began when Eritrean troops infiltrated the Ras Doumeira area within Djibouti, close to the border. The UN Security Council imposed sanctions on Eritrea in December 2009 for refusing to withdraw its troops and

World Affairs: Dominican Republic

settle the row with Djibouti. After the government of Qatar, with support from the UN, stepped in to help resolve the disagreement, Eritrean troops left Djibouti under the supervision of Qatari military observers in June 2010. In April the Djiboutian parliament passed a constitutional amendment that allowed Pres. Ismail Omar Guelleh to run for a third term. The amendment was passed unanimously, as the opposition held no parliamentary seats since boycotting elections in 2008. Djibouti agreed to allow the Japanese Self-Defense Force to build its first overseas base within the country. The $40 million strategic naval base would serve in the larger international antipiracy effort in the Gulf of Aden, where close to 90% of Japan’s exports transited through the piracy-prone seaway. (MARY EBELING)

DOMINICA

Area: 751 sq km (290 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 72,200 Capital: Roseau Head of state: President Nicholas Liverpool Head of government: Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit

Prime Minister Roosevelt Skerrit ordered a review in April 2010 of Dominica’s Economic Citizenship program, which allowed foreigners to acquire Dominican citizenship for a fee of $75,000. The government suspected that some people might be using the program to commit illegal acts. In August the government took a firm step toward responding to the drop in tourist income that resulted from the worldwide economic downturn by infusing up to $1 million into the agriculture sector on a fifty-fifty loan-grant basis. The money was to be disbursed to farmers through the state-owned Agricultural, Industrial and Development Bank. The governing Dominica Labour Party (DLP) faced the possibility of losing some of its parliamentary seats when in August a High Court judge ruled that Prime Minister Skerrit and his education minister, Peter Saint Jean, should answer charges that their election to the parliament in December

2009 was “null and void.” In Skerrit’s case this assertion rested on the fact that he held dual citizenship (Dominican and French), which was disallowed under the electoral law. The judge, however, threw out a charge, filed by the opposition United Workers Party against the DLP, that related to voter irregularities, bribery, and corruption on the part of the DLP on election day. (DAVID RENWICK)

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Area: 48,671 sq km (18,792 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 9,884,000 Capital: Santo Domingo Head of state and government: President Leonel Fernández Reyna

In a stunning victory in the 2010 midterm elections in the Dominican Republic, Pres. Leonel Fernández Reyna’s Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) obtained all but one seat in the Senate and nearly two-thirds of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. The scope of the victory was a tribute to the president’s skills as a communicator, as well as a testament to the division and mismanagement of the opposition. While the

observer mission from the Organization of American States did not dispute the overall results, it noted flaws in the electoral process, including the purchase of votes, flagrant abuse of government resources to benefit PLD candidates, an inadequate response to allegations of election violations, and the absence of a cap on campaign spending. Although politically reinforced by the election results, the government failed to capitalize on the new leverage they provided. Inability to curb corruption and stand up to vested interests blunted the government’s efforts at structural reform, more efficient tax collection, and deficit control. Prodigious waste was documented. Unbridled patronage had created a bloated public and foreign service. One report cited a total of 325 deputy ministers for 20 government ministries, along with 20 supernumerary ministers without portfolio. Macroeconomic indicators were generally strong but masked the country’s poor performance in providing public education, its chronic sectors of acute poverty, and its high unemployment rate. Organized crime—linked to the northward transit of drugs—and domestic narcotics consumption grew. Fernández maintained his high regional profile through his attempt to broker a settlement between the exiled former Honduran president Manuel Zelaya and the government of his replacement, Pres. Porfirio Lobo. Fernández also responded to the earthquake in

Seven months after the January 12 earthquake in Haiti, two young survivors who had been transported to the Dominican Republic enjoy a meal at the Hogar Vida y Esperanza foundation in Santo Domingo.

Eduardo Munoz—Reuters/Landov

391

World Affairs: East Timor

Haiti in January with a personal visit to devastated areas of the country two days after the earthquake occurred. The Dominican government provided food, medicine and medical treatment, and reconstruction support; however, the surge of Haitian migrants into the Dominican Republic exacerbated the existing tensions regarding illegal Haitian residents. (JOHN W. GRAHAM)

troleum because it would not take natural gas to East Timor’s coastline for processing. In late September, however, Woodside offered to consider processing gas in East Timor. (JANET MOREDOCK)

troleum resources. The new system, a key element of Correa’s program of “21st century socialism,” replaced joint production-sharing agreements with service contracts. It was expected to raise the government’s share of revenue from privately produced oil to at least 85% from 65%. ECUADOR The law passed automatically after Ecuador’s divided congress failed to vote on it in the allotted time span. The change provided more ammunition for EAST TIMOR (TIMOR-LESTE) President Correa’s critics, who had accused him for some time of trying to centralize too much power in the hands Area: 256,370 sq km (98,985 sq mi), including of the state. Earlier, Indian groups had the 8,010-sq-km (3,093-sq-mi) Galapagos succeeded in blocking congressional Islands passage of a water-management bill, Population (2010 est.): 14,219,000 saying that it could lead to privatizaArea: 14,919 sq km (5,760 sq mi) (Galapagos Islands, about 24,000) tion. A proposed communications law Population (2010 est.) 1,143,000 Capital: Quito that would force news media to regisCapital: Dili Chief of state and head of government: ter annually with the government and Head of state: President José Ramos-Horta President Rafael Correa Delgado require editors and reporters to possess Head of government: Prime Minister Xanana a university journalism degree was critGusmão icized for raising the spectre of govEcuadoran Pres. Rafael Correa survived ernment censorship and narrowing the an armed uprising in late September by range of freedom of expression. For his In March 2010 an East Timor court con- hundreds of police angry over benefit part, Correa said that “all-or-nothing” victed 23 people on charges stemming cuts. Correa was tear-gassed while try- leftists, environmentalists, and Indian from the attempted assassinations in ing to address the officers, taken to a groups that opposed all resource develFebruary 2008 of Pres. José Ramos- police hospital, and eventually freed in opment constituted the biggest obstacle Horta and Prime Minister Xanana Gus- an assault by army commandos. The re- to Ecuador’s economic progress. At the mão. In August, however, in a contro- bellion, which left eight people dead, same time, Ecuador agreed to forgo deversial move, Ramos-Horta granted enhanced Correa’s popularity, and he velopment of heavy-oil deposits (esticlemency to the rebels. In February rebounded to successfully conclude ne- mated at $7.2 billion) beneath the YaAdérito Soares had become the coun- gotiations with most foreign oil firms suní rainforest, one of the world’s most try’s first anticorruption commissioner. under a new hydrocarbons regime that biodiverse regions. It was to receive Soares’s appointment came about after established state ownership of all pe- half that amount in return from a UN Gusmão was accused of having trust fund, with the money blocked investigations of senior raised from other countries government officials. In July On May 13 indigenous Ecuadorans opposed to a and private donors. MeanAustralian Prime Minister Julia controversial water-management bill in the National while, lawyers for Chevron Gillard (see BIOGRAPHIES) pro- Assembly scramble atop a sculpture during a Corp., battling a $27 billion posed construction of a pro- demonstration in a Quito park. lawsuit over environmental cessing centre for Australiadamage in Ecuador’s oil zone, bound asylum seekers in East claimed that outtakes from a Timor. Timorese lawmakers documentary film about the isvoted unanimously against sue show that plaintiffs’ Gillard’s plan. lawyers had told a key expert East Timor’s government anwitness how to shape his nounced in late 2009 that it analysis to fit the plaintiffs’ was considering plans to procase. mote tourism to sites signifiPolitical changes in the U.S. cant in the country’s 25-year and Colombia augured well struggle for independence from for improved relations with Indonesia. Meanwhile, disEcuador. On a visit to Quito, agreement continued over U.S. Secretary of State Hillary plans for the Greater Sunrise Clinton said that the U.S. and offshore gas and oil fields, revEcuador could be friends deenues from which were to be spite ideological differences. divided evenly between East Colombia’s new foreign minisTimor and Australia. In Januter, María Ángela Holguín, ary East Timor rejected a stated that Bogotá hoped to pipeline proposed by the Ausreturn to normal diplomatic tralian company Woodside Perelations with Quito, which Guillermo Granja—Reuters/Landov

392

World Affairs: Egypt Nasser Nasser/AP

were ruptured in 2008 after Colombian troops bombed an Ecuadoran jungle camp while in pursuit of leftist guerrillas. (PAUL KNOX)

EGYPT

Area: 1,002,000 sq km (386,874 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 84,474,000 Capital: Cairo Head of state: President Hosni Mubarak Head of government: Prime Minister Ahmad Nazif

Uncertainty and increased activism marked the political scene in Egypt for most of 2010. The 29-year-old state of emergency was extended for two more years; two legislative elections were held; and speculation was rife on whether aging Pres. Hosni Mubarak would seek a sixth term in the 2011 presidential elections or allow his second son, Gamal, to succeed him. The debate was intensified by the return to Cairo in February of Mohamed ElBaradei, the former director general of the International Atomic Energy Agency, to found and lead an opposition movement, the National Association for Change. ElBaradei sought to collect one million signatures to endorse his sevenpoint program for political and constitutional change, which called for, among other things: ending the state of emergency, having the judiciary supervise the presidential elections, monitoring by national and international observers, guaranteeing the unrestricted right of every Egyptian to run for office, and limiting the existing open-ended presidential tenure to two terms. ElBaradei did not clarify, however, whether he would run for the office himself. The first test of the two-year extension of the emergency law came in June when two state security agents allegedly beat to death a young man in Alexandria while trying to arrest him. A government forensic expert report said that 28-year-old Khalid Sa!id died of asphyxiation after having swallowed a packet of narcotics. This was strongly contested by eyewitnesses and led to numerous and massive protest demonstrations, one of which was led by ElBaradei. In June the prosecutor general charged the two security agents with

cruelty and physical torture in an unwarranted arrest. In requesting the extension of the state of emergency, the government said that its provisions would extend only to drug trafficking and terrorism and not to political opponents. Anxiety over the future of the presidency, which heated up in March after President Mubarak underwent surgery in Germany for gallbladder removal, divided the leadership of the ruling National Democratic Party (NDP) and the public. Though Following the fatal beating of Egyptian businessman NDP Secretary-General Khalid Sa!id (pictured) in June, allegedly at the hands Safwat al-Sharif an- of police, activists in Cairo protest the state-owned nounced that Mubarak Al-Gomhuria newspaper, which they accused of bias would be the party’s in its reporting on the case. only presidential candidate in 2011, other senior cadres, mainly influential busi- Wafd decided to boycott the second nessmen who constituted the core round, won one seat (for a renegade support group for Gamal, declared member), as did three minor parties. A that if the president did not run, number of eminent jurists declared that Gamal would be the candidate. in view of the fraud, the next parliaPolitical opposition parties and asso- ment would be null and void and hence ciations, nongovernmental organiza- would call into question the legitimacy tions, and the general public were of the 2011 presidential election. restive over election fraud and the Public apprehension over election growing perception that the presidency fraud arose following partial elections would pass on to Gamal under a in June to fill 88 seats in the 264-seat pseudolegal format. “Antibequeathing” Shura (consultative) Council, the upper organizations and political movements house of the parliament. The ruling organized protest demonstrations in NDP captured 80 seats, while all other various cities, and a coalition of four parties and independent candidates opposition parties presented the NDP won 8. The Muslim Brotherhood leadership with a list of demands out- gained none. In addition, President lining a set of guarantees they wanted Mubarak exercised his prerogative by to prevent election fraud. appointing 44 members. The opposition parties’ coalition, Coptic-Muslim religious tension however, failed to agree on a boycott reignited when in January a man strategy for the parliamentary elections opened fire on a congregation exiting held on November 28 with a runoff on an Eastern Orthodox church’s Coptic December 5. The New Wafd—the coun- Christmas mass in Naj! Hammadi, Uptry’s oldest liberal political party—and per Egypt, killing six Copts and a Musthe Muslim Brotherhood broke ranks lim policeman. Allegations in Septemand indicated that they would also par- ber that the Coptic Church had ticipate in the elections. Amid wide- detained a Coptic woman who had conspread charges of fraud, bribery, thug- verted to Islam incited protests on both gery, and ballot-box stuffing, and amid sides. The woman, Camillia Shehata, clashes with security forces, President later appeared in a video clip to deny Mubarak’s NDP swept the elections for that she had converted. A ruling by an the 508 elected seats of the People’s As- administrative court that permitted disembly, winning 420 seats against 68 vorced Copts to remarry riled church for independents, 6 for the New Wafd, elders, led by Pope Shenouda III, who and 5 for the leftist National Progres- said that the church would not comply. sive Unionist Party. The Muslim Broth- A higher court later repealed the ruling. erhood, which together with the New (AYMAN M. EL-AMIR) 393

World Affairs: El Salvador

EL SALVADOR

Area: 21,040 sq km (8,124 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 6,052,000 Capital: San Salvador Head of state and government: President Carlos Mauricio Funes Cartagena

Pres. Mauricio Funes enjoyed wide popularity in El Salvador as 2010 opened. A poll in late December 2009 had shown that 87.9% of Salvadorans approved of his job performance. That approval slipped somewhat in 2010 but remained remarkably high. Many welcomed the president’s formal apology in January for human rights abuses committed by the state during the 1980–92 civil war. In March Funes also apologized for the 1980 murder of Archbishop Oscar Romero. Funes distanced himself from his leftist Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) party while promising to improve housing and job opportunities. He also pledged to fight the violent crime that plagued the country, which had the highest number of murders per capita in Latin America. Using the army for law enforcement, Funes clamped down on the maras, or street gangs. Gang attacks on buses were especially serious, and at

least 101 transit workers had been killed by August. In protest against a new law that made mere membership in a gang a criminal offense, the maras forced a complete shutdown of the public transit system in September. Reconstruction of infrastructure, damaged by the deadly storms of November 2009, continued. More heavy rains from May to September washed out additional roads and bridges, leaving many homeless and short of food. In September Funes met with Mexican Pres. Felipe Calderón in an effort to reduce violence directed at Salvadorans migrating across Mexico to the United States. The two leaders formed a commission to develop a strategy against drug gangs, which were believed to be primarily responsible for the antimigrant violence. Funes’s moderate left-wing government also sought to maintain cordial relations with the United States. In January El Salvador followed the U.S.’s lead in recognizing Honduran Pres. Porfirio Lobo, elected following a coup d’état in 2009, although Funes remained critical of the coup’s leaders. The economy continued to rely heavily on remittances from the estimated 2.5 million Salvadorans residing in the United States. In mid-2010 the U.S. government extended temporary protected status for another 18 months to more than 217,000 Salvadorans who had been in the United States since 2001. In May El Salvador joined other Central American states in approving a free-

At a bus depot in San Salvador, El Sal., in September, a soldier checks for the presence of gang members. Gangs besieged public transit in the country throughout the year.

Luis Romero/AP

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trade agreement with the European Union. Later that month El Salvador opened the new port of La Unión on the Gulf of Fonseca, the culmination of a 10-year project funded by a loan from Japan. Funes announced that the port would become an attractive terminal for cargoes bound for Central America. (RALPH LEE WOODWARD, JR.)

EQUATORIAL GUINEA

Area: 28,051 sq km (10,831 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 651,000 Capital: Malabo Head of state and government: President Brig. Gen. Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo, assisted by Prime Minister Ignacio Milam Tang

Though Equatorial Guinea produced almost 500,000 bbl of oil daily, the country remained known in 2010 mainly for its systematic human rights violations and the autocratic rule of Pres. Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo. In an attempt to improve relations with the international community, Obiang made many official visits to other countries and spoke of introducing reforms at home and of his desire for Equatorial Guinea to become a full member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). He persuaded the African Union to hold its 2011 summit in Equatorial Guinea, but his sponsorship of the $300,000 UNESCO–Obiang Nguema Mbasogo International Prize for Research in the Life Sciences aroused controversy. As a result, UNESCO postponed conferring the award. Four military and government officials allegedly implicated in an attack in February 2009 on the presidential palace in Malabo were reportedly kidnapped in January 2010 from Benin. In August they were put on trial in the capital before a military court, convicted, and immediately executed. Equatorial Guinea’s main opposition party continued to operate from Madrid, where its leader lived in exile. Evidence emerged that Obiang’s son had moved more than $100 million through American banks. Few were surprised when the CPLP declined to accept Equatorial Guinea as a member. (CHRISTOPHER SAUNDERS)

World Affairs: Ethiopia

ERITREA

Area: 121,144 sq km (46,774 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 5,224,000 Capital: Asmara Head of state and government: President Isaias Afwerki

Bowing to pressure from abroad, Eritrea took tentative steps in 2010 toward making peace with its neighbours and sought to improve its relations with the wider African and international community. Eritrean Pres. Isaias Afwerki’s regime failed, however, to find solutions for a list of deep political, economic, and social problems that afflicted the small country. Early in the year African and Western countries accused Eritrea of having continued to foment trouble in the Horn of Africa by escalating its border disputes with neighbours Djibouti and Ethiopia, as well as by supporting an antigovernment insurgency in Somalia. In March the EU imposed military and economic sanctions on Eritrea. The action, which included an arms embargo and travel restrictions, was similar to sanctions with which the UN punished Eritrea in late 2009 at the request of the African Union and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development. Three months after imposition of the EU sanctions, President Afwerki’s government pledged to make peace with Djibouti in a pact brokered by the Qatari government. The peace deal, confirmed by the UN in June, included Eritrea’s agreement to withdraw troops from a contested border area. The UN also stated that Eritrea had shown a willingness to recognize the transitional government in Somalia and to help bring peace to that war-torn country. The border dispute between Eritrea and Djibouti dated to 2008, when troops from the countries fought at their common border on the shores of the Red Sea. The clash, in which six Djibouti soldiers died, had erupted after Eritrea sent troops to occupy contested frontier areas then under Djibouti control. While Afwerki’s government tried to improve Eritrea’s international relations, its domestic agenda in 2010 remained largely unchanged from past years. The regime continued to pursue a poor model of command economics, to

spend heavily on defense, and to crack down on political dissent. Those actions contributed to Eritrea’s having retained its distinction as one of the world’s most difficult countries in which to do business. It also was viewed as a country that was likely to become a failed state. In efforts to help alleviate poverty in Eritrea, the African Development Fund in April agreed to provide the country with a $20 million grant for the development of higher-education. The International Fund for Agricultural Development in September also extended Eritrea a $12.6 million grant to help the country expand its fishing sector. (PATRICK L. THIMANGU)

ESTONIA

Area: 45,227 sq km (17,462 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,340,000 Capital: Tallinn Head of state: President Toomas Hendrik Ilves Head of government: Prime Minister Andrus Ansip

Despite the lingering impact of economic recession in Estonia, the position in 2010 of Prime Minister Andrus Ansip’s Reform Party (RE) appeared its strongest ever heading into the 2011 parliamentary elections. Ansip, who had led various cabinets since April 2005, continued to benefit from an image of efficiency and a commitment to rebuilding prosperity. Close behind the RE in popularity was Edgar Savisaar’s Centre Party, which had a well-established constituency that included older, less-well-to-do, and especially Russianspeaking voters. Several of the smaller parties, including the agrarian-oriented People’s Union and the Greens, experienced infighting and leadership issues, which contributed to a considerable decline in their popular support. The recession helped Estonia bring down its inflation rate to an acceptable level and thus aided the country in realizing one of its most important longterm goals—accession to the euro area. Estonia was to become the 17th member of the euro area on Jan. 1, 2011. Public opinion remained divided on transition to the new currency, with only a slight majority in favour, as some con-

sumers feared a resulting rise in prices. Despite continued high unemployment, economic recovery began early in the year and was among the fastest in the EU. After a 14% decline in GDP in 2009, modest growth occurred in 2010. International recognition of Estonia’s prudent economic policies, including efforts to maintain the lowest state debt in the EU, came in May with an invitation to join the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Though ethnic relations had improved in recent years, with growing contact between ethnic groups and better command of the Estonian language by non-Estonians, ethnic Russians were increasingly less interested in acquiring Estonian citizenship, partly because travel to Russia was cheaper without an Estonian passport. The 75th birthday of Arvo Pärt, Estonia’s best-known composer, was celebrated in August and September with concerts throughout the country. The year ended with the capital buried under a record-setting December snowfall. (TOIVO U. RAUN)

ETHIOPIA

Area: 1,063,652 sq km (410,678 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 79,456,000 Capital: Addis Ababa Head of state: President Girma Wolde-Giyorgis Head of government: Prime Minister Meles Zenawi

Ethiopia held important national and regional legislative elections in May 2010. The ruling Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) and allied parties extended their domination of the political landscape, winning 545 out of 547 seats in the House of Peoples’ Representatives, the lower house of the national legislature. Only one opposition party candidate and one independent candidate won seats. This was the culmination of a consolidation of political power that followed the highly disputed, violent election of 2005. Much of the opposition leadership from that election remained abroad, and one leader, Birtukan Mideksa, was in and out of prison, released from her life sentence 395

World Affairs: Fiji Anita Powell/AP

At a rally on May 25 in Addis Ababa, Eth., supporters of the ruling Ethiopian Peoples’ Revolutionary Democratic Front celebrate the party’s presumptive victory in legislative elections. on October 6, after having been pardoned in 2007 and incarcerated again in 2008. The opposition’s failure to form a unified, coherent coalition, the continued blurring of the line between party and state administrative functions, and the weakening of civil society and the private press had all contributed to EPRDF’s monopoly of power. Although declines in global demand for important imports such as coffee had an impact, the steadily growing agriculture-based Ethiopian economy was expected to expand by about 7% in 2010. But even as the economy grew, high inflation, rising food prices, stagnant wages, and limited employment opportunities strained local households. The government’s continued emphasis on infrastructure and publicservice expenditure (as well as on revenue collection) resulted in substantial improvements in sectors such as primary education, which had experienced staggering 500% growth over the past 20 years. The government responded to international pressure to improve its foreign currency reserves and trade balance by devaluing the birr 396

(the national currency) for the third time in a year, this time by 16% in early September, a dramatic move that met with approval from economists but mixed response from the business community and ordinary Ethiopians. Nearly half of Ethiopia’s overwhelmingly rural population lived below the poverty line, and the need for food aid—though down from 2009 levels— remained high in 2010, with about 5 million of the country’s 80 million people dependent on some form of assistance. While the government viewed hydropower as one of the country’s most valuable resources—with the potential to both address Ethiopia’s persistent power shortage and provide power for export—large-scale hydropower projects such as the Gibe dam projects on the Omo River remained controversial. There was great concern regarding the impact of these projects on both the environment and local communities. The border dispute with Eritrea continued throughout 2010 with little change. Neither country had taken steps to demarcate the border in keeping with the 2002 ruling of the Eritrea Ethiopia Boundary Commission, which Ethiopia rejected. The Ethiopian military continued to engage in periodic battles with small but persistent domestic armed insurgencies, particularly those in the Somali region of the country, but its troops mostly stayed out of neighbouring Somalia after the 2006–09 invasion. (LAHRA SMITH)

FIJI

Australian-owned media company News Ltd. sold the country’s largest paper, the Fiji Times, to a Fijian businessman. During the year Bainimarama reiterated his government’s determination to replace communal electoral rolls (which presented candidates for legislative office on the basis of ethnic constituencies) with common electoral rolls. Its goals were to reduce the significance of ethnicity in domestic politics and to exclude in the future the parties that had benefited from exploiting ethnicity for political ends. In June the prime minister accused the secretarygeneral of the Pacific Islands Forum— from which Fiji was suspended in 2009—of working against Fiji and of seeking to move the forum’s secretariat from Suva. In July, Bainimarama threatened to put off elections, scheduled for 2014, because of political interference from Australia and New Zealand. In July the country expelled Australia’s acting high commissioner after she questioned Fiji’s actions as chair of the Melanesian Spearhead Group (MSG); the group’s leaders were also divided over Fiji’s chairmanship and postponed a summit that was to have been held that month in Suva. In September, Fiji suspended its membership to allow members to resolve the issue. Despite concerns over Fiji’s unelected government, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announced in October that Fiji had been selected as the hub for its Pacific aid program, in part to counter China’s growing influence in the country. (CLUNY MACPHERSON)

FINLAND

Area: 18,272 sq km (7,055 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 844,000 Capital: Suva Head of state: President Ratu Epeli Nailatikau Head of government: Prime Minister Voreqe Bainimarama (interim)

Area: 338,424 sq km (130,666 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 5,364,000 Capital: Helsinki Head of state: President Tarja Halonen Head of government: Prime Ministers Matti Vanhanen and, from June 22, Mari Kiviniemi

Fiji’s relations with its neighbours were strained throughout 2010. In June interim Prime Minister Voreqe Bainimarama’s government passed legislation that limited foreign ownership of news media to 10%, effectively forcing the government’s most vocal critics to sell their newspapers. In September the

In June 2010 Finnish Prime Minister and Centre Party leader Matti Vanhanen stepped down from both posts for reasons he promised to fully disclose only in the distant future. Vanhanen had been implicated in the campaign contributions scandal of 2008–09 that was still reverberating. The party secretary,

World Affairs: France

Jarmo Korhonen, who was at the heart of the scandal, failed to win reelection even though he had been exonerated at the 2009 Centre Party convention. Minister of Public Administration and Local Government Mari Kiviniemi defeated seasoned politicians Mauri Pekkarinen and Paavo Väyrynen in the vote for Centre Party chairperson. Kiviniemi’s nomination as the second woman prime minister in Finnish history was confirmed by a parliamentary vote of 115–56. In September, Chancellor of Justice Jaakko Jonkka asked the Constitutional Law Committee of the parliament to investigate whether Vanhanen had broken the law by receiving campaign contributions from Nuorisosäätiö, a foundation with close ties to the Centre Party; as prime minister, Vanhanen had participated in decisions to grant public funding to the foundation. In Jonkka’s opinion Vanhanen should have recused himself from the decision making regarding Nuorisosäätiö’s funding. The Constitutional Law Committee determined that a police investigation was necessary. The National Bureau of Investigation interrogated Vanhanen under instructions to complete the investigation process by January 2011. In response to a television debate in October in which Päivi Räsänen, the

leader of the Christian Democrats, strongly opposed the legalization of same-sex marriage, a record 40,000 members left the Lutheran church. Voter participation rose in subsequent church elections, and liberals won seats from conservatives, especially in the larger cities. In December a poll indicated that 44% of Finns felt that the government’s performance had been poor, the worst such showing since 2007. Nokia Corp., the world’s largest cellphone maker, replaced its CEO, OlliPekka Kallasvuo, with Stephen Elop, a Canadian-born Microsoft executive. Nokia had been doing well in emerging markets but badly in the U.S., a problem Kallasvuo could not fix. Anssi Vanjoki, a longtime Nokia executive, left the corporation shortly afterward, having disclosed that he had twice applied for the CEO position. Moreover, Jorma Ollila, Nokia’s chairman of the board and former longtime CEO, announced that he would be leaving in 2012. (SUSANNA BELL)

Mari Kiviniemi, who was confirmed as Finland’s prime minister on June 22, arrives on October 28 at a two-day EU summit meeting in Brussels to discuss the euro zone’s debt crisis.

Area: 543,965 sq km (210,026 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 62,962,000 Capital: Paris Chief of state: President Nicolas Sarkozy Head of government: Prime Minister François Fillon

FRANCE

The year 2010 was a stormy one for Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy and for France. The president had to contend with the European economic crisis, growing resistance to his economic reforms, low personal poll ratings, financial excess and scandal touching his ruling centreright Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) party, and defeat in regional elections at the hands of a revived Socialist opposition. Supporters hoped that Sarkozy’s international activism, which had proved popular during the first three years of his presidency, would be the party’s saving grace as France took over the presidency of the Group of 20 (G20) countries in November and of the Group of 8 (G8) in January 2011. For the country, an undoubted low point was the French national football

(soccer) team’s fate in the World Cup. The French team, a tournament winner in 1998, was eliminated in South Africa without having won a single game. This outcome was not surprising, given the team’s off-pitch performance. After a star player was sent home for yelling at the coach, the rest of the team went on strike and refused to train. Domestic Affairs. France weathered recession better than some of its neighbours, but voters still showed their discontent in the March regional elections. In the second round of the election, the Socialists and their allies captured 21 of 22 regional councils in mainland France with 53.07% of the vote. The UMP and its allies garnered just 36.22%. The Socialists appeared to have won the votes of almost all those who had voted Green in the first round, while the UMP attracted few defectors from the far-right National Front, whose support stayed fairly solid throughout the polling, finishing with 9.17% of the second-round vote. In reaction, Sarkozy carried out his first reshuffle of the year in the government led by Prime Minister François Fillon, dropped a proposed carbon tax that evidently had failed to win over Green voters, and backed a government bill to ban full facial coverings—i.e., the burka and the niqab styles of veil worn by some Muslim women—in public places. The ban, passed (with Socialist abstentions) by 335 votes to 1 in the National Assembly and by 246 votes to 1 in the Senate, was justified on grounds of public security. The law was approved in October by the Constitutional Council, but with one amendment: that the ban should not apply to public places of worship lest it contravene the right to freedom of religion. In the wake of a clash in Grenoble in July between police and youths of North African origin, Sarkozy launched a crackdown on illegal immigration. Linking lax immigration policies to recent outbreaks of crime, Sarkozy soon targeted Roma (Gypsies), mostly from Romania and Bulgaria, who had remained in France longer than the period of residence without work permitted to citizens of fellow European Union countries. The Interior Ministry said that by late August it had closed 88 allegedly illegal camps and deported 850 Roma, mainly back to Romania and Bulgaria. It also warned that French people “of foreign origin” could lose their citizenship if convicted of endangering police.

Yves Logghe/AP

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World Affairs: France Vadim Ghirda/AP

Roma (Gypsies) deported from France in a controversial government crackdown on illegal immigration arrive in Bucharest, Rom., in September. The French government’s claim that it was acting in a nondiscriminatory manner was punctured by the leak of an Interior Ministry memorandum that singled out the Roma for deportation. The government’s stated defense was that the memo was not official policy, and its author was disciplined. Nonetheless, the deportation campaign continued to be widely criticized within France and internationally, particularly by the European Commission. Viviane Reding, the European justice commissioner, said that she was personally appalled by France’s actions against Roma—actions that she declared were reminiscent of the policies of Nazi Germany. On September 29 she launched legal proceedings against France for infringing EU freedom of movement legislation. This development occurred after an EU summit at which Sarkozy attacked Reding and the European Commission for humiliating France. Yet the president further mired himself in the controversy by telling journalists that Chancellor Angela Merkel had planned similar actions against Roma in Germany—a claim that the German leader denied. By mid-October France had duly undertaken to amend its law, and Brussels dropped the matter. Meanwhile, the French government continued its efforts to reduce the public deficit by canceling some tax cuts and limiting spending. It aimed to shrink the deficit, which in 2010 amounted to almost 8% of national income, to 6% in 2011 and to 3% by 2013. Sarkozy canceled the annual

Élysée Palace garden party on Bastille Day (July 14), as well as presidential hunting parties, and he instructed ministers to cut back on their personal expenses. In July one overseas aid minister was forced to resign for having spent >116,000 (about $148,000) on a private jet to attend a Haiti earthquake reconstruction conference; another minister was dismissed for having charged >12,000 (about $15,000) worth of Cuban cigars to an expense account. But compared with some European

neighbours, France’s austerity efforts were more show than substance. In September Sarkozy pushed through a controversial pension reform that involved raising the minimum retirement age from 60 to 62 and the full-pension age to 67 from 65 by 2018. The reform was expected to halve an anticipated >45 billion (about $58 billion) shortfall in the state pension system by 2020. The change would not be a drastic imposition on the typical French person, whose longevity exceeds the average for industrialized countries. Nevertheless, the idea of reversing the historic decline in the retirement age was enough to bring more than a million protesters to the French streets on September 7. The measure was approved by the parliament in October and by the Constitutional Council in November. Passage of the pension reform was not helped by the involvement of the pension minister, Éric Woerth, in a scandal surrounding Liliane Bettencourt, said to be France’s richest woman through her one-third stake in the L’Oréal cosmetics group. The affair stemmed from a family inheritance lawsuit that eventually gave rise to allegations that in exchange for a tax exemption, Bettencourt had given Sarkozy’s 2007 presidential campaign >150,000 (about $195,000), an amount 20 times the legal limit. At the time of the alleged tax evasion, Woerth was budget minister and treasurer for Sarkozy’s UMP, and his wife was a fi-

On October 20 a man at a demonstration in Bordeaux, France, protests legislation passed by the National Assembly in September that raised the country’s early retirement age from 60 to 62.

Bob Edme/AP

398

World Affairs: Gambia, The

nancial adviser to Bettencourt until mid-2010. Sarkozy denied any knowledge of illegal campaign donations. Woerth was sacked in November as part of Sarkozy’s second government reshuffle of the year. The popular Fillon was retained as prime minister, but powerful centrist Jean-Louis Borloo, who held the energy portfolio, quit in disappointment after not securing the premiership; left-wing Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner also quit. Alain Juppé, who had served in the mid1990s as prime minister, was named defense minister after the departure of Hervé Morin. Foreign Affairs. The euro zone’s financial crisis shook France, whose banks had lent heavily to Greece, but also appeared to justify the long-standing French call for greater “economic government” in Europe. This argument made headway during the year, though at German insistence it was applied more to tightening budget rules than to any economic policy coordination that might jeopardize the European Central Bank’s independence. One consequence of financial stretch was intensified French interest in defense savings, through both military sales and cooperation with the United Kingdom. France, though once more fully integrated into NATO, agreed in September to sell Russia four Mistral-class warships—the biggest arms sale to Russia made by a NATO country in the history of the alliance. In November France and the U.K. signed two defense cooperation treaties, which involved pooling their resources to, among other items, create a shared aircraft-carrier group, a combined expeditionary force capability, and joint laboratory testing of nuclear weapons. Sarkozy maintained his claim to be France’s most pro-American postwar president by making several trips to the United States. However, he declined U.S. Pres. Barack Obama’s request for more French troops in Afghanistan. Continuing France’s distinctive contribution to Middle Eastern peace diplomacy, he made efforts to entice Syria into negotiations with Israel by sending Prime Minister Fillon and Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner on successive visits to Damascus in 2010. Having hitherto relatively ignored Africa, Sarkozy made a highly symbolic visit in February to Rwanda, which had accused France of abetting the 1994 genocide, and promised a fresh start in Franco-Rwandan relations. In addition, he hosted 40 African leaders at an

Africa-France summit in Nice in late May and early June. On July 14, at his invitation, African troops marched alongside French troops in the Bastille Day parade to mark the 50th anniversary of independence for 14 former French colonies in Africa. (See Special Report on page 176.) Sarkozy also promised to put Africa high on the agenda of his G8 presidency in 2011, but he made it clear that he regarded France’s presidency of the G20, which started on November 1, as more important. (DAVID BUCHAN)

gust 14 with multinational companies from India and Singapore to improve Gabon’s road network, among other projects; and a commitment was made by the government on August 18 to increase the production of cash crops, particularly coffee and cocoa. Also, as part of Gabon’s role in cohosting the 2012 African Cup of Nations, $240 million was budgeted for necessary improvements to the country’s infrastructure. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

GAMBIA, THE

GABON

Area: 267,667 sq km (103,347 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,501,000 Capital: Libreville Head of state: President Ali Ben Bongo Ondimba Head of government: Prime Minister Paul Biyoghé Mba

On Aug. 17, 2010, Gabon marked 50 years of independence from France with a huge military parade in the capital and a massive evening concert. On the political front, four deputies lost their mandate in the National Assembly after violating electoral law by leaving the ruling Democratic Party of Gabon (PDG) to join the opposition National Union Party (NU). In the June 6 special election to fill these seats and another vacancy, the PDG gained three seats, while the other two went to former ministers who were members of the NU. In December the National Assembly approved a controversial constitutional amendment that gave the president the option to extend his mandate in various crises. Logging industry representatives were unhappy with a ban on the export of logs. They requested that a graduated ban be instituted until they could establish the necessary factories and infrastructure to produce more finished goods, but the ban took effect on May 15. Several moves were made to diversify economically owing to the prospect of diminishing oil reserves. The government signed an agreement on May 14 with a Moroccan corporation to begin gold mining in the Bakoudou region; a $4.5 billion contract was signed on Au-

Area: 11,632 sq km (4,491 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,751,000 Capital: Banjul Head of state and government: President Col. Yahya Jammeh

The chief challenge in 2010 to the autocratic rule of Gambian Pres. Yahya Jammeh remained the media, which tried to speak out against human rights abuses and challenge repressive acts (including the arbitrary arrest and imprisonment of journalists) under the banner of the Gambia Press Union (GPU). In July the GPU marked the fourth anniversary of the disappearance of a leading journalist. Six military officials and two businessmen were sentenced to death that month for having attempted a coup in 2009, and President Jammeh celebrated 16 years in power. The opposition remained fragmented and demoralized in 2010, and the ruling Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction was expected to be returned to power in 2011 with a large majority. The government reviewed its plans in its “Vision 2020” document and spoke of infrastructure projects and greater agricultural production. A Ukrainian investment group helped build a fertilizer plant, and Malaysian interests explored the construction of a new power plant. The Gambia’s diplomatic relations with Iran and Senegal were strained after the October seizure of a large shipment of weapons in Nigeria, covertly sent from Iran and said to be destined for The Gambia. Senegal feared that the seized weapons were intended for rebels fighting in that country. (CHRISTOPHER SAUNDERS) 399

World Affairs: Georgia

GEORGIA

Area: 57,160 sq km (22,070 sq mi), excluding the disputed areas (from the early 1990s)/ autonomous regions of Abkhazia (8,640 sq km [5,336 sq mi]) and South Ossetia (3,900 sq km [1,506 sq mi]) Population (2010 est.): 4,356,000, excluding the populations of Abkhazia and South Ossetia Capital: Tbilisi Head of state and government: President Mikheil Saakashvili, assisted by Prime Minister Nikoloz (Nika) Gilauri

Domestic politics in Georgia were dominated by preparations for the local elections held in May 2010 and by a public debate on amending the constitution. Intensive discussions among opposition party leaders failed to yield agreement on a single candidate to challenge incumbent Giorgi (Gigi) Ugulava in the Tbilisi mayoral election on May 30. Backed by Pres. Mikheil Saakashvili’s United National Movement (UNM), Ugulava won a second term with 55% of the vote. The UNM also won a majority of seats on the Tbilisi municipal council and on local councils countrywide.

Draft amendments to the constitution that, among other changes, would transfer some presidential powers to the prime minister were unveiled in June. The opposition construed the proposed shift as a means for President Saakashvili to retain supreme power as prime minister after the expiry of his second presidential term in January 2013. Parliament approved the amendments in the final reading on October 15. Panic spread when on March 13 the Imedi TV channel screened a mock newscast that reported that Russia was attacking Georgia. Recordings posted on the Internet implied that Saakashvili had approved the broadcast, and opposition parties vowed to impeach him. On October 12 five prominent opposition politicians launched a new political party, the Georgian Party, and on November 25 thousands convened in the streets of Tbilisi as the People’s Representative Assembly to express their opposition to the government. The first round of talks on Georgia’s associate membership in the European Union took place in Batumi on July 15. The NATO summit in Lisbon on November 19–20 reaffirmed that Georgia might join the alliance once it had met the conditions for membership. After several rounds of internationally mediated talks between Georgia, Russia, and the leaders of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, Russia in mid-October withdrew its troops from the Georgian

In the Abkhazian port of Gudaut’a on August 8, Sergei Bagapsh (right), president of the Georgian separatist republic of Abkhazia, meets with Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev, who voiced support for Abkhazia’s independence movement. The symbolic meeting took place on the same date that Russian troops had joined the battle in 2008 in the separatist enclave of South Ossetia, fighting against Georgia.

Dmitry Astakhov—RIA-Novosti/AP

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village of Perevi, near the South Ossetian border. On October 13 Georgia introduced visa-free entry for residents of Russia’s North Caucasus republics. In economic news, on September 14 Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Romania agreed to a joint venture for the export of Azerbaijani natural gas to Europe. Georgia’s GDP was predicted to grow by 4.5% in 2010, an improvement over the previous year’s decline of 3.9%. (ELIZABETH FULLER)

GERMANY

Area: 357,104 sq km (137,879 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 81,644,000 Capital: Berlin; some ministries remain in Bonn Head of state: Presidents Horst Köhler, Jens Böhrnsen from May 31, and, from June 30, Christian Wulff Head of government: Chancellor Angela Merkel

The year 2010 was another introspective one for Germany. While the increase in economic growth raised consumer confidence and spread a positive glow over the country, internal political strife fixed national attention on domestic events. A wave of resignations culminated in the withdrawal of Pres. Horst Köhler from politics. The ensuing political positioning not only put the viability of the ruling coalition into doubt but also highlighted internal divisions within the opposition. Increased judicial activism by the Constitutional Court caused ongoing tension between the branches of government, and a building project in southern Germany disturbed the peace. Internationally, Germany seemed to have lost the courage to keep its promise to lead the world in the response to climate change. Domestic Affairs. In her New Year’s speech, Chancellor Angela Merkel warned that Germans could expect a hard year. She spoke of the need to endure the economic slump until positive developments reached the ranks of citizens and improved daily life. It was not the economic situation, however, that provided the primary difficulties for the chancellor but rather the divisions within her own ruling coalition. After the 2009 election, a traditional ruling

World Affairs: Germany Markus Schreiber/AP

coalition had formed consisting of As a result, some members of the Christian Democratic Union the FDP announced that they (CDU), the liberal Free Democrawould be supporting the SPD tic Party (FDP), and the Christian candidate. The situation heated Social Union (CSU)—the Bavarup enough that the continued ian regional party. During most of viability of the ruling coalition its stints in power, the CDU had was openly linked to the fate of governed in coalition with these the CDU candidate, Christian same partners, and the Christian Wulff. The situation was further Democrats therefore could not aggravated by the CSU, which initially be faulted for the paralycriticized the SPD for having sesis of shocked surprise that lected a candidate who would seemed to overcome them when be unacceptable to any other their coalition partners began to left party, especially the Left. On quarrel. The discussion of every election day, June 30, emotions topic from health policies to inran high, and the failure of ternal security resulted in extravWulff to secure an absolute maagant displays of rhetoric. Doubts jority in the first two ballots were raised nearly every week readded to the tension. In the end, garding the ongoing stability of Wulff managed to capture the the coalition as its junior partners election in the third ballot. issued threats and proclamations. On July 2, after being sworn in as president of The discussion surrounding So extensive was the difference in Germany, Christian Wulff addresses the Bundestag the presidential election touched visibility between the three par- (parliament). Wulff, a member of the ruling on another recurring issue: genties that in the first few months of Christian Democratic Union, was elected in June der equity. The previous few 2010, it almost appeared as if the following the resignation of Horst Köhler. years had seen repeated attwo smaller partners controlled tempts to improve opportunities the coalition. This much was for women to combine child clear: the CSU was in a deep identity might show if the parties could over- rearing and a career. Because of the Gercrisis. Its advantage and main selling come this divisive approach to emerge man school system’s short hours and the point as coalition partner had always as a strong, united political left. A re- lack of availability of child-care facilities been its ability to deliver Bavaria. In laxation of the relationship between the outside school, wide-ranging social re2009, however, the CSU had its worst Left and the SPD seemed to be in the forms were required if mothers were to election result (6.5% of the national offing when, following the election to be able to pursue careers. One of these vote) since 1949. It was not even able to the North Rhine–Westphalian parlia- reforms was the attempt by the parties capture a majority of votes in Bavaria, ment on May 9th, the two parties seri- to increase the number of women in where it tallied only 42% of the ballots. ously considered forming a coalition. prominent roles. In the lead-up to the As a result, the CSU was desperately This coalition did not come to fruition, election, the absence of a female presiflexing its muscles to hide its internal however, because the largest party, the dential candidate representing the large weakness. The FDP, on the other hand, SPD, was able to form a minority gov- parties was criticized, especially after had received a historic high percentage ernment with the Greens. the CDU made a last-minute decision to of the national vote with 14.6%, double Lafontaine was not the only politician nominate Wulff rather than the popular its total in the 2002 election. It ap- to resign in 2010. Indeed, German pol- Ursula von der Leyen. The debate over peared, however, that the FDP was over- itics experienced a wave of resignations gender equity received further fodder in estimating its importance in its frenzy that culminated in those of the Hessian June when the education ministers of of happiness. Meanwhile, the CDU be- prime minister, Roland Koch, and Pres- the Länder (states) presented the results came a bystander while its two coalition ident Köhler (whose office was filled by of a survey of school performance. The partners squabbled. Jens Böhrnsen until an election could survey showed that both socioeconomic The CDU was not the only party with be held). Serious debate on the ethical background and gender had a large ina troubled mindset during the year. and moral implications of political res- fluence on a student’s success. Regional While the Green Party celebrated its ignation ensued in the media and the disparities between schools were found 30th anniversary and snubbed all those parliament and led to a question of pro- to be grave. Furthermore, on average, who had predicted a short life span for priety. Should a politician, after having boys were shown to have performed it, the Social Democratic Party (SPD) decided to serve his or her people for a worse in school than girls, yet the perwas still trying to find its position on certain time period, be able to resign centage of women in leading positions the political spectrum vis-à-vis the new without providing a legitimate reason in business and government in Germany left-leaning party, the Left (die Linke). for the decision? remained below 15%. Moreover, women The retreat from political life of the This debate was quickly overshad- still dominated the worst-paid profesleader of the Left and former SPD owed, however, by the party strife, sions, and the average hourly salary for chairman Oskar Lafontaine was her- which was highlighted by each party’s German women was 25% lower than alded as possibly producing a change in having to choose a candidate for the that for men. Nevertheless, in the wake the relationship between the two par- presidential election. The SPD chose of the survey, debate in the parliament ties. He had been the most forceful op- Joachim Gauck, a former anticommu- focused on whether the school system ponent of any compromise in forming nist civil rights activist, who was highly needed to be adjusted to provide more a coalition, and the next few years regarded even by the ruling coalition. advantages for boys. 401

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Another surprising development during the year was the mounting tension between the government and the Constitutional Court, which had long been held in high esteem by Germans. Indeed, 86% of those surveyed in a 2006 poll indicated that the court was the institution that they trusted most. Therefore, the government had always been leery of confronting the court. In response to the increasing number of laws that had been reviewed by the court, however, this situation changed in 2010, with the government having openly criticized the court’s handling of cases relating to religion, gay rights, immigration, and budget issues. Cultural Affairs. In 2010 Germany finished in third place in the association football (soccer) World Cup for the second time in a row. (See Sidebar on page 312.) The country also accumulated the second highest total of medals at the 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics. (See Special Report on page 194.) Away from the playing fields, a rail project in southern Germany caused riotous behaviour on the streets of Stuttgart. Conceptualized in the mid-1980s, the Stuttgart 21 project was an attempt to provide fast-rail links from Stuttgart, the capital of Baden-Württemberg, to Paris, Vienna, and other international destinations. The project sought both to reinvigorate Stuttgart’s economy— which lagged behind those of the region’s two other main cities, Frankfurt and Munich—and to increase rail travel in the interest of CO2 reduction. The major bone of contention was the project’s price tag of >4.5 billion (about $6 billion), which prompted demonstrations by both those who were for and those who were against the project. In one instance police used water cannons to disperse a crowd that had thrown bottles and stones at them. A survey showed that 34% of the population in Stuttgart opposed the project, whereas 38% supported it. Opinion was much less divided when it came to the widespread opposition to the implementation in Germany of Google’s Street View project, which provided street-level interactive photographic images of neighbourhoods and was seen by many Germans as an invasion of privacy. Economic Affairs. Economic development in Germany was still much influenced by the global economic downturn and especially by the economic crisis in Greece, which seemed to herald a bleak year for the euro zone. Yet even against this backdrop, the German 402

economy registered an unexpected 3.4% growth in 2010, which buoyed consumer confidence. German concerns regarding a lack of fiscal austerity on the part of some of its euro zone partners seemed to have been borne out by the Greek financial crisis. For a long time the German government balked at a bailout for Greece without guarantees of more regulated fiscal policies throughout the EU. In the end Germany agreed to a massive loan package for Greece, and the increased economic growth that resulted in Germany, as well as in most other euro zone countries, seemed to indicate that this was the right decision. The debate regarding the harmonization of fiscal policies was not yet over, however. Germany too came under criticism. In particular, its European partners accused the Merkel government of not having done enough to reduce carbon emissions, an issue in which Germany had promised to take a leadership role. Regulation of the German auto-manufacturing industry was at the heart of this matter. International Affairs. Internationally, the year was generally a quiet one for Germany. At the Group of 20 summit, Germany joined the U.S., France, and the U.K. in calling for international regulation of the banking sector, but their proposal was unable to overcome opposition from Brazil, Australia, and Canada. The Munich Security Conference in February was dominated by the situations in Iran and Afghanistan. At the EU summit in September, Germany pressed again for increased banking regulation, this time within the EU. This summit, however, would be better remembered for the effect it had on Franco-German relations. Having been widely criticized for his government’s policy of forcefully expelling Roma (Gypsies) from France, Nicolas Sarkozy, the French president, insisted that Merkel had told him that Germany would employ a similar policy. The German chancellor denied ever having said anything to this effect and emphasized that her government had no such plans. This exchange not only adversely affected Franco-German relations but also soured the personal relationship between Sarkozy and Merkel, who previously had been his strongest supporter on the international front. In December Germany announced that like its NATO partners, it would begin withdrawing troops from Afghanistan in 2011. Overall, 2010 was another year in which Germany concentrated mainly on internal matters—possibly to the

detriment of its international position. Notably, at the UN summit, which was the lead-up to the World Climate Summit, Germany failed to take a principal role. In the process, the international leadership in regard to climate-change policy that Merkel had fought so hard to attain for Germany seemed to have been lost. (NICOLA CORKIN)

GHANA

Area: 238,533 sq km (92,098 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 24,340,000 Capital: Accra Head of state and government: President John Evans Atta Mills

Ghana’s Jubilee Field was slated to begin oil and gas production in the last quarter of 2010, with pipelines ready to carry gas to Bonyere (in the Western region) for the manufacture of ethanol, propane, and fertilizer. Initial daily yield of petroleum, which began at 55,000 bbl, was expected to reach 120,000 bbl in 2011 and then 250,000 bbl with the start of phase two in 2013. An initial daily yield of 16,700 metric tons of natural gas was expected in 2011. A prospective oil windfall of $1 billion annually fueled debate concerning the impact of the new industry on the country. Policy makers urged adoption of development strategies that would avoid the “resource curse” that had afflicted other oil-based economies. They stressed the importance of expanding the middle class, reducing poverty, and developing a diverse economy that included strong agricultural, tourism, and mining sectors. Meanwhile, during the first half of the year, the national economy grew by 5.9%, with agriculture and services leading the way. Cocoa and gold exports mitigated the effects of the global economic downturn; however, remittances from abroad and direct foreign investment declined sharply. On the political front, the government established a Constitutional Review Commission to consider amending the 18-year-old constitution. Women’s groups, in particular, sought more equitable representation: only 19 of the 230 parliamentary seats were held by women. (LARAY DENZER)

World Affairs: Greece

GREECE

Area: 131,957 sq km (50,949 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 11,329,000 Capital: Athens Head of state: President Karolos Papoulias Head of government: Prime Minister George Papandreou

For Greece 2010 was marked by the country’s deep financial and economic crisis and by the measures taken to tackle it. On February 3 Prime Minister George Papandreou announced a public-sector pay freeze and tax hikes to curb the extremely high budget deficit and public debt. The same day, the European Commission announced that it would monitor Greece’s finances. In March further spending cuts and tax increases were announced, and at the end of the month, the government secured >5 billion (nearly $7 billion) through the sale of bonds. In early April other euro zone countries offered Greece a >30 billion (about $40 billion) loan, but when several rating agencies downgraded Greek bonds to junk status, the bailout package had to be increased to >110 billion (about $150 billion) for three years to prevent Greece from defaulting on its debt, thereafter

guaranteed by euro zone members and the IMF. On May 6 the Hellenic Parliament approved the austerity package that was a prerequisite for the bailout and that included further tax hikes and cuts in pensions and public-sector bonuses. Despite resistance to the austerity measures—notably several general strikes and other work stoppages that almost brought Greece to a standstill and that left three people dead on May 5—the government pushed through several additional bills, including pension and labour-system reform, which raised the retirement age and made early retirement more difficult; civilservice-pension reform; and a second value-added tax increase. In October the government announced still more austerity measures and tax increases for 2011. In 2010 Greece’s economy contracted by 3%, inflation reached 5.5%, and unemployment increased to 12.2%. On February 3 the Hellenic Parliament reelected Karolos Papoulias as the country’s president, with 266 MPs from the ruling Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK), the centre-right New Democracy (ND) party, and the rightist Popular Orthodox Rally (LAOS) voting for him. On September 7 Papandreou reshuffled his cabinet. Georgios Papakonstantinou kept the crucial finance portfolio, while a number of ministers were moved to new positions. The alternate foreign minister, Dimitris Droutsas,

succeeded Papandreou as the foreign minister. The government also carried out a sweeping local-government reorganization; the country’s 57 prefectures were replaced with 13 regions, and its 1,034 existing municipalities were consolidated into 325. In the November 7 and 14 local elections, PASOK came out on top, having won eight regions, including Attica, while ND won five. PASOKbacked candidates were elected mayor of the two biggest cities—Athens and Thessaloniki—while the ND candidate won in Piraeus. On November 21 former foreign minister Theodora (Dora) Bakoyannis, who was expelled from the ND after having voted for the government’s austerity measures, launched a new centrist party, the Democratic Alliance. The “modernist” wing of the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA) broke away on June 6 and later formed a new party, the Democratic Left. Parliament set up a committee to investigate claims that German electronics giant Siemens AG had paid large bribes to politicians and state officials over an extended period of time to secure Greek government contracts. Former transport minister Anastasios Mantelis was charged with money laundering after he admitted that he had received about $113,000 from Siemens in 1998. On October 18 the parliamentary committee that was investigating a deal

On May 5 demonstrators in Athens attack police during a protest against a package of austerity measures proposed by the Greek government. Despite widespread public opposition to the plan, it was approved by the Hellenic Parliament the following day.

Nikolas Giakoumidis/AP

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World Affairs: Grenada

under which the Vatopedi monastery had received prime public property in exchange for land of a lesser value recommended that five former ND government members be tried. ND had walked out of the committee in September to protest the course that the investigations had taken. On November 17 the parliament indicted three former ND ministers. On May 14–15 Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan paid a visit to Athens, during which 21 bilateral agreements were signed and the firstever joint cabinet meeting was held. UN-mediated negotiations between Greece and Macedonia over the latter’s name once again failed to yield a breakthrough, despite high-level talks. On October 11 the police officer Epaminondas Korkoneas was given a life sentence for the 2008 killing of 15year-old Alexandros Grigoropoulos, which had sparked weeklong riots in Athens and other cities. Korkoneas’s colleague Vassilios Saraliotis received a 10-year sentence for complicity. In 2010 a number of terrorist acts were committed for which groups such as the Revolutionary Struggle and Conspiracy of the Cells of Fire claimed responsibility. On June 24 an aide to then citizens’ protection minister Michalis Chrysochoidis was killed by a parcel bomb, and on July 19 investigative journalist Sokratis Giolias was shot dead. In early November the Greek government suspended overseas air shipments for 48 hours after a series of letter and parcel bombs addressed to foreign leaders and embassies exploded or were intercepted by security forces. On several occasions in 2010, the authorities arrested suspected terrorists and discovered hideouts and arms caches. In April six suspects were arrested and held to await trial, and 13 others were indicted on November 9. (STEFAN KRAUSE)

In April 2010 Grenada and Trinidad and Tobago signed a maritime border delimitation treaty, which was expected to lead to renewed efforts to explore for oil offshore. Though both sides seemed to agree that the treaty was “just and equitable,” the main Grenadan opposition group, the New National Party, insisted that Prime Minister Tillman Thomas should not have agreed to settle the border issue until the location of potential hydrocarbon reserves had been identified. In April the IMF agreed to provide a new $13.3 million three-year Extended Credit Facility arrangement for Grenada to help ameliorate the “significant adverse impact” that the global economic downturn had had on the country. On the basis of IMF recommendations, Grenada introduced a value-added tax in February and began to ensure timely debt-service payments. The IMF projected real economic growth of at least 0.8% for Grenada in 2010, compared with a decline of 7.7% in 2009. As part of the economic recovery process, Grenada launched a drive in June to secure further development assistance and investment, particularly targeting multilateral institutions in the EU, including the European Investment Bank. A government spokesman said that he regarded the world economic situation as having placed a “disproportionate burden” on small economies. In June Grenada joined other members of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States in signing a treaty of economic union within the wider Caricom grouping to which they belonged. The following month Grenada reaffirmed its firm commitment to regional economic integration in the interests of the “survival and development of the Caribbean.” (DAVID RENWICK)

affect the country early in the year until tropical storms contributed to the heaviest rainy season in 60 years. Landslides and floods destroyed roads, bridges, and buildings; killed hundreds of people; and displaced thousands more. Guatemala was also shaken in May by the eruption of the Pacaya volcano south of Guatemala City, which dumped heavy ash on the capital. In June the resignation of Carlos Castresana, the Spanish judge heading the International Commission Against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG), created a political uproar. The CICIG had been established in 2007 by the UN and Guatemala to investigate organized crime’s involvement in government. Its reports had led to the arrest of former president Alfonso Portillo on charges of embezzlement while in office. By April 2010 the CICIG had dismantled the “criminal structure” inside the Guatemalan national police by having brought about the dismissal of nearly 2,000 police officers and the arrest or imprisonment of 130 government officials and others. Castresana resigned after Pres. Álvaro Colom appointed

Heavy rains from Tropical Storm Agatha caused an enormous sinkhole to open up in Guatemala City, Guat., in May. Some 200 people died and thousands were displaced as a result of related flooding and landslides in the country.

GUATEMALA

GRENADA

Area: 344 sq km (133 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 108,000 Capital: Saint George’s Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Sir Carlyle Glean Head of government: Prime Minister Tillman Thomas

Area: 109,117 sq km (42,130 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 14,377,000 Capital: Guatemala City Head of state and government: President Álvaro Colom Caballeros

Guatemala experienced a difficult year in 2010. Serious drought continued to Casa Presidencial—Reuters/Landov

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World Affairs: Guinea-Bissau AP

Conrado Reyes as attorney general. Reyes, whom the CICIG had alleged was linked to illegal adoption rings and drug traffickers, was later dismissed. Former Costa Rican attorney general Francisco Dall’Anese became the CICIG’s new head. Colom’s wife, Sandra Torres de Colom, who had been pivotal in the government’s efforts to reduce poverty and injustice, appeared to be a likely candidate to succeed her husband as president at his term’s end in 2012. Violence and crime continued to plague the country, including hundreds of murders monthly, gang activity, and narcotrafficking. Increased deportation of Guatemalans from the U.S. only added to the problems. The U.S. government also announced in July that it would file a complaint against Guatemala for labour law violations under the Central America–Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement. Then, in October, the U.S. was forced to apologize when news broke that in 1946–48 an American medical team had infected nearly 700 Guatemalan prison inmates, mental patients, and soldiers with venereal diseases to test the effectiveness of penicillin. Guatemalans demanded U.S. compensation for the victims or their descendants. Guatemala also pushed the United States for immigration reform after Arizona enacted a tough anti-immigration law. (RALPH LEE WOODWARD, JR.)

GUINEA

Area: 245,836 sq km (94,918 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 10,324,000 Capital: Conakry Head of state and government: Presidents Sékouba Konaté and, from December 21, Alpha Condé; assisted by Prime Ministers Kabiné Komara, Jean-Marie Doré from January 26, and, from December 24, Mohamed Said Fofana

For the first time in its history, Guinea in 2010 held free democratic presidential elections, choosing Alpha Condé to lead the country in a runoff election on November 7. The road to the election did not run smoothly, however. The year began with the agreement of Capt. Moussa Dadis Camara, head of

Alpha Condé, the first democratically elected president of Guinea, greets a crowd assembled for his inauguration on December 21. the military junta, to remain in exile. Jean-Marie Doré was appointed interim prime minister and in February selected 34 members of a caretaker government charged with returning the country to civilian rule. On May 19 Pres. Sékouba Konaté appointed a task force to oversee a first round of presidential elections. In the June 27 poll, former prime minister Cellou Dalein Diallo received 44% of the vote, while veteran opposition leader Alpha Condé came in second with 18%. Although supporters of several losing candidates claimed widespread fraud, the Supreme Court validated the results on July 20. A runoff election was set for September 19. In early September, however, a court in Conakry convicted the chairman of the electoral commission, Ben Sékou Sylla, of fraud, and violent confrontations between backers of Diallo and Condé broke out on September 11–12. The government immediately prohibited further demonstrations and postponed the runoff. In late October both candidates accepted Gen. Siaka Toumani Sangaré as head of the electoral commission, and the election was rescheduled for November 7. The election went off peacefully. Initial results suggested that Diallo might have won the runoff, but on November 15 it was announced that Condé had won. International observers described the process as free and fair, but sup-

porters of Diallo reacted with violence, and a state of emergency was declared on November 17. In early December the Supreme Court validated the election results, saying that Condé garnered 52.5% of the vote and Diallo received 47.5%. Condé was sworn in on December 21. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

GUINEA-BISSAU

Area: 36,125 sq km (13,948 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,593,000 Capital: Bissau Head of state: President Malam Bacai Sanhá Head of government: Prime Minister Carlos Gomes Júnior

In early 2010 there was widespread optimism that Guinea-Bissau was on the road to greater political and military stability. Though Guinea-Bissau was ranked 173rd out of 182 countries on the UN’s Human Development Index and the country’s per capita GDP of $477 was one of the lowest in the world, the EU and the UN Integrated Peacebuilding Office in Guinea-Bissau worked with the government to reform 405

World Affairs: Guyana

the military, police, and judiciary, with the main goal of bringing the military under civilian control. Legislation to this end was approved by the parliament and awaited final approval by the head of state. Meanwhile, the army chief of staff not only was trying to get the military to stop drug traffickers but also was probing military involvement in that trade. On April 1 the country suffered another military uprising, led by the deputy chief of staff, Maj. Gen. António N’djai, who opposed the proposed military reforms, and former naval chief, Rear Adm. José Americo Bubo Na Tchuto, who had been involved in a previous coup attempt. Na Tchuto, who had taken refuge in a UN building in Bissau after returning in 2009 from exile in The Gambia, was known to have connections to the drug trade. The army chief of staff was taken into custody, along with other army personnel, and Prime Minister Carlos Gomes Júnior, who had fought the drug trade, was briefly arrested. The incident ushered in a new period of unrest as it became clear that the military was the power behind the democratic facade. The EU announced that it was ending its attempt at security-sector reform. (CHRISTOPHER SAUNDERS)

GUYANA

Area: 214,999 sq km (83,012 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 748,000 Capital: Georgetown Head of state: President Bharrat Jagdeo Head of government: Prime Minister Sam Hinds

Guyana’s response to drug trafficking remained a central issue in 2010. The U.S. State Department’s annual International Narcotics Control Strategy Report gave the country improved grades in March for institutionalizing intelligence sharing between state agencies and undertaking more drug seizures, but it urged the government to identify and confront known major traffickers and their organizations. In March Caribbean leaders rallied around Guyana in the face of Venezuela’s ongoing territorial claim to the Essequibo region, which had been 406

reaffirmed by Venezuelan Pres. Hugo Chávez. The leaders pledged their “unequivocal support” for the safeguarding of Guyana’s “territorial integrity and sovereignty and its right to develop its resources in the entirety of its territory.” The century-old border dispute was sent to the UN for mediation. Guyana signed an agreement with Germany in April under which about $6.7 million would be made available to establish new areas of rainforest and to protect endangered forests. Norway had already agreed in 2009 to assist with forest protection. Guyana had led the Caribbean in the drive to conserve tropical forests as a carbon-emissionsabsorption mechanism. Guyanese Pres. Bharrat Jagdeo said that the country’s “climate change services” could produce significant revenue for Guyana. (DAVID RENWICK)

HAITI

Area: 27,700 sq km (10,695 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 9,649,000, including 1,300,000 people displaced by the January 2010 earthquake Capital: Port-au-Prince Head of state and government: President René Préval, assisted by Prime Minister Jean-Max Bellerive

As 2010 began, Haiti seemed poised to continue the prior year’s progress in economic growth, poverty alleviation, and improved governance. Then, on January 12, a magnitude-7.0 earthquake shook heavily populated Port-au-Prince and environs, causing catastrophic death and injury, extensive population displacement, and severe damage to property, infrastructure, and an already weak economy. (See Sidebar.) Demonstrations of solidarity within Haiti and by international donors, manifested through an outpouring of humanitarian aid, helped the country struggle through the quake’s immediate aftermath. When more than 4,000 prisoners escaped from the national penitentiary on January 12, security concerns heightened. Although the Haitian National Police captured many escapees, kidnappings increased and public safety concerns lingered. The UN authorized MINUSTAH, its Haiti stabi-

lization mission, to grow by more than 3,000 peacekeepers and police officers, bringing its strength to nearly 13,000. In mid-October MINUSTAH’s mandate was renewed for an additional year. Haitians living overseas—including many of an estimated 200,000 living in the U.S. illegally at the time of the quake whom the administration of U.S. Pres. Barack Obama offered temporary protected status—increased remittances, providing a lifeline to family members in Haiti. The natural disaster underscored man-made problems that threatened prospects for rebuilding the country to a state better than the one that had existed prior to the quake. Weak government institutions, unable to respond to citizens’ needs, had resulted in a parallel dependence on nongovernmental organizations to deliver basic services, albeit with uneven coverage, quality, and sustainability. The country suffered another setback when in October an outbreak of cholera, a disease that had not been seen in the Caribbean in many decades, occurred in the Artibonite valley in northwestern Haiti. Lack of sanitation infrastructure allowed the disease to spread quickly. It reached Port-au-Prince in November, and there were violent protests against UN peacekeeping troops after reports surfaced linking the outbreak to them. The death toll had passed 2,000 and was still quickly rising at year’s end. Parliamentary and presidential elections initially scheduled for February 28 were rescheduled for November 28. Election officials announced in December that Mirlande Manigat and ruling party candidate Jude Célestin would advance to a runoff election on Jan. 16, 2011. Many believed that Michel Martelly had polled higher than Célestin, and riots erupted amid charges of fraud. The electoral council planned a recount, though many called for a new election. (ROBERT MAGUIRE)

HONDURAS

Area: 112,492 sq km (43,433 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 7,616,000 Capital: Tegucigalpa Head of state and government: Presidents Roberto Micheletti and, from January 27, Porfirio Lobo

World Affairs: Honduras

Haiti’s Catastrophic Earthquake At 4:53 PM on Jan. 12, 2010, a 7.0-magnitude earthquake centred some 25 km (15 mi) southwest of Haiti’s crowded capital, Port-au-Prince, shook the earth for 35 seconds. When the enormous cloud of dust settled, more than 220,000 of the 3,000,000 residents of the metropolitan area were dead, another 300,000 were injured, and some 1,300,000 had been left homeless. The quake, dubbed by Haitians “goudou goudou” after the frightening sound it made, also left death and destruction along one or more geologic fault lines that lie along the country’s southern peninsula. In addition, in the days following the initial temblor, there were a series of frightening aftershocks—several with a magnitude of 5.0 or more. Schools, hospitals, stores, banks, hotels, and private homes collapsed, entombing people underneath them. Cinder-block shanties on crowded hillsides fell onto substandard homes packed into ravines. In all, at least 285,000 buildings were either destroyed or severely damaged, including the iconic National Palace and most other government buildings. Rubble blocked drainage canals and roads; utilities went off-line; and port facilities tilted into the sea as a country in shock plunged into darkness punctuated by screams and prayers. Three migrations began immediately. One was a flow of some 600,000 survivors from the devastated city toward refuge elsewhere in Haiti. Another was a flow of the injured toward crumbled, overmatched hospitals and of the homeless into makeshift camps. The third was the flow into Haiti of relief personnel and supplies from around the world, entering either through the country’s largely intact single-runway international airport in Port-au-Prince or overland from the neighbouring Dominican Republic. The worldwide outpouring of humanitarian aid was enormous. American relief organizations, for example, raised $1.3 billion over the six months following the quake. It was estimated that nearly half of all American households contributed toward relief efforts. Bottlenecks at the airport and on the border and the absence of coordinating authorities initially hindered relief efforts. Haiti’s government, weak before the quake, had even less capacity after it, especially since an estimated 17% of the country’s civil servants had perished. The United Nations, present through its 9,100-member UN Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), was left reeling when its high-rise headquarters crumbled and 101 personnel, including its top civilian leadership, were killed. World Food Programme warehouses, stocked in anticipation of the upcoming hurricane season, collapsed onto emergency supplies.

Porfirio Lobo of the National Party became president of Honduras on Jan. 27, 2010, but many aspects of the 2009 constitutional crisis still lingered during the year. Unanswered questions included the fate of former president Manuel Zelaya, whether the world would recognize Lobo’s government, and whether there would be national reconciliation.

The U.S. deployed about 22,000 troops, who coordinated operations at the airport and worked alongside UN peacekeepers and nongovernmental organizations to distribute supplies streaming into Haiti and to provide emergency treatment of the injured. Initial rumours of a U.S. military takeover quickly dissipated, as did fears of unrest and chaos in the quake’s aftermath. Rather, Haitians occupied themselves with the business of survival, demonstrating heroic resilience as they confronted unimaginable loss and the prospect of life amid ruin. Paralleling relief efforts was the need, as stated by former U.S. president Bill Clinton, the special UN envoy for Haiti, to help the country “build back better.” With quake-related damage estimated at $7.9 billion, or 120% of Haiti’s GDP in 2009, that challenge was colossal. Within three months of the earthquake, however, the Haitian government completed a postdisaster needs assessment and created an Action Plan for National Recovery and Development of Haiti. That plan, presented at an international donors conference at the UN headquarters in New York City in late March, was strongly endorsed by international actors, who pledged $5.3 billion over two years to finance its implementation. Subsequently, an Interim Haiti Recovery Commission (IHRC), cochaired by Clinton and Haitian Prime Minister Jean-Max Bellerive, was established to authorize activities aimed at meeting the plan’s goals and to coordinate the allocation of funds. By August the IHRC was fully functioning. Though the magnitude of devastation increased the enormousness and complexity of poverty-reduction and economic-growth efforts begun prior to the quake, it also provided a chance for a fresh start, including the launch of efforts to achieve decentralized development. Postquake recovery, however, was difficult and sluggish. Only 10% of the funds pledged at the international donors conference were disbursed within four months of the meeting. By the end of 2010, less than 5% of the estimated 200 million metric tons of earthquake rubble had been cleared, and more than a million Haitians remained in tents and makeshift shelters. The majority of those who fled the city had returned. Port-au-Prince, even in ruins, was still perceived by poor people as offering greater opportunities than the impoverished and ignored countryside. Analysts viewed Haiti’s death and destruction as being as much a result of the country’s poverty, weak institutions, and lack of preparedness as it was a result of the actual shaking of the earth. This assessment was underscored when an 8.8-magnitude earthquake struck Chile on February 27 with significantly fewer lives lost and less destruction. (See Special Report on page 190.) (ROBERT MAGUIRE)

Few foreign leaders attended Lobo’s inauguration, but several countries, including the U.S., Costa Rica, and Panama, acknowledged his administration as Honduras’s legal government. The Dominican Republic granted Zelaya exile, and Lobo guaranteed the former president’s safe passage out of the country following the inauguration. In January the Honduran Con-

gress voted to provide political amnesty for all of the actors involved in the 2009 crisis, but Zelaya still faced criminal charges. By including members from all five of Honduras’s principal political parties, Lobo formed the country’s first “national unity” cabinet. In May a Truth Commission was inaugurated, meeting another of the international community’s demands in 407

World Affairs: Hungary Arnulfo Franco/AP

Hungary held a pivotal election in 2010 that resulted in major changes in the country’s political landscape and administrative structure. Led by Viktor Orban, the centreright Fidesz–Hungarian Civic Alliance (widely known as Fidesz) ran in coalition with the Christian Democratic People’s Party (KDNP) and returned to power after eight years in opposition, winning a landslide victory in the April general elections. Running together under the name Following his inauguration on January 27 as Fidesz, the two parties president of Honduras, Porfirio Lobo and his wife, captured more than twoRosa Elena, wave to supporters in the capital city thirds of the seats in the of Tegucigalpa. National Assembly, the largest governing majority response to the coup; however, the Na- in Hungary’s postcommunist history. tional Resistance Front, which supFidesz’s landslide win over incumbent ported Zelaya, complained that the Prime Minister Gordon Bajnai’s Hungovernment was just paying lip service garian Socialist Party (MSzP) ended to the foreign mandate. By mid-year the bipolar party system that had charabout half of the Latin American coun- acterized Hungary’s political landscape tries had reestablished relations with since 1998. Support for the Socialists Honduras, and the U.S. and the EU, fell to less than half its level in the 2006 along with multilateral banks, had re- general elections, and they were forced stored economic aid. Other countries, into opposition with two new parties: such as Brazil, demanded more the far-right Jobbik and the green Polprogress before they would normalize itics Can Be Different (LMP). The Hunrelations. garian Democratic Forum (MDF) and The Honduran economy was shaken the Alliance of Free Democrats by the global economic downturn, the (SzDSz)—parties with roots in the 1989 coup, and the resultant international system change—ran in coalition but sanctions. Striking unions demanded failed to reach the 5% threshold for wage increases that proved difficult to parliamentary representation. grant because of the large fiscal deficit Fidesz’s overwhelming victory was created by the constitutional crisis. In largely the result of the electorate’s an attempt to develop investment proj- deep disillusionment with the Socialects between the state and private com- ists, who were embroiled in corruption panies, Congress passed the Law to scandals and had lost credibility over Promote Public-Private Association. their management of the economy. Dur(MICHELLE M. TAYLOR-ROBINSON) ing the campaign, Orban—the prime minister from 1998 to 2002—pledged to create one million new jobs within 10 HUNGARY years and to make Hungary again central Europe’s leading economy. Tensions were inflamed with Slovakia when the new Hungarian Assembly passed controversial legislation granting dual citizenship to ethnic Hungarians living in other countries. The govArea: 93,030 sq km (35,919 sq mi) ernment also merged several ministries Population (2010 est.): 10,005,000 in an effort to streamline policy making, Capital: Budapest and it prepared to comprehensively reHead of state: Presidents Laszlo Solyom and, form the public administrative and jusfrom August 6, Pal Schmitt tice sectors, as well as the tax system. Head of government: Prime Ministers GorHungary’s public debt in 2010 redon Bajnai and, from May 29, Viktor Orban mained at almost 80% of GDP, and in-

vestor confidence in its currency was weak. In July the Assembly enacted a new tax on banks, insurance companies, and other financial firms in an attempt to bring the budget deficit under the 3.8% level required by the $26 billion IMF-led rescue package secured in 2008. In 2010 the unemployment rate was over 11%, but the economy registered a positive GDP growth for the first time since May 2008. Fidesz further secured its hold on power in Hungary when it dominated the municipal elections held across the country on October 3 and gained several key local administrative posts, including that of Budapest mayor, which had been held by an SzDSz politician since 1990. During the second half of the year, the Fidesz government engineered passage of laws aimed at altering the mass media’s legal, institutional, and regulatory framework. The opposition, seemingly reduced to an almost voiceless minority, characterized the action as an attempt by Fidesz to strengthen its political influence on state and independent media outlets. The National Assembly also passed new laws that tackled corruption and reduced bureaucratic red tape, but some of Fidesz’s campaign promises— After a reservoir broke at a metallurgical plant in Ajka, Hung., in October, toxic red sludge flooded several nearby villages, including Devecser (pictured). The disaster caused at least 10 deaths and dozens of injuries.

Sandor H. Szabo—MTI/AP

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World Affairs: India Brynjar Gauti/AP

such as the reform of municipal administration and the restructuring of unprofitable state-owned companies— had yet to be fulfilled. The Assembly did, however, begin work on amending the constitution, with 2011 the target date for the rollout of amended text. In August, Pres. Laszlo Solyom’s fiveyear term expired. He was replaced by Pal Schmitt, a former Fidesz member of the European Parliament and a close associate of Orban’s. In October an ecological disaster caused by a sludge spill from an aluminum plant in western Hungary prompted the government to declare a state of emergency in three counties. (ZSOFIA SZILAGYI)

ICELAND Following the eruption of Iceland’s Eyjafjallajökull volcano in early 2010, a plume of steam and ash blanketed the surrounding atmosphere.

Area: 103,000 sq km (39,769 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 317,000 Capital: Reykjavík Head of state: President Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson Head of government: Prime Minister Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir

In 2010 Iceland’s economy continued to suffer from the impact of the collapse of its banking system and crash of its stock market in 2008. The country’s GDP shrank by a further 3% in 2010, following a 6.5% contraction in 2009, though Iceland emerged from recession in the third quarter. Unemployment hovered around 10%, the highest rate in decades. In April a special investigative commission examining the bank collapse issued a report that exposed a number of shady practices by banks and prominent individuals; both had speculated in the stock market with borrowed funds. The report also revealed a number of other dubious business practices, arousing the anger of the general public. In the wake of the report the Althingi (parliament) voted for former prime minister Geir H. Haarde to be prosecuted before a special tribunal for negligence of his duties. At the beginning of 2010, Iceland’s Pres. Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson vetoed legislation whereby the Althingi had agreed to repay debts incurred in the U.K. and the Netherlands by a branch of Landsbanki, one of the banks that failed

in 2008. The governments of those countries had compensated local depositors when Landsbanki foundered, but, in turn, the British and Dutch governments demanded £2.3 billion ($3.7 billion) and >1.3 billion (nearly $1.9 billion), respectively, in repayment from the Icelandic government. A new agreement was signed with Britain in December. On March 20 a volcanic eruption broke out in Fimmvörðuháls, a mountain pass in southern Iceland. This event was followed on April 14 by a much larger eruption at Eyjafjallajökull in the same area. The blast at Eyjafjallajökull sent volcanic steam and ash into high altitudes, where it drifted southeast, disturbing air traffic throughout much of northern Europe for the following two weeks. (BJORN MATTHIASSON)

INDIA

Area: 3,166,414 sq km (1,222,559 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,173,108,000 Capital: New Delhi Head of state: President Pratibha Patil Head of government: Prime Minister Manmohan Singh

India appeared to be almost Dickensian in nature during 2010: in many ways it

was the best of times and also the worst of times. At a time when most of the world was still preoccupied with the global economic downturn and high rates of unemployment, India returned roughly to its preslowdown robust annual economic growth rate. India was easily elected as a nonpermanent member of the UN Security Council and enjoyed visits to New Delhi during the year from the heads of government of the five permanent members of the council. In a year with the economy chugging along handsomely and India’s international image rising, however, the country remained preoccupied at home with problems of internal security, religious and political extremism, and a growing spectre of corruption in high places. The Economy. After an unsettling 2009, with low economic growth caused by the global slowdown and the impact on the administration of general elections to the Lok Sabha (lower house of parliament), India in 2010 returned to a year of stability and strong economic growth. The country’s rate of annual growth of real GDP had slipped to 6.7% in the 2008–09 financial year (April–March) and had recovered marginally to 7.4% in 2009–10 after three consecutive years (2005–08) of nearly 9.5% annual growth. In the first two quarters of 2010–11 (April–September 2010), GDP was estimated to have grown at 8.9%, with forecasts raising hopes that the economy for the year would reach the 2004–08 level of almost 9% average growth. The return to the precrisis growth path produced a higher budget deficit, 409

On September 21, less than two weeks before the commencement of the Commonwealth Games in Delhi, cranes remove part of a bridge that collapsed outside the event’s main stadium. AP

which rose to a peak of almost 4% of GDP—fully 1% above the long-regarded “acceptable” level of 3%. On the positive side, the rate of inflation (indicated in India mainly by the wholesale price index) dropped from a high of about 15% in 2009 to a more manageable 9% by late 2010. Inflated food prices remained in double digits. Analysts believed that high food prices were a reflection of both rising demand—as a consequence of higher consumption—and the government’s policy of offering higher minimum support prices to farmers. The Indian central bank and the government devoted much of 2010 to a policy of monetary tightening and fiscal stabilization, reversing the massive easing of monetary controls and the fiscal stimulus measures that had been implemented in 2009. The high inflation of the previous two years also had been in part a response to the easier monetary and fiscal policy. With the newer policies in 2010, interest rates rose, and the fiscal deficit was expected to decrease. Domestic Politics. The Indian National Congress (Congress Party), the main component of the ruling United Progressive Alliance (UPA) coalition, was badly bruised in 2010, despite the UPA’s impressive victory in the May 2009 parliamentary elections. It was quickly felt that the UPA coalition government, returned to office for a second term and again headed by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, had wasted its mandate. Most opinion polls conducted around the government’s first anniversary in May 2010 showed a steep decline in popularity, both for the government as a whole and also for Prime Minister Singh and the chairperson of the UPA, Sonia Gandhi. Gandhi’s son, Rahul Gandhi, was expected to lead the Congress Party in the future, but the near 410

collapse of Congress in legislative elections in the eastern state of Bihar (where the party garnered only 4 out of 243 seats) was seen as a setback to his future political prospects. Apart from a decline in popularity, the government also came under enormous pressure caused by a series of corruption scandals. The first involved misappropriated funds and concerns over workmanship during preparations for the 2010 Commonwealth Games, held in Delhi during the first half of October (the games, nonetheless, were a success). The second, in Mumbai, focused on government land there that was meant for a project to house military veterans and war widows but instead went to a private builder for construction of luxury apartments. The chief minister of Maharashtra state resigned in the wake of the scam. Finally, there was a major exposé on corruption in the allocation of broadcast frequencies for digital 2G mobile-telephone systems and the sale of licenses to mobile-phone service providers, which forced the telecommunications minister to resign. India’s parliament was paralyzed late in the year, with opposition political parties demanding a joint parliamentary committee to probe the telecommunications scandal and the government preferring to use normal investigative agencies for the inquiry. While the opposition scored a victory with the reelection of the Janata Dal (United) government in Bihar, the Congress Party’s strongest base, in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh, was weakened by internal squabbles following the 2009 death of the local party boss and state chief minister Y.S. Rajashekhara Reddy. His successor, Konijeti Rosaiah, stepped down in late November 2010 and was succeeded by

Kiran Kumar Reddy, a former speaker of the state assembly. Foreign Policy. The highlight of India’s diplomatic activity in 2010 was the visit to New Delhi of the heads of government of all five permanent members of the UN Security Council: British Prime Minister David Cameron, U.S. Pres. Barack Obama, French Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy, Chinese Prime Minister Wen Jiabao, and Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev. India’s near-unanimous election as a nonpermanent member of the council was followed by a public endorsement of the country’s candidacy for permanent membership by President Obama during his November visit to India. India-U.S. relations received a boost from the Obama visit, with the U.S. announcing that it was lifting a range of controls on high-technology exports to India. This was expected to increase bilateral cooperation in nuclear energy, aerospace and aeronautics, and defense. Prime Minister Singh devoted much of his 2010 diplomacy to travels to eastern Asia, visiting Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, and Vietnam. Bilateral relations with Pakistan remained frozen essentially at the low point they had hit after the November 2008 terror attacks in Mumbai, in which the attackers were later revealed to have links to Pakistan. Singh did meet his counterpart, Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gilani, at the 16th summit of the South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation at Thimphu, Bhutan, in April, but there was no further movement on the bilateral dialogue that Singh and former Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf had initiated earlier to resolve the long-standing dispute over the Kashmir region. Although multilateral trade negotiations at the World Trade Organization were stalled, India’s free-trade agreements with ASEAN and South Korea went into effect, and agreements with Israel and Japan were pending. It was also negotiating a pact with the EU. (SANJAYA BARU)

INDONESIA

Area: 1,910,931 sq km (737,815 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 232,517,000 Capital: Jakarta Head of state and government: President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono

World Affairs: Indonesia

The first year of Indonesian Pres. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono’s second term in office was marked in 2010 by political tension within the ruling coalition but also by impressive economic performance. The most important political issue during the year was the so-called Century-gate scandal, concerning the bailout of Century Bank, a medium-sized private bank that had defaulted on loans and was declared insolvent in late 2008. The government launched a financial rescue package in 2009 that involved an injection of about $700 million. The bailout began attracting media and parliamentary interest in mid-2009 after allegations that the size of the rescue package had far exceeded the amount recommended by the government’s financial advisers and that millions of dollars in Century assistance had been used for political purposes, including the funding of President Yudhoyono’s reelection. A parliamentary inquiry into the bailout began in late 2009, with particular attention focusing on the roles of two key officials in the Yudhoyono government: recently elected Vice President Boediono (he uses one name), who served as governor of Indonesia’s central bank during the Century rescue, and Sri Mulyani Indrawati, the highprofile finance minister. Both faced hostile questioning at the inquiry, not only from opposition politicians but also from senior figures from parties in the ruling coalition. The inquiry eventually found no evidence of Century bailout money’s having been diverted to political campaigns, but it recommended in March that law-enforcement agencies continue their investigations into the propriety of Boediono’s and Sri Mulyani’s actions. The scandal continued to reverberate at year’s end. The Century inquiry caused acrimony within the coalition, especially between Yudhoyono’s Democrat Party (PD) and its two largest partners in government, Golkar and the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). PD leaders called for Golkar and PKS politicians to be sacked from the cabinet for having shown “disloyalty.” The PD’s ire was directed particularly at Aburizal Bakrie, Golkar’s chairman and one of Indonesia’s wealthiest businessmen, who was accused of having masterminded a campaign against Sri Mulyani because she had refused to protect his corporate interests. Yudhoyono’s displeasure was evident when he referred obliquely to problems with Bakrie’s tax payments and members of

his staff released information about alleged malfeasance by politicians critical of the bailout, including several from coalition parties. In May a measure of stability was restored to the government when Sri Mulyani announced her resignation to take a senior executive position at the World Bank. Within hours of her announcement, Yudhoyono revealed that Bakrie would head up a new joint secretariat for coalition parties, with wide powers to influence strategy and policy. Bakrie’s elevation and Sri Mulyani’s departure showed Yudhoyono’s preference for coalition cohesion over political and economic reform. In the cabinet Sri Mulyani had been the most effective advocate of clean government and economic restructuring, and her resignation was a blow to the government’s already-fading reformasi credentials. A number of other developments also called into question Yudhoyono’s commitment to reform. The Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK), which had led much of the successful antigraft campaign in recent years, had been undermined by police and attempts by the Attorney-General’s Department to prosecute two of its deputy chairmen on charges widely seen as dubious. The government’s failure to protect the KPK leadership had been much criticized by commentators. The Home Affairs minister also proposed a significant wind back in direct elections of local officials. In October, Yudhoyono was attacked for having nominated as the new

national police chief an officer accused of having had involvement in two major human rights abuse incidents. Despite these controversies, Yudhoyono remained by far Indonesia’s most popular politician. Reputable surveys consistently showed him enjoying more than 50% approval ratings. The high standing of Yudhoyono led to intense public speculation about what would happen when in 2014 he completed the maximum two terms allowed under the constitution. Some in his party floated the idea of a constitutional amendment that would permit him to run for a third term, but adverse reaction quickly scotched this notion. Observers were increasingly focusing on two family members as possible successors: Yudhoyono’s wife, Kristiani, who was reputed to be a savvy political operator, though untested in high public office; and his brother-in-law, Pramono Edhie Wibowo, a major general currently commanding the Army’s Strategic Reserve. In the absence of an obvious front-runner for the presidency, neither of Yudhoyono’s relatives could be ruled out. One factor contributing to the president’s high public standing was the performance of Indonesia’s economy, which was likely to record 6% growth in GDP. Bank Indonesia also predicted high growth rates for 2011, making the country’s economy one of the best-performing in the region. Unemployment fell from 7.7% in 2009 to 7.1% in 2010 (about 8.5 million people), and poverty rates also dropped slightly. Problems

In Jakarta on February 3, anticorruption protesters wear masks bearing defaced images of Indonesian Vice Pres. Boediono and Finance Minister Sri Mulyani Indrawati, who were accused of impropriety in connection with their involvement in a controversial 2008 bank bailout.

Achmad Ibrahim/AP

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World Affairs: Iran

still remained, however. Much of Indonesia’s growth was driven by domestic consumption (almost 70% of the economy), and foreign investment remained weak, particularly in badly needed infrastructure projects. The country was once again beset by multiple natural disasters. The worst of these was a tsunami that struck the Mentawai Islands, off the west coast of Sumatra, on October 25, killing some 500 people and causing extensive destruction. The much-vaunted tsunami warning system proved ineffective, with many coastal residents having little warning of the approaching waves. The following day marked another disaster, the first of a series of eruptions of Mt. Merapi, the most dangerous volcano on Java. The eruptions killed 353 and displaced more than 130,000 people. In both disasters Indonesia’s emergency relief services were sharply criticized by politicians and the media for tardy and inadequate responses. (GREG FEALY)

IRAN

Area: 1,648,200 sq km (636,374 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 73,887,000 Capital: Tehran Supreme political and religious authority: Rahbar (Spiritual Leader) Ayatollah Sayyed Ali Khamenei Head of state and government: President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

Iran’s regime in 2010 became more divided and uncertain of its future during a period notable for a cleavage between Islamic hard-liners and reformists over issues of privatization, electoral change, and press freedom. The hangover effect of the rioting of June 2009 and a large and reassuring pro-regime demonstration in February preserved government control of the battle for popular support. A move toward consolidation of reformist groups was also visible. Ali Mutahari, a leading personality in the Majlis (parliament), in June proposed the establishment of a third political party to accommodate liberal factions. Threats of change developed from heightened tension with the clerics versus the Iranian Revolutionary Guards Corps and the allies of Pres. Mahmoud 412

Ahmadinejad on the issue of a reduction in the clerics’ role in exercising government control. Senior members of the ulama (community of Muslim scholars) were divided on the legality of their involvement in the administrative business of the state. The diminished influence of the clergy was aggravated by the president’s bias toward secular candidates for official posts. President Ahmadinejad took a lessvibrant position in affairs following bitter criticism in the Majlis of his mismanagement of the economy. A concerted verbal attack took place when in February the mayor of Tehran placed the blame for the economic stagnation affecting the country firmly on Ahmadinejad. Other disparaging comments came from the speaker of the Majlis, who claimed that Ahmadinejad was largely responsible for shortages of gasoline and rising import costs. The country remained under oppressive control by the security apparatus, which had a major coup in the arrest of Abdolmalek Rigi, the leader of the militant Jundullah (“Soldiers of Allah”), in operations based in southeastern Iran. Rigi had conducted a long-term campaign in support of Sunni communities in Baluchistan-Sistan. Securityservice activities were designed to crush peaceful political debate. Newspapers were rigorously controlled, and the main opposition title, Bahar, was banned in April. The regime remained nervous about a recurrence of mass resistance on the streets and offered no tolerance of would-be protesters. Key domestic concerns of Iran’s government were ending subsidies and implementing of a privatization program. Subsidies were important elements in the attempt to alleviate the condition of the poor after the 1978–79 revolution, but the costs of the scheme escalated out of control. Energy-sector corporations agreed to raise the price of natural gas and cut fuel subsidies. In all, subsidies were cut by $20 billion for the following year. An initial series of price increases began on September 1, though fuel continued to be partly rationed. Privatization was at the top of the Majlis’s planning priorities, but little was achieved owing to conflict with the cabinet. Foreign affairs were dominated by Iran’s confrontation with the U.S. and the EU over its pursuit of nuclear development. Economic sanctions were threatened by American and European governments should the Iranians not comply with UN resolutions. On Janu-

ary 28 the U.S. Senate passed legislation permitting action against companies supplying gasoline to Iran. This was followed on April 6 by a U.S. proclamation that it could deploy military force against states that contravened the terms of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Attempts by Iran on May 17 to use Brazil and Turkey as independent agents in a transfer and storage of lowgrade uranium were unsuccessful. The U.S. on June 9 secured UN Resolution 1929, which established stiff obstacles to impede the supply of goods and services for Iran’s nuclear program. The EU added to the U.S. package a number of sanctions on banking and transport. Importantly, Russia and China, despite their reservations, offered no opposition to the passage of Resolution 1929. The International Atomic Energy Agency failed to discover a large underground nuclear-production unit at Abyek, about 120 km (75 mi) from Tehran. Accusations that the U.K. had been an instigator behind February’s riots cast a shadow over its links with Iran, while relations with France were similarly strained as a result of alleged spying. Russia, which experienced difficulties with Iranian unreliability over the nuclear-swap deal, was criticized for its failure to block UN sanctions and its delay in supplying military equipment. Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and other Arab states remained unsettled by Iranian attempts to articulate its power throughout the Middle East region. Iranians were also suspected of fostering a Shi!ite coup plot in Bahrain. Major diplomatic successes were achieved with Turkey and Brazil, while China expanded its role, including the provision of a railway link from Central Asia through Iran to the Iraqi border. President Ahmadinejad in midOctober paid a visit to southern Lebanon, where he was well received but at the expense of repudiation of his threats against Israel by much of the international community. The Iranian economy grew at 10% in 2009–10 but faded badly in the later part of the year. Oil exports stood at $64 billion, while nonoil imports totaled $55.1 billion and other exports reached $21 billion. The best unofficial estimates of unemployment ran at 22%, and per capita income stood at $3,540 according to the World Bank. New cuts in subsidies for fuel and food went into effect on December 19 and were expected to substantially accelerate inflation. (KEITH S. MCLACHLAN)

World Affairs: Iraq Karim Kadim/AP

IRAQ

Area: 434,128 sq km (167,618 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 31,467,000 (including about 1,750,000 Iraqi refugees, of which about 750,000 are in Syria and about 500,000 are in Jordan) Capital: Baghdad Head of state: President Jalal Talabani Head of government: Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki

Despite continuing protests, on Jan. 14, 2010, the Iraq High Electoral Commission (IHEC) disqualified 499 candidates who were preparing to run in the March general elections. The disqualification was based on de-Ba!thification laws meant to prohibit senior members of Saddam Hussein’s regime from serving in the government. Those barred included prominent political figures and lawmakers. Scores of coalitions, fronts, political parties, and individuals had registered for the election, which took place on March 7 without major incident. The results, announced at the end of that month, indicated that Iraq’s four major political alliances would dominate the 325-seat Council of Representatives, as expected. The Iraqi National Accord (alIraqiyyah) won the most seats, with 91. Led by Ayad !Allawi, a secular Shi!ite and former prime minister (2004–05), the Iraqi National Accord had campaigned on a secular, nonsectarian platform, attracting the majority of Sunni voters as well as some secular Shi!ites. State of Law (Dawlat al-Qanun), headed by Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki, a Shi!ite, came in second with 89 seats. Maliki, encouraged by his good showing in the January 2009 provincial elections, appealed to the Shi!ite centrists on a platform of defending a strong central government and curbing Shi!ite sectarian extremists, such as Muqtada al-Sadr’s Mahdi Army, which he fought in Basra and Sadr City in 2008. The Shi!ite Iraqi National Alliance, formed in August 2009, won 70 seats. It comprised the Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq (ISCI), headed by !Ammar al-Hakim, which received 17 seats; the Sadrist movement, which gained 40; and several smaller Shi!ite parties, which took the remaining 13.

In central Baghdad, rescuers search amid rubble for survivors of a bomb attack on April 6 that claimed at least 35 lives. ISCI polled lower than expected owing to its lack of a clear political program and its pro-Iranian leanings. The antiAmerican cleric Sadr showed that he still had strong backing from the poorer Shi!ite classes, who voted for him en masse. The Kurdistan Alliance, composed of the two main Kurdish parties, the Democratic Party of Kurdistan (DPK) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), won 43 seats. A new Kurdish party, Change (Gorran) won eight seats, while other, smaller Kurdish parties won six. These parties, however, were expected to join the Alliance as a united front in support of Kurdish demands to consolidate and expand their autonomous region in northern Iraq. Kurdish hopes to incorporate the oil-rich Kirkuk province into the Kurdistan Regional Government were set back when the Kurdistan Alliance received weaker-than-expected support in the province. Kirkuk province voters were split between the Kurdistan Alliance and the Iraqi National Accord, with each winning six seats. After the elections Maliki raised allegations of fraud and demanded a recount in Baghdad province. Following the recount the electoral commission announced that it had found no evidence of fraud and sent the results to the Supreme Court to be certified. Months of contentious negotiations

over coalition building followed, as the Iraqi National Accord and State of Law had won nearly equal numbers of seats and no party or bloc had obtained the majority necessary to enable it to unilaterally form a new government. Appeals to other parties also failed, and Iraqi politicians spent months shuttling between the capitals of neighbouring countries, such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Syria, seeking mediation. By doing so, politicians gave neighbouring countries more opportunities to intervene in Iraq’s internal affairs. In October Maliki’s position improved when Sadr, with his 40 seats, joined Maliki’s coalition, giving him 129 seats, though this was still short of the 163 needed for a majority. The Kurdish Alliance refused to join any coalition unless its demands were met. On November 10, after eight months—the world’s longest cabinet crisis of its kind in a parliamentary system—the four major blocs reached a deal after three days of meetings, first in Erbil and then in Baghdad. Leaders agreed that Jalal Talabani, a Kurd, would keep his position as president, Maliki would remain prime minister, and !Allawi’s alliance would be awarded the position of speaker of the Council of Representatives. A new national council on strategic policies with undetermined powers was placed under the Iraqi National Ac413

World Affairs: Ireland

cord’s control. The new council was an American initiative promoted as a way to keep the Iraqi National Accord and its Sunni supporters in government. The Council of Representatives met the next day and approved the agreement. Talabani was elected president, and Maliki was elected prime minister. The parliament approved Maliki’s government on December 21. The post of speaker of the Council of Representatives went to Usama al-Nujayfi, a member of the Iraqi National Accord. However, members of that party walked out of the first Council of Representatives meeting and staged a two-day boycott to protest Maliki’s refusal to amend the de-Ba!thification law. By September the number of U.S. military personnel in Iraq had been reduced to 50,000, and their mission had shifted from conducting joint combat operations with Iraqi security forces to playing a limited “back-up” role and serving as trainers and advisers. All U.S. forces were scheduled to be withdrawn by the end of 2011. On April 18 al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) suffered a major loss when its two top leaders, Abu Omar al-Baghdadi and Abu Hamza al-Muhajir, were killed. On May 16 AQI appointed a new leader, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. Toward the end of the year, there was a rise in terrorism and violence generated by AQI. AQI was responsible for a massacre of about 60 Christians gathered at a church in Baghdad on October 31. Following the attack thousands of Iraqi Christians fled the country. Their presence in Iraq dated back to the origins of Christianity. In December the U.S. pressed the UN Security Council to lift three restrictions on Iraq. The country would now be able to develop a nuclear program; the corruption-plagued oil-for-food program was scuttled; and Iraq was given back control (starting July 1, 2011) of most of its oil assets. (LOUAY BAHRY)

As 2010 began, Irish Prime Minister Brian Cowen’s coalition government, though flagging in the opinion polls, hoped to run its full term. Indications that the economy was beginning to stabilize in the early months of the year had offered the prospect of better times. Indeed, in introducing his December 2009 budget, Finance Minister Brian Lenihan had declared that the “worst is over.” Events proved him wrong. The cost of overseas borrowing to finance Ireland’s debt ballooned, triggered by concerns over the failure of Ireland’s 2008 “rescue” of its banks. Amid concerns about the weaker members of the euro zone, international lenders raised bond yields, unhappy about slow progress in Ireland’s resolution of its economic problems. In November Ireland was forced to apply for an IMF and European Central Bank loan package of >85 billion (about $115 billion). Within days Cowen published a fouryear national recovery plan that cut welfare benefits, increased taxes by >15 billion (about $21 billion), and deprived him of the support of his junior coalition partner, the Green Party, which called for an election in mid-January 2011. The scene was set for a showdown between a barely united minority government and a multifaceted opposition over a budget package for 2011 that included >6 billion (about $8 billion) in cuts. On December 7 Cowen

succeeded in getting his austerity budget passed. On December 23 Ireland took majority control of Allied Irish Banks by transferring >3.7 billion (about $4.85 billion) from the country’s pension reserves into the bank. Throughout the year Cowen’s parliamentary majority dwindled as some members of his Fianna Fail party withheld support. To survive, the government had to rely on bilateral deals with independent backbenchers. Rising unemployment and anger over the cost of bailing out Ireland’s banks resulted in historically low opinion poll ratings for Fianna Fail and a sense that the party and its coalition partner were living on borrowed time. Moreover, Lenihan, who had won a measure of personal approval for his firm approach to the banking crisis, announced that he had pancreatic cancer, though he insisted that it was under control. Meanwhile, Fine Gael, Ireland’s second largest party, was the first to show strains over leadership. Poor ratings in opinion polls for its leader, Enda Kenny, led to a challenge in June from deputy leader Richard Bruton, who failed to topple Kenny. Unemployment continued to rise and reached 13.5% in November, having tripled since 2007. In September workers in the hard-hit construction sector voted to reject a pay cut of 7.5%, though in June the government had reached an agreement with public-

Outside the Irish government buildings in Dublin on November 22, a police officer attempts to control a group of Sinn Fein-sponsored demonstrators who are protesting planned cuts to the national budget.

IRELAND

Area: 70,273 sq km (27,133 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 4,451,000 Capital: Dublin Head of state: President Mary McAleese Head of government: Prime Minister Brian Cowen Cathal McNaughton—Reuters/Landov

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World Affairs: Israel

service workers designed to avoid further pay cuts and redundancies until 2014. Consumer prices were little changed at 0.7% higher in October than a year earlier. Housing prices, however, were a different matter. It was reported that 2,800 housing developments that contained more than 40,000 dwellings were either unsold or unfinished. Many Irish homeowners found that their outstanding loans exceeded the market price of their homes as average national house prices fell to 2002 levels, 36% off their 2006 peak. Child sexual-abuse scandals, much in the news in past years, continued to have ramifications for the Roman Catholic Church in 2010. In a message to Irish Catholics in March that acknowledged the suffering of the victims, Pope Benedict XVI wrote, “Your trust has been betrayed and your dignity has been violated.” He identified inadequate screening of candidates for the priesthood; poor moral, spiritual, and intellectual formation in seminaries; and misplaced concern for the reputation of the church as having been among the causes of the problem. The pope added that these problems, and the damage they had done, had been addressed. Moreover, he promised an apostolic visitation (a process of review of certain dioceses conducted by Vatican-appointed experts). In a commentary that accompanied the pope’s text, Archbishop Diarmuid Martin of Dublin described the papal letter as having recognized “the failure of church authorities in how they dealt with sinful and criminal acts.” Noting a shift in tone, observers believed that a gap had opened between Pope Benedict and Martin, an Irishborn Vatican diplomat posted in 2003 to Dublin by Benedict’s predecessor in the wake of the child sex-abuse scandals. Dublin auxiliary bishops Eamonn Walsh and Raymond Field had submitted their resignations in December 2009, saying that they hoped their departure might help the survivors of sex abuse. In August 2010, however, Pope Benedict refused to accept their resignations. In response, an editorial in the Irish Independent noted that “church policy is as clear as mud” and characterized the pope’s action as “rejection of the views of the archbishop of Dublin, Dr. Diarmuid Martin.” Groups that represented the survivors took a similar view. The resignations of two other bishops had been accepted earlier in the year. (KIERAN FAGAN)

ISRAEL

Area: 21,643 sq km (8,357 sq mi), including the Golan Heights and disputed East Jerusalem, excluding the Emerging Palestinian Autonomous Areas Population (2010 est.): 7,302,000, excluding 310,000 Jews in the West Bank Capital: Jerusalem is the proclaimed capital of Israel (since Jan. 23, 1950) and the actual seat of government, but recognition has generally been withheld by the international community Head of state: President Shimon Peres Head of government: Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu The Emerging Palestinian Autonomous Areas (the West Bank and the Gaza Strip) Total area under disputed administration: West Bank 5,655 sq km (2,183 sq mi); Gaza Strip 365 sq km (141 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): West Bank 2,811,000, including 2,501,000 Arabs and 310,000 Jews; Gaza Strip 1,531,000 Principal administrative centres: Ramallah and Gaza Head of government: President Mahmoud Abbas, assisted by Prime Minister Salam Fayyad

For Israel, 2010 was characterized chiefly by two interrelated developments. Intermittent peace talks with the Palestinians failed to make progress, and Israel’s international standing saw further erosion. After a 20-month hiatus, Israel and the Palestinians ostensibly resumed direct negotiations at a White House summit in the U.S. in early September. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, whose commitment to peacemaking had been questioned, said that he had arrived in Washington to find “an historic compromise”; Palestinian Pres. Mahmoud Abbas spoke about unwavering dedication to a successful outcome; and special U.S. peace envoy George Mitchell said that the two leaders had agreed that “the aim of the negotiations is to resolve all core issues” for a two-state solution—Israel and Palestine living side by side in peace— within a year. To signal wider Arab backing for the process, Egyptian Pres. Hosni Mubarak and Jordan’s King !Abdullah also attended the Washington summit, and Mubarak hosted a follow-

up conference in Sharm el-Sheik. The Palestinians refused to continue the talks, though, after a 10-month moratorium Netanyahu had imposed on construction in Jewish West Bank settlements was allowed to expire on September 26—just three and a half weeks after the festive launch of the negotiations. To rescue the faltering process, the U.S. offered both parties guarantees of support on more significant issues but failed to achieve a breakthrough. Under strong U.S. pressure, the Israelis and the Palestinians had begun a tentative process of indirect negotiations in May. But the so-called proximity talks, with Mitchell shuttling between Jerusalem and Ramallah, made little headway. Partly because of a lack of faith in the process, the Palestinians adopted a parallel unilateral strategy. With Palestinian Prime Minister Salam Fayyad talking about “a well-functioning state in just about every facet of activity” by mid-2011, the Palestinians warned that if the talks remained deadlocked, they would take their case to the United Nations and seek international recognition for a Palestinian state along the 1967 borders, with East Jerusalem as its capital, regardless of the Israeli position. The unflagging U.S. effort to bring about a negotiated solution led at times to serious friction with Israel. For example, after an initial agreement to begin “proximity talks” in early March, U.S. Vice Pres. Joe Biden traveled to the region to announce the breakthrough; talks had broken down in December 2008. During his visit, however, Israeli officials approved plans for the construction of 1,600 housing units in a Jewish neighbourhood of Jerusalem on the Arab side of the 1967 Green Line, sparking a major crisis. The Palestinians retracted their agreement to negotiate, and the U.S. blamed Israel for what it saw as a deliberate slight, calculated to torpedo peace efforts. Another source of friction arose over the differing approaches to curbing Iranian influence in the region. U.S. Pres. Barack Obama argued that a viable Israeli-Palestinian peace process would make it easier for Arab moderates to support U.S. efforts to stop Iran’s development of nuclear weapons, whereas Netanyahu insisted that unless Iran was defanged first, it would undermine any Israeli-Palestinian peace effort. Netanyahu and Obama seemed to resolve their differences in a crucial meeting on July 6, with Netanyahu having convinced the president that he was 415

World Affairs: Italy Tara Todras-Whitehill/AP

A construction crew works on a site near the West Bank city of Hebron on October 20, three weeks after the expiration of a moratorium on new building within Jewish settlements in the West Bank. ready to make major concessions for peace and Obama having convinced the prime minister of his determination to preempt Iran’s nuclear program. In late May the U.S. backed the final communiqué of a monthlong Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) Review Conference, calling for a nuclear-free Middle East and for Israel to sign the NPT. In their July meeting, however, Obama assured Netanyahu that the U.S. would maintain its support for Israel’s long-standing policy of nuclear ambiguity, under which it did not confirm or deny possession of nuclear weapons or sign the NPT. Two months later an Egyptian initiative to recruit the International Atomic Energy Agency to demand that Israel sign the NPT was narrowly defeated with U.S. help. Indeed, despite abiding differences on the peace process, U.S.-Israeli military cooperation was as strong as ever. In early October, Israel signed a $2.75 billion deal for the purchase of 20 F-35 stealth joint strike fighters. A few weeks later the Israeli Defense Forces and the U.S. European Command conducted a major joint exercise testing interoperability of combat systems that might be used in a showdown with Iran. Faced with a major arms buildup by Iran’s neighbouring proxies, Hezbollah in Lebanon and Hamas in Gaza, Israel reinforced its antimissile and rocket defenses. In January the “Iron Dome” system designed to intercept short-range projectiles passed final tests, and in June Israel launched the Ofek 9 spy 416

satellite, enhancing its capacity for intelligence gathering over Iran. Israel’s renewed building in the West Bank and its siege of Gaza fueled further erosion of its international standing. This was exacerbated by two major diplomatic setbacks. The use of fraudulent foreign passports by agents who were presumed to be from the Mossad and were involved in the assassination of a senior Hamas official in Dubayy in January sparked a diplomatic row with the U.K., Ireland, Australia, France, and Germany, the countries whose passports had been exploited. Then, in late May, eight Turkish “peace activists” and one U.S. national of Turkish descent were killed on the Mavi Marmara, one of seven vessels in an aid flotilla trying to run Israel’s naval blockade on Gaza. Israeli naval commandos, who had rappelled onto the deck to intercept the ship, found themselves hopelessly outnumbered and opened fire after they were attacked with knives and iron bars. A storm of worldwide protest ensued, forcing the government to set up the first-ever Israeli commission of inquiry with an international presence and to significantly ease its siege on Gaza. The affair further undermined Israel’s already-strained relations with Turkey, once a key regional ally. Since the Israeli attack on Gaza in 2008, Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan had grown increasingly hostile to Israel while edging closer to Iran. In late October, Turkey’s National Security Council defined Israel as a “threat” to Turkish interests.

Despite its growing diplomatic isolation, Israel’s economy prospered, with the most dramatic development being the discovery in June of a huge offshore natural gas reserve. The field, which was dubbed “Leviathan,” was thought to contain about 425 billion cu m (15 trillion cu ft) of natural gas. The Leviathan and other recent finds, which could contain as much as one-fifth of the known gas reserves in the U.S., or twice that of the U.K.’s, were described as a potential “geopolitical game changer.” In May Israel was admitted to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the prestigious organization incorporating the world’s most developed countries. Despite lingering effects of the global economic crisis, Israel’s economic performance was more robust than that of most Western countries, with the Bank of Israel forecasting growth of 4% in 2010, compared with only 0.8% in 2009. Other indicators were also positive: private consumption was up from 1.7% in 2009 to 5.2% in 2010; unemployment dropped from 7.6% to 6.3%; and exports climbed 11.3% after having fallen 10.2% in 2009. Israel’s economic success came at a heavy social cost, however, as gaps between the rich and poor continued to grow. Figures released by the Central Bureau of Statistics in mid-October showed that income differentials in Israel at the end of 2008 were higher than in any EU country, with the top 20% of earners averaging 7.5 times more in income than the bottom 20%, compared with a corresponding figure of 4.9 in the EU. (LESLIE D. SUSSER)

ITALY

Area: 301,336 sq km (116,346 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 60,487,000 Capital: Rome Head of state: President Giorgio Napolitano Head of government: Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi

Domestic reversals dogged Italy’s Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi in 2010, eroding his once-unassailable mastery of a conservative political establishment that he had helped create. Early in the year, former deputy prime min-

World Affairs: Italy

ister and Berlusconi ally Gianfranco Fini, now president of the country’s lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, excoriated the septuagenarian billionaire’s “self-involved” governing style and his petulant approach to criticism. Fini further miffed his longtime partner by working to water down a government bill that would have significantly limited the Italian judiciary’s right to use wiretaps in political and criminal corruption probes. (Though never convicted, Berlusconi was the subject of corruption investigations spanning two decades, some of the probes ongoing.) Fini’s criticism was followed by secondguessing from Northern League chief Umberto Bossi, whose small but influential regionalist party was governing Italy in tandem with the prime minister’s People of Freedom party (PdL)— itself formed by the merger of Berlusconi’s old Forza Italia party and Fini’s formerly neofascist National Alliance. While the long-standing BerlusconiFini-Bossi alliance had often thrived on the folksy jockeying of its colourful players, the recent discord reached a vendetta-like pitch. The usually staid 58-year-old Fini, an ambitious politician seen by some as a future Italian prime minister, assailed Berlusconi’s repeated maligning of the country’s judicial branch, which the populist media tycoon had labeled as communistinfluenced and biased against him. Fini, a recent convert to more progressive positions on immigrant rights and social justice, also objected to Berlusconi’s increasing affinity for the Northern League’s anti-immigration positions, viewed by critics as xenophobic. The quarrel culminated in July when Fini announced that he and more than 40 other PdL parliamentarians were forming their own breakaway faction, thus jeopardizing the PdL’s majority. Fini was immediately pilloried for gross disloyalty and expelled from the party. Nevertheless, saying that his ouster reeked of Stalinism, Fini refused to relinquish his leadership position in the lower house. Though Berlusconi survived confidence votes in August, September, and December, Fini’s rebel group showed its clout by abstaining in the first and backing the prime minister only conditionally in the second. Support for Berlusconi in the second vote, said Fini supporters, was intended only to ensure national stability ahead of what they hoped would be a change in leadership. Indeed, despite almost weekly reassurances from Berlusconi and his lieutenants that the PdL-led

government would serve through the end of its mandate in 2013, the magnitude and relentlessness of the mudslinging between leading players increased the prospect of early elections. Berlusconi’s increased political vulnerability coincided at least in part with deeply unpopular austerity measures passed as a result of the global economic downturn. In May his government approved a package aimed at shaving the country’s massive deficit. Most of the cutbacks targeted regional and local governments, public-sector pay, health care, and education, with the Italian school system expected to shed some 40,000 jobs over the course of the year. The austerity measures’ passage produced a smattering of national strikes and protests but fell well short of causing sustained disruptions in daily life. Overall, the Italian economy slipped as the year ended. The Bank of Italy announced that the economy had expanded by just 0.9% in 2010, down slightly from the 1% estimate predicted by the European Commission earlier in the year. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, however, forecast that among the countries in the Group of 7 (G7, essentially the G8 minus Russia), Italy would be alone in posting a third-quarter contraction. At the same time, the country’s jobless rate rose to 8.5%, the highest since 2003. Moreover, the Italian National Institute of Statistics pegged

unemployment in the 15-to-24 age range at 27.9%, an 11-year high and 7.6% higher than the European average. Compounding the problem was a dearth of permanent jobs for young people. An Italian anarchist group claimed responsibility for parcel bombs that exploded on December 23 at the Swiss and Chilean embassies in Rome. One person was hurt at each embassy. Even Italy’s smaller municipalities faced an uphill battle; the Bank of Italy reported that 519 cities and towns faced more than $1.3 billion in debt, most of it interest on outstanding loans. The economic edginess also showed in the corporate sector, where the country’s telecommunications giant, Telecom Italia, slashed thousands of jobs, as did UniCredit, Italy’s largest and most internationally vibrant bank. UniCredit CEO Alessandro Profumo, a leading figure on the European and global economic scene, was ousted by restive shareholders concerned about a 57.6% drop in profits in 2009 and increasing Libyan investment in the firm. Italy responded with a mixture of amusement and resentment to an official visit by Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi. It was his second such trip since 2008, when the Berlusconi government pledged $5 billion in reparations to compensate Libya for Italy’s early 20th-century colonial occupation; energy-rich Libya subsequently became Italy’s leading trade partner. During an August visit to Rome, Qaddafi invited

A protester confronts police amid rioting that broke out in Rome on December 14 in reaction to the Italian parliament’s vote of confidence in Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi.

Pier Paolo Cito/AP

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World Affairs: Jamaica

hundreds of young women to visit a Libyan cultural centre, where he handed them copies of the Qur#an and urged them to convert to Islam. Most of them had been paid to attend. Though the carnival-like event seemed innocent enough, it ruffled the city’s Vatican sensibilities. Said Rocco Buttiglione, a Christian Democratic parliamentarian with strong ties to the Roman Catholic Church, “If I went to Tripoli to say that Libyans must convert to Christianity, what are the odds that I would come back in one piece?” But Bishop Domenico Mogavero, a leading member of the Italian Episcopal Conference, dismissed Qaddafi’s conversion effort as a “stunt.” Renewed cooperation between Italy and Libya served another, more critical function: reducing the flow of illegal immigrants to Italy. Joint patrolling by Italian and Libyan vessels produced a 96% drop in arrivals in the first three months of 2010, according to Interior Minister Roberto Maroni. Under the terms of the Italo-Libyan agreement, migrants trying to reach Italy who were discovered in international Mediterranean waters were shipped to Libya, where their asylum claims were vetted. Maroni, a member of the Northern League, strongly recommended that other European countries adopt similar “push-back” policies. Italy found only heartache at the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. Coached by veteran Marcello Lippi, who in 2006 had led the national association football (soccer) team to its fourth world title, the team had been expected to progress to the competition’s second round. Instead, it played two lacklustre draws against modest Paraguay and New Zealand, and on June 24 a shocking 3–2 loss to upstart Slovakia left Italy dead last in its group, the first such finish since 1966. The popular sports daily La Gazzetta dello Sport called it “the darkest and most terrible day in the history of Italian football.” Lippi promptly resigned and was replaced by Florence coach Cesare Prandelli. (See Sidebar on page 312.) Despite its World Cup disappointment, Italy shone at the club level. Its top domestic team, Inter Milan, upset defending champion Barcelona in the Champions League semifinals prior to convincingly beating Germany’s Bayern Munich 2–0 to win the prestigious trophy. Some hard-core Italian fans took little solace in the Milan team’s impressive European showing, pointing out that Inter’s coach, José Mourinho, was 418

Portuguese and that all of Inter’s starting players were foreign nationals. Following the win, Mourinho promptly cut ties with Inter to coach Spanish powerhouse Real Madrid. (CHRISTOPHER P. WINNER)

JAMAICA

Area: 10,991 sq km (4,244 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 2,702,000 Capital: Kingston Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Sir Patrick Allen Head of government: Prime Minister Bruce Golding

Jamaica solidified its reputation as the Caribbean leader in renewable energy when it broke ground in March 2010 for an expansion of its Wigton Wind Farm, increasing its production from 20.7 to 38.7 MW at a cost of $49 million. The country’s aim was to produce 20% of its electrical power from renewable sources by 2030. In February the government attacked Jamaica’s deep-seated economic problems by signing a 27-month stand-by arrangement with the IMF for $1.27 billion. The deal required Jamaica to reduce its short-term domestic debt by exchanging $7.75 billion of government bonds for securities of a similar value but with lower interest rates and longer maturities. This cut the amount of maturing debt scheduled for the next three years by 65%. Reduction of inflation and the public-sector deficit was also mandated. The Inter-American Development Bank, the World Bank, the Caribbean Development Bank, and China also made funding available to Jamaica in 2010. In June, after 70 people died in street battles in Kingston’s slums between the army and police and supporters of Christopher (“Dudus”) Coke (the leader of Jamaica’s infamous Shower Posse gang), Coke was extradited to the U.S. to face drug- and firearms-trafficking charges. The Jamaica Labour Party (JLP) government had stalled Coke’s extradition for almost a year, allegedly because of his influence over voters in the Tivoli Gardens area, part of Prime Minister Bruce Golding’s west Kingston constituency. (DAVID RENWICK)

JAPAN

Area: 377,944 sq km (145,925 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 127,320,000 Capital: Tokyo Symbol of state: Emperor Akihito Head of government: Prime Ministers Yukio Hatoyama and, from June 4, Naoto Kan

Domestic Affairs. In 2010, for the fifth year in a row, a new prime minister assumed office in Japan. Yukio Hatoyama, who had taken the post with great fanfare in September 2009 after leading the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) to victory, announced his resignation on June 2, allowing another DPJ leader, Naoto Kan (see BIOGRAPHIES), to take his place two days later. The premature departure of Hatoyama was prompted by the fears of DPJ members that the party would likely lose in upcoming elections for members of the upper house of the Diet (parliament) if it faced the voters under his leadership. Hatoyama’s downfall stemmed largely from his decision early in his tenure to stake much political capital on an effort to force the U.S. to renegotiate a 2006 agreement that U.S. Marine Corps Air Station Futenma on Okinawa would be relocated from Ginowan, in the most crowded part of Okinawa, to a new base near Nago, in a more rural area of the island. Hatoyama now sought to move the base off the island entirely. The U.S. refused to accept that demand, however, and the prime minister spent months struggling to present an alternative plan that would satisfy both the U.S. and the Okinawans. In late May, Hatoyama admitted that he had no alternative plan and accepted the base deal virtually unchanged, which prompted the DPJ’s coalition partner the Social Democratic Party of Japan (SDPJ) to leave the government. Voters were left frustrated by how much energy Hatoyama’s government had consumed in fruitless negotiations even as the economy continued to struggle. Hatoyama was also hurt by suspicions that his government was involved in corrupt dealings that differed little from the practices of the long-ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which the DPJ had ousted from power the previous year. In December 2009 Hatoyama was investigated for having im-

World Affairs: Japan

properly reported campaign donations totaling $4 million that came mostly from his mother. Although he was not prosecuted, two of his aides were given suspended prison sentences for the offense. Meanwhile, Ichiro Ozawa, the secretary-general of the DPJ, faced another in a series of investigations into his possible involvement in shady financial dealings. Assuming office just over a month before the upper-house elections, Kan enjoyed a brief surge in popularity as he sidelined the unpopular Ozawa (who resigned his party post) and favoured Ozawa’s antagonists by appointing them to top posts in the new government. As the election campaign got under way, however, he quickly squandered that advantage by first speaking favourably about a proposal to address Japan’s fiscal problems by raising the consumption tax and then backpedaling once it had become clear how unpopular that position was. Kan’s waffling during the campaign, coming so soon after Hatoyama’s unpopular performance as a leader, left the DPJ in a vulnerable position. As a result, the DPJ suffered major losses in the July 11 upper-house elections, winning just 44 of the 121 seats contested. Prior to the voting, the DPJ had relied on a coalition with the SDPJ and the People’s New Party (PNP) to pass legislation in the chamber with a bare majority of 122 seats (out of 242 total). With the SDPJ no longer willing to support the government and with the PNP also suffering losses, the shrunken postelection coalition was left with just 110 seats. The DPJ by itself had a solid majority in the more important lower house, which allowed Kan to continue serving as prime minister, but the loss of majority support in the upper house meant that the party could not pass laws in the upper house unless it could secure votes from opposition parties. Kan thus began his premiership in a weakened position, with many pundits predicting that his tenure—like those of his four predecessors—would be brief. Just when it appeared that those low expectations would be fulfilled, however, Ozawa gave Kan an opportunity to turn his fortunes around. Ozawa, upset at being sidelined and blaming Kan for the party’s abysmal performance in the upper-house elections, announced in August that he was challenging Kan in the party leadership election in midSeptember. For weeks thereafter, the media focused on that intraparty conflict, giving Kan an opportunity to rein-

troduce himself to the people. Compared with the grizzled Ozawa—a political operator who had learned his skills at the feet of Kakuei Tanaka and Shin Kanemaru in the long-ruling LDP—Kan looked fresh. Kan won the support of rank-and-file DPJ members by a large margin and secured a majority of DPJ Diet members as well, thereby defeating Ozawa. Kan seized this opportunity and on September 17 announced a new cabinet lineup, in which he promoted the youthful Seiji Maehara to foreign minister and named Katsuya Okada DPJ secretary-general. Not a single legislator close to Ozawa was included in the new cabinet. Ozawa faced another setback when on October 4 an inquest committee announced that he should face prosecution for allegedly falsifying financial records. The Economy. The Japanese economy began 2010 with steady growth. At the end of the year’s first quarter, the country’s GDP was 4.7% larger than it had been 12 months earlier, when Japan was at the bottom of the recession. Exports contributed heavily to the recovery, rising to a level 34.6% higher than they had been in the first quarter of 2009. By the second quarter, however, growth had slowed substantially to a quarterly increase of just 0.4%. The unemployment rate stood at 4.8% in November. While the decline in the unemployment rate suggested that Japan was likely to avoid a double-dip recession, at least in the short term, economists remained worried about the growth prospects of the economy. Among the issues adversely affecting the economy was a steady rise in the value of the yen, which rose from ¥93 to the dollar at the start of the year to ¥84 to the dollar in December. The yen rose by a similar amount against the Chinese renminbi over the course of the year, which made it difficult for Japan to count on a continued rise in exports to sustain its economic recovery. The Ministry of Finance was concerned enough about such trends in the yen’s value to intervene in the currency markets for the first time since 2004, selling $25 billion (¥2.12 trillion) in September. The sale caused the yen to weaken to ¥85 to the dollar, but that reduced value was only temporary. Another factor slowing the economy was the country’s fiscal policy. Japan had used an estimated $521 billion (9% of GDP) in deficit spending during fiscal year 2009 to pump some energy into the economy, but with the country’s leadership and public worrying about the government’s growing debt

levels, the initial 2010 budget was designed to dial back on both spending and borrowing. Spending was projected to decline from about $995 billion in fiscal year 2009 to $963 billion in 2010 and thus reduce borrowing to $461 billion. Kan, nervous about the midyear slowdown in the recovery, sent a supplemental budget to the Diet in the fall that proposed a small spending increase of $60 billion (about 1% of GDP). By late 2010, however, the combination of fiscal tightening and a more difficult export climate was causing Japan’s economy to pause at a point where it had recovered only halfway from the depths of the recession—i.e., roughly 4% of the more than 8% it had shrunk in the global slowdown. In December the government announced a 5% reduction in corporate taxes. For most of the year, the Bank of Japan (BOJ) kept the overnight call rate at a very low 0.1%, where it had remained since it was lowered in late 2008 to deal with the impact of the financial crisis. In early October, however, the bank decided to cut it even closer to zero (targeting a range between 0.0% and 0.1%). With no more room to lower short-term rates, the BOJ also announced plans to use $60 billion of its funds to purchase long-term securities—including government bonds, corporate bonds, and commercial paper— in an effort to lower long-term rates. One of Japan’s leading corporations, Toyota, had a difficult year. Its troubles began in late 2009 after a string of accidents were blamed on uncontrolled acceleration in Toyota- and Lexusbrand vehicles—including one accident in San Diego that left four members of a family dead. The company’s decision to blame the accidents on improperly installed floormats and persuade the U.S. government to accept a relatively cheap company recall as a means of fixing that problem backfired when additional accidents were reported, with victims insisting that something was wrong with the electronic throttle system. By February 2010 Toyota had recalled more than 8.5 million vehicles worldwide—in many cases, to make more extensive changes, including installing a brake-override system. Nevertheless, the public outcry continued, forcing company president Akio Toyoda to appear before the U.S. Congress on Feb. 24, 2010. Months later Toyota was still feeling the aftereffects of its problems; in September it reported that year-on-year sales in the U.S. were down 34%. 419

Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan (left) meets in Naha on December 17 with Hirokazu Nakaima soon after he was reelected governor of Okinawa prefecture. Nakaima opposed plans to relocate a U.S. Marine base within Okinawa. Kyodo/AP

Foreign Affairs. Japan had a rocky year in its relations with its two most important partners, the U.S. and China. Its difficulties with the U.S. stemmed from Prime Minister Hatoyama’s 2009 campaign pledge to renegotiate the 2006 Okinawa basing agreement already approved by the Japanese government (then under LDP rule). The U.S. was unenthusiastic from the start about any renegotiations, and U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates, while visiting Japan in October 2009, publicly lectured his Japanese counterpart by saying, “It is time to move on. This may not be the perfect alternative for anyone, but it is the best alternative for everyone.” After U.S. Pres. Barack Obama met with Hatoyama in November, the prime minister assured U.S. officials that he would give the U.S. a decision on the base plan by the end of the year. After that deadline passed without a deal, Hatoyama announced that he needed until the end of May to devise a different, mutually agreeable arrangement. A number of alternative plans were floated during the spring, including one to shorten the designed length of the runways near Nago (which would avoid anticipated ecological damage caused by building the longer runways on landfill extending into the sea). Since the shorter runways would not accommodate some of the Marines’ training operations, however, it would have been necessary to move those operations to sites on islands closer to southern Kyushu. Neither the U.S., the Okinawans, nor the political leaders on the islands where the Marine training operations would be relocated would accept this plan. In April, as it became clear that the Marine base was unlikely to move off 420

Okinawa, a large protest rally on the island attracted an estimated 90,000 people, and another demonstration there in May drew some 17,000. The community of Nago had already elected a mayor opposed to the relocation plan, and Hatoyama’s attempt to renegotiate the deal had reignited strong antibase sentiment on Okinawa. Nonetheless, the prime minister’s late May announcement was to go ahead with the original 2006 plan. Shortly after Kan took over as prime minister, he announced that he was committed to carrying out the agreedupon plan, but in late 2010 it remained unclear whether that would be possible. Okinawa’s gubernatorial election, held on November 28, did little to clarify prospects for the deal. The winner in that race, Hirokazu Nakaima, campaigned against relocating base operations to Nago but was less antibase than his opponent. If Nakaima remained opposed, Kan would face a difficult decision on whether to use central government authority to force the plan on a local population that was largely against the basing arrangement. Even as Japan and the U.S. argued over basing arrangements on Okinawa, in nearby waters the Japanese coast guard was dealing with the entry of Chinese vessels into a disputed maritime zone surrounding islands called Senkaku by Japan and Diaoyu by China. Those uninhabited islands, claimed by both Japan and China, had become the focus of more frequent conflict since petroleum and natural gas reserves were discovered in nearby waters. In 2004 seven Chinese activists had landed on the islands but were quickly forced to leave by Japanese authorities. Since then, Chinese fishing

vessels had operated in the area with growing frequency. On September 7 an encounter between two Japanese coast guard cutters and a Chinese fishing trawler led to collisions between the cutters and the trawler after the coast guard ordered the trawler to exit the area. The captain of the trawler was then detained in Okinawa prefecture while authorities in Tokyo and Beijing decided how to respond. With the captain remaining in detention, China began to make increasingly insistent and public demands for his release. On September 21 the Chinese Foreign Ministry announced that Pres. Wen Jiabao would not be meeting with Prime Minister Kan during their visits to New York City for UN General Assembly meetings, as had been planned. Later that week, reports began circulating that Japanese companies seeking supplies of rare earth minerals (used in products such as cell phones, wind turbines, and hybrid cars) were finding it impossible to get shipments from China; China controlled more than 90% of the world market for these commodities. China detained four Japanese construction-company employees on September 20, and four days later the Japanese government confirmed reports about the difficulties Japanese companies were encountering in securing the needed rare earths—even as China denied that it had imposed an embargo. On September 25 Japan released the captain. The dispute left both sides upset. China worried that Japan was becoming increasingly assertive about the territorial dispute, while Japan worried that China’s decisions—which appeared to use detentions of Japanese businessmen and an undeclared embargo of vital resources as bargaining leverage— were signs of China’s willingness to use its growing economic muscle to get its way in international conflicts. It was an awkward way to mark a milestone in China’s rise; in 2010 China passed Japan to become the world’s second largest economy. A long-standing territorial dispute between Japan and Russia over the Kuril Islands also flared up again in 2010. In early November, Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev became the first Russian head of state to visit the chain, and he reasserted his country’s sovereignty over them, infuriating Japan. The islands, just north of Japan’s island of Hokkaido, had been occupied by the Soviet Union and then Russia since the

World Affairs: Kazakhstan

end of World War II; Japan claimed the four southernmost islands. Efforts to resolve the dispute—which had prevented the two sides from signing a formal peace treaty—had been ongoing for decades. (LEONARD SCHOPPA)

JORDAN

Area: 88,778 sq km (34,277 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 6,046,000 (including about 2,000,000 Palestinian refugees, most of whom hold Jordanian citizenship; excluding roughly 500,000 Iraqi refugees) Capital: Amman Head of state and government: King !Abdullah II, assisted by Prime Minister Samir al-Rifai

Jordan’s 2010 general elections, held on November 9, overshadowed the country’s political scene months ahead of the vote. The main opposition bloc—the Islamic Action Front (IAF) and other opposition groups—decided to boycott the elections over concerns that the electoral process would not be fair. In September a statement issued by 306 political figures, including former cabinet ministers, claimed that King !Abdullah had dissolved the parliament in November 2009 in order to pass a temporary electoral law in May 2010 that gave rural districts, which were more loyal to the regime, more representation than the densely populated urban districts, where Jordanians of Palestinian origin, who typically supported the Islamists, were the majority. The left-leaning Democratic Unity Party toed the same line and announced on August 7 that its members would not go to the polls. By refusing to contest the elections, the Islamists—who in the 1990s occupied almost half the Jordanian parliament— put to the test their influence on voter turnout. Whereas officials announced a turnout of 53%, the IAF claimed it was no more than 30%. The elections— which were marred by some irregularities, violence, and accusations of vote buying—resulted in a largely pro-government parliament. In October authorities arrested some 40 members of the IAF—all students— on charges of having incited people to boycott the vote. While election fraud was the premise of the boycott call, its

proponents also cited Jordan’s growing economic crisis and worrying unemployment rates, which reached 13.5% in the third quarter of 2010 (down only 0.5% compared with the third quarter of 2009). The Hashemite kingdom’s economy made a slight recovery from the 2009 economic crisis and showed an annual growth of 2.9% in the second quarter of 2010 but with little or no trickle-down effect. Foreign grants totaled $294 million in the first seven months of the year, twice as much as what had been received during the same period in 2009 at the peak of the global economic crisis. Foreign aid narrowed Jordan’s budget deficit to about $397 million after receipt of the grants, compared with a deficit of about $906 million in 2009. Following the resumption of the shortlived U.S.-brokered direct peace talks between Israel and the Palestinians, which Jordan (and Egypt) pushed to achieve, the U.S. allocated $363 million to Jordan for 2010. This represented about 40% of the total international economic assistance to the kingdom. In September Jordan said that it would seek to triple its oil imports from Iraq to meet domestic needs. The kingdom—which imported 95% of its energy needs—signed a civil nuclear cooperation accord with Japan in September, providing for the export of nuclear technology to Jordan. In an effort to advance its ambition to build a nuclear reactor by 2019, officials said that Jordan would sign nuclear agreements with Romania and the Czech Republic by the end of 2010 and hoped to reach one with the U.S. soon after. In August the Jordanian cabinet approved a controversial “cyber crime” law to regulate Internet content and usage. This sparked fears that the bill would lead to censorship, curb freedom of expression, and inspire neighbouring countries to do the same. (AMIRA HOWEIDY)

KAZAKHSTAN

Area: 2,724,900 sq km (1,052,090 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 16,310,000 Capital: Astana Head of state and government: President Nursultan Nazarbayev, assisted by Prime Minister Karim Masimov

Kazakhstan’s most important international event of 2010 was its assumption for the year of the chairmanship of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), thus becoming the first Asian state and the first member of the post-Soviet Commonwealth of Independent States to do so. Kazakh Pres. Nursultan Nazarbayev and Foreign Minister Kanat Saudabayev (the functioning OSCE chairman) hailed the occasion as a demonstration of Kazakhstan’s status in the international community. Saudabayev told the U.S. Congress’s Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Helsinki Commission) in February that Kazakhstan aspired for its chairmanship to build a bridge of understanding between East and West. Owing to continuing reservations about the country’s human rights record, some members of the international community continued, however, to express reservations about the appropriateness of Kazakhstan’s appointment, and Kazakh human rights activists complained that the OSCE’s role as a defender of human rights was being neglected under Kazakhstan’s chairmanship. Nonetheless, participating OSCE states agreed to attend an OSCE summit held in Astana, Kazakh., in December to address, among other issues, the question of a modernization of the European security architecture and the efforts of Saudabayev and other Kazakh officials to resolve the crisis in neighbouring Kyrgyzstan. The latter endeavours had received widespread international praise. In February Saudabayev told the OSCE Parliamentary Assembly that Afghanistan should be a priority topic at the summit, but later in the year Kazakhstan’s chairmanship was criticized by some in the international community for not having proposed a far-reaching program of assistance to OSCE Asian partner Afghanistan. Kazakhstan later ratified an agreement with the United States to allow the railway transit of “special cargo” to Afghanistan. Kazakhstan was hard hit by the drought that also affected large portions of Russia; at the end of July, the agriculture minister announced that 70% of the crop had been lost in western Kazakhstan alone. As a result, reduced amounts of grain available for export affected prices in neighbouring countries such as Tajikistan, which had traditionally depended on imports from Kazakhstan. 421

World Affairs: Kenya Liu Chan—Xinhua/Landov

In August Nazarbayev ordered an extensive reform of the law-enforcement system. A number of functions were transferred from the Ministry of Internal Affairs to the Justice Ministry and other state agencies, and minor economic transgressions were decriminalized and made subject to administrative fines, with the objective of reducing lawenforcement interference with businesses. In September a presidential decree reduced by 15% the staffs of all government agencies. (BESS BROWN)

KENYA

Area: 582,646 sq km (224,961 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 40,863,000 Capital: Nairobi Head of state and government: President Mwai Kibaki, assisted by Prime Minister Raila Odinga

Kenya promulgated its new constitution on Aug. 27, 2010, with an official ceremony attended by several heads of state, including controversial Sudanese Pres. Omar al-Bashir. The new constitution was designed to ameliorate the ethnic violence that had erupted after the disputed 2007 elections. The constitution had five key provisions: the reduction of presidential powers, the devolution of power to regional local governments, the creation of a public land commission, the establishment of a senate, and the recognition of Kadhi (Muslim) courts. It also included a bill of rights, but there was no provision to continue the office of prime minister, a post specially created in 2008 as part of the power-sharing agreement. Fears concerning a possible renewal of violence during the referendum on August 4 were forestalled by an effective strategy based on public awareness and voter campaigns as well as improved training of police and armed forces. About 10,000 police were distributed in towns and villages throughout the country, while soldiers were deployed to the Rift Valley, where the most severe fighting took place in 2007. In addition, the authorities established new communication networks and enacted election reforms to increase transparency for the vote counting. Politicians in ethnically mixed areas 422

Kenyan Pres. Mwai Kibaki (left) is handed his country’s newly promulgated constitution at a ceremony in Nairobi on August 27. urged citizens to accept the results and refrain from rioting. Most important, the two rivals of 2007—Pres. Mwai Kibaki, dressed in a western suit, and Prime Minister Raila Odinga, bedecked head-to-toe in green, the colour of the “yes” campaign—made joint appearances at mass rallies aimed at reducing political tension. The new constitution passed with a 67% majority vote. Peaceful transition to systemic political reform raised hopes for a “national rebirth,” the inculcation of a constitutional culture among politicians, and continued economic recovery. Increased agricultural output, which accounted for one-third of Kenya’s GDP, and low interest rates facilitated a rise in growth from 4% to 5%. In July the new five-member-state East African common market (a protocol of the East African Community) began operation, which provided a further boost to the economy. The main goals of the common market were to end trade barriers, to enable the free movement of people, capital, and services, and to establish a common currency (effective in 2012). As the economic powerhouse of the region, Kenya expected that the new arrangement would yield substantial benefits to the country. Still the government had to deal with the critical issues of ethnic reconciliation, corruption, and human rights abuses. The Pre-Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Court (ICC) established its headquarters and began formulating the procedures for trials

resulting from the 2007 electoral violence. The lead prosecutor, Luis Moreno-Ocampo, warned against witness intimidation. Although no indictments had been issued, it was believed that they would include prominent Deputy Prime Minister Uhuru Kenyatta (also serving as finance minister) and former cabinet minister William Ruto (higher education) as well as other politicians. Meanwhile, the ICC was seriously embarrassed by the government’s official invitation to Bashir, who was under ICC indictment for crimes against humanity, and Kenya’s subsequent refusal, supported by the African Union, to arrest him. In addition, reports of sexual abuse and other forms of violence increased, especially in regard to students and refugees. In the past two years, educational authorities had dismissed more than 1,000 teachers for behaving inappropriately with their female pupils, mostly in rural primary schools. A Human Rights Watch report documented a wide spectrum of harsh and/or inhumane treatment of Somali refugees. An estimated 300,000 registered refugees lived in three overcrowded United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees camps in Dadaab, northeast Kenya, but a little more than 300,000 unregistered refugees lived in Nairobi. Nearly 80% of the refugees were women and children. Both legal and illegal refugees reported frequent rapes, beatings, arrests, detentions, and theft—often perpetrated by the police. (LARAY DENZER)

World Affairs: Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of

KIRIBATI

Area: 811 sq km (313 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 99,500 Capital: Government offices on three islets of South Tarawa Head of state and government: President Anote Tong

As sea levels rose and coastal erosion raised issues about the nation’s viability, Kiribati in 2010 continued to explore the long-term possibility of relocating the nation’s population as a whole. In the shorter term, the government addressed severe overpopulation and coastal degradation on South Tarawa by proposing to move residents to the less-populated, but far-distant (3,200 km [2,000 mi] to the east), Kiritimati (Christmas) Atoll. The water supply on Kiritimati, which had limited groundwater and regularly suffered extended droughts, posed a major challenge. With aid from New Zealand, the government was planning a coordinated program to upgrade infrastructure ahead of a population move, including improvements to the atoll’s port and runway. The Asian Development Bank in 2010 initiated a new country partnership strategy that was aligned with Kiribati’s development plan. The partnership aimed to support better management of public finances and development of water supply and other infrastructure. It also sought to foster economic growth and expansion of the private sector. In September Kiribati finalized a joint venture with a Chinese fishing company to improve its extensive tuna fishery. The agreement would rebuild a fish-processing plant and cold-storage facility on Tarawa to produce fresh and frozen fish for export; the facility was to employ over 100 local people. The venture would take fish from 1,000 local fishing boats, and the Chinese company, Golden Ocean, would also contribute 20 new boats. Kiribati received recognition for its ongoing efforts to preserve the marine environment; in August the Phoenix Islands Protected Area—with an area of some 410,000 sq km (160,000 sq mi), the world’s largest marine protected area— was named a UNESCO World Heritage site. (CLUNY MACPHERSON)

KOREA, DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF

Area: 122,762 sq km (47,399 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 24,249,000 Capital: Pyongyang Head of state and government: Supreme Leader/Chairman of the National Defense Commission Kim Jong Il

North Korea took the Korean Peninsula closer to the brink of war in 2010. It sank the South Korean warship Cheonan on March 26, killing 46 sailors, and launched an artillery barrage on November 23 on the South Korean island of Yeonpyeong, where two marines and two villagers died in the assault. During the year North Korean ruler-for-life Kim Jong Il jump-started his nuclear programs, made two trips to China, and took the first public steps to prepare for a third generation of family rule. Though the sudden explosion and sinking of the warship was initially shrouded in mystery, an international investigative team discovered North Korean torpedo parts near the sinking. North Korea, however, insisted that the findings were a “fabrication.” The UN Security Council refused to criticize the country, while trade with North Korea’s leading partners, China and South Korea, held steady or increased.

In September satellite imagery revealed renewed nuclear activity. Not only was North Korea building a new 25-MW plutonium-based reactor to replace its antiquated and partially dismantled 5-MW reactor, but it had also made dramatic strides in creating a parallel uranium-enrichment program. Meanwhile, Chairman Kim made an unprecedented two trips to China. His first trip in early May was the single most widely covered event in North Korea’s media. China also dispatched senior leaders to attend several celebrations in Pyongyang. Trade and investment between the “lips and teeth” had tripled over the past decade. In June, Kim Jong Il appointed his brother-in-law, Jang Sung-Taek, vicechairman of the all-powerful National Defense Commission. Three months later Kim appointed his reclusive sister, Kim Kyung-Hui, and his 27-year-old son, Kim Jong-Eun, as four-star generals. The “Young General” was also appointed to a senior government post and featured prominently at the largest celebration in decades. Gen. Ri Yong-Ho, a close childhood friend of Kim Jong Il, was elevated to three senior positions. The food situation remained precarious. The roughly 300 outdoor markets gradually returned to normal in the wake of the disastrous currency revaluation launched in late 2009, but inflation spiraled out of control. The World Food Programme announced in November that one in five North Koreans would face hunger in 2011. Though there was no discernible social unrest, a steady stream of North Koreans con-

North Korean leader Kim Jong Il (right) and his son and heir apparent Kim Jong-Eun (left) raise salutes at a military parade in Pyongyang on October 10.

Kyodo/Landov

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World Affairs: Korea, Republic of

tinued to defect. More than 20,000 emigrated in 2010, a doubling in three years. (PETER M. BECK)

KOREA, REPUBLIC OF

Area: 99,678 sq km (38,486 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 49,169,000 Capital: Seoul Head of state and government: President Lee Myung-Bak, assisted by Prime Ministers Chung Un-Chan, Yoon Jeung-Hyun (acting from August 11), and, from October 1, Kim Hwang-Sik

The March sinking of the South Korean warship Cheonan exacerbated an ongoing dispute between North and South Korea about their maritime border.

It was the best and the worst of times for South Korea in 2010. Only a few days after basking in the refracted glory of having successfully hosted the Group of 20 (G20) gathering of the world’s most powerful countries on November 11–12, South Korea suffered a barrage of North Korean artillery shells on the South Korean island of Yeonpyeong; it was the first time since the Korean War (1950–53) that the North had mounted an attack on civilian areas in southern territory. Dismissed by the average South Korean as a brother from another planet, North Korea refused to be ignored, lashing out not once but twice during the year. The March sinking of the South Korean warship Cheonan claimed the lives of 46 sailors, and the November 23 artillery strike killed two marines and two civilians. The initial ambiguity about the perpetrator of the ship sinking and purely military nature of the target muted the public’s wrath. Following the second attack, however, the ambiguity about the aggressor was dispelled, and citizens were outraged that a fishing village of 1,600 people had been targeted. The administration of Pres. Lee Myung-Bak came under sharp criticism for its halting and confused response. Outraged demonstrators held a mass protest in Seoul on November 27, decrying government inaction over the assault. By a 2–1 margin South Koreans favoured a strong military response should the North attempt another aggression. In December, Seoulites participated in the largest civil defense drill in decades amid North Korea’s continuing verbal threats.

The South Korean economy charged ahead in 2010, with the country’s chaebol (conglomerates) leading the way. Samsung Electronics and Hyundai Motor Co. revenues swelled by more than 10%. South Korea was one of only a handful of countries to experience a higher overall growth rate (approximately 6%) than its unemployment (under 4%) and inflation (less than 3%) rates. The country showcased its economic prowess when it hosted the G20 summit in Seoul. The gathering proved long on symbolism and short on substance, but participants deemed South Korea a superb host. Seoul failed to conclude a trade agreement with Washington at the G20 summit, but negotiators achieved a breakthrough weeks later in the United States. At year’s end the pact awaited ratification by the South Korean National Assembly and the U.S. Congress. Politics remained a contact sport in 2010. The low point came when in early December the ruling Grand National Party (GNP) used its majority to pass the annual budget after wrestling the podium and speaker’s gavel away from the opposition Democratic Party. South Koreans were scheduled to go to the polls in December 2012 to elect the next president. The front-runner in 2010 was the GNP’s Park Geun-Hye, the daughter of the dictator who had spearheaded South Korea’s rapid growth 50 years earlier. If elected, she would be Northeast Asia’s first female head of state. In sports South Korean figure skater Kim Yu-Na continued her prowess on the ice. The 2009 world figure skating champion won gold at the 2010 Winter

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Olympic Games in Vancouver, and in the process she set a new world record by earning 228.56 points. (PETER M. BECK)

KOSOVO

Area: 10,908 sq km (4,212 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,815,000 Capital: Pristina International Authority: Final authority resides with the UN interim administrator, Lamberto Zannier (Italy), in conjunction with the EU special representative in Kosovo, Pieter Feith (Netherlands) Head of state: Presidents Fatmir Sejdiu and, from September 27, Jakup Krasniqi (acting) Head of government: Prime Minister Hashim Thaci

In July 2010 the International Court of Justice offered its advisory opinion that Kosovo’s declaration of independence from Serbia had violated no general international laws. Serbia and Kosovo agreed to open negotiations on their future relationship; their previous lack of dialogue had prevented progress in relations between ethnic Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo. Since its declaration of independence in February 2008, Kosovo had been recognized by 72 countries. In December Kosovo held parliamentary elections after Prime Minister Hashim Thaci’s government lost a vote

World Affairs: Kyrgyzstan Nader Daoud/AP

of confidence in November, when it was abandoned by its coalition partner, the Democratic League of Kosovo (LDK). About 48% of the republic’s 1.6 million eligible voters turned out and provided Thaci’s Democratic Party of Kosovo with 33.5% of the vote, while the LDK garnered 23.6%, and the Self-Determination Movement—which favoured union with Albania—took 12.2%. By law the country’s roughly 120,000 Serbs were allotted 10 seats, and more than 20,000 of them voted, though, as expected, Serbs in Mitrovica boycotted the election. International election observers praised the outcome despite reported irregularities at several polling stations. Thaci’s next task was to form a new coalition government. A preliminary report released in December by the Council of Europe implicated Thaci as a key figure in the alleged trafficking of human organs in the late 1990s during Kosovo’s struggle for independence. The report asserted that Thaci had built a “formidable power base in the organized criminal enterprises” in Kosovo and Albania. Kosovo’s government and Thaci denied the allegations. The World Bank and the IMF continued to identify Kosovo as one of Europe’s poorest countries. An estimated 45% of its people lived below the poverty line. Unemployment approached 50%, yet GDP was expected to grow by 4.6%, largely as a result of government expenditures. (MILAN ANDREJEVICH)

KUWAIT

Area: 17,818 sq km (6,880 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 3,524,000 Capital: Kuwait Head of state and government: Emir Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah, assisted by Prime Minister Sheikh Nasir al-Muhammad al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah

In early 2010 Kuwaiti focus lingered on the historic constitutional event that had occurred on Dec. 16, 2009, when Prime Minister Sheikh Nasir alMuhammad al-Ahmad al-Jabir alSabah survived the parliament’s first vote of noncooperation. This was the first such vote against the prime minister of any Gulf Arab state.

King !Abdullah II of Jordan (second from left) accompanies Emir Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah of Kuwait (right) upon the latter’s arrival in Amman, Jordan, on May 17. It was the first visit by a Kuwaiti ruler in 20 years. Tensions mounted between the Sunni majority and the Shi!ite minority in 2010. These tensions were visible in the media and in the parliament, where members engaged in mutual recriminations. On Sept. 20, 2010, the Kuwaiti government, under pressure from Sunnis, stripped a Kuwaiti Shi!ite scholar living in London of his Kuwaiti nationality after he had made inflammatory statements attacking religious symbols sacred to the Sunnis. The government also took drastic measures to stop further escalation of the Sunni-Shi!ite conflict, demanding that the media stop religious polemics. It also banned public gatherings and stopped the debate of religious issues in all schools. In April the Kuwaiti parliament adopted a law regulating the privatization of public-sector industries, which employed about 80% of the workforce. The move was strongly opposed by Kuwaitis working in Kuwaiti public oil companies who feared losing their jobs if the industry were to be privatized. Kuwaiti Emir Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jabir al-Sabah tried to break the self-imposed political and cultural isolation of Kuwait from the rest of the Arab world that occurred after the Persian Gulf War in 1991 by touring several Arab countries. Kuwait also assured Iran that Kuwaiti territory would not be used in any future war with Iran. Relations with neighbouring Iraq remained strained over border issues and war compensation imposed on that country after its failed occupation of Kuwait (1990–91). In July the UN released some $650 million of this compensation to Kuwait.

In September Kuwait announced that it intended to build four nuclear plants, to be used for peaceful purposes, by 2022. In the same month, Kuwait signed an agreement of understanding with Russia on cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear energy. (LOUAY BAHRY)

KYRGYZSTAN

Area: 199,945 sq km (77,199 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 5,141,000 Capital: Bishkek Head of state: Presidents Kurmanbek Bakiyev and, from April 7, Roza Otunbayeva (interim) Head of government: Prime Ministers Daniyar Usenov, Roza Otunbayeva (interim) from April 7, and, from December 17, Almazbek Atambayev

Tensions rose in Kyrgyzstan during the first months of 2010, fueled by accumulated popular dissatisfaction with the failing economy, a high level of corruption in the government, and flagrant nepotism by Pres. Kurmanbek Bakiyev. In March Bakiyev held a much-publicized Congress of Accord to smooth over differences, but the political opposition boycotted the event and called for the president’s resignation. At the beginning of April, unrest broke out in the provincial city of Talas, followed immediately on April 7 by civil 425

World Affairs: Laos Anvar Ilyasov/AP

gan in June in the regional centres of Osh and Dzhalal-Abad as local Kyrgyz attacked ethnic Uzbeks in a repetition of events of 1990. The death toll was estimated to exceed 370, but it was feared that it had climbed into the thousands. Though thousands of ethnic Uzbeks fled to Uzbekistan, many reportedly returned in June. Parliamentary elections were held under the new constitution in October, and the pro-Bakiyev Ata-Zhurt party won a plurality of votes. A coalition government was formed with Almazbek Atambayev of the Social Democrats as prime minister. (BESS BROWN)

LAOS In June an ethnic Uzbek woman who fled Osh, Kyrgyz., after her family was killed there in an anti-Uzbek pogrom waits to enter Uzbekistan from a neutral zone between the two countries. disturbances in the capital, Bishkek. When police tried to break up a political opposition rally, opposition supporters seized government buildings; similar seizures took place in provincial administrative centres. When Minister of Internal Affairs Moldomusa Kongantiev tried to curb the unrest in Talas, he was badly beaten. After former foreign minister Roza Otunbayeva announced that the opposition had formed a “government of people’s trust,” Prime Minister Daniyar Usenov resigned and his Cabinet of Ministers was dissolved, while President Bakiyev reportedly fled to his home region in the south of the country. Several days later he resigned and fled to exile in Kazakhstan; he later relocated to Belarus. An interim government was formed in Kyrgyzstan, largely of prominent former opposition politicians; Otunbayeva took the post of interim president. The interim government drafted a new constitution to turn Kyrgyzstan into a parliamentary republic. Under the constitution, the presidency would be limited in an effort to prevent the abuses that had led to both of the country’s first two heads of state having been driven out of office by popular uprisings. The new constitution was approved in a referendum on June 27. Southern Kyrgyzstan, Bakiyev’s main power base, was reluctant to accept the changes. Rumours proliferated about Bakiyev’s relatives’ trying to stir up unrest in the south; major disturbances be-

Area: 236,800 sq km (91,429 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 6,258,000 Capital: Vientiane Head of state: President Choummaly Sayasone Head of government: Prime Ministers Bouasone Bouphavanh and, from December 23, Thongsing Thammavong

Throughout 2010 Laos celebrated various anniversaries and other landmark

events. With the ninth congress of the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party approaching in March 2011, the latter half of 2010 was occupied by ministerial and provincial party meetings to name new party secretaries and nominate delegates to the congress. The process had something of a carnivallike atmosphere as private sponsors, to ensure that they remained in favour politically, donated large sums to fund party gatherings. The 450th anniversary of Vientiane as the capital of Laos was celebrated in November. Myriad projects surrounded the event, including the unveiling of an 8-m (26-ft) statue of the Vientiane king Chao Anu, the renovation of Wat Sisaket, the opening of a new arterial bypass road on the city’s southern outskirts, and the completion of a new levee system and park on the Mekong River, funded in part by a grant from South Korea. In other construction news, projects such as the Nam Theun 2 hydropower station in Khammouan province, which came online in March, and a Chinesebuilt hydroelectric facility that was completed in August generated new income for the region while also stimulating debate about the environmental advisability of such large-scale projects in Laos. Particularly controversial were plans to develop Mekong River dams in Xaignabouli and Champasak provinces; conservationists objected and called for a moratorium on dam building on the

The construction of a Chinese-built 100-MW hydroelectric facility near the Laotian capital of Vientiane was completed in August.

Zhang Qiulai—Xinhua/Landov

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World Affairs: Lebanon Roman Koksarov/AP

Mekong. Four cities—Louangphrabang, Vientiane, Savannakhet, and Pakxe— continued to enjoy a brisk boom in construction. Economic performance was strong, partly as a result of the resource boom that had dominated the economy since the beginning of the decade. In September the Asian Development Bank predicted 7.4% growth for the year. The cost of living increased sharply, however, with annual inflation averaging 6%. Drought in the first half of the year and floods in the second half placed food security at risk in Laos. Crops in northern and southern Laos were planted late and then hit hard by torrential rains, and the resulting flash floods decimated rice crops. The government maintained cordial relations with its neighbours despite concerns over sociopolitical turmoil in Thailand and the large number of Chinese migrant labourers in the northern provinces of Laos. The key security issues were domestic, deriving from a widening gap between the urban rich and the rural poor. (MARTIN HALDANE RATHIE)

LATVIA

Area: 64,589 sq km (24,938 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 2,238,000 Capital: Riga Head of state: President Valdis Zatlers Head of government: Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis

The major issues in Latvia in 2010 were the October 2 parliamentary elections and the ongoing economic recession. Despite the country’s gradual economic recovery and the fact that some experts regarded Latvia’s handling of it as a model of a disciplined approach to overcoming financial crises, the populace still faced falling incomes and continuing high unemployment. By November the jobless rate had dropped to 14.3% from about 20% in January. The third-quarter GDP rose 2.5% year on year. In the spring, political parties began to prepare for the elections by criticizing and attempting to destabilize the government of Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis and by retooling their own images. Especially engaged in those

meet with Pres. Dmitry Medvedev and Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and to sign bilateral agreements. More sensitive issues, such as Latvia’s occupation by the Soviet Union during World War II, were also discussed. (DZINTRA BUNGS)

LEBANON

Valdis Dombrovskis accepts a bouquet on November 3 upon being elected to continue as Latvian prime minister by the newly installed parliament. maneuvers was the People’s Party, whose policies were considered to be largely to blame for the economic crisis. To improve their chances of reelection, many political parties with similar views formed alliances; for example, the People’s Party joined forces with Latvia’s First Party–Latvia’s Way to become For a Good Latvia, while the New Era, Civic Union, and Society for Other Politics formed Unity, led by Prime Minister Dombrovskis. Voters elected deputies from five coalitions to serve in the 100-seat Saeima (parliament): 33 from Unity, 29 from Harmony Centre, 22 from the Greens’ and Farmers’ Union, and only 8 each from the National Association and For a Good Latvia. In October, Unity sought to form a coalition with some of the other elected alliances but was able to do so only with the Greens’ and Farmers’ Union. On November 2 Pres. Valdis Zatlers entrusted Dombrovskis with forming a new government, which was approved by the Saeima the next day. The most challenging task of the new government was the drawing up of an austerity budget for 2011. In order to meet Latvia’s commitments to its international lenders and stay on course for adopting the euro in 2014, public expenditures were further reduced by some $523.5 million. The budget was approved by the Saeima on December 20. President Zatlers paid an official visit to Russia during December 19–22 to

Area: 10,372 sq km (4,005 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 4,125,000 (including registered Palestinian refugees estimated to number about 400,000) Capital: Beirut Head of state: President Michel Suleiman Head of government: Prime Minister Sa!ad al-Hariri

In 2010 political deadlock was again the rule in Lebanon as the country braced for another crisis. A special international tribunal set up to investigate the assassination of former prime minister Rafiq al-Hariri in 2005 appeared likely to indict members of Hezbollah, an action that threatened to renew factional conflict in Lebanon. In an effort to defuse the crisis, King !Abd Allah of Saudi Arabia, Pres. Bashar alAssad of Syria, and Pres. Michel Suleiman of Lebanon held a tripartite summit in Beirut on July 30 at which they urged Lebanese parties to avoid violence and recommit themselves to the 1989 Ta#if Accord and the Qatar-mediated Doha agreement. Prime Minister Sa!ad al-Hariri, who had visited Damascus five times since taking office, continued his efforts to mend fences with Syria. On July 18 he signed 17 new bilateral agreements with Damascus; however, none of them dealt with security cooperation. As part of his efforts at rapprochement, Hariri said in September that he had been mistaken when he accused Syria of involvement in his father’s murder, but he avoided calling the international tribunal politically motivated, as Syria had, and stated instead that it had been misled by false witnesses. Nevertheless, in October the cabinet postponed discussions on the 2011 Lebanese budget because opposition ministers refused to authorize the government to allocate its share (49%) of the tribunal’s total budget. 427

World Affairs: Lesotho Mohammed Zaatari/AP

Following a clash between Lebanese and Israeli troops along their countries’ mutual border on August 3, soldiers in Lebanon attend to damage to a checkpoint. On August 3 a clash between Lebanese and Israeli army units in southern Lebanon left a senior Israeli officer, two Lebanese soldiers, and a journalist dead. The UN and the U.S. labeled the Lebanese army’s actions unjustified, and in the wake of the incident, the Lebanese president called on both his government and foreign governments to help the Lebanese military acquire modern weaponry. Iran offered aid, but members of the U.S. Congress objected to the possible mingling of Hezbollah and Lebanese military interests and suspended $100 million of military aid to Lebanon. However, the U.S. State Department emphasized that it continued to support the principle of providing such aid to Lebanon. The parliament took steps toward ending years of discrimination when it passed a law granting the some 400,000 Palestinian refugees in Lebanon the same rights to work as other foreigners. Because most of these refugees were Sunni Muslims, some in Lebanon feared their eventual citizenship would further empower Sunni Lebanese. Lebanon’s claim of partial ownership of Israeli offshore oil and gas discoveries created new tension between the two countries. The Lebanese authorities seemed likely to ask the UN to delineate maritime boundaries in the area. The IMF raised its projections for Lebanese economic growth from 6% to 8% in 2010. The IMF also warned that Lebanon needed to improve its infra428

structure for water, electricity, and telecommunications services to preserve its recent high growth rates. (MAHMOUD HADDAD)

refusing to adjust the number of seats awarded under the system of proportional representation. When South Africa took advantage of its hosting of the football World Cup in June to announce that it would no longer accept temporary travel documents from landlocked Lesotho, some questioned whether the country should remain independent. Relations with South Africa were further strained by Lesotho’s interim Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Union and by South Africa’s announcement that it hoped to change the revenue-sharing formula in the Southern African Customs Union to the disadvantage of Lesotho, to which the SACU annually transferred large sums that provided 65% of government spending. Yet when South African Pres. Jacob Zuma visited Lesotho in August, he committed his country to helping Lesotho develop. As the Lesotho Highlands Water Project moved into its second phase, it was able to supply the South African province of Gauteng with more than 50% of its water needs. (CHRISTOPHER SAUNDERS)

LIBERIA

LESOTHO

Area: 30,355 sq km (11,720 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,920,000 Capital: Maseru Head of state: King Letsie III Head of government: Prime Minister Bethuel Pakalitha Mosisili

Poverty increased in 2010 in a Lesotho still beset with endemic problems: food costs rose; unemployment reached 40%; and an estimated 23% of those aged 15–49 were HIV-positive. In addition, as a result of the global economic downturn, jobs disappeared in South Africa, where 30% of Lesotho’s economically active population worked, thus reducing remittances, which accounted for one-fourth of Lesotho’s GDP. The government’s child grant program and provision for free education did little to relieve distress. Moreover, the dispute over the results of the 2007 general election continued, with the ruling Lesotho Congress for Democracy

Area: 96,917 sq km (37,420 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 3,763,000 Capital: Monrovia Head of state and government: President Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf

On Jan. 25, 2010, Pres. Ellen JohnsonSirleaf presented an upbeat review of her administration’s fifth year in power to a joint session of Liberia’s national legislature. She concluded the meeting by declaring her candidacy to run for a second term in the forthcoming presidential election on Oct. 11, 2011. In reversing her 2005 campaign promise to step down after one term, she explained that the task of national recovery had proved more difficult than she had anticipated. Johnson-Sirleaf continued to enjoy great popularity as a result of her administration’s restoration of law and order and of democratic institutions, along with the government’s assault on corruption, its new programs for alleviating poverty, and its reconstruction of infrastructure. Electric-

World Affairs: Liechtenstein Amr Nabil/AP

ity, water, and other basic services were rebuilt in the capital and several counties. The president also enhanced the country’s international image by undertaking state visits to Ghana and Brazil in pursuit of trade and investment opportunities. On September 24 she addressed the UN General Assembly on Liberia’s political and economic progress. Economic indicators remained strong for Liberia. For four years, growth had held steady at about 7.4%. In June the IMF and the World Bank announced a $4.6 billion debt-relief program for the country. After the September meeting of the Paris Club, the United States canceled its remaining debt-repayment claims against Liberia and urged other creditors to take similar steps. Despite Liberia’s apparent political stability, the UN Security Council decided to retain its peacekeeping force of just over 12,000 members in the country for another year to forestall possible violence during the upcoming elections. Meanwhile, those elections dominated the national dialogue. Unlike the previous election, the new National Elections Commission would be entirely managed by Liberians. (LARAY DENZER)

LIBYA

Area: 1,777,060 sq km (686,127 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 6,546,000 Capital: Tripoli (policy-making body intermittently meets in Surt) Head of state: (de facto) Col. Muammar al-Qaddafi; (nominal) Secretaries of the General People’s Congress Mubarak !Abd Allah al-Shamikh and, from January 26, Muhammad Abul-Qasim al-Zwai Head of government: Secretary of the General People’s Committee (Prime Minister) Al-Baghdadi !Ali al-Mahmudi Much of the focus in Libya in early 2010 centred on the circumstances surrounding the release from a Scottish prison in August 2009 of Libyan Abdelbaset Ali Mohmed al-Megrahi, who in 2001 had been convicted of the bombing in 1988 of Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scot., in which 270 people were killed. After having served 8 years of his 27-year sentence, he was

In Surt (Sirte), Libya, on October 10, Libyan ruler Muammar al-Qaddafi (bottom centre) welcomes African and Arab leaders to the opening of the first AfricanArab summit in more than 30 years. freed on compassionate grounds following a diagnosis of terminal cancer that was expected to take his life in three months’ time. He returned to Libya, but when he failed to succumb, a number of alternate scenarios concerning his discharge emerged. One was that oil giant BP had exerted some influence in his release to facilitate a $900 million exploration deal with Libya. In July 2010 some U.S. senators called on the British government to investigate these allegations. That month the British press published records suggesting another possibility—that armstrade discussions between Libya and Britain could be linked to Megrahi’s release. British officials denied the accusations, and Libya remained silent on the matter. BP, however, postponed its expected deepwater drilling in Libya’s Gulf of Sidra to 2011. Though Megrahi’s file and that of the Pan Am bombing faded into the background by midyear, Libya was back in a European court in September. The trial of two Libyans, identified as Adel A and Adel B, opened in Berlin. The two were suspected of having spied on Libyan opposition members in Germany for Libyan intelligence from 2007 until their arrest in May 2010. Libya hosted the African Union meeting in May and the Arab League extraordinary summit in October. Both events were hosted by Turkish catering companies, signaling a clear TurkishLibyan rapprochement. During a visit to Libya in January, Turkish State Minister Zafer Caglayan said that Libyan Prime Minister Al-Baghdadi !Ali al-

Mahmudi told him that his country would make $100 billion in investments in the next three years. By September, 75% of the Libyan construction market was owned by Turkish contractors. Libya signed its first partnership with the EU in May. In October the U.S. assistant secretary of state for politicalmilitary affairs met with Libyan officials for strategic talks that explored building new partnerships. (AMIRA HOWEIDY)

LIECHTENSTEIN

Area: 160 sq km (62 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 36,000 Capital: Vaduz Head of state: Prince Hans Adam II Head of government: Klaus Tschütscher

In honour of the 65th birthday of Prince Hans Adam II on Feb. 14, 2010, the Liechtenstein Museum in Vienna opened an exhibition of 140 masterpieces from his collection, some on display for the first time. The extraordinary collection of European art treasures was begun in about 1600 by Prince Karl I, and Prince Hans Adam continued to build it, filling in gaps and extending it with paintings, sculpture, and furniture. Later in the year, items from the exhibition were also displayed at the Liechtenstein Museum of Art in Vaduz. 429

World Affairs: Lithuania

Liechtenstein’s economy continued to do well, and the country had one of the highest per capita incomes in the world. A comprehensive reform of the country’s tax law, approved in 2010, was to take effect Jan. 1, 2011. Prime Minister Klaus Tschütscher stated, “With this reform, Liechtenstein has taken a great step into a successful future. We have made a substantial contribution to strengthening our business location.” (ANNE ROBY)

LITHUANIA

Area: 65,300 sq km (25,212 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 3,297,000 Capital: Vilnius Head of state: President Dalia Grybauskaite Head of government: Prime Minister Andrius Kubilius

Lithuania celebrated two notable anniversaries in 2010. On March 11 the country commemorated 20 years of independence. On the occasion, former president Vytautas Landsbergis called for Russian military withdrawal from areas in Lithuania’s vicinity, particularly Belarus and the Kaliningrad region of Russia. July 15 marked the 600th anniversary of the Polish-Lithuanian victory in the Battle of Zalgiris (Tannenberg) against the Teutonic Order.

September was notable for highlights related to foreign affairs. On September 1 the U.S. Air Force’s 493rd Expeditionary Fighter Squadron assumed command of NATO policing of the Baltic airspace. The squadron would be stationed at the air base near Siauliai through December. On September 6 Pres. Dalia Grybauskaite and Prime Minister Andrius Kubilius welcomed a state visit by German Chancellor Angela Merkel. On the economic front, Lithuania still struggled to recover from the global crisis. Unemployment rose from 13.6% in 2009 to 18.3% in the second quarter of 2010. During the same period, the average monthly wage dropped by 5.4%, to 2,056 litas (about $760). A significant decline in foreign direct investment also was reported in the second quarter of 2010. The conservative government continued to make significant reductions in public spending as well. Nevertheless, there were some positive developments. IBM and Fisher Scientific planned to open research centres in Lithuania. Moreover, GDP increased by 6.7% from the second to the third quarter of 2010. Demographers noted that the population continued its decades-long trend of decline. From 2000 to 2010 the Lithuanian population shrank by roughly 400,000 people. Yet regardless of the country’s small size, Lithuanians felt enormous pride when their men’s basketball team won a bronze medal in the September 2010 Fédération Internationale de Basketball (FIBA) world championship in Turkey. (DARIUS FURMONAVICIUS)

To mark the 600th anniversary of the Battle of Zalgiris (Tannenberg), in which a joint Polish-Lithuanian force defeated the Knights of the Teutonic Order, hundreds of actors in northern Poland reenact the conflict on July 17.

LUXEMBOURG

Area: 2,586 sq km (999 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 506,000 Capital: Luxembourg Head of state: Grand Duke Henri Head of government: Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker

Despite Luxembourg’s economy’s having contracted 3.9% in 2009, the country’s per capita GDP was the highest in the EU in 2010. Only Luxembourg of the 16 euro-zone states had debt levels below EU requirements. “The devil will be in the details,” said Jean-Claude Juncker, Luxembourg’s prime minister and the president of the Eurogroup, before the October meetings to determine new fiscal rules for euro-zone member states. Luxembourg’s financial-services and technology sectors remained strong in 2010. Of the country’s 149 banks, the largest number were German-owned, though other European countries, Japan, and the U.S. also had a significant presence. Luxembourg had the world’s second largest mutual-fund market (after the U.S.), with about 3,463 registered funds. LuxAlpha, a fund that had invested 95% of its assets with U.S. hedge fund investor Bernie Madoff, was dissolved after his arrest for fraud. In March Luxembourg’s commercial court blocked individual lawsuits against UBS AG and Ernst & Young for negligent supervision of the fund. In 2010 two German television entertainment channels, RTL2 and Sport1 HD, adopted HD+, the high-definition technical platform designed for the German market by Luxembourg-based SES ASTRA, the leading direct-to-home (DTH) satellite system in Europe. (ANNE ROBY)

MACEDONIA

Area: 25,713 sq km (9,928 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 2,051,000 Capital: Skopje Head of state: President Gjorge Ivanov Head of government: Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski Tomasz Waszczuk—Agencja Gazeta/Reuters/Landov

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World Affairs: Malawi

On Jan. 27, 2010, the European Parliament’s Foreign Affairs Committee approved Macedonia’s progress report, clearing the way for the country to receive an accession date to the EU. Further progress was delayed, however, by domestic political problems in Belgium, which held the EU presidency in the second half of the year. There was no breakthrough in the long-standing dispute with Greece over Macedonia’s name despite assurances by Athens and Skopje that they were seeking a resolution and notwithstanding a number of bilateral talks and consultations with UN mediator Matthew Nimetz. The issue was further complicated by pledges from Macedonian Pres. Gjorge Ivanov and Prime Minister Nikola Gruevski that any compromise would be put to a referendum. Opinion polls suggested that a large majority of ethnic Macedonians would reject a change to the country’s name—even if doing so prevented Euro-Atlantic integration—whereas a majority of ethnic Albanians would approve it. In early February, 12 opposition parties signed a cooperation agreement aimed at ousting from power Gruevski and his Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization—Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRO–DPMNE). The group, known as the Front and led by the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM), was not joined by several other key opposition parties, including the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) and the Democratic Party of Albanians (PDSh). After a five-month absence, in early September opposition parties returned to the body that coordinated the parliament’s work. In April, the opposition had walked out after its demand to set up a special parliamentary body to control government spending was rejected. The PDSh, however, continued to boycott the parliament’s work altogether, because of a dispute over the interpretation of amnesty law. On May 12, four men were killed in a shoot-out with police near the Macedonia-Kosovo border. Weapons and explosives were found inside their van. The incident raised concerns about possible renewed interethnic violence between ethnic Macedonians and ethnic Albanians, especially in light of a statement in early February by PDSh leader Menduh Thaci that “there will be war” in Macedonia if the government continues to discriminate against ethnic Albanians.

On June 27 in Skopje, supporters of the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia, a leading opposition party, protest government policies that they maintained impeded the country’s integration into international organizations. Boris Grdanoski/AP

Macedonia’s economy continued to struggle, despite slight improvements over 2009. The National Bank projected GDP growth of 0.6%, an inflation rate of at least 1.5%, and a budget deficit of 2.2%. Unemployment was expected to reach 33.6% for the general population and to top 50% among young people. In the spring of 2010, the government and the Skopje city administration pushed ahead with implementing the controversial Skopje 2014 project, which called for construction or renovation of buildings and bridges in downtown Skopje, as well as for erecting statues of historical figures in the city centre. The project was widely criticized by the opposition, nongovernmental organizations, and intellectuals for its cost, aesthetic reasons, and possible effects on relations with Greece, as well as by ethnic Albanians for having ignored their history. (STEFAN KRAUSE)

The aftermath of the de facto coup that ousted Marc Ravalomanana as president in 2009 continued to be felt in Madagascar in late 2010. The country remained suspended from the Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the African Union, which had also imposed a travel ban on Ravalomanana’s successor, Andry Rajoelina, the former mayor of Antananarivo. In addition, the EU held back development aid. Former president Joaquim Chissano of Mozambique led a mediation effort under the auspices of SADC, and a series of talks were held between Rajoelina and his political opponents to try to reach a power-sharing arrangement. When the talks stalled, Rajoelina unilaterally set election dates, but he did not have sufficient political support to keep true to them in his quest for achieving international legitimacy. Eventually Chissano worked out a road map to new elections that involved all of the major political movements, which would jointly supervise a transitional period prior to the elections. This plan was endorsed by SADC in August. That same month Ravalomanana, who had fled into exile and been given asylum in South Africa, was sentenced in absentia by a court in Antananarivo to life imprisonment for his role in the deaths of antigovernment protesters who were fired upon by the army on the eve of the 2009 coup. On November 17 voters approved a new constitution. Among the provisions was one lowering the minimum age for a president to 35, which made it legal for Rajoelina to remain in office and to run for president in 2011. On that same day a group of dissident military officers attempted a coup, but it collapsed. (CHRISTOPHER SAUNDERS)

MALAWI

MADAGASCAR

Area: 587,051 sq km (226,662 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 20,146,000 Capital: Antananarivo Head of state and government: President Andry Rajoelina, assisted by Prime Minister Albert Camille Vital

Area: 118,484 sq km (45,747 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 15,448,000 Capital: Lilongwe; judiciary meets in Blantyre Head of state and government: President Bingu wa Mutharika

On Jan. 31, 2010, Malawi’s Pres. Binga wa Mutharika unseated Muammar alQaddafi of Libya to become president 431

World Affairs: Malaysia Mark Baker/AP

of the African Union. In an address to the UN General Assembly on behalf of the AU, Mutharika called for a shift from “Afro-pessimism” to “Afro-optimism” and urged governments and the media to pay more attention to positive developments in governance and microeconomic growth. He had to look no farther than his own country for an example of the benefits of good government. Malawi’s sound economic policy had led to steady growth, reduction of chronic food insecurity, and successful agricultural development in one of Africa’s poorest countries. On the other hand, Malawi drew international criticism for its harsh policy regarding homosexuality. Gay rights activists campaigned on behalf of Tiwonge Chimbalanga and Steven Monjeza, who in May were sentenced to 14 years’ imprisonment for “unnatural acts.” Although they were later pardoned after prominent foreign intervention, homosexuality remained a crime subject to severe penalties. There were also signs of a backlash against female politicians. Vice Pres. Joyce Banda, in particular, complained of a smear campaign against her by members of her own Democratic People’s Party. Other female politicians alleged that there was a systematic attempt to undermine the campaign to increase female political representation across the board to 50%. (LARAY DENZER)

MALAYSIA

Area: 329,876 sq km (127,366 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 28,275,000 Capital: Kuala Lumpur; administrative centre, Putrajaya Head of state: Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Paramount Ruler) Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud Head of government: Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak

Religious tensions flared again in Malaysia in 2010 as the government struggled to maintain the country’s image of a diverse and tolerant society. The government itself, however, became embroiled in a dispute over Malaysian Christian groups’ use of the name Allah to refer to their God. Although the practice dated back gener432

In response to a Malaysian court’s ruling that a Roman Catholic newspaper could use the name Allah as a translation for God in its Malay-language edition, offended Muslims protest in Kuala Lumpur on January 8. ations in Malaysia, recently many Muslims had expressed the suspicion that Christians were referring to their God as Allah in a surreptitious attempt to convert Muslims, an illegal activity in Malaysia. In late 2009 the government confiscated 10,000 Bibles in which God was called Allah. Weeks later a Malaysian court ruled that a Roman Catholic newspaper could use Allah to refer to God in its Malay-language edition. The government appealed the decision, delaying implementation of the court’s ruling. The controversy spawned a series of attacks on Christian churches in January 2010. In August two men were found guilty of having committed “mischief by fire” in connection with the attacks and were given five-year prison sentences. Another internationally visible controversy surrounded the second sodomy trial of opposition leader Anwar Ibrahim. The trial began in February and proceeded fitfully through most of the year. As in his 1998 sodomy trial, the charges against Anwar were widely considered a naked attempt by the ruling United Malays National Organization to weaken the opposition, which had mounted a serious threat in the 2008 elections. In 2010 the number of abandoned infants in Malaysia remained a significant issue. While the annual average

was about 100, by August the number of abandoned babies already stood at 65. Many were dead by the time they were found. To help address the problem, in September officials in Malacca state opened a school for pregnant teenagers so that they could continue their studies without constant exposure to the powerful stigma attached to unwed motherhood in Malaysia. Asia in 2010 led the way out of the global financial downturn, with Malaysia contributing strongly to the trend. Forecasters predicted economic growth of more than 5% for the year. In March, Bank Negara Malaysia, the country’s central bank, raised interest rates for the first time in nearly four years as economic activity rebounded. Interest rates were raised again in May and in July. In early October Malaysia opened free-trade talks with the EU. Also that month the government announced an investment of 47.7 billion ringgit (about $15.4 billion) by the Mubadala Development Co. of Abu Dhabi in the Kuala Lumpur International Financial District (KLIFD) and the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy, a project designed to accelerate development in Sarawak state. Development of the KLIFD was intended to make Malaysia the world leader in Islamic finance and to attract international banks from Europe and the United States. In July PSA Peugeot Cit-

World Affairs: Mali

roën signed a deal with Malaysia’s Naza to begin assembling cars in Malaysia in 2011, the third such collaboration between the two companies. In August Volkswagen and DRBHICOM, which was one of Malaysia’s largest car importers and distributors, announced an agreement to manufacture and assemble cars in Malaysia, beginning in 2012. (JANET MOREDOCK)

MALDIVES

Area: 298 sq km (115 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 320,000, excluding about 100,000 foreign workers employed on the resort islands Capital: Male Head of state and government: President Mohamed Nasheed

Maldives was plunged into a political crisis on June 29, 2010, when the entire cabinet resigned in protest after the opposition-dominated People’s Majlis (parliament) passed an amendment to the Public Finance Act that constricted executive power. It required the government to seek parliamentary approval before privatizing national assets, borrowing funds, or providing subsidies such as those for state-owned services that imported staple foods. Negotiations led to the resolution of the crisis on July 7, and the cabinet was reinstated. The episode highlighted the difficulties inherent in maintaining constitutional order amid intense interparty power struggles in the parliament. The rise of Islamic extremism was viewed with serious concern. In February a number of Islamic organizations, including the Justice Party, excoriated the minister of economic development, Mohamed Rasheed, for having revised a regulation so that alcohol could be sold in hotels on inhabited islands; the change was meant to help the tourist industry. Protesters forced the government to withdraw the regulation. In March the Justice Party accused Pres. Mohamed Nasheed (see BIOGRAPHIES) of having conveyed irreligious views during his weekly radio address. The economic situation remained precarious as government debt reached $553 million—one-third of GDP. The

budget deficit of $420 million exceeded the limit set by the IMF, which in December 2009 had pledged $92.5 million in assistance. A donor conference attended by about 60 representatives on March 28–29 promised $313 million in development assistance and budget support over the following three years. (PONMONI SAHADEVAN)

MALI

Area: 1,248,574 sq km (482,077 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 15,022,000 Capital: Bamako Head of state: President Amadou Toumani Touré Head of government: Prime Minister Modibo Sidibé

Algeria and Mauritania temporarily suspended diplomatic relations with Mali in February 2010 after the Malian government released four convicted members of al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghrib (AQIM). The men were to have faced trial in Algeria and Mauritania following the completion of their sentences in Mali. AQIM had threatened to kill French hostage Pierre Ca-

matte if the men were not freed, but Malian authorities denied that France had pressured them to accede to AQIM’s demands. On April 16 AQIM freed two Italian hostages being held in Mali, and on August 23 two Spanish hostages were released. In July, however, the group executed another abducted European, French aid worker Michel Germaneau. In mid-September Mauritanian troops and aircraft crossed the Mali frontier to attack an AQIM camp near Timbuktu. They claimed to have killed 12 insurgents but lost 8 soldiers in the operation. In domestic matters, efforts continued to reconcile conservative Muslim opinion to Mali’s proposed new family code, which aimed to establish equality of the sexes in marriage. The imam of Kati, having expressed support for the code, went into hiding in April after receiving death threats. Stating that the bill in its present form threatened national unity, Pres. Amadou Toumani Touré sent it back to the National Assembly for revisions. Despite good rainfall during the summer, much of northern Mali still felt the effects of years of drought. The scarcity of water forced many pastoralists to migrate and to sell much of their remaining livestock at record low prices. In August the government began distribution of free food and animal feed in some districts. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

As part of a three-week exercise led by the U.S. military to help Saharan countries deal with various security threats, a U.S. Army soldier instructs Malian special forces on counterambush tactics on May 10.

Alfred de Montesquiou

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MALTA

MARSHALL ISLANDS

Area: 316 sq km (122 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 413,000 Capital: Valletta Head of state: President George Abela Head of government: Prime Minister Lawrence Gonzi

Area: 181 sq km (70 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 54,400 Capital: Majuro Head of state and government: President Jurelang Zedkaia

With the government claiming that Malta had emerged from the recession, foreign affairs took centre stage in 2010. In April, Pope Benedict XVI’s visit was greeted with great enthusiasm. He urged the country to be a bulwark of Christianity in Europe and to hold firm against divorce and abortion. Despite his tight schedule, the pope received eight men who claimed that priests had molested them in their youth, and he expressed shame and sorrow for their suffering. In June, Italian Pres. Giorgio Napolitano paid a state visit. He stressed the need for a common European Union policy on immigration and stronger European institutions. During the first half of the year, Malta helped to mediate a diplomatic quarrel between Switzerland and Libya. Switzerland had blocked a number of Libyans from entering the country—and hence the passport-free Schengen area of Europe—and Libya had retaliated by refusing to issue visas to Europeans from that area. After an agreement was reached on June 13, Maltese Prime Minister Lawrence Gonzi visited Tripoli, where he and Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi discussed increased cooperation between North African and southern European states. Only a few hundred immigrants entered Malta in 2010—a sharp decline from the thousands who had arrived annually in the preceding few years. In March Malta objected to new guidelines for Frontex (the EU’s border patrol agency), which stipulated that immigrants rescued at sea be taken to the country hosting the Frontex mission. Malta, which preferred that rescued immigrants go to the closest port, declared in April that it would no longer host a Frontex mission. In August the country mourned the death of former president Guido de Marco. (See (ALBERT GANADO) OBITUARIES.) 434

In 2010 the Marshall Islands government faced ongoing economic problems. The government social security agency had to withdraw money from its retirement investments to make up for a budgetary shortfall, and officials forecast a deteriorating situation. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers reported in July that the infrastructure was failing on Ebeye Island, home to the Marshallese staff who worked at the U.S. missile-testing facility on Kwajalein Atoll, and that the facility could not sustain its current population of 15,000 without significant investment. Shortly afterward, 28 Marshallese and 51 American jobs on the island were eliminated, reducing the number of employees to about 775 Marshallese and 900 Americans. The black pearl industry, dormant since 2005, was revived, and a new stakeholder consortium was positioning the Marshalls to compete with other Pacific producers. The government secured funding from the Asian Development Bank to create sustainable-energy projects to reduce the country’s dependence on imported fuel, more than 50% of which was used to generate electricity. Bikini Atoll, the site of U.S. nuclear-weapons testing in the 1940s and 1950s, was granted World Heritage status by UNESCO. (CLUNY MACPHERSON)

Counterterrorism operations, particularly against al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghrib (AQIM), dominated the news in Mauritania in 2010. A diplomatic row between Mauritania and Mali erupted in February when the latter country released four members of AQIM in an apparent exchange for a French hostage. In the same month, Mauritanian troops engaged in armed combat with an AQIM-led convoy transporting cannabis and cocaine near the Malian frontier. Survivors of the skirmish were arrested and later charged with drug dealing and supporting terrorist activities. On May 25 three members of AQIM were sentenced to death for the 2007 killing of four French tourists. The United States launched a joint military training exercise, Operation Flintlock, on May 3. It was part of a wider program of counterterrorism being undertaken in the Sahara region. In July French troops joined Mauritanian soldiers in a raid on an AQIM base in northern Mali. The raid failed to free French hostage Michel Germaneau, who was executed later that month. On August 25 Mauritanian troops killed a would-be suicide bomber attempting to ram his explosive-laden truck into army barracks in the southeastern town of Néma. After Mauritanian planes attacked a convoy reputed to be carrying AQIM militants on September 20, Mohamed Mahmoud Ould Mohamed Leminé, head of the country’s ruling party, called for a holy war against terrorists. A significant sociocultural event was the fatwa (religious edict) banning female circumcision, signed on January 12 by a group of 34 Islamic leaders. Campaigners against the practice, which affected some 70% of the female population, nonetheless worried that traditional culture would outweigh the religious opinion. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

MAURITANIA

MAURITIUS

Area: 1,030,700 sq km (398,000 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 3,205,000 Capital: Nouakchott Head of state: President Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz Head of government: Prime Minister Moulaye Ould Mohamed Laghdaf

Area: 2,040 sq km (788 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,282,000 Capital: Port Louis Head of state: President Sir Anerood Jugnauth Head of government: Prime Minister Navin Ramgoolam

World Affairs: Mexico Bernardino Hernadez/AP

In May 2010 legislative elections, voters in Mauritius elected Prime Minister Navin Ramgoolam to a second term. In an effort to resolve the political uncertainty that had been affecting the economy adversely, Ramgoolam had dissolved the National Assembly in March for early elections, which Ramgoolam then called for May 5. The prime minister’s coalition won 41 seats to the opposition’s 18, securing Ramgoolam’s reelection. The election was closely watched because former prime minister Paul Bérenger, who had lost his seat to Ramgoolam in 2005, was his successor’s main opposition in the race. Bérenger was the country’s first non-Hindu prime minister, and his reemergence in Mauritian politics had highlighted the island’s ethnic tensions. In September the country mourned the loss of Vice Pres. Angidi Chettiar, who died in office at the age of 83. He had previously served in that position from 1997 to 2002 and was reappointed in 2007. In an effort to address the growing problem of piracy in the Indian Ocean and to protect the island’s economic zone, Mauritius created a force of specially trained National Coast Guard commandos for deployment in the region. In August a strong earthquake measuring magnitude 6.3 struck in the Indian Ocean east-northeast of Mauritius; no casualties were reported. (MARY EBELING)

MEXICO

Area: 1,964,375 sq km (758,450 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 108,396,000 Capital: Mexico City Head of state and government: President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa

With partisan maneuvering already under way prior to the 2012 presidential election in Mexico, the 2010 political calendar centred on the hotly contested state and municipal elections held in July. The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI, which had held the presidency without interruption between 1929 and 2000 and whose defeat in 2000 consolidated electoral democracy in Mexico) had won a larger share of congressional seats and gubernatorial posts than Pres. Felipe Calderón’s Na-

Following the murder of four police officers in their vehicle in Acapulco, Mex., on July 17, the grandmother of one of the victims, José Ramírez, grieves over his body. Drug-related violence wreaked havoc throughout Mexico during the year. tional Action Party (PAN) in the 2009 midterm elections. Therefore, these state and municipal contests attained unprecedented significance as a measure of the contending parties’ relative position in the run-up to 2012. Moreover, the July elections tested the viability of the novel electoral alliances forged between the centre-right PAN and the centre-left Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) as a strategy for preventing the resurgent PRI from regaining the presidency. The anti-PRI alliance strategy provoked considerable controversy, including high-level defections from both the PAN (including Fernando Gómez Mont, who in protest resigned as minister of the interior) and the PRD. In the event, however, anti-PRI coalitions (sometimes including minor parties in addition to the PAN and the PRD) won gubernatorial races in Oaxaca, Puebla, and Sinaloa. Even so, the PRI prevailed in 9 of the 12 gubernatorial elections, including those in three states previously controlled by the PAN. Perhaps of equal significance, the PAN failed to win any of the gubernatorial races on its own, and it lost the two states it had previously governed by itself. Fears of drug-related violence sharply reduced voter turnout in the northern border states of Chihuahua and Tamaulipas. In other political developments, the Calderón administration struck a blow against politically independent labour groups when it abruptly closed the

state-owned Central Light and Power (LFC) in October 2009, an action that deprived some 42,500 members of the Mexican Electricians Union (SME) of their jobs. Government spokespersons argued that large-scale budgetary subsidies to the LFC were no longer acceptable and that the union, whose contract terms allegedly contributed to excessively high operating costs, had refused to implement productivity-enhancing reforms necessary to restore the company’s financial health. Although in July 2010 the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of Calderón’s decision, what government officials failed to mention was that the Federal Accounting Office had in June 2009 informed LFC management that agreements negotiated with the SME in 2008 to raise productivity, lower labour costs, and increase the company’s revenue flow, while still protecting workers’ jobs, were showing positive results. Nor did the government acknowledge that labour contracts (including retirement benefits, the most costly fringe benefits in the SME’s contract) were essentially the same at LFC and the Federal Electrical Commission (CFE) or that the principal cause of LFC’s persistent deficits was the regulatory requirement that it purchase electrical power from the CFE at an above-market price that was higher than it was authorized to charge its customers. Although the LFC’s financial situation was certainly precarious, the Calderón ad435

World Affairs: Micronesia, Federated States of

ministration’s action was also informed by the pursuit of a series of calculated political objectives: breaking the power of a politically independent union that had repeatedly challenged government economic policies, enhancing President Calderón’s image at a time when his personal popularity was low, and benefiting private investors who sought control of the LFC’s fibre-optic network. During the year there were also significant developments in the government’s ongoing struggle against drugtrafficking cartels. Drug-related deaths continued to escalate, with a record 15,273 people killed during 2010 (for a total of 34,612 deaths since the Calderón administration began its assault on the cartels in December 2006). The government did score notable successes with the killing or arrest of such major traffickers as Arturo Beltrán Leyva (“the Boss of Bosses,” who was killed by navy commandos in December 2009) and Edgar Valdez Villarreal (“La Barbie,” a U.S.-born and notoriously violent member of the Beltrán Leyva gang who was arrested in August 2010). The Calderón administration also continued to purge corrupt officers from the federal police, and it proposed new legislation to fight money laundering by limiting cash transactions to 100,000 pesos (about $8,000). There were, nonetheless, indications that traffickers were targeting political candidates and officials at the state and municipal levels with increasing frequency. The most prominent victim was the PRI’s gubernatorial candidate in Tamaulipas, who was assassinated days before the July 4 election. Events such as this prompted U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton to compare Mexico’s situation to the one Colombia had faced two decades earlier. Her comment produced a sharp rebuttal from Mexican officials, and U.S. Pres. Barack Obama attempted to limit the diplomatic damage by quickly disavowing Clinton’s remarks. Nevertheless, confronted by mounting evidence (including the rising death toll and repeated serious human rights violations by military and police forces) that the Mexican government’s military-focused strategy was not succeeding, and in light of widening concern that public support for the government’s policies might be weakening, Calderón modified his stance. Government officials stopped insisting that heightened violence meant that the struggle against the cartels was nearing a successful conclusion. Calderón also invited political forces 436

from across the partisan spectrum to join in a national “Dialogue on Security,” the goal of which was to forge a broad consensus on antidrug strategy. Although no quick agreement emerged, one option that had gained greater political traction—endorsed by former president Vicente Fox, among others, although the general public remained strongly opposed—was the partial decriminalization of possession and use of some drugs (marijuana, for example) so as to cut cartel profits, contain the drugrelated corruption of government officials and security forces, and concentrate resources on other antidrug efforts. Mexico’s GDP grew by 5.0% during 2010 as the country recovered from a severe recession in 2009, during which GDP shrank by 6.5%. However, unemployment remained high, and growth slowed in the second half of the year because of continued economic weakness in the U.S., Mexico’s principal export market. Inflation during the year averaged a modest 4.1%. (KEVIN J. MIDDLEBROOK)

MICRONESIA, FEDERATED STATES OF

Area: 701 sq km (271 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 111,000 Capital: Palikir, on Pohnpei Head of state and government: President Emanuel Mori

In January 2010 Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) Pres. Emanuel Mori visited Israel, which had been the first non-Pacific country to establish diplomatic relations with the FSM after it achieved internal self-government in 1986. Mori gave assurances that the FSM would continue to support Israel’s interests in the UN. In a bid to extract more value from their skipjack tuna fisheries, the FSM and seven other countries applied to the Marine Stewardship Council for “ecocertification” for a portion of their catch; that certification would bring it a premium price in world markets. The FSM and its partners in the Nauru Agreement resolved to limit fishing in 4.5 million sq km (1.7 million sq mi) of ocean waters, beginning in January 2011, to reduce the depletion of tuna stocks.

The FSM mourned the deaths during the year of two favourite sons. In May, U.S. Army Specialist Eric Finniginam of Yap died in Afghanistan; he was the 42nd U.S. military member from a Micronesian country to die since 2003. In July the FSM lost one of its last great master mariners, 78-year-old Mau Piailug, who died on Satawal, Yap state. His skills as a traditional navigator were widely sought throughout the Pacific after he guided the double-hulled voyaging canoe Hokule’a on its maiden voyage from Hawaii to Tahiti in 1976, and he revitalized traditional voyaging and navigation throughout the eastern Pacific. (CLUNY MACPHERSON)

MOLDOVA

Area: 33,843 sq km (13,067 sq mi), including the 4,163-sq-km (1,607-sq-mi) area of the disputed territory of Transdniestria (Transnistria; Pridnestrovie) Population (2010 est.): 3,941,000 (excluding Moldovans working abroad but including the more than 500,000 persons in Transdniestria) Capital: Chisinau Head of state: Presidents Mihai Ghimpu (acting), Vlad Filat (acting) from December 28, and, from December 30, Marian Lupu (acting) Head of government: Prime Minister Vlad Filat

Moldova’s economy improved slightly in 2010 after having contracted by 8.5% in 2009. The country remained without a permanent president, however, as the ruling coalition, the Alliance for European Integration (AEI), tried to consolidate its rule after a narrow electoral victory over the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova (PCRM) in 2009. Having lacked the 61 parliamentary votes necessary to elect a president, the AEI looked to a September 5 referendum to amend the constitution to allow popular election of the president, but turnout fell short of the required 33% of the electorate. On November 28, some 18 months after the last parliamentary elections, Moldovans voted again, this time in much greater numbers. Although the PCRM won plurality, with 39% of the vote, it was clearly in electoral decline, having seen its representation drop by

World Affairs: Mongolia

18 seats over the past three elections. Prime Minister Vlad Filat’s Liberal Democratic Party of Moldova (PLDM) came in second with 29%, a large increase over its 2009 performance. The PLDM and the smaller parties that constituted the AEI enjoyed a clear parliamentary majority but still fell two seats short of being able to elect a president. Unless a compromise candidate could be agreed upon with the Communists, it was hard to see how the deadlock could be broken. Yet even as this political drama unfolded, the EU agreed to provide >85 million (about $115 million) to help transform Moldova’s Soviet-era bureaucracy into a modern, performance-oriented administrative system. Moreover, in November Moldova and Romania signed a treaty that formalized their mutual border and established protocols for its administration. Relations also thawed with Russia, the chief customer for Moldova’s agricultural produce, which had imposed economic blockades in previous years. (TOM GALLAGHER)

MONACO

Area: 2.02 sq km (0.78 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 35,200 Head of state: Prince Albert II Head of government: Ministers of State Jean-Paul Proust and, from March 29, Michel Roger

19th Commonwealth Games in Delhi. He then traveled to China for the Expo 2010 Shanghai China. (See Sidebar on page 381.) There he promoted Monaco as an entryway to Europe for China. Succeeding Jean-Paul Proust as head of government, Minister of State Michel Roger took office on March 29. Roger had been a member of Monaco’s Supreme Court since 2007. Meanwhile, planning for a project to expand the country’s territory by reclaiming land from the sea continued, but the projected size of the reclaimed land was scaled down because of economic and environmental concerns. (ANNE ROBY)

MONGOLIA

Area: 1,564,116 sq km (603,909 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 2,763,000 Capital: Ulaanbaatar (Ulan Bator) Head of state: President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj Head of government: Prime Minister Sükhbaataryn Batbold

In April 2010 Sanjaagiin Bayar, who had been forced by ill health to step down as prime minister in 2009, also resigned the chairmanship of the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party

(MPRP). He named Sükhbaataryn Batbold, who had replaced him as prime minister, to serve in his stead as MPRP chairman. The MPRP Little Khural postponed the MPRP congress (which chooses the chairman) and elected Batbold on April 8. A few days earlier Batbold had opened a conference celebrating the 40th anniversary of former dictator Yumjaagin Tsedenbal’s “selfless leadership.” Tsedenbal was removed from power in 1984, and the MPRP canceled his party membership and confiscated his honours and awards in 1990. In September the Little Khural called the MPRP congress for the beginning of November. At the congress the delegates voted to change the party’s name to the Mongolian People’s Party. President Elbegdorj’s announcement in January of a moratorium on capital punishment, pending approval of a Great Khural ban, was praised internationally. In April thousands of protesters marched in Ulaanbaatar to demand the dissolution of the Great Khural for failing to honour promises made in 2008 to distribute mineral profits more fairly and to punish corruption. The president in July issued a decree mandating the use of the Mongolian vertical script for official documents, including communications with foreign heads of state and government (with translation provided). The severe winter of 2009–10 killed almost 20% of the livestock in Mongolia (over nine million head) and left many families destitute. National poverty rose to 38.7%. The government,

In May a herder in Ovorhangay province, central Mongolia, rests alongside a pile of animal carcasses. An especially harsh winter in the country claimed nearly one-fifth of the country’s livestock.

The long-anticipated news that Prince Albert II of Monaco would marry was announced by the royal palace on June 23, 2010. Prince Albert and his fiancée, Charlene Wittstock, planned to wed in July 2011. The civil ceremony was scheduled for July 2, with the religious ceremony following on July 3. The celebration was expected to be televised live, as had been the wedding of Albert’s father, Prince Rainier III, to Grace Kelly in 1956. Known for his environmental work as well as his trek to the Arctic in 2006, Prince Albert was made an honorary member of the Russian Geographical Society in September at a forum on the Arctic in Moscow. In October, as a member of the International Olympic Committee, he attended the opening of the Ng Han Guan/AP

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however, approved the feasibility study of Oyuutolgoi copper and gold mine, which was expected to treble GNP by 2015. Plans went ahead for development of Tavantolgoi coal mine, including a broad-gauge railway to the Russian border. (ALAN J.K. SANDERS)

MONTENEGRO

Area: 13,812 sq km (5,333 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 633,000 Capital: Podgorica (Cetinje is the old royal capital) Head of state: President Filip Vujanovic Head of government: Prime Ministers Milo Djukanovic and, from December 29, Igor Luksic

In November 2010 the European Commission recommended Montenegro for candidate status in the EU. The Commission concluded that Montenegro’s progress in meeting membership criteria was “considerable and sustained.” Moreover, Foreign Policy magazine named Montenegro the most stable country in the western Balkans. In December Prime Minister Milo Djukanovic unexpectedly resigned, satisfied that he had shepherded the country to the brink of EU membership. He was succeeded as prime minister by Finance Minister Igor Luksic but remained the leader of the Democratic Party of Socialists (DPS). Djukanovic’s government had survived a vote of confidence in April, when it was accused of ineffectively combating organized crime and mismanaging state institutions. Despite these accusations, the DPS won the majority of municipal elections in May. In August and September, having approved the publication of The Grammar of the Montenegrin Language as the official grammatical code, the parliament made Montenegrin the “official language” of the broadcast media and educational institutions. In November the parliament suspended a controversial “economic citizenship” plan that had allowed foreigners who invested in Montenegro or made a payment to the government of about $700,000 to apply for citizenship. The plan, enacted by the government in August, had been intended to give the republic a “compet-

itive advantage” in attracting foreign investment. EU officials expressed reservations regarding the plan because of security concerns. The World Bank ranked Montenegro 66th out of 183 countries in terms of ease of doing business there. According to the IMF, Montenegro’s GDP was expected to contract by 1.8% in 2010. The government put the unemployment rate at between 10% and 15%, while the EU’s Labour Force Survey placed the rate at about 20%. Informal employment, according to official estimates, accounted for some 25% of the labour force. (MILAN ANDREJEVICH)

MOROCCO

Area: 694,420 sq km (268,117 sq mi), including the 252,120-sq-km (97,344-sq-mi) area of the disputed Western Sahara annexation Population (2010 est.): 32,119,000, of which Western Sahara 492,000 Capital: Rabat Head of state and government: King Muhammad VI, assisted by Prime Minister !Abbas al-Fassi Moroccan dependence on the European Union (EU)—which in 2009 had provided 58.7% of the country’s imports, absorbed 61.9% of its exports,

and contributed the majority of its foreign investment—increased in 2010, owing to Morocco’s advanced status agreement with the EU. The agreement was the first of its kind granted to any non-European state. The enhanced relationship was underlined by a March conference, where the parties agreed to cooperative measures on counterterrorism, immigration, agriculture, and fisheries. Relations with Spain, however, were harmed in July and August by Moroccan accusations of police brutality at Melilla, a Spanish enclave on Morocco’s Mediterranean coast. Morocco withdrew its ambassador from Madrid as a result, although contacts had improved by the end of the year. Counterterrorism dominated the domestic scene. Authorities arrested dozens of suspects, including several members of a suspected terrorist network in northern Morocco and a number of people allegedly linked to alQaeda in the Islamic Maghrib (AQIM). An attempt by several Islamists to escape from Kenitra prison was foiled in March. In July the Moroccan courts upheld the convictions of 35 people, including 6 politicians, for involvement in the so-called Belliraj terrorist ring, which had been uncovered in 2008. The dispute between Morocco and the Polisario Front over Western Sahara remained unresolved. International attention to the situation had been revived by the case of Aminatou Haidar, a Saharawi activist who, because she had refused to identify her nationality as Moroccan, was prevented from reen-

On November 8 near Laayoune, in the disputed territory of the Western Sahara, Moroccan troops forcibly dismantle a large refugee camp that had been erected to protest poor living conditions in the area.

Maghreb Arabe Presse/AP

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tering Western Sahara at Laayoune Airport in late 2009. The decision was reversed on Dec. 18, 2009, only after her lengthy hunger strike and the intervention of the Spanish, French, and U.S. governments. Nevertheless, Morocco continued to seek support for its proposal to grant autonomy, but not independence, to Western Sahara. An informal meeting between representatives of both sides in Westchester county, N.Y., in February was inconclusive, and in April the UN Security Council renewed the mandate for its monitoring force in the region. Morocco’s economy, which had been only mildly affected by the recession in 2009, was set to improve during 2010. Although the cereal harvest was well below the bumper harvest of the previous year, GDP growth was projected to rise. Plans to update infrastructure and to expand renewable energy resources were expected to boost the economy as well. (GEORGE JOFFÉ)

MOZAMBIQUE

Area: 799,379 sq km (308,642 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 22,426,000 Capital: Maputo Head of state and government: President Armando Guebuza, assisted by Prime Ministers Luisa Diogo and, from January 16, Aires Ali

Throughout 2010 Mozambique struggled with crises that were partly derived from the country’s undue dependence on foreign aid and trade. During the first quarter of the year, the Mozambican government had difficulty meeting budgetary expenses because the Programme Aid Partnership, a group of 19 foreign donors and funding agencies (including Portugal and Italy), held up the disbursement of $471.8 million to the country. Internal revenue sources covered only about half of the state budget, with the rest slated to come from foreign loans and grants. Some analysts speculated that the reasons for the donor “strike” centred on demands for structural reform in the economy and governance. Indeed, there was general agreement among national civil organizations and international donors concerning the

need for change, especially in the electoral laws. Popular resentment of rising inflation and soaring prices reached fever pitch when on September 1 rioters took to the streets of the capital. Protesters demonstrated for three days against a 20% hike in the price of bread and hefty increases in electricity and water tariffs. Armed police used both tear gas and live ammunition to quell the disturbances, arresting 400 and killing 13. Later, an official report on police action charged the central police command with mismanagement and the use of excessive force, concluding that corrupt police had exacerbated violence. In response to the unrest, the government quickly reduced the price of bread and other commodities but retained the new electricity charges. Subsidizing food prices, however, was but a shortterm solution. The country produced only 30% of the wheat it required and depended on South Africa for a large share of its food imports. Two external market forces intensified the country’s economic problems: the steep decline of the national currency against the South African rand and the worldwide wheat shortage that resulted from the drought in Russia. Floods in the Zambezi valley and drought in central and southern Mozambique caused serious crop losses for peasant farmers and the temporary relocation of tens of thousands of people. The UN World Food Programme stepped in to supply 178,000 families with food in March and April. Flooding also led to another outbreak of cholera. By mid-March 2,683 cases of cholera had been recorded, mainly in the provinces of Sofala, Nampula, Zambezia, Niassa, and Cabo Delgado. According to WHO, Mozambique accounted for one-third to one-fifth of all cases reported in Africa in 2010. (LARAY DENZER)

MYANMAR (BURMA)

Area: 676,577 sq km (261,228 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 53,414,000 Capital: Nay Pyi Taw (Naypyidaw) Head of state and government: Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Gen. Than Shwe, assisted by Prime Minister Thein Sein

The year 2010 was one of tightly orchestrated change for military-ruled Myanmar. The first multiparty elections in 20 years were held on November 7, with the military-controlled Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) winning more than 80% of the seats in the national parliament and a majority of seats in state and regional assemblies. Ethnic parties and some opposition parties gained some seats, but the strong USDP showing and a constitutional provision granting one-fourth of parliamentary seats to the military guaranteed that opposition groups still had no significant role in the country’s politics. The election campaign was conducted with tight legal and security controls, and voting irregularities by officials were widely reported. Shortly after the elections, opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi was released from more than seven years of house arrest. She announced a desire to resume dialogue with the military government and with all other parties in Myanmar about achieving a peaceful transition to a more open political system. Senior Gen. Than Shwe visited India and China in 2010. Despite visits by U.S. officials to Myanmar, the government did not respond to engagement overtures by the West. UN-sponsored mediation efforts stalled during the year, with no high-level visits permitted, despite concerns over the elections voiced by Secretary-General Ban KiMoon. In March and September, Tomás Ojea Quintana, the UN special envoy for human rights in Myanmar, called for an inquiry into long-standing allegations of crimes against humanity and war crimes committed during Myanmar’s civil war. Military offensives continued in eastern Myanmar, including an attack by antigovernment forces on election day that forced an estimated 20,000 people to seek refuge in Thailand. Tensions with more than a dozen other nonstated armed groups increased as fears grew that armed conflict would resume after the elections. Myanmar’s economy largely stagnated in 2010, despite agricultural reforms and increased natural gas revenues. The Economist Intelligence Unit estimated real GDP growth at 2.2%. Foreign exchange reserves grew to $5 billion, largely from natural gas sales. Myanmar’s inflation rate decreased from 12% to about 4% in late 2009. Consumer spending and a construction boom in major cities pointed to the country’s growing gap between rich and 439

World Affairs: Namibia

poor and a continued desperate rural standard of living. China began construction on two major projects in Myanmar: two energy pipelines, natural gas and crude oil, from western Myanmar eastward to southern China and several hydroelectric dams in northern Myanmar. (DAVID SCOTT MATHIESON)

NAMIBIA

Area: 824,116 sq km (318,193 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 2,212,000 Capital: Windhoek Head of state and government: President Hifikepunye Pohamba, assisted by Prime Minister Nahas Angula

Early in 2010, after Nambia’s ruling party, the South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO), had gained a decisive victory in the November 2009 election, nine opposition parties disputed the process in the High Court. After that court dismissed the case on a technicality, the opposition parties appealed to the Supreme Court, which in September reversed the ruling on the technicality in question and referred the case back to the High Court. Few, however, expected that the election results would be overturned. On March 21, 2010, the 20th anniversary of Nambia’s independence, Pres. Hifikepunye Pohamba made cabinet changes. Principal among them was the appointment of Utoni Nujoma, the eldest son of the country’s founding president, Sam Nujoma, as minister of foreign affairs, positioning him to succeed Pohamba as president in 2014. Despite ranking in the upper-middle tier of countries in terms of per capita income, Namibia remained one of the least-equitable societies in the world. Women had a lower life expectancy in 2010 than at the time of independence, largely because of the prevalence of HIV/AIDS. While the Anti-Corruption Commission failed to effectively tackle the many financial scandals that had come to light, more than 100 men remained imprisoned for their alleged involvement in the failed secession of the Caprivi region in 1999. In August 2010 Namibia began chairing the Southern African Development Com440

munity (SADC), whose summit in Windhoek again failed to respond decisively to the crisis in Zimbabwe. (See Zimbabwe, below.) Although Namibia’s economy shrank in 2008–09 because of the global recession and receipts from the Southern African Customs Union fell significantly, increased diamond and uranium production in 2010 promised a new era of economic growth in the country. Nevertheless, because increases in food prices threatened to lead to malnutrition in certain rural areas, the cabinet in August approved food distribution to those in need. (CHRISTOPHER SAUNDERS)

the island for the processing of people seeking asylum in Australia. (JANET MOREDOCK)

NEPAL

Area: 147,181 sq km (56,827 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 28,952,000 Capital: Kathmandu Head of state: President Ram Baran Yadav Head of government: Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal (resigned June 30)

NAURU

Area: 21.2 sq km (8.2 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 9,300 Capital: Government offices in Yaren district Head of state and government: President Marcus Stephen

Early in 2010 proceedings in Nauru’s 18-member Parliament ground to a halt in a 9-to-a-side deadlock. Snap elections in late April returned the same representatives to the legislature. The deadlock continued, despite the election of a new speaker. In early June, Pres. Marcus Stephen declared a state of emergency, under which a second election was held on June 19. One new member was elected, but he did not align himself with either side in the deadlock. On July 12 Stephen adjourned Parliament, and the state of emergency was extended. In November the parliamentary standoff finally ended; Stephen was reelected to a second presidential term, and the state of emergency was lifted. In March Nauruan officials took control of a new secondary school built with foreign aid from Australia. The school included Nauru’s first vocational training facility. School enrollment across the island rose above 83% in 2010. Improvements in health care reduced the infant mortality rate to 20 per 1,000 live births, down from 40 per 1,000 live births in 2002. In August the Australian government confirmed that it was talking with Nauru’s government about reopening a centre on

Nepal was recognized by the UN in 2010 for having reduced the maternal mortality rate from 415 to 229 deaths per 100,000 live births since 2000. This was considered a major accomplishment toward achieving one of the UN’s eight antipoverty Millennium Development Goals. In late May the terms of Constituent Assembly (CA) members were extended for one year past their first two-year tenures to complete the drafting of Nepal’s new constitution. Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal resigned on June 30 amid pressure from the opposition Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)—including a paralyzing six-day general strike in May—but the CA failed to elect a new prime minister. Despite Supreme Court intervention in November, the situation remained unresolved at year’s end. In September the tenure of the UN Mission in Nepal was extended to Jan. 15, 2011. Earlier, in January, the UN oversaw the discharge of 4,008 former Maoist child soldiers and noncombatants from UN-monitored cantonments. Former prime minister Girija Prasad Koirala, a key figure in the country’s peace process, died on March 20. (See OBITUARIES.) Diplomatically, Pres. Ram Baran Yadav traveled to India in February before making his first visit to northern neighbour China in October. Earlier in the month a group that included then prime minister Nepal and main opposition party leader Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda) also visited China. In February Nepal launched a campaign to attract a million tourists to Nepal in 2011. An airplane crash south of Kathmandu in August killed 14, passengers including 6 foreigners. Nepali

World Affairs: New Zealand

mountaineer Chhewang Nima Sherpa, whose 19 ascents of Mt. Everest were second only to world record holder Apa Sherpa, was lost in an avalanche in October. (KESHAB POUDEL)

NETHERLANDS

Area: 41,543 sq km (16,040 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 16,602,000 Capital: Amsterdam; seat of government, The Hague Head of state: Queen Beatrix Head of government: Prime Ministers Jan Peter Balkenende and, from October 14, Mark Rutte

In February 2010 the coalition government of the Netherlands fell following disagreements over the country’s military mission in Afghanistan. Labour Party leader and Deputy Prime Minister Wouter Bos opposed an extension of the Dutch mission in Uruzgan, whereas other coalition partners were willing to consider NATO’s request for a prolonged Dutch deployment. The collapse was not entirely surprising; the coalition had shown signs of instability since its formation in the winter of 2007, and none of the three previous cabinets under Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende had been able to complete a four-year term. Parliamentary elections were held on June 9. The results showed the Dutch electorate to be deeply divided, as had been expected. The right-of-centre People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD) received its highest number of votes since 1998, winning 31 seats—an increase from the 22 it had won in 2006. The Labour Party (PvdA) took 30 seats, a loss of 3. The centre-right Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) lost most dramatically; it earned only 21 seats, down from 41. The minority party in the previous coalition, the Christian Union, won 5 seats, down from 6; the Green Left gained 3 seats for a total of 10; and the Socialist Party held on to 15 seats, down from 25. The Party for Freedom (PVV), led by Geert Wilders (see BIOGRAPHIES), was the most successful of the smaller parties; its 24 seats, an increase of 15, gave the PVV a voice in coalition negotiations. Many Dutch cit-

izens were concerned, however, about Wilders’s explicit anti-immigration and anti-Islam stances. Having been charged in 2009 with insulting a group (Muslims) on the basis of religion and with inciting hatred and discrimination, Wilders stood trial in October. The trial was interrupted later that month when the panel of judges was dismissed for apparent bias. Meanwhile, after various constellations of parties had made several failed attempts to form coalition agreements, a plan emerged in October for a minority government comprising the VVD and the CDA, with the PVV agreeing to vote in support of it. Prominent CDA members warned of serious differences in values and policy between the CDA and Wilders’s PVV, and some members of the CDA and the VVD left their parties or resigned from the parliament in protest. That Wilders had spoken in New York City at a rally to oppose Park51, a planned Islamic community centre in New York City, only intensified concern. Nevertheless, a cabinet was formed later in the month with VVD head Mark Rutte as prime minister and Maxime Verhagen of the CDA as deputy prime minister. During the year the Netherlands began to recover from the worldwide economic crisis. Concern within the country persisted, though, particularly as fellow EU members Greece, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Ireland continued to struggle financially. (See Sidebar on page 353.) Many Dutch citizens rejoiced during the summer when the national association football (soccer) team won repeated matches in the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. The Netherlands lost to Spain only in the final game. (See Sidebar on page 312.) (JOLANDA VANDERWAL TAYLOR)

NEW ZEALAND

Area: 270,692 sq km (104,515 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 4,369,000 Capital: Wellington Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Sir Anand Satyanand Head of government: Prime Minister John Key

An earthquake of magnitude 7.0 struck Christchurch on Sept. 4, 2010; miraculously, there was no loss of life, but the quake damaged thousands of dwellings and businesses at a cost that Treasury officials estimated at U.S.$2.9 billion. The parliament enacted emergency legislation granting the executive branch sweeping powers during the reconstruction process. Disaster struck again when springtime blizzards in September and October battered the southern region; among other damages, hundreds of thousands of newborn lambs died, costing the lamb industry an estimated U.S.$36 million or more. In late November the country mourned the deaths of 29 coal miners who had been trapped and killed by a series of gas explosions in a mine on the South Island. On November 4 Minister of Foreign Affairs Murray McCully and U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton signed the “Wellington Declaration.” The agreement established a strategic partnership between the two countries that would include political dialogue and practical cooperation on matters such as renewable energy, climate change, disaster response, and nuclear policy. New Zealand and Fiji agreed in January to restore formal diplomatic representation to improve relations strained by the tit-for-tat expulsion of senior diplomats in December 2008. The WTO ruled in August against a 90-year ban by Australia on imports of New Zealand apples. Prime Minister John Key made a three-day visit in early May to Afghanistan, where New Zealand had some 210 troops committed until the year 2011. The force sustained its first combat loss in the Afghanistan conflict on August 4 when Lieut. Timothy O’Donnell died after his routine patrol was ambushed. Projecting an operating deficit for 2010–11 of U.S.$5.8 billion, or 4.2% of GDP, Finance Minister Bill English’s May 20 budget pegged new government spending to U.S.$750 million and capped future increases at 2% a year. The goods and services tax increased from 12.5% to 15% on October 1, while income taxes were cut in all brackets and social welfare payments were increased. The company tax rate was lowered from 30% to 28% effective April 1, 2011. After the collapse of South Canterbury Finance, the government paid about U.S.$1.1 billion to investors under its retail deposit guarantee program. Law-and-order initiatives included tougher penalties for crimes against police officers or involving knives, manda441

World Affairs: Nicaragua Greg Bowker—New Zealand Herald/AP

In the wake of a magnitude-7.0 earthquake that struck New Zealand’s South Island on September 4, a woman surveys the damage to her home near Christchurch, close to the quake’s epicentre. tory licensing for high-powered pneumatic air guns, and the compulsory installation of security cameras in taxis. The police minister, Judith Collins, granted approval for police vehicles to carry pistols and rifles, albeit in locked safes, and police were authorized to ban individuals from any residence— including their own—for up to five days if they were believed to pose a threat to the residents of the dwelling. Legislation was introduced that imposed maximum jail penalties with no parole for many third-time offenders. A number of political scandals drew attention during the year. The misuse of taxpayer-funded credit cards by current and former cabinet ministers came to light, and House Speaker Lockwood Smith announced new restrictions on such spending. ACT New Zealand party member David Garrett resigned from the parliament after admitting that 26 years previously, as a prank, he had stolen a dead child’s identity to obtain a false passport. Former cabinet minister Chris Carter—who in July was revealed as the author of an anonymous letter to the media that disclosed conflicts within the Labour Party—was expelled from the party in October for having brought the party into disrepute. In local government elections held on October 9, Celia Wade-Brown became New Zealand’s first Green Party mayor after she won election in Wellington. Auckland consolidated eight former 442

councils into a single city government, and Len Brown was elected mayor of the newly created “super city.” (NEALE MCMILLAN)

NICARAGUA

Area: 130,373 sq km (50,337 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 5,822,000 Capital: Managua Head of state and government: President Daniel Ortega Saavedra

Legislative gridlock and institutional instability were at the heart of Nicaragua’s political crisis in 2010. The terms of 25 top government officials expired without consensus on their replacements, and among those positions in flux were seats on the Supreme Court and on the Supreme Electoral Council, the latter of which would have management responsibility for the 2011 presidential election. A presidential decree by Daniel Ortega of the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) temporarily and controversially extended the terms of the current officeholders, but partisan deadlock prevented the legislative appointment of

permanent replacements. Central to the conflict was Ortega’s intention to run for reelection despite the contentious constitutionality of his candidacy and the willingness of former president Arnoldo Alemán of the Constitutionalist Liberal Party (PLC) to split the opposition in the interest of his own candidacy. The coalition of parties opposed to the FSLN could not agree on how to counteract Ortega’s reelection bid; however, political outsider Fabio Gadea appeared as a possible unity candidate. Some parties simply advocated a blankballot option as a protest vote. Despite the slow implementation of some fiscal reforms, Nicaragua’s ongoing economic stability, satisfactory budgetary management, and tax reform were likely to ensure continued IMF support. Those factors and the success of Sandinista antipoverty and education programs also led the Inter-American Development Bank to continue economic support for Nicaragua. Offbudget payments from Venezuela via the Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America (ALBA) allowed Nicaragua to meet IMF-mandated fiscal targets and still provide unofficial but popular measures such as a monthly subsidy of $25 to Nicaragua’s approximately 130,000 public-sector workers who earned less than $260 per month. Despite these gains, in recent years approximately two million Nicaraguans had emigrated—primarily to Costa Rica and the U.S. Notwithstanding the global economic downturn, commodity export prices and textile production rose. GDP growth was projected at 2%; however, weak domestic demand held down inflation (projected at 4.7%), which allowed the central bank to maintain greater credit availability. Export growth came, in part, from the temporarily beneficial terms extended to Nicaragua under the Central America–Dominican Republic Free Trade Agreement, but the country also began free-trade negotiations with the EU and ALBA’s member states. In February, Julio César Avilés took command of the Nicaraguan army, which remained one of the country’s most trusted institutions. Later in the year, flooding from torrential rain and tropical storms left as many as 100 dead and thousands homeless. Struggles over indigenous land titling, regional electoral alliances, and new infrastructure development sparked conflicts throughout the Atlantic Coast region. (JUSTIN WOLFE)

World Affairs: Nigeria

NIGER

Area: 1,189,546 sq km (459,286 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 15,878,000 Capital: Niamey Head of state and government: Presidents Mamadou Tandja, assisted by Prime Minister Ali Badjo Gamatié, and, from February 19, Maj. Salou Djibo, assisted (from February 23) by Prime Minister Mahamadou Danda

A military coup in Niger led by Maj. Salou Djibo ousted the elected government of Pres. Mamadou Tandja on Feb. 18, 2010. After a series of gun battles in the capital, the victorious rebels, calling themselves the Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy, imposed a dusk-to-dawn curfew and ordered the closure of all borders. Simmering discontent over Tandja’s 2009 constitutional revisions that extended his mandate for a third term was seen as the root cause of the coup. On March 29 the junta, through its executive arm, the Consultative Council, ar-

rested more than 10 former ministers and senior civil servants closely associated with the imprisoned Tandja. Following the coup, Niger was suspended from membership in the African Union. On February 23 the junta named former cabinet minister Mahamadou Danda as prime minister, and a 20member transition government was named on March 1. The junta promised that a new constitution would be put to the voters in a referendum scheduled for October and that presidential elections would be held in January 2011. On October 31 voters overwhelmingly approved the new constitution, which reined in the presidential powers introduced under Tandja in 2009. On the economic front, several international bodies warned of the likelihood that nearly eight million people faced widespread famine. As early as March, poor rains had already reduced grain production by one-third. Families in many villages in the south were reportedly migrating and selling their cattle at rock-bottom prices. Following a visit to Niger, the UN’s emergency-relief coordinator spoke of the threat of complete crop failure. The government began the distribution of free food to an

Members of a military junta responsible for the overthrow of Niger’s president, Mamadou Tandja, on February 18 depart a rally in Niamey two days later to rapturous celebration.

estimated 1.5 million people on May 16. Oxfam and Save the Children launched a $10 million appeal for Niger aid on June 20. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

NIGERIA

Area: 923,768 sq km (356,669 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 158,259,000 Capital: Abuja Head of state and government: Presidents Umaru Musa Yar’Adua, Goodluck Jonathan (acting) from February 9, and, from May 16, Jonathan

Three years into his term, Nigerian Pres. Umaru Musa Yar’Adua died on May 5, 2010, after a long struggle with kidney and heart disease. (See OBITUARIES.) High expectations that his administration would institute far-reaching reforms dissipated as chronic ill health impaired his ability to deal with day-to-day governance. Although he succeeded in promoting a tenuous peace in the Niger delta, he made little progress in revamping the electricity system or curtailing endemic corruption. At the end of November 2009, he had gone to Saudi Arabia for medical treatment, but more than two months of secrecy about his progress not only sparked speculation of his physical incapacity but led to a constitutional crisis due to his failure to transfer power. On February 9 the National Assembly appointed Vice Pres. Goodluck Jonathan as interim president. The next month, he sacked the entire Yar’Adua cabinet to consolidate his power. Throughout the year hundreds were killed when flashpoints of turbulence erupted in some areas known for internecine ethnic and sectarian tension, including in and around the cities of Jos, Warri, Port Harcourt, and Bauchi, as well as in Cross River state. In September an Islamic sect named Boko Haram (meaning “Western education is a sin”) attacked the central prison in Bauchi and released more than 700 inmates, including some 150 sect members who were being held there after their participation in an uprising the previous year. Since then, the sect was believed to have conducted a series of assassinations that included several police officers, a politician, and a prominent Islamic cleric.

Rebecca Blackwell/AP

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World Affairs: Norway

Violence also marred the 50th anniversary of Nigeria’s independence (October 1) when three car bombs exploded at celebration venues in the capital, Abuja, killing 12 and wounding 17. Militants claiming to represent the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) took responsibility for the attacks, charging that the government had done little to ameliorate poverty in the Niger delta. Mainstream MEND leaders, however, quickly disowned any connection with the attacks. While the Abuja bombings highlighted continuing sociopolitical tension, the anniversary generated measured reflections on the country’s progress. Former president Olusegun Obasanjo applauded the country’s achievement in simply remaining united after decades of disunity, civil war, and military rule. Few commentators reflected on the colonial past or the nationalist era, focusing instead on future development, especially in the areas of poverty reduction and infrastructure. Some observers noted the widening gap between the rich and the poor, with an increase in the proportion of Nigeria’s population living on less than $1.25 a day from 49% in 1990 to 77% in 2008. The last half of the year was dominated by the forthcoming 2011 election. Controversy centred on whether a Muslim or a Christian should become president, reiterating an unwritten gentleman’s agreement that the office should alternate between a northern Muslim and a southern Christian. Because of Yar’Adua’s untimely death, the northern kingmakers in the ruling party insisted that its flag bearer be another Muslim; however, they did not succeed in pressuring President Jonathan to step down. By mid-September several politicians had declared their intention to seek presidential nomination. They included Jonathan, who launched his campaign on Facebook before making his official declaration; former president Ibrahim Babangida; and former vice president Atiku Abubakar. The election was originally scheduled for January 22 but was postponed until April. Fears of possible plots to disrupt the election campaign were exacerbated in late October when a large shipment of weapons, covertly sent from Iran, were seized in a Lagos port. The discovery that the weapons were intended to travel on to another western African country allayed Nigerian fears but provoked a diplomatic uproar in the region. (LARAY DENZER)

NORWAY

Area: 385,179 sq km (148,718 sq mi), including the overseas Arctic territories of Svalbard (61,020 sq km [23,560 sq mi]) and Jan Mayen (377 sq km [145 sq mi]) Population (2010 est.): 4,888,000 Capital: Oslo Head of state: King Harald V Head of government: Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg

The Norwegian economy in 2010 showed signs of slowly recovering from the impact of the international downturn of the previous few years. Financial indicators pointed to a positive investment trend and to healthy growth in production on the Norwegian mainland, and the unemployment rate was stable at 3.5%. Partly because low rents in response to the broader European recession allowed young Norwegian families to save for home purchases, housing prices continued to climb. Indeed, the main economic trend in Norway was the accrual of personal savings. Although declining oil production reduced revenue for the state slightly, revenues from oil and gas production continued to be funneled into the Government Pension Fund–Global (GPFG).

Notwithstanding global financial problems, the GPFG was still growing, having attained a market value of about $450 billion. Yet after two years of antirecessionary policies, the government announced a reduction in the proportion of petroleum revenue that would be used to stimulate the economy, with the intent of bringing the deficit back down to 4% of GPFG. Some export sectors faced challenges as a result of the economic difficulties besetting Norway’s main trading European partners. A cold winter led to high electrical heating costs, especially for households in the middle of the country, which seemed to be paying the price for the region’s recent investment in its new coastal oil-related industries. Unforeseen technological problems with the carbon-neutral gas plants on the western coast delayed full-scale dioxide cleansing. When Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg’s government announced that it had abandoned its ambition of carbon-neutral gas production by 2011, it was severely criticized for not having provided favourable conditions for producing clean renewable energy from wind, sun, and waves. The government was also the target of protests against planned hydroelectric power lines that would run along Hardanger Fjord to Bergen. In the wake of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, plans for gas and oil exploration

Norwegian Foreign Minister Jonas Gahr Støre (left) and Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov (right) sign an interim agreement on April 27 that effectively resolved a 40-year dispute over the countries’ maritime border.

Berit Roald—Scanpix/AP

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World Affairs: Pakistan

in the ecologically vulnerable LofotenVesterålen archipelago were shelved by the Red-Green coalition government at least until the next scheduled general election in 2013. In April Norway and Russia reached an agreement on maritime use of the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean; the pact was signed in Murmansk in September. Negotiations on the matter had been going on between the two countries for 40 years. Under the terms of the agreement, an area of about 175,000 sq km (about 67,600 sq mi) was divided in half. Norway and Russia also agreed to continue to cooperate on fisheries and hydrocarbon exploration in the future; however, many environmentalists and fishermen warned of the potential hazards of petroleum exploitation of the area. (HILDE SANDVIK)

OMAN

Area: 309,500 sq km (119,500 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 2,968,000 Capital: Muscat Head of state and government: Sultan and Prime Minister Qaboos bin Said (Qabus ibn Sa!id)

The most significant event in Oman in 2010 was the yearlong commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the “Omani Renaissance,” the name commonly applied to the reign of Sultan Qaboos bin Said, head of state since July 1970. In a move viewed as a sign of sustained political stability and domestic peace, the government abolished its State Security Court, which had been established in 2003 to examine cases involving national security. The economic news was good. The tourism industry continued to grow, and oil production increased over the previous year (to more than 850,000 bbl per day). Oil prices were lower, but the loss was made up for by higher prices commanded by the country’s gas exports. The government invested heavily in infrastructure projects, such as the expansion of national road and telecommunications networks. These investments accorded with a long-term goal of bringing the country’s more remote seacoast and mountainous vil-

lages within reach of tourists and other international visitors. In foreign affairs Oman continued to maintain good relations with countries around the world, notably with Iran, and remained strongly opposed to the prospect of using force to dissuade Tehran from developing its nuclearpower industry. It also provided extensive humanitarian assistance to Pakistan following that country’s flood disaster. In addition, Oman, along with its fellow Gulf Cooperation Council members and numerous other countries, established an informal Friends of Yemen Association to coordinate efforts to assist that country in countering economic underdevelopment and Islamic extremism, which threatened to undermine international peace and order if left unchecked. (JOHN DUKE ANTHONY)

PAKISTAN

Area: 881,889 sq km (340,499 sq mi), including the 85,793-sq-km (33,125-sq-mi) Pakistani-administered portion of Jammu and Kashmir Population (2010 est.): 184,405,000 (including the nearly 5,000,000 residents of Pakistani-administered Jammu and Kashmir as well as Afghan refugees) Capital: Islamabad Head of state and government: President Asif Ali Zardari, assisted by Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gilani

Pakistan entered 2010 much as it exited 2009, with frequent suicide bombings by militants and drone attacks by the U.S. CIA. A bombing in Karachi at the end of 2009 killed 43, and an arson attack destroyed an estimated 2,000 shops in the city’s centre. On January 1 the North-West Frontier Province was rocked by a bombing that killed 91 spectators at a volleyball match. CIA drones also increased their attacks, notably over North Waziristan, where 43 people were said to have been killed. Drone attacks in the first two weeks of January targeted Hakimullah Mehsud, Baitullah Mehsud’s successor as head of the Pakistani Taliban. Additional drone strikes killed Azmatullah Muawiya, a key commander of Tehriki-Taliban Punjab, and Jamal Saeed Abdul Rahim, an al-Qaeda operative.

The arrest in Karachi of Mullah Abdul Ghani Baradar, identified as the second-ranking member of the Quetta Shura (one of the principal Taliban groups), after Mullah Omar, was accomplished with CIA cooperation. Mullah Baradar oversaw Taliban operations in southern Afghanistan, and his arrest brought a rebuke from the Afghan government, which claimed it had interrupted secret peace negotiations with the Quetta Shura. After his arrest Mullah Baradar supplied information leading to the arrest of key Taliban operatives. Reports later circulated that Mullah Omar had appointed Mullah Abdul Qayyum Zakir, a former detainee at the Guantánamo Bay detention camp, to replace Mullah Baradar. Pakistani forces continued to pressure the Taliban by capturing the village of Damadola in Bajaur, a tribal redoubt, in February and by killing several Swat Valley Taliban commanders in March. In spite of these successes, suicide bombings continued, with a string of attacks in Lahore that killed dozens in March. In May, Swat Valley Taliban leader Maulana Fazlullah was believed to have been killed in a Pakistani army attack near the Afghan border, and Mustafa Abu al-Yazid, identified as the third highest-ranking member of al-Qaeda, was confirmed dead in a drone attack. A series of attacks by militants targeting religious institutions in Lahore included assaults on Ahmadiyyah mosques that claimed the lives of more than 90 worshippers and a suicide bombing that killed 50 at Sufi shrine. Attacks by NATO helicopters inside Pakistani territory killed an estimated 60 militants and three Pakistani soldiers. Claiming violation of its sovereignty, Pakistan closed NATO supply routes. Tensions between American and Pakistani defense forces remained high even after apologies were made by the U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and the NATO Secretary-General Anders Rasmussen. Amid the chaos of militant attacks and security operations, several events indicated the conflicted nature of Pakistan’s efforts to deal with militant groups. While visiting Islamabad in January, Gates was informed by officials that the Pakistani army would not launch new operations against militants in 2010 but would continue the operations already in progress. The announcement was widely perceived as a snub to the United States, which had lobbied Pakistan to do more to prevent militant groups from carry445

World Affairs: Palau

ing out cross-border operations in Afghanistan. In May the U.S.-Pakistan security relationship was further complicated when it became known that Faisal Shahzad, a naturalized U.S. citizen of Pakistani origin who had attempted to detonate explosives in Times Square in New York City, had received bombmaking training in a militant camp in North Waziristan. Also in May, Indian officials expressed disappointment after Hafiz Muhammad Saeed, founder of the Lashkar-e-Taiba militant group, which was implicated in the 2008 Mumbai terrorist attacks, was released by a Lahore court owing to insufficient evidence. In a December visit to Islamabad, U.S. Adm. Mike Mullen reiterated U.S. concerns and exhorted Gen. Parvez Kayani, the chief of the Pakistani army, to act more forcefully against the Haqqani group in North Waziristan and the Quetta Shura in Balochistan. In spite of these issues, Pakistan was the recipient of $656 million from the Coalition Support Fund, which reimbursed U.S. military allies. In April the parliament passed the 18th amendment to the constitution, removing the special powers conferred on the president. The amendment restored the original focus of the 1973 constitution, giving greater power to the legislature. The action also granted more autonomy to the provinces and changed the name of the North-West Frontier Province to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. 446

In May the IMF announced the release of a $1.13 billion loan to help Pakistan meet increased balance-of-payment needs. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Pakistan in July to dispense another $500 million in aid. She also presided over the signing of a transit agreement between Pakistan and Afghanistan allowing the latter to move its commerce to India while accelerating Pakistani exports to Central Asia. In 2010 Pakistan endured the most destructive floods in the country’s recorded history, spurred by unprecedented monsoon rains that began in July. The rains initially caused thousands of casualties in the northwest regions, where swollen rivers destroyed bridges, dams, roads, farmland, and livestock. As the monsoon rains continued into August, Pakistan’s extensive river system was inundated, affecting more than 20 million people. Flooding soon engulfed the Punjab and Sindh provinces. The government tallied the cost of the floods at $43 billion and pleaded for additional foreign assistance, as it was faced with rebuilding the country’s infrastructure, devastated agricultural sector, and ruined schools and medical facilities. Pakistan’s announcement prior to the end of the first quarter of the fiscal year that the defense budget had increased by approximately 110 billion rupees ($1.3 billion) and that development funds had been reduced by 73 billion rupees ($850 million) indicated Pakistan’s mixed priorities. Little allocation was made for flood relief, but the military budget increased from 442.2 billion rupees ($5.1 billion) to 552 billion rupees ($6.4 billion). The government also revised its estimate of 9.5% for the rate of inflation to 14%. Moreover, the growth target for 2010 was lowered from 4.5% to 2.6%. (LAWRENCE ZIRING)

PALAU

Area: 488 sq km (188 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 20,500 Capital: Melekeok (on Babelthuap) Head of state and government: President Johnson Toribiong

In September 2010 the United States and Palau agreed to renew their Compact of Free Association. Direct aid provided under the previous compact, which went into effect in 1994, expired in September 2009, and the negotiation of new economic terms was delayed several months. The agreement included a $250 million financial aid package, to be distributed over 15 years. Terms of the compact also required the appointment of a commission, subject to U.S. approval, to implement economic and financial reforms in Palau. Because of its dependence on foreign aid and tourism, Palau’s economy was hard hit by the global financial crisis that began in 2008. A trust fund established for use after grants under the Compact of Free Association ended lost some of its value during the downturn and was valued at $140 million in 2009. Since 2008 tourism revenues had fallen more than 15%, largely as the result of the bankruptcy of a Taiwanese airline that serviced the country. Tourism made some gains in 2010; visitor arrivals, notably from Japan, increased. With foreign aid lagging and oil prices expected to rise, however, there was only slight positive growth in Palau’s economy in 2010. (JANET MOREDOCK)

PANAMA

Area: 75,517 sq km (29,157 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 3,328,000 Capital: Panama City Head of state and government: President Ricardo Martinelli

Panamanian Pres. Ricardo Martinelli began 2010 basking in the glow of high public-approval ratings but ended it with many questioning his policies and authoritarian manner. Charges of cronyism and nepotism also were leveled at Martinelli, whose appointments to high-level positions included those of a pair of his friends to the Supreme Court: José Abel Almengor, who had been Martinelli’s security secretary, and Alejandro Moncada, who had been removed in 2000 from the Technical Judicial Police for serious ethical breaches. Moreover, in January, at the behest of the executive branch, the Supreme Court suspended Attorney General Ana

World Affairs: Paraguay

Matilde Gómez for allegedly abusing her power, though the accusation originated with one of her subordinates, who subsequently was investigated on bribery charges. The constitutionality of Gómez’s replacement by presidential appointment was questioned. In an attempt to stem the rising tide of crime—the homicide rate had nearly doubled in two years—the administration re-organized the security forces. The Ministry of Government and Justice was eliminated, with the National Police, the Air-Naval Service, and the Border Service under the Ministry of Public Security and civil protection, the post office, and local and provincial governments under the Ministry of Interior. In July an unconfirmed number of protesters were killed and dozens wounded in Bocas del Toro in a conflict between government security forces and banana-industry workers, who were demonstrating against the enactment of a multifaceted law that curtailed union rights, gave greater authority to the police, and weakened environmental regulations. When its violent reaction to the incident was roundly condemned by human rights groups, the government was forced to open dialogue with the opposition and ultimately to repeal the law. Striking banana-industry workers opposed to anti-labour-union legislation clash with riot police in Changuinola, Pan., in July. Dozens of casualties and at least two deaths were attributed to the violence, and the Panamanian government ultimately backed down.

Despite these political troubles, the Panamanian economic outlook remained positive. Growth slowed to 2.5% in 2009, down from a five-year average of 9%, but grew more than 6% in the first half of 2010. Forecasters predicted that Panama’s economy would grow more than any other Latin American country during 2011–15. (ORLANDO J. PEREZ)

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

struction at a site in Tari, Southern Highlands province, in a dispute over the sharing of benefits from the project. At year’s end the government was in confusion. In December a high court ruling declared invalid the National Parliament’s June reappointment of Sir Paulias Matane as governor-general, and Somare stepped down from his duties as prime minister pending an investigation of corruption charges against him. (JANET MOREDOCK)

PARAGUAY

Area: 462,840 sq km (178,704 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 6,065,000 Capital: Port Moresby Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governors-General Sir Paulias Matane, Jeffery Nape (acting) from December 13, and, from December 20, Michael Ogio (acting) Head of government: Prime Ministers Sir Michael Somare and, from December 13, Sam Abal (acting)

On Sept. 16, 2010, Papua New Guinea celebrated its 35th year of independence from Australian territorial control. The country’s National Research Institute marked the occasion with the release of its report on development in the country since 1975. The report cited poor governance, lack of fiscal discipline, and poor economic management as problems that had stymied sustained economic growth. Corrupt prison officials were accused of having stood by as dozens of prisoners escaped in a series of mass jailbreaks across the country. In January in Port Moresby, 12 maximum-security prisoners escaped, prompting Prime Minister Michael Somare to sack the prisons minister. A significant piece of good news was the recent (2008–09) nearly 40% decline in Papua New Guinea’s rate of HIV/AIDS infection, the highest in East Asia and the Pacific. In August, Papua New Guinea’s National Court approved the merger of Lihir Gold and Newcrest Mining; the combined group became the world’s fourth largest gold-mining company. Construction sites in a massive liquefied natural gas project headed by ExxonMobil were attacked several times by groups of local landowners. In August striking landowners halted con-

Area: 406,752 sq km (157,048 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 6,376,000 Capital: Asunción Head of state and government: President Fernando Lugo

Buoyed by a surge in agricultural production, particularly of genetically modified soybeans, Paraguay’s economy recovered strongly in 2010 from the previous year’s recession. The country’s political landscape remained in turmoil, however. Struggling with health problems, Pres. Fernando Lugo fought to assert his leadership over a legislature dominated by the right-wing opposition Colorado Party. At the same time, he was combating a leftist guerrilla group that was operating in northern Paraguay. The broad coalition that Lugo headed when he was elected in 2008 was unraveling, and his coalition partner, Vice Pres. Federico Franco, became a critic and political rival. In August, citing concern over Venezuelan Pres. Hugo Chávez’s antidemocratic tendencies, Franco led Congress in blocking the addition of Venezuela to the Mercosur trading bloc, which Lugo had advocated. Moreover, amid several efforts to impeach him in 2009 and 2010, Lugo had fired his top military leaders three times. In May, at a Union of South American Nations summit, the president expressed his fear of a coup attempt. Lugo underwent prostate surgery in January and in early August was diagnosed with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, a cancer of the lymphatic system that had reached his groin, chest, and a lumbar vertebra. After dismissing opposition calls for him to turn power

Dang Qi—Xinhua/Landov

447

World Affairs: Peru

over to Franco to concentrate on his medical treatment, Lugo underwent six rounds of chemotherapy between August and November and was declared cancer-free. Meanwhile, in April Congress granted Lugo power to suspend due process and other constitutional rights in five northern departments for 30 days to battle the Paraguayan People’s Army, a guerrilla group known for kidnapping prominent ranchers and attacking police outposts. Military and police campaigns did not succeed in capturing or disbanding the group, however. In October the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled that Paraguay had violated the rights of the Xákmok Kásek indigenous community in the Chaco region by allowing the people to be displaced from their lands; the court ordered the lands returned to the group. Paraguay had not complied with similar rulings by the court in 2005 and 2006 involving other indigenous groups displaced by ranchers. In September, Paraguay’s Supreme Court overturned the conviction of Reinaldo Servin for the 1999 assassination of Vice Pres. Luis Argaña. Servin, allegedly the middleman for former general Lino Ovideo, had served 10 years of a 25-year sentence. In 2007 the court had overturned the conviction of Oviedo for Argaña’s murder. (ROBERT ORTEGA)

PERU

Area: 1,285,198 sq km (496,218 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 29,244,000 Capital: Lima Head of state and government: President Alan García

Peru experienced a challenging year in 2010. The country was still feeling the aftereffects of the global economic downturn; however, it managed to emerge more quickly and robustly from the economic malaise than many other countries did. After annual GDP growth dropped from 9.8% in 2008 to 0.9% in 2009, it was predicted to climb to close to more than 8% in 2010, thanks in large part to domestic demand and recovering external demand, especially for nontraditional exports. Inflation re448

mained low (less than 3%), and business confidence reportedly was climbing. Employment in Lima, which contained about one-third of the country’s labour force, expanded significantly (by about 6%). In short, Peru was recovering remarkably well from the 2008–09 recession. Politically, Peruvians spent much of the year gearing up for two important elections. The centrepiece of the nationwide municipal elections on October 3 was the mayoral contest in Lima, where the front-runners were two women, Susana Villarán of the centreleft Social Force Party (FS) and Lourdes Flores of the centre-right Christian People’s Party (PPC). Villarán won the extraordinarily tight race by slightly less than one percentage point to become the city’s first female mayor. Much discussion ensued over whether her victory could be seen as a comeback for Peru’s left, which had all but collapsed in the late 1980s. The municipal elections were seen by some as a precursor of the April 2011 presidential and congressional elections; however, the highly fluid and unstable nature of Peruvian party politics—in which virtually no party had demonstrated a solid and enduring basis of support— meant that the long-term meaning of these elections was far from clear. As soon as the municipal-election cycle passed, the country began the buildup toward the presidential and legislative elections. In late 2010 many important questions remained unanswered, however, including whether the ruling American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA) would put forward a candidate from its own ranks or support someone else and whether some previously unknown outsider might mount the sort of last-minute effort that brought Alberto Fujimori the presidency in 1990. As 2010 moved to a close, Luís Castañeda, the outgoing mayor of Lima, and Keiko Fujimori, the former president’s daughter and a member of Congress, were the frontrunners, though no clear favourite had emerged, and the number of undecided voters remained high. Despite all that had gone well economically during his administration, lame-duck Pres. Alan García suffered poor public approval ratings, which had remained under 40% for well over two years and pointed to a variety of social and political problems that persisted in the country. Protests against environmental degradation in Peru’s highlands and Amazonian basin continued. One of

the principal targets of this protest, a large toxic smelter in the central highlands of Junin, remained closed because its operators, Doe Run Peru, claimed cleanup efforts had proved too costly. Some domestic as well as international agencies showed increasing concern over Peru’s ranking as the world’s largest producer of coca (from which cocaine is derived). García’s government also was plagued by accusations of corruption, and polling indicated growing anxiety over personal security, especially in Peru’s larger cities. A pair of arrests focused international attention on Peru: Lori Berenson, a U.S. citizen who had served the bulk of her sentence for abetting the Túpac Amaru revolutionary group during the 1990s, was released and then rearrested. Dutch national Joran van der Sloot, the primary suspect five years earlier in a murder in Aruba, was arrested for the murder of a young Peruvian woman. On the other hand, the country was ecstatic when renowned Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa was named as Nobel laureate in literature (see NOBEL PRIZES) in October 2010. (HENRY A. DIETZ)

PHILIPPINES

Area: 300,000 sq km (115,831 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 93,617,000 Capital: Manila (some government offices and ministries are located in Quezon City and other Manila suburbs) Head of state and government: Presidents Gloria Macapagal Arroyo and, from June 30, Benigno Aquino III

Benigno Simeon Cojuangco Aquino III (see BIOGRAPHIES) was inaugurated as 15th president of the Philippines on June 30, 2010. Jejomar Binay became vice president. In the elections on May 10, Aquino captured 42% of the vote in the field of nine candidates. Joseph Estrada, who had been ousted from the presidency in 2001 on corruption charges, polled second. A fourth-generation Filipino politician, Aquino—known as “Noynoy”— was the son of Benigno (“Ninoy”) Simeon Aquino, Jr., who was assassinated in 1983 while opposing the dictatorship of Ferdinand E. Marcos. After

World Affairs: Poland Romeo Ranoco—Reuters/Landov

bers of the New People’s Army (NPA), a rebellious communist group. Those arrested claimed they that were attending a community-health seminar. The Philippine Medical Association said that the arrests would discourage health workers from operating in poor, underserved rural areas. (HENRY S. BRADSHER)

POLAND

In Manila on August 23, special police forces surround the body of Rolando Mendoza (third from left), a disgruntled former police officer, whom they killed after he held a bus of 15 Hong Kong tourists hostage and murdered 8 of them. Marcos was ousted by a public uprising in 1986, Ninoy’s widow, Corazon C. Aquino, became president (1986–92) and enjoyed wide popularity. The massive demonstrations of public admiration for her upon her death in August 2009 focused attention on her 50-yearold bachelor son, Noynoy, whose 12year career in the Philippine Congress and Senate had been largely undistinguished. Despite his low-key manner and lack of personal achievement, Aquino built on promises to eradicate corruption and fight poverty and exploited his family’s lustrous image to win election to the presidency. His reflected familial charisma was in marked contrast to the loss of public confidence that bedeviled outgoing Pres. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, who was blamed for widespread corruption and vote rigging yet managed to win a seat in the lower house of the Philippine Congress in the legislative elections. The new president was confronted with a raft of challenges, preeminently the economy. According to the 2006 census, 33% of Filipinos lived in poverty. Moreover, with good jobs scarce at home, some 10% of Filipinos worked abroad, yet their remittances— which constituted more than one-tenth of the country’s economy—were significant enough to fuel a boom in both house buying and housing construction. The year saw the beginning of the trial of those accused of having murdered 57 people who were en route to file election documents in the southern Philippines in November 2009. At the

centre of the case was Andal Ampatuan, Sr., a regional political boss with one of the largest of many private armies in the country. His housekeeper testified that Ampatuan’s family had agreed over dinner to kill everyone in the convoy, including women and journalists. As the trial unfolded, most of Ampatuan’s 2,400-man army was still at large, and at least five witnesses were murdered before testifying. Still, the man whose candidacy Ampatuan had sought to foil (and whose wife had died in the ambush) won election as regional governor. On August 23 a former policeman who had been accused of extortion and robbery held 15 tourists from Hong Kong hostage on a bus in Manila and demanded that he be allowed to rejoin the police force. The Philippine National Police’s bungled rescue attempts were undermined by television news reports that alerted the hostage taker to the police’s actions. By the time a police sniper finally killed him, he had taken eight hostages’ lives. Outrage in Hong Kong over the mishandling of the situation prompted apologies from Aquino. Efforts to reopen talks with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) were invigorated when on July 15 Aquino named the dean of the University of the Philippines College of Law as the government’s new chief negotiator. The MILF had fought sporadically for independence for almost four decades. On February 6 the Philippine military arrested 43 health workers it said were being trained to make bombs as mem-

Area: 312,679 sq km (120,726 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 38,183,000 Capital: Warsaw Head of state: Presidents Lech Kaczynski, Bronislaw Komorowski from April 10 (acting), Bogdan Borusewicz on July 8 (acting), Grzegorz Schetyna from July 8 (acting), and, from August 6, Bronislaw Komorowski Head of government: Prime Minister Donald Tusk

Poland was in mourning for much of 2010 after tragedy struck on April 10 when the plane carrying Pres. Lech Kaczynski and a high-level Polish delegation crashed near Smolensk, Russia, and killed all 96 people aboard. The politicians and government officials were en route to a commemoration of the 70th anniversary of the Katyn Massacre (the mass execution of Polish military officers by the Soviet Union during World War II). Along with the president and his wife, those who perished in the crash included the head of the National Bank of Poland and a number of high-ranking military officers. The event plunged Poland into shock. Institutional continuity was ensured, however, as Bronislaw Komorowski (see BIOGRAPHIES), speaker of the Sejm (the lower house of the parliament), took over as an interim president. An unforeseen benefit of the tragedy was the warming of Polish-Russian relations. Deeply moved by events, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin personally took charge of the crash investigation, and Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev was one of the few world leaders able to go to Kaczynski’s funeral; the closure of European airspace as a result of airborne volcanic ash prevented others from attending. (See Iceland, above.) Prior to the crash the Polish political landscape in 2010 had been dominated 449

World Affairs: Portugal

by the presidential election campaign that revolved around the heated competition between Kaczynski and Prime Minister Donald Tusk, the candidates of the Law and Justice (PiS) and Civic Platform (PO) parties, respectively. In late January Tusk, who had been leading in the polls, withdrew from the race. He claimed that the government needed strong leadership to push through its substantial reform agenda, but he might also have been concerned about the effect that his absence from the prime ministership would have had on party cohesion in the wake of a high-level corruption scandal. After a period of mourning for the crash victims, the election, scheduled to take place by October, was set for June 20. For the first time in its history, the PO chose its candidate through a primary election, held in March. With 68.5% of the votes, Komorowski soundly defeated Foreign Minister Radoslaw Sikorski. After internal deliberations, the PiS nominated party chairman and former prime minister Jaroslaw Kaczynski, the twin brother of the late president. The tone of the subsequent campaign was unusually subdued. In the first round of balloting, 41.5% of the votes went to Komorowski, 36.5% to Kaczynski, and 13.7% to Grzegorz Napieralski of the Democratic Left Alliance, the replacement for Jerzy Szmajdzinski, who had died in the plane crash. Other candidates registered only marginal support. Because none of the candidates garnered 50% of the vote, a runoff was held on July 4, in which Komorowski narrowly defeated Kaczynski (53% to 47%). The election of Komorowski promised to bring a more coherent approach to Poland’s foreign relations (as president, Lech Kaczynski had often clashed bitterly with the PO government in this realm). Furthermore, Komorowski’s staunchly pro-EU views provided Poland with an opportunity to pursue a leading role within the EU. It was thought that his election might also contribute to distancing Poland politically from the U.S. Indeed, having criticized Poland’s role in the U.S. “war on terrorism,” Komorowski pledged to take a more assertive approach to PolishU.S. relations. During the campaign he had indicated that he favoured Poland’s withdrawal from Afghanistan by 2012. Poland had escaped a recession in 2009, and in 2010 GDP growth was projected at more than 3.5% and inflation at about 3.1%. On the other hand, unemployment was rising, topping 11% 450

by year-end. The government remained committed to adoption of the euro; however, it decided not to set a new target date until the economy had stabilized. Despite the economic slowdown, Poland was still perceived as a relatively safe haven for economic development; this view was supported by the IMF’s decision to extend a credit line of some $20.5 billion under a new program. (MICHAEL WYGANOWSKI)

PORTUGAL

Area: 92,094 sq km (35,558 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 10,643,000 Capital: Lisbon Head of state: President Aníbal Cavaco Silva Head of government: Prime Minister José Sócrates

Economic malaise swept through Portugal in 2010 as the government lost control of its budget deficit. Economic woes in Greece and Ireland sparked concerns of a widespread sovereign debt crisis (wherein fears of a sovereign state’s inability to pay off its debt leads to escalating interest rates for its future borrowing) and generalized wariness among investors regarding the fiscal management of southern European members of the euro area. (See Sidebar on page 353.) Against this backdrop the Portuguese government’s efforts to stimulate economic growth drove the state deficit deeper into the red. Unemployment rose sharply, nearing 11%, and the government announced its proposed 2011 budget early in an attempt to calm debt markets. The clear message was that the foreseeable future would be a time of unprecedented austerity, with the government planning to cut public-sector wages by up to 5%, freeze hiring and promotions, and otherwise slash spending. Meanwhile, the top rate of the value-added tax would rise to 23%, matching the highest rates in Europe, and other taxes would also increase. The government hoped to cut its deficit to 7.3% of GDP in 2010 (down from 9.3% in 2009) and to 4.6% by the end of 2011. Moreover, Portugal did not plan to meet the EU limit of a budget deficit of 3% of GDP until 2012. The minority Socialist (PS) government of Prime Minister José Sócrates

faced tough opposition from the Social Democratic Party (PSD), which said that it would not support a budget that included a tax hike. Sócrates, for his part, said he would resign if the budget failed. On November 3 the budget proposal passed in the parliament, with the PS voting for it, the PSD abstaining, and all other parties voting against it. Early elections seemed likely for Portugal in 2011, especially if the austerity measures translated into protests and strikes. As soon as the budget draft was presented, the two largest labour organizations called a general strike for November 24, and more strikes were promised if unemployment rose further. Outside the political realm, there was a battle over Portugal Telecom’s stake in Brasilcel, a holding company coowned with Spain’s Telefónica that controlled Vivo, the largest wireless operator in Brazil. PT’s shareholders accepted a buyout offer from Telefónica, but the Portuguese government invoked its “golden share” rights to block the sale, saying Vivo was a strategic asset. Calling the move illegal, the European Commission threatened to take Portugal to the European Court of Justice. Meanwhile, PT and Telefónica negotiated another deal with an even bigger payoff for PT, which ultimately accepted nearly $10 billion from Telefónica for PT’s 50% of Brasilcel. To keep its hand in the blazing mobile market, PT then bought a 22% stake in another Brazilian operator, Oi, for $4.8 billion. In June Portugal’s only Nobel laureate in literature, José Saramago, died at age 87 (see OBITUARIES) in his home in Spain’s Canary Islands (he had gone into self-imposed exile in 1993 after the Portuguese government blocked his entry for a literary prize). Following his funeral in Lisbon, his widow, the Spanish journalist Pilar del Río, applied for Portuguese citizenship and oversaw the installation of a foundation in Saramago’s name in the Portuguese capital. In October the Champalimaud Center for the Unknown, a cutting-edge cancer and neuroscience research facility, formally opened in Lisbon. With a bequest of some $650 million from António Champalimaud, who was Portugal’s wealthiest individual at the time of his death in 2004, the centre was courting top international scientists. In addition, the Champalimaud Foundation awarded an annual $1.3 million prize for progress in eyesight research, one of the biggest such awards in science. (ERIK T. BURNS)

World Affairs: Romania

QATAR

enue flight powered by a blend of oilbased and gas-to-liquid kerosene, which was designed to reduce carbon emissions. (JOHN DUKE ANTHONY)

ROMANIA Area: 11,571 sq km (4,468 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,697,000 Capital: Doha Head of state and government: Emir Sheikh Hamad ibn Khalifah Al Thani, assisted by Prime Minister Sheikh Hamad ibn Jasim ibn Jabr Al Thani

Qatar remained one of the Arab world’s most active diplomatic mediators in 2010. It continued its role as a valued participant in efforts to resolve disputes and conflicts in Lebanon, Sudan, and Yemen. It also hosted conferences to explore controversial international issues. For example, the Al Jazeera Centre for Studies convened specialists from Western and Middle Eastern research and academic institutions to examine the causes of violent extremism. In December, Qatar’s international profile was raised when it won its bid to host the 2022 World Cup association football (soccer) tournament, sparking celebrations in Doha. Qatar’s economy remained one of the fastest-growing in the world. The country also had one of the world’s highest per capita incomes. Qatar remained the Middle East’s second largest petrochemicals producer and also continued to be the world’s largest producer and exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Revenues from LNG exceeded those from oil as a percentage of GDP for the second year running. Qatar retained its position as the Gulf country with the most LNG to sell to new customers. Lebanon and Turkey were among the countries most eager to explore the possibility of receiving Qatari LNG. In an effort to boost the level of foreign direct investment in the country, Qatar lowered its tax rate on foreign businesses to 10% from the previous year’s 35%, adding further impetus to an economy that at midyear was already headed toward double-digit growth. Qatar Airways (QA), which was 50% government owned, added several purchases to its pacesetting acquisitions of state-of-the-art commercial aircraft. In addition, QA launched its first nonstop routes to Japan and South America. Besides carrying a record 14 million passengers in the 2009–10 fiscal year, in late 2009 QA flew the world’s first rev-

Area: 238,391 sq km (92,043 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 21,444,000 Capital: Bucharest Head of state: President Traian Basescu Head of government: Prime Minister Emil Boc

A major reversal in fortunes occurred during 2010 for Romanian Pres. Traian Basescu of the Democratic Party (PD) and the ruling Democratic Liberal Party (PDL) to which he was closely allied. Early in the year defections from rival parties increased the slender majority of the government headed by Emil Boc of the PDL. On March 30 the Social Democratic Party (PSD) was thrown into crisis after one of its chief parliamentarians, Catalin Voicu, was arrested for allegedly having used his influence over magistrates and police to shield businessmen and politicians from prosecution.

Basescu’s seemingly secure position began crumbling when on May 6 he announced sweeping austerity measures, and the government in turn was plunged into a deep crisis. According to a 2009 agreement Romania had made with the IMF, public-sector salaries were to be cut by one-quarter and pensions and social benefits slashed. These were the conditions set forth for the IMF to extend a major loan to Romania, which needed funds to pay creditors and a huge public-sector salary bill. The PSD and the National Liberal Party (PNL), under two new leaders, Victor Ponta and Crin Antonescu, respectively, immediately went on the offensive. On May 6 Ponta warned that the expenditure cuts amounted to “social genocide.” Antonescu sought to engineer Basescu’s suspension from office, and on September 24, 5,000 police marched to the gates of the presidential palace demanding his resignation. After police officials denounced him as “a cheap dog,” Basescu renounced his regular police escort and removed the interior minister for having failed to maintain order. Polls released shortly before this disturbance suggested that 49% of Romanians believed that life was better during the pre-1989 dictatorial era. The PSD, the direct successor of the former ruling Communist Party, was badly tarnished by its governing record after 1989, but it had recovered ground ever

Romanians protesting government austerity measures march through the streets of Bucharest on September 28 carrying a banner that compares Pres. Traian Basescu to the evil-cyborg movie Terminator 2 and includes the phrase “V-am ciuruit!,” which translates into English as “I’ve terminated you.”

Vadim Ghirda/AP

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World Affairs: Russia Sergey Ponomarev/AP

since Ponta warned in May that “street movements are the only solution.” Sympathetic judges ruled that some of the austerity measures were illegal, and in October officials from the Finance and Labour ministries threatened to occupy government offices unless their salaries were protected. The media, which were largely controlled by wealthy barons, also became a formidable Basescu opponent. Sorin Ovidiu Vintu, the owner of the most popular rolling news channel on television, declared on September 29 that “in three months . . . Basescu must become a memory in the political history of Romania.” Vintu made the remark shortly after his release from custody. He had been detained for allegedly having provided financial assistance to a former business associate who was on the run following the collapse of a major investment bank. In July the EU published a report critical of the faltering struggle against corruption. Both the EU and the U.S. ambassador, Mark Gitenstein, expressed concern about the record of the judiciary. Romania was one of only two members of the EU whose justice system continued to be closely monitored by the pan-European entity. The only sign of political renewal in a year of sharp polarization was the announcement in October by Foreign Minister Teodor Baconschi of his intention to set up a new political formation based on Christian Democratic principles. (TOM GALLAGHER)

RUSSIA

Area: 17,098,200 sq km (6,601,700 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 141,892,000 Capital: Moscow Head of state: President Dmitry Medvedev Head of government: Prime Minister Vladimir Putin

Russia in 2010 continued to be governed under the arrangement popularly known as the “tandem.” Prime Minister Vladimir Putin still was seen as the main decision maker, but Pres. Dmitry Medvedev appeared increasingly confident and assertive. Speculation was already rife over which of the two would stand for president in the 2012 election. 452

Russian rock musician Yury Shevchuk performs at a rally in Moscow on August 22 to protest a road project that would involve razing part of an ancient oak forest northwest of the city. While Medvedev spoke repeatedly of his determination to modernize and diversify Russia’s resource-dependent economy, there was intense debate within the elite as to whether the economy could be modernized without prior political liberalization. A leading Kremlin official, Vladislav Surkov, set the tone by arguing that democracy was a consequence, not a precondition, of economic modernization and that without strong state control over society, modernization would lead only to instability. Liberals from the Institute of Contemporary Development, a Russian think tank, countered that successful economic modernization could be achieved only once Russia had established effective democratic institutions, such as the rule of law, an independent judiciary, and press freedom. Putin sided with the camp that argued that social stability must be the state’s overriding priority. Medvedev appeared to lean toward the liberal wing, going so far as to warn that “symptoms of stagnation” had begun to appear in Russia’s political life—a reference to the dysfunctional political system of the late Soviet period. However, Medvedev also voiced support for the argument that democratization should be undertaken only with great caution. The strength of the debate led some commentators to speculate that Russia was approaching a crossroads at which fundamental decisions about its future path would need to be taken. Domestic Affairs. Russia experienced its hottest summer on record. Peat and

forest fires in the central and southern regions destroyed entire villages, killing at least 54 people and leaving thousands homeless, while Moscow was enveloped in noxious smog. Both Medvedev’s and Putin’s popularity ratings fell during the fires, despite Putin’s headline-grabbing efforts to douse fires while piloting a firefighting plane. By September, however, the tandem’s ratings had bounced back to their customary high levels. There were signs during the year that at least some sections of society were becoming increasingly frustrated with Russia’s pervasive corruption and autocratic government. Popular protests took place in many parts of the country. In Kaliningrad 10,000 demonstrators took to the streets in January in the country’s largest rally since the fall of the Soviet Union. Protesters expressed anger at the state of Russia’s economy, demanded the resignation of the regional governor, and shouted slogans against the ruling United Russia party. Public rallies in support of citizens’ right to assemble, as guaranteed by Article 31 of the Russian constitution, were held in Moscow and other large cities on the last day of every month containing 31 days. These gatherings were dispersed by police, sometimes violently, until October, when the authorities allowed the rally to go ahead. Smaller rallies were held elsewhere, including Vladivostok, and for the first time calls were heard for Putin to leave office. Although opposition ral-

World Affairs: Russia

lies had taken place when Putin was president, the scale of the Kaliningrad protest in particular caught the Kremlin off guard and led the ruling party to deny the regional governor a second term. Spring saw Muscovites attaching toy buckets to the roofs of their cars to protest officials’ use of flashing blue lights (migalki) on their vehicles to assert their driving privileges. Official sources said that there were nearly 1,000 migalki in Moscow, but the unofficial number was believed to be much higher. In May one of Russia’s bestknown rock musicians, Yury Shevchuk, confronted Putin face-to-face and denounced Russia as a country ruled by “dukes and princes with sirens on their cars.” The authorities were taken by surprise again in the summer when large demonstrations were held against the construction of a road through Moscow’s Khimki forest. In an unusual move, Medvedev responded to the protests by suspending construction and calling for a public hearing. Whereas the state tightly controlled Russia’s main television channels, the Internet remained largely free from state interference and was emerging as a vital forum for public debate. After graphic images depicting police corruption and brutality were published online in the spring, Medvedev acknowledged that his calls for a clampdown on corruption had failed to produce tangible results. He invited public discussion, on a purpose-built Web site, of a bill on the powers and duties of the police. The bill would include such innovations as individual identification badges worn by police officers, the reading of detainees’ rights, and a boost in police pay. Critics objected that the culture of corruption was so deeply embedded in the police that it would take more than a new law to eradicate it; they said that police officers would not work with colleagues who did not take bribes because then they would not get a cut themselves. Others, however, were impressed by Medvedev’s willingness to take on such a powerful state force, describing it as the first serious reform effort of his presidency. More controversial was new legislation, signed into law by the president in July, that expanded the powers of the Federal Security Service (FSB; the domestic successor of the Soviet-era KGB). The law empowered the FSB to issue official warnings to individuals who were “creating the conditions” for crimes, and anyone obstructing an FSB

officer would face a fine or up to 15 days’ detention. Human rights defenders cautioned that the increasingly powerful FSB would be able to intimidate critics of the Kremlin as the 2011 parliamentary and 2012 presidential elections approached. In December oil tycoon Mikhail Khodorkovsky, who was nearing the end of a prison sentence for tax evasion, was convicted of embezzling from his former oil company, Yukos, and had his sentence extended to 2017. It was widely believed that his imprisonment was politically motivated because Khodorkovsky had backed candidates who had opposed Putin. Ella Pamfilova, head of the presidential council for promoting civil society and human rights, announced her resignation. Without blaming Medvedev personally, Pamfilova warned that the neglect of human rights could imperil Russia’s modernization, which, in her view, was “unthinkable” without genuine democracy. She expressed satisfaction when Medvedev nominated Mikhail Fedotov, secretary of Russia’s Union of Journalists, to replace her. At the beginning of the year, Medvedev organized a new North Caucasus federal district, comprising six republics and one territory, and appointed Aleksandr Khloponin as his special envoy there. Khloponin, a businessman and former governor in Siberia who had no links to the North

Caucasus, was tasked with promoting economic development. The move reflected a new policy of using economic means to try to resolve the problems of the impoverished region, which remained racked by Islamist and separatist violence. The violence moved beyond the North Caucasus in March when two suicide bombers from the region killed 40 people in explosions in two Moscow subway stations—the first such attacks in Moscow in six years. During the year Medvedev tried to tighten central control over regional leaders. Besides replacing the governor of Kaliningrad, he replaced the longtime presidents of Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, and Kalmykiya. In September he sacked the mayor of Moscow, Yury Luzhkov, who had been in office since 1992. The case was significant in that Luzhkov attempted to split the tandem by appealing, unsuccessfully, to Putin over Medvedev’s head. He was replaced by Sergey Sobyanin, formerly head of Putin’s staff. In other domestic news, Russia eliminated 2 of its 11 time zones in March. A population census was held in October; for the first time since 1995, there had been a net increase in Russia’s population. In December Russia won its bid to host the 2018 World Cup association football (soccer) tournament. Economy. Russia had been one of the countries hardest hit by the global eco-

An image from a Russian news source captures the grisly aftermath of two deadly explosions in Moscow’s subway system on March 29.

L!FE NEWS/AP

453

World Affairs: Russia

nomic crisis, but its economy began to emerge from recession in late 2009; this trend continued in 2010 as world energy prices rose and the economies of other leading countries revived. Russia’s recovery remained somewhat uncertain, but GDP in 2010 was expected to be about 4% higher than the 2009 level. Inflation continued to fall, and unemployment also declined, although, at 8%, it remained above precrisis levels. Meanwhile the economic recovery of some of the country’s important trading partners in Europe was even more uncertain than Russia’s. Russian companies accordingly were unable to borrow as freely abroad as they once had. Moreover, oil prices, while higher than they had been at the depth of the crisis, still remained below the peak prices of the summer of 2008. While both Putin and Medvedev spoke of the need to modernize and diversify the economy, Medvedev made modernization the keynote of his presidency. In March he announced plans to build an advanced technology centre, dubbed “Russia’s Silocon Valley,” at Skolkovo, near Moscow. Anatoly Chubais, Russia’s most effective state economic manager, was a driving force behind the project, which aimed to attract foreign investment and foster research-and-development cooperation with Western businesses. Supporters stressed that Western high-tech companies—notably Siemens, Europe’s largest electronics and electrical engineering conglomerate—had agreed to help fund the development and that Russian business also was directly involved. For skeptics, though, Skolkovo was a state-led top-down project with little chance of long-run success. Medvedev also announced his goal of making Moscow a global financial centre, particularly through the more widespread use of the ruble in international transactions. He aimed to open up Russian capital markets to foreign firms through the issuance of shares and bonds denominated in rubles and traded on Russian markets. Veteran politician Aleksandr Voloshin, who had headed the presidential administrations of both Boris Yeltsin and Putin, was charged with realizing Medvedev’s ambition. The project was hindered, however, by the dependence of the Russian ruble on world oil prices, as a result of which the currency was not widely regarded as reliable in its own right. In July the government announced plans to raise about 1.8 trillion rubles (roughly $59 billion) by selling minor454

ity stakes in 11 state-run firms. This sale of state assets, Russia’s biggest since the postcommunist sell-off of the 1990s, would include stakes in banking leaders Sberbank and Vneshtorgbank and oil giant Rosneft. While the state would retain a controlling interest in all the firms, the move was remarkable because its scale was—with the exception of Chubais’s privatization of Russia’s electricity giant—without recent precedent. The move was interpreted as an attempt to plug the budget deficit, which had ballooned during the economic crisis after years of surpluses. Russia’s prospects of joining the WTO were shaken by the tandem’s conflicting statements on the matter. Putin claimed that Russia should give priority to forming a customs union with Kazakhstan and Belarus and that, once the union was established, the three states should join the WTO as a single unit. Medvedev argued that Russia should join the WTO on its own. After some initial disagreements between Russia and Belarus, the proposed customs union entered into effect on July 5. Later, Putin’s announcement that import duties on automobiles would be raised—an effort to promote the domestic assembly of cars by foreign manufacturers—raised doubts about whether Russia was serious about joining the WTO. Other obstacles to accession included the high level of state support for Russian agriculture, Russian laws’ poor protection of intellectual property rights, and disparities in technical standards relating to food and livestock imports. The summer heat wave had consequences for agriculture. The grain harvest was predicted to be 60 million–65 million metric tons, down from previous years’ harvests of roughly 100 million metric tons. As grain prices soared, Putin banned grain exports until at least the end of the year; he hoped to hold down domestic grain prices and to prevent shortages at home. Even so, food prices rose in the late summer and early autumn—a time that usually saw a seasonal decline in prices. Putin and Medvedev appeared to differ not only on the ban on grain exports but also on the president’s call to dismantle recently established state corporations, most of which had been set up in 2007, the last year of Putin’s presidency. Medvedev called for the corporations to either be converted into regular joint-stock companies or be liquidated, but the process was to be spread over several years.

Foreign Affairs. The “reset” in U.S.Russian relations, which had begun after U.S. Pres. Barack Obama took office, resulted in an increasingly cooperative relationship between the two countries. In January Russia resumed its military cooperation with NATO, which had been suspended after the 2008 war with Georgia. In April Presidents Medvedev and Obama signed a nuclear arms control treaty (“New START”) which sought to cut each side’s nuclear arsenal to 1,550 deployed warheads and to introduce new verification procedures. In late December, after the U.S. Senate voted to ratify the treaty, the lower house of the Russian parliament also approved its first reading. In June Russia voted for new UN sanctions against Iran—a U.S. priority. Later that month Medvedev visited California’s Silicon Valley, where he met with Apple’s Steve Jobs and executives from Twitter, Cisco, and Google to discuss ways of attracting investment. From there he went to Washington, D.C., where a friendly “burger diplomacy” lunch with Obama contrasted sharply with the often tense summits of the Cold War era. The positive relationship survived the June breakup of a network of 10 Russian sleeper spies by the FBI. The U.S.-Russia “reset” reflected a broader shift in Russian foreign policy. In May the magazine Russky Newsweek published what it described as the draft of a new foreign policy doctrine, which called for Russia to shift its focus toward alliances with the United States and other Western countries in a bid to facilitate Russia’s economic and technological modernization. The clearest sign of a change in Russian policy was the improvement of Russia’s relations with Poland. On April 7 the Russian and Polish prime ministers participated in a joint ceremony in remembrance of the some 22,000 Poles who were massacred by Soviet forces at Katyn (near Smolensk) in 1940. In November, the Russian parliament broke more than half a century of official reluctance by admitting that Soviet leader Joseph Stalin had ordered the Katyn Massacre. On May 9 troops from the U.S., Poland, France, and the U.K. commemorated the end of World War II by marching for the first time in Russia’s annual Victory Day parade through Red Square. In a further sign of rapprochement between Russia and the West, Medvedev attended NATO’s November summit in Lisbon, where Russia was invited to join a missile-defense system.

World Affairs: Saint Lucia

Military reform continued, though at a slower pace than originally promised. As part of the reform, a new system of military districts was introduced at the end of 2010. The six existing military districts were then merged into four “operational-strategic” commands— West, East, Centre, and South. Strategic nuclear forces remained under central control. (ELIZABETH TEAGUE)

RWANDA

Area: 26,379 sq km (10,185 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 10,277,000 Capital: Kigali Head of state and government: President Maj. Gen. Paul Kagame, assisted by Prime Minister Bernard Makuza

On Aug. 9, 2010, Rwandan Pres. Paul Kagame was reelected in a resounding landslide victory for his second (and last) seven-year term in office. He won an overwhelming 93% of the vote. Poll observers claimed that there were no discernible problems in the election process, although Kagame’s victory was clouded by a threatening political climate leading up to the election. Shortly after the electoral commission announced the results, a grenade attack occurred in the capital, Kigali. Media reports linked this attack to a turbulent series of events that punctuated politics throughout the year. Victoire Ingabire, a Hutu, returned from exile and announced her candidacy for the presidency in January, but she was arrested in April on charges of associating with a terrorist group and propagating genocide ideology. Although she was released soon after, she was prohibited from standing in the election. In February and March one person was killed and several were injured in Kigali in a series of bombings that the government attributed to the Hutudominated Interahamwe (a paramilitary organization) and Lieut. Gen. Faustin Kayumba Nyamwasa (a former head of Rwandan intelligence), who had fled to South Africa, where he survived an attempt on his life in June. Opposition parties claimed that more than 30 media outlets were banned, among them the radical Umuvugizi paper, whose deputy editor, Jean-Léonard

Rugambage, was murdered in June. The vice president of the Democratic Green Party, André Kagwa Rwisereka, was found nearly beheaded in mid-July. Although Rwandan authorities denied having involvement in any murder or assassination attempt, Amnesty International reported the intimidation of some opposition party leaders and journalists as well as attacks on and arrests of several critics of the ruling party. Still, Kagame and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) government enjoyed the support of much of the populace and praise from the international community. According to the anticorruption monitor Transparency International, Rwanda was one of the least-corrupt countries in East Africa. Not only had it attained almost 100% food security internally, but the country also exported food to Burundi, Tanzania, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Economic growth for the year was 6.5%. International relations developments included the official visit on February 25 of French Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy, which formalized the thaw in bilateral relations between the two countries. In August a leaked draft of a UN report alleged that Rwandan forces killed tens of thousands of Hutu, including civilians, in the DRC in 1996–97, which Rwandan officials angrily denied. The UN agreed to delay the final release of the report to allow Rwanda to include its response to the allegations. (LARAY DENZER)

SAINT KITTS AND NEVIS

Area: 269 sq km (104 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 49,900 Capital: Basseterre Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Sir Cuthbert Montraville Sebastian Head of government: Prime Minister Denzil Douglas

The incumbent Saint Kitts–Nevis Labour Party (SKNLP) was returned to office for a fourth consecutive term in the general election held in Saint Kitts and Nevis in January 2010. The SKNLP won six of the eight seats in Saint Kitts, and the People’s Action Movement

(PAM) obtained the other two. The three Nevis seats were split between the Concerned Citizens Movement (two) and the Nevis Reformation Party (one). SKNLP leader Denzil Douglas remained prime minister and minister of finance. It was announced in March that Saint Kitts and Nevis’s historic leap into renewable energy via geothermal power generation located in Nevis had been postponed until mid-2011 because of “financial challenges” faced by West Indies Power, the private company behind the project. Commercial banks operating in the country, however, subsequently indicated an interest in providing the necessary funding for the 10 MW of power initially planned, which was to be followed by a further 30 MW, to be funded later. West Indies Power intended to export electricity to Saint Kitts in the first instance and to other nearby Caribbean territories later. Saint Kitts and Nevis in June strongly denied claims by a U.K. newspaper that the government had accepted bribes from Japan in exchange for voting to lift the international ban on commercial whaling. Japan wanted the ban removed. (DAVID RENWICK)

SAINT LUCIA

Area: 617 sq km (238 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 174,000 Capital: Castries Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Dame Pearlette Louisy Head of government: Prime Minister Stephenson King

In June 2010 the opposition Saint Lucia Labour Party (SLP) called on Prime Minister Stephenson King to dismiss three cabinet ministers after the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States Appeal Court ruled that the 2007 cabinet decision to grant concessions to a hotel project owned by the minister of health was “irrational.” SLP leader Kenny Anthony also demanded that the minister of tourism and the attorney general be fired for their roles in the matter. Struggling with energy deficiency, like almost every Caribbean territory, Saint Lucia moved firmly in July to start de455

World Affairs: Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

veloping the geothermal resources it had long been known to possess for electricity generation. The American company Qualibou Energy signed what was described as a “binding agreement” for a 30-year contract with the government to proceed toward generating 120 MW of geothermal energy from resources located at Sulphur Springs. The government announced in August that it would hold an inquiry into the attack earlier that month on the Bordelais Correctional Facility, which resulted in the escape of three convicts. The facility had been fired on from outside by four gunmen, enabling the prisoners to flee. In late October, Hurricane Tomas caused major damage to Saint Lucia’s crops and infrastructure, and 14 people died. (DAVID RENWICK)

vessels if they were suspected of carrying illicit shipments of such weapons. The IMF said in May that the economy of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, which had shrunk by 1% in 2009 and 0.6% in 2008, was projected to recover gradually over the medium term, supported by consumer spending and a modest increase in employment. Although the country’s fiscal deficit was expected to grow in the short term, the government had plans to reduce it over time. Hurricane Tomas lashed the islands in late October, causing significant damage to crops and infrastructure. (DAVID RENWICK)

SAMOA

SAINT VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES

Area: 389 sq km (150 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 101,000 Capital: Kingstown Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Sir Frederick Ballantyne Head of government: Prime Minister Ralph Gonsalves

In 2010 politicians in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines focused on the issue of whether to resume the country’s “economic citizenship” program—abandoned in 2001—which granted passports to foreign investors for a fee; the country had since refused to follow some of its fellow Caribbean states in offering that option. Prime Minister Ralph Gonsalves insisted in January that his country’s citizenship was not for sale, though the opposition leader, Arnhim Eustace, countered that a “tight and well managed” economic citizenship program could attract investment by those who qualified for it. In May the government signed a ship-boarding agreement with the U.S. to enhance cooperation in the battle against trafficking in weapons of mass destruction. The agreement would allow law-enforcement authorities from either country to board each other’s 456

Area: 2,785 sq km (1,075 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 183,000 Capital: Apia Head of state: O le Ao o le Malo (Head of State) Tuiatua Tupua Tamasese Efi Head of government: Prime Minister Tuila’epa Sailele Malielegaoi

Events in Samoa in 2010 centred on the economy. Repairs of the damage caused by the 2009 tsunami continued apace, and tourism, aided by significant tax incentives, recovered quickly. The government actively promoted agriculture and fisheries to increase export earnings, reduce import costs, and improve Samoans’ health. Samoa also explored the possibility of establishing a tuna loining plant and casinos. Prime Minister Tuila’epa Sailele Malielegaoi sought an extension of Samoa’s leastdeveloped-country (LDC) status, on the grounds that the economy remained vulnerable to natural hazards and that a graduation to developing-country status would preclude Samoa from receiving the level of aid currently available to LDCs. In September the UN agreed to extend Samoa’s LDC status until the end of 2013. In other news the government, under pressure from established churches that felt threatened by challenges from new evangelical denominations, established a commission to reexamine the freedom of religion provision in the constitution. The previous year’s

change to driving on the left side of the road led to growth in vehicle ownership, as expatriate Samoans in New Zealand and Australia were able to buy cheaper right-hand-drive vehicles for relatives in Samoa. Samoans began to experience unprecedented rush-hour traffic congestion in the Apia area. (CLUNY MACPHERSON)

SAN MARINO

Area: 61.2 sq km (23.6 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 31,800 Capital: San Marino Heads of state and government: The republic is governed by two capitani reggenti, or coregents, appointed every six months by a popularly elected Great and General Council.

In 2010 San Marino stressed the transparency of its banking system in response to the Italian government’s continuing charges that San Marinese banks hosted illegal financial operations, conducted by Italians. Some San Marinese voiced concern that Italy’s criticism would further harm domestic economic performance, already hindered by high public debt and declining tax revenues. Although the unemployment rate was less than 3%, a sharp drop in the birthrate was said to be directly attributable to insecurity over the prospects for future economic growth. Austerity measures adopted by the government to counteract budgetary shortfalls irritated trade unions, which urged that workers not be called upon to bear the brunt of public spending cuts. Many viewed an increase in the cost of school lunches as an example of the presumed penalties imposed on working-class families. The government rebutted the claim, however, and illustrated plans to strengthen the scholastic services offered in the republic. Fortunately, international tourism, an important source of revenue, performed well during the year. But spending by the domestic population in local restaurants dwindled—a further sign that though San Marinese citizens were weathering the global economic crisis, many still felt adverse economic pressure. (GREGORY O. SMITH)

World Affairs: Saudi Arabia

SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE (SÃO TOMÉ E PRÍNCIPE)

Area: 1,001 sq km (386 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 176,000 Capital: São Tomé Head of state: President Fradique de Menezes Head of government: Prime Ministers Joaquim Rafael Branco and, from August 14, Patrice Trovoada

In 2010 Sao Tome and Principe continued to rely mainly on cocoa production, fishing, and agriculture, but its untapped oil deposits were estimated at 10 billion bbl. The country was delisted in April, however, from the Extractive Industry Transparency Initiative, which it had joined in 2008, after having failed to meet the requirement of full publication of government revenues and payments from oil and gas companies. Leading observers wondered if Sao Tome and Principe would be able to cope with the pressures that might accompany the promised oil bonanza. Meanwhile, half the population continued to live below the poverty line, with 15% subsisting in extreme poverty.

Legislative elections held in August returned to power the Independent Democratic Action party, led by Patrice Trovoada, who became prime minister. In November the government announced the names of the companies that submitted bids for the right to drill in the offshore Exclusive Economic Zone, south of the Joint Development Zone that Sao Tome and Principe shared with Nigeria. While earlier licensing rounds had been marred by allegations of corruption and insider trading, there was hope that this time greater transparency would result in the proceeds’ being used for social spending rather than individual consumption. (CHRISTOPHER SAUNDERS)

SAUDI ARABIA

Area: 2,149,690 sq km (830,000 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 25,732,000 Capital: Riyadh Head of state and government: King !Abd Allah The most important development in Saudi Arabia in 2010 was the announcement that Shari!ah codification

Patrice Trovoada of Sao Tome and Principe’s Independent Democratic Action party addresses an audience in Changra on July 29, three days before elections that led to his installment as prime minister.

would proceed, after having been approved privately by the Council of Senior !Ulama. The significance of this step, which King !Abd Allah was determined to introduce, was that it would prevent arbitrary decision making in the courts or by ill-trained judges by making interpretation of Shari!ah law more predictable and providing the current legal system with reference to a body of written legislation. Furthermore, in an attempt to centralize religious edicts, King !Abd Allah issued a decree in August stating that only members of the Council of Senior !Ulama would be allowed to issue such edicts (fatwas). In July two Saudi clerics had declared that a Muslim woman who is a French citizen or resides in France is exempt from wearing full veils in France, which had banned the practice. On September 23, the king embraced annual National Day celebrations, which commemorated the kingdom’s unification in 1932. The holiday was the country’s only non-Islamic holiday and had been met with growing enthusiasm since its inception in 2005. All these moves were perceived as strengthening the Saudi political institution visà-vis the religious establishment. Unemployment had hit 10.5% in 2009, and the creation of jobs for the country’s rapidly increasing native population was one of the most significant problems confronting the Saudi government as well as a concern of the general population. On Aug. 29, 2010, an estimated 200 Saudi university graduates gathered in Riyadh to protest their unemployment status and demand that the government give them jobs. The gathering was a rare public showing of discord, and it was significant that the Saudi media reported the event. The Saudi government announced the completion of the upgrades to its oilproduction facilities. It also approved the largest five-year development plan in the kingdom’s history, budgeting $385 billion—an increase of 67% over the previous plan. The new plan prioritized housing, health, and education and included objectives to increase the GNP’s annual average growth by 5.2% and raise the average per capita income by 15%, from $12,320 in 2009 to $14,187 in 2014. The plan also sought to increase non-oil-sector growth by an annual average of 6.3% and privatesector growth by 6.6%. The plan also addressed unemployment; Khaled alQusaibi, minister of economics and planning, said that by the end of 2014 the local Saudi workforce would in-

Mario Cruz—EPA/Landov

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World Affairs: Senegal

crease to account for 53.6% of the country’s total workforce. Annual inflation, which had soared to 11.1% in July 2008, had fallen back to 3.5% at the end of 2009, and there was clear official concern as inflation hit 6.1% in 2010. Moreover, socioeconomic inequality had increased as prices of essential goods went up. The rich became richer, the poor became poorer, and the middle class was put in jeopardy. Housing problems were especially acute in 2010 because of the high rate of increase in population. The percentage of people owning their own houses had fallen from more than 50% in the early 1990s to 30% in 2010, and there was a shortage of over one million housing units in 2010. (MAHMOUD HADDAD)

SENEGAL

Area: 196,722 sq km (75,955 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 12,323,000 Capital: Dakar Head of state: President Abdoulaye Wade, assisted by Prime Minister Souleymane Ndéné Ndiaye

On Jan. 6, 2010, Pres. Abdoulaye Wade nominated Mamadou Ndiaye to serve as Senegal’s first minister of religious affairs in an effort to improve strained relations with religious leaders who had been sharply critical of his government. The tension began when a 50-m (164ft) bronze statue was unveiled on April 3 as part of the country’s 50th anniversary of independence. Some Islamic scholars were incensed by the seminude figures, while others objected to the $27 million cost for a statue that symbolized African resistance to colonialism. (See Special Report on page 176.) Following the ban that took effect on August 25 prohibiting begging in the streets of Dakar, seven teachers at Qur#anic schools were convicted of having forced their pupils to do so. Fined and given six-month suspended sentences, the teachers were ordered to cease the practice or face prison terms. Legislation designed to establish total equality between the sexes in all elective institutions was passed by the National Assembly on May 14. The law called for an equal number of male and female candidates on all election lists. On June 9 France officially closed its remaining military bases in the country and began the withdrawal of virtually all of its soldiers. On July 13 France announced that from 2011, the pensions of surviving African war vet-

On August 31 Qur#anic students beg on the streets of Dakar, Senegal, in defiance of a ban against the activity that took effect the previous week.

Rebecca Blackwell/AP

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erans who served with French forces would be on par with those paid to French veterans. On August 21 the opposition Socialist Party denounced the appointment of Cheikh Tidiane Diakhaté, one of Wade’s principal advisers, as president of the Constitutional Council. The council was to decide if it was legal for Wade to stand for a third term in 2012. In October the seizure of a large cache of weapons in Nigeria, hidden in a shipment from Iran and headed to The Gambia, strained ties between Senegal and the latter two countries. Senegal feared that the weapons were intended for rebels fighting in its troubled Casamance region. (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER)

SERBIA

Area: 77,498 sq km (29,922 sq mi) (excluding Kosovo) Population (2010 est.): 7,293,000 Capital: Belgrade Head of state: President Boris Tadic Head of government: Prime Minister Mirko Cvetkovic

In 2010 Serbia continued to feel the effects of the global economic downturn and to receive installments of a >3 billion (more than $4 billion) loan negotiated with the IMF in 2009. The IMF indicated that Serbia’s recovery was modest; the economy had grown by 1.5% in 2010. The country’s macroeconomic indicators pointed to an expected slowdown in the recovery and to a decrease of its foreign trade deficit. In September public-sector external debt stood at nearly >9 billion (about $11.8 billion) and private-sector debt at >14.2 billion (about $18.6 billion), the latter partly attributable to the blocked accounts of more than 63,000 companies. Serbia’s National Bank characterized the situation as catastrophic. Meanwhile, the European Investment Bank approved some >325 million (about $430 million) in loans for Serbian infrastructure projects. Serbia submitted a feasibility study for the proposed South Stream pipeline to Russia’s Gazprom, which planned to build a natural gas pipeline through southeastern Europe to reach EU mem-

World Affairs: Sierra Leone

ber countries. The Serbian government also earmarked some >15 million (about $20 million) to create four “information incubators” (data clearinghouses) and pledged an additional >400 million (about $530 million) for scientific and technical infrastructure development. Partly as a result of the government’s 2008 austerity initiatives—which included across-the-board wage freezes and devaluation of the domestic currency—average monthly wages continued to drop, having fallen from >419 (about $550) to >323 (about $428). Monthly pension payments also decreased by about >30 (about $40). At the same time, rents increased by some >40 (about $53) for a 40-sq-m (430-sq-ft) apartment in Belgrade. Moreover, rising interest rates on consumer loans increased the average monthly payment by about 40%. By year’s end inflation had topped 10%. The European Commission noted limited progress in the creation of an environment conducive to a market economy and concluded that delays in privatizing state-owned companies had contributed to unemployment’s having increased to over 19%. Serbia continued to improve relations with other former members of federated Yugoslavia. In July Belgrade agreed to negotiate with Kosovo, which in 2008 had declared independence from Serbia. The move followed the International Court of Justice’s issue of an advisory opinion that Kosovo’s declaration of independence had not violated international law. Though Serbia iterated that it would never recognize Kosovo as a sovereign state, Pres. Boris Tadic pledged to reach a “peaceful solution of compromise.” In September the UN General Assembly passed a resolution that opened the way for negotiations between Serbia and Kosovo; however, leaders on both sides had publicly rejected plans for redrawn borders based on demographic considerations. Reconciliation efforts with Croatia included Tadic’s meetings with Croatian Pres. Ivo Josipovic in Belgrade to discuss the return of refugees, border issues, and economic cooperation. Tadic also issued an official apology in Vukovar for Serbia’s role in the destruction of that city and the killing of 260 civilians by Serb forces during Croatia’s struggle for independence in 1991. In March Serbia’s parliament apologized for the massacre of thousands of Bosniacs by Bosnian Serb forces in Srebrenica in 1995. In July Tadic at-

tended ceremonies at the site marking the 15th anniversary of the massacre. The commander of the Bosnian Serb forces at the time, Ratko Mladic, remained at large. He was believed to be hiding in Serbia, which had been criticized for its failure to arrest Mladic, who was indicted in 1995 on charges of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity by the UN’s International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. In October the Serbian government increased its reward 10-fold—to >10 million (about $13.9 million)—for information leading to Mladic’s capture. (MILAN ANDREJEVICH)

SEYCHELLES

Area: 452 sq km (about 174 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 87,600 Capital: Victoria Head of state and government: President James Michel

Piracy in the Indian Ocean was of major concern in Seychelles in 2010. The country entered into a UN-backed international partnership to protect the Seychellois economy and security from Somali piracy, which threatened one of the country’s key industries, tuna fishing. Revenues from tuna fisheries had dropped by 30% over the previous year as a result of piracy targeting fishing vessels in the region. Several incidents occurred after the winter monsoon, including the capture (and eventual rescue) of Seychellois and Iranian fishermen, several high seas standoffs that resulted in the sinking of a number of pirate vessels, and the kidnapping of numerous commercial ships by pirates. These events underlined the need for the introduction of tougher countermeasures in the region. The IMF commended Seychelles on having made significant improvements to its economy. The country had instituted a series of IMF-backed economic reforms, beginning in 2008, in response to an external debt crisis as well as the global financial meltdown. The country had a projected growth of 16.2% in real GDP for 2010, building upon the 0.7% growth in GDP from the previous year. (MARY EBELING)

SIERRA LEONE

Area: 71,740 sq km (27,699 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 5,836,000 Capital: Freetown Head of state and government: President Ernest Bai Koroma

During 2010 Sierra Leone made steady progress beyond humanitarian and emergency relief toward establishing effective democratic governance and reducing poverty. Economic growth was estimated at almost 4.7%, up from 4% in 2009. Pres. Ernest Bai Koroma presented a positive account of his government’s achievements in his broadcast address to the country on September 17, the third anniversary of his government’s assumption of power. High on the list of accomplishments was the completion of the 30-year Bumbuna hydroelectric project and the restoration of electricity to Freetown and to administrative headquarters throughout the country. Expenditure on agricultural development had increased from 2% to 10%, and the reconstruction of the national road network inched forward. Free education had resulted in near parity of girls’ and boys’ enrollment in primary school; however, 30% of schoolage children still did not attend school. In April the government launched free health care for children and women, which aimed to reduce levels of infant and maternal mortality by 30% for the year. According to UNICEF, one in five children in Sierra Leone died before age five, and one in eight women died from pregnancy-related complications. Critics, however, contended that the abolition of fees was not enough. An effective health program, they argued, required a comprehensive structure based on the expansion of treatment centres, the training of more medical staff, and the adequate provision of medicine. As part of government efforts to strengthen anticorruption measures, the president warned public officials and other high-profile leaders, including members of his own family, that no one was immune from prosecution. The Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC) demonstrated its independence from the attorney general’s office by arresting a number of senior government officials, including former health and sani459

World Affairs: Singapore

tation minister Sheku Tejan Kamara and former fisheries and marine resources minister Afsatu Kabba, the latter of whom was convicted in October on charges of financial malfeasance. The ACC also launched a civic education campaign designed to inculcate ideas of accountability. This effort included creating radio and TV spots, setting up Integrity Clubs in schools, and rewarding whistle-blowers who reported suspected cases of public graft to the commission. In September Sierra Leone’s success in meeting international standards of stability resulted in the lifting of UN sanctions that had been imposed on the country in 1997 during its civil war. Nevertheless, the Security Council also extended the mandate of the Integrated Peacebuilding Office in Sierra Leone for another year to monitor political affairs and assist with preparations for the 2012 elections. (LARAY DENZER)

SINGAPORE

Area: 710 sq km (274 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 5,093,000 Head of state: President S.R. Nathan Head of government: Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong

In 2010 Singapore’s economy emerged strongly from the previous year’s recession, with GDP growth forecast to be about 13–15% for the year. Wary of inflationary pressures, the Monetary Authority of Singapore allowed the tradeweighted Singapore dollar to appreciate more than usual, as a result of which the Singapore currency hit record highs against the U.S. dollar in October. Early in the year the government also earmarked U.S.$3.9 billion to raise labour productivity and enhance worker skills, a move seen as necessary if the economy was to become less reliant on foreign labour. With the economy booming, however, it proved hard to persuade workers and employers of the importance of training. On the political front, the biggest development of the year was the passage of amendments to the constitution that changed the electoral system to guarantee that at least 18 members of Parliament would not be from the ruling party. Nine of these members would be 460

so-called nominated MPs, and another nine would come from opposition parties. Other legislative changes reduced the average size of Group Representation Constituencies (electoral divisions for specific ethnic minorities that are represented by a group of three to six members of Parliament) and increased the minimum number of single-member constituencies (electoral divisions represented by a single member of Parliament each) from 9 to 12. Political observers believed that these changes addressed the electorate’s desire for a greater representation for the opposition in Parliament while heading off the political instability that could arise from stronger support for the opposition. In May a minor political storm broke out following remarks from the education minister, Ng Eng Hen, that suggested that the government would be reducing the weight given to Mandarin Chinese relative to English in the Primary School Leaving Examinations. Chinese Singaporeans and Chinese-language teachers were particularly upset as they feared a de-emphasis on bilingualism—long a cornerstone of Singapore’s educational system—and a dilution of Chinese language standards. The prime minister eventually called a press conference to allay concerns, and Ng apologized. In September Singapore and its northern neighbour, Malaysia, signed a historic agreement concerning the presence of Malayan Railway land in Singapore. Malaysia agreed to give up six parcels of land owned by Malayan Railway in Singapore in exchange for six parcels of land in commercial areas that would be jointly developed by a Singapore-Malaysia consortium. The resolution ended a 20-year impasse during which Malayan Railway continued to operate a poorly utilized train service through the heart of Singapore so that it would not lose its legal right to the land. (CHUA LEE HOONG)

SLOVAKIA

Area: 49,034 sq km (18,932 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 5,431,000 Capital: Bratislava Head of state: President Ivan Gasparovic Head of government: Prime Ministers Robert Fico and, from July 8, Iveta Radicova

Slovakia underwent political change in 2010 as the centre-right unexpectedly prevailed in the parliamentary elections on June 12. While outgoing prime minister Robert Fico’s leftist Direction–Social Democracy (Smer-SD) won 62 seats in the 150-member body, the party’s only viable partner was the Slovak National Party (SNS), which won just 9 seats. In contrast, four centre-right parties—the Slovak Democratic and Christian Union–Democratic Party (SDKUDS), Freedom and Solidarity (SaS), the Christian Democratic Movement (KDH), and Bridge (Most-Hid)—gained a slim majority, with a combined 79 seats. Refusing to negotiate with the scandal-plagued Smer-SD, the four parties agreed to form a government. Significantly, the elections brought the defeat of two long-term players, with both the People’s Party–Movement for a Democratic Slovakia (LS-HZDS) and the Party of the Hungarian Coalition (SMK) failing to surpass the 5% threshold needed to enter the parliament. Many voters had shifted to former SMK chairman Bela Bugar’s Bridge party, which combined the Slovak and Hungarian words for “bridge” in its local name, Most-Hid, and which featured both Hungarians and Slovaks on its election list. Meanwhile, the LSHZDS’s poor results brought the exit from the parliament of the controversial former prime minister Vladimir Meciar. The new cabinet was appointed in July, with SDKU-DS election leader Iveta Radicova becoming the country’s first female prime minister. Almost immediately a faction of four SaS deputies led by Igor Matovic and called the Ordinary People threatened to leave the ruling coalition but then agreed to remain within the coalition at least until the end of the year. On the economic front, Slovakia experienced one of the fastest growth rates in the European Union. Still, the global crisis had increased the country’s budget gap to approximately 8% of GDP in 2009–10. As a euro zone member, Slovakia was required to reduce the deficit to below 3% of GDP by 2013, and the government backed a package of austerity measures that was scheduled to take effect in January 2011. The package, which combined spending cuts with modest tax hikes, sparked protests from trade unions. The Radicova government also caused consternation among other euro zone members when it refused to help fund a bailout package for Greece. (See Sidebar on page 353.)

World Affairs: Solomon Islands Peter Hudec—EPA/Landov

Iveta Radicova, leader of the Slovak Democratic and Christian Union–Democratic Party, is sworn in as Slovakia’s first woman prime minister during a parliamentary session in Bratislava on July 8. In interethnic matters, the Bridge party’s inclusion in the government contributed to improved relations between Hungarians and Slovaks. In August, however, a gunman’s rampage against a Roma family in Bratislava demonstrated continued tensions surrounding Slovakia’s other key minority population. (SHARON FISHER)

SLOVENIA

Area: 20,273 sq km (7,827 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 2,051,000 Capital: Ljubljana Head of state: President Danilo Turk Head of government: Prime Minister Borut Pahor

Slovenia’s economy emerged from its deepest recession since independence as the EU demand for Slovenian manufactured goods accelerated beginning

in April 2010. (Exports to fellow EU members accounted for two-thirds of Slovenia’s total economic output.) In response to this development, the government scrapped plans to raise money on international markets through the sale of more benchmark bonds, an approach that had been largely intended to finance Slovenia’s portion of the EU aid for Greece. In October the government announced $1.12 billion in state guarantees to the struggling construction industry. In an attempt to reduce a projected deficit of 4.9% of GDP, an austerity budget was adopted in September, along with a bill that froze public-sector pensions and salaries. Meanwhile, unemployment reached 10.9%, and annual inflation was estimated at 1.9%. Nevertheless, Slovenia continued to enjoy the highest GDP per capita (about $24,000) in the Balkans. An agreement between Slovenia and Croatia to submit their lingering border dispute to an international arbitration tribunal was confirmed by the parliament on April 19 and narrowly endorsed by voters in a June 6 referendum. At stake was Slovenia’s access to international waters. The port of Koper had surpassed the Italian port of Trieste to become the largest in the region. On July 13 the European Court of Human Rights cited Slovenia for having failed to address injustices to 26,000 nationals of other former Yugoslav republics who were dropped from Slovenia’s permanent-resident registry in 1992. Later in the month Slovenia ascended to membership in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Independent and centre-right opposition candidates gained in the October 10 local elections. In a runoff election two weeks later, voters in Piran elected Peter Bossman, a Ghanaian-born physician, the first black mayor in central and eastern Europe. Former prime minister Janez Jansa was indicted for allegedly having accepted bribes while in office. On May 19, 15,000 students demonstrated in Ljubljana against government policies, especially limits on student employment. On September 27 half of Slovenia’s 160,000 public-sector employees went on strike to protest wage freezes. Heavy rains from September 17 to 20 resulted in the worst flooding in recent history, leaving three dead and hundreds homeless. Skier Tina Maze won two silver medals at the 2010 Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver to become Slove-

nia’s most successful female Olympic athlete. Dejan Zavec twice defended his title to remain International Boxing Federation world welterweight champion. Slovenia was the smallest country to compete for the World Cup soccer championship. (See Sidebar on page 312.) (JOSEPH VALENCIC)

SOLOMON ISLANDS

Area: 28,370 sq km (10,954 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 536,000 Capital: Honiara Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governor-General Sir Frank Kabui Head of government: Prime Ministers Derek Sikua and, from August 25, Danny Philip

Two events dominated the news in the Solomon Islands in 2010. Cyclone Ului battered the country’s infrastructure and food crops in March, and national elections in August resulted in a new prime minister, Danny Philip. The Solomon Islands Truth and Reconciliation Commission, established in 2009 to heal the wounds caused by ethnic fighting on Guadalcanal between 1998 and 2003, held its first public hearings in March with testimony from victims of violence and abuse. The Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands, which had played a major role in reconstruction since 2003, retained general public approval but lost some support after two of its soldiers fired into a crowd in the village of Titinge in August, killing one person. It was announced in June that the Gold Ridge Mine, which had provided 30% of the country’s income in 2000, its last year of operation, would resume production in 2011 under a new owner, Allied Gold. The mine was expected to produce some 4,100 kg (132,000 troy ounces) of gold in its first year. The $150 million redevelopment project was finalized only after reconciliation ceremonies had been held to help resolve tensions between landowners and mining executives that had led to the closure of the mine 10 years earlier and comprehensive agreements on environmental protection and social provisions had been negotiated with landowners. (CLUNY MACPHERSON) 461

World Affairs: Somalia

SOMALIA

Area: 637,657 sq km (246,201 sq mi), including the 176,000-sq-km (68,000-sq-mi) area of the unilaterally declared (in 1991) and unrecognized Republic of Somaliland Population (2010 est.): 9,359,000 (including roughly 3,500,000 in Somaliland); at the beginning of the year, nearly 700,000 refugees were in neighbouring countries and 1,550,000 were internally displaced Capital: Mogadishu; Hargeysa is the capital of Somaliland Head of state and government: Somalia’s transitional government comprised President Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed, assisted by Prime Ministers Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke, Abdiwahid Elmi Gonjeh from September 24 (acting), and, from November 1, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed

In 2010 the battle continued in Somalia between the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) and al-Shabaab, an Islamist youth movement with ties to The body of an African Union peacekeeper, killed in clashes between Somali government forces and Islamist insurgents, is dragged through the streets of Mogadishu, Som., in October.

AP

462

al-Qaeda. The TFG, with support from a contingent of about 7,000 African Union (AU) peacekeepers, struggled to hold a portion of Mogadishu, the capital. Meanwhile, al-Shabaab continued to use insurgent tactics, including suicide bombings, to attack the TFG and AU forces. Though U.S. funding armed roughly 10,000 soldiers to support the TFG, as many as 8,000 of those troops deserted. Analysts said that many of their weapons ended up in the hands of al-Shabaab. Al-Shabaab became increasingly radicalized as foreign extremists ascended to leadership positions within the organization and assumed operational and tactical control. Meanwhile, alShabaab’s popular support among Somalis continued to erode. In January the World Food Programme (WFP) suspended part of its food aid to southern Somalia because of demands by al-Shabaab that included paying the Islamist group a $20,000 security fee every six months. Several months later a UN Security Council report alleged that some of the WFP’s food aid had been diverted for military use and that some Somali contractors for food aid had channeled funds to insurgent groups. The U.S. government became increasingly concerned about the terrorist threat posed by al-Shabaab, particularly after an FBI investigation revealed that a young American, Omar Hammami, had risen to occupy a leadership position in al-Shabaab. Under his new name, Abu Mansoor al-Amriki, he starred in recruitment videos to persuade young Western Somalis to join al-Shabaab. In July bombers in Kampala, Ugan., killed nearly 80 people who were watching the FIFA World Cup final on television. Al-Shabaab claimed responsibility for the attack, which was mounted in Uganda because the country had contributed troops to the AU peacekeeping force in Somalia. In late July the AU agreed to send additional peacekeepers to Somalia; by year’s end, there were about 8,000 such troops there. In December the UN extended the AU mission’s mandate and supported an additional troop increase. In late August al-Shabaab began an offensive against the TFG, coinciding with Ramadan. In a period of 10 days, more than 100 people were killed. Weeks later TFG Prime Minister Omar Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke resigned. The only peaceful enclave within Somalia remained Somaliland, an au-

tonomous region in the north of Somalia. It held successful presidential elections in June that transferred power from Dahir Riyale Kahin, the sitting president, to Ahmed Silanyo, a longtime opposition leader. Silanyo stated that he would seek international recognition of Somaliland’s independence. East of Somaliland an area known as Puntland was also autonomously governed, but it was widely believed to be a pirate stronghold. In late September the U.S. government announced its intentions to pursue “aggressive engagement” with Somaliland and Puntland. As al-Shabaab’s power grew, local clan authorities started to collaborate with pirate leaders to ensure the security of their communities. (STEPHANIE HANSON)

SOUTH AFRICA

Area: 1,220,813 sq km (471,359 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 49,991,000 Capitals (de facto): Pretoria (executive); Bloemfontein (judicial); Cape Town (legislative) Head of state and government: President Jacob Zuma

South African Pres. Jacob Zuma approached his state of the nation address on Feb. 11, 2010, under the cloud of having fathered his 20th child out of wedlock. In the address, which took place on the 20th anniversary of Nelson Mandela’s release from prison, Zuma promised a year of action by a “performance-oriented state,” with a concentration on education, health, rural development, and land reform, as well as the creation of “decent work” and renewed efforts to fight crime. It was announced that cabinet ministers would sign “delivery agreements” with measurable goals to ensure accountability, but none of the agreements were signed until late September. The opposition criticized the address for having lacked vision and detail. Zuma faced a quandary in April over how to respond to controversial actions of one of his strongest supporters, Julius Malema, the president of the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL). Malema had continued to publicly sing an African National

World Affairs: South Africa Press Association/AP

South African fans, wearing the colours of their country’s team and trumpeting on vuvuzela horns, celebrate the opening ceremony of the FIFA World Cup in Johannesburg’s Soccer City Stadium on June 11. Congress (ANC) liberation song whose words included “shoot the Boer” after he had been censured for doing so because of its potential to incite racial violence. Moreover, on a visit to Zimbabwe, Malema indicated support for Pres. Robert Mugabe’s Zimbabwe African National Union–Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) and criticized Morgan Tsvangirai’s Movement for Democratic Change (MDC-T), thereby threatening to jeopardize Zuma’s attempts at mediation between the two parties. Malema courted further controversy when he lost his temper with a BBC journalist at a press conference and had him ejected. When Zuma finally criticized Malema, Malema’s response was that Zuma was worse than former president Thabo Mbeki, who had never criticized the ANCYL. For that comparison, the ANC disciplined Malema in May. The ANCYL was eager to replace ANC SecretaryGeneral Gwede Mantashe, who also functioned as the president of the South African Communist Party (SACP). The ANCYL saw his dual roles as a split in loyalties and began pushing for former ANCYL leader Fikile Mbalula to be made ANC secretary-general at the party’s 2012 national conference. Throughout the year, Malema called for nationalization of South Africa’s mines; however, the ANC’s National General Council (NGC) recommended further research on the matter. Other NGC recommendations included the phasing in over 14 years of a national health insurance scheme to provide free health care for all citizens, the cre-

ation of a state bank, and a review of the existing “willing-buyer, willingseller” model of land acquisition. A strike by more than one million public-sector workers was suspended after almost three weeks on September 6 so the unions could consider the government’s offer of a 7.5% pay increase and an 800-rand (about $112) housing allowance. The unions had demanded an 8.6% salary increase and a 1,000rand (about $140) housing allowance. The strike created tensions in the Tripartite Alliance (the ANC, the SACP, and the Congress of South African Trade Unions); COSATU General Secretary Zwelinzima Vavi said that the alliance was “dysfunctional” and that the country was “heading rapidly in the direction of a full-blown predator state, in which a powerful, corrupt, and demagogic elite of political hyenas increasingly controls the state as a vehicle for accumulation.” Calling for stronger action against corruption, Vavi referred to multibillion-rand deals involving Zuma’s relatives and associates when he said that politicians awaiting their turn to “feed” constituted a “vulgarization” of the alliance’s liberation struggle. The government’s Protection of Information Bill and proposed media tribunal were widely criticized as censorship. The Democratic Alliance signed a cooperation agreement with the Independent Democrats in advance of a full merger of the parties to follow the 2011 local elections. In other domestic news, former national police commissioner Jackie Se-

lebi was sentenced to 15 years in prison for corruption, which had centred on his relationship with convicted drug dealer Glen Agliotti. (Agliotti was himself on trial for murder in the so-called “assisted suicide” in 2005 of controversial businessman Brett Kebble.) The judge said that Selebi was an “embarrassment to all right-thinking citizens of this country” and to the men and women who served in the police force. Selebi appealed his conviction. With ubiquitous vuvuzela stadium horns providing the soundtrack, South Africa hosted a highly successful association football (soccer) World Cup. Its national team (Bafana Bafana), however, became the first host team in tournament history not to advance from the opening round. (See Sidebar on page 312.) Economy. Having posted 4.6% growth in the first quarter of 2010, 2.8% in the second, and 2.6% in the third, the economy had recovered from 2009’s contraction of 1.75%. Jobs continued to be lost, though: 171,000 in the first quarter, 61,000 in the second, and 86,000 in the third. At the end of the third quarter, the unemployment rate was 25.3% (it stood at 36.6% if those who were no longer actively seeking work were included). The 2010 budget included 6.5 billion rand (about $870 million) in tax relief. In addition, the budget allocated 52 billion rand (about $7 billion) for publicworks programs, 112 billion rand (about $15 billion) to address crime, health, and rural development, and 3.6 billion rand (nearly $500 million) for a new action plan for industrial policy. The budget deficit for 2009–10 was 7.3% of GDP, a result of falling revenues because of recession; the figure for 2010–11 was expected to be 6.2%. Inflation had fallen to 3.5% by August, and the interest rate was reduced to 6% in September. The rand strengthened as 98. 2 billion rand (about $13.8 billion) of foreign portfolio investment (mainly in bonds) flowed into the country to mid-September. By early October the rand was at a 33month high against the dollar. Foreign Affairs. Accompanied by a large delegation of cabinet minsters and businesspeople, President Zuma visited India in June and China in August, his first trips to Asia as president. He also visited Brazil and Russia. In Africa Zuma traveled to Angola, Lesotho, Zambia, and Uganda. Former president Mbeki continued his mediation in Sudan between contending forces. (MARTIN LEGASSICK) 463

World Affairs: Spain Kyodo/AP

SPAIN

Area: 505,991 sq km (195,364 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 46,506,000 Capital: Madrid Head of state: King Juan Carlos I Head of government: Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero

The ongoing economic crisis continued to dominate events and the national mood in Spain in 2010. While the estimated 0.3% drop in GDP compared favourably with the 4% plunge in 2009, unemployment topped 20% in the summer and scarcely budged thereafter, having left more than 4.5 million people unemployed, nearly 1.3 million of them in households in which no one was working. Public finances were hit hard, with the budget deficit expected to approach 10% of GDP and the national debt to surpass 60% by the end of the year. Spain struggled to maintain the confidence of the international financial markets. A >50 billion (about $70 billion) savings plan introduced in January not only failed to impress investors but also resulted in an increase in the cost of borrowing and, in the months that followed, led the main international credit agencies to lower Spain’s “triple A” rating. In a bid to calm both the markets and its European partners—who were worried that Spain might require a bailout like the one extended to Greece—the government responded in May with a tough austerity plan designed to slash the deficit and promote growth. The plan included an average pay cut of 5% for more than 2.5 million civil servants (to be followed by a pay freeze in 2011), budget cuts intended to save a further >15 billion (about $19 million) by 2011, labour-market reforms meant to make it easier and less costly to hire and fire, and a proposal to raise the retirement age from 65 to 67. Although the main Spanish banks fared well in the “stress tests” applied to 91 European financial institutions in the summer, the tensions that led to the Irish bailout in November also put the spotlight on Spain and pushed the cost of insuring Spanish debt to a record high. The government responded in December with plans for the sale of stakes in several national 464

Members of Spain’s national association football (soccer) team celebrate their 1–0 victory over the Netherlands in the FIFA World Cup final, held in Johannesburg on July 11. assets (notably management of the Madrid and Barcelona airports), the elimination of some unemployment benefits, and new incentives for small and medium-sized businesses. Battered by both the recession and the widespread disapproval of its response to the crisis, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero’s minority Socialist (PSOE) government struggled to retain support in the parliament and among the populace. In June the unions responded to the Socialists’ austerity measures by calling largely symbolic one-day general strikes by public-sector employees. Then, on September 29, an estimated 20–30% of the workforce stayed at home in an economy-wide general strike. Spurned by their allies on the left, in October the Socialists had to make substantial concessions to the conservative nationalists from the Basque Country and Canary Islands to avoid early elections and to get their 2011 budget through the parliament. Zapatero seized the opportunity to bring four new faces onto the front bench in a major cabinet reshuffle. Although the reshuffle was generally well received, it looked unlikely to restore voters’ confidence in Zapatero, whose approval ratings reached a new low, or in his party, which slipped farther behind the centre-right Popular Party (PP) in the polls. The Catalan regional elections on November 28 brought further bad news for the So-

cialists as the tripartite PSOE–Republican Left of Catalonia–Green regional government lost power to the conservative Catalan nationalists of Convergence and Union (CiU). The Socialists could take some solace, however, from voters’ continued lack of enthusiasm for PP leader Mariano Rajoy, who was unable or unwilling to propose concrete alternatives to the government policies he denounced so repetitively. In September the radical Basqueseparatist organization Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) declared a cease-fire that came as no surprise. Most observers considered ETA to be in terminal decline, weakened by police operations and growing pressure from its political wing to abandon violence, a necessary precondition for any political future for the group. In the international arena, the Spanish presidency of the EU during the first half of the year was largely overshadowed by the European financial crisis. Spain increased its military presence in Afghanistan to 1,550 in February after having sent another 450 military personnel to participate in relief efforts for the Haiti earthquake. Closer to home, border incidents in Spain’s North African enclave of Melilla, along with Morocco’s violent repression of Saharan protests in November, made for a particularly tense year in the always-complicated Spanish-Moroccan relations.

World Affairs: Sudan

Spanish achievement in sports provided a much-needed cause for celebration in 2010 as the country took its place as a major sporting power. In the space of just three weeks in July, tennis star Rafael Nadal reclaimed his Wimbledon title and number one ranking, the Spanish association football (soccer) team won the World Cup championship (see Sidebar on page 312), and cyclist Alberto Contador won the Tour de France for the third time, a victory subsequently marred by a positive result in doping tests. Finally, in October motorbike racer Jorge Lorenzo became the MotoGP 2010 world champion. (JUSTIN BYRNE)

SRI LANKA

Area: 65,610 sq km (25,332 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 20,410,000 Capitals: Colombo (executive and judicial); Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (legislative) Head of state and government: President Mahinda Rajapakse, assisted by Prime Ministers Ratnasiri Wickremanayake and, from April 21, D.M. Jayaratne

In 2010, the first full year since its long, bloody civil war had ended with the defeat of the Tamil Tigers (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam), Sri Lanka experienced the beginnings of postwar reconstruction, a revival of economic growth, and the consolidation of political power under Pres. Mahinda Rajapakse and his ruling United People’s Freedom Alliance (UPFA). Buoyed by his tremendous popularity within the majority Sinhalese community as a result of the military victory, Rajapakse was easily reelected in January to a second term as president. His electoral opponent, former armed forces commander Gen. Sarath Fonseka, received support from the Tamil and Muslim communities, as well as from some urban Sinhalese. The election results emphasized the continuing division of Sri Lankan society along ethnic lines and the lack of reconciliation among its communities. Following the election, Fonseka, who had challenged its results, was arrested and accused of having plotted to topple the government. Subsequently, several other opposition politicians and jour-

nalists were subjected to harassment. The government’s use of force against its critics, along with the increasing concentration of power in the hands of the president and his family, raised deep concerns about the future of Sri Lanka’s long-standing democracy. Adding fuel to such concerns, Parliament amended the constitution in September to permit a president to serve more than two six-year terms. The amendment also granted the president judicial immunity and final authority over all appointments to the civil service, judiciary, police, and armed forces. Since 2009 the government had been criticized for having acted too slowly in facilitating the return home of tens of thousands of people who had been displaced by the war. By October 2010, though, the government had claimed that some 260,000 of the about 280,000 displaced people had been resettled. The end of the war increased economic confidence among businesses, consumers, and tourists. Moreover, the country’s GDP was expected to grow by more than 6% in 2010. On the downside, the EU suspended the trade preferences granted to Sri Lanka under the “GSP+” program (an enhanced version of Generalized System of Preferences that provided special incentives for sustainable development and good gover-

nance). The suspension, imposed because of “significant shortcomings” with respect to human rights in Sri Lanka, was expected to have a serious impact on garment exports. Despite the controversy, Sri Lanka continued to receive support from the IMF and the World Bank. (DONALD SNODGRASS)

SUDAN

Area: 2,505,810 sq km (967,499 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 43,940,000, including about 300,000 refugees in Chad Capital: Khartoum Head of state and government: President and Prime Minister Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir

In April 2010 Sudan held its first multiparty elections in 24 years. They marked an important milestone on the road to the southern Sudanese referenda laid out in the 2005 U.S.-backed peace treaty between the ruling National Congress Party (NCP) and the southern rebels that ended two decades

Southern Sudanese on December 9 show their support for a proposed referendum that would allow voters to approve the secession of southern Sudan. Prior to a 2005 peace treaty, the Muslim-dominated north and the predominantly Christian south had engaged in decades of civil war.

Benedicte Desrus—Reuters/Landov

465

World Affairs: Suriname

of civil war. Those elected included presidents for the country and the semiautonomous south, members of the country’s 450-seat National Assembly and the south’s 171-seat legislature, and governors and legislative bodies for 25 states. The results were hardly surprising. Pres. Omar al-Bashir, the NCP leader, easily won reelection as the country’s president with 68% of the votes, while in the south Salva Kiir, the leader of the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM), won a landslide 93% of the vote. Both the NCP and the SPLM won almost all the governorships and contested legislative seats in their respective territories. Overall Bashir’s popularity with the electorate reflected the recognition that his regime was responsible for the prosperity it had enjoyed for more than a decade as well as its judicious use of oil wealth in development planning. In addition, the elections proceeded with little reference to the International Criminal Court indictment against Bashir for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. Not only did the African Union (AU) not support the indictment, but it also made no attempt to force its members to arrest Bashir if he visited their countries, as was the case with Chad and Kenya. No better testimony to AU support could be found than in its last-minute decision to move from Kenya to Ethiopia a summit of the Intergovernmental Authority for Development, which had six eastern African leaders scheduled to attend, because of the acrimonious dispute that arose in Nairobi concerning Bashir’s presence there at the official signing of Kenya’s new constitution in August. Despite numerous irregularities, observers from the European Union, the AU, the Arab League, the Carter Center, and local nongovernmental organizations agreed that the results were acceptable enough to move forward to the next step. Both the northern-based national government and the government of the semiautonomous south turned their attention to the referenda scheduled for January 2011 in southern Sudan and the small oil-rich region of Abyei. Should the voters in southern Sudan vote to secede from the country, as was expected, it was widely thought that both governments had contingency plans for a pragmatic arrangement that would continue the existing mutually beneficial oil-revenue-sharing agreement by which oil produced in the south was exported 466

through northern pipelines and terminals. The SPLM and the NCP had agreed that the referenda did not depend on a final resolution of the north-south border; at the year’s end, however, the Abyei referendum was postponed indefinitely, owing to disagreements over voter eligibility in the region. (LARAY DENZER)

SURINAME

Area: 163,820 sq km (63,251 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 524,000 Capital: Paramaribo Head of state and government: Presidents Ronald Venetiaan and, from August 12, Dési Bouterse, assisted by Prime Ministers Ram Sardjoe and, from August 12, Robert Ameerali

Dési Bouterse’s Mega Combinatie Party captured 40% of the vote in Suriname’s 2010 legislative elections and, with minor-party support, elected Bouterse to a five-year term as president. Few contemporary leaders had assumed office with a more unsavory resume. A former dictator who took power in a military coup, Bouterse had admitted “political [but not direct] responsibility” for the execution of 15 prominent adversaries in 1982. After the election Bouterse’s three-year murder trial was suspended. If convicted, the new president would still be in a position to pardon himself. Nevertheless, an Interpol warrant for his arrest for drug trafficking persisted. Partly because a number of individuals he named to senior government positions were his fellow defendants, there was concern about the new government’s willingness to grapple with rising levels of organized crime. The landscape was not all dark. Bouterse appointed respected professionals to head the central bank and the Finance Ministry and to serve as vice president, and he inherited a public structure well managed over the previous decade by his predecessor, Ronald Venetiaan. While the mining giant BHP Billiton was leaving Suriname after 70 years and had sold its bauxite and alumina holdings, major new investments in gold and offshore oil moved forward in 2010. (JOHN W. GRAHAM)

SWAZILAND

Area: 17,364 sq km (6,704 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,354,000 Capitals: Mbabane (administrative and judicial); Lobamba (legislative) Head of state: King Mswati III, assisted by Prime Minister Barnabas Sibusiso Dlamini

The year 2010 was characterized by economic uncertainty in Swaziland, owing to the global recession and diminished Southern African Customs Union (SACU) dividends for the country. Food and energy prices steadily increased, and unemployment and poverty remained major challenges. The closure of the Sappi Usutu Pulp Co. resulted in the loss of more jobs. Executives and top politicians were for the first time called upon to declare their assets to the country’s Integrity Commission. Suppression of political activity and dissent continued under the pretext of enforcing the Suppression of Terrorism Act of 2008. Sipho Jele, a member of the proscribed People’s United Democratic Movement (PUDEMO), was arrested on May 1 and was later found dead in a police cell. In other news, Mary-Joyce Doo Aphane, a gender activist, successfully challenged a legal provision that did not allow married women to hold property rights. The verdict was reversed, however, by the Court of Appeal. In September David Matse, who the previous year had been appointed chairperson of the Integrity Commission, was appointed minister of justice and constitutional affairs. HIV/AIDS— with a prevalence rate of 26% in the country—continued to be a significant problem. (NHLANHLA DLAMINI)

SWEDEN

Area: 450,295 sq km (173,860 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 9,381,000 Capital: Stockholm Head of state: King Carl XVI Gustaf Head of government: Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt

World Affairs: Switzerland Jochen Luebke—EPA/Landov

Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden and the newly titled Prince Daniel, duke of Västergötland, smile after their wedding ceremony in Stockholm on June 19. Sweden’s political spectrum tilted toward the centre-right in 2010 as a result of the victory of Prime Minister Fredrik Reinfeldt and his four-party centre-right coalition in the general elections in September. In capturing only 30.7% of the vote, the leading opposition party, the once-almighty Swedish Social Democratic Party (SAP), had its worst showing at the polls in almost a century. The SAP’s disappointing outcome mirrored the recent general decline in the fortunes of left-leaning parties in Europe, including the failures of the German Social Democrats and of the British Labour Party in their most recent parliamentary elections. The fate of Reinfeldt’s conservative Moderate Party was very different, as it increased its share of the vote from only 15% in 2002 to 30% in 2010. In the process, it came within a fraction of having become Sweden’s largest party, and in the country’s fastest-growing areas, such as Stockholm county, it had already become the leading party. Reinfeldt, who had come to power in 2006, became the first nonsocialist prime minister in Swedish history to be reelected, though his coalition fell two seats short of having attained an outright majority. Still, the coalition received more votes than it had when it first formed the government. The 2010 election also marked a breakthrough for the anti-immigration Sweden Democrats, who passed the 4% threshold necessary to attain representation and

became the first far-right party to enter the Swedish parliament. The new populist party held the balance of power and likely would make governing more difficult for Reinfeldt. It would be crucial for Reinfeldt to win some support from the parties on the left to neutralize the potential influence of the Sweden Democrats, with whom he and all of the other parties had refused to cooperate. The rise of the Sweden Democrats coincided with the ascent of nationalist parties elsewhere in Europe, including Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, and Austria. Reinfeldt’s reelection, however, was clearly a vote of confidence in a government that had engineered a strong economic rebound in 2010. Although it had enacted a number of unpopular reforms, such as a reduction in unemployment benefits, the government (and especially Finance Minister Anders Borg) won great respect for its handling of the financial crisis of 2008–09. After an almost unparalleled decrease of 5% in 2009, the Swedish GDP grew by more than 4% in 2010, and positive growth was forecast for 2011 and 2012, albeit at a slower pace. Equally important, unemployment—though high by Swedish standards at more than 8%—had not reached the 10–11% that had been predicted. A cornerstone of Reinfeldt’s economic policy since he first became prime minister had been substantial income tax reductions aimed at increasing incentives for workers used

to relying on Sweden’s once-generous welfare system. The healthy Swedish economy (with one of Europe’s lowest budget deficits) boosted the value of the national currency, the krona, against both the U.S. dollar and the euro in 2010. Moreover, the World Economic Forum ranked Sweden as the world’s second most competitive economy, behind Switzerland. The year also saw the salvation of troubled auto manufacturer Saab AB, which the Dutch company Spyker bought from General Motors. In June Swedes happily witnessed the wedding of Crown Princess Victoria and Daniel Westling (who became Prince Daniel). In November Sweden sought the extradition from Britain of WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange on sexual-offense charges. (See BIOGRAPHIES.) The year ended shockingly when, on December 11, Stockholm was rocked by a pair of explosions set off by an Islamist suicide bomber. (MARTIN HAAG)

SWITZERLAND

Area: 41,285 sq km (15,940 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 7,807,000 Capital: Bern Head of state and government: President Doris Leuthard

In 2010 Switzerland joined the handful of countries with a majority of women in cabinet posts. In September the parliament elected Simonetta Sommaruga of the Social Democratic Party to replace outgoing transport minister Moritz Leuenberger to increase the number of women on the seven-member Federal Council from three to four. Under Switzerland’s traditional consensus-style coalition government, the seats of the Federal Council were divided between the four main parties. The left-of-centre Social Democrats and the right-wing Swiss People’s Party cried foul, however, when the two centre-right parties claimed the most prestigious ministries in the new cabinet even though they were clearly in the minority in the parliament. In June former Swiss president Joseph Deiss was elected president of the UN General Assembly despite the 467

World Affairs: Syria Arno Balzarini—Keystone/AP

A government expert group predicted that the economy in 2010 would grow by 2.7%, a higher rate than expected. It added, however, that the strength of the Swiss franc against other currencies and the sluggish world economy would slow exports and GDP growth in 2011. (CLARE KAPP)

SYRIA

Near Sedrun, Switz., on October 15, miners rejoice after completing the drilling for the Gotthard Base Tunnel, which, at 57 km (35 mi), would be the world’s longest rail tunnel. international uproar over the 2009 Swiss referendum that had banned construction of new minarets. In March the UN Human Rights Council backed a resolution calling the ban a “manifestation of Islamophobia.” Accusations of discrimination were again raised in November when 53% of Swiss voters approved a referendum pushed by the Swiss People’s Party that called for deportation of foreigners convicted of serious crimes. A long-running diplomatic quarrel eased after the June release of a Swiss businessman who had been detained in Libya for nearly two years, including four months in prison, on visa violation charges. The detention was widely regarded as Libyan retaliation for Geneva’s 2008 arrest of the son of Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi. In July the Swiss Justice Ministry ordered the release of Polish French film director Roman Polanski, detained in the country since September 2009, from house arrest at his Alpine vacation chalet. The ministry cited “deficiencies in the U.S. extradition request” as the reason for its refusal to extradite Polanski to the United States, where in 1977 he had been charged with unlawful intercourse with a minor. The Alpine country celebrated an engineering feat in October when miners broke through the last bit of rock separating the north and south sections of 468

the new Gotthard Base Tunnel. At 57 km (35 mi), the tunnel would be the longest and most deeply set rail tunnel in the world when it opened, most likely in December 2017. The tunnel was expected to slash travel times between northern and southern Europe and to reduce traffic through the choked-up St. Gotthard Road Tunnel. A commission of experts recommended new laws to cover two Swiss banks that were considered “too big to fail.” The commission, set up after the government bailed out UBS in October 2008, recommended that UBS and Credit Suisse embrace a “balanced” approach to risk taking and that they hold almost twice as much capital as required by new international banking standards. The cabinet welcomed the report and instructed the Finance Ministry to draft a consultation paper on the new regulations. Switzerland, which continued to cherish its banking secrecy, faced ongoing pressure to stop shielding tax evaders. It had agreed in August 2009 to surrender data on UBS clients to the U.S. Internal Revenue Service, but a Swiss court ruled in January that the agreement could not be enforced. In order to avert the risk of a nationwide referendum on the matter, Swiss lawmakers in June approved the agreement and thus allowed UBS to hand over its data on suspected tax dodgers.

Area: 185,180 sq km (71,498 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 22,198,000 (including 1,200,000 Iraqi refugees and nearly 500,000 long-term Palestinian refugees) Capital: Damascus Head of state and government: President Bashar al-Assad, assisted by Prime Minister Muhammad Naji al-Otari

Severe drought devastated Syria’s northeastern provinces during the course of 2010. Villages along the Euphrates River and its now-barren tributaries turned into ghost towns as residents fled to Aleppo and Damascus in search of sustenance. UN agencies distributed emergency supplies but were confronted with persistent logistical difficulties and widespread pilfering. Public hospitals were overwhelmed with the sick and malnourished, and increasingly desperate rural families pulled children out of school to look for work. Tensions remained high between the authorities and Kurdish activists. On March 21, riot police shot into a crowd celebrating the new year (Nowruz) in Al-Raqqah after demonstrators refused to exchange the Kurdish flags they were waving for Syrian ones. In midJune the security forces rounded up a large number of Kurds who were suspected of having sympathized with the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK). In mid-April an influential Islamist, !Abd al-Munim Mustafa Haliya, criticized the Muslim Brotherhood for having undertaken negotiations with the government and warned that a resumption of armed struggle might be the only way “to force the Ba!thist regime into introducing serious political reforms.” At the end of July, the leadership council of the Muslim Brotherhood replaced longtime general supervisor !Ali Sadr al-Din al-Bayanuni

World Affairs: Taiwan

with Muhammad Riyad al-Shaqfih, a 66-year-old engineer from Hama. The new general supervisor appointed Faruk Taifur, also from Hama, to be his deputy. Both men had taken part in armed struggle against the Ba!th Party during the early 1980s, and Taifur had been an outspoken opponent of Bayanuni’s overtures to the authorities. Nevertheless, in his inaugural interview Shaqfih pledged to refrain from violence and take steps to transform the organization into a political party. Meanwhile, officials wrestled with how to handle young women who insisted on completely covering themselves in public. The Ministry of Higher Education in July pulled some 1,200 fully covered teachers out of the classroom and transferred them to secluded posts in the Ministries of Agriculture and Local Administration; in mid-July the minister of higher education issued a directive that prohibited any student who donned the niqab (a veil covering the face) from registering for classes at state universities or technical institutes. Use of the hijab (head scarf), which left the face exposed, remained permissible. An attempt by members of the People’s Assembly to debate the merits of the directive ended up being quashed by the speaker. Israeli charges in April that Syria had received a shipment of Scud missiles for delivery to Hezbollah in Lebanon were strenuously denied by Syrian officials but poisoned the atmosphere between Damascus and Washington. The U.S. announced in May that comprehensive economic sanctions would be renewed for an additional year, and the U.S. Senate dragged its feet on approving a new ambassador to Syria. In midSeptember the Russian Ministry of Defense announced that it would honour a 2007 contract to supply P-800 Yakhont antiship missiles to the Syrian armed forces. (FRED H. LAWSON)

TAIWAN (REPUBLIC OF CHINA)

Area: 36,191 sq km (13,973 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 23,138,000 Capital: Taipei Head of state: President Ma Ying-jeou Head of government: President of the Executive Yuan (Premier) Wu Den-yih

Domestically, Taiwan’s politics remained sharply divided in 2010 between the pro-independence Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) and the Nationalist Party or Kuomintang (KMT), which favoured closer ties with China. The KMT had dominated Taiwanese politics since the disgrace of former president Chen Shui-bian of the DPP and the rise of the current president, Ma Ying-jeou of the KMT. In November, Chen and his wife received prison terms of at least 11 years each from Taiwan’s Supreme Court in one of the several corruption cases against them. Nonetheless, the DPP’s political fortunes improved through 2010 as the party softened its rhetoric on establishing a new Taiwanese republic in favour of appeals for better government. In December 2009 local elections, the DPP won back a county in northern Taiwan and nearly picked off a traditional KMT county stronghold in the east. The DPP followed up on that success in 2010 by picking up six out of seven legislative seats up for grabs in by-elections held in January and February. Although the KMT won three of five mayoral elections at the end of November after the son of honorary KMT chairman Lien Chan was shot, the DPP won a majority of votes cast. The pendulum of Taiwanese politics, at least in some areas, was swinging back to the DPP. The KMT, however, staked its continued dominance on a stronger economy focused on China. With some 15% of its GDP based on exports to China, Taiwan’s economy was highly dependent on the mainland. The depth of that relationship was expected to grow after the Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement (ECFA) was signed by Taiwan and China at the end of June. Under ECFA, China was to lower its tariffs to zero on some 539 exports from Taiwan over two years, while Taiwan would do the same for 267 Chinese exports to the island. Although ECFA was essentially a freetrade agreement, its formal name reflected continued Chinese sensitivities about Taiwan’s sovereignty—i.e., that China signed free-trade agreements only with sovereign countries, Taiwan not being one. Despite these warming economic ties, not all Taiwanese sectors were open to Chinese investment. Taiwanese regulators blocked the purchase of a large insurance company in Taiwan by a Hong Kong-based investment consortium

and also blocked the acquisition of a Chinese technology firm by Taiwan computer chip giant UMC. Less-sensitive sectors, though, were opening fast; Taiwan café chain 85°C Café was listed on Taiwan’s stock exchange in November, intending to use capital raised there to challenge Starbucks for dominance in China. Another important achievement of the Ma administration was the fulfillment of Ma’s 2008 campaign promise to attract more than one million Chinese tourists to Taiwan. By mid-2010 Chinese from all provinces and major cities were eligible to visit Taiwan. In excess of one million had done so by the year’s end, despite an accident during a typhoon in October in which a bus plunged off a cliff into the ocean from the Su-Hua Highway in eastern Taiwan, killing some 20 Chinese tourists from Guangdong province. That accident spurred protesters in Taipei to demand that the government go ahead with a plan to rebuild the scenic but treacherous highway. The project’s environmental-impact assessment passed in record time after some 20 years of opposition by environmentalists and their political allies. Despite this defeat, environmentalists won important court victories when the Supreme Administrative Court ordered a stop to development of the Central Taiwan Science Park near T’ai-chung. Taiwan’s export-oriented economy grew by more than 9% in 2010. Nonetheless, unemployment hovered at about 5% for most of the year, and some 264,000 people were living below Taiwan’s poverty line of about $3,400 per year. A major administrative change at year’s end created three new special municipalities under the direct jurisdiction of the central government. Taiwan continued its low foreignpolicy profile in 2010, but Canada started allowing visa-free travel for Taiwan residents in November. The EU also agreed in November to begin allowing visa-free travel from Taiwan to EU countries in early 2011. Relations with China generally were good, although occasional conflicts arose. In one incident Chinese participants at the Tokyo International Film Festival in October protested Taiwan’s inclusion under the name Taiwan. Chinese Pres. Hu Jintao, meeting with Lien Chan in Tokyo, suggested that such incidents could be avoided if Taiwan’s participation at international events was discussed in advance. (MICHAEL R. FAHEY) 469

World Affairs: Tajikistan

TAJIKISTAN

Area: 143,100 sq km (55,300 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 7,075,000 Capital: Dushanbe Head of state: President Imomalii Rakhmon Head of government: Prime Minister Akil Akilov

Tajikistan’s political year began on Feb. 28, 2010, with a parliamentary election, which gave the People’s Democratic Party of Pres. Imomalii Rakhmon some 72% of the vote and most of the seats in the lower house of the parliament. Opposition parties, including the Islamic Rebirth Party and the Communist Party, again had no meaningful representation in the national legislature. In September the IMF posited that Tajikistan was overcoming the effects of the global financial crisis, thanks to a rise in remittances from labour migrants working abroad, but significant segments of the country’s economy suffered the effects all year of Uzbekistan’s slowdown in the delivery of rail freight to Tajikistan. Although never admitted officially by the Uzbek authorities, Tajik officials believed that the slowdown, which affected primarily agriculture and construction work in the southern Khatlon Region, was aimed at stopping construction of a gigantic dam and power plant at Roghun. In October, Uzbek Pres. Islam Karimov told an audience in Uzbekistan’s Karakalpakstan region that completion of the project would result in agriculture in southern Uzbekistan being deprived of water for eight years, a charge the Tajiks vehemently rejected. At the beginning of the year, President Rakhmon launched a nationwide sale of shares to finance construction of the Roghun project; while the official media asserted that the population was enthusiastically buying the shares, there was increasing evidence that people at all income levels were being forced to purchase them. The campaign was stopped only when the IMF convinced the Tajik leadership in mid-April that it was disrupting the country’s macroeconomic stability. Despite the president’s frequent assertions of the importance of Islam to Tajik society, he irritated many pious Muslims during the year. He called on 470

Tajik women not to wear Muslim garb and recalled Tajik students from foreign religious schools, telling parents that by sending their children abroad for religious study, they were likely to turn their offspring into extremists. In late summer Tajikistan began to experience its worst outbreak of violence in many years. On August 23, 25 militants escaped from a detention facility in Dushanbe; by the end of the year, more than half of them had been recaptured or killed. A police station was bombed in the northern city of Khujand on September 3, and later that month some 25 military personnel were reported killed by militants in the Rasht region. Military operations to reassert government control in the area continued through the end of the year. (BESS BROWN)

TANZANIA

Area: 945,090 sq km (364,901 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 41,893,000 De facto capital: Dar es Salaam; only the legislature meets in Dodoma, the longtime planned capital Head of state and government: President Jakaya Kikwete, assisted by Prime Minister Mizengo Pinda

On Oct. 31, 2010, general elections took place without complications on the Tanzania mainland and the Zanzibar archipelago. Incumbent Pres. Jakaya Kikwete, flagbearer of the Revolutionary Party of Tanzania (CCM), was reelected for his second and final fiveyear term with a clear majority vote of 61%, though this was significantly less than the 80% vote he had won in the previous election. Among the six other presidential candidates, Kikwete’s most serious challengers were Willibrod Slaa, a former priest and leader of the Party for Democracy and Progress (Chadema), and university professor Ibrahim Lipumba, the Civic United Front (CUF) candidate; they won 26.3% and 8.1%, respectively. While President Kikwete still enjoyed great popularity, the voters registered strong displeasure with the ruling party by voting 51 sitting parliamentarians out of office, including four cabinet ministers. A particularly significant victory was that of

Salum Khalfani Bar#wani, an albino who was a candidate of the opposition CUF party. Although an albino had been previously appointed to the parliament as part of measures taken by the government to counter widespread persecution of albinos, Bar#wani was the first albino to gain election to the parliament. Three months before the general elections, a referendum was held in Zanzibar to determine if the semiautonomous archipelago would remain in the unity government with the mainland. An overwhelming 66.4% of the electorate supported the measure. During the general elections, CCM candidate Ali Mohamed Shein was elected president of the archipelago by a narrow margin with 50.1% of the votes. Three main issues drove the election: corruption, the resumption of free education, and free health care. According to a report by the U.S.-based watchdog group Global Financial Integrity, Tanzania headed the list of East African states that had lost billions of dollars to money laundering, tax evasion, and government graft. Since independence the country had lost $8.9 billion owing to financial malfeasance, a sum that would have been sufficient to pay the external debt and still have several billion dollars left for poverty-reduction and development programs. Another issue was female political participation. Women complained that collectively the political parties ignored the Southern African Development Community protocol to achieve general parity in political decision making by 2015, even though the constitution guaranteed about one-third of the parliamentary seats to women. Economic growth increased slowly, from 5% in 2009 to 5.7% in 2010. Impediments to growth were continued corruption scandals and high inflation, although inflation had dropped to 7.2% in June. The coffee harvest fell below expectation because of bad weather and disease in the Mt. Kilimanjaro and Lake Victoria areas. Though usually regarded as a strong supporter of worldwide conservation, the government was strongly criticized by biodiversity and wildlife groups and UNESCO for its plan to construct a 50-km (31-mi) two-lane commercial highway through Serengeti National Park. They warned that the proposed road would cut across the largest remaining mass-migration system on Earth, disrupting the annual migratory route of two million wildebeest, zebras, and gazelles. (LARAY DENZER)

World Affairs: Togo

THAILAND

protesters regarded Abhisit’s government, which had assumed power unelected in December 2008, as an illegitimate elitist government that favoured the interests of urban dwellers at the expense of the vast rural majority. In early May, after the protesters had Area: 513,120 sq km (198,117 sq mi) occupied Ratprasong, a major shopping Population (2010 est.): 67,090,000 and business district in Bangkok, AbCapital: Bangkok hisit, under mounting pressure from Head of state: King Bhumibol Adulyadej business interests and his electorate, Head of government: Prime Minister agreed to dissolve the National AssemAbhisit Vejjajiva bly and to hold a general election in September and November, respectively. The hard-line UDD leaders, however, The year 2010 was a turbulent year for spurned his concessions and demanded Thailand. For more than two months his immediate resignation. Thaksin, in between March and May, a massive exile abroad, encouraged the protesters protest movement by the United Front via videos and phone-ins while allegedly for Democracy Against Dictatorship providing financial help to them. In op(UDD) attracted the world’s attention. position, the anti-Thaksin yellow-shirt Sporting red, thousands of UDD pro- movement, which had played a key part testers, popularly known as red shirts, in his and his allies’ ouster in previous occupied parts of central Bangkok, de- years, renewed its protest and clashed manding that Prime Minister and Dem- with the red shirts. The so-called noocrat Party leader Abhisit Vejjajiva dis- colour movement also emerged to sigsolve the National Assembly and call a nify its ideological neutrality. general election. Consisting mainly of The UDD protest escalated in midthe poor from Thailand’s northern and May when one of its leaders, military northeastern regions, the red shirts commander Khattiya Sawasdipol, was were opposed to the coup of 2006 and shot and killed by an unknown atsubsequent Constitutional Court rul- tacker. Abhisit sought to quell the ings that ousted from power their pop- protest by dispatching security forces. ulist hero, former prime minister Although the protest leaders surrenThaksin Shinawatra, and his allies. The dered, the rank-and-file UDD members ran amok, hurling Molotov cocktails and setting In the wake of antigovernment violence in Bangkok in May that caused damage to buildings throughout car tires and public buildings ablaze in retaliation. the city, firefighters hose down debris outside a The protest spread to sevshopping mall. eral provinces in the north and northeast, including Chiang Mai, Thaksin’s home province, which prompted Abhisit to declare a state of emergency and to impose a curfew in those provinces. More than 90 people were killed during the protests. The state of emergency was lifted in late December. Abhisit subsequently sought, without much success, to reunify the ideologically divided Thailand. In September the UDD demanded the release of the arrested leaders and staged small-scale protests; it also pledged to hold more protests in the future. Meanwhile, the ruling Democrat Party faced charges of having

violated electoral laws in the election of 2005. The Constitutional Court, however, dismissed these charges in November and December, thus avoiding the possibility that the party would be dissolved. The protracted protest and the subsequent government crackdown severely affected Thailand’s economy. Foreign tourists were scared away; traffic was paralyzed; and numerous businesses, including luxury hotels and shopping malls, were closed. (YOSHINORI NISHIZAKI)

TOGO

Area: 56,600 sq km (21,853 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 6,587,000 Capital: Lomé Head of state: President Faure Gnassingbé, assisted by Prime Minister Gilbert Houngbo

The president of Togo, 43-year-old Faure Gnassingbé, won reelection on March 4, 2010, taking nearly 61% of the vote against 34% for his nearest rival, JeanPierre Fabre of the opposition Union of Forces for Change (UFC). On May 27 Prime Minister Gilbert Houngbo named a 31-person cabinet that included 7 UFC members—among them, veteran opposition leader Gilchrist Olympio. The participation of those members caused a rift in the UFC, with many of Fabre’s adherents determined to expel Olympio from the party. On August 10, tear gaswielding police tried unsuccessfully to prevent the faction from holding a congress. On September 28 Olympio called for unity and reconciliation; nevertheless, in October Fabre announced the formation of a new party, the National Alliance for Change, which claimed to have the support of the majority of UFC members of the parliament. In sports much of the year was dominated by the misfortunes of Togo’s national football team. On January 8, as the team was traveling through the Angolan exclave of Cabinda en route to a match, Cabindan separatist guerrillas machine-gunned the team’s bus, killing three people and injuring several others. Goalkeeper Kodjovi Obilale was left unable to walk. Togo’s withdrawal from the tournament brought an immediate suspension from the Confed-

Wally Santana/AP

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World Affairs: Tonga Ange Obafemi—Maxppp/Landov

though 9 of the 26 seats were still reserved for nobles. The reforms also reduced the costs associated with standing for the parliament and increased limits on campaign expenditures. Expectations of a more representative parliament were met when the pro-democracy Friendly Islands Human Rights and Democracy Movement won 12 of the 17 elected seats in the new assembly, with the remaining 5 taken by independents. Rather than naming a commoner as the new head of government, however, the nine nobles and five independents in the assembly joined forces to During a funeral ceremony held in Lomé, Togo, on elect one of the nobles, January 15 for two of the three people killed in an Tu’ivakano, prime minisattack by Cabindan rebels, members of the ter. Tu’ivakano named only gendarmerie carry the victims’ coffins. 2 pro-democracy members to his 11-minister cabinet. eration of African Football (CAF). The In February, Tropical Cyclone Rene, CAF rescinded the ban only after inter- the worst storm in 50 years, caused national protests, demonstrations, and widespread damage through the Tongan an official government appeal. Group. The official report on the 2009 Despite a series of business reforms sinking of the ferry Princess Ashika, in and privatization, the Togolese econ- which 74 people died, was released in omy strengthened only slightly, grow- March. It revealed widespread incoming 3.4% during the year. Nevertheless, petence within the Ministry of TransHoungbo predicted that new invest- portation and led to the resignation of ment would have the economy expand- its head. In September the governmenting 7% annually by 2015. owned company and four individuals (NANCY ELLEN LAWLER) were arraigned on civil and criminal charges, including manslaughter. (CLUNY MACPHERSON)

TONGA

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Area: 748 sq km (289 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 103,000 Capital: Nuku’alofa Head of state: King Siaosi (George) Tupou V Head of government: Prime Ministers of Privy Council Feleti Sevele and, from December 22, Tu’ivakano

Tonga’s plan to reform its electoral system took shape in 2010. In April the parliament enacted laws to create a more representative electoral system for the November 25 election. The majority of members of the new parliament would, for the first time, be popularly elected, 472

Area: 5,155 sq km (1,990 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 1,312,000 Capital: Port of Spain Head of state: President George Maxwell Richards Head of government: Prime Ministers Patrick Manning and, from May 26, Kamla Persad-Bissessar

In January 2010 Kamla Persad-Bissessar, a lawyer, became the first woman to head a political party in Trinidad and Tobago. She defeated veteran parlia-

mentarian and founder of the United National Congress (UNC) Basdeo Panday in the leadership election for that party, which was at the time in opposition to the People’s National Movement (PNM) government in the parliament. Only four months later, in May, Persad-Bissessar became prime minister after her party won the general election, which had been called two and a half years early by the then prime minister, Patrick Manning. In the run-up to the election, Persad-Bissessar had aligned her UNC with four other political groups to form a coalition called the People’s Partnership (PP), which won 29 of the 41 seats in the House of Representatives. The PNM retained the other 12. The PP was able to successfully exploit the voters’ hostility toward Manning and their anger at alleged corruption in PNM government circles. Manning managed to retain his parliamentary seat but promptly resigned as leader of the PNM. He was replaced by MP Keith Rowley, a longtime PNM member and a geologist by training. The PP pledged to continue the PNM’s gas-based industrial development program, though with a different emphasis. One of its first acts was to abandon the PNM’s cherished aluminum smelter project, a long-planned industrial initiative that would have used Trinidad and Tobago’s gas-derived energy to process alumina from Jamaica and Guyana. The country’s first president, Sir Ellis Clarke, died on December 30. He served from 1976 to 1987. (DAVID RENWICK)

TUNISIA

Area: 163,610 sq km (63,170 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 10,374,000 Capital: Tunis Head of state: President Gen. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali Head of government: Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi

Tunisia’s government entrenched its dominant position when in May 2010 Pres. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali’s party, the Democratic Constitutional Rally (RCD), won 90.7% of the seats in municipal elections and thereby took control of all

World Affairs: Turkey Hassene Dridi/AP

In April outspoken Tunisian journalist Tawfiq Ben Brik poses after having been released from prison. He had been held for six months after having been convicted on what observers considered questionable charges. of the country’s municipal councils. The political situation was highlighted by the treatment of Tawfiq Ben Brik, a well-known opposition journalist who, in the wake of the presidential election of October 2009, had been sentenced to six months in prison—ostensibly for assault but actually, according to his supporters, for having criticized the electoral process. He was held until late April 2010, despite an appeal against his sentence. The presidential election had indeed ushered in a new governmental campaign against the press, and in November 2009 three opposition newspapers had withheld publication for a week in protest. In March 2010 the government tried to prevent Human Rights Watch from presenting its latest report on Tunisia in Tunis, and the police threatened journalists who tried to attend the press conference. In December protests against poverty and government repression erupted in central Tunisia; they had spread throughout the country by the end of the year. Although Tunisia’s economic dependence on the European Union remained intense, diplomatic relations between the parties were restrained, largely because of the country’s domestic politics. Although the National Indicative Program for 2011–13, part of the EU’s European Neighbourhood Policy, guaranteed Tunisia aid of >240 million (about $300 million), the European Parliament debated whether to delay granting “advanced status” to Tunisia until it had met the goals on democracy and human rights to which it had agreed. Reshuffling his cabinet in January, President Ben Ali appointed a new finance minister, Mohamed Ridha Chal-

ghoum, in preparation for a new round of economic liberalization, including the planned privatization of a dozen companies. The government also liberalized investment controls, in the hope of attracting 2.4 billion dinars (about $1.74 billion) in foreign investment over the year. Even though unemployment, at 13.3%, surpassed the 2009 level, GDP was expected to expand 3.8% in 2010—up from a 3% growth rate in 2009. Trade improved as well, with a 1.7% rise in exports and a 7.1% rise in imports projected for the year. A preferential trade agreement signed with Algeria in 2008 came into effect in April. Reflecting a doubling of trade between the two countries over the past decade, the deal guaranteed each partner most-favoured-nation status. (GEORGE JOFFÉ)

TURKEY

Area: 785,347 sq km (303,224 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 73,085,000 Capital: Ankara Head of state: President Abdullah Gul Head of government: Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan

Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan’s conservative Justice and Development Party (AKP) strengthened its hold on power at home and pursued an assertive, and at times controversial,

foreign policy in 2010. The government’s proposals to amend 22 articles of the constitution were approved by the parliament and then ratified in a national referendum in September, with 58% of those who voted (77% of eligible voters) affirming the changes. While most of the amendments uncontroversially broadened human rights in line with EU recommendations, the opposition had campaigned against the changes that gave the parliament and the executive a bigger say in the composition of the Constitutional Court and in the appointment of members of the judiciary, which traditionally had acted as guardians of secularism. The unexpectedly high level of support the referendum received was at least partly the result of the half-hearted challenge mounted by the main opposition party, the Republican People’s Party (CHP), which on May 22 had chosen Kemal Kilicdaroglu as its new leader. Kilicdaroglu—a 61-year-old retired civil servant of Kurdish origin and a member of the heterodox Alevi sect of Shi!ite Islam—replaced the strongly secularist and nationalist Deniz Baykal, who had resigned following a sex scandal. Kilicdaroglu softened his party’s resistance to concessions to Kurdish nationalists and to the admission to universities of head-scarf-wearing Islamic women. (In October the Council of Higher Education left it to individual universities to decide if sanctions would be imposed upon head-scarf wearers.) No more successful in its opposition to the referendum was the smaller rightwing Nationalist Action Party (MHP), led by Devlet Bahceli, which argued that the constitutional changes would empower Kurdish separatists. The referendum result did indeed facilitate government efforts to accommodate Kurdish nationalists—efforts that had been set back when on Dec. 11, 2009, the Constitutional Court banned the Kurdish nationalist Democratic Society Party (DTP). DTP leader Ahmet Turk circumvented the ban by reemerging as chairman of the Democratic Society Congress (DTK), while his followers in the parliament regrouped as the Peace and Democracy Party (BDP). A number of BDP mayors and other Kurdish nationalists were arrested for complicity with Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) militants who had staged hit-and-run attacks on the security forces throughout the year despite PKK declarations that it would observe a unilateral cease-fire. In an attempt to neutralize the PKK who were based in northern Iraq, the 473

World Affairs: Turkmenistan

Turkish government sought help from the Iraqi government and U.S. forces in Iraq. Turkey also opened a consulate in Arbil, the site of the Kurdistan Regional Government, whose president, Mas’ud Barzani, visited Ankara in June. Nevertheless, in October the Turkish parliament approved a one-year extension of cross-border operations by the Turkish armed forces. At the end of August, Gen. Isik Kosaner replaced Gen. Ilker Basbug as chief of staff of the armed forces, whose relations with the government had been strained earlier by arrests of officers accused of having plotted against the government as part of the so-called Ergenekon conspiracy. The trial of alleged plotters and the interrogation and detention of other suspects in the nebulous conspiracy continued in 2010 with no end in sight. Tension between Turkey and Israel escalated on May 31 after Israeli forces killed nine Turkish nationals on board the Mavi Marmara, a cruise ship laden with relief supplies that had attempted to break the Israeli blockade of Gaza. In other foreign-relations developments, on June 9 Turkey voted against further UN sanctions on Iran, having declared that it would still abide by any UN decisions but not honour sanctions imposed by the U.S. and the EU. There was no progress in Turkey’s EU accession negotiations. The Turkish economy showed strong signs of recovery from the recession of 2009, with growth estimated at 6.8%, while the increase in consumer prices fell from 9.2% in 2009 to 4.8% in September 2010. The trade deficit grew from $27 billion to $49 billion, however, as imports rose more rapidly than exports (29.8% against 12% by the end of September). Still, unemployment had fallen from 13% to 10.6% by the end of August, and the continued rise of the Istanbul Stock Exchange index reflected persistent business optimism. (ANDREW MANGO)

TURKMENISTAN

Area: 491,210 sq km (189,657 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 4,941,000 Capital: Ashgabat Head of state and government: President Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov 474

In Kayseri, Tur., women attending the June 4 funeral of Furkan Dogan, one of nine Turkish nationals killed four days earlier by Israeli forces onboard the Gaza-bound relief ship Mavi Marmara, hold posters bearing his image. Burhan Ozbilici/AP

In 2010 Turkmenistan continued its uneven progress toward reintegration into the world community following the isolation imposed by former president Saparmurad Niyazov. This was particularly noticeable in the economic sphere. Turkmenistan’s leadership was primarily interested in developing new export opportunities for natural gas, the country’s main product. High-level American and British officials met with Pres. Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov to discuss energy issues, as did European Commissioner for Energy Günther Oettinger, who sought to ensure Turkmen participation in the Nabucco gas-pipeline project, which was to bypass Russia in supplying gas to Europe. He reported that the president had agreed on the necessity of including Turkmenistan in a working group on Nabucco. Berdymukhammedov repeatedly indicated that Turkmenistan was interested in all such projects, whether or not they bypassed Russia. In January a gas pipeline to Iran was inaugurated with much fanfare. At the end of April, Berdymukhammedov went to China, stating during his visit that energy was the priority issue in Turkmen relations with Beijing, and in July the president announced that preparations for a second section of the gas pipeline to China were under way. Construction had started on the EastWest pipeline that would deliver gas to the Caspian coast. Human rights activists inside Turkmenistan and in exile complained that little had changed for the better in respect to human rights and that Berdymukhammedov had failed to keep his promises to reform the country. While there had been some improvement

since the new president assumed office in 2006 following Niyazov’s death, there was notable backsliding in 2010, with Turkmen students finding it almost impossible to go abroad to study. Although the media were tightly controlled by the state, they were criticized by the president in terms reminiscent of his predecessor for not having publicized Turkmenistan’s achievements. Though Berdymukhammedov continued to unravel the grotesque personality cult instituted by his predecessor, there was growing evidence that he was developing a cult of his own. Civil society activists noted that the myriad portraits of Niyazov were disappearing, but many were being replaced by pictures of Berdymukhammedov. In August the dismantling began of the Neutrality Arch in central Ashgabat, one of the most prominent monuments of the Niyazov era. It featured a golden figure of Niyazov that rotated to face the sun. (BESS BROWN)

TUVALU

Area: 25.6 sq km (9.9 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 11,100 Capital: Government offices in Vaiaku, Fongafale islet, of Funafuti Atoll Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II, represented by Governors-General Filoimea Telito, Sir Kamuta Latasi from March 19, and, from April 16, Iakoba Taeia Italeli Head of government: Prime Ministers Apisai Ielemia, Maatia Toafa from September 29, and, from December 24, Willy Telavi

World Affairs: Uganda

Climate change was a major concern in 2010 for Tuvalu, whose atolls were threatened by king tides, aquifer salinization, coastal degradation, and grinding sedimentation. Tuvalu was disappointed by larger countries’ inactivity on the problem, and the country sought to highlight its plight by developing “green tourism” to raise awareness of its cultural and environmental heritage. Ironically, the country’s first green promotion, the first annual King Tides Festival, encountered problems because salinization of the capital’s aquifer made the vegetables that would be used to feed visitors more difficult to grow. In addition to concerns about climate change, Tuvalu also faced environmental and public-health challenges from other quarters. In February the EU agreed to help the government finance sanitation and clean-water initiatives. In May the regional head of UNICEF warned that Tuvalu was on the verge of an HIV epidemic; although the number of cases was small, the country had one of the highest per capita rates of HIV infection in the world. In September national elections for 15 seats in the national legislature returned 10 sitting members and selected 5 new ones. Maatia Toafa, who had previously served (2004–06) as prime minister, took office again but was removed only three months later after a no-confidence vote in the legislature. He was replaced on December 24 by Willy Telavi, his home affairs minister. Also in December, the Asian Development Bank expressed concern over Tuvalu’s economy. The fiscal situation had worsened during the year, mostly owing to poor management and decreased remittances. (CLUNY MACPHERSON)

liament the previous year, proposed even more extreme punishments than those already existing for convicted homosexuals. Provisions in the bill included the death penalty for individuals convicted of “aggravated homosexuality”—which included the act of engaging in same-sex relations by HIV-positive individuals or with minors or disabled individuals— and a requirement that citizens report anyone they suspected of having committed a homosexual act or any individuals or organizations they knew to have supported gay rights. At first the bill had the backing of many legislators, and the president’s office said that he would not try to block it. The minister of ethics and integrity was even quoted as saying, “Homosexuals can forget about human rights.” By the end of January, however, the ensuing worldwide outrage of donor nations, mainstream Christian denominations, and international and local human rights organizations, combined with warnings of possible sanctions and a reduction of aid, had persuaded Pres. Yoweri Museveni to distance himself and his administration from the bill. In February a government commission was established to review the bill; the commission eventually advised its withdrawal. Supporters of the legislation, backed by funding from American evangelical groups, contended that the government should not capitulate to foreign pressure. Meanwhile, the bill languished in committee, where it remained until the end of the parliamentary session, having never come up for a vote.

International affairs affected Uganda in other ways. In April, Iranian Pres. Mahmoud Ahmadinejad paid a two-day state visit to lobby for Uganda’s support (in its capacity as a UN Security Council member) in the event that additional sanctions were proposed against Iran for its nuclear activities. Although President Museveni defended the right of every country to pursue nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, he stopped short of voicing full support of Iran. On July 11 al-Shabaab, an Islamist militant organization based in Somalia, exploded three bombs in a synchronized attack on large outdoor gatherings in Kampala, where association football (soccer) fans were watching the televised final of the FIFA World Cup. The blasts killed more than 70 people and wounded many others. (See Sidebar on page 312.) On the home front, the Kasubi tombs, a royal burial ground for the Buganda kingdom and a UNESCO World Heritage site, burned down in March. Arson was suspected, and some members of the Buganda community suspected government involvement. President Museveni visited the scene and was met by protesters. Rioting erupted at the site, and the police responded by opening fire, killing three. Uganda’s decadelong economic prosperity continued. Growth, driven mainly by the agricultural and energy industries, averaged about 5.8% in 2010. Inflation unexpectedly declined to 0.2% in October, the lowest rate in

On January 22, amid controversy over a bill in the Ugandan Parliament that would outlaw homosexual acts, children in the capital city of Kampala march in support of the measure.

UGANDA

Area: 241,551 sq km (93,263 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 33,796,000 Capital: Kampala Head of state and government: President Yoweri Museveni, assisted by Prime Minister Apolo Nsibambi

Issues arising from the proposed AntiHomosexuality Bill overshadowed other developments in Uganda in 2010. The bill, which had been submitted to ParStephen Wandera/AP

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World Affairs: Ukraine Anastasia Sirotkina/AP

six years, before rising again. Analysts predicted that oil production, due to begin in 2011, would propel growth. Exports of food and light manufactured goods increased to southern Sudan, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Foreign investment also increased; by September the Netherlands, India, China, and other countries had planned to invest $1.02 billion in 263 projects. (LARAY DENZER)

UKRAINE

Area: 603,628 sq km (233,062 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 45,858,000 Capital: Kiev (Kyiv) Head of state: Presidents Viktor Yushchenko and, from February 25, Viktor Yanukovych Head of government: Prime Ministers Yuliya Tymoshenko and, from March 11, Mykola Azarov

The key event in Ukraine in 2010 was the presidential election, held over two rounds of voting on January 17 and February 7. In the first round, which comprised 18 candidates, Viktor Yanukovych led with 35.32%, followed by Yuliya Tymoshenko with 25.05%, Sergey Tigipko (Serhiy Tihipko) with 13.06%, Arseniy Yatsenyuk with 6.96%, and incumbent Pres. Viktor Yushchenko with 5.45%. In the runoff Yanukovych narrowly defeated Tymoshenko, the sitting prime minister, by 48.95% to 45.47% in a bitterly contested vote. International observers were satisfied that the election was conducted fairly, and an appeal issued by Tymoshenko claiming electoral fraud was eventually withdrawn. Yanukovych was sworn in as Ukraine’s fourth president on February 25 at a ceremony led by the Russian Orthodox patriarch Kirill I at the Kiev Laura of the Caves. An inauguration ceremony later was held at the Verkhovna Rada (parliament). In the Rada, Yanukovych’s Party of Regions moved quickly to dismiss the Tymoshenko government. By March 11 the Regions and Communist parties, the Volodymyr Lytvyn Bloc, and defectors from the Tymoshenko Bloc and Yushchenko’s Our Ukraine party had formed a majority coalition called Stability and Reform. One-third of the 29 476

Viktor Yanukovych raises a bulava, a traditional symbol of power, upon his inauguration on February 25 as president of Ukraine. ministers in the new cabinet, like Yanukovych, were from the Donetsk region. Mykola Azarov became prime minister, and Tigipko was appointed one of six vice prime ministers. In December Tymoshenko was charged with having misused state funds during her premiership. She denied that she had illegally used funds from the sale of carbon emission rights to cover a shortfall in Ukraine’s pension fund. The improvement of relations with Russia, a priority of the new administration, was a source of contention throughout the year. Yanukovych particularly angered his opponents by reversing Yushchenko’s efforts to have the Great Famine of 1932–33 recognized as a Soviet-led act of genocide against the Ukrainian people. The discussion of the famine on the president’s Web site was taken down immediately after Yanukovych’s inauguration; it later reappeared in a much abbreviated form. Moreover, at a meeting on April 27 in Strasbourg, France, Yanukovych told the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe that the famine had been a tragedy shared by Soviet citizens. The following week a group of communists in the city of Zaporizhzhya unveiled a new monument to Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin. On April 21, during a visit to Kharkiv by Russian Pres. Dmitry Medvedev, Ukraine and Russia agreed to extend

Russia’s lease of the port at Sevastopol, where the Russian Black Sea Fleet was based, for an additional 25 years. In return, Ukraine received a discount on Russian natural gas. Fighting broke out in the Rada on April 27 as the agreement with Russia was being debated, but ultimately it was passed. In reaction, several opposition parties founded the Committee to Protect Ukraine, under the leadership of Dmytro Pavlychko. The opposition was concerned about not only the Russian lease but also what it described as the growing authoritarianism of the government. Several events later in the year indeed seemed to indicate an authoritarian trend. On August 30 the Kiev Appellate Court upheld the denial of mainstream broadcast licenses to two independent television stations, TVi and Channel 5. On September 9 the SBU arrested Ruslan Zabilyi, the director of the Memorial Museum Dedicated to Victims of Occupational Regimes. Alleging that Zabilyi had revealed state secrets, the SBU interrogated him for more than 14 hours and confiscated his computer equipment. Finally, on October 1 the Constitutional Court announced the abandonment of reforms, in effect since 2006, that had shifted some powers from the president to the prime minister. The country thus reverted to its earlier system of government, which invested the president with strong executive authority. During the year the Ukrainian economy began to recover from the recession. Having risen by 5.9% in the second quarter of the year and 3.4% in the third, GDP finished the year with 4.1% growth overall. On July 28 the IMF agreed to grant a $14.9 billion loan to Ukraine, with a first tranche of $1.89 billion provided immediately and the rest dispersed in quarterly installments. (DAVID R. MARPLES)

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Area: 83,600 sq km (32,280 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 5,188,000, of whom about 900,000 are citizens Capital: Abu Dhabi Head of state: President Sheikh Khalifah ibn Zayid Al Nahyan Head of government: Prime Minister Sheikh Muhammad ibn Rashid al-Maktum

World Affairs: United Kingdom Andy Rain—EPA/Landov

The strengthening of the world economy in 2010 affected the economic situation in the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) positively. The country saw a rise in tourism, real-estate values, and income from its ports, especially in Dubayy. In May, Dubayy announced that it had reached an agreement to reschedule its debts (some $25 billion) with international creditors. In 2009 the oil-rich neighbouring emirate, Abu Dhabi, had lent Dubayy some $10 billion to help it out of a debt crisis. Both Dubayy and Abu Dhabi denied any rift between them because of the debt issue. U.A.E. security concerns included the activities of militant groups, such as alQaeda and the al-Huthi rebels in Yemen, as well as rising sectarian tensions in neighbouring Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Iran’s strengthening nuclear capabilities were also troublesome. Despite its strong economic ties with Iran, the U.A.E. started to enforce some of the UN-mandated sanctions imposed on Iran because of Tehran’s resistance to inspection of its nuclear facilities. In August the U.A.E. central bank demanded that hundreds of financial institutions that conducted business in the U.A.E. freeze their Iranian accounts. Political tensions with Saudi Arabia remained high. The two countries were engaged in an ongoing dispute over borders in territories rich in oil. The U.A.E. also had a spat with Canada and prohibited Canadian military forces in October from using Camp Mirage air base as a stopover en route to Afghanistan. Sheikh Saqr ibn Muhammad alQasimi, ruler of Ra#s al-Khaymah emirate, died on October 27. Under Saqr, who took power in a bloodless coup in 1948, Ra#s al-Khaymah was the last emirate to join the federation in 1972. (LOUAY BAHRY)

UNITED KINGDOM

Area: 243,073 sq km (93,851 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 62,227,000 Capital: London Head of state: Queen Elizabeth II Head of government: Prime Ministers Gordon Brown and, from May 11, David Cameron

Students outraged over a proposed hike in university tuition fees clash with police in London’s Parliament Square on December 9. Domestic Affairs. For only the second time in 30 years, the government of the United Kingdom changed hands when in 2010 David Cameron (see BIOGRAPHIES) took office as prime minister on May 11, at the head of a Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition. This was the first peacetime coalition since before World War II, and it was necessitated by the fact that though the Conservatives emerged from the election as the largest parliamentary party, they fell short of an overall majority. (See Sidebar.) Nick Clegg, the leader of the Liberal Democrats, became deputy prime minister, and four other MPs from his party joined the 23-member cabinet. The new government’s program was set out in a detailed agreement, negotiated in just five days following the election. Among the necessary compromises, the Conservatives gave up plans to reduce inheritance tax for financially better-off people and had to soften their hostility toward the European Union, while the Liberal Democrats had to accept tighter controls on immigration and more rapid cuts in public spending than they had proposed during the election campaign. It quickly became clear, however, that the new agreement was not so much an awkward compromise as it was a package of policies with which the leaders of both parties were comfortable. This rapport was partly because of the similar ages and backgrounds of Cameron and Clegg. Both men were aged 43, had young families, had been educated at private schools, and were graduates of Britain’s most prestigious universities (Cameron went to Oxford, Clegg to Cambridge). Though both men had attacked each other vig-

orously during the election campaign, they soon achieved great rapport in government. This set the tone for good working relationships between Conservative and Liberal Democratic government ministers, who found that they had more in common with each other than with many of their local party activists—right-wing Conservatives and left-wing Liberal Democrats. The biggest challenge for the new ministers was to tackle the huge government deficit. Policies for dealing with this were laid out in an emergency budget in June and a new four-year plan for public spending unveiled in October. The government survived an early upset when David Laws, the (Liberal Democratic) minister responsible for cutting public spending, had to resign just 17 days after having been appointed. He was found to have wrongly claimed rent that he paid to his partner as MP’s expenses. His successor was Danny Alexander, another Liberal Democrat. The first few months of the new government saw a range of new policies unveiled. In May, Education Secretary Michael Gove (see BIOGRAPHIES) announced plans to give all schools the right to become free-standing “academies” and opt out of local government control. Kenneth Clarke, the lord chancellor and justice secretary, said in June that he would rely less on prison terms and more on other forms of punishment, such as compulsory community work, to deal with those convicted of nonviolent offenses. Home Secretary Theresa May told Parliament in July that she would scrap Anti-Social Behaviour Orders, a scheme that was introduced by the previous Labour Party 477

World Affairs: United Kingdom

The British Election of 2010 Thirteen years of Labour government came to an end in the U.K. on May 11, 2010, five days—and many hours of intense negotiations—after the general election held on May 6 produced a “hung parliament,” in which no party held a majority. At the age of 43, David Cameron, leader of the Conservative Party, became the U.K.’s youngest prime minister in almost 200 years. He formed a coalition government—Britain’s first since World War II—with the Liberal Democrats, whose leader, Nick Clegg, also 43, became deputy prime minister. The Conservatives won 36% of the vote (up from 32.3% in the previous general election, in 2005) and 307 seats (including one “safe seat” for which the vote was delayed until May 27 after one candidate died prior to the election), which left the party 19 short of the 326 needed to secure an overall majority in the 650-seat House of Commons. Allowing for boundary changes, this result gave the Conservatives 97 more seats than they had won in 2005. Together with 57 Liberal Democratic MPs (a net loss of 5 seats; the party secured 23% of the vote), the coalition partners held 364 seats in the new House of Commons, an overall majority of 78. Labour, with 29% of the vote (down from 35.2% in 2005), won 258 seats, a net loss of 91 seats (based on the altered boundaries); smaller parties (12%) took a total of 28 seats. Labour’s defeat was widely expected. Gordon Brown, who had become party leader and prime minister in June 2007 after having served as chancellor of the Exchequer for a decade, was unpopular, partly because the public blamed him to some extent for the recent recession and a sharp deterioration in the government’s finances. Though some Labour MPs, including former government ministers, talked of replacing him or persuading him to resign prior to the election to give Labour a better chance of winning under a new leader, talk never translated into effective action. More surprising was the Conservatives’ failure to win an outright majority. Through much of 2009 they had led Labour by up to 20% in the opinion polls. Although the gap narrowed in the winter of 2009–10, as the U.K.’s economy started to grow again, a modest overall Conservative majority seemed likely when the campaign started in early April. The event that abruptly changed the course of the election was the U.K.’s first-ever live television debate between the three main party leaders. Three 90-minute debates were held on successive Thursdays. The first, in Manchester on April 15, was watched by some 10 million viewers—an exceptional audience for a British political program. Brown was aggressive, and Cameron appeared nervous. The most relaxed of the leaders was Clegg, who had the least to lose. Frequently looking straight into the camera, he came across as the most honest and authentic of the three. Within minutes of the end of the debate, an instant YouGov survey found that 51% of viewers regarded Clegg as the most impressive performer, compared with 29% for Cameron and 19% for Brown. Other polls confirmed that Clegg had won emphatically. The effect on voting intentions was immediate and dramatic. Within 24 hours of the debate, the Liberal Democrats Party, which had already seen a boost in support after the release of the party manifesto, gained another 8 points in the polls to reach 30%, while

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both Labour and the Conservatives slipped back. For some days, polls found that all three parties attracted similar levels of support, while some even showed the Liberal Democrats briefly in the lead. By May 6 the Liberal Democrats had given up about half the gains they had made following that first debate, but they had retained enough momentum to cost the Conservatives, in particular, between 10 and 20 seats that they might have won otherwise. As official results began to come in from constituencies in the early hours of May 7, it became clear that while the Conservatives would be the largest party in the new House of Commons, they would fall short of an overall majority. For Labour and the Liberal Democrats, the results were a mixed blessing: Labour suffered heavy losses—but not as many as analysts had predicted; the Liberal Democrats failed to make the gains that they had expected, but Clegg’s strong performance in the three television debates was credited with saving some Liberal Democratic MPs from losing their seats. Of the smaller parties, the Greens had the greatest reason to celebrate, after having captured their first-ever parliamentary seat (in Brighton, on England’s south coast). The far-left Respect Party lost its only seat, and the far-right British National Party was heavily defeated for the one seat that it had hoped to win. The Welsh nationalist party, Plaid Cymru, gained one seat to take three overall, while the Scottish National Party won six seats—the same as in 2005. (Indeed, every Scottish seat was won by the same party as in the previous general election.) In Northern Ireland, the Democratic Unionist Party remained dominant, winning 8 of the province’s 18 seats, but Peter Robinson, the DUP leader and Northern Ireland’s first minister, lost his seat to the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland following allegations centring on his wife’s business dealings and private life. It was the APNI’s first parliamentary seat. Following the election, Clegg carried out his preelection promise to give the leader of the party with the greatest number of seats the chance to form a government; he opened negotiations with Cameron. After three days, although the talks had made some progress, Clegg also opened formal negotiations with Labour (some informal talks having already taken place). By the afternoon of May 11, however, it was clear that the gap between Labour and the Liberal Democrats was too wide while that between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats was sufficiently narrow for a Cameron-led coalition to be the certain outcome. Brown resigned, and about one hour later Cameron was prime minister. As the Liberal Democrats are a left-of-centre party compared with the right-of-centre Conservatives, Clegg had to persuade his party to follow his lead. He succeeded, both at a meeting of his MPs and peers late in the evening of May 11 and at a wider gathering of 2,000 party activists in Birmingham on May 16. They were attracted not only by the prospect of a British cabinet containing Liberal ministers for the first time since World War II but also by Cameron’s agreement to hold a referendum on Britain’s voting system, to consider introducing elections for the House of Lords, and to impose fixed-term parliaments and therefore end the power of the prime minister to call an election at a time of his or her choosing. (PETER KELLNER)

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government to tackle mainly teenage delinquency. In October the former head of BP, Lord Browne, produced a report on university finances that had been commissioned by the Labour government. He proposed that the current cap of £3,290 (about $5,200) on annual tuition fees be lifted. This proposal caused problems for the Liberal Democrats, who had campaigned in the general election against any such increase. Vincent Cable (see BIOGRAPHIES), the Liberal Democrat minister responsible for higher education, was forced to break his election promise, citing the parlous state of the public finances as a reason for increasing the limit to £9,000 (about $14,000) while sharply cutting spending on universities. He sought to soften the blow by reducing the cost to poor students and by making the postuniversity repayment system more progressive, so that graduates with higherwage jobs would pay back more each year than they had in previous years, while graduates with lower incomes would pay less each year. Nevertheless, the new policy provoked a series of large demonstrations in London, culminating on December 9 in several events, including an incident in which a car carrying Prince Charles and his wife, Camilla, was briefly surrounded by protesters. Meanwhile, there were indications of growing dissent among Liberal Democrats in the cabinet. Gordon Brown resigned as both prime minister and Labour Party leader on May 11 when it became clear that the new government would be led by the Conservatives. Five candidates stood in the subsequent contest to become party leader. The two front-runners were brothers David Miliband, who had served as foreign secretary before the election, and Ed Miliband (see BIOGRAPHIES), who had held the post of secretary of state for energy and climate change. At 45, David was five years older than his brother and had served longer in the cabinet. Their political outlook was broadly similar, but David, who had worked for former prime minister Tony Blair before becoming an MP, defended the record of 13 years of Labour rule more vigorously than had Ed, who had worked for Brown and who stressed the need for Labour to admit its mistakes and make changes. On September 25 Ed Miliband was declared the winner. In the final count he beat his brother by a narrow 50.65%–49.35% margin. David was more popular with MPs and local party

members, but Ed was favoured by Labour-supporting trade-union members who together wielded one-third of the total vote under the party’s “electoral college” system. Although both brothers declared their love and support for each other, David decided not to serve in Ed’s shadow cabinet. Labour’s parliamentary ranks were reduced on November 5 when, for the first time in almost a century, an MP’s election victory was declared invalid. Phil Woolas, who had been minister for immigration before the election, had retained his seat by just 103 votes. The court ruled that Woolas had lied about his Liberal Democrat opponent, ordered the contest to be rerun, and barred Woolas from standing for election for three years. On February 25 the Scottish government published a draft bill that proposed a referendum on Scotland’s future status. There would be two questions in the referendum: one on plans for greater powers for Scotland’s Parliament, the other offering voters the choice of complete independence. The Scottish National Party (SNP), which led a minority government, had a disappointing result in the U.K.-wide general election, having failed to add to its 6 (out of 59) Scottish MPs and winning just 20% of the vote. It became clear that the bill would not be passed by Scotland’s Parliament—and, in any case, that most Scots opposed the SNP’s policy of full independence. On September 6 the SNP-led government announced that it was withdrawing the bill until after the next elections to the Scottish Parliament were held in May 2011. On November 16 the engagement was announced of Prince William (grandson of Queen Elizabeth and second in line to the throne, after his father, Prince Charles) to Kate Middleton. The couple met in 2001 when both were students at St. Andrews University in Scotland. The wedding was scheduled to take place in April 2011. Economic Affairs. The U.K. economy, which had started to emerge from recession in the second half of 2009, grew stronger in 2010. Unemployment remained around 2.5 million, or 8% of the labour force, throughout the year. The Bank of England (BOE) held its base rate at a historically low 0.5%. In February the BOE announced that it would halt its policy of “quantitative easing” for the time being, after having injected £200 billion (about $312 billion) into the economy over the previous 12 months.

In March 2010 Alistair Darling, then Labour’s chancellor of the Exchequer, predicted that the government deficit for the closing fiscal year would be £167 billion (about $250 billion). This was £11 billion (about $16.5 billion) less than he had forecast a few months earlier, but it still represented 11.8% of GDP. Darling declared his ambition to reduce this to 4% of GDP by 2014–15. He announced plans to increase taxes on those earning more than £150,000 (about $225,000) a year, boost stamp duty paid on the sale of homes worth more than £1 million (about $1.5 million), and raise taxes on alcohol and tobacco by more than the rate of inflation. He also warned that public spending would have to be curtailed— but not until the economy had recovered more fully from recession. The Conservatives responded that the deficit should be cut at a faster rate and that public spending should be reduced immediately. On June 22, six weeks after the coalition government took office, George Osborne, the new chancellor of the Exchequer, announced a deficit-reduction program designed to bring government borrowing down to just 1.1% of GDP by 2015–16. His measures included increasing the value-added tax from 17.5% to 20%, raising the capital gains tax from 18% to 28%, and instituting a two-year pay freeze for public-sector workers earning more than £21,000 (about $31,000) a year as well as reductions in welfare payments and a new levy on banks. On October 20 Osborne unveiled additional proposals to cut spending. By 2014 government departments would have £81 billion (about $129 billion) less to spend than under Labour’s preelection scheme. Taking the June and October announcements together, welfare spending would be reduced by £18 billion (about $28.5 billion) annually. Osborne also reduced the tax benefits for people with pension savings of more than £1.5 million (about $2.4 million). Spending on health care, schools, and overseas aid would be protected (indeed, the aid budget would be increased, as the incoming government agreed to keep Labour’s promise to meet the UN Millennium Project target of 0.7% of gross national income to be reached by 2013), but spending by other government departments would be reduced by an average of 19% over four years. Overall, the Conservative-led government announced that the various changes introduced through the year would be progressive; that is, they 479

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would hurt better-off people more than the least well-off. The Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS), a leading independent think tank, determined that this was true only if the measures that Darling announced in March were included but that the combined impact of the policies set out by Osborne would be regressive. One other major reform, unveiled by Osborne within a week of becoming chancellor, was the establishment of an Office for Budgetary Responsibility (OBR). This would operate independently of the government and take over the role of providing the government’s economic and fiscal forecasts. On September 9, after the OBR had operated under a temporary chairman, Osborne announced that its first permanent chairman would be Robert Chote, the widely respected director of the IFS and the author of the initial assessment that the impact of the June budget would be regressive. Foreign Affairs. The Conservatives fought the general election on a Euroskeptic platform, which promised that any new EU treaty that affected British sovereignty would be subject to a referendum in the U.K. Historically, the Liberal Democrats had been the most pro-European of the U.K.’s main political parties. Working together in government, the coalition partners adopted a pragmatic stance. Cameron appointed David Lidington, a member of the Conservative Party’s small proEuropean wing, as Europe minister. Cameron set about building alliances with other European leaders. Just 10 days after becoming prime minister, he visited German Chancellor Angela Merkel in Berlin. They agreed on a common position on the EU’s future budget: to keep increases as low as possible. By late October, when the issue came before the EU’s monthly council meeting, Cameron had enlisted support from 12 other EU leaders, including Merkel and French Pres. Nicolas Sarkozy, to keep the increase for the 2011 EU budget to 2.9%, rather than the 6% demanded by the European Parliament. Cameron described this as a spectacular success, though his critics asserted that he should have held to his initial demand of no increase at all. On November 2 Cameron signed a 50year U.K.-France defense treaty. The two countries agreed to establish a joint 5,000-member expeditionary force that could be deployed rapidly for peacekeeping, rescue efforts, or combat missions and to adapt their aircraft carriers so that they could be used by both 480

On June 15 in Londonderry, N.Ire., relatives of victims of “Bloody Sunday,” a 1972 demonstration that turned deadly when British troops opened fire on civilians, rejoice after a formal investigation concludes that the soldiers were at fault. Peter Morrison/AP

countries. In a separate accord, they also decided to share nuclear-weapons research and testing facilities. The agreements were prompted in part by the desire of both countries to keep defense costs down; two weeks earlier Osborne had announced that U.K. defense spending would be cut by 5% in real terms over the next four years, or by 8% compared with the department’s previous plans for 2013–14. Although this was a smaller reduction than for most other departments, it still involved significant cuts in the number of troops. Cameron said on June 25 that he hoped the U.K. would be able to withdraw troops from Afghanistan by 2015. Just five days earlier the death toll among British forces had reached 300. In September British troops handed over control of the town of Sangin, in Helmand province, to U.S. forces. This was part of a wider reorganization whereby U.S. troops operated in northern Helmand while U.K. troops operated in the south of the province. Almost one-third of all British casualties in Afghanistan had occurred in or near Sangin, however, without U.K. troops’ having sustained control of the area. Northern Ireland. Following almost two weeks of intense negotiations, agreement was reached on February 4 regarding the devolution of police and justice powers from London to the Northern Ireland Executive. This agreement ended a deadlock that threatened overall devolution. The Democratic Unionist Party had feared losing support within the Protestant community if it agreed to Sinn Fein’s demands to share control of the police and the courts system, while Sinn Fein said that it would withdraw from the powersharing executive if talks collapsed.

Powers were formally devolved to Northern Ireland on April 12. The new minister of justice, David Ford, was the leader of the centrist Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, which was not aligned with either the Protestant or the Roman Catholic communities. Peter Robinson remained first minister throughout the year, although he briefly stood down (January 11–February 3) from his day-to-day executive role while an investigation was conducted into allegations that he had acted improperly regarding the 2008 financial dealings of his wife and her lover at that time. Although Robinson was exonerated, the episode dented his popularity, and he lost his seat in the U.K. Parliament in the general election in May. This defeat, however, did not affect his position as a member of the Northern Ireland Assembly and first minister. On June 15 the report was published of the 12-year official inquiry by Lord Saville into the events of “Bloody Sunday” in 1972, when British troops from the 1st parachute regiment killed 14 nationalist demonstrators in Londonderry. Lord Saville determined that the soldiers caused the deaths of 14 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a serious threat. He concluded: “What happened on Bloody Sunday strengthened the Provisional IRA, increased nationalist resentment and hostility towards the Army and exacerbated the violent conflict of the years that followed.” Following publication of the report, Cameron told Parliament: “The government is ultimately responsible for the conduct of the armed forces, and for that, on behalf of the government—indeed, on behalf of our country—I am deeply sorry.” (PETER KELLNER)

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UNITED STATES

ment and predicted that public support for the measure would increase dramatically as voters learned more about its benefits, including expanded privateinsurance options for older children and a ban on the denial of private-insurance coverage because of preexisting conditions. Republican opponents, however, assisted by Tea Party movement activists (see Special Report on page 184), rode a backlash against what many saw as government expansion to a major victory in the November elections. Tucked into the health care bill was another top administration priority, an overhaul of federal student-loan rules that advocates said would save roughly $60 billion over 10 years. The language removed commercial banks from student lending and expanded both direct loans from the federal government and the Pell Grant student subsidy program. Two major new laws were designed to protect consumers. In response to widespread reports of abuse, creditcard-reform legislation that had passed in 2009 took effect in 2010; it limited or banned some fees, restricted the marketing of cards to young consumers, and prevented interest-rate increases as long as monthly bills were paid on time. Congress later passed a broad financial-industry-reform bill that gave shareholders a greater say in

executive compensation, banned taxpayer bailouts of financial companies deemed “too big to fail,” and set up a new consumer-protection agency. With key budget and tax issues unresolved, as well as all appropriations bills in limbo, Congress convened after the Area: 9,526,468 sq km (3,678,190 sq mi), inmidterm elections for what was excluding 233,798 sq km of inland water and pected to be a gridlocked session. Sen155,293 sq km of the Great Lakes that lie ate Republicans caucused and promised within U.S. boundaries but excluding 111,849 to abstain from special-interest earsq km of coastal water marks. When Democratic leaders prePopulation (2010 est.): 310,062,000 sented a $1.27 trillion omnibus expenCapital: Washington, D.C. diture bill that included some $8 billion Head of state and government: President in earmarks, Republicans threatened a Barack Obama government shutdown and forced its withdrawal. Congress instead approved a resolution that continued spending at The year 2010 was one of uncertainty existing levels until March 2011. and recalibration for the United States. Another showdown occurred over The country’s military continued to be 2011 tax rates; in the absence of conbogged down in a long-running war in gressional action, tax cuts enacted unAfghanistan, with no victory in sight. As der Pres. George W. Bush were set to the U.S. military appeared overextended expire and thereby prompt an increase and the government’s appetite for spendfor every taxpayer during an economic ing far exceeded its means, U.S. influslowdown. Having cited deficit conence in diplomacy and in world comcerns, Democrats moved to boost levies merce appeared to wane. In the U.S. the for individuals who made more than economy failed to emerge robustly from $250,000 annually. In a surprise concila major recession, which prompted uniatory move in early December, howprecedented government moves to keep ever, the Obama administration negotia fragile recovery on track. The governated a compromise with Senate ment’s activism, including passage of a Republicans that continued lower rates historic new health care law, produced for all taxpayers for another two years, an unexpected reaction: voters in extended unemployment benethe midterm congressional elecfits, and lowered employee Sotions in November (see Sidebar) A U.S. Marine Corps veteran is arrested outside the cial Security taxes by 2% for one decisively rejected the incumbent White House on November 15 after handcuffing year. The package eventually reparty for the second consecutive herself to a fence to protest the “Don’t Ask, Don’t ceived overwhelming congresnational election, which weak- Tell” law that prohibited openly homosexual men sional approval. ened Pres. Barack Obama politi- and women from serving in the military. That successful deal—and cally and prompted an apparent Obama’s apparent move toward major shift in his governing style the political centre after an elecat year’s end. tion he called a “shellacking”— Domestic Policy. During election helped to knock over barriers to seasons the pace in Washington bipartisan cooperation. In the typically slowed, but agreements days before adjournment, Conthat had been reached in a lategress gave final approval to six year postelection congressional additional bills plus a major insession turned 2010 into the ternational treaty that had been most productive legislative year stalled by partisan wrangling. in recent memory. In addition to One new law repealed the the landmark bill reforming “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” prohibihealth care delivery that was tion against openly gay people’s passed earlier in the year, signifserving in the U.S. armed forces. icant legislation concerning Supporters of the repeal called it taxes, food safety, consumer proan important advance in civil tection, student loans, and child rights. While opponents argued nutrition was enacted. that the repeal’s effect on miliThe legislative pursuit of health tary effectiveness had not been care reform polarized the counsufficiently studied, Defense Sectry. Democrats pronounced the retary Robert Gates testified that resulting Patient Protection and it would have no impact on unit Affordable Care Act (see Sidebar cohesion or fighting ability. (continued on page 483) on page 244) a historic achieveKevin Lamarque—Reuters/Landov

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U.S. 2010 Midterm Elections Voter dissatisfaction with government coupled with declining confidence in the Democratic administration of U.S. Pres. Barack Obama helped to produce historic gains for Republicans in the November 2010 state and midterm federal elections. Independents who had favoured Democrats in 2008 swung sharply to the GOP. Democrats lost 6 governorships, more than 675 state legislative seats, 6 U.S. Senate seats, and 63 U.S. House seats to the GOP, the largest gains for any party in more than 60 years. In the process, Republicans took over majority control in most states and the U.S. House. As a result, divided government would return to Washington in 2011 and put Republicans in the driver’s seat as states prepared to remap congressional and state legislative districts following the 2010 census. Republicans were aided by the emergence of a grassroots movement, the Tea Party, which became a cohesive political force even though it lacked widely recognized leaders and never secured an official place on an election ballot. The Tea Party opposed excessive government spending and the resulting record federal deficits. (See Special Report on page 184.) The election was staged against a gloomy economic backdrop that began with the 2008 financial and mortgage crisis. Home foreclosures continued at high rates during 2010, and unemployment persisted above 9.5% for most of the year. The first sign of major voter discontent came in January when a little-known Republican state senator, Scott Brown, captured the open U.S. Senate seat vacated in Massachusetts by the 2009 death of Ted Kennedy. Brown ran on a platform of government restraint in a highly Democratic state, and his victory was a shocking upset. Instead of adjusting course, however, the Obama administration and the Democratic Congress in March pushed through expansive health care reform legislation—even as public opinion polls showed that a majority of voters opposed it. Passage of the bill was tainted by the appearance of irregularity, including special-interest provisions granted to key legislators in return for their support. Although administration officials promised that public support for the bill would rise when more information about its benefits became widely known, that did not occur. Final passage came without a single GOP vote in either congressional chamber. Ironically, establishment Republicans, running in what were expected to be lightly contested party primaries, provided most of the early casualties from rising antigovernment Tea Party sentiment. In early May three-term Republican U.S. Sen. Robert Bennett of Utah was defeated by two Tea Party candidates. Two weeks later, despite opposition from party regulars, libertarian Rand Paul upset an establishment Republican in the Kentucky U.S. Senate primary. Amid roars of approval, Paul told an election night crowd, “I have a message from the Tea Party . . . we’ve come to take our government back.” Additional Tea Party victories over mainstream GOP candidates occurred in the Nevada, Alaska, Colorado, and Delaware U.S. Senate races and the New York governor’s race. Many defeated candidates had backed expensive bailout or rescue legislation proposed by the administrations of Pres. George W. Bush or Obama; many Tea Party

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victors were endorsed by the controversial 2008 GOP vice presidential nominee, former Alaskan governor Sarah Palin. Any doubt that the upheaval was restricted to internal Republican politics was removed when in late August a Gallup Poll showed that Republicans were ahead by 10 points in the “generic ballot” that tested voters’ party preferences. Republicans also benefited from events outside the normal political process. In January the U.S. Supreme Court struck down federal restrictions on corporate and union political contributions. The partial result was a flood of outside money into the 2010 campaign that allowed Republicans to erase the incumbent party’s usual financial advantage. The Obama administration suffered another major blow starting in April when a BP oil well blew out in the Gulf of Mexico. (See Special Report on page 174.) In the three months it took to cap the well and halt oil leakage, the administration was widely faulted for mishandling the crisis, much as President Bush was criticized in 2005 over the federal government’s response to Hurricane Katrina. With trends running their way and job-performance polls for both President Obama and the Democratic Congress sinking, Republicans initially declined to put forward a specific national platform. In September, perhaps heeding criticism that they stood for little except anti-Obamaism, the GOP released a “Pledge to America,” designed to recall their successful 1994 “Contract with America.” The new version was vague and anything but bold, promising renewed efforts to make spending cuts and to foster additional transparency in Washington. Even so, the Republican National Committee posted a “Fire Pelosi” banner on its Washington headquarters—a jab at Nancy Pelosi, the unpopular speaker of the House—and Republican momentum carried well into October. On election night, the net plus-63 Republican victories in U.S. House races exceeded most expectations, with the party capturing 242 seats, well above the 218 needed for control.With Tea Party-endorsed candidates in Nevada, Colorado, and Delaware among visible losers, Republicans added 6 additional U.S. Senate seats to improve their numbers from 40 at the start of 2010 to 47 for the 2011 Congress. Exploiting a loophole in campaign finance rules, several political newcomers allocated millions from their personal fortunes to gain office, but most lost anyway. Former eBay head Meg Whitman spent a record $142 million in her unsuccessful race for California governor, and former wrestling executive Linda McMahon poured some $50 million into a losing U.S. Senate effort in Connecticut. One exception to the general rule was former health care executive Rick Scott, a relative unknown in politics, who captured the Florida governorship after having spent nearly $75 million of personal funds. The year’s most unusual comeback was staged by two-term Republican U.S. Sen. Lisa Murkowski of Alaska. In August she lost in the primary to Tea Party candidate Joe Miller. Against advice of party leaders, Murkowski mounted a write-in campaign that was aided by late-publicized revelations about Miller’s background. Murkowski won election by a margin of about 10,000 votes, the first successful Senate write-in campaign since 1954, when Strom Thurmond won election to the Senate by a write-in vote. (DAVID C. BECKWITH)

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Another measure expanded the federal school-lunch program for students from lower-income households and guaranteed higher-quality meals and increased attention to child-nutrition concerns. Congress also passed a $1.4 billion upgrade of federal food-safety regulations, which authorized steppedup measures to prevent foodborne illnesses and to protect consumers. Congress allocated compensation in two narrower bills. One awarded $1.15 billion to African American farmers who had encountered discrimination in their applications for federal loans and programs and $3.4 billion to Native Americans adversely affected by U.S. Interior Department mismanagement of oil, timber, and mineral leases on tribal land. New York’s senators pushed through the second bill, trimmed-back legislation that awarded $4.3 billion in health care benefits and compensation over five years to workers exposed to hazardous materials during cleanup operations after the September 11 attacks of 2001. On the other hand, several of Obama’s priorities failed to gain the required votes during the lame-duck congressional session. The DREAM Act, which would have granted eventual citizenship to aliens taken to the U.S. when they were aged 16 or younger, received majority support in the Senate but died in a Republican filibuster. A cap-andtrade bill, which would have regulated carbon emissions and imposed new taxes on industry, similarly expired in the Senate after having been approved by the House in 2009. At year’s end the Obama administration employed agency regulation to advance several controversial measures that had been rejected by Congress. In a 3–2 vote, over objections from two Republican commissioners, the Federal Communications Commission approved a “net-neutrality” order that established government regulation over the fees charged by Internet-access providers. Net-neutrality bills had languished without action in Congress for six years. The Health and Human Services Department announced a new policy that granted Medicare payments to doctors for providing end-of-life counseling; a similar idea had been eliminated from the health reform bill amid charges that it would create “death panels.” In the absence of congressional action, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) used existing clean-air laws to establish new rules designed to

Demonstrators at Fresno (Calif.) State University on November 19 hold signs in support of the DREAM Act after it was revealed that the Mexican-born student body president was undocumented. The bill, which would allow some young illegal immigrants to gain citizenship, died in a Senate Republican filibuster. limit emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The action prompted a blistering response from Republicans and business allies, who claimed that the EPA had evaded congressional intent and eroded U.S. economic viability. The Economy. For decades the U.S. had served as the engine that drove the world economy, provided dependable markets, and led the way rapidly out of cyclical downturns. In 2010, however, as much of the world emerged from a recession, the U.S. economy lagged well behind, burdened by extraordinary debt and high unemployment, its resiliency and long-term dominance suddenly in question. Emerging countries such as China, Brazil, and India took the lead in the recovery, buoyed by flush government coffers and strong currencies. With unemployment above 9.5% nearly all year, the U.S. government continued highly stimulative monetary and fiscal policies. The federal deficit for 2010 surpassed $1.29 trillion, only modestly lower than the previous year’s record of $1.42 trillion. Although polit-

ical factors prevented even more deficit spending, in March the Federal Reserve (Fed) finished a $1.7 trillion purchase of mortgages and Treasury bonds, and in November it started a new $600 billion round of bond purchases, which effectively poured new cash liquidity into the U.S. economy. This approach, dubbed “quantitative easing,” seemed to create a positive effect in late 2010, as financial-market and economicgrowth numbers improved, but the pace of postrecession recovery was far slower than historical standards. Meanwhile, the National Bureau of Economic Research concluded in late 2010 that the U.S. recession had ended and that growth had restarted in June 2009 after 18 months of contraction, the country’s longest postwar slump. GDP growth, however, remained below 3% throughout 2010, which was insufficient to generate significantly more jobs. The housing sector remained a particular drag, having failed to recover from the 2008 mortgage crisis despite extremely low mortgage rates. More than 20% of homeowners were “under water” (that is, they owed more on their mortgages than the market value of their homes) because of dropping housing prices, and more than one million homes were foreclosed upon during the year. An explosion on an offshore oil-drilling rig in April caused a major oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico that contributed to U.S. economic woes. The spill adversely affected tourism and maritime food production, and it prompted the administration to suspend deep-water drilling operations for nearly six months. (See Special Report on page 174.) Stock market prices and confidence in the U.S. economy rose early in the year and then dropped by early summer, thereby raising fears of a “doubledip” recession. In late August Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke hinted at a renewal of Fed bond purchases as Fed governors sought to avoid the downward spiral of deflation. Bernanke’s comments triggered a marked turn upward in market confidence that lasted through the end of the year. The S&P 500 stock average, down by 10% at midyear, ended 2010 with a 12.8% gain. The aggressive Fed action helped keep short-term interest rates near zero for the entire year, while the 10-year Treasury note, widely used for mortgage calculations, dipped below 2.4% at one point. Although critics warned that a vastly increased money supply would lead to adverse long-term consequences, inflation, as measured 483

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by the consumer price index, was just over 1% for the year. For the second consecutive year, Social Security officials announced that fund recipients would receive no cost-of-living increase. As the government spent borrowed and created funds, the dollar declined, especially against currencies of emerging countries. More-serious economic problems in several European countries, including Greece and Ireland, weakened the euro against the dollar, which at least temporarily ameliorated the effects of loose U.S. monetary and fiscal policy. Although politically unpopular, the government’s $700 billion Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) bailout of financial institutions and other firms proved to be better investments than originally anticipated. Most major banks had repaid extraordinary loans with interest by year’s end; such companies as General Motors and American International Group (AIG) began to repay government cash advances; and the U.S. sold its stake in such companies as Citicorp at a profit. U.S. Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner announced in December that the overall cost to taxpayers for the bailout would be less than $25 billion. Foreign Policy. As the world’s sole superpower, the U.S. had been accustomed to success in the realization of its international agenda, but the struggling U.S. economy and outsized indebtedness, an overstretched military, plus President Obama’s weakened domestic political popularity reduced the effectiveness of U.S. diplomacy in 2010. Throughout the year the government was embarrassed by a series of releases by WikiLeaks, a Web site that published confidential documents and videos. The organization published online some 500,000 classified diplomatic cables, reports, and other documents that centred on U.S. involvement in Iraq and Afghanistan and that ranged from unverified gossip about foreign leaders to previously unreported information on civilian deaths in both countries. As the U.S. State Department scrambled to contain the damage, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton denounced the WikiLeaks releases as “an attack on the international community.” Some foreign leaders, however, suggested that fault for the security breach should be attributed to a lax U.S. security regime. The U.S. recorded only limited progress in rallying international support to stop the ongoing nuclear ambi484

tions of two “rogue” states, Iran and North Korea. Arms-control officials were dismayed in November when North Korean officials revealed a nuclear-enrichment plant with up to 2,000 centrifuges that provided another path for creation of weapons. At year’s end, in an effort to curb North Korean nuclear ambitions, U.S. diplomats attempted to revive six-nation talks, which had been suspended two years earlier. American-led efforts to impose a fourth round of sanctions against Iran were finally approved by the UN Security Council in June. The measures, which targeted companies that did business with the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps that directed Iran’s nuclear program, were watered down before passage and received only 12 of 15 Council votes. Iran vowed to ignore the international pressure and insisted that its nuclear development was for peaceful purposes only. Later in the year intelligence officials revealed that a targeted Stuxnet computer worm had infected computer systems linked to Iran’s nuclear program and had rendered them temporarily unusable. No country or organization claimed responsibility for the sabotage. Relationships between the U.S. and two major rivals, Russia and China, remained strained even as U.S. officials petitioned for their help on major economic and political problems. China showed little enthusiasm for reigning in ongoing North Korean excesses during the year, despite U.S. pleas. At a November conference in Seoul, China helped torpedo a major initiative sought by Obama to redress world trade imbalances. He responded with an open accusation that fast-growing China had manipulated its currency to improve its balance of trade, a longheld U.S. position that had previously been couched in diplomatic language. Having sought Russian assistance in Afghanistan and elsewhere, U.S. officials downplayed previous objections to Russian troop postings in two renegade republics in Georgia. The Obama administration achieved one of its top foreign-policy goals in December when the Senate, in its lame-duck session, ratified a new Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) treaty. Obama had signed the treaty with his Russian counterpart in April, but Republican political gains during the year threw ratification into doubt. Senate passage came at the urging of most former foreign-policy officials and after the ad-

ministration had agreed to pursue a costly modernization of U.S. nuclearweapons facilities. War on Terrorism. As lraqi officials moved slowly to form a coalition government following national elections, Obama announced in late summer the end of U.S. combat operations in lraq. Some 50,000 U.S. troops remained in the country at year’s end, but Obama promised that all would be removed by the end of 2011. The continued advance of democratic practices, plus a reduction in violence in the country, offered the hope of a successful conclusion to the controversial 2003 U.S.-led invasion and overthrow of Saddam Hussein’s Iraqi regime. The military situation in Afghanistan, however, was far more tenuous. As the U.S.-led NATO force completed its ninth year of hostilities, major progress became difficult to ascertain, and weariness with the war became evident across the alliance. In February some 6,000 American, Afghan, and British troops stormed Marja, a Taliban stronghold, in an attempt to pacify it for Afghan administration. The operation took longer than expected, and by May Taliban fighters were back in the area. In September allied forces launched a similar offensive in Kandahar province that was still ongoing at year’s end. The situation in Afghanistan was complicated by nonmilitary issues, including allegations of corruption among Afghan officials and suspicions that Pakistani intelligence personnel, even while formally assisting the allies, had assisted both sides of the conflict. Doubts arising from those issues were seemingly confirmed by WikiLeaks documents, which portrayed both the military outlook and the stability of the U.S.-backed Afghan government in a dubious light. In June Rolling Stone magazine published an interview with U.S. Gen. Stanley McChrystal (see BIOGRAPHIES), commander of allied forces in Afghanistan, that included remarks from McChrystal and some of his aides that mocked U.S. diplomats, Afghan officials, and even President Obama. Obama promptly replaced McChrystal with Gen. David Petraeus, who had been widely credited for U.S. counterinsurgency advances in Iraq. The ultimate outcome of U.S. strategy in Afghanistan—a military surge followed by a NATO withdrawal—remained in doubt. Even while having extended its troop commitment, the administration reaffirmed Obama’s 2009 promise to begin U.S. troop with-

World Affairs: United States

On October 2 U.S. Navy personnel carry a fellow service member wounded in an explosion in Kandahar province, Afg., to a nearby medevac helicopter. Finbarr O’Reilly/Landov

drawals in July 2011, a vow widely criticized as discomfiting for U.S. allies, including the Afghan government, and as an encouragement of Taliban resistance. By August 2010, when the last of 30,000 additional U.S. troops had been deployed, U.S. military forces exceeded 95,000, but Obama was largely unable to solicit additional troop deployments from NATO allies. As other countries drew down their military contingents, U.S. troops were forced to assume an ever-greater share of combat duties. At midyear Obama and NATO allies moved to obtain assistance in the Afghan operation from Russia, and Obama declared that U.S. troops would remain through 2014, after which security responsibility would be turned over to the Afghan government. Obama again failed to advance his 2008 campaign promise to close the Guantánamo Bay detention camp. The administration’s plan to try suspected al-Qaeda terrorists in federal civilian courts rather than before military tribunals suffered a major setback in November 2010. In a key test case that month, a New York City jury acquitted Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani on all but one of 285 counts arising from the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. The presiding judge had ruled that a key prosecution witness could not testify because the government had learned about him through information obtained from Ghailani at Guantánamo, where the defendant said he had been tortured. Although U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder had announced that Khalid Sheikh Mohammed and four alleged coconspirators in the September 11 attacks would also be tried in a Manhattan federal

court, New York officials objected, and the trial was delayed indefinitely. At year’s end, in an attempt to keep the Guantánamo facility open, Congress attached a rider to a defense bill that purported to forbid transfer of prisoners to the U.S. for trial and to limit dispersal of terrorist detainees to other countries. (DAVID C. BECKWITH)

DEVELOPMENTS IN THE STATES 2010 The continuing nationwide economic downturn and power struggles with the U.S. federal government prompted turmoil within state governments during 2010. Federalism principles—the balance between state and federal government—were tested repeatedly as states demanded increased response from Washington on immigration enforcement and other federal duties but chafed at perceived overreaches by federal authorities, especially in health care and education. Republicans made major gains in 46 states that held elections in November. Democrats captured new governorships in California, Connecticut, Hawaii, Minnesota, and Vermont, but the GOP took governorships previously held by Democrats in Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Michigan, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. The new lineup for 2011 would be 29 Republican governors, 20 Democrat, and one independent, a net gain of six for the GOP. Republicans gained more than 675 state legislative seats across the U.S., bringing their numbers to just under 4,000, the highest GOP total since 1928. The election marked a watershed in the South, where

Republican legislators would outnumber Democrats for the first time since Reconstruction. Control of 20 legislative chambers nationwide changed hands, all from Democrat to Republican. Going into 2011, when many legislatures would redraw congressional and state legislative district lines, Republicans would have two-house control of legislatures in 25 states, Democrats would dominate in 16, and 8 states would be split. Nebraska had a nonpartisan unicameral legislature. Structures, Powers. Many states addressed internal reform proposals, with mixed results. Alaska voters rejected a small increase in numbers of state legislators. Oklahoma voters added statewide officials to its legislative term limits law. Seeking to take legislative politics out of the equation, California voters turned legislative and congressional redistricting over to an independent commission. Florida voters approved a measure requiring legislators to draw contiguous districts and follow existing geographic lines whenever possible. Against a backdrop of legislative gridlock over the state’s dismaying finances, California voters passed a measure eliminating a two-thirds vote to approve the state budget, instead requiring only a simple legislative majority. The initiative left only two states— Arkansas and Rhode Island—that required a state budget supermajority. The net result was anything but clear, though; California voters also endorsed a proposition mandating a two-thirds vote for any fee increases, and the state already required a two-thirds vote for any tax increase. Internet voting suffered a major setback when a District of Columbia test program was hacked within hours, prompting a quick end to the experiment. Arizona also experimented with online voting for military and overseas voters. In a ruling that threatened public financing laws in other states, the U.S. Supreme Court enjoined an Arizona law that allowed disproportionate help to opponents of selffunded candidates. Several states, including Colorado and Illinois, retained high court judges only after bruising, highly publicized campaigns. In Iowa three state Supreme Court justices were removed by voters. Their main opposition was organized by social conservatives opposed to the seven-member court’s unanimous 2009 decision holding that gay marriage was a state constitutional 485

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right. Nevada voters rejected a proposal for merit selection of judges, retaining selection by popular vote. In Oklahoma a novel proposition prohibiting consideration of either Islamic Shari!ah law or international law in state judicial rulings was approved. Massachusetts adopted a measure to allot all of its electoral votes to the national presidential popular vote winner, thus ratifying a compact challenging the national presidential electoral college. The measure would take effect only when states with a majority of electoral votes (270) ratified it; the six states that had ratified it had 73 electoral votes. Finances. For the third consecutive year, the national economic malaise forced state governments to take unprecedented steps to balance their budgets. Most states were forced to raise unemployment taxes on businesses in the face of high unemployment claims. With federal assistance from the 2009 stimulus program running out, states employed a wide variety of layoffs, furloughs, borrowing, benefit cuts, and missed payments to keep their books in technical balance. Unfunded state pension liabilities emerged as a principle factor in state fiscal woes. As a report indicated that the 50 states might have $3 trillion in unfunded pension debt, 19 additional states moved to either reduce pension benefits, increase employee contributions, or do both. Several states explored whether they could legally withdraw previously granted pensions, which prompted public employee unions to threaten legal action. Emerging as a leader in state economizing was New Jersey Gov. Chris Christie, who directly confronted teachers and public employees unions with numerous budget-cutting measures. Christie also canceled an $8.7 billion train tunnel linking New Jersey and Manhattan, saying that his state could not afford projected construction overruns. Following the November elections, new GOP governors in Wisconsin and Ohio said that they would shutter high-speed-rail projects linking major cities, prompting the administration of U.S. Pres. Barack Obama to redistribute $1.2 billion in federal aid to other states with high-speed-rail projects. Voters sent mixed signals on November ballot tax measures. In Washington, one of nine states without an income tax, voters rejected a proposed new levy for high-income earners (those making more than $250,000 annually). Oregon

voters approved an income tax boost for businesses and high-income individuals to fund public education and social services. Arizona voters temporarily increased the state sales tax. In Maine a legislative plan to lower income and raise state sales taxes was rejected. California balloters turned down a proposal to repeal corporate tax breaks. Washington voters rolled back legislature-imposed taxes on candy, soft drinks, and bottled water and reinstated a two-thirds legislative majority requirement for any tax increase. Higher alcohol sales taxes were rejected in Massachusetts, but the legislature’s sales tax increase was accepted. Social Issues. Arizona became the fifth state to ban affirmative action in state hiring, contracting, and education decisions. Similar measures in California, Michigan, Nebraska, and Washington had been placed on the ballot by citizen initiative; the Arizona proposal was forwarded by its state legislature. Although arguments over gay marriage and civil union issues had roiled state governments in recent years, there was little activity in 2010. A U.S. judge ruled unconstitutional California’s 2009 Proposition 8 initiative, which banned gay marriage, but the federal appeals court stayed the order before gay marriages could resume. Alaska voters supported a measure that required minors to notify parents before obtaining an abortion, bringing

to 35 the number of states requiring either parental notification or consent. Arizona, Louisiana, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Utah toughened antiabortion laws, typically requiring additional reporting or other strictures on doctors. The Utah measure made inducing a miscarriage or abetting an illegal abortion a criminal homicide offense. Abortion opponents in Colorado, however, were dealt a rare defeat when the proposed amendment specifying that “personhood” carried legal protection and began at conception was defeated. Law, Ethics. Amid complaints that federal authorities were failing to enforce immigration laws, Arizona passed a groundbreaking law that gave local law enforcement increased power to determine the immigration status of anyone questioned in conduct of normal policing duties. Before it could become effective, an Arizona federal judge, responding to a lawsuit from the Obama administration, enjoined the law’s key sections. The U.S. suit claimed that the statute was discriminatory and usurped the federal government’s primary authority over immigration matters. At year’s end the ruling was under appeal. Hawaii stopped issuing driver’s licenses to undocumented aliens, leaving only three states (New Mexico, Utah, and Washington) where illegal immigrants could drive legally. Oklahoma required a photo identification before an individual could vote and also ordered

The sheriff of Maricopa county, Ariz., holds a news conference in Phoenix on July 29 to announce plans to crack down on illegal immigration.

Matt York/AP

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that state business be conducted only in the state’s new official language, English. Gun advocates continued to make legal gains during the year. Virginia and Tennessee allowed gun licensees to carry handguns in bars. Georgia lifted its prohibition against drinking alcohol while carrying a gun. Indiana allowed workers to take guns to work, provided they remained locked in a vehicle. Arizona became the third state to allow unrestricted carrying of concealed weapons, without requirement of licensing or training. Arkansas, South Carolina, and Tennessee voters joined 10 states adding a right to hunt and fish to their state constitutions. Michigan became the first state to establish a “superdrunk” law, with enhanced penalties for drivers who tested above 0.17% (the legal limit in most states was 0.08%). Wisconsin joined Illinois in requiring ignition interlock devices for repeat offenders and those with blood alcohol tests above 0.15%. Imposition of capital punishment continued to decline during 2010 as states struggled with costs of legal appeals and controversy over legal injections. Twelve jurisdictions executed 46 convicts; 17 executions took place in a single state, Texas. Former Illinois governor Rod Blagojevich, who was accused of having tried to sell Barack Obama’s U.S. Senate seat, was found guilty on only one of 24 federal felony charges, that of lying to federal investigators. After a oneyear federal ethics investigation, former North Carolina governor Mike Easley was found guilty on one count of failure to report a campaign gift. Health, Welfare. When fashioning federal health care reform legislation, congressional authors assigned major implementation responsibilities to states, in part to offset criticism that Congress was nationalizing a major industry. The legislation envisioned a major expansion of Medicaid insurance (administered and partially paid by state governments) coverage and required states to set up private insurance exchanges by 2014 to provide mandated universal coverage to virtually all Americans. (See Sidebar on page 244.) The federal plan included some grants to states to finance the changes. Even so, state opposition arose immediately. Several states objected to increased Medicaid costs. Twenty state attorneys general filed suit against the plan, claiming the requirement that every individual buy insurance or pay a sub-

At a ceremony at the White House on March 23, U.S. Pres. Barack Obama signs into law the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which introduced sweeping reforms to the U.S. health care system. stantial penalty was unconstitutional. Virginia obtained a federal court judgment on a similar claim in December; U.S. authorities mapped an appeal. Seven states approved statutes or constitutional amendments declaring any mandatory insurance scheme to be illegal. Some states welcomed the plan, however. Financially pressed California received federal permission, and promise of $10 billion in federal aid, to finance health care reform, including a major expansion of Medicaid. Voters in Arizona made it the 15th state to legalize marijuana for medical purposes, but South Dakota turned down a similar proposition. Oregon balloters rejected controversial marijuana dispensaries, but Maine authorities authorized nonprofit distribution centres. After a high-visibility campaign, voters in California—the first state to allow medical marijuana—rejected a proposal to fully legalize and tax marijuana use. The outcome avoided a showdown with the U.S. Justice Department, which had promised to continue enforcing federal antimarijuana laws. Mississippi joined Oregon in requiring a doctor’s prescription for pseudoephedrine medicine typically sold over-the-counter. The drug was a key ingredient in illegal methamphetamine, and Oregon reported a sharp decline in meth lab arrests following approval of its 2006 law. South Dakota voters approved a smoking ban in bars, restaurants, and casinos.

Environment, Education. As the national economy languished, few states approved major new environmental legislation. Several states considered bills to ban or regulate plastic grocery bags and encourage recycled paper bags, but none of the proposals became law. The District of Columbia enacted a five-cent tax on plastic bags. California voters decided to keep its landmark 2006 law mandating the reduction of greenhouse gases, rejecting a proposal to suspend the law until the state’s unemployment rate dropped. An outdoor recreation trust fund was established in Iowa, and North Dakota voters authorized a Legacy Fund for conservation projects, to be financed with new oil and gas tax revenues. Controversy over perceived federal incursion into local education policy continued during 2010. As states struggled with their budget problems, the U.S. awarded $4.35 billion to 11 states under the Race to the Top program, a plan that encouraged a common core curriculum, charter schools, and stricter student achievement tracking systems. Forty-one states adopted mathematics and English curriculum standards set forth in the federal plan. Florida voters rejected a proposal to ease strict public school class-size requirements enacted in 2002, even though experts declared that positive results were minimal. The plan to relax class-size standards received 55% of the vote, short of the 60% needed for passage. (DAVID C. BECKWITH) 487

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URUGUAY

Area: 177,879 sq km (68,679 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 3,372,000 Capital: Montevideo Head of state and government: Presidents Tabaré Ramón Vázquez Rosas and, from March 1, José Mujica

In March 2010 José Mujica, a former Tupamaro guerrilla leader, was inaugurated as the president of Uruguay, a development that ensured five more years of rule by the leftist coalition Progressive Encounter–Broad Front (EP-FA). The coalition enjoyed a majority in both houses of the Uruguayan General Assembly. The EP-FA did, however, lose four governorships in the departmental elections in May. Uruguay continued to enjoy robust, if not near record, economic growth. The economy was expected to grow 8.5% for the year, and unemployment remained at its lowest levels since 1986, having fallen to 6.2% in August. Inflation was within the government target range of 6–8%. Agricultural exports continued to boom. President Mujica announced an ambitious agenda for reform of the civil service. That led to increasing tension between the government and unions, culminating in a general strike on October 7. In addition, the EP-FA introduced legislation that would effectively annul an amnesty law, enacted in 1986, that had shielded military officers from prosecution for human rights abuses committed during the period of military rule. The law had been upheld in public referenda in 1989 and 2009. When several EP-FA senators indicated that they would vote against the legislation, the legislative effort was abandoned, but there was talk on the left about seeking yet another referendum. With a new administration in Uruguay and an International Court of Justice decision in April, Uruguay and Argentina finally resolved a conflict over a pulp mill in Fray Bentos, Uruguay, across the Uruguay River from Gualeguaychú, Arg. The countries later agreed to create a binational scientific team to monitor water quality in the river. Uruguay’s fourth-place finish in the 2010 association football (soccer)

World Cup in South Africa was a source of national pride. (See Sidebar on page 312.) The government quickly seized on the international attention to promote tourism and investment in Uruguay. (MARTIN WEINSTEIN)

UZBEKISTAN

Area: 444,103 sq km (171,469 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 27,866,000 Capital: Tashkent Head of state and government: President Islam Karimov, assisted by Prime Minister Shavkat Mirziyayev

In 2010 Uzbekistan recorded a mixed year in foreign relations. While the country received the thanks of NATO and the U.S. for its contribution in transshipping supplies to the international coalition’s struggle against terrorism in Afghanistan and for its generosity in having accepted thousands of ethnic Uzbek refugees in June from the violence in southern Kyrgyzstan, the country’s reputation as a responsible member of the international community was negatively affected by its behaviour toward Tajikistan, one of its eastern neighbours.

Uzbekistan was determined to prevent the construction of a gigantic dam and power plant at Roghun in central Tajikistan. Tashkent argued that the dam would severely affect Uzbek irrigated agriculture by depriving crops of water during the filling of an enormous reservoir, an assertion denied by Tajikistan. Although Tajikistan had agreed to an Uzbek demand for a feasibility study of the project to be carried out by international experts, at the beginning of the year Uzbekistan started delaying the transit of Tajikistan-bound railroad cars across its territory. The objective of the action, unofficially admitted by Uzbek authorities, was to disrupt construction at Roghun, but the action resulted in a major disruption to parts of the Tajik economy. The area that suffered the worst was the southern region, where supplies of fertilizer, seeds, and fuel for spring agricultural work failed to arrive. Tajik rail authorities appealed to the international community for help, but Uzbek rail authorities denied that the action was deliberate, insisting that it was connected to repair works on the lines to Tajikistan. When Iranian businessmen began to complain to their government that their construction projects, including a power plant to which Uzbekistan had had no objections, were being affected by the nondelivery of supplies, Iran made strong appeals to the Uzbek government but without result. At the end of the year, the situation had not been resolved,

Refugees from Kyrgyzstan wait in a refugee camp near the village of Erkishlok, Uzbekistan, in June. Thousands of ethnic Uzbeks fled across the border when violence broke out in southern Kyrgyzstan.

Anvar Ilyasov/AP

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and Tajik railway officials reported that for most of the year, more than 1,000 rail cars were still stranded in Uzbekistan. In another Uzbek action aimed at its eastern neighbour, a number of demonstrations took place on the Uzbek side of the border to protest the alleged pollution of Uzbek territory by the nearby Tajik aluminum plant. Although official protests about the plant were not new, this time Uzbek officials joined forces with nongovernmental environmental groups. Freedom of expression remained restricted. In two noteworthy cases, prominent filmmaker Umida Ahmedova was tried in February for allegedly having slandered the Uzbek people, and human rights activist Elena Urlaeva was detained in September for having photographed children forced to pick cotton. (BESS BROWN)

uatu Mobile Force (VMF), a paramilitary police organization, concluded with a report released in March that sharply criticized the conduct and management of the VMF. The judge in charge of the inquest, a New Zealand national, was threatened and harassed and ultimately left the country. The government said that it would conduct a far-reaching inquiry into the accusations, and the head of the VMF promised a review of operational standards. In December, Prime Minister Edward Natapei lost a no-confidence vote in Parliament while out of the country. He was replaced by his deputy, Sato Kilman. (CLUNY MACPHERSON)

VATICAN CITY STATE

VANUATU

Area: 12,190 sq km (4,707 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 251,000 Capital: Port Vila Head of state: President Iolu Abil Head of government: Prime Ministers Edward Natapei and, from December 2, Sato Kilman

In 2010 Vanuatu celebrated 30 years of independence with an economy showing about 4% annual growth, an urban population increasing annually by 3.5%, and strong growth in both the tourism and development sectors. Seeking to control expenditures, the government proposed a budget the same size as the previous year’s. Land was both a domestic and an international issue. Indigenous landowners were concerned by the ongoing alienation of land to foreigners; this generated increasing public pressure for reform of both politics and land law. The long-running dispute with France over the possession of uninhabited Matthew and Hunter islands was reignited when it was reported in January that Moana Carcasses, Vanuatu’s minister of internal affairs, had proposed a shared-ownership arrangement to the French. An investigation into the 2009 death of a prisoner from severe injuries he received while in the custody of the Van-

Area: 44 ha (109 ac) Population (2010 est.): about 800, of whom about 450 have Vatican citizenship (including about 225 living abroad mostly as diplomatic personnel) Head of state: (sovereign pontiff) Pope Benedict XVI Head of administration: Secretary of State Tarcisio Cardinal Bertone

In 2010 the Vatican responded to new allegations of sexual abuse by Roman Catholic priests in various parts of the world. A case in Ireland was particularly sensitive, due to charges that church authorities had systematically subverted investigations into the alleged abuse. An inquiry into similar charges in Belgium led the pope to issue a statement challenging the investigation. The Vatican managed to defend its integrity as an important global actor. It exerted a significant role in ongoing debates regarding the Middle East, where it had long advocated interfaith dialogue. At an October synod in Vatican City, bishops from the Middle East region discussed the plight of minority groups, particularly Christian minorities, which faced increasingly intolerant religious extremism. The Vatican also voiced concern for marginal communities during the deportation campaign launched by France against many Roma residing there. One high-ranking Vatican official did not hesitate to describe the campaign as a new Holocaust.

On another European front, the Vatican expressed worry about an investigation undertaken by the European Union into a bilateral agreement between the Holy See and the Italian state. The agreement granted extensive tax relief to an estimated 100,000 hotels, hospitals, and schools operated directly or indirectly by the Vatican on Italian soil. The tax breaks by 2010 amounted to about >2 billion (roughly $2.6 billion) per year. Critics of the agreement claimed that it gave the Vatican an illegal trade advantage that harmed Italian firms operating in their own country. The Vatican differed with the Italian government over the latter’s proposal to abolish mail delivery on Saturdays in the name of fiscal austerity. The official Vatican newspaper charged that the act would penalize elderly citizens, for whom conventional mail remained an important form of communication. (GREGORY O. SMITH)

VENEZUELA

Area: 916,445 sq km (353,841 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 29,044,000 Capital: Caracas Head of state and government: President Hugo Chávez Frías

The National Assembly elections of Sept. 26, 2010, transformed Venezuela’s political landscape. In 2005 the opposition political parties had boycotted the elections to the National Assembly, and supporters of Pres. Hugo Chávez took total control of the legislature. This time a broad coalition of opposition parties, the Democratic Unity Table (MUD), divided the popular vote equally with the official government party, the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV). Changes in the electoral law enabled the PSUV to win 98 of 165 seats, while the MUD captured 65, and the small radical leftist political party, Fatherland for All, won the remaining 2 seats. Chávez had campaigned hard for the PSUV candidates and framed the election as a referendum on his government. Thus, even though the PSUV retained control of the National Assembly, party leaders were disappointed. The once-dominant Democratic Action (AD) party and the 489

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ported the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), Chávez broke diplomatic relations with Colombia. On August 10, however, following the election of Juan Manuel Santos as president of Colombia, Chávez reestablished those relations. Finally, in 2010 Venezuela received a loan from Russia for the purchase of $2 billion in weapons and one of $20 billion from China to modernize its petroleum-extraction infrastructure. (DAVID J. MYERS)

VIETNAM

An angry woman bangs a pot in support of a student demonstration in Caracas on January 28. Venezuelan university students marched in the streets for several days early in the year to protest the shutdown of the cable TV network Radio Caracas Televisión Internacional, a frequent critic of Venezuelan Pres. Hugo Chávez. Zulia-based party A New Time elected more deputies than any of the other parties in the MUD coalition. Although no opposition leader emerged from the election with the stature to unilaterally challenge Chávez in the 2012 presidential elections, the close popular vote suggested that the president might find himself in a competitive race for reelection if the opposition coalesced behind an attractive candidate. Meanwhile, the Venezuelan government implemented laws that cemented its hold on power. Most significant was the law that established socialist communes—communal development districts that were controlled by the Ministry of Popular Power for Communes. The authority of the communes (more than 180 of which had been established by February) extended across traditional municipal and state government boundaries. Moreover, the dividing line between the communes’ authority and that of local governments, state governments, and the already-existing communal councils was a contentious matter. In late November flooding and mudslides caused by torrential rain displaced thousands and killed more than 30. Ostensibly to allow for quick action in response to the flooding, the lameduck legislature in December granted the president the power to enact laws by decree for 18 months. Opponents labeled the action a power grab and were equally critical of newly passed meas490

ures that cracked down on political dissent on the Internet and punished legislators for switching political parties. Venezuela’s economy remained dependent on petroleum revenue. Oil production in 2010 was roughly 2.2 million bbl per day, down from 3.5 million bbl in 1998. Overall the economy contracted by roughly 3%. Consequently, the IMF characterized Venezuela’s recovery from the global economic downturn as “delayed and weak.” The situation was exacerbated by several factors: the nationalization of Owens-Illinois glass factories, the projected takeover of food producer Empresas Polar, and skyrocketing crime rates. On the other hand, Chávez’s January currency devaluation doubled the value of government oil income in local currency. Venezuela was in no danger of a foreign-exchange crisis, however, as the official reserves at the central bank stood at $28 billion in November, with a sizable account surplus of $19.8 billion, or about 6.3% of GDP. In the international arena, Chávez focused on increasing Venezuela’s influence in Latin America, on strengthening relations with petroleum-producing states in the Middle East, and on discrediting the U.S. Venezuela continued to provide Cuba with roughly 100,000 bbl of petroleum a day and funded the expansion of Cuba’s refinery at Cienfuegos. After Colombian Pres. Álvaro Uribe accused Venezuela of having sup-

Area: 331,212 sq km (127,882 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 87,117,000 Capital: Hanoi Head of state: President Nguyen Minh Triet Head of government: Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung

Two major developments dominated Vietnam in 2010: preparations for the 11th congress of the Vietnam Communist Party (VCP) and Vietnam’s assumption of the chair of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). During the year the VCP convened a series of congresses at grassroots, district, provincial, and municipal levels to select delegates to the national congress scheduled for January 2011. This process was completed by the end of October. Some 69 local party congresses took part in a pilot program in which delegates directly elected their party secretary. Significant among these elections was the one in Da Nang, Vietnam’s fourth largest city. The party Central Committee held its 12th plenum in March to review various draft congress policy documents, including the socioeconomic development strategy for 2011–20. The 13th Central Committee plenum took place in October and focused on setting targets for the next five-year (2011–15) socioeconomic development plan and the state budget. The October plenum also reviewed a pilot program adopted by the National Assembly to reform local government by abolishing the twotiered structure of people’s councils and people’s committees in favour of direct election of people’s committees. In January, after Vietnam assumed the ASEAN chair, it hosted several

World Affairs: Yemen

events, including the 16th ASEAN summit (April 8–9), the 4th ASEAN defense ministers meeting (May 11), the 43rd ASEAN ministerial meeting and associated conferences (July 19–23), the 17th ASEAN regional forum (July 23), the first meeting in which ASEAN defense ministers were joined by their counterparts from eight other Pacific Rim countries (October 11–12), and the 17th ASEAN summit and associated meetings (October 28–30). Using the ASEAN chairmanship, Vietnam succeeded in giving wider international attention to its dispute with China over their conflicting sovereignty claims in the South China Sea. In April, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung attended U.S. Pres. Barack Obama’s nuclear security summit in Washington, D.C. Vietnam and the U.S. observed the 15th anniversary of diplomatic relations between the countries in July, with U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton making an official visit to Hanoi and Vietnamese officials visiting U.S. aircraft carriers in Virginia and in international waters off central Vietnam. The following month the two sides held their first defense dialogue. In the fall Vietnam awarded its first contracts for nuclear power plants to Russian and Japanese firms. In addition, Prime Minister Dung unexpectedly announced that Vietnam would open Cam Ranh Bay, the best natural harbour in the Asia-Pacific region, to the vessels of all navies and provide repair services. In midyear it was revealed that the Vietnam Shipbuilding Industry Group (Vinashin), one of Vietnam’s largest business conglomerates, was nearly bankrupt, with debts totaling more than $4.4 billion. The chairman and other company executives were arrested, and the government later announced plans for Vinashin’s financial restructuring. At its May–June session, the National Assembly demonstrated assertiveness by rejecting the government’s proposal for an expensive high-speed rail line between Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. In October the Assembly was spurred to debate the environmental impact of bauxite mining in Vietnam following reports of a toxic spill from a bauxiteprocessing plant in Hungary. The Vinashin case was also brought to the floor of the Assembly for debate, and one deputy even called for a vote of no confidence in the prime minister. A majority of deputies, however, voted to cut the discussion without further action. Security authorities continued to harass, arrest, and detain pro-democracy

advocates, independent labour organizers, Roman Catholic land-rights protesters, and political bloggers. State authorities were believed to have been behind a series of malware attacks (notably, distributed denial of service attacks) on the Web sites of prominent bloggers. (CARLYLE A. THAYER)

YEMEN

Area: 528,076 sq km (203,891 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 23,494,000 Capital: Sanaa Head of state: President Maj. Gen. !Ali !Abdallah Salih Head of government: Prime Minister Ali Muhammad Mujawar

On Feb. 12, 2010, after six years of intermittent fighting, the Yemeni government and the al-Huthi rebels, based in the northern mountains, came to a peace agreement. According to the pact, both sides would uphold a ceasefire overseen by joint rebel and government representatives. The accord

bound the al-Huthi militia to disarm, free captured soldiers, evacuate hideouts, and follow the Yemeni constitution. The al-Huthis also vowed not to attack Saudi Arabia, Yemen’s northern neighbour. There were multiple accusations during the year from both sides, however, of sporadic violations. The secessionist movement in southern Yemen, aimed at reviving the old People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (1967–90), gained ground and became more violent, with direct armed confrontations against the Yemeni armed forces. The secessionists used strikes, fires, bombs in public buildings, and the assassination of Yemeni officials to attract attention. Violence from alQaeda terrorists also intensified during the year and was met with ruthless reprisals by the government, which possessed limited resources. Al-Qaeda in Yemen joined forces with its counterpart in Saudi Arabia, calling the combined group al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula. There were fears that contacts between the al-Huthis, the secessionists, and al-Qaeda could lead to a coordinated rebellion against the central government, an eventuality that could only increase the dangers of destabilization in a poor country with a weak government. (See Special Report on page 180.) (LOUAY BAHRY)

In November a policeman in Sanaa stands guard outside the state security court, where the trial in absentia of U.S.-born radical cleric Anwar al-Awlaki was indicative of the government crackdown on terrorism.

AP

491

World Affairs: Zambia

ZAMBIA

Area: 752,612 sq km (290,585 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 13,460,000 Capital: Lusaka Head of state and government: President Rupiah Banda

Zambian Pres. Rupiah Banda and the ruling party, the Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD), faced growing opposition in 2010 from the alliance formed by the Patriotic Front (PF) and the United Party for National Development (UPND). Increasingly, analysts regarded Michael Sata, the leader of the PF, as having a credible chance of victory over the incumbent in the 2011 elections. There was a risk, however, that the alliance would split owing to friction between various factions over the choice of a presidential candidate. Anticipating that the upcoming election would be the most fiercely contested since the shift to multiparty politics in 1991, politicians were preoccupied with consolidating their support. In the 2008 election, Sata had lost by a narrow margin—38.7% of the vote against Banda’s 40.7%—and in an effort to undermine Sata’s rise in popularity, the MMD turned to tactics designed to exploit historic rivalries between the Bemba and the Tonga ethnic groups. While Sata came from the Bemba group, important leaders within the opposition alliance belonged to the Tonga group. Smarting from pressure by Western donor countries to undertake substantive reforms against corruption, Zambia sought to strengthen its ties with China, which was less demanding on this issue. In late February, President Banda embarked on a nine-day state visit to Beijing at the invitation of his Chinese counterpart, Hu Jintao. On this trip Banda negotiated a $1 billion concessional loan from the Chinese authorities, which was the equivalent of 40% of Zambia’s total public external debt stock. A number of other pacts were also signed, including agreements to promote bilateral cooperation in several mining projects. Although there was still tension between Chinese and Zambians, overall anti-Chinese sentiment appeared to have subsided somewhat. Some government press accounts referred to the Chinese as “all-weather 492

friends,” praising them for having taken over mining operations during the economic recession when many Western investors scaled back or abandoned the industry. Meanwhile, a bumper corn (maize) crop and rising copper prices accounted for greater economic prosperity. During the year, real GDP growth rose to about 7.5%, coupled with a decline in inflation to less than 8%. In October, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Medardo Joseph Mazombwe as one of 24 new cardinals, making him the first indigenous Zambian to be named. Mazombwe had combined his religious career with social advocacy and was an ardent advocate for debt cancellation in the mid-1980s. He later initiated several new development projects throughout the country. (LARAY DENZER)

ZIMBABWE

Area: 390,757 sq km (150,872 sq mi) Population (2010 est.): 12,644,000, of which about 3,000,000 people might be living outside the country Capital: Harare Head of state: President Robert Mugabe Head of government: Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai

Zimbabwe’s government of national unity became mired in gridlock in 2010. The two main parties in the powersharing government—the Zimbabwe African National Union–Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), led by Pres. Robert Mugabe, and the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), led by Prime Minister Morgan Tsvangirai—repeatedly negotiated and periodically announced progress but failed to settle the main issues of contention. Frequent attempts by South African Pres. Jacob Zuma, head of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), to mediate disputes proved unsuccessful in brokering any settlement. By the end of October, relations between Mugabe and Tsvangirai had nearly broken down in mutual recrimination. That month Tsvangirai stopped attending some scheduled meetings with Mugabe, and he went to Zambia to seek the support of Pres. Rupiah Banda against what he referred to as Mugabe’s unilateralism.

As relations between the coalition partners deteriorated and neighbouring SADC governments tired of fruitless intervention, hopes receded for meeting the timetable for drafting a new constitution and holding a democratic election. According to the provisions of the 2008 Global Political Agreement (GPA), a new constitution was a mandatory prerequisite to the 2011 elections; however, in October both the prime minister and the president reiterated their commitment to holding those elections “whatever the obstacles,” even without a new constitution in place. They also ostensibly agreed that the losing candidate would not contest the results. According to sources, the MDC held a substantial lead, while ZANU-PF was anxious about the 86-year-old president’s health. Meanwhile, formulation of a new constitution ran into difficulties. The Constitutional Parliamentary Committee did not even begin to canvass public opinion until July, a year later than originally scheduled. Public meetings were poorly attended, partly owing to intimidation and violence. Some important civil rights groups, spearheaded by the National Constitutional Association, announced their opposition to any constitutional draft. Moreover, key financial officials contended that the state simply did not have the $200 million needed to fund both a constitutional referendum and elections in 2011. Western sanctions against Zimbabwe were cited as obstructions to political and economic progress. Before the deterioration of coalition relations, Tsvangirai urged the easing of targeted sanctions as a reward for what seemed like genuine progress, and the ZANU-PF politburo announced that the government refused to make further concessions regarding the GPA until sanctions had been lifted, including those that targeted the president and his senior party colleagues. Mugabe remained adamant on this position. International response was mixed; while the African Union and South Africa called for the abolition of sanctions, the U.S. and the EU refused to budge. The economy improved significantly, partly as a result of an increased yield in the tobacco crop and the resumption of diamond sales from the controversial Marange fields. According to the IMF, both growth and inflation averaged about 5%. Land reform and indigenization laws were upheld in the courts, but their continued contestation was likely to affect policy for a long time. (LARAY DENZER)

CONTRIBUTORS

Ahmed, Inam. Deputy Editor, The Daily Star, Bangladesh. Contributor to Rivers of Life. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Bangladesh Albert, Melissa. Associate Editor, Brooklyn Museum. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Alexander, Steve. Freelance Technology Writer. •COMPUTERS AND INFORMATION SYSTEMS Allaby, Michael. Freelance Writer. Author of Encyclopedia of Weather and Climate and Basics of Environmental Science. •THE ENVIRONMENT: Environmental Issues; International Activities Andrejevich, Milan. Professor of History, Ivy Tech Community College, South Bend (Ind.) campus; Adjunct Professor of Communication, Valparaiso (Ind.) University. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Bosnia and Herzegovina; Kosovo; Montenegro; Serbia Anthony, John Duke. President and CEO, National Council on U.S.-Arab Relations; International Economic Policy Advisor, U.S. Department of State. Author of The United Arab Emirates: Dynamics of State Formation. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Oman; Qatar Augustyn, Adam. Assistant Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Aurora, Vincent. Lecturer in French and Romance Philology, Columbia University, New York City. Author of Michel Leiris’ Failles: Immobile in Mobili. •LITERATURE: French: France Bahry, Louay. Adjunct Professor of Political Science, University of Tennessee. Author of The Baghdad Bahn. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Bahrain; Iraq; Kuwait; United Arab Emirates; Yemen Bamia, Aida A. Professor Emeritus of Arabic Language and Literature, University of Florida; Visiting Professor, University of Michigan. Author of The Graying of the Raven: Cultural and Sociopolitical Significance of Algerian Folk Poetry. Translator of Sahar Khalifeh’s The Inheritance and The Image, the Icon, and the Covenant and Ali Bader’s Papa Sartre: A Modern Arabic Novel. •LITERATURE: Arabic Barrett, David B. Research Professor of Missiometrics, World Evangelization Research Center. Author of World Christian Encyclopedia and Schism and Renewal in Africa. Coauthor of World Christian Trends, AD 30–AD 2200: Interpreting the Annual Christian Megacensus. •RELIGION: Tables (in part) Baru, Sanjaya. Editor, Business Standard (India); Consulting Senior Fellow, International Institute of Strategic Studies, London; Former Media Advisor to Prime Minister of India. Author of Strategic Consequences of India’s Economic Performance. •WORLD AFFAIRS: India Bauer, Patricia. Assistant Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •CALENDAR; DISASTERS; LITERATURE: Table; OBITUARIES (in part); PERFORMING ARTS: Motion Pictures (table) Beck, Peter M. Adjunct Professor, American University, Washington, D.C., Ewha Womans University, Seoul, and Keio University, Tokyo. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of; Korea, Republic of Beckwith, David C. Freelance Writer. •WORLD AFFAIRS: United States; United States: Developments in the States; United States: Sidebar Bell, Susanna. Freelance Journalist. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Finland Berry, R. Stephen. Professor Emeritus, University of Chicago. Coauthor of Phase Transitions of Simple Systems. •NOBEL PRIZES (in part) Bradsher, Henry S. Foreign Affairs Analyst and Lecturer. Author of Afghan Communism and Soviet Intervention. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Philippines Brecher, Kenneth. Professor of Astronomy and Physics; Director, Science and Mathematics Education Center, Boston University. •PHYSICAL SCIENCES: Astronomy Brockmann, Stephen. Professor of German, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh. Author of Literature and German Reunification, German Literary Culture at the Zero Hour, and Nuremberg: The Imaginary Capital. •LITERATURE: German

Brokopp, John G. Media Relations Consultant, Freelance Journalist, and Syndicated Columnist on casino gambling. Author of Thrifty Gambling and Insider’s Guide to Internet Gambling: Your Sourcebook for Safe and Profitable Gambling. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Equestrian Sports: Thoroughbred Racing: United States Brown, Bess. Regional Economic and Environmental Advisor, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (Tajikistan office). Author of Authoritarianism in the New States of Central Asia. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Tajikistan; Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan Brown, Geoff. Critic and Historian. Editor of Alistair Cooke at the Movies. •PERFORMING ARTS: Motion Pictures Buchan, David. Political and Energy Consultant. Author of Energy and Climate Change: Europe at the Crossroads. •WORLD AFFAIRS: France Bungs, Dzintra. Senior Research Fellow, Latvian Institute of International Affairs, Riga. Author of The Baltic States: Problems and Prospects of Membership in the European Union. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Latvia Burns, Erik T. Writer. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Portugal Burrowes, Robert D. Adjunct Professor (retired), Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington. •SPECIAL REPORT: Yemen’s Perilous State Byrd, Herman J. Director, Belize Archives and Records Service. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Belize Byrne, Justin. Independent Scholar. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Spain Campbell, Heather. Senior Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Campbell, Robert. Architect and Architecture Critic. Author of Cityscapes of Boston: An American City Through Time. •ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING: Architecture Carter, Robert W. Journalist. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Equestrian Sports: Steeplechasing; Thoroughbred Racing: International Casey, Nora Sørena. Freelance Writer. •OBITUARIES (in part) Chenoweth, Karin. Senior Writer, The Education Trust. Author of “How It’s Being Done:” Urgent Lessons from Unexpected Schools. •EDUCATION Cheuse, Alan. Writing Faculty, English Department, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va.; Book Commentator, National Public Radio. Author of To Catch the Lightning: A Novel of American Dreaming, The Fires, The Light Possessed, A Trance After Breakfast: And Other Passages, and Listening to the Page: Adventures in Reading and Writing. •LITERATURE: English: United States Chua Lee Hoong. Political Editor, The Straits Times, Singapore. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Singapore Cioroslan, Dragomir. Director of International Strategies and Development, United States Olympic Committee; Vice President, International Weightlifting Federation. Coauthor of Banish Your Belly. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Weightlifting Clark, David Draper. Editor and Translator. •LITERATURE: English: Other Literature in English Clark, Janet H. Editor, Independent Analyst, and Writer on international economic and financial topics. •NOBEL PRIZES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: European Union: Sidebar Coate, Roger A. Paul Coverdell Chair of Public Policy, Georgia College and State University; Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Political Science, University of South Carolina. Coauthor of United Nations Politics: International Organization in a Divided World and The United Nations and Changing World Politics. •WORLD AFFAIRS: United Nations Coller, Ken. President, West Seattle Productions. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Wrestling: Sumo Collins, Nigel. Editor in Chief, The Ring. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Boxing Corkin, Nicola. Ph.D. Candidate, European Research Institute, University of Birmingham, Eng. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Germany

Cosgrave, Bronwyn. Author, Journalist, and Broadcaster. Founding Chairperson, The Dorchester Collection Fashion Prize. Author of Made for Each Other: Fashion and the Academy Awards and Costume and Fashion: A Complete History. Editor of Sample: 100 Fashion Designers, 010 Curators: Cuttings from Contemporary Fashion. •FASHIONS Coveney, Michael. Theatre Critic. Author of The World According to Mike Leigh, The Andrew Lloyd Webber Story, and others. •PERFORMING ARTS: Theatre: Great Britain and Ireland Crisp, Brian F. Associate Professor of Political Science, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. Author of Democratic Institutional Design. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Colombia (in part) Crossing, Peter F. Data Analyst, World Christian Database; Center for the Study of Global Christianity. Associate Editor of World Christian Encyclopedia. •RELIGION: Tables (in part) Cruickshank, Judith. Journalist. •PERFORMING ARTS: Dance: Europe Cunningham, John M. Research Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. Former Staff Writer, Stylus Magazine. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); OBITUARIES (in part) Curley, Robert. Senior Editor, Science and Technology, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Cuttino, John Charles. President, Portal Commerce & Logistics, LLC. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Brazil David-Barrett, Liz. Research Fellow, University of Oxford. Author of Business in the Balkans: The Case for Cross-Border Co-Operation. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Croatia Davis, Kevin. Journalist; Author; Part-Time Journalism Instructor, Loyola University, Chicago; Adjunct Faculty, Graham School of General Studies, University of Chicago. Author of Defending the Damned: Inside Chicago’s Cook County Public Defender’s Office and The Wrong Man. •HEALTH AND DISEASE Denselow, Robin. World Music Correspondent, The Guardian (London); Producer/Correspondent, BBC TV and Radio. Author of When the Music’s Over: The Story of Political Pop. •PERFORMING ARTS: Music: Popular (International) Denzer, LaRay. Lecturer, specializing in West African history and biography, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. Author of Folayegbe M. Akintunde-Ighodalo: A Public Life. Coeditor of Gendering the African Diaspora: Women, Culture, and Historical Change in the Caribbean and Nigerian Hinterland. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Angola; Congo, Democratic Republic of the; Ghana; Kenya; Liberia; Malawi; Mozambique; Nigeria; Rwanda; Sierra Leone; Sudan; Tanzania; Uganda; Zambia; Zimbabwe Dietz, Henry A. Professor, Department of Government, University of Texas at Austin. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Peru DiGiacomo, Paul. Senior Editor, STATS LLC. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Automobile Racing: Grand Prix Racing; Football: Canadian; U.S.; Ice Skating; Skiing Dlamini, Nhlanhla. Lecturer and Head of History Department, University of Swaziland. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Swaziland Dooling, Dave. Education and Public Outreach Officer, National Solar Observatory, Sacramento Peak, New Mexico. Coauthor of Engineering Tomorrow. •PHYSICAL SCIENCES: Space Exploration Ebeling, Mary. Assistant Professor of Sociology, Department of Culture and Communication, Drexel University, Philadelphia. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Burundi; Comoros; Djibouti; Mauritius; Seychelles El-Amir, Ayman M. Columnist, Al-Ahram Weekly; Al-Shorouk Daily; Media Consultant. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Egypt Esteban, Verónica. Journalist and Bilingual Editor. •LITERATURE: Spanish: Spain Fagan, Kieran. Journalist; Media Consultant; Former Assistant Editor, The Irish Times. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Ireland

493

Contributors

Fahey, Michael R. Journalist. •WORLD AFFAIRS: China; Taiwan (Republic of China) Fealy, Greg. Fellow and Senior Lecturer in Indonesian Politics, Australian National University, Canberra. Coauthor of Joining the Caravan?: The Middle East, Islamism and Indonesia. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Indonesia Fendell, Robert J. Freelance Writer on automobiles and racing. Author of The Encyclopedia of Auto Racing Greats. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Automobile Racing: U.S. Auto Racing; Rallies and Other Races (in part) Fisher, Martin. Editor, Oryx. Coeditor of The Natural History of Oman: A Festschrift for Michael Gallagher. •THE ENVIRONMENT: Wildlife Conservation Fisher, Sharon. Central European and Balkan Specialist, IHS Global Insight, Inc., Washington, D.C. Author of Political Change in PostCommunist Slovakia and Croatia: From Nationalist to Europeanist. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Czech Republic; Slovakia Flink, Steve. Columnist for www.thetennischannel.com. Inducted into the Eastern Tennis Hall of Fame, 2010. Author of The Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Tennis Follett, Christopher. Freelance Journalist; Editor, Index Copenhagen. Author of “The Danish Composer Asger Hamerik and Berlioz.” •WORLD AFFAIRS: Denmark Fridovich-Keil, Judith L. Professor, Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta. •LIFE SCIENCES: Molecular Biology and Genetics Fuller, Elizabeth. Editor, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia Furmonavi:ius, Darius. Director, Lithuanian Research Centre, Nottingham, Eng. Author of Lithuania Rejoins Europe. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Lithuania Gallagher, Tom. Professor of Ethnic Peace and Conflict, University of Bradford, Eng. Author of Theft of a Nation: Romania Since Communism and others. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Moldova; Romania Ganado, Albert. Lawyer; Former Chairman, Malta National Archives Advisory Committee; Past President, Malta Historical Society. Author of Miniature Maps of Malta; Valletta, Città Nuova: A Map History (1566–1600); and Malta in World War II: Contemporary Watercolours by Alfred Gerada (1940–1942). •WORLD AFFAIRS: Malta Garrod, Mark. Golf Correspondent, PA Sport, U.K. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Golf Gibbons, J. Whitfield. Professor Emeritus of Ecology, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, University of Georgia. Coauthor of Ecoviews: Snakes, Snails, and Environmental Tales. •LIFE SCIENCES: Zoology Gorlinski, Virginia. Editor, Arts and Culture, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Gragnani, Cristina. Assistant Professor of Italian, Temple University, Philadelphia. Coauthor, Taccuino Di Harvard. •LITERATURE: Italian Graham, John W. Chair Emeritus, Canadian Foundation for the Americas; Former Canadian Ambassador. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Dominican Republic; Suriname Greene, Megan. Editor and Economist, Western Europe, Economist Intelligence Unit. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Austria Gregersen, Erik. Associate Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); OBITUARIES (in part) Greskovic, Robert. Dance Writer, The Wall Street Journal. Author of Ballet 101. •PERFORMING ARTS: Dance: North America Guymon, J. Carl. Columnist, Amateur Wrestling News. Television Broadcaster for Wrestling, Fox Sports Net; Radio Play-by-Play, Takedown Radio. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Wrestling: Freestyle and Greco-Roman Haag, Martin. Business and Economics Writer. Author of Percy Barnevik. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Sweden

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Haddad, Mahmoud. Associate Professor of History, University of Balamand, Leb. Author of The Rise of Arab Nationalism Reconsidered. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Lebanon; Saudi Arabia Hammer, William R. Fritiof Fryxell Professor of Geology, Augustana College, Rock Island, Ill., and Director, Augustana Center for Polar Studies. Author of Gondwana Dinosaurs from the Jurassic of Antarctica. •LIFE SCIENCES: Paleontology Hanson, Stephanie. Director of Policy and Outreach, One Acre Fund. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Somalia Havemann, Joel. Retired Editor and National and European Economics Correspondent, Washington and Brussels Bureaus, Los Angeles Times. Author of A Life Shaken: My Encounter with Parkinson’s Disease. •SPECIAL REPORT: The Persistent Economic Slump Hayes, David C. Freelance Science Editor. •OBITUARIES (in part) Helm, Toby. Political Editor, The Observer. •WORLD AFFAIRS: European Union Hobbs, Greg. Senior Contributing Writer; Football Historian; longtime writer with newspapers and the Australian Football League. Author of Allen Aylet: My Game and several books on Australian football. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Football: Australian Hoffman, Dean A. Member, Communicators Hall of Fame, Harness Racing Museum. Author of Yankeeland: The Farm the Kellers Built, Castleton Farm: A Tradition of Standardbred Excellence, Quest for Excellence: Hanover Shoe Farms: The First 75 Years, and The Hambletonian: America’s Trotting Classic. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Equestrian Sports: Harness Racing Hollar, Sherman. Associate Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); OBITUARIES (in part) Homel, David. Freelance Writer; Lecturer, Concordia University, Montreal. Author of The Speaking Cure: A Novel and others. •LITERATURE: French: Canada Howeidy, Amira. Political Editor, Al-Ahram Weekly. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Jordan; Libya Hunter, Paul. Hockey Reporter, Toronto Star. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Ice Hockey Hussainmiya, B.A. Associate Professor, Department of History, University of Brunei Darussalam. Author of The Brunei Constitution of 1959: An Inside History. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Brunei Jacoby, Mitch. Senior Editor, Science and Technology, Chemical & Engineering News. •PHYSICAL SCIENCES: Chemistry Jamail, Milton. Author of Full Count: Inside Cuban Baseball and Venezuelan Bust, Baseball Boom: Andrés Reiner and Scouting on the New Frontier. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Baseball: Latin America Jasner, Andy. Freelance Writer. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Basketball: Professional Jerardi, Dick. Writer, Philadelphia Daily News. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Basketball: College Joffé, George. Lecturer, Department of Politics and International Studies, University of Cambridge; Department of Geography, King’s College, University of London; Visiting Fellow, Centre for Islamic Studies, University of Oxford. Editor of Journal of North African Studies. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Algeria; Morocco; Tunisia Johnson, Todd M. Director, Center for the Study of Global Christianity. Coauthor of World Christian Encyclopedia. •RELIGION: Tables (in part) Jones, David G.C. Author of Atomic Physics. •NOBEL PRIZES (in part); PHYSICAL SCIENCES: Physics Jones, Mark P. Joseph D. Jamail Chair in Latin American Studies, Rice University, Houston. Author of Electoral Laws and the Survival of Presidential Democracies. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Argentina

Kapp, Clare. Freelance Journalist; Contributor to The Lancet. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Switzerland Karimi-Hakkak, Ahmad. Professor and Founding Director, Center for Persian Studies, University of Maryland. Poetry Editor of Strange Times, My Dear: The PEN Anthology of Contemporary Iranian Literature. Coeditor of Essays on Nima Yushij: Animating Modernism in Persian Poetry. •LITERATURE: Persian Karns, Margaret P. Professor Emerita of Political Science, University of Dayton, Ohio. Coauthor of International Organizations: The Politics and Processes of Global Governance. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Multinational and Regional Organizations Kazamaru, Yoshihiko. Literary Critic; Professor, Morioka University, Takizawa, Japan. •LITERATURE: Japanese Kelling, George H. Ph.D.; Lieutenant Colonel, U.S. Army (ret.). Author of Countdown to Rebellion: British Policy in Cyprus, 1939–1955. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: Cyprus Kellner, Peter. President, YouGov PLC. Author of Democracy: 1,000 Years in Pursuit of British Liberty and others. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: United Kingdom; United Kingdom: Sidebar King, Thad. Manager, Encyclopædia Britannica Almanac. •ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING: Table (in part) Knox, Paul. Associate Professor, School of Journalism, Ryerson University, Toronto. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Bolivia; Ecuador Koper, Keith D. Associate Professor of Geophysics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City. •EARTH SCIENCES: Geophysics Krause, Stefan. Freelance Analyst. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Greece; Macedonia Kuiper, Kathleen. Manager and Senior Editor, Arts and Culture, Encyclopædia Britannica. Editor of Merriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia of Literature. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Lawler, Nancy Ellen. Professor Emerita, Oakton Community College, Des Plaines, Ill. Author of Soldiers, Airmen, Spies, and Whisperers: The Gold Coast in World War II and others. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Benin; Burkina Faso; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Congo, Republic of the; Côte d’Ivoire; Gabon; Guinea; Mali; Mauritania; Niger; Senegal; Togo Lawson, Fred H. Professor of Government, Mills College, Oakland, Calif. Author of Why Syria Goes to War. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Syria Le Comte, Douglas. Retired Meteorologist, Climate Prediction Center, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. •EARTH SCIENCES: Meteorology and Climate Legassick, Martin. Professor Emeritus of History, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, S.Af. Author of Subjugation and the Roots of Democracy in South Africa: The Struggle for the Eastern Cape, 1800–1854. •WORLD AFFAIRS: South Africa Levin, Ben. Documentary Filmmaker; Professor, Department of Radio, Television, and Film, University of North Texas. Co-producer and Co-director, Verso Negro: Black Verse Poetry of the Spanish Caribbean. •PERFORMING ARTS: Motion Pictures: Documentary Films Levy, Michael I. Executive Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Lindstrom, Sieg. Managing Editor, Track & Field News. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Track and Field Sports (Athletics) Litweiler, John. Jazz Critic, Chicago Sun-Times, www.pointofdeparture.org, and www.goodbaitbooks.com. Author of Mojo Snake Minuet: A Novel. •OBITUARIES (in part); PERFORMING ARTS: Music: Jazz Longmore, Andrew. Senior Sports Writer, The Sunday Times (London); Former Assistant Editor, The Cricketer. Author of Kieren Fallon: The Biography of the Controversial Jockey. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Cricket Lynch, Nola Healy. Freelance Editor and Writer. •OBITUARIES (in part)

Contributors

Macpherson, Cluny. Professor, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, Massey University, Albany campus, Auckland, N.Z. Coauthor of Samoan Medical Belief and Practice and Warm Winds of Change: Globalisation in Contemporary Samoa. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Dependent States: Pacific Ocean; Fiji; Kiribati; Marshall Islands; Micronesia, Federated States of; Samoa; Solomon Islands; Tonga; Tuvalu; Vanuatu Maguire, Robert E. Director, Trinity Washington University Haiti Program, Washington, D.C. Author of Haiti Held Hostage: International Responses to the Quest for Nationhood 1986–1996. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Haiti; Haiti: Sidebar Mancoff, Debra N. Adjunct Professor of Art History, School of the Art Institute of Chicago. Author of Icons of Beauty: An Introduction to Art, Culture, and the Image of Women and 50 American Artists You Should Know. •ART AND ART EXHIBITIONS: Art; Art Exhibitions Mango, Andrew. Foreign Affairs Analyst. Author of Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey, The Turks Today, and From the Sultan to Atatürk—Turkey (Makers of the Modern World). •WORLD AFFAIRS: Turkey Marek, Janele M. Account Director, The Woodbine Agency. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Bobsleigh, Skeleton, and Luge: Luge Marples, David R. Distinguished University Professor, Department of History and Classics, University of Alberta. Author of Heroes and Villains: Creating National History in Contemporary Ukraine, Belarus: A Denationalized Nation, and Motherland: Russia in the Twentieth Century. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Belarus; Ukraine Marston, John A. Professor, Centro de Estudios de Asia y África, El Colegio de México. Coeditor of History, Buddhism, and New Religious Movements in Cambodia. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Cambodia Mathieson, David Scott. Researcher, Asia Division of Human Rights Watch. Coauthor of Militia Redux; or, Sor and the Revival of Paramilitarism in Thailand. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Myanmar (Burma) Matthíasson, Björn. Economist, Iceland. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Iceland Mazie, David M. Journalist (retired). •HEALTH AND DISEASE: Sidebar McKenna, Amy. Senior Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) McLachlan, Keith S. Professor Emeritus, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Author of The Boundaries of Modern Iran. Coeditor of Technology, Tradition and Survival. Contributor to Boundary Politics and International Boundaries of Iran. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Iran McMillan, Neale. Managing Editor, South Pacific News Service. Author of Top of the Greasy Pole: New Zealand Prime Ministers of Recent Times. •WORLD AFFAIRS: New Zealand Mendes, Victor K. Associate Professor and Graduate Program Director, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. •LITERATURE: Portuguese: Portugal Middlebrook, Kevin J. Professor of Politics, Institute for the Study of the Americas, University of London. Coauthor of Mexico Since 1980 (The World Since 1980). •WORLD AFFAIRS: Mexico Moredock, Janet. Freelance Writer and Editor. •WORLD AFFAIRS: East Timor; Malaysia; Nauru; Palau; Papua New Guinea Morgan, Paul. Editor, Rugby World. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Football: Rugby Murray, Lorraine. Associate Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Myers, David J. Professor of Political Science, Pennsylvania State University. Coeditor of and contributor to The Unraveling of Representative Democracy in Venezuela. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Venezuela Naranjo, Ralph. Technical Editor, Practical Sailor Magazine. Author of Boatyards and Marinas: A Boat Owner’s Guide to Smart Shopping. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Sailing (Yachting)

Neher, Stephen. Senior Editor, Britannica World Data. •ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING: Table (in part) Nishizaki, Yoshinori. Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, National University of Singapore. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Thailand Noda, Hiroki. Sporting News Reporter, Kyodo News, Tokyo. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Baseball: Japan Nolen, Jeannette L. Social Science Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Obadare, Ebenezer. Assistant Professor, Department of Sociology, University of Kansas. Coeditor, Encountering the Nigerian State. •SPECIAL REPORT: Freedom from Empire: An Assessment of Postcolonial Africa O’Leary, Christopher. Managing Editor, The M&A Lawyer. Contributing Writer, Absolute Return; Investment Dealers Digest; eFinancialCareers.com. •BUSINESS OVERVIEW Olivella, Santiago. Ph.D. Student, Department of Political Science, Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Colombia (in part) Oppenheim, Lois Hecht. Professor of Political Science, American Jewish University, Los Angeles. Author of Politics in Chile: Socialism, Authoritarianism, and Market Democracy, 3rd ed. Coeditor of After Pinochet: The Chilean Road to Democracy and the Market. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Chile O’Quinn, Jim. Editor in Chief, American Theatre. Editor, The American Theatre Reader: Essays and Conversations from American Theatre Magazine. •PERFORMING ARTS: Theatre: U.S. and Canada Ortega, Robert. Journalist. Author of In Sam We Trust: The Untold Story of Sam Walton and How Wal-Mart Is Devouring America. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Paraguay Pallardy, Richard T. Research Editor and Assistant Manager, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); SPECIAL REPORT: BP’s Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Parry, Julie. Merchandising Communications Manager, Sprint Nextel. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Bobsleigh, Skeleton, and Luge: Bobsleigh; Skeleton Parsons, Neil. Former Professor of History, University of Botswana. Author of Clicko: The Wild Dancing Bushman. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Botswana Peaker, Carol. Writer. •LITERATURE: English: United Kingdom Pérez, Orlando J. Professor of Political Science, Central Michigan University. Editor of PostInvasion Panama: The Challenges of Democratization in the New World Order. Coeditor of Latin American Democracy: Emerging Reality or Endangered Species? and others. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Panama Peszek, Luan. Publications Director and Editor, U.S.A. Gymnastics. Author of The Gymnastics Almanac. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Gymnastics Pletcher, Kenneth. Senior Editor, Geography, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); WORLD AFFAIRS: China: Sidebar Ponmoni Sahadevan. Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. Author of Conflict and Peacemaking in South Asia. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Maldives Poudel, Keshab. Managing Editor, New Spotlight. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Bhutan; Nepal Rafferty, John P. Associate Editor, Earth and Life Sciences, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); OBITUARIES (in part); SPECIAL REPORT: Invasive Species: Exotic Intruders Rathie, Martin Haldane. Teacher and Researcher, Vientiane (Laos) College. Ph.D. Candidate, University of Queensland. Editor, Historical Dictionary of Laos, 3rd ed. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Laos Rauch, Robert. Freelance Editor and Writer. •NOBEL PRIZES (in part) Raun, Toivo U. Professor of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University. Author of Estonia and the Estonians. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Estonia

Ray, Michael. Assistant Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); OBITUARIES (in part); SPECIAL REPORT: The Tea Party: A New Force in U.S. Politics Reitherman, Robert. Executive Director, Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering. Coauthor, Building Configuration and Seismic Design. •SPECIAL REPORT: Engineering for Earthquakes Renwick, David. Freelance Journalist. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Antigua and Barbuda; Bahamas, The; Barbados; Dependent States: Caribbean and Bermuda; Dominica; Grenada; Guyana; Jamaica; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Trinidad and Tobago Reuning, Winifred. Editor and Web Manager, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Antarctica Roby, Anne. Freelance Journalist; Program Associate, Institute for Mathematics and Science Education, University of Illinois at Chicago. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Andorra; Liechtenstein; Luxembourg; Monaco Rogers, Kara. Senior Editor, Biomedical Sciences, Encyclopædia Britannica. •NOBEL PRIZES (in part); OBITUARIES (in part) Rollin, Jack. Editor, Sky Sports Football Yearbook and Playfair Football Annual. Author of Soccer at War 1939–45. Coauthor of The Forgotten FA Cup: The Competition of 1945–46 and others. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); SPORTS AND GAMES: Football: Association Football (Soccer): Africa and Asia; Europe; Sidebar Sanders, Alan J.K. Freelance Mongolist; Former Lecturer in Mongolian Studies, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Author of Historical Dictionary of Mongolia. Coauthor of Colloquial Mongolian. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Mongolia Sandvik, Hilde. Doctor of Philosophy; Associate Professor, Department of History, University of Oslo. Author of Norsk historie 1300–1625. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Norway Saracino, Peter. Freelance Defense Journalist. •MILITARY AFFAIRS; OBITUARIES (in part) Saunders, Christopher. Professor Emeritus of Historical Studies, University of Cape Town. Coauthor of Historical Dictionary of South Africa and South Africa: A Modern History. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Cape Verde; Chad; Equatorial Guinea; Gambia, The; Guinea-Bissau; Lesotho; Madagascar; Namibia; Sao Tome and Principe (São Tomé e Príncipe) Schiavo, Leda. Professor Emerita, University of Illinois at Chicago. Author of El éxtasis de los límites: temas y figuras del decadentismo and Naufragios y Comentarios. Contributor to Historia Crítica de la Literatura Argentina. •LITERATURE: Spanish: Latin America Schmidt, Fabian. Balkan Expert, European Program of Deutsche Welle Radio. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Albania Schoppa, Leonard. Professor, Department of Politics, University of Virginia. Author of Race for the Exits: The Unraveling of Japan’s System of Social Protection. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Japan Schreiber, Barbara A. Editorial Assistant, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); OBITUARIES (in part) Schuster, Angela M.H. Contributing Editor, Archaeology magazine; Contributor, New York Times; Editor in Chief, The Explorers Journal. •ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY: Archaeology: Eastern Hemisphere Sego, Stephen. Freelance Journalist; Former Director, Radio Free Afghanistan. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Afghanistan Seligson, Mitchell A. Centennial Professor of Political Science, Vanderbilt University, Nashville. Editor of Elections and Democracy in Central America, Revisited. Coauthor of The Legitimacy Puzzle in Latin America: Political Support and Democracy in Eight Nations. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Costa Rica

495

Contributors

Serafin, Steven R. Director, Writing Center, Hunter College, City University of New York. Coeditor of The Continuum Encyclopedia of American Literature and The Continuum Encyclopedia of British Literature. •NOBEL PRIZES (in part) Sheldon, John B. Professor, School of Advanced Air and Space Studies, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. •SPECIAL REPORT: Cyberwarfare: The Invisible Threat Shelley, Andrew. Chief Executive, World Squash Federation. Author of Squash Rules: A Player’s Guide. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Squash Shepherd, Melinda C. Senior Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •OBITUARIES (in part); SPECIAL REPORT: The XXI Olympic Winter Games; SPORTS AND GAMES: Automobile Racing: Rallies and Other Races (in part); Swimming: Sidebar; WORLD AFFAIRS: Dependent States: Europe and the Atlantic; Indian Ocean Shubinsky, Valery. Poet, Writer, and Critic. Author of Daniil Kharms: zhizn’ cheloveka na vetru, Mikhail Lomonosov: vserossiiskii chelovek, and Nikolay Gumilyov: zhizn poeta. •LITERATURE: Russian Simons, Paul. Freelance Journalist. Author of The Action Plant. •LIFE SCIENCES: Botany Smith, Gregory O. Director, European Management Institute, Rome. •WORLD AFFAIRS: San Marino; Vatican City State Smith, Lahra. Assistant Professor, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Ethiopia Snodgrass, Donald. Institute Fellow Emeritus, Harvard University. Coauthor of Economics of Development, 5th ed. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Sri Lanka Sparks, Karen J. Director and Editor, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); OBITUARIES (in part) Spencer, Donna. Journalist, The Canadian Press. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Curling Spera, Keith. Music Writer, The Times-Picayune (New Orleans). Author of Groove Interrupted: Loss, Renewal and the Music of New Orleans. •PERFORMING ARTS: Music: Popular (United States) Stefon, Matt. Assistant Editor, Religion, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part); OBITUARIES (in part) Stern, Irwin. Teaching Associate Professor of Foreign Languages, North Carolina State University. Editor of Dictionary of Brazilian Literature. Coauthor of Spanish for Mental Health Professionals: A Step by Step Handbook. •LITERATURE: Portuguese: Brazil Stewart, Cameron. Associate Editor, The Australian. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Australia; Australia: Sidebar Stos, William. Ph.D. Candidate, York University, Toronto. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Canada Streicker, John. Lecturer, Yukon College; Researcher, Northern Climate Exchange, Northern Research Institute. Coauthor of Quilt Sensations. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Arctic Regions Sumrall, Harry. Classical Operations Manager, Gracenote, Inc. •PERFORMING ARTS: Music: Classical Susser, Leslie D. Diplomatic Correspondent, The Jerusalem Report. Coauthor of Shalom Friend: The Life and Legacy of Yitzhak Rabin. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Israel Szilagyi, Zsofia. Political Analyst and Freelance Writer. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Hungary

496

Taylor, Jolanda Vanderwal. Associate Professor of Dutch and German, University of Wisconsin at Madison. Author of A Family Occupation: Children of the War and the Memory of World War II in Dutch Literature of the 1980s. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Netherlands Taylor, Richard. Basketball Correspondent, The Independent. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Basketball: International Taylor-Robinson, Michelle M. Associate Professor of Political Science, Texas A&M University. Author of Do the Poor Count? Democratic Institutions and Accountability in a Context of Poverty. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Honduras Teague, Elizabeth. Research Analyst, U.K. Foreign and Commonwealth Office. (The opinions expressed are personal and do not necessarily represent those of the British government.) •WORLD AFFAIRS: Russia Teixeira, Iva. Graduate Student, Harvard Business School. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Bulgaria (in part) Teslik, Lee Hudson. Senior Editor and Analyst, Roubini Global Economics. •THE ENVIRONMENT: Sidebar Thayer, Carlyle A. Professor Emeritus, University of New South Wales. Author of The Vietnam People’s Army Under Doi Moi. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Vietnam Thimangu, Patrick L. Journalist. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Eritrea This, Hervé. Physical Chemist, INRA. Scientific Director of the Food Science and Culture Foundation. Author of Cooking: The Quintessential Art (California Studies in Food and Culture). •SPECIAL REPORT: Molecular Gastronomy: The Science Behind the Cuisine Tikkanen, Amy. Corrections Manager, Encyclopædia Britannica. •BIOGRAPHIES (in part) Turner, Darrell J. Freelance Writer; Former Religion Writer, Fort Wayne (Ind.) Journal Gazette; Former Associate Editor, Religion News Service. •RELIGION Valencic, Joseph. Author, Film Writer, and Slovenian Scholar. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Slovenia VanDerwarker, Amber. Associate Professor of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara. Author of Farming, Hunting and Fishing in the Olmec World. Coeditor of Integrating Zooarchaeology and Paleoethnobotany: A Consideration of Issues, Methods, and Cases. •ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY: Archaeology: Western Hemisphere (in part) Verdi, Robert. Team Historian, Chicago Blackhawks. Author of Chicago Blackhawks: Seventy-Five Years. Coauthor of McMahon!: The Bare Truth About Chicago’s Brashest Bear, Once a Bum, Always a Dodger: My Life in Baseball from Brooklyn to Los Angeles, and Holy Cow! •SPORTS AND GAMES: Baseball: U.S. and Canada Wander, Paul. Associate, Caribbean, InterAmerican Dialogue. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Cuba Wang Xiaoming. Zijiang Lecture Professor of Chinese Literature and Chair of the Board of the Center for Modern Chinese Literature, East China Normal University; Professor of Cultural Studies and Director of the Center for Contemporary Culture Studies, Shanghai University. Author of Life Cannot Be Faced Straight-On: A Biography of Lu Xun. •LITERATURE: Chinese Wanninger, Richard S. Freelance Journalist. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Volleyball

Watson, Rory. Freelance Journalist, specializing in European Union affairs; Brussels Correspondent, The Times (London). Coauthor of The Belgian House of Representatives. Contributor to The European Union: How Does It Work? •WORLD AFFAIRS: Belgium Weil, Eric. Columnist and Contributor, Buenos Aires Herald; Reporter, Associated Press; South America Correspondent, World Soccer; Contributor, FIFA Magazine. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Football: Association Football (Soccer): The Americas Weinstein, Martin. Professor of Political Science, William Paterson University of New Jersey. Author of Uruguay: Democracy at the Crossroads and numerous articles and book chapters on Uruguay. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Uruguay White, Martin L. Freelance Writer. •OBITUARIES (in part) Whitten, Phillip. Executive Director, College Swimming Coaches Association of America; Former Editor in Chief, Swimming World. Author and/or editor of 18 books, including The Complete Book of Swimming. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Swimming Wilkinson, John R. Freelance Sportswriter, United Kingdom. •SPORTS AND GAMES: Cycling Wilson, Gregory D. Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara. Author of The Archaeology of Everyday Life at Early Moundville. •ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY: Archaeology: Western Hemisphere (in part) Wilson, Keith. Editorial Director, Outdoor Photography and Black & White Photography. Author of The AVA Guide to Travel Photography. •ART AND ART EXHIBITIONS: Photography Winner, Christopher P. Editor and Publisher, The American (Rome). •WORLD AFFAIRS: Italy Wolfe, Justin. Associate Professor, Department of History, Tulane University, New Orleans. Author of The Everyday Nation-State: Community and Ethnicity in Nineteenth-Century Nicaragua. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Nicaragua Woods, Elizabeth Rhett. Writer. Author of 1970: A Novel Poem, Beyond the Pale, The Absinthe of Desire, Family Fictions, and others. Web site: www.elizabethrhettwoods.ca. •LITERATURE: English: Canada Woodward, Ralph Lee, Jr. Professor Emeritus of Latin American History, Tulane University, New Orleans. Author of A Short History of Guatemala. •WORLD AFFAIRS: El Salvador; Guatemala Wyganowski, Michael. Senior Advisor, Center for European Policy Analysis. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Poland Wyllie, Peter J. Professor Emeritus of Geology, California Institute of Technology. Author of The Dynamic Earth and The Way the Earth Works. •EARTH SCIENCES: Geology and Geochemistry Yovchev, Boris. Graduate Student, Ross School of Business, University of Michigan. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Bulgaria (in part) Zegura, Stephen L. Professor Emeritus of Anthropology, University of Arizona. •ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHAEOLOGY: Anthropology Ziring, Lawrence. Arnold E. Schneider Professor Emeritus of Political Science, Western Michigan University. Author of Pakistan in the Twentieth Century: A Political History and Pakistan: At the Crosscurrent of History. Coauthor of The United Nations: International Organization and World Politics. •WORLD AFFAIRS: Pakistan

Maya Alleruzzo/AP

World Data The last of U.S. combat brigades withdraw from Iraq into Kuwait on Aug. 18, 2010 (at its highest levels U.S. troops numbered 162,000 in August 2007). As of the end of August 2010 troop levels were at 49,700, the lowest since the 2003 U.S.-led invasion. Complete withdrawal of all U.S. military forces are scheduled to take place by Dec. 31, 2011.

498 Britannica World Data

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Contributors

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Glossaary 499

CONTENTS 500

Introduction

501

Glossary

506

Countries, Dependencies, and Territories

506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 543 544 545

Afghanistan Albania Algeria American Samoa Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Aruba Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bahamas, The Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize Benin Bermuda Bhutan Bolivia Bosnia and Herzegovina Botswana Brazil Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Cayman Islands Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Costa Rica Côte d’Ivoire Croatia Cuba Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic

546 547 548 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563

564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 577 578 579 580 581 582 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 610 611 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625

East Timor Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Estonia Ethiopia Faroe Islands Fiji Finland France French Guiana French Polynesia Gabon Gambia, The Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Greenland Grenada Guadeloupe Guam Guatemala Guernsey Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hong Kong Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Isle of Man Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jersey Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kiribati Korea, North Korea, South Kosovo Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia

742

Comparative National Statistics

742 744 750 750 756 766

World and regional summaries Government and international organizations Area and population Major cities and national capitals Language

828

Bibliography and sources

771 774 780 786 792 798

626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680

Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macau Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Martinique Mauritania Mauritius Mayotte Mexico Micronesia, Federated States of Moldova Monaco Mongolia Montenegro Morocco Mozambique Myanmar (Burma) Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Northern Mariana Islands Norway Oman Pakistan Palau Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Puerto Rico Qatar Réunion

Religion Vital statistics, marriage, family National product and accounts Employment and labour Crops and livestock Energy

804 810 816

822

681 682 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 726 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741

Romania Russia Rwanda St. Kitts and Nevis St. Lucia St. Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa San Marino Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Virgin Islands (U.S.) Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe

Communications Health services Social protection and defense services (social security, crime, military) Education

499

INTRODUCTION

Britannica World Data provides a statistical portrait of some 220 countries, dependencies, and territories of the world, at a level appropriate to the significance of each. It contains 217 country statements, ranging in length from one to seven pages, and permits, in the 15 major thematic tables (the “Comparative National Statistics” [CNS] section), comparisons among these larger countries and 3 other states. Updated annually, Britannica World Data is particularly intended as direct, structured support for many of Britannica’s other reference works—encyclopaedias, yearbooks, atlases—at a level of detail that their editorial style or design do not permit. Like the textual, graphic, or cartographic modes of expression of these other products, statistics possess their own inherent editorial virtues and weaknesses. Two principal goals in the creation of Britannica World Data were up-to-dateness and comparability, each possible to maximize separately, but not always possible to combine. If, for example, research on some subject is completed during a particular year ( x ), figures may be available for 100 countries for the preceding year ( x – 1 ), for 140 countries for the year before that ( x – 2 ), and for 180 countries for the year before that ( x – 3 ). Which year should be the basis of a thematic compilation for 217 countries so as to give the best combination of up-to-dateness and comparability? And, should x – 1 be adopted for the thematic table, ought up-to-dateness in the country table (for which year x is already available) be sacrificed for agreement with the thematic table? In general, the editors have opted for maximum up-todateness in the country statistical boxes and maximum comparability in the thematic tables. Comparability, however, also resides in the meaning of the numbers compiled, which may differ greatly from country to country. The headnotes to the thematic tables explain many of these methodological problems; the Glossary serves the same purpose for the country statistical pages. Published data do not always provide the researcher or editor with a neat, unambiguous choice between a datum compiled on two different bases (say, railroad track length, or route length), one of which is wanted and the other not. More often a choice must be made among a variety of official, private, and external intergovernmental (UN, FAO, IMF) sources, each reporting its best data but each representing a set of problems: (1) of methodological variance from (or among) international conventions; (2) of analytical completeness (data for a single year may, successively, be projected [based on 10 months’ data], preliminary [for 12 months], final, revised or adjusted, etc.); (3) of time frame, or accounting interval (data may represent a full Gregorian calendar year [preferred], a fiscal year, an Islamic or other national or religious year, a multiyear period or average [when a one-year statement would contain unrepresentative results]); (4) of continuity with previous data; and the like. Finally, published data on a 500

particular subject may be complete and final but impossible to summarize in a simple manner. The education system of a single country may include, for example, public and private sectors; local, state, or national systems; varying grades, tracks, or forms within a single system; or opportunities for double-counting or fractional counting of a student, teacher, or institution. When no recent official data exist, or they exist, but may be suspect, the tables may show unofficial estimates, a range (of published opinion), analogous data, or no data at all. The published basis of the information compiled is the statistical collections of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., some of the principal elements of which are enumerated in the Bibliography. Holdings for a given country may include any of the following: the national statistical abstract; the constitution; the most recent censuses of population; periodic or occasional reports on vital statistics, social indicators, agriculture, mining, labour, manufacturing, domestic and foreign trade, finance and banking, transportation, and communications. Further information is received in a variety of formats—telephone, letter, fax, microfilm and microfiche, and most recently, in electronic formats such as computer disks, CD-ROMs, and the Internet. So substantial has the resources of the Internet become that it was decided to add uniform resource locators (URLs) to the great majority of country pages and a number of the CNS tables (summary world sites with data on all countries still being somewhat of a rarity) so as to apprise the reader of the possibility and means to access current information on these subjects year-round. The recommendations offered are usually to official sites (national statistical offices, general national governments, central banks, embassies, intergovernmental organizations [especially the UN Development Programme], and the like). Though often dissimilar in content, they will usually be updated year-round, expanded as opportunity permits, and lead on to related sites, such as parliamentary offices, information offices, diplomatic and consular sites, news agencies and newspapers, and, beyond, to the myriad academic, commercial, and private sites now accessible from the personal computer. While these URLs were correct and current at the time of writing, they may be subject to change. The great majority of the social, economic, and financial data contained in this work should not be interpreted in isolation. Interpretive text of long perspective, such as that of the Encyclopædia Britannica itself; political, geographic, and topical maps, such as those in the Britannica Atlas; and recent analysis of political events and economic trends, such as that contained in the articles of the Book of the Year, will all help to supply analytic focus that numbers alone cannot. By the same token, study of those sources will be made more concrete by use of Britannica World Data to supply up-to-date geographic, demographic, and economic detail.

GLOSSARY

A number of terms that are used to classify and report data in the “Countries, Dependencies, and Territories” section require some explanation. Those italicized terms that are used regularly in the country compilations to introduce specific categories of information (e.g., birth rate, budget) appear in this glossary in italic boldface type, followed by a description of the precise kind of information being offered and how it has been edited and presented. All other terms are printed here in roman boldface type. Many terms have quite specific meanings in statistical reporting, and they are so defined here. Other terms have less specific application as they are used by different countries or organizations. Data in the country compilations based on definitions markedly different from those below will usually be footnoted. Terms that appear in small capitals in certain definitions are themselves defined at their respective alphabetical locations. Terms whose definitions are marked by an asterisk (*) refer to data supplied only in the larger two- to four-page country compilations. activity rate, see participation/activity rates. age breakdown, the distribution of a given population by age, usually reported here as percentages of total population in 15-year age brackets except for, when available, the 75–84 group. When substantial numbers of persons do not know, or state, their exact age, distributions may not total 100.0%. aquatic plants production, the weight of aquatic plants (primarily seaweeds) harvested in freshwater or marine areas; the share harvested by farming is aquaculture production. area, the total surface area of a country or its administrative subdivisions, including both land and inland (nontidal) water area. Land area is usually calculated from “mean low water” on a “plane table,” or flat, basis. area and population, a tabulation usually including the first-order administrative subdivisions of the country (such as the states of the United States), with capital (headquarters, or administrative seat), area, and population. When these subdivisions are especially numerous or, occasionally, nonexistent, a planning, electoral, census, or other nonadministrative scheme of regional subdivisions has been substituted. associated state, see state. atheist, in statements of religious affiliation, one who professes active opposition to religion; “nonreligious” refers to those professing only no religion, nonbelief, or doubt. balance of payments, a financial statement for a country for a given period showing the balance among: (1) transactions in goods, services, and income between that country and the rest of the world, (2) changes in ownership or valuation of that country’s monetary gold, SPECIAL DRAWING RIGHTS, and claims on and liabilities to the rest of the world, and (3) unrequited transfers and counterpart entries needed (in an accounting sense) to balance transactions and changes among any of the foregoing types of exchange that are not mutually offsetting. Detail of national law as to what constitutes a

transaction, the basis of its valuation, and the size of a transaction visible to fiscal authorities all result in differences in the meaning of a particular national statement.* balance of trade, the net value of all international goods trade of a country, usually excluding reexports (goods received only for transshipment), and the percentage that this net represents of total trade. Balance of trade refers only to the “visible” international trade of goods as recorded by customs authorities and is thus a segment of a country’s BALANCE OF PAYMENTS, which takes all visible and invisible trade with other countries into account. (Invisible trade refers to imports and exports of money, financial instruments, and services such as transport, tourism,

and insurance.) A country has a favourable, or positive (+), balance of trade when the value of exports exceeds that of imports and negative (–) when imports exceed exports. barrel (bbl), a unit of liquid measure. The barrel conventionally used for reporting crude petroleum and petroleum products is equal to 42 U.S. gallons, or 159 litres. The number of barrels of crude petroleum per metric ton, ranging typically from 6.20 to 8.13, depends upon the specific gravity of the petroleum. The world average is roughly 7.33 barrels per ton. birth rate, the number of live births annually per 1,000 of midyear population. Birth rates for individual countries may be compared with the estimated world annual average of 20.3 births per 1,000 population in 2005.

Abbreviations

OECS

Measurements

Serb.-Mont. Trin./Tob. U.A.E. UNDP

cu m kg km kW kW-hr metric ton-km mi passenger-km passenger-mi short ton-mi sq km sq m sq mi troy oz yr

cubic metre(s) kilograms(s) kilometre(s) kilowatt(s) kilowatt-hour(s) metric ton-kilometre(s) mile(s) passenger-kilometre(s) passenger-mile(s) short ton-mile(s) square kilometre(s) square metre(s) square mile(s) troy ounce(s) year(s)

Political Units and International Organizations ASEAN Bos.-Her. CACM Caricom CFA CFP CIS CUSA EC ESCWA EU FAO ILO IMF Neth. OECD

Association of Southeast Asian Nations Bosnia and Herzegovina Central American Common Market Caribbean Community and Common Market Communauté Financière Africaine Change franc Pacifique Commonwealth of Independent States Customs Union of Southern Africa European Communities Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia European Union United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization International Labour Organisation International Monetary Fund Netherlands Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

Organization of Eastern Caribbean States Serbia and Montenegro Trinidad and Tobago United Arab Emirates United Nations Development Programme

Months Jan. Feb. Aug. Sept.

January February August September

Oct. Nov. Dec.

October November December

Miscellaneous AIDS

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome avg. average c.i.f. cost, insurance, and freight commun. communications CPI consumer price index est. estimate(d) excl. excluding f.o.b. free on board GDP gross domestic product GNP gross national product govt. government incl. including LNG liquefied natural gas n.a. not available (in text) n.e.s. not elsewhere specified no. number pl. plural pub. admin. public administration SDR Special Drawing Right SITC Standard International Trade Classification svcs. services teacher tr. teacher training transp. transportation VAT value-added taxes Voc. Vocational $ dollar (of any currency area) £ pound (of any currency area) … not available (in tables) — none, less than half the smallest unit shown, or not applicable (in tables)

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Britannica World Data budget, the annual receipts and expenditures— of a central government for its activities only; does not include state, provincial, or local governments or semipublic (parastatal, quasinongovernmental) corporations unless otherwise specified. Figures for budgets are limited to ordinary (recurrent) receipts and expenditures, wherever possible, and exclude capital expenditures—i.e., funds for development and other special projects originating as foreign-aid grants or loans. When both a recurrent and a capital budget exist for a single country, the former is the budget funded entirely from national resources (taxes, duties, excises, etc.) that would recur (be generated by economic activity) every year. It funds the most basic governmental services, those least able to suffer interruption. The capital budget is usually funded by external aid and may change its size considerably from year to year. capital, usually, the actual seat of government and administration of a state. When more than one capital exists, each is identified by kind; when interim arrangements exist during the creation or movement of a national capital, the de facto situation is described. Anomalous cases are annotated, such as those in which (1) the de jure designation under the country’s laws differs from actual local practice (e.g., Benin’s designation of one capital in constitutional law, but another in actual practice), (2) international recognition does not validate a country’s claim (as with the proclamation by Israel of a capital on territory not internationally recognized as part of Israel), or (3) both a state and a capital have been proclaimed on territory recognized as part of another state (as with the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus). capital budget, see budget. causes of death, as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), “the disease or injury which initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or the circumstances of accident or violence which produced the fatal injury.” This principle, the “underlying cause of death,” is the basis of the medical judgment as to cause; the statistical classification system according to which these causes are grouped and named is the International List of Causes of Death, the latest revision of which is the Tenth. Reporting is usually in terms of events per 100,000 population. When data on actual causes of death are unavailable, information on morbidity, or illness rate, usually given as reported cases per 100,000 of infectious diseases (notifiable to WHO as a matter of international agreement), may be substituted. chief of state/head of government, paramount national governmental officer(s) exercising the highest executive and/or ceremonial roles of a country’s government. In general usage, the chief of state is the formal head of a national state. The primary responsibilities of the chief of state may range from the purely ceremonial—convening legislatures and greeting foreign officials—to the exercise of complete national executive authority. The head of government, when this function exists separately, is the officer nominally charged (by the constitution) with the majority of actual executive powers, though they may not in practice be exercised, especially in military or single-party regimes in which effective power may reside entirely outside the executive governmental machinery provided by the constitution. A prime minister, for example, usually the actual head of government, may in practice exercise only Cabinet-level authority. In communist countries an official identified as the chief of state may be the chairman of the policy-making organ, and the official given as the head of government the chairman of the nominal administrative/executive organ. c.i.f. (trade valuation): see imports. commonwealth (U.K. and U.S.), a self-governing political entity that has regard to the com-

mon weal, or good; usually associated with the United Kingdom or United States. Examples include the Commonwealth (composed of independent states [from 1931 onward]), Puerto Rico since 1952, and the Northern Marianas since 1979. communications, collectively, the means available for the public transmission of information within a country. Data are tabulated for: paid-for daily newspapers and their total circulation; television as total numbers of receivers; telephone data as landlines, or the number of subscriber lines (not receivers) having access to the public switched network; cellular telephones and Internet broadband users as number of subscribers; and personal computers and Internet users as number of units. For each, a rate per 1,000 persons is given. constant prices, an adjustment to the members of a financial time series to eliminate the effect of inflation year by year. It consists of referring all data in the series to a single year so that “real” change may be seen. constitutional monarchy, see monarchy. consumer price index (CPI), also known as the retail price index, or the cost-of-living index, a series of index numbers assigned to the price of a selected “basket,” or assortment, of basic consumer goods and services in a country, region, city, or type of household in order to measure changes over time in prices paid by a typical household for those goods and services. Items included in the CPI are ordinarily determined by governmental surveys of typical household expenditures and are assigned weights relative to their proportion of those expenditures. Index values are period averages unless otherwise noted. coprincipality, see monarchy. current prices, the valuation of a financial aggregate as of the year reported. de facto population, for a given area, the population composed of those actually present at a particular time, including temporary residents and visitors (such as immigrants not yet granted permanent status, “guest” or expatriate workers, refugees, or tourists), but excluding legal residents temporarily absent.

de jure population, for a given area, the population composed only of those legally resident at a particular time, excluding temporary residents and visitors (such as “guest” or expatriate workers, refugees, or tourists), but including legal residents temporarily absent. death rate, the number of deaths annually per 1,000 of midyear population. Death rates for individual countries may be compared with the estimated world annual average of 8.6 deaths per 1,000 population in 2005. density (of population), usually, the DE FACTO POPULATION of a country divided by its total area. Special adjustment is made for large areas of inland water, desert, or other uninhabitable areas—e.g., excluding the ice cap of Greenland. dependency, an area annexed to, or controlled by, an independent state but not an integral part of it; a non-self-governing territory. A dependency has a charter and may have a degree of self-government. A crown dependency is a dependency originally chartered by the British government (see Table). direct taxes, taxes levied directly on firms and individuals, such as taxes on income, profits, and capital gains. The immediate incidence, or burden, of direct taxes is on the firms and individuals thus taxed; direct taxes on firms may, however, be passed on to consumers and other economic units in the form of higher prices for goods and services, blurring the distinction between direct and indirect taxation. divorce rate, the number of legal, civilly recognized divorces annually per 1,000 population. doubling time, the number of complete years required for a country to double its population at its current rate of natural increase. earnings index, a series of index numbers comparing average wages in a collective industrial sample for a country or region with the same industries at a previous period to measure changes over time in those wages. It is most commonly reported for wages paid on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis; annual figures may represent total income or averages of these shorter periods. The scope of the earnings index varies from country to country. The index is often limited to earnings in manufacturing industries. The index for each country applies to all wage earners in a desig-

Dependencies1 Australia Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Norfolk Island

Denmark Faroe Islands Greenland

France French Guiana2 French Polynesia Guadeloupe2 Martinique2 Mayotte New Caledonia Réunion2 Saint-Barthélemy Saint-Martin Saint-Pierre and Miquelon Wallis and Futuna

United Kingdom Anguilla Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Montserrat Pitcairn Island Saint Helena Tristan da Cunha Turks and Caicos Islands

United States American Samoa Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Virgin Islands (of the U.S.)

Netherlands Aruba Curaçao Sint Maarten

New Zealand Cook Islands Niue Tokelau 1 Excludes territories (1) to which Antarctic Treaty is applicable in whole or in part, (2) without permanent civilian population, (3) without internationally recognized civilian government (Western Sahara, Gaza Strip), or (4) representing unadjudicated unilateral or multilateral territorial claims. 2Legally classified as overseas department of France.

Glossary nated group and ordinarily takes into account basic wages (overtime is normally distinguished), bonuses, cost-of-living allowances, and contributions toward social security. Some countries include payments in kind. Contributions toward social security by employers are usually excluded, as are social security benefits received by wage earners. economically active population, see population economically active. education, tabulation of the principal elements of a country’s educational establishment, classified as far as possible according to the country’s own system of primary, secondary, and tertiary levels (the usual age limits for these levels being identified in parentheses), with total number of teachers and students (whether full- or part-time). The studentteacher ratio and enrollment rates (net for primary and secondary, gross for tertiary) are calculated whenever available data permit. educational attainment, the distribution of the population age 25 and over with completed educations by the highest level of formal education attained or completed; it must sometimes be reported, however, for age groups still in school or for the economically active only. emirate, see monarchy. enrollment rates, if net (for primary and secondary levels of education): number of students in a theoretical age group for a given level of education expressed as a percentage of the total population of that age group; if gross: number of (domestically enrolled) students, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of a theoretical age group (for the tertiary level of education UNESCO Institute for Statistics defines the theoretical age group as being the 5-year age group following the secondary school-leave). enterprise, a legal entity formed to conduct a business, which it may do from more than one establishment. ethnic/linguistic composition, ethnic, racial, or linguistic composition of a national population, reported here according to the most reliable breakdown available, whether published in official sources (such as a census) or in external analysis (when the subject is not addressed in national sources). exchange rate, the value of one currency compared with another, or with a standardized unit of account such as the SPECIAL DRAWING RIGHT, or as mandated by local statute when one currency is “tied” by a par value to another. Rates given usually refer to free market values when the currency has no, or very limited, restrictions on its convertibility into other currencies. exports, material goods legally leaving a country (or customs area) and subject to customs regulations. The total value and distribution by percentage of the major items (in preference to groups of goods) exported are given, together with the distribution of trade among major trading partners (usually single countries or trading blocs). Valuation of goods exported is free on board (f.o.b.) unless otherwise specified. The value of goods exported and imported f.o.b. is calculated from the cost of production and excludes the cost of transport. external debt, public and publicly guaranteed debt with a maturity of more than one year owed to nonnationals of a country and repayable in foreign currency, goods, or services. The debt may be an obligation of a national or subnational governmental body (or an agency of either), of an autonomous public body, or of a private debtor that is guaranteed by a public entity. The debt is usually either outstanding (contracted) or disbursed (drawn). external territory (Australia), see territory. federal, consisting of first-order political subdivisions that are prior to and independent of the central government in certain functions. federal constitutional monarchy, see monarchy. federal republic, see republic.

federation, union of coequal, preexisting political entities that retain some degree of autonomy and (usually) right of secession within the union. fertility rate, see total fertility rate. financial aggregates, tabulation of seven-year time series, providing principal measures of the financial condition of a country, including: (1) the exchange rate of the national crurency against the U.S. dollar, the pound sterling, and the International Monetary Fund’s SPECIAL DRAWING RIGHT (SDR), (2) the amount and kind of international reserves (holdings of SDRs, gold, and foreign currencies) and reserve position of the country in the IMF, and (3) principal economic rates and prices (central bank discount rate, government bond yields, and industrial stock [share] prices). For BALANCE OF PAYMENTS, the origin in terms of component balance of trade items and balance of invisibles (net) is given.* fisheries production, the live-weight equivalent of the aquatic animals (including fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and other aquatic mammals) caught in freshwater or marine areas by national fleets and landed in domestic or foreign harbours for commercial, industrial, or subsistence purposes. The share of fisheries production that is harvested by farming is aquaculture production. f.o.b. (trade valuation), see exports. food, see daily per capita caloric intake. foreign direct investment (FDI), a long-term investment with a significant degree of control by a business entity or individual of one country into another country’s economy. FDI comprises three components—equity capital, reinvested earnings, and intra-company loans. The net balance of the three FDI components is often volatile from one year to the next. If negative for a particular time period, the balance of the three components is called a reverse investment, or disinvestment. form of government/political status, the type of administration provided for by a country’s constitution—whether or not suspended by extralegal military or civil action, although such de facto administrations are identified—together with the number of members (elected, appointed, and ex officio) for each legislative house, named according to its English rendering. Dependent states (see Table) are classified according to the status of their political association with the administering country. gross domestic product (GDP), the total value of the final goods and services produced by residents and nonresidents within a given country during a given accounting period, usually a year. Unless otherwise noted, the value is given in current prices of the year indicated. The System of National Accounts (SNA, published under the joint auspices of the UN, IMF, OECD, EC, and World Bank) provides a framework for international comparability in classifying domestic accounting aggregates and international transactions comprising “net factor income from abroad,” the measure that distinguishes GDP and GNP. gross national income (GNI), also called gross national product (GNP), the total value of final goods and services produced both from within a given country and from external (foreign) transactions in a given accounting period, usually a year. Unless otherwise noted, the value is given in current prices of the year indicated. GNI is equal to GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT adjusted by net factor income from abroad, which is the income residents receive from abroad for factor services (labour, investment, and interest) less similar payments made to nonresidents who contribute to the domestic economy. head of government, see chief of state/head of government. health, a group of measures including number of accredited physicians currently practicing or employed and their ratio to the total pop-

ulation; total hospital beds and their ratio; and INFANT MORTALITY RATE. household, economically autonomous individual or group of individuals living in a single dwelling unit. A family household is one composed principally of individuals related by blood or marriage. household income and expenditure, data for average size of a HOUSEHOLD (by number of individuals) and median household income. Sources of income and expenditures for major items of consumption are given as percentages. In general, household income is the amount of funds, usually measured in monetary units, received by the members (generally those 14 years old and over) of a household in a given time period. The income can be derived from (1) wages or salaries, (2) nonfarm or farm SELF–EMPLOYMENT, (3) transfer payments, such as pensions, public assistance, unemployment benefits, etc., and (4) other income, including interest and dividends, rent, royalties, etc. The income of a household is expressed as a gross amount before deductions for taxes. Data on expenditure refer to consumption of personal or household goods and services; they normally exclude savings, taxes, and insurance; practice with regard to inclusion of credit purchases differs markedly. imports, material goods legally entering a country (or customs area) and subject to customs regulations; excludes financial movements. The total value and distribution by percentage of the major items (in preference to groups of goods) imported are given, together with the direction of trade among major trading partners (usually single countries), trading blocs (such as the European Union), or customs areas (such as Belgium-Luxembourg). The value of goods imported is given free on board (f.o.b.) unless otherwise specified; f.o.b. is defined above under EXPORTS. The principal alternate basis for valuation of goods in international trade is that of cost, insurance, and freight (c.i.f.); its use is restricted to imports, as it comprises the principal charges needed to bring the goods to the customs house in the country of destination. Because it inflates the value of imports relative to exports, more countries have, latterly, been estimating imports on an f.o.b. basis as well. incorporated territory (U.S.), see territory. independent, of a state, autonomous and controlling both its internal and external affairs. Its date usually refers to the date from which the country was in effective control of these affairs within its present boundaries, rather than the date independence was proclaimed or the date recognized as a de jure act by the former administering power. indirect taxes, taxes levied on sales or transfers of selected intermediate goods and services, including excises, value-added taxes, and tariffs, that are ordinarily passed on to the ultimate consumers of the goods and services. Figures given for individual countries are limited to indirect taxes levied by their respective central governments unless otherwise specified. infant mortality rate, the number of children per 1,000 live births who die before their first birthday. Total infant mortality includes neonatal mortality, which is deaths of children within one month of birth. invisibles (invisible trade), see balance of trade. kingdom, see monarchy. labour force, portion of the POPULATION ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE (PEA) comprising those most fully employed or attached to the labour market (the unemployed are considered to be “attached” in that they usually represent persons previously employed seeking to be reemployed), particularly as viewed from a shortterm perspective. It normally includes those who are self-employed, employed by others (whether full-time, part-time, seasonally, or on some other less than full-time, basis), and, as

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504

Britannica World Data noted above, the unemployed (both those previously employed and those seeking work for the first time). In the “gross domestic product and labour force” table, the majority of the labour data provided refer to population economically active, since PEA represents the longer-term view of working population and, thus, subsumes more of the marginal workers who are often missed by shorterterm surveys. land use, distribution by classes of vegetational cover or economic use of the land area only (excluding inland water, built-up areas, and wasteland), reported as percentages. The principal categories utilized include: (1) arable land under temporary cultivation, (2) arable land left fallow for less than five years, (3) land under permanent cultivation (significantly tree crops but also grapes, pineapples, and bananas), (4) pastures and rangeland, which includes land in temporary or permanent use whose principal purpose is the growing of animal fodder, and (5) forest areas (without permanent tree crops); forest areas may include scrub forests, forest plantations, and recently afforested or reforested land. life expectancy, the number of years a person born within a particular population group (age cohort) would be expected to live, based on actuarial calculations. literacy, the ability to read and write a language with some degree of competence; the precise degree constituting the basis of a particular national statement is usually defined by the national census and is often tested by the census enumerator. Elsewhere, particularly where much adult literacy may be the result of literacy campaigns rather than passage through a formal educational system, definition and testing of literacy may be better standardized. major cities, usually the five largest cities/towns proper (national capitals are almost always given, regardless of size); fewer cities/towns may be listed if there are fewer urban localities in the country. For multipage tables, 10 or more may be listed.* Populations for cities/ towns will usually refer to the city/town proper—i.e., the legally bounded corporate entity, or the most compact, contiguous, demographically urban portion of the entity defined by the local authorities. Occasionally figures for METROPOLITAN AREAS, urban areas, or urban agglomerations are cited when the relevant civil entity at the core of a major agglomeration had an unrepresentatively small population. marriage rate, the number of legal, civilly recognized marriages annually per 1,000 population. material well-being, a group of measures indicating the percentage of households or dwellings possessing certain goods or appliances, including automobiles, telephones, television receivers, refrigerators, air conditioners, and washing machines.* metropolitan area, a city and the region of dense, predominantly urban, settlement around the city; the population of the whole usually has strong economic and cultural affinities with the central city. military expenditure, the apparent value of all identifiable military expenditure by the central government on hardware, personnel, pensions, research and development, etc., reported here both as a percentage of the GNP, with a comparison to the world average, and as a per capita value in U.S. dollars. military personnel, see total active duty personnel. mobility, the rate at which individuals or households change dwellings, usually measured between censuses and including international as well as domestic migration.* monarchy, a government in which the CHIEF OF STATE holds office, usually hereditarily and for life, but sometimes electively for a term. The state may be a coprincipality, emirate, kingdom,

principality, sheikhdom, or sultanate. The powers of the monarch may range from absolute (i.e., the monarch both reigns and rules) through various degrees of limitation of authority to nominal, as in a constitutional monarchy, in which the titular monarch reigns but others, as elected officials, effectively rule. monetary unit, currency of issue, or that in official use in a given country; name and abbreviation or symbol according to local practice or name and 3-digit code according to the ISO (International Organization for Standardization); and valuation in U.S. dollars and U.K. pounds sterling, usually according to free-market rates. See also exchange rate. natural increase, also called natural growth, or the balance of births and deaths, the excess of births over deaths in a population; the rate of natural increase is the difference between the BIRTH RATE and the DEATH RATE of a given population. The estimated world average during 2005 was 11.7 per 1,000 population, or 1.35% annually. Natural increase is added to the balance of migration to calculate the total growth of that population. nonreligious, see atheist. official development assistance, officially administered grants and concessional loans that donors (usually developed countries) give to developing countries to promote economic development and welfare. official language(s), that (or those) prescribed by the national constitution for day-to-day conduct and publication of a country’s official business or, when no explicit constitutional provision exists, that of the constitution itself, the national gazette (record of legislative activity), or like official documents. Other languages may have local protection, may be permitted in parliamentary debate or legal action (such as a trial), or may be “national languages,” for the protection of which special provisions have been made, but these are not deemed official. The United States, for example, does not yet formally identify English as “official,” though it uses it for virtually all official purposes. official name, the local official form(s), short or long, of a country’s legal name(s) taken from the country’s constitution or from other official documents. The English-language form is usually the protocol form in use by the country, the U.S. Department of State, and the United Nations. official religion, generally, any religion prescribed or given special status or protection by the constitution or legal system of a country. Identification as such is not confined to constitutional documents utilizing the term explicitly. organized territory (U.S.), see territory. overseas department (France), see department. overseas territory (France), see territory. parliamentary state, see state. part of a realm, a dependent Dutch political entity with some degree of self-government and having a special status above that of a colony (e.g., the prerogative of rejecting for local application any law enacted by The Netherlands). participation/activity rates, measures defining differential rates of economic activity within a population. Participation rate refers to the percentage of those employed or economically active who possess a particular characteristic (sex, age, etc.); activity rate refers to the fraction of the total population who are economically active. passenger-miles, or passenger-kilometres, aggregate measure of passenger carriage by a specified means of transportation, equal to the number of passengers carried multiplied by the number of miles (or kilometres) each passenger is transported. Figures given for countries are often calculated from ticket sales and ordi-

narily exclude passengers carried free of charge. people’s republic, see republic. place of birth/national origin, if the former, numbers of native- and foreign-born population of a country by actual place of birth; if the latter, any of several classifications, including those based on origin of passport at original admission to country, on cultural heritage of family name, on self-designated (often multiple) origin of (some) ancestors, and on other systems for assigning national origin.* political status, see form of government/political status. population, the number of persons present within a country, city, or other civil entity at the date of a census of population, survey, cumulation of a civil register, or other enumeration. Unless otherwise specified, populations given are DE FACTO, referring to those actually present, rather than DE JURE, those legally resident but not necessarily present on the referent date. If a time series, noncensus year, or per capita ratio referring to a country’s total population is cited, it will usually refer to midyear of the calendar year indicated. population economically active, the total number of persons (above a set age for economic labour, usually 10–15 years) in all employment statuses—self-employed, wage- or salary-earning, part-time, seasonal, unemployed, etc. The International Labour Organisation defines the economically active as “all persons of either sex who furnish the supply of labour for the production of economic goods and services.” National practices vary as regards the treatment of such groups as armed forces, inmates of institutions, persons seeking their first job, unpaid family workers, seasonal workers and persons engaged in part-time economic activities. In some countries, all or part of these groups may be included among the economically active, while in other countries the same groups may be treated as inactive. In general, however, the data on economically active population do not include students, persons occupied solely in family or household work, retired persons, persons living entirely on their own means, and persons wholly dependent upon others. See also labour force. population projection, the expected population in the years 2020 and 2030, embodying the country’s own projections wherever possible. Estimates of the future size of a population are usually based on assumed levels of fertility, mortality, and migration. Projections in the tables, unless otherwise specified, are medium (i.e., most likely) variants, whether based on external estimates by the United Nations, U.S. Bureau of the Census, or on those of the country itself. price and earnings indexes, tabulation comparing the change in the CONSUMER PRICE INDEX over a period of seven years with the change in the general labour force’s EARNINGS INDEX for the same period. principality, see monarchy. production, the physical quantity or monetary value of the output of an industry, usually tabulated here as the most important items or groups of items (depending on the available detail) of primary (extractive) and secondary (manufactured) production, including construction. When a single consistent measure of value, such as VALUE ADDED, can be obtained, this is given, ranked by value; otherwise, and more usually, quantity of production is given. public debt, the current outstanding debt of all periods of maturity for which the central government and its organs are obligated. Publicly guaranteed private debt is excluded. For countries that report debt under the World Bank Debtor Reporting System (DRS), figures for outstanding, long-term EXTERNAL DEBT are given.

Glossary purchasing power parity, an economic theory used to determine the number of units in a country’s currency that are required to buy the same amount of goods and services in another country. As such it is often used to compare the standards of living between countries expressed in a common currency which is usually U.S.$. Britannica World Data publishes only purchasing power parity rates as calculated by the World Bank method. quality of working life, a group of measures including weekly hours of work (including overtime); rates per 100,000 for job-connected injury, illness, and mortality; coverage of labour force by insurance for injury, permanent disability, and death; workdays lost to labour strikes and stoppages; and commuting patterns (length of journey to work in minutes and usual method of transportation).* railroads, mode of transportation by self-driven or locomotive-drawn cars over fixed rails. Length-of-track figures include all mainline and spurline running track but exclude switching sidings and yard track. Route length, when given, does not compound multiple running tracks laid on the same trackbed. recurrent budget, see budget. religious affiliation, distribution of nominal religionists, whether practicing or not, as a percentage of total population. This usually assigns to children the religion of their parents. remittances, amount of a migrant’s earnings sent from the migration destination to the place of origin. Remittance data are compiled somewhat differently from one country source to another but usually include cash transfers of long-term legal migrants. Cash transfers of short-term (“for less than one year of residence”) legal migrants or the cash transfers of illegal migrants and refugees are also often included with remittances. The standard (but not universal) sources used in BWD for national remittances are the latest editions of World Bank publications and UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics. These two sources may also (1) include net wages and salaries of all nonresident migrants and (2) approximate the value of migrants’ transfers of household and personal effects to their place of origin as part of a broader remittances definition. republic, a state with elected leaders and a centralized presidential form of government, local subdivisions being subordinate to the national government. A federal republic (as distinguished from a unitary republic) is a republic in which power is divided between the central government and the constituent subnational administrative divisions (e.g., states, provinces, or cantons) in whom the central government itself is held to originate, the division of power being defined in a written constitution and jurisdictional disputes usually being settled in a court; sovereignty usually rests with the authority that has the power to amend the constitution. A unitary republic (as distinguished from a federal republic) is a republic in which power originates in a central authority and is not derived from constituent subdivisions. A people’s republic, in the dialectics of Communism, is the first stage of development toward a communist state, the second stage being a socialist republic. An Islamic republic is structured around social, ethical, legal, and religious precepts central to the Islamic faith. retail price index, see consumer price index. retail sales and service enterprises, see manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises/retail sales and service enterprises. roundwood, wood obtained from removals from forests, felled or harvested (with or without bark), in all forms. Roundwood used for fuel is fuelwood; other roundwood used in construction, paper products, flooring, furni-

ture manufacture, etc., is called industrial roundwood. rural, see urban-rural. self-employment, work in which income derives from direct employment in one’s own business, trade, or profession, as opposed to work in which salary or wages are earned from an employer. self-governing, of a state, in control of its internal affairs in degrees ranging from control of most internal affairs (though perhaps not of public order or of internal security) to complete control of all internal affairs (i.e., the state is autonomous) but having no control of external affairs or defense. In this work the term self-governing refers to the final stage in the successive stages of increasing self-government that generally precede independence. service/trade enterprises, see manufacturing, mining, and construction enterprises/retail sales and service enterprises. sex distribution, ratios, calculated as percentages, of male and female population to total population. sheikhdom, see monarchy. social deviance, a group of measures, usually reported as rates per 100,000 for principal categories of socially deviant behaviour, including specified crimes, alcoholism, drug abuse, and suicide.* social participation, a group of measures indicative of the degree of social engagement displayed by a particular population, including rates of participation in such activities as elections, voluntary work or memberships, trade unions, and religion.* social security, public programs designed to protect individuals and families from loss of income owing to unemployment, old age, sickness or disability, or death and to provide other services such as medical care, health and welfare programs, or income maintenance. socialist republic, see republic. sources of income, see household income and expenditure. Special Drawing Right (SDR), a unit of account utilized by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to denominate monetary reserves available under a quota system to IMF members to maintain the value of their national currency unit in international transactions.* state, in international law, a political entity possessing the attributes of: territory, permanent civilian population, government, and the capacity to conduct relations with other states. Though the term is sometimes limited in meaning to fully independent and internationally recognized states, the more general sense of an entity possessing a preponderance of these characteristics is intended here. It is, thus, also a first-order civil administrative subdivision, especially of a federated union. An associated state is an autonomous state in free association with another that conducts its external affairs and defense; the association may be terminated in full independence at the instance of the autonomous state in consultation with the administering power. A parliamentary state is an independent state of the Commonwealth that is governed by a parliament and that may recognize the British monarch as its titular head. structure of gross domestic product and labour force, tabulation of the principal elements of the national economy, according to standard industrial categories, together with the corresponding distribution of the labour force (when possible POPULATION ECONOMICALLY ACTIVE) that generates the GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT.

sultanate, see monarchy. territory, a noncategorized political dependency; a first-order administrative subdivision; a dependent political entity with some degree

of self-government, but with fewer rights and less autonomy than a colony because there is no charter. An external territory (Australia) is a territory situated outside the area of the country. An organized territory (U.S.) is a territory for which a system of laws and a settled government have been provided by an act of the United States Congress. An overseas territory (France) is an overseas subdivision of the French Republic with elected representation in the French Parliament, having individual statutes, laws, and internal organization adapted to local conditions. ton-miles, or ton-kilometres, aggregate measure of freight hauled by a specified means of transportation, equal to tons of freight multiplied by the miles (or kilometres) each ton is transported. Figures are compiled from waybills (nationally) and ordinarily exclude mail, specie, passengers’ baggage, the fuel and stores of the conveyance, and goods carried free. total active duty personnel, full-time active duty military personnel (excluding militias and part-time, informal, or other paramilitary elements), with their distribution by percentages among the major services. total fertility rate, the sum of the current agespecific birth rates for each of the child-bearing years (usually 15–49). It is the probable number of births, given present fertility data, that would occur during the lifetime of each woman should she live to the end of her childbearing years. tourism, service industry comprising activities connected with domestic and international travel for pleasure or recreation; confined here to international travel and reported as expenditures in U.S. dollars by tourists of all nationalities visiting a particular country and, conversely, the estimated expenditures of that country’s nationals in all countries of destination. transfer payments, see household income and expenditure. transport, all mechanical methods of moving persons or goods. Data reported for national establishments include: for railroads, route length and volume of traffic for passengers and cargo (excluding mail); for roads, length of network and numbers of passenger cars and of commercial vehicles (i.e., trucks and buses) and volume of traffic for passenger cars/buses and cargo; and for air transport, traffic data for passengers and cargo. undernourished population, the number of persons according to an FAO study whose daily caloric consumption (based on a weighted average of all age and sex groups) is below a minimum level needed for maintaining a healthy life and performing light physical activity. unincorporated territory (U.S.), see territory. unitary republic, see republic. urban-rural, social characteristic of local or national populations, defined by predominant economic activities, “urban” referring to a group of largely nonagricultural pursuits, “rural” to agriculturally oriented employment patterns. The distinction is usually based on the country’s own definition of urban, which may depend only upon the size (population) of a place or upon factors like employment, administrative status, density of housing, etc. value added, also called value added by manufacture, the gross output value of a firm or industry minus the cost of inputs—raw materials, supplies, and payments to other firms— required to produce it. Value added is the portion of the sales value or gross output value that is actually created by the firm or industry. Value added generally includes labour costs, administrative costs, and operating profits.

505

506 Britannica World Data

Countries, Dependencies, and Territories Afghanistan

2005–06): food 48,575; chemicals 1,206; cement, bricks, and ceramics 809; textiles, wearing apparel, and fur 569; base metals 139. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008–09) 826,990,000 (589,640,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2006) 33,000 (33,000); crude petroleum, n.a. (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2006) none (186,000); natural gas (cu m; 2006) 20,000,000 (20,000,000). Household income and expenditure (2003). Average household size 8.0; sources of income: wages and salaries 49%, self-employment 47%; expenditure (2004)10: food 60.6%, housing and energy 16.5%, clothing 9.1%. Population economically active (2006): total 8,207,00011; activity rate of total population 31.5%11 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 60.3%11; female 23.1%11; unemployed [January 2009] c. 33%).

Official name: Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (Jomhuri-ye Eslami-ye Afghanestan [Dari]); Da Afghanestan Eslami Jamhuriyat (Pashto)1. Form of government: Islamic republic1 with two legislative bodies (House of Elders [102]; House of the People [249]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Kabul. Official languages: Dari; Pashto2. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: (new) afghani (Af); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Af 44.61; 1 £ = Af 68.913.

Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

Population (2009 estimate)4 Province Badakhshan Badghis Baghlan Balkh Bamian Daykundi6 Farah Faryab Ghazni Ghowr Helmand Herat

population (’000) 860.3 448.8 818.6 1,169.0 404.7 417.3 458.5 900.0 1,111.3 625.2 835.8 1,676.0

Province Jowzjan Kabol (Kabul) Kandahar Kapisa Khowst Konar Kondoz Laghman Lowgar Nangarhar Nimruz Nurestan

population (’000) 485.3 3,568.5 1,080.3 399.5 520.2 407.8 900.3 403.5 354.9 1,358.4 148.5 134.1

population (’000)

Province Oruzgan Paktia Paktika Panjshir5 Parvan Samangan Sar-e Pol Takhar Vardak Zabol

317.2 499.2 393.8 139.1 600.0 350.4 505.4 886.4 540.1 275.1 23,993.5

TOTAL

Demography Area: 252,072 sq mi, 652,864 sq km. Population (2010): 26,290,0007. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 104.3, persons per sq km 40.3. Urban-rural (2006): urban 21.5%; rural 78.5%. Sex distribution (2009): male 51.15%; female 48.85%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 44.6%; 15–29, 26.7%; 30–44, 16.0%; 45–59, 8.6%; 60–74, 3.5%; 75 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (2020) 32,478,000; (2030) 38,527,000. Ethnolinguistic composition (2004): Pashtun c. 42%; Tajik c. 27%; Hazara c. 9%; Uzbek c. 9%; Chahar Aimak c. 4%; Turkmen c. 3%; other c. 6%. Religious affiliation (2004): Sunni Muslim c. 82%; Shi(i Muslim c. 17%. Major cities (2006): Kabul 2,536,300; Hera¯t 349,000; Kandaha¯r (Qandahar) 324,800; Mazar-e Sharif 300,600; Jalalabad 168,600.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008–09): 45.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008–09): 19.6 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 5.60. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 44.2 years; female 44.6 years.

Budget (2006–07). Revenue: Af 155,394,000,000 (grants 78.1%, taxes on international trade 8.5%, nontax revenue 5.1%). Expenditures: Af 163,884,000,000 (economic affairs 47.3%, general administration 10.9%, public order 9.1%, defense 7.8%, health 3.9%, education 3.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$2,096,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$12,679,000,000 (U.S.$466 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI, n.a.

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0

103.5

121.0

148.5

128.9

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 5.4%, left fallow 7.7%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 46.0%, forest area 1.2%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (1998) 1.0; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 260; official development assistance (2008) 4,865. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): n.a.

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices) 2003–04

2004–05

2005–06

2006–07

2007–08

2008–09

–1,957 87.2%

–1,872 75.4%

–2,087 73.1%

–2,328 73.7%

–2,568 73.9%

–2,475 69.4%

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Imports (2008–09): U.S.$3,020,000,000 (petroleum products 18.1%; transport equipment 16.1%; food 15.2%; iron and steel 14.3%). Major import sources: Uzbekistan 16.6%; Pakistan 16.2%; China 14.2%; Japan 12.2%; Iran 6.6%. Exports (2008–09): U.S.$545,000,000 (dried fruits/nuts 45.1%, of which raisins 18.5%, almonds 9.2%, pistachios 7.7%; carpets 27.5%; fresh fruits 7.6%; karakul skins 2.5%; licorice roots 2.4%)13. Major export destinations: Pakistan 48.4%; India 25.0%; Russia 6.8%; U.A.E. 3.5%; Iran 3.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2006): route length 10 km. Roads (2006): total length 26,190 mi, 42,150 km (paved 29%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 431,648; trucks and buses 212,166. Air transport (2006–07): passenger-km 1,270,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 15,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

312

14

2008 2008

7,89915 101

29015 3.7

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2008 2008

1.4 3214 500 0.5015

units per 1,000 persons 4.0 1.714 18 0.0215

2008–09 in value Af ’000,000 165,835 2,456 84,844 681 51,654 49,751 59,855 13,301 51,502 44,452 17,8368 542,167

2002–03 % of total value 30.6 0.5 15.6 } 0.1 9.5 9.2 11.0 2.5 9.5 8.2 3.38 100.0

}

labour force4 5,181,400

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2006): total population age 15 and over literate 28.1%; males 43.1%; females 12.6%. Education (2008) teachers Primary (age 7–12) } Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

students

student/ teacher ratio

164,783

6,350,734

38.5

3,378

68,026

20.1

enrollment rate (%) … … 116 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2008) 4,834 (1 per 5,847 persons); hospital beds (2008) 12,095 (1 per 2,337 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 153.1.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

TOTAL

2005

89.2

Education and health

National economy

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Transp. and commun. Construction Trade, hotels, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. administration Services Other

2004

% of labour force4 69.6

362,200

4.9

169,500 98,600 509,600

2.3 1.3 6.8

1,126,000

15.1

7,447,300

100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): wheat 2,623,000, rice 410,000, grapes 350,000, barley 333,000, corn (maize) 280,000, potatoes 280,000, berries 57,000, almonds 42,000, apricots 25,000, opium poppy (2009) 6,9009; livestock (number of live animals) 10,710,000 sheep, 6,386,000 goats, 183,000 camels; roundwood 3,323,634 cu m, of which fuelwood 47%; fisheries production (2007) 1,000 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: salt (2008–09) 158,218; chromite (2006–07) 6,800; gemstones, n.a.; marble, n.a. Manufacturing (value added in Af ’000,000;

Military Total active duty personnel (May 2010): 119,388 (army 97.6%, air force 2.4%)17. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.5%18; per capita expenditure c. U.S.$718. 1From

promulgation of new constitution on Jan. 26, 2004. 2Six additional locally official languages per the 2004 constitution are Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Kafiri (Nuristani), Pashai, and Pamiri. 3The afghani was redenominated on Oct. 7, 2002; from that date 100 (old) afghanis equaled 1 (new) afghani. 4Refers to settled population only and excludes refugees in Pakistan and Iran. 5Created in 2004 from part of Parv)n. 6Created in 2004 from part of Oruzg)n. 7Excludes Afghan refugees in Pakistan and Iran but includes nomadic population; the first complete national census since 1979 is to be conducted in Sept.–Oct. 2010. 8Taxes on imports. 9Represents 95% of world production; in 2009, Afghanistan was also the world’s leading producer of cannabis. 10Weights of consumer price index components. 11ILO estimate. 12Exports f.o.b.; imports c.i.f. 13Exports of illegal opiates equaled c. U.S.$2,800,000,000 in 2009. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 162003–04. 17Foreign troops (August 2010): 47-country NATO-sponsored security and development force 119,800, of which U.S. 78,400, U.K. 9,500, Germany 4,600, France 3,800, Italy 3,400, Canada 2,800, Poland 2,600. 18Domestic budget only.

Internet resource for further information: • Central Statistics Office http://www.cso.gov.af

Nations of the World

Albania

grain mill products and other food products 20. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 3,771,000,000 (6,246,000,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 92,000 (105,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 2,190,000 ([2007] 3,759,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 231,000 (1,000,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 17,170,000 (17,170,000). Population economically active (2006): total 1,084,000; activity rate of total population 34.6% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 53.7%; female 39.6%; unemployed [2008] 13.0%).

Official name: Republika e Shqipërisë (Republic of Albania). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Kuvendi, or Parliament [140]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tirana (Tiranë). Official language: Albanian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: lek (L); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = 107.20 leks; 1 £ = 165.60 leks. Area and population Capitals

Berat Dibër Durrës Elbasan Fier Gjirokastër Korçë Kukës Lezhë Shkodër Tiranë Vlorë

Berat Peshkopi Durrës Elbasan Fier Gjirokastër Korçë Kukës Lezhë Shkodër Tirana (Tiranë) Vlorë

TOTAL

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

85.9 79.5

95.2 91.0

100.0 100.0

102.4 107.5

105.4 …

108.9 …

111.3 …

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

area

Counties

507

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2002) 4.3; average annual income per household (2002) 416,556 leks (U.S.$2,972); sources of urban income (2000): wages and salaries/self-employment 64.2%, transfers/pensions 14.8%; expenditure (2001)6: food and nonalcoholic beverages 42.6%, housing/energy 24.4%, hotels and restaurants 7.3%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,714; remittances (2009) 1,495; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 646; official development assistance (2008) 386. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,555; remittances (2008) 10; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 39. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 21.1%, in permanent crops 4.4%, in pasture 15.4%, forest area 29.3%.

population

sq mi

sq km

20081 estimate

696 968 319 1,266 729 1,113 1,433 916 610 1,375 612 1,045 11,082

1,802 2,507 827 3,278 1,887 2,883 3,711 2,373 1,581 3,562 1,586 2,706 28,703

172,694 143,341 314,862 349,530 379,221 102,990 260,890 75,746 160,752 249,982 811,388 148,651 3,170,047

Foreign trade7 Balance of trade (current prices) ’000,000,000 leks % of total

Demography Population (2010): 3,205,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 289.2, persons per sq km 111.7. Urban-rural (20051): urban 44.5%; rural 55.5%. Sex distribution (2007): male 49.78%; female 50.22%. Age breakdown (20061): under 15, 25.3%; 15–29, 26.4%; 30–44, 19.9%; 45–59, 16.2%; 60–74, 9.2%; 75–84, 2.5%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2020) 3,376,000; (2030) 3,455,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Albanian 91.7%; Greek 2.3%; Aromanian 1.8%; Rom 1.8%; other 2.4%. Traditional religious groups (2005)2: Muslim c. 68%, of which Sunni c. 51%, Bektashi c. 17%; Orthodox c. 22%; Roman Catholic c. 10%. Major cities (2001): Tirana (Tiranë) 343,078 (urban agglomeration [2007] 406,000); Durrës 99,546; Elbasan 87,797; Shkodër 82,455; Vlorë 77,691.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 11.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 5.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 6.3 (world avg. 11.8). Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008/2007): 6.7/1.1. Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.40. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 72.9 years; female 77.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004): diseases of the circulatory system 419.4, of which cerebrovascular disease 151.5, ischemic heart disease 121.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 114.9; diseases of the respiratory system 43.3; accidents 41.9.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–174 58.3%

–196 59.9%

–221 58.6%

–279 58.9%

–327 59.0%

–328 61.4%

Imports (2008): 440,464,000,000 leks (machinery and apparatus 16.0%; food 11.9%; chemicals and chemical products 8.7%; refined petroleum 8.1%; electricity 5.9%; road vehicles 5.8%; manufactures of metal 5.4%; clothing and apparel 4.7%). Major import sources: Italy 26.5%; Greece 14.6%; China 7.4%; Germany 6.1%; Turkey 6.0%. Exports (2008): 113,663,000,000 leks (clothing and apparel 25.9%, of which men’s or boys’ outerwear 10.5%; footwear 16.8%; metal ore and scrap 11.5%, of which chromium 4.9%; mineral fuels 8.7%; iron and steel 8.5%). Major export destinations: Italy 61.8%; Greece 8.8%; Serbia (incl. Kosovo) 8.3%; Macedonia 2.9%; China 2.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 399 km; passenger-km 41,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 52,000,000. Roads (2002): total length 11,184 mi, 18,000 km (paved 39%); passenger-km (2001) 197,000,0008; metric ton-km cargo (2001) 2,200,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 237,932; trucks and buses 89,151. Air transport: passenger-km (2005) 149,000,000; metric ton-km (2007) less than 500,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

989

318

2009 2009

4,16210 363

1,31910 115

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

120 709 1,300 9010

units per 1,000 persons 38 259 412 2910

National economy

Education and health

Budget (2006). Revenue: 229,444,000,000 leks (tax revenue 89.6%, nontax revenue 6.9%, grants 3.5%). Expenditures: 258,816,000,000 leks (social security and welfare 25.7%, transport and communications 11.8%, education 10.7%, general administration 10.3%, health 9.2%, police 6.3%, defense 4.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$2,222,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$12,453,000,000 (U.S.$3,950 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$8,170 per capita).

Educational attainment (2001). Population age 20 and over having: no formal schooling/incomplete primary education 7.8%; primary 55.6%; lower secondary 2.7%; upper secondary 17.9%; vocational 8.8%; university 7.2%. Literacy (2006): total population age 15 and over literate 98.7%. Education (2003–04) Primary (age 6–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–17) Tertiary

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

11,653 22,560 2,066

250,487 397,056 53,014

21.5 17.6 25.7

94 73 19 (age 18–22)

2006 in value ’000,000 leks Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

}

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

542,000 5,000 58,000 10,900 53,200 19,000 83,900

50.0 0.5 5.4 1.0 4.9 1.8 7.7

156,592 5,809 82,512 … 114,214 73,963 167,002

17.6 0.7 9.3 … 12.8 8.3 18.7

203,884

22.9

162,700

15.0

87,0243 891,0004

9.83 100.05

150,000 1,084,0005

13.8 100.05

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): wheat 260,000, corn (maize) 230,000, watermelons 190,000, potatoes 165,000, tomatoes 164,000, grapes 150,000, olives 30,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,853,000 sheep, 876,000 goats, 577,000 cattle, 4,712,000 chickens; roundwood 430,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 81%; fisheries production 7,369 (from aquaculture 25%). Mining and quarrying (2008): chromium ore 51,000. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): basic chemicals 54; glass and glass products 48; iron and steel 46; textiles 37; leather (all forms) 33;

Health: physicians (2004) 3,699 (1 per 845 persons); hospital beds (2007) 9,191 (1 per 346 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 6.0; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,910 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 14,29511. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$80.

1January 1. 2In actuality, a majority of citizens are secular after decades of rigidly enforced atheism. 3Net taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 4Excludes legal but unauthorized gray economy that may be as large as 50% of official GDP. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 6Weights of consumer price index components. 7Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 8Buses only. 9Circulation. 10Subscribers. 11Primarily a land-oriented force supported by naval and air units.

Internet resources for further information: • Bank of Albania http://www.bankofalbania.org • Institute of Statistics http://www.instat.gov.al

508

Britannica World Data

Algeria

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Official name: Al-Jumhu¯riyah al-Jaza)iriyah al-Dimuqratiyah al-Sha(biyah (Arabic) (People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria). Form of government: multiparty republic with two legislative bodies (Council of the Nation [1441]; National People’s Assembly [389]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Algiers. Official language: Arabic2. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Algerian dinar (DA); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = DA 74.36; 1 £ = DA 114.87.

population 402,197 771,890 368,713 2,947,461 640,050 1,128,030 274,866 915,835 730,262 1,009,892 634,396 694,750 795,019 943,112 1,223,223 1,013,718

Provinces El-Bayadh El-Oued El-Tarf Ghardaïa Guelma Illizi Jijel Khenchela Laghouat Mascara Médéa Mila Mostaganem M’Sila Naâma Oran

population 262,187 673,934 411,783 375,988 482,261 54,490 634,412 384,268 477,328 780,959 830,943 768,419 746,947 991,846 209,470 1,443,052

% of total value

716,000 4,157,0005

7.6 44.35

443,0005

4.75

815,000

8.7

1,923,000

20.5

789,000 547,0006 9,390,000

8.4 5.86 100.0

Agriculture Petroleum and natural gas Other mining } Manufacturing Public utilities } Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Services Pub. admin., defense Other

}

TOTAL

labour force4

% of labour force4

1,616,200 }

17.1

135,1005

1.45

846,7005 79,100 967,600 435,900 1,339,200 141,200 1,113,300 1,104,100 1,691,6007 9,470,000

8.95 0.8 10.2 4.6 14.1 1.5 11.8 11.7 17.97 100.0

Population economically active (2006): total 10,109,600; activity rate of population c. 30% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2004] c. 74%; female 16.9%; unemployed [June 2008] 12.3%).

Population (2008 preliminary census) Provinces Adrar Aïn Defla Aïn Temouchent Alger Annaba Batna Béchar Bejaïa Biskra Blida Bordj Bou Arreridj Bouira Boumerdes Constantine Djelfa Ech-Cheliff

2004

in value DA ’000,000

Price index (2005 = 100) Provinces Ouargla Oum el-Bouaghi Relizane Saïda Sétif Sidi bel-Abbès Skikda Souk Ahras Tamanrasset Tébessa Tiaret Tindouf Tipaza Tissemsilt Tizi Ouzou Tlemcen TOTAL

population 552,539 644,364 733,060 328,685 1,496,150 603,369 904,195 440,299 198,691 657,227 842,060 58,193 617,661 296,366 1,119,646 945,525 34,459,7293

Demography Area: 919,595 sq mi, 2,381,741 sq km. Population (2010): 35,866,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 39.0, persons per sq km 15.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 65.9%; rural 34.1%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.52%; female 49.48%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 27.2%; 15–29, 32.1%; 30–44, 21.8%; 45–59, 11.9%; 60–74, 5.2%; 75–84, 1.5%; 85 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2020) 41,229,000; (2030) 45,385,000. Doubling time: 56 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Algerian Arab 59.1%; Berber 26.2%, of which Arabized Berber 3.0%; Bedouin Arab 14.5%; other 0.2%. Religious affiliation (2000): Muslim 99.7%, of which Sunni 99.1%, Ibadiyah 0.6%; Christian 0.3%. Major cities (2005): Algiers 1,532,000 (urban agglom. [2007] 3,354,000); Oran 724,000; Constantine 475,000; Annaba (2004) 410,700; Batna (2004) 285,800.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 23.3 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 4.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 18.9 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 1.86. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (2007): 9.6. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 74.7 years; female 76.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): cardiovascular diseases 150.0; infectious and parasitic diseases 96.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 54.2; respiratory infections 45.2; accidents 41.2.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: DA 3,688,500,000,000 (hydrocarbon revenue 75.8%, nonhydrocarbon revenue 24.2%). Expenditures: DA 3,092,700,000,000 (current expenditure 54.1%, capital expenditure 45.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$3,011,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2007): wheat 2,300,000, potatoes 1,800,000, barley 1,200,000, tomatoes 800,000, onions 700,000, dates 500,000, oranges 490,915, grapes 250,000, olives 220,000; livestock (number of live animals) 20,000,000 sheep, 3,800,000 goats; roundwood (2008) 8,071,039 cu m, of which fuelwood 99%; fisheries production (2008) 141,615 (from aquaculture 2%). Mining and quarrying (2007): iron ore 1,982,000; phosphate rock 1,800,000; liquid helium 20,000,000 cu m. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2005): food and beverages 1,230; fabricated metals 880; refined petroleum/manufactured gas 720; motor vehicles and parts 400. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 37,196,000,000 (37,202,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) none (938,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 435,000,000 ([2007] 170,307,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 38,732,000 (11,527,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 86,558,000,000 (26,247,000,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 1.6%, left fallow 1.5%, in permanent crops 0.4%, in pasture 13.8%, forest area 1.0%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 6.2; disposable income per household (2002) c. U.S.$5,700; sources of income (2006): self-employment 45.9%, wages and salaries 34.1%, transfers 20.0%; expenditure: n.a. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$154,202,000,000 (U.S.$4,420 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$8,130 per capita).

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.0

98.4

100.0

102.5

106.1

110.9

117.2

Consumer price index

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 325; remittances (2009) 2,193; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 2,034; official development assistance (2008) 316. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 469; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 216.

Foreign trade 8 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+11,108 29.1%

+13,774 27.3%

+25,645 38.6%

+33,157 43.6%

+32,532 37.1%

+39,966 33.8%

Imports (2007): U.S.$27,631,000,000 (food and live animals 17.4%, of which cereals 7.2%; nonelectrical machinery 15.7%; road vehicles/parts 12.9%; iron and steel 12.4%). Major import sources: France 16.7%; Italy 8.7%; China 8.6%; U.S. 7.7%; Germany 6.5%. Exports (2007): U.S.$60,163,000,000 (crude petroleum 56.2%, natural gas 25.0%, refined petroleum 9.2%, manufactured gas 7.4%). Major export destinations: U.S. 30.1%; Italy 13.2%; Spain 8.9%; Canada 7.8%; Neth. 7.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2006): route length 2,468 mi, 3,973 km; (2003) passenger-km 946,000,000; (2003) metric ton-km cargo 2,041,000,000. Roads (2004): total length 67,295 mi, 108,302 km (paved 70%). Vehicles (2006): passenger cars 2,042,824; trucks and buses 1,221,000. Air transport (2008)9: passengerkm 3,336,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 6,900,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2003

3,633

114

2009 2009

32,73011 2,576

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

93811 74

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

377 2,60010 4,700 81811

11 10210 135 2311

Education and health Educational attainment (1998). Percentage of economically active population age 6 and over having: no formal schooling 30.1%; primary education 29.9%; lower secondary 20.7%; upper secondary 13.4%; higher 4.3%; other 1.6%. Literacy (2005): total population age 15 and over literate 76.3%; males literate 84.5%; females literate 68.0%. Education (2006–07) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17)12 Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

170,207 176,375 31,683

4,078,954 3,677,107 901,562

24.0 20.8 28.5

95 66 24 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2003) 36,347 (1 per 877 persons); hospital beds (2004) 55,089 (1 per 588 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 29.8; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,830 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 147,000 (army 86.4%, navy 4.1%, air force 9.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 3.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$150.

1Includes 48 nonelected seats. 2The Berber language, Tamazight, became a national language in April 2002. 3Reported total; summed total equals 34,459,731; includes nomads, excludes other non-household residents. 4Based on labour force survey. 5Petroleum and natural gas excludes (and Manufacturing includes) refined petroleum. 6Import taxes and duties. 7Nearly all unemployed including 1,149,400 seeking first employment. 8Imports c.i.f. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 9Air Algérie. 10Circulation. 11Subscribers. 122003–04.

Internet resources for further information: • Statistiques Algérie http://www.ons.dz • Banque d’Algerie http://www.bank-of-algeria.dz

Nations of the World

pigs, 40,000 chickens; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 4,4516 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: pumice, n.a. Manufacturing (value of exports in U.S.$; 2007): canned tuna 451,500,000; pet food 8,300,000; other manufactures include garments, handicrafts, soap, and alcoholic beverages. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 196,000,000 (196,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (none); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2005): total 23,650; activity rate of total population 37.1% (participation rates: ages 16 and over 59.9%; female 43.7%; unemployed 10.0%).

American Samoa Official name: American Samoa (English); Amerika Samoa (Samoan). Political status: unincorporated and unorganized territory of the United States with two legislative houses (Senate [18]; House of Representatives [211]). Head of state: President of the United States. Head of government: Governor. Capital: Fagatogo2 (legislative and judicial) and Utulei (executive). Official languages: English; Samoan. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: dollar (U.S.$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = £0.65. Area and population

Price index (2000 = 100) Consumer price index

area

population

Districts and islands

sq mi

sq km

2000 census

Eastern District Tutuila Island (part) Aunu’u Island Western District Tutuila Island (part) Manu’a District (Manu’a Islands) Ofu Island Olosega Island Ta’u Island Rose Island3 Swains Island3

25.9 25.3 0.6 28.8 28.8 21.9 2.8 2.0 17.1 0.1 0.6 77.34

67.1 65.5 1.6 74.6 74.6 56.7 7.2 5.2 44.3 0.3 1.5 200.24

23,441 21,673 1,768 32,435 32,435 1,378 289 216 873 0 37 57,291

TOTAL

509

Demography Population (2010): 65,900. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 852.5, persons per sq km 329.2. Urban-rural (2007): urban 92.0%; rural 8.0%. Sex distribution (2007): male 50.68%; female 49.32%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 35.4%; 15–29, 25.7%; 30–44, 19.7%; 45–59, 13.1%; 60–74, 5.1%; 75–84, 0.8%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 75,000; (2030) 84,000. Doubling time: 40 years. Ethnic composition (2005): Samoan 91.6%, of whom born in the nearby independent nation of Samoa 29.3%; Tongan 3.2%; other 5.2%. Religious affiliation (2005): Protestant c. 38%, of which Congregational c. 21%; Mormon c. 19%; Roman Catholic c. 15%; other (including nonreligious) c. 28%. Major villages (2000): Tafuna 8,406; Nu’uuli 5,154; Pago Pago 4,278 (urban agglomeration [2001] 15,000); Leone 3,568; Fagatogo 2,0962.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2007): 21.6 (world avg. 20.3); (2006) within marriage 65.3%; (2006) outside of marriage 34.7%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2007): 4.0 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2007): 17.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2006): 3.16. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2006) 2.6/(1993) 0.5. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 70.3 years; female 76.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004): diseases of the circulatory system 121.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 59.3; diseases of the respiratory system 54.6; diabetes mellitus 39.0; accidents, injuries, and violence 34.3.

National economy Budget (2005). Revenue: U.S.$182,014,612 (U.S. government grants 48.5%, taxes 27.7%, charges for services 4.6%, other 19.2%). Expenditures: U.S.$192,498,724 (education and culture 34.2%, general government 23.7%, health and welfare 16.6%, economic development 10.4%, public safety 6.1%, capital projects 3.9%, public works and parks 3.0%, debt 2.1%). Public debt: n.a. Gross domestic product (2007): U.S.$532,000,000 (U.S.$7,801 per capita).

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

103.4

108.4

116.1

122.1

125.8

134.2

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2005) 5.7; average annual income per household (2004) U.S.$32,028; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1995): food and beverages 30.9%, housing and furnishings 25.8%, church donations 20.7%, transportation and communications 9.4%, clothing 2.9%, other 10.3%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (1998) 10; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment, n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (1996) 2.0; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 10%, in permanent crops 15%, in pasture, n.a.; overall forest area (overlapping with other categories) 89.0%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

–203.0 24.2%

–111.1 12.5%

–164.3 15.2%

–158.1 15.1%

–132.4 15.0%

–140.7 13.8%

Imports (2006): U.S.$579,200,000 (fish for cannery 41.0%, other food 24.4%, tin plates 8.3%, mineral fuels 6.1%). Major import sources (2006): United States 39.1%; New Zealand 9.1%; Singapore 8.0%; Thailand 6.6%; Fiji 6.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$591,014,0007 (canned skipjack tuna 53.8%, canned albacore tuna 40.5%, pet food 1.7%). Major export destination: nearly all United States.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1991): total length 217 mi, 350 km (paved, 43%). Vehicles (2006): passenger cars 7,758; trucks and buses 602. Air transport (2006): passenger arrivals 75,116; passenger departures 81,907; incoming cargo 1,376 metric tons, outgoing cargo 1,411 metric tons. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2000

13

211

2006 2009

8.59 10

1279 154

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

… 6.08 … …

units per 1,000 persons … 1408 … …

Education and health Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling to some secondary education 31.2%; completed secondary 42.6%; some college 19.0%; bachelor’s degree 5.0%; graduate degree 2.2%. Literacy (2000): total population age 10 and over literate 99.4%; males literate 99.4%; females literate 99.5%. Education (2006) Primary Secondary/Voc. Tertiary10

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

450 213 …

11,100 5,074 1,607

24.7 23.8 …

… … …

Health (2003): physicians 49 (1 per 1,253 persons); hospital beds 128 (1 per 480 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 11.8; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Military defense is the responsibility of the United States.

Structure of labour force 2005

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade and hotels Finance, real estate Public administration Services Other TOTAL

labour force

% of labour force

360 30 5,030 1,210 500 800 2,690 1,200 1,410 4,530 5,8905 23,650

1.5 0.1 21.3 5.1 2.1 3.4 11.4 5.1 6.0 19.1 24.95 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): taros 9,000, coconuts 4,700, yams 820, bananas 790, pineapples 380, coconut oil 71, citrus fruits 30; livestock (number of live animals) 10,500

1Including

the appointed nonvoting delegate from Swains Island. 2The seat of the legislature, as defined by the Constitution of American Samoa, is at Fagatogo, one of a number of villages within an urban agglomeration collectively known as Pago Pago. 3Not within district administrative structure. Swains Island is administered by a village government and a representative of the governor. 4Area of American Samoa including deeply indented harbour is 84.4 sq mi (218.6 sq km). 5Includes 3,530 inadequately defined and 2,360 unemployed. 6Mostly tuna. 7To U.S. only. 8Circulation. 9Subscribers. 10American Samoa Community College at Mapusaga.

Internet resources for further information: • Pacific Web http://www.pacificweb.org • American Samoa Government Department of Commerce http://www.spc.int/prism/Country/AS/stats

510

Britannica World Data

Andorra

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Official name: Principat d’Andorra (Principality of Andorra). Form of government: parliamentary coprincipality with one legislative house (General Council [28]). Heads of state: President of France; Bishop of Urgell, Spain. Head of government: Head of Government. Capital: Andorra la Vella. Official language: Catalan. Official religion: none1. Monetary unit: euro (>)2; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Agriculture Mining } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transportation and communications Trade } Restaurants, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

Area and population

area

Parishes

Capitals

Andorra la Vella Canillo Encamp Escaldes-Engordany La Massana Ordino Sant Julià de Lòria

Andorra la Vella Canillo Encamp Escaldes-Engordany La Massana Ordino Sant Julià de Lòria

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

20103 estimate

11 47 29 12 23 34 23 179

27 121 74 32 61 89 60 464

23,380 5,903 14,263 16,861 9,773 4,187 9,715 84,082

Demography Population (2010): 83,900. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 468.7, persons per sq km 180.8. Urban-rural (2005): urban 91%; rural 9%. Sex distribution (20103): male 52.08%; female 47.92%. Age breakdown (20103): under 15, 14.5%; 15–29, 17.3%; 30–44, 28.6%; 45–59, 22.0%; 60–74, 11.1%; 75–84, 4.3%; 85 and over, 2.2%. Population projection: (2020) 87,000; (2030) 87,000. Doubling time: 98 years. Ethnic composition (by nationality; 20083): Andorran 36.7%; Spanish 33.0%; Portuguese 16.3%; French 6.3%; British 1.3%; Argentinian 0.8%; Moroccan 0.6%; other 5.0%. Religious affiliation (2000): Roman Catholic 89.1%; other Christian 4.3%; Muslim 0.6%; Hindu 0.5%; nonreligious 5.0%; other 0.5%. Major towns (20103): Andorra la Vella 20,436; Escaldes-Engordany 16,861; Encamp 8,799; Sant Julià de Lòria 8,151; La Massana 5,007.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 3.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 6.8 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 1.17. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (2009): 3.2. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 80.4 years; female 85.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002–06 avg.): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 108.2; diseases of the circulatory system 100.6; diseases of the respiratory system 28.5; injuries and poisoning 27.7; diseases of the digestive system 18.2.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: >431,749,200 (indirect taxes 74.1%, investment income 17.6%, other 8.3%). Expenditures: >431,749,200 (current expenditures 52.3%, development expenditures 47.7%). Production. Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): tobacco 244 metric tons; other traditional crops include hay, potatoes, and grapes; livestock (number of live animals; 2009) 2,126 sheep, 1,560 cattle, 904 horses; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production, n.a. Quarrying: small amounts of marble are quarried. Manufacturing (2006): local manufactured goods include cigarettes, furniture, food and beverages, newspapers and magazines, and worked metals; many manufactures are imported for resale to tourists. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 79,022,000 ([2009] 569,000,000); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (175,000); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure (2003): average household size 2.8; expenditure per household >35,470 (U.S.$40,034); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: transportation 22.1%, food, beverages, and tobacco products 19.4%, housing and energy 16.1%, hotels and restaurants 7.8%, clothing and footwear 7.6%, recreation and culture 6.9%. Population economically active (2007): total 43,234; activity rate of total population c. 55% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2003] 75.1%; female 46.6%; unemployed, n.a.4). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)5 Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

2008

value in U.S.$’000,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.8 89.8

97.0 95.0

100.0 100.0

103.2 106.5

107.2 …

109.3 …

109.3 …

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism6; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment, n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances (2001–02) 12. Gross national income (at current market prices; 2008): U.S.$3,712,000,000 (U.S.$43,975 per capita)7.

% of total value

17.2

0.5

21.2

0.7

84.9 332.6

2.6 10.2

104.5

3.2

829.9

25.6

1,475.0

45.4

380.18 3,245.4

11.78 100.09

labour force

% of labour force

147 … 164 1,736 6,094

0.3 … 0.4 4.1 14.4

1,291 10,870 5,242 5,765 4,675 6,013 225 42,222

3.1 25.7 12.4 13.7 11.1 14.2 0.5 100.09

Public debt (2007): c. U.S.$573,000,000. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, left fallow, or in permanent crops 2.1%, in pasture 53.2%, forest area 34.0%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) >’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,313 87.0%

–1,328 85.4%

–1,297 84.4%

–1,303 87.5%

–1,248 95.3%

–1,093 92.3%

Imports (2007): >1,396,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 26.4%; food and beverages 16.2%; motor vehicles 9.2%; clothing and knitwear 9.1%; perfumes, cosmetics, and soaps 7.7%; mineral fuels 6.7%). Major import sources (2008): Spain 58.1%; France 19.4%; Germany 4.7%; Italy 3.8%; China 3.2%. Exports (2007): >93,000,000 (electrical machinery and apparatus 25.0%; motor vehicles 18.5%; optical equipment, photo equipment, and other professional goods 10.9%; iron and steel products 6.8%; perfumes, cosmetics, and soaps 3.7%). Major export destinations (2008): Spain 69.5%; France 15.5%; Germany 4.6%; Italy 1.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none; however, both French and Spanish railways stop near the border. Roads (1999): total length 167 mi, 269 km (paved 74%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 51,648; trucks and buses 5,560. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2000

36

461

2009 2009

6511 38

75511 443

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

… 2009 2009 2009

… 2710 67 2311

units per 1,000 persons … 38010 785 26811

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy: resident population is virtually 100% literate. Education (2006–07) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary14

teachers

students

432 48213 81

4,49212 3,85112 40115

student/ teacher ratio 10.2 7.813 5.0

enrollment rate (%) 81 72 10 (age 18–22)

Health (2006): physicians 244 (1 per 327 persons); hospital beds 208 (1 per 385 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2006–07) 2.4; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel: none. France and Spain are responsible for Andorra’s external security; the police force is assisted in alternate years by either French gendarmerie or Barcelona police. Andorra has no defense budget.

1Roman Catholicism enjoys special recognition in accordance with Andorran tradition. 2Andorra uses the euro as its official currency even though it is not a member of the EU. 3January 1. 4The restricted size of the indigenous labour force necessitates immigration to serve the tourist trade, especially seasonal cross-border workers from Portugal and Spain. 5All indexes are end of year. 6In 2008, Andorra had 10,193,749 visitors, of which daily excursionists from Spain 4,406,985, daily excursionists from France 3,561,090. 7Tourism and the banking system (c. 60% in 2007) are the primary sources of gross national income. 8Includes taxes and customs duties. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 10Circulation. 11Subscribers. 122007–08. 132004–05. 142005–06. 15Other students are enrolled in Spain (644 in 2004–05), in France (181 in 2004–05), and elsewhere (6 in 2004–05).

Internet resources for further information: • Andorra Statistical Yearbook http://www.estadistica.ad • Cambra de Comerç Indústria i Serveis d’Andorra http://www.ccis.ad/ing/index.html

511

Nations of the World

Angola

(U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 254; remittances (2008) 603; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 1,225. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$64,505,000,000 (U.S.$3,490 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$4,970 per capita).

Official name: República de Angola (Republic of Angola). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [2201]).2 Head of state and government: President. Capital: Luanda. Official language: Portuguese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: kwanza (AOA); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = AOA 90.85; 1 £ = AOA 140.51. Area and population Provinces

Capitals

Bengo Benguela Bié Cabinda Cuando Cubango Cuanza Norte Cuanza Sul Cunene Huambo Huíla Luanda Lunda Norte Lunda Sul Malanje Moxico Namibe Uíge Zaire

Caxito Benguela Kuito Cabinda Menongue N’dalatando Sumbe Ondjiva Huambo Lubango Luanda Lucapa Saurimo Malanje Luena Namibe Uíge M’banza Congo

TOTAL

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

sq mi 12,112 12,273 27,148 2,807 76,853 9,340 21,491 34,495 13,233 28,959 934 39,685 17,625 37,684 86,110 22,447 22,664 15,494 481,354

% of total value

424,070 3,175,661 41,313 26,707 9,385 620,689

9.0 67.4 0.9 0.6 0.2 13.2

313,304

6.6

100,500 4,711,629

2.1 100.0

Agriculture Mining and quarrying5, 6 Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Trade, hotels, restaurants Finance Transp. and commun. Pub. admin., defense Services Other7

}

area

population sq km

31,371 31,788 70,314 7,270 199,049 24,190 55,660 89,342 34,274 75,002 2,418 102,783 45,649 97,602 223,023 58,137 58,698 40,130 1,246,700

2004 estimate 242,000 912,000 1,625,000 320,000 177,000 556,000 901,000 323,000 2,197,000 1,214,000 2,571,000 406,000 210,000 1,293,000 457,000 193,000 1,249,000 332,000 15,178,000

Demography Population (2010): 18,993,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 39.5, persons per sq km 15.2. Urban-rural (2009): urban 57.6%; rural 42.4%. Sex distribution (2007): male 50.51%; female 49.49%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 43.7%; 15–29, 27.1%; 30–44, 16.2%; 45–59, 8.5%; 60–74, 3.9%; 75–84, 0.6%; 85 and over, negligible. Population projection: (2020) 24,507,000; (2030) 30,416,000. Doubling time: 36 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Ovimbundu 25.2%; Kimbundu 23.1%; Kongo 12.6%; Lwena (Luvale) 8.2%; Chokwe 5.0%; Kwanyama 4.1%; Nyaneka 3.9%; Luchazi 2.3%; Ambo (Ovambo) 2.0%; Mbwela 1.7%; Nyemba 1.7%; mixed race (Eurafrican) 1.0%; white 0.9%; other 8.3%. Religious affiliation (2006): Roman Catholic c. 55%; independent Christian c. 30%, of which African indigenous c. 25%, Brazilian evangelical c. 5%; Protestant c. 10%; Muslim c. 0.7%; traditional beliefs/other c. 4.3%. Major cities (2004): Luanda (urban agglomeration; 2005) 2,766,000; Huambo 173,600; Lobito 137,400; Benguela 134,500; Namibe 132,900.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 46.9 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 20.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 26.7 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 6.27. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 36.7 years; female 38.6 years. Major causes of death (percentage of total deaths; 2002): diarrheal diseases 16%; respiratory infections 15%; HIV/AIDS 7%; perinatal conditions 6%; malaria 6%. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 2.1% (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2006). Revenue: U.S.$20,966,000,000 (petroleum revenue 80.1%, nonpetroleum revenue 19.9%). Expenditure: U.S.$14,269,000,000 (current expenditure 71.8%, development expenditure 28.2%). Household income and expenditure (2002). Average household size 5.0; annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure3: food and nonalcoholic beverages 46.1%, housing and energy 12.3%, household furnishings 6.5%, transportation 6.5%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava 8,840,000, sweet potatoes 710,000, potatoes 615,000, corn (maize) 570,000, sugarcane 360,000, bananas 300,000, oil palm fruit 280,000, millet 147,000, dry beans 105,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 60,000, pineapples 40,000, natural honey 23,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,180,000 cattle, 2,100,000 goats, 785,000 pigs; roundwood 4,923,638 cu m, of which fuelwood 78%; fisheries production 317,452 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2007): diamonds 9,702,000 carats (90% gem grade); granite 46,000 cu m. Manufacturing (2003): fuel oil 609,0004; cement 500,620; diesel fuel 461,0004; jet fuel 290,0004; wheat flour 38,168; frozen fish 36,173; beer 1,920,000 hectolitres. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 3,171,000,000 (3,171,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 664,300,000 ([2007] 13,990,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 2,308,000 (2,673,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 830,000,000 (830,000,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 285; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct disinvestment (2006–08 avg.) –11,469; official development assistance (2008) 369. Disbursements for

2003

in value AOA ’000,000

TOTAL

labour force

% of labour force

}

4,406,000

71.0

}

1,796,000

29.0

… 6,202,000

… 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$12,711,000,000. Population economically active (2008)8: total 8,011,000; activity rate of total population 44.5% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 82.6%; female 46.7%; unemployed, n.a.). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

56.7

81.3

100.0

113.3

127.2

143.0

162.7

Consumer price index

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 2.6%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 43.3%, forest area 47.2%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+3,757 25.5%

+7,142 38.0%

+15,316 47.8%

+21,041 49.4%

+30,735 52.9%

+57,634 66.5%

Imports (2006): U.S.$10,776,000,000 (consumer goods 60.3%, capital goods 28.8%, intermediate goods 10.9%). Major import sources (2008): Portugal 17.1%; China 15.2%; U.S. 11.0%; Brazil 10.2%; South Korea 6.6%. Exports (2006): U.S.$31,817,000,000 (crude petroleum 94.2%, diamonds 3.6%, refined petroleum 0.9%). Major export destinations (2008): China 32.9%; U.S. 28.7%; France 6.0%; South Africa 4.5%; Canada 4.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length of lines in operation c. 750 km; (2006) passenger-km 69,900,0009; (2006) metric ton-km cargo 510,0009. Roads (2006): total length c. 44,700 mi, 72,000 km (paved c. 25%)10. Vehicles (2001): passenger cars 117,200; trucks and buses 118,300. Air transport: passengerkm (2005) 479,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 73,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

582

52

2009 2009

8,10912 303

43812 16

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

84 4211 607 2012

units per 1,000 persons 7.0 5.811 33 1.112

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2006): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 67.4%; males literate 82.9%; females literate 54.2%. Education (2005–06) teachers Primary (age 6–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–16) Tertiary

students

… 3,707,087 21,81813 460,84414 1,286 48,694

student/ teacher ratio … 19.013 37.9

enrollment rate (%) … … 3 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2004) 1,165 (1 per 9,890 persons); hospital beds (2005) 1,170 (1 per 10,000 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 113.5; undernourished population (2004–06) 7,100,000 (44% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,740 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 107,000 (army 93.5%, navy 0.9%, air force 5.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 3.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$150. 1Excludes 3 unfilled seats reserved for Angolans living abroad. 2New constitution promulgated on Feb. 5, 2010; the post of prime minister was abolished at this time. 3Weights of consumer price index components; Luanda only. 42005. 5Primarily crude petroleum and diamonds. 6In 2008 about half of crude petroleum production came from offshore Cabinda, an exclave separated from Angola proper by a sliver of the Dem. Rep. of the Congo. Onshore production in Cabinda has been stymied by the possibility of secessionist unrest. 7Indirect taxes and taxes on products less subsidies. 8ILO estimates. 9Benguela Railway only. 10General condition of even paved roads is poor. 11Circulation of daily newspapers. 12Subscribers. 132000–01. 142001–02.

Internet resources for further information: • Bank of Angola http://www.bna.ao • Ministerio das Finanças http://www.minfin.gv.ao

512

Britannica World Data

Antigua and Barbuda

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$1,062,000,000 (U.S.$12,130 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$17,690 per capita).

Official name: Antigua and Barbuda. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [17]; House of Representatives [171]). Head of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Saint John’s. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar (EC$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = EC$2.70; 1 £ = EC$4.17. Area and population

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Parishes (of Antigua)2 Saint George Saint John’s (city) Saint John’s (rural) Saint Mary Saint Paul Saint Peter Saint Phillip Other islands2 Barbuda Redonda TOTAL

% of total value

labour force

92.5 61.6 45.5 535.3 87.7 531.0

3.0 2.0 1.5 17.5 2.9 17.4

946 106 1,541 3,122 513 2,808

454.8 454.5 403.5 175.6 213.97 3,055.89

14.9 14.9 13.2 5.7 7.07 100.0

9,927 2,509 4,376 7,417 6,2998 39,564

Agriculture, fishing Quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants, and hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

area

2001 census

sq km

9.3 2.9 25.6 22.0 18.5 12.7 17.0

24.1 7.5 66.3 57.0 47.9 32.9 44.0

6,673 24,451 20,895 6,793 7,848 5,439 3,462

62.0 0.5 170.5

160.6 1.3 441.6

1,325 0 76,8863

2.4 0.3 3.9 7.9 1.3 7.1 25.1 6.3 11.1 18.7 15.98 100.0

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 90,300. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 529.6, persons per sq km 204.5. Urban-rural (2003): urban 37.7%; rural 62.3%. Sex distribution (2007): male 47.61%; female 52.39%. Age breakdown (2001): under 15, 27.6%; 15–29, 23.6%; 30–44, 23.3%; 45–59, 16.0%; 60–74, 6.7%; 75–84, 2.1%; 85 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2020) 102,000; (2030) 114,000. Ethnic composition (2000): black 82.4%; U.S. white 12.0%; mulatto 3.5%; British 1.3%; other 0.8%. Religious affiliation (2001): Christian c. 74%, of which Anglican c. 23%, independent Christian c. 23%, other Protestant (including Methodist, Moravian, and Seventh-day Adventist) c. 28%; Rastafarian c. 2%; atheist/nonreligious c. 5%; other/unknown c. 19%. Major town (2006): Saint John’s 25,3004.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2007): 17.0 (world avg. 20.3); (2001) within marriage 25.7%; (2001) outside of marriage 74.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2007): 6.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2007): 10.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 2.09. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2007): 21.75/1.2. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 71.9 years; female 75.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004): diseases of the circulatory system 215, of which cerebrovascular disease 63, ischemic heart disease 59, hypertensive diseases 42; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 118; diabetes mellitus 81; perinatal conditions 37.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–308 77.5%

–345 75.1%

–373 69.3%

–486 76.6%

–474 70.5%

–586 79.4%

Imports (2007): U.S.$573,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 20.3%, manufactured goods 16.3%, food and live animals 15.0%, road vehicles 8.1%, refined petroleum 6.2%10). Major import sources: U.S. 58.2%; U.K. 6.4%; Japan 4.3%; Netherlands Antilles 4.2%; Trinidad and Tobago 3.9%. Exports (2007): U.S.$99,000,000 (refined petroleum 57.6%10, telecommunications equipment 6.6%, generators 3.0%, sails 2.9%). Major export destinations: Netherlands Antilles 30.9%; U.S. 23.5%; Barbados 8.2%; Dominica 6.1%; U.K. 4.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroad11. Roads (2002): total length 725 mi, 1,165 km (paved 33%). Vehicles: n.a. Air transport (2006): passenger-km 118,200,000; metric ton-km cargo 200,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

34

449

2009 2009

13513 37

1,54013 426

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

… 2009 2009 2009

teachers

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.9

97.5

100.0

100.0

105.2

106.0

108.5

Household income and expenditure (2001). Average household size 3.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure6: housing 21.8%, food 21.4%, transportation and communications 15.4%, household furnishings 12.6%, clothing and footwear 11.1%.

units per 1,000 persons

… 912 65 1513

… 14312 742 17013

Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.6%; incomplete primary education 2.6%; complete primary 27.9%; secondary 43.6%; higher (not university) 14.4%; university 10.9%. Literacy (2003): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 85.8%. Education (2006–07)

Budget (2009). Revenue: EC$599,830,000 (tax revenue 95.7%, of which taxes on international transactions 36.4%, sales tax 34.0%, taxes on income and profits 16.3%; nontax revenue 4.3%). Expenditures: EC$1,037,800,000 (current expenditures 76.3%, of which transfers and subsidies 21.2%; development expenditures 23.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; December 2007): U.S.$615,400,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cow’s milk 5,400, mangoes, mangosteens, and guavas 1,500, melons 900, tomatoes 395, eggplants 345, lemons and limes 305, “Antiguan Black” pineapples 210; livestock (number of live animals) 20,000 sheep, 14,600 cattle; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 3,521 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: crushed stone for local use. Manufacturing: manufactures include cement, bricks, and tiles, handicrafts, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, and jams and jellies. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 118,000,000 (118,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (142,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2001): total 39,564; activity rate of total population 51.5% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 77.0%; female c. 50%; unemployed [late 2005, early 2006] c. 4%).

number in ’000s

Education and health

National economy

Consumer price index

% of labour force

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 18.2%, in permanent crops 2.3%, in pasture 9.1%, forest area 21.4%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 334; remittances (2009) 25; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 325; official development assistance (2008) 8. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 55; remittances (2008) 2.

population

sq mi

2001

in value EC$’000,000

Primary (age 5–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary15

538 36114 32

students 11,569 7,838 203

student/ teacher ratio 21.5 1614 6.3

enrollment rate (%) 74 … … (age 17–21)

Health: physicians, n.a.; hospital beds (2009) 211 (1 per 420 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 18.8; undernourished population (2004–06) 22,000 (27% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,870 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): a 170-member defense force (army 73.5%, navy 26.5%).16 Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$79.

1Directly elected seats only; attorney general and speaker may serve ex officio if they are not elected to House of Representatives. 2Community councils on Antigua and the local government council on Barbuda are the organs of local government. 3Based on table of detailed de facto census results released in July 2004. 4Large settlements include (2006): All Saints 2,550; Liberta 1,680; Bolans 1,670; Codrington (on Barbuda) 680. 5Includes nonresident marriages. 6Weights of consumer price index components. 7Net indirect taxes less subsidies and imputed bank service charges. 8Includes 3,329 unemployed and 2,970 inadequately defined activities. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 10Fuel storage facilities on Antigua supply petroleum to eastern Caribbean countries. 11Mostly nonoperative privately owned tracks. 12Circulation. 13Subscribers. 142000–01. 15University of Health Sciences Antigua only. 16Foreign forces: 2 (1 U.S. detection and tracking radar is located on Antigua).

Internet resources for further information: • Eastern Caribbean Central Bank http://www.eccb-centralbank.org • Government of Antigua and Barbuda http://www.antigua.gov.ag

513

Nations of the World

Argentina

fuelwood 32%; fisheries production 997,783 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): boron 785,553; copper (metal content) 156,893; silver 355,596 kg; gold 42,046 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2002): food products 10,152, of which vegetable oils and fats 3,864; base metals 4,031; industrial and agricultural chemicals 2,770; refined petroleum products 2,514; beverages 1,977; transport equipment 1,958. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 115,296,000,000 (122,949,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) 110,000 (1,573,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 241,400,000 ([2007] 215,280,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 28,053,000 (23,244,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 51,040,000,000 (49,933,000,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 4,658; remittances (2009) 671; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 6,954. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 4,564; remittances (2008) 732; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 1,765. Population economically active (2006)8: total 11,089,700; activity rate of total population 46.2% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 68.5%; female 43.4%; unemployed [April 2007–March 2008] 8.1%).

Official name: República Argentina (Argentine Republic). Form of government: federal republic with two legislative houses (Senate [72]; Chamber of Deputies [257]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Buenos Aires. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none1. Monetary unit: peso (ARS); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = ARS 3.95; 1 £ = ARS 6.10. Area and population Provinces Buenos Aires Catamarca Chaco Chubut Córdoba Corrientes Entre Ríos Formosa Jujuy La Pampa La Rioja Mendoza Misiones

area

population

sq km 307,571 102,602 99,633 224,686 165,321 88,199 78,781 72,066 53,219 143,440 89,680 148,827 29,801

2001 census 13,827,203 334,568 984,446 413,237 3,066,801 930,991 1,158,147 486,559 611,888 299,294 289,983 1,579,651 965,522

area Provinces Neuquén Río Negro Salta San Juan San Luis Santa Cruz Santa Fe Santiago del Estero Tierra del Fuego2 Tucumán Autonomous city Buenos Aires TOTAL

population

sq km 94,078 203,013 155,488 89,651 76,748 243,943 133,007 136,351 21,571 22,524

2001 census 474,155 552,822 1,079,051 620,023 367,933 196,958 3,000,701 804,457 101,079 1,338,523

203 2,780,403

2,776,138 36,260,130

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

87.4

91.2

100.0

110.9

120.7

131.1

139.3

Consumer price index

Household size and expenditure. Average household size (2001) 3.6; average annual income per household (1996–97) ARS 12,972 (U.S.$12,978); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1996–97): food products 26.8%, transportation and communications 15.0%, housing and energy 13.4%, health 10.2%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 11.9%, in permanent crops 0.4%, in pasture 36.5%, forest area 12.0%.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 40,666,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 37.9, persons per sq km 14.6. Urban-rural (2005): urban 91.4%; rural 8.6%. Sex distribution (2007): male 49.23%; female 50.77%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 25.9%; 15–29, 24.9%; 30–44, 19.2%; 45–59, 15.4%; 60–74, 9.8%; 75–84, 3.6%; 85 and over, 1.2%. Population projection: (2020) 44,304,000; (2030) 47,255,000. Ethnic composition (2000): European extraction 86.4%; mestizo 6.5%; Amerindian 3.4%; Arab 3.3%; other 0.4%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic c. 70%3; Protestant c. 9%; Muslim (mostly Sunni) c. 1.5%; Jewish c. 0.8%; nonreligious/unknown c. 16.2%; other (significantly Middle East–based Christian) c. 2.5%. Major urban agglomerations (2007): Buenos Aires 12,795,000; Córdoba 1,452,000; Rosario 1,203,000; Mendoza 918,000; San Miguel de Tucumán 832,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2007): 18.3 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2007): 7.5 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2007): 10.8 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 2.39. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2007): 3.5/n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 72.9 years; female 79.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004): diseases of the circulatory system 239.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 144.8; accidents and violence 47.7; infectious and parasitic diseases 35.2; diabetes mellitus 24.4. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 0.5% (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2008)4. Revenue: ARS 169,463,000,000 (indirect taxes 57.1%; social security contributions 23.7%; direct taxes 12.9%). Expenditure: ARS 161,486,000,000 (current expenditure 88.2%, of which social security 41.2%, debt servicing 11.9%, economic development 9.4%, education 6.3%, health 3.7%, defense 2.6%; capital expenditure 11.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$66,410,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$306,040,000,000 (U.S.$7,600 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$14,120 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

2001

in value ARS ’000,000

% of total value

labour force

93,179 35,688 201,175 56,554 12,321 80,279 137,564 152,892 58,186 119,370 85,5515 1,032,759

9.0 3.5 19.5 5.5 1.2 7.8 13.3 14.8 5.6 11.6 8.35 100.07

910,996 37,979 1,245,544 638,566 90,165 717,573 2,213,065 898,264 969,280 2,762,447 4,780,9046 15,264,783

% of labour force 6.0 0.2 8.2 4.2 0.6 4.7 14.5 5.9 6.3 18.1 31.36 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): soybeans 46,232,088, sugarcane 29,950,000, corn (maize) 22,016,926, cow’s milk 10,500,000, wheat 8,427,646, sunflower seeds 4,646,065, grapes 2,900,000, beef 2,830,000, apples 1,300,000, lemons and limes 1,260,000, maté 300,000, natural honey 81,000; livestock (number of live animals) 50,750,000 cattle, 12,450,000 sheep, 3,680,000 horses; roundwood 13,551,000 cu m, of which

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+16,805 39.0%

+13,265 23.7%

+13,087 19.3%

+13,977 17.7%

+13,456 13.7%

+15,464 12.4%

Imports (2008): U.S.$57,422,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 27.7%, of which industrial machinery 6.1%; chemicals and chemical products 18.1%; road vehicles/parts 15.7%; mineral fuels 7.2%). Major import sources: Brazil 31.3%; China 12.4%; U.S. 12.2%; Germany 4.4%; Mexico 2.8%. Exports (2008): U.S.$70,020,000,000 (cereals 10.8%, of which corn 5.0%; soybean animal foodstuffs 10.2%; road vehicles/parts 9.2%; petroleum 7.2%; soybean oil 7.0%; soybeans 6.5%; fruits/vegetables 4.3%). Major export destinations: Brazil 18.9%; China 9.1%; U.S. 7.9%; Chile 6.7%; Neth. 4.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: (2008) route length 31,409 km; (2007) passenger-km 8,248,000,000; (2007) metric ton-km cargo 12,871,000,000. Roads (2003): total length 143,768 mi, 231,374 km (paved 30%). Vehicles (2005): passenger cars 5,230,000; trucks and buses 1,775,000. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 12,108,000,00010; metric ton-km cargo 129,700,00010. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

12,500

2009 2009

51,89112 9,764

units per 1,000 persons 323 1,28812 242

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

3,500 1,12911 12,244 3,54312

units per 1,000 persons 90 3711 304 8812

Education and health Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 3.7%; incomplete primary education 14.2%; complete primary 28.0%; secondary 37.1%; higher 17.0%. Literacy (2007): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 97.6%. Education (2004–05) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

279,349 256,884 139,330

4,651,255 3,476,306 2,082,577

16.7 13.5 14.9

99 78 52 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2005) 120,978 (1 per 319 persons); hospital beds (2004) 76,446 (1 per 500 persons); infant mortality rate (2007) 12.1; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,890 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 73,100 (army 52.7%, navy 27.3%, air force 20.0%); paramilitary 31,240, of which coast guard 13,240. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.8%; per capita expenditure U.S.$55. 1Roman Catholicism has special status and receives financial support from the state, but it is not an official religion. 2Area of Tierra del Fuego excludes claims to Britishheld islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. 3Less than 20% practicing. 4Forecast. 5Import duties and VAT less imputed bank service charges. 6Includes 427,307 (2.8%) not defined and 4,351,596 (28.5%) unemployed. 7Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 8Based on a survey of 31 urban agglomerations. 9Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 10Aerolineas Argentinas and Austral airlines only. 11Circulation. 12Subscribers.

Internet resource for further information: • National Institute of Statistics and Censuses http://www.indec.mecon.ar

514

Britannica World Data

Armenia

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): potatoes 648,562, cow’s milk 618,900, tomatoes 293,784, wheat 225,734, grapes 185,832, watermelons 182,159, barley 149,091, cabbages 122,70210, apples 110,000; livestock (number of live animals) 629,146 cattle, 598,116 sheep; roundwood 42,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 95%; fisheries production 5,701 (from aquaculture 35%). Mining and quarrying (2007): copper concentrate (metal content) 17,600; molybdenum (metal content) 4,295; gold (metal content) 1,400 kg. Manufacturing (value of production in AMD ’000,000; 2007): food products and beverages 208,733; base metals 122,269; construction materials 40,207; 320,000 carats of cut diamonds were processed in 2004. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 6,114,000,000 ([2007] 5,866,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (3,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (301,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) none (1,930,000,000). Population economically active: total (2008) 1,194,600; activity rate of total population (2001) 49.5% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2001] 72.1%; female [2008] 49.8%; officially unemployed [2009] 6.9%).

Official name: Hayastani Hanrapetut’yun (Republic of Armenia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (National Assembly [131]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Yerevan. Official language: Armenian. Official religion: none1. Monetary unit: dram (AMD); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = AMD 363.69; 1 £ = AMD 561.83. Area and population

area

population 20092 estimate

Provinces

Centres

sq mi

Aragatsotn Ararat Armavir Gegharkunik Kotayk Lori Shirak Syunik Tavush Vayots-Dzor

Ashtarak Artashat Armavir Gavar Hrazdan Vanadzor Gyumri Kapan Ijevan Yeghegnadzor

1,063 809 479 2,0653 807 1,463 1,035 1,740 1,044 891

2,753 2,096 1,242 5,3483 2,089 3,789 2,681 4,506 2,704 2,308

141,000 277,600 282,600 240,900 278,800 281,700 281,300 152,900 134,100 55,800

City4 Yerevan

—

88 11,4845

227 29,7435

1,111,300 3,238,000

TOTAL

sq km

Population (2010)6: 3,090,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 269.1, persons per sq km 103.9. Urban-rural (20092): urban 64.0%; rural 36.0%. Sex distribution (20092): male 48.43%; female 51.57%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 20.9%; 15–29, 27.2%; 30–44, 19.5%; 45–59, 17.9%; 60–74, 10.2%; 75–84, 3.8%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Population projection6: (2020) 3,175,000; (2030) 3,170,000. Ethnic composition (2001): Armenian 97.9%; Kurdish 1.3%; Russian 0.5%; other 0.3%. Religious affiliation (2005): Armenian Apostolic (Orthodox) 72.9%; Roman Catholic 4.0%; Sunni Muslim 2.4%; other Christian 1.3%; Yazidi 1.3%; other/nonreligious 18.1%. Major cities (20092): Yerevan 1,111,300; Gyumri 146,400; Vanadzor 104,800; Vagharshapat 57,300; Hrazdan 52,900.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 13.7 (world avg. 20.3); (2007) within marriage 64.5%; (2007) outside of marriage 35.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.5 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.2 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.4. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 5.8/0.9. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 70.4 years; female 76.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 423.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 170.2; diseases of the respiratory system 55.4; diseases of the digestive system 47.0; endocrine and metabolic disorders 42.3.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: AMD 588,080,000,000 (tax revenue 82.3%, of which VAT 42.2%, tax on profits 12.8%, income tax 8.0%, excise tax 7.1%; nontax revenue 17.7%). Expenditures: AMD 634,735,000,000 (defense 15.1%; education and science 15.0%; social security 9.9%; public administration 9.8%; police 8.2%; health 7.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$1,446,000,000. Household income and expenditure (2005). Average household size 3.8; money income per household AMD 1,720,195 (U.S.$3,758); sources of money income: rent, self-employment, and remittances 38.9%, wages and salaries 34.5%, transfers 7.1%, other 19.5%; expenditure: food and beverages 56.6%, services 24.0%, non-food goods 14.3%, tobacco 5.1%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 14.4%, in permanent crops 1.9%, in pasture 41.0%, forest area 9.7%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$9,544,000,000 (U.S.$3,100 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$5,420 per capita). 2009

TOTAL

514,583 55,051 273,069 99,100 547,674 247,160 415,057 279,779 109,254 286,618 275,4727 3,102,8159

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

92.9 62.0

99.4 80.4

100.0 100.0

102.9 122.9

107.4 148.5

117.0 177.3

121.0 193.3

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 331; remittances (2009) 743; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 749; official development assistance (2008) 303. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 324; remittances (2008) 185.

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) 2004 –627 30.2%

2005 –755 28.7%

2006 –1,190 37.2%

2007 –1,932 46.3%

2008 –3,046 59.1%

200912 –2,322 65.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$4,101,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 15.5%; food products 12.9%; refined petroleum 9.0%; chemicals and chemical products 8.9%; road vehicles 6.3%; natural gas 6.0%; iron and steel 5.3%). Major import sources: Russia 20.3%; China 9.2%; Ukraine 7.6%; Turkey 6.5%; Iran 4.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,055,000,000 (ferroalloys 19.8%; cut diamonds 13.8%; wine/grape brandy 13.4%; nonferrous metals 11.4%, of which unrefined copper 6.0%, aluminum foil 3.5%; copper ore and concentrates 9.6%). Major export destinations: Russia 20.3%; Germany 17.4%; Netherlands 12.4%; Belgium 8.6%; Georgia 7.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007): length 732 km; passenger-km (2008) 26,600,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 705,000,000. Roads (2007): length 4,669 mi, 7,515 km (paved 68%); passenger-km (2008) 2,742,000,00013; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 179,000,000. Vehicles: n.a. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 1,127,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 13,100,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2003

687

229

2009 2009

2,62015 630

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

85015 204

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

980 4214 208 6.015

units per 1,000 persons 319 1614 68 1.915

Education and health Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.7%; primary education 13.0%; completed secondary and some postsecondary 66.0%; higher 20.3%. Literacy (2006): total population age 15 and over literate 99.4%; male 99.7%; female 99.2%. Education (2005–06) Primary (age 7–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–16) Tertiary16

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

5,720 42,806 12,521

121,473 356,355 111,544

21.2 8.3 8.9

82 86 36 (age 17–21)

Health (2008): physicians 12,929 (1 per 232 persons); hospital beds 12,358 (1 per 242 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 10.3; undernourished population (2004–06) 700,000 (23% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,920 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 46,684 (army 93.8%, air force/air defense 6.2%); Russian troops (November 2009) 3,214. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 3.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$122.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force in value AMD ’000,000

2003 Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography

Agriculture, forestry Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

2007 % of total value

labour force

% of labour force

16.6 1.8 8.8 3.2 17.7 8.0 13.4 9.0 3.5 9.2 8.97 100.09

434,200 17,100 81,500 35,400 91,400 72,200 127,300 31,300 70,500 227,600 470,9008 1,659,400

26.2 1.0 4.9 2.1 5.5 4.4 7.7 1.9 4.2 13.7 28.48 100.0

1The Armenian Apostolic Church (Armenian Orthodox Church) has special status per 1991 religious law. 2January 1 de jure estimate. 3Includes the 485 sq mi (1,256 sq km) area of Lake Sevan. 4City has province status. 5In addition, about 13% of neighbouring Azerbaijan (including the 1,700 sq mi [4,400 sq km] geographic region of NagornoKarabakh [Armenian: Artsakh]) has been occupied by Armenian forces since 1993. 6De facto population. 7Taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 8Unemployed. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 10Includes other brassicas. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Excludes December. 13Buses only. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 162006–07.

Internet resources for further information: • National Statistical Service http://www.armstat.am • Central Bank of Armenia http://www.cba.am/index.html

Nations of the World

Aruba

Population economically active (2004): total 41,500; activity rate of total population 42.6% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2000] 70.9%; female [2000] 46.6%; unemployed [2005] 6.9%).

Official name: Aruba1. Political status: autonomous state of the Netherlands with one legislative house (States of Aruba [21]). Head of state: Dutch Monarch represented by Governor. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Oranjestad. Official languages: Dutch; Papiamentu. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Aruban florin (Af.); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Af. 1.79; 1 £ = Af. 2.77. Area and population Census region Noord/Tanki Leendert Oranjestad East Oranjestad West Paradera San Nicolas North San Nicolas South Santa Cruz Savaneta TOTAL

515

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.2 97.0

96.6 100.0

100.0 100.0

103.8 …

109.7 …

119.6 …

117.0 …

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index11

area2

Household income and expenditure (2006): average household size 2.8; average annual expenditure per household Af. 50,421 (U.S.$28,168); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: housing 26.8%, transportation 14.9%, energy and water 9.5%, household furnishings and operation 9.5%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 8.4%, recreation and culture 7.6%, communications 5.3%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,409; remittances (2009) 14; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 223. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 323; remittances (2008) 80.

population

sq mi

sq km

2000 census

14 5 4 10 9 4 18 11 75

37 13 10 25 23 10 47 28 193

16,944 14,224 12,131 9,037 10,118 5,730 12,326 9,996 90,506

Foreign trade12, 13, 14 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 108,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 1,440.0, persons per sq km 559.6. Urban-rural (2003): urban 45.4%; rural 54.6%. Sex distribution (2008): male 47.85%; female 52.15%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 19.9%; 15–29, 18.8%; 30–44, 23.9%; 45–59, 23.4%; 60–74, 10.7%; 75–84, 2.6%; 85 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2020) 112,000; (2030) 113,000. Linguistic composition (2000): Papiamento 69.4%; Spanish 13.2%; English 8.1%; Dutch 6.1%; Portuguese 0.3%; other 2.0%; unknown 0.9%.3 Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic 82.7%; Protestant 10.2%; other/nonreligious 7.1%. Major urban areas (2007): Oranjestad 32,000; San Nicolas (2002) 17,400.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.3 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 41.6%; outside of marriage 58.4%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.8 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.5 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.70. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 3.84/2.8. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 76.0 years; female 82.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2001–04): diseases of the circulatory system 177.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 129.2; communicable diseases 36.2; diabetes mellitus 32.5; suicide or accidents 31.5; violence 13.2.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–796.5 83.3%

–923.8 81.3%

–932.3 81.0%

–1,016.0 83.8%

–1,011.7 83.4%

Imports (2008): U.S.$1,112,600,000 (chemicals and chemical products 16.9%, food products 16.5%, power-generating machinery 9.5%, road vehicles 6.0%). Major import sources: United States 52.9%; Netherlands 11.4%; United Kingdom 4.6%; Colombia 3.5%. Exports (2008): U.S.$100,900,000 (organic chemicals 42.9%, manufactured tobacco 22.7%, iron and steel 4.7%). Major export destinations: Panama 21.8%; Colombia 18.9%; Venezuela 16.7%; United States 13.2%; Netherlands Antilles 11.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1995): total length 497 mi, 800 km (paved 64%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 49,372; trucks and buses 1,292. Air transport (2001)15: passenger-km 800,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

20

218

2009 2009

12817 38

1,20217 360

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

… 2009 2009 2009

… 5416 24 2217

Budget (2007–08). Revenue: Af. 1,107,500,000 (tax revenue 86.4%, of which taxes on wages 22.3%, import duties 14.5%, taxes on profits 8.0%; nontax revenue 10.5%; grants 3.1%). Expenditures: Af. 1,170,700,000 (wages 27.2%; goods and services 16.9%; interest 9.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; end of June 2008): U.S.$577,400,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing: aloes are cultivated for export; small amounts of tomatoes, beans, cucumbers, gherkins, watermelons, and lettuce are grown on hydroponic farms; divi-divi pods, sour orange fruit, sorghum, and peanuts (groundnuts) are nonhydroponic crops of limited value; livestock (number of live animals) Aruba has very few livestock; roundwood (2008) 1,665 cu m, of which fuelwood 100%; fisheries production (2008) 151 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: excavation of sand for local use. Manufacturing5: refined petroleum, rum, cigarettes, aloe products, and soaps. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 936,000,000 (936,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 916,000 (77,900,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 10,100,000 (256,000); natural gas, none (none). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, left fallow, or in permanent crops 11.1%; in pasture, n.a.; forest area 2.2%. Gross national income (2008): U.S.$2,562,000,000 (U.S.$24,295 per capita).

… 65116 225 20717

Education and health Educational attainment (2000). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling or incomplete primary education 9.7%; primary education 33.9%; secondary/vocational 39.2%; advanced vocational/higher 16.2%; unknown status 1.0%. Literacy (2005): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 96.9%. Education (2006–07)

National economy

units per 1,000 persons

teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary

594 51818 222

students 10,346 7,853 2,232

student/ teacher ratio 17.4 14.418 10.1

enrollment rate (%) 100 82 27 (age 17–21)

Health (2008): physicians 148 (1 per 709 persons); hospital beds 29219 (1 per 360 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 1.6; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (2005): more than 1,000 Dutch naval personnel (including 400 marines) are stationed in the Aruba/Netherlands Antilles vicinity.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2002 in value Af. ’000,000 Agriculture } Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

2008 % of total value

11.6

0.3

110.77 157.8 230.58 306.8 746.6 942.4

3.27 4.6 6.78 9.0 21.8 27.6

826.4

24.2

88.49 3,421.2

2.69 100.0

labour force6 246 26 2,728 4,442 507 2,079 18,281 7,868 166 7,366 4 43,713

% of labour force6 0.6 0.1 6.2 10.2 1.2 4.8 41.8 18.0 0.4 16.9 — 100.010

1Same

official name in Dutch and Papiamentu. 2Areas for census regions are approximate. 3Most Arubans are racially and ethnically mixed; the 4 major ethnic groups are Amerindian, Dutch, Spanish, and black. 4Excludes tourists. 5Service facilities include a free zone, offshore corporate banking facilities, casino/resort complexes, a petroleum transshipment terminal, a cruise ship terminal, and ship repair and bunkering facilities. 6Employees on payrolls only. 7Excludes refined petroleum. 8Includes refined petroleum. 9Taxes less subsidies and imputed bank service charges. 10Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 11Minimum wage for the manufacturing and service industries. 12Includes imports and exports of Aruba free zone. 13Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 14Excludes trade in petroleum. 15Air Aruba only. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 182005–06. 19Excludes hospital beds in geriatric homes.

Internet resources for further information: • Centrale Bank van Aruba http://www.cbaruba.org • Central Bureau of Statistics http://www.cbs.aw/cbs/home.do

516

Britannica World Data

Australia

(cancers) 192.0; diseases of the respiratory system 52.5; accidents and violence 37.9; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 24.8; diseases of the nervous system 23.7; diseases of the digestive system 21.7.

Official name: Commonwealth of Australia. Form of government: federal parliamentary state (formally a constitutional monarchy) with two legislative houses (Senate [76]; House of Representatives [150]). Head of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Canberra. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Australian dollar ($A); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = $A 1.10; 1 £ = $A 1.70.

Social indicators Quality of working life. Average workweek (2008): 34.5 hours. Working 50 hours a week or more (2006) 22.5%. Annual rate per 100,000 workers for: accidental injury and industrial disease (2008) 1,020; death (2006) 2.0. Proportion of employed persons insured for damages or income loss resulting from: injury 100%; permanent disability 100%; death 100%. Working days lost to industrial disputes per 1,000 employees (2008): 21. Means of transportation to work (2003): private automobile 74.5%; public transportation 12.0%; motorcycle, bicycle, and foot 5.7%. Discouraged job seekers (2006): 52,900 (0.5% of labour force). Distribution of household income (2007–08) percentage of household income by quintile

Area and population area States

Capitals

New South Wales (NSW) Queensland (QLD) South Australia (SA) Tasmania (TAS) Victoria (VIC) Western Australia (WA)

Sydney Brisbane Adelaide Hobart Melbourne Perth

Territories2 Australian Capital Territory (ACT) Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Jervis Bay Norfolk Island Northern Territory (NT) TOTAL

Canberra The Settlement West Island — Kingston Darwin

sq mi

population sq km

20091 estimate

309,389 669,568 380,441 26,222 87,805 977,442

801,315 1,734,174 985,338 67,914 227,415 2,531,562

7,134,421 4,425,103 1,623,590 503,292 5,443,228 2,245,057

908 53

2,352 137

352,189 1,440

5 26 14 522,079 2,973,952

14 68 35 1,352,178 7,702,5014

604 394 1,8633 225,938 21,957,1195

Demography Population (2010): 22,403,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 7.5, persons per sq km 2.9. Urban-rural (2005): urban 88.2%; rural 11.8%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.09%; female 49.91%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 18.7%; 15–29, 20.8%; 30–44, 22.0%; 45–59, 20.0%; 60–74, 12.2%; 75–84, 4.5%; 85 and over, 1.8%. Population projection: (2020) 24,927,000; (2030) 27,131,000. Ethnic composition (2007): white and others not elsewhere classified 90.2%; Asian (excl. Middle East) 7.3%; aboriginal 2.5%. Religious affiliation (2006): Christian 63.9%, of which Roman Catholic 25.6%, Anglican Church of Australia 18.7%, other Christian 19.6% (Uniting Church 5.7%, Presbyterian 2.9%, Orthodox 2.6%, Baptist 1.6%, Lutheran 1.3%); Buddhist 2.1%; Muslim 1.7%; Hindu 0.7%; Jewish 0.4%; no religion 18.7%; other 12.5%. Major urban centres/metropolitan areas (2006): Sydney 3,641,422/4,119,191; Melbourne 3,371,888/3,592,590; Brisbane 1,676,389/1,763,132; Perth 1,256,035/1,445,077; Adelaide 1,040,719/1,105,840; Gold Coast (QLD)–Tweed Heads (NSW) 454,436/541,675; Newcastle 288,732/493,467; Canberra (ACT)–Queanbeyan (NSW) 356,120/368,128; Gosford (Central Coast) 282,726/n.a.; Wollongong 234,482/263,535; Sunshine Coast (Caloundra) 184,662/209,578; Hobart 128,577/200,524; Geelong 137,220/160,992; Townsville 128,808/143,330; Cairns 98,349/122,731; Toowoomba 95,265/114,480; Darwin 66,291/105,990; Launceston 71,395/99,674; Albury (NSW)–Wodonga (VIC) 73,497/96,292. Place of birth (2006): 70.9% native-born; 29.1% foreign-born, of which Europe 10.5% (United Kingdom 5.2%, Italy 1.0%, Greece 0.6%, Germany 0.5%, Netherlands 0.4%, Poland 0.3%), Asia and Middle East 7.3% (China [including Hong Kong] 1.4%, Vietnam 0.8%, India 0.7%), New Zealand 2.0%, Africa, the Americas, and other 9.3%. Mobility (1999). Population age 15 and over living in the same residence as in 1998: 84.4%; different residence between states, regions, and neighbourhoods 15.6%. Households (2006). Total number of households 8,058,248. Average household size 2.6; 1 person (2003–04) 25.4%, 2 persons (2003–04) 33.9%, 3 or more persons (2003–04) 40.7%. Family households 5,665,000 (70.3%), nonfamily 2,393,000 (29.7%), of which 1-person 26.5%. Immigration (2006–07): permanent immigrants admitted 140,148, from New Zealand 17.1%, United Kingdom 16.6%, India 9.6%, China 8.6%, Philippines 4.0%, South Africa 2.9%, Vietnam 2.2%, Malaysia 2.1%, Sri Lanka 1.9%, Sudan 1.8%. Emigration (2006–07): 72,100, to New Zealand 19.3%, United Kingdom 18.2%, United States 10.0%, Hong Kong 7.5%. Refugee arrivals (2006–07) 13,017.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008–09): 13.7 (world avg. 20.3); (2008) within marriage 65.7%; (2008) outside of marriage 34.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008–09): 6.5 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008–09): 7.2 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008–09): 1.98. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 5.5/2.2. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 79.2 years; female 84.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 220.6, of which ischemic heart disease 142.3; malignant neoplasms

lowest

second

third

fourth

highest

7.6%

12.7%

17.4%

22.9%

39.4%

Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 15–64 having: no formal schooling and incomplete secondary education 48.5%; completed secondary and postsecondary, technical, or other certificate/diploma 28.9%; bachelor’s degree 14.2%; incomplete graduate and graduate degree or diploma 5.4%; unknown 3.0%. Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election (2007): 94.8%; voting is compulsory. Trade union membership in total workforce (2006): 20.3%. Volunteerism rate of population age 18 and over (2006) 34.1%. Social deviance (2009). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder 1.2; sexual assault 86.0; assault (2007) 839; auto theft 272.7; burglary and housebreaking 1,018.0; robbery 69.7, of which armed robbery 29.8. Incidence per 100,000 in general population of: prisoners (2008) 169; suicide (2006) 8.7. Material well-being (2005). Households possessing: refrigerator 99.9%; washing machine 96.4%; dishwasher 41.5%; automobiles per 1,000 population (2006) 544.

National economy Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$957,529,000,000 (U.S.$43,770 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$38,210 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008–09

2008

in value $A ’000,0006

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

31,460 81,575 103,431 84,596 28,605 93,624 134,751 239,689 60,790 249,168 89,3077 1,196,996

2.6 6.8 8.6 7.1 2.4 7.8 11.3 20.0 5.1 20.8 7.57 100.0

354,800 133,100 1,102,100 987,000 98,500 695,600 2,555,400 1,727,800 644,500 2,441,700 279,200 11,019,700

3.2 1.2 10.0 9.0 0.9 6.3 23.2 15.7 5.8 22.2 2.5 100.0

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Budget (2007–08). Revenue: $A 303,713,000,000 (tax revenue 94.2%, of which individual income tax 41.5%, indirect tax 25.6%, company income tax 21.3%; nontax revenue 5.8%). Expenditures: $A 280,108,000,000 (social security and welfare 34.9%; health 15.8%; economic services 7.4%; general administration 7.2%; education 6.6%; defense 6.3%; interest on public debt 1.3%). Public debt (December 2008): U.S.$106,300,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 33,973,000, wheat 21,397,000, cow’s milk 9,223,000, barley 6,820,000, sorghum 3,072,000, beef 2,300,000, grapes 1,956,790, rapeseed 1,615,000, oats 1,267,000, potatoes 1,211,988, chicken meat 811,591, sheep meat 684,000, lupins 484,000, oranges 470,673, wool 464,736, pork 384,200, tomatoes 296,035, carrots 271,464, apples 270,476, bananas 213,193, cottonseed 178,000, mushrooms 42,739; livestock (number of live animals) 79,000,000 sheep, 28,000,000 cattle, 2,604,681 pigs, 97,386,000 chickens; roundwood 34,856,720 cu m, of which fuelwood 22%; fisheries production 235,928 (from aquaculture 24%); aquatic plants production 1,923 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (metric tons except as noted; 2007): iron ore (metal content) 185,363,000 (world rank: 3), bauxite 62,398,000 (world rank: 1), ilmenite 2,326,000 (world rank: 1), zinc (metal content) 1,514,000 (world rank: 3), copper (metal content) 880,000 (world rank: 5), lead (metal content) 641,000 (world rank: 2), rutile 313,000 (world rank: 1), nickel (metal content) 184,000 (world rank: 3), cobalt (metal content) 5,900 (world rank: 3), opal (value of production) $A 40,000,000 (world rank: 1), diamonds 19,191,000 carats (world rank by volume: 2), gold 245,000 kilograms (world rank: 1). Manufacturing (gross value added in $A ’000,000; 2006–07): base metals 15,158; food 14,455; machinery and apparatus 10,538; fabricated metal products 9,076; transport equipment 9,003; chemicals and chemical products 6,831; beverages and tobacco products 5,787; bricks, cement, and ceramics 5,019. Population economically active (2008): total 11,211,400; activity rate of total population 52.5% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 65.2%; female 45.4%; unemployed [June 2010] 5.2%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Weekly earnings index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.2 91.3

97.4 94.8

100.0 100.0

103.5 103.8

106.0 108.6

110.6 113.0

112.6 119.6

Nations of the World Household income and expenditure (2006). Average household size (2007–08) 2.6; average annual disposable income per household $A 55,432 (U.S.$41,762); sources of income: wages and salaries 59.3%, transfer payments 26.1%, self-employment 6.1%, other 8.5%; expenditure (2007–08): housing 17.2%, recreation and culture 12.1%, transportation 11.7%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 11.0%, hotels and cafés 7.5%, household furnishings and operation 5.6%, health 5.4%, alcohol and cigarettes 3.7%, clothing and footwear 3.7%, education 3.4%. Financial aggregates 2003 Exchange rate, $A per8: U.S. dollar £ SDR International reserves (U.S.$)8 Total (excl. gold; ’000,000) SDRs (’000,000) Reserve pos. in IMF (’000,000) Foreign exchange (’000,000) Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) % world reserves Interest and prices Govt. bond yield (short-term; %) Industrial share prices (2005 = 100) Balance of payments8 (U.S.$’000,000) Balance of visible trade Imports, f.o.b. Exports, f.o.b. Balance of invisibles Balance of payments, current account

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

1.33 2.37 1.98

1.28 2.47 1.99

1.36 2.34 1.95

1.26 2.47 1.90

1.13 2.26 1.79

1.44 2.10 2.22

1.12 1.81 1.75

32,189 170

35,803 195

41,941 193

53,448 200

24,768 193

30,691 174

38,950 4,856

2,053

1,706

776

428

339

649

1,092

29,966

33,901

40,972

52,821

24,237

29,867

33,002

2.56 0.3

2.56 0.3

2.57 0.3

2.57 0.3

2.57 0.3

2.57 0.3

2.57 0.3

Imports (2008): U.S.$191,584,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 24.6%, of which general industrial machinery 4.8%, telecommunications/sound recording equipment 4.7%, electrical machinery 4.4%; transportation equipment 14.4%, of which motor vehicles 11.7%; chemicals and related products 10.4%; crude petroleum 7.9%; refined petroleum 6.7%; gold 4.3%). Major import sources: China 15.6%; U.S. 12.0%; Japan 9.0%; Singapore 7.2%; Germany 5.0%; Thailand 4.5%; U.K. 4.4%; Malaysia 4.0%; New Zealand 3.4%; South Korea 2.8%. Exports (2008): U.S.$186,853,000,000 (mineral fuels 32.0%, of which bituminous coal 21.0%, crude petroleum 4.7%, LNG 4.2%; metal ore and scrap 22.6%, of which iron ore and concentrates 13.6%; food and beverages 9.8%, of which meat and meat preparations 3.2%, cereals and cereal preparations 2.7%, wine 1.1%; gold 6.4%; nonferrous metals [particularly aluminum and refined copper] 5.6%; machinery and apparatus 4.1%; wool 1.0%). Major export destinations: Japan 22.9%; China 14.6%; South Korea 8.3%; India 6.1%; U.S. 5.5%; New Zealand 4.2%; U.K. 4.2%; Taiwan 3.7%; Singapore 2.8%; Thailand 2.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 37,855 km; passenger-km (2007) 13,240,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 198,700,000,000. Roads (2004): total length 503,709 mi, 810,641 km (paved 42%); passenger-km (2007) 301,500,000,00010; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 182,500,000,000. Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 11,848,326; trucks and buses 2,880,647. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 79,224,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,206,000,000.

4.90

5.30

5.27

5.71

6.33

5.63

4.26

Communications

70.9

82.5

100.0

119.2

143.9

113.7

95.4

Medium

date

number in ’000s 14,371

… … … …

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

–13,372 –9,596 –17,784 –4,915 –120,383 –134,509 –160,205 –193,972 107,011 124,913 142,421 189,057 –27,660 –31,908 –40,248 –42,871

2009 2009

24,22012 9,020

–28,684 –38,854 –41,032 –41,504 –58,032 –47,786

…

–15,339 –18,064 –85,861 –105,230 70,522 87,166 –13,345 –20,790

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 229,848,000,000 ([2007] 254,965,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 287,545,000 (35,899,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 101,838,000 (102,464,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 173,900,000 ([2007] 229,300,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 30,618,000 (35,814,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 42,334,000,000 ([2007] 31,660,000,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 25,062; remittances (2009) 4,509; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 39,656. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 18,729; remittances (2008) 2,997; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 25,387. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 3.0%, left fallow 2.7%9, in permanent crops 0.05%, in pasture 49.6%, forest area 21.3%.

517

units per 1,000 persons 722 1,13812 424

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

15,671 2,48211 15,757 5,40012

757 14311 740 25412

Education and health Literacy (2006): total population literate, virtually 100%13. Education (2005–06) teachers Primary (age 5–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

students

121,215 1,936,118 118,42414 1,431,91814 90,409 957,176

student/ teacher ratio 16.0 12.114 10.615

enrollment rate (%) 96 87 73 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2006) 55,063 (1 per 375 persons); hospital beds (2006–07) 82,587 (1 per 255 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007–08) 4.1; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5% of total population.

Military Foreign trade

Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 54,74716 (army 50.2%, navy 24.1%, air force 25.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 2.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$1,26417.

Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–15,339 9.8%

–17,322 9.1%

–13,170 5.9%

–9,328 3.6%

–16,535 5.6%

–4,731 1.3%

Trade by commodity group (2007) imports SITC Group 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09

Food and live animals Beverages and tobacco Crude materials, excluding fuels Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials Animal and vegetable oils, fat, and waxes Chemicals and related products, n.e.s. Basic manufactures Machinery and transport equipment Miscellaneous manufactured articles Goods not classified by kind

TOTAL

exports

U.S.$’000,000

%

5,972 1,185

U.S.$’000,000

%

3.8 0.8

14,454 2,692

10.4 1.9

2,040

1.3

33,907

24.4

20,175

13.0

31,648

22.7

449

0.3

347

0.2

16,621 17,606

10.7 11.3

6,496 15,404

4.7 11.1

65,573

42.1

11,407

8.2

20,277

13.0

4,185

3.0

5,759 155,657

3.7 100.0

18,582 139,122

13.4 100.0

Direction of trade (2007) imports U.S.$’000,000 Africa Asia East Asia China Japan Southeast Asia South Asia West Asia undefined Asia South America and Caribbean North America United States Europe United Kingdom Oceania New Zealand other TOTAL

1,511 85,512 48,698 24,054 14,941 30,667 1,479 4,034 634 2,478 21,692 20,003 36,244 6,717 7,616 5,187 604 155,657

exports % 1.0 54.9 31.3 15.5 9.6 19.7 0.9 2.6 0.4 1.6 13.9 12.9 23.3 4.3 4.9 3.3 0.4 100.0

U.S.$’000,000 3,372 94,090 64,420 19,456 26,379 15,116 8,556 5,968 30 1,880 9,784 8,304 17,928 5,811 10,175 7,849 1,893 139,122

% 2.4 67.6 46.3 14.0 19.0 10.9 6.1 4.3 — 1.4 7.0 6.0 12.9 4.2 7.3 5.6 1.4 100.0

1July 1. 2With permanent civilian population only. 3Revised 2006 census results. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Total includes 2006 revised census results for Norfolk Island. 6At constant prices of 2007–08. 7Taxes on products less subsidies and less statistical discrepancy. 8At end of year. 9Includes temporary meadows and pastures. 10Passenger cars and buses. 11Circulation. 12Subscribers. 13A national survey conducted in 1996 put the number of persons who had very poor literacy and numeracy skills at about 17% of the total population (age 15 to 64). 14Excludes vocational. 152004–05. 16Troops deployed abroad (November 2009) 2,665, of which to Afghanistan 1,350, to East Timor 650. 17Includes military pensions.

Internet resources for further information: • Australian Bureau of Statistics http://www.abs.gov.au • Reserve Bank of Australia http://www.rba.gov.au

518

Britannica World Data

Austria

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Official name: Republik Österreich (Republic of Austria). Form of government: federal state with two legislative houses (Federal Council [62]; National Council [183]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Chancellor. Capital: Vienna. Official language: German. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Capitals

Burgenland Kärnten Niederösterreich Oberösterreich Salzburg Steiermark Tirol Vorarlberg Wien (Vienna)

Eisenstadt Klagenfurt Sankt Pölten Linz Salzburg Graz Innsbruck Bregenz —

TOTAL

labour force3

% of labour force

3,790 990 46,160 18,200 6,940 14,550 43,750 58,710 15,070 39,820 26,3204 274,3206

1.4 0.4 16.8 6.6 2.5 5.3 15.9 21.4 5.5 14.5 9.64 100.06

231,300 8,800 730,500 329,100 30,100 243,200 904,200 498,400 275,400 776,900 185,6005 4,213,500

5.5 0.2 17.3 7.8 0.7 5.8 21.5 11.8 6.5 18.5 4.45 100.0

TOTAL

area

States

% of total value

Agriculture, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 2.3; median annual disposable income per household (2008) >28,592 (U.S.$41,881); sources of income (1995): wages and salaries 54.8%, transfer payments 25.9%; expenditure (2004–05): housing and energy 22.3%, transportation 16.1%, recreation and culture 12.6%, food 11.7%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 15.1%, left fallow 0.9%, in permanent crops 0.8%, in pasture 22.5%, forest area 47.0%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 21,630; remittances (2009) 3,169; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 17,023. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 11,432; remittances (2008) 3,356; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 25,088.

population

sq mi

sq km

20101 estimate

1,530 3,683 7,408 4,626 2,763 6,332 4,880 1,004 160 32,386

3,962 9,538 19,186 11,980 7,156 16,401 12,640 2,601 415 83,879

283,965 559,315 1,607,976 1,411,238 529,861 1,208,372 706,873 368,868 1,698,822 8,375,290

2007

in value >’000,000

Foreign trade7 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 8,382,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 258.8, persons per sq km 99.9. Urban-rural (2005): urban 66.5%; rural 33.5%. Sex distribution (2007): male 48.66%; female 51.34%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 15.5%; 15–29, 18.7%; 30–44, 23.3%; 45–59, 20.3%; 60–74, 14.3%; 75–84, 6.0%; 85 and over, 1.9%. Population projection: (2020) 8,733,000; (2030) 9,032,000. Population composition by country of birth (20081): Austria 84.8%; former Serbia and Montenegro 2.3%; Germany 2.2%; Turkey 1.9%; Bosnia and Herzegovina 1.6%; Poland 0.7%; Romania 0.7%; other 5.8%. Religious affiliation (2001): Christian 81.5%, of which Roman Catholic 73.7%, Protestant (mostly Lutheran) 4.7%, Orthodox 2.2%; Muslim 4.2%; nonreligious 12.0%; other 0.3%; unknown 2.0%. Major cities (20101): Vienna 1,698,822 (urban agglomeration 1,996,885); Graz 257,328; Linz 189,311; Salzburg 147,571; Innsbruck 119,249.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.1 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 60.7%; outside of marriage 39.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): –0.2 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.39. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 4.2/2.2. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 77.4 years; female 82.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 387.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 245.0; accidents and violence 52.8; diseases of the respiratory system 49.5.

>’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,246 0.7%

–1,794 0.9%

–459 0.2%

+425 0.2%

–1,910 0.8%

–3,658 1.9%

Imports (2008): >119,490,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 22.7%; chemicals and related products 10.9%; road vehicles/parts 9.8%; petroleum 7.6%; food products 5.6%). Major import sources: Germany 40.5%; Italy 6.9%; Switzerland 4.4%; China 4.2%; Czech Republic 3.6%. Exports (2008): >117,580,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 28.7%, of which electrical machinery 6.9%, general industrial machinery 6.7%, specialized machinery 6.3%; road vehicles/parts 9.6%; chemicals and chemical products 9.6%; iron and steel 6.6%; fabricated metal products 5.1%). Major export destinations: Germany 29.7%; Italy 8.6%; U.S. 4.4%; Switzerland 4.2%; France 3.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: (2008) route length 6,399 km; (2007) passenger-km 9,167,000,000; (2007) metric ton-km cargo 21,371,000,000. Roads (2007): total length 66,649 mi, 107,262 km (paved 100%); (2006) passenger-km 81,300,000,0008; (2008) metric ton-km cargo 34,327,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 4,245,583; trucks and buses 363,043. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 16,464,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 421,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2008

3,218

386

2009 2009

11,77310 3,253

1,40810 389

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

5,027 2,3059 6,144 1,87810

607 3259 735 22510

National economy Budget (2007)2. Revenue: >113,942,000,000 (tax revenue 66.4%, of which income taxes 30.5%, taxes on products 27.1%; social security contributions 33.6%). Expenditures: >131,126,000,000 (social protection 41.6%; health 15.5%; general administration 14.2%; education 10.7%; economic affairs 9.6%; defense 1.8%). Public debt (December 2007): U.S.$220,517,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugar beets 3,091,432, corn (maize) 2,147,244, wheat 1,689,688, barley 967,921, potatoes 756,945, apples 551,356, grapes 399,163, triticale 250,677, rye 218,511, currants 19,767; livestock (number of live animals) 3,160,382 pigs, 2,002,143 cattle; roundwood 21,795,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 22%; fisheries production 2,437 (from aquaculture 86%). Mining and quarrying (2008): iron ore (metal content) 650,000; manganese (metal content) 15,000; tungsten (metal content) 1,250. Manufacturing (value added in >’000,000; 2006): nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 6,250; fabricated metal products 5,550; food and beverages 3,900; motor vehicles/parts 3,100; chemicals and chemical products 2,900; cement, bricks, and ceramics 2,600; base metals 2,600. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 68,856,000,000 ([2007] 69,976,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2008) none ([2007] 4,387,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 5,960,000 ([2007] 62,700,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 7,208,000 (11,524,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 1,670,000,000 ([2007] 8,969,000,000). Population economically active (2007)3: total 4,213,500; activity rate of total population 51.4% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2006] 73.7%; female 45.5%; unemployed [March 2008–February 2009] 6.0%).

Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: compulsory education through age 14, 28.3%; apprentice training/intermediate technical 48.2%; academic secondary/higher technical 13.9%; university 9.6%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Education (2005–06) Primary (age 6–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

29,044 71,548 40,186

355,293 782,981 253,139

12.2 10.9 6.3

97 … 50 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (20081) 20,318 (1 per 410 persons); hospital beds (20081, 11) 57,646 (1 per 144 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 3.7; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 27,300 (army 49.8%, air force 8.4%, support 41.8%); reserve 195,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.7%; per capita expenditure U.S.$375.

1January

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Annual hourly index

Education and health

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.8 95.8

97.7 97.7

100.0 100.0

101.4 102.7

103.7 105.2

107.0 108.4

107.5 112.1

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$391,822,000,000 (U.S.$46,850 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$38,550 per capita).

1. 2For general (central and local) government; revenue data are based on tax revenue and social security contributions only. 3Excludes conscripts not employed before their military service. 4Taxes less subsidies. 5Unemployed. 6Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 8Passenger cars 72,000,000,000; buses 9,300,000,000. 9Circulation. 10Subscribers. 11Excludes hospital beds in nursing homes and sanatoriums.

Internet resource for further information: • Austrian Central Office of Statistics http://www.statistik.at

Nations of the World

Azerbaijan

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Official name: AzLrbaycan Respublikas: (Republic of Azerbaijan). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (National Assembly [1251]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Baku (Bak:). Official language: Azerbaijanian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: (new) manat (AZN)2; (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = AZN 0.80; 1 £ = AZN 1.24.

area

population

Economic regions3

sq km

2009 census4

Ab÷eron Aran Bak: (Baku) Dagl:q ×irvan GLncL-Qazax KLlbLcLr-Laçin6 LLnkLran Quba-Xaçmaz ×Lki-Zagatala

3,290 21,430 2,130 6,060 12,480 0 6,070 6,960 8,960

514,200 1,797,300 2,046,100 281,200 1,172,200 0 823,900 488,300 565,900

2008

in value AZN ’000,000 Agriculture Petroleum and natural gas, other mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Services Pub. admin., defense Other TOTAL

Area and population area

population

Economic regions3

sq km

2009 census4

Yuxar: Qarabag (part)

2,2005

110,0005

5,500

398,400

11,4507 — 86,5309

…7 724,8008 8,922,300

Autonomous republic Naxç:van Conflicted area6 REMAINDER TOTAL

Population (2010): 9,062,00010. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 271.0, persons per sq km 104.6. Urban-rural (201011): urban 54.1%; rural 45.9%. Sex distribution (200811): male 49.34%; female 50.66%. Age breakdown (201011): under 15, 22.6%; 15–29, 29.3%; 30–44, 22.1%; 45–59, 17.2%; 60 and over, 8.8%. Population projection: (2020) 9,979,000; (2030) 10,471,000. Ethnic composition (1999): Azerbaijani 90.6%; Lezgian (Dagestani) 2.2%; Russian 1.8%; Armenian 1.5%; other 3.9%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim 87.0%12, of which Shi(i 52.8%12, Sunni 34.2%12; nonreligious/other 13.0%12. Major cities (20094): Baku 1,145,000 (urban agglomeration 1,950,000); GLncL 313,300; Sumqay:t (Sumgait) 309,700; MingLçevir (Mingechaur) 96,400; Qaraçuxur (2007) 74,700.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 17.2 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 88.5%; outside of marriage 11.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.9 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.3 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 2.30. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 8.8/0.9. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 70.9 years; female 76.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): diseases of the circulatory system 363.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 78.3; accidents, poisoning, and violence 27.3; diseases of the respiratory system 26.2.

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

2,321

6.7

1,605,900

37.2

15,495 1,396 391 2,562 2,948 2,777 1,494 2,519 634 2,042 14 34,579

44.8 4.1 1.1 7.4 8.5 8.0 4.3 7.3 1.9 5.914 100.0

45,300 195,500 44,600 206,600 167,000 680,800 229,900 630,900 249,500 261,400 4,317,400

1.0 4.5 1.0 4.8 3.9 15.8 5.3 14.6 5.8 6.1 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$2,734,000,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 190; remittances (2009) 1,087; foreign direct disinvestment (2006–08 avg.) –1,802; official development assistance (2008) 235. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 341; remittances (2008) 593; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 516. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 21.9%, left fallow 0.6%, in permanent crops 2.7%, in pasture 32.4%, forest area 11.3%.

Foreign trade15 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–36 0.7%

+227 3.1%

+3,438 29.0%

+7,745 42.4%

+15,561 57.7%

+40,594 73.9%

Imports (2008): U.S.$7,162,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 31.0%, of which general industrial machinery 6.5%, civil engineering equipment/parts 6.3%; road vehicles 13.4%; food 11.4%; chemicals and chemical products 8.4%; iron and steel products 7.1%). Major import sources: Russia 18.8%; Turkey 11.3%; Germany 8.4%; Ukraine 7.9%; China 6.7%. Exports (2008): U.S.$47,756,000,000 (crude petroleum 92.5%; refined petroleum 4.3%; fruits and nuts 0.3%; aluminum alloys 0.3%; boats or floating structures 0.3%). Major export destinations: Italy 40.2%; U.S. 12.6%; Israel 7.6%; India 5.0%; France 4.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2009): route length 2,079 km; passenger-km 1,024,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,952,000,000. Roads (2009): total length 36,748 mi, 59,141 km (paved 49%); passenger-km (2007) 12,893,000,00016; metric ton-km cargo (2009) 10,634,000,000. Vehicles (2009): passenger cars 759,203; trucks and buses 147,363. Air transport (2009): passenger-km 1,275,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,388,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

2,750

334

2009 2009

7,75718 1,397

87818 158

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

207 12017 3,689 10018

24 1317 418 11.318

Education and health

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: AZN 10,326,000,000 (nontax revenue 50.3%; tax revenue 48.8%, of which VAT 19.5%, taxes on enterprise profits 12.9%, individual income taxes 5.6%; other 0.9%). Expenditures: AZN 10,568,000,000 (national economy 41.5%; education 10.9%; social security 9.8%; defense/police 6.1%; health 3.8%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): wheat 1,645,790, cow’s milk (2007) 1,314,072, potatoes 1,077,110, barley 605,525, apples 205,021, persimmons 132,179, grapes 115,822, seed cotton 55,408, hazelnuts 27,745, tobacco leaves 2,485; livestock (number of live animals) 7,523,000 sheep, 2,212,800 cattle; roundwood 6,500 cu m, of which fuelwood 49%; fisheries production 1,606 (from aquaculture 6%). Mining and quarrying (2007): limestone 1,413,000; bromine 2,000. Manufacturing (value of production in AZN ’000,000; 2009): food, beverages, and tobacco products 1,645; refined petroleum products 1,346; transport equipment 203; base and fabricated metals 171. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 18,552,000,000 ([2008] 17,700,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 367,000,000 ([2008] 53,529,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 6,819,000 (3,139,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 16,407,000,000 ([2008] 10,133,000,000). Household income and expenditure (2009). Average household size 4.5; annual income per household AZN 4,736 (U.S.$5,519); sources of income: wages and salaries 31.9%, self-employment 24.5%, agriculture 16.1%, transfers 14.8%; expenditure: food 48.8%, housing and energy 6.5%, hotels and cafés 5.9%. Population economically active (2008): total 4,317,40013; activity rate of total population 49.5% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 69.3%; female 48.9%; unemployed 6.1%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

519

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

83.9

89.6

100.0

108.3

126.4

152.7

154.9

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$42,529,000,000 (U.S.$4,840 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$9,030 per capita).

Educational attainment (1999). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: primary education 4.1%; some secondary 9.3%; secondary 50.1%; vocational 4.2%; some higher 0.9%; higher 13.3%. Literacy (2007): 99.4%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 6–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–16) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio19

enrollment rate (%)19

44,232 139,109 25,836

490,242 1,114,356 180,276

11.1 8.0 7.0

96 98 16 (age 17–21)

Health (2010): physicians 33,20011 (1 per 271 persons); hospital beds 68,30011 (1 per 132 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 11.3; undernourished population (2004–06) 950,000 (11% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,920 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 66,940 (army 84.9%, navy 3.3%, air force 11.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 2.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$170. 1Statutory number. 2The (new) manat was introduced on Jan. 1, 2006, at a rate of 4,500 (old) manats (AZM) to 1 (new) manat (AZN). 3Administratively, Azerbaijan is divided into 66 districts, 13 cities, and 1 autonomous republic (Naxç:van). 4Preliminary. 5Part not occupied by Armenian forces; estimated population. 6Occupied by Armenian forces since 1992/93. 7Area controlled by Armenian forces including all of Nagorno-Karabakh (4,400 sq km; pop. [2010] c. 142,000), all of KLlbLcLr-Laçin (5,420 sq km; pop. [1999] n.a.), and part of Yuxar: Qarabag (1,630 sq km; pop. [1999] n.a.). 8Refugee population from Nagorno-Karabakh and other conflicted areas. 9Summed total; reported total is 86,600 sq km. 10Excludes Armenian population of Nagorno-Karabakh. 11January 1. 12The percentage of actual practicing adherents is much lower. 13Excludes military. 14Includes taxes less subsidies. 15Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 16Buses/taxis only. 17Circulation. 18Subscribers. 192007–08.

Internet resource for further information: • The State Statistical Committee of Azerbaijan Republic http://www.azstat.org

520

Britannica World Data

Bahamas, The

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2006

Official name: The Commonwealth of The Bahamas. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [16]; House of Assembly [41]). Head of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Nassau. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Bahamian dollar (B$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = B$1.00; 1 £ = B$1.54.

2009

in value B$’000 Agriculture Fishing Mining Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

% of total value

24,400 82,400 51,200 234,800 301,200 738,200 596,200 1,497,100 1,893,900 397,100 897,000 162,100 10 6,875,600

TOTAL

labour force

0.4 } 1.2 0.7 } 3.4 4.4 10.7 8.7 21.8 27.5 5.8 } 13.0 2.410 100.0

% of labour force

4,530

2.5

2,595

1.4

5,315 17,345 10,985 46,500 19,405

2.9 9.4 6.0 25.3 10.5

50,550

27.5

26,79511 184,020

14.511 100.0

Population economically active (2009): total 184,020; activity rate of total population 73.4% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2007] 76.2%; female [2007] 48.5%; unemployed [2009] 14.2%).

Area and population Islands and Island Groups2 Abaco, Great and Little Acklins Andros Berry Islands Bimini Islands Cat Island Crooked and Long Cay Eleuthera Exuma, Great, and Exuma Cays Grand Bahama Harbour Island

area1

population

sq km

2010 census

1,681 497 5,957 31 23 388

16,692 560 7,386 798 2,008 1,503

241 484

323 7,826

290 1,373 8

7,314 51,756 1,702

Islands and Island Groups2 Inagua, Great and Little Long Island Mayaguana New Providence Island (Nassau) Ragged Island Rum Cay San Salvador Spanish Wells Other uninhabited cays and rocks TOTAL

area1

population

sq km

2010 census

1,551 596 285

911 3,024 271

207 36 78 163 26

248,948 70 99 930 1,537

23 13,9393

— 353,658

Demography Population (2010): 347,0004. Density (2010)5: persons per sq mi 89.2, persons per sq km 34.5. Urban-rural (2009): urban 83.9%; rural 16.1%. Sex distribution (2009): male 48.71%; female 51.29%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 25.5%; 15–29, 24.5%; 30–44, 23.5%; 45–59, 17.4%; 60–74, 7.3%; 75–84, 1.5%; 85 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2020) 389,000; (2030) 426,000. Doubling time: 81 years. Ethnic composition (2007): local black/mixed race c. 74%; Haitian c. 15%; white/European c. 11%. Religious affiliation (2000): Baptist 35.4%; Anglican 15.1%; Roman Catholic 13.5%; other Protestant/independent Christian 32.3%; other/nonreligious 3.7%. Major cities and towns (2006): Nassau (2010) 248,948; Freeport (on Grand Bahama) 47,100; West End (on Grand Bahama) 12,900; Cooper’s Town (on Great Abaco) 8,600; Marsh Harbour (on Great Abaco) 5,400.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 15.0 (world avg. 20.3); (2000) within marriage 43.2%; (2000) outside of marriage 56.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 6.0 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 9.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2006): 2.18. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 12.06/2.0. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 71.0 years; female 77.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): diseases of the circulatory system 184.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 90.1; accidents and violence 63.8; HIV/AIDS 48.9; diseases of the respiratory system 31.0; diabetes 29.4. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 3.0%7 (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2009–10). Revenue: B$1,400,046,000 (tax revenue 88.4%, of which taxes on international trade and transactions 47.2% [including import duties 32.9%, excise taxes 13.5%], property tax 7.6%, business and professional licenses 7.2%; nontax revenue 10.1%; grants 0.8%; capital revenue 0.7%). Expenditures: B$1,639,300,000 (education 17.4%; health 16.9%; general administration 14.5%; interest on public debt 10.8%; public works and water supply 10.7%; public order 10.5%; defense 2.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; March 2010): U.S.$1,158,300,0008. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): vegetables 20,500, grapefruit (incl. pomelos) 13,000, lemons and limes 9,400; livestock (number of live animals) 3,000,000 chickens; roundwood 49,700 cu m, of which fuelwood 66%; fisheries production 9,117 (mainly lobsters, crayfish, and conch; from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2007): salt 882,300; aragonite 1,100. Manufacturing (value of export production in B$’000; 2007): polystyrene 142,200; organic chemicals 84,562; rum 20,282. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 2,206,500,000 ([2007] 2,110,000,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2006) none (693,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2009) 3.3; income per household (2009) B$38,314 (U.S.$38,314); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1995)9: housing 32.8%, transportation and communications 14.8%, food and beverages 13.8%, household furnishings 8.9%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 0.8%, in permanent crops 0.4%, in pasture 0.2%, forest area 51.5%. Gross national income (2007): U.S.$7,042,000,000 (U.S.$21,021 per capita).

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

97.5

98.4

100.0

102.4

104.9

109.7

111.9

Consumer price index

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 2,153; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 717. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 305; remittances (2008) 143.

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices) B$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–1,509 67.4%

–1,575 66.2%

–2,296 80.9%

–2,475 70.8%

–2,433 64.5%

–2,528 64.3%

Imports (2008): B$3,230,000,000 (refined petroleum 25.4%13, food products 13.3%, machinery and equipment 13.0%, chemicals and chemical products 8.9%, road vehicles 4.9%). Major import sources: U.S. 87.2%; Venezuela 5.2%; Netherlands Antilles 2.0%; Trinidad and Tobago 1.1%. Exports (2008): B$702,000,000 (polystyrene 21.6%, refined petroleum 20.2%13, organic chemicals 10.8%, crayfish 9.5%, machinery and apparatus 7.1%, rum 6.1%). Major export destinations: U.S. 69.9%; Canada 5.2%; Germany 4.4%; France 3.6%; Netherlands 3.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2002): total length 1,688 mi, 2,717 km (paved 57%). Vehicles (2002): passenger cars 112,900; trucks and buses 19,200. Air transport (2006): passenger-km 275,700,000; metric ton-km cargo 600,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

77

247

2009 2009

35915 129

1,05015 377

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

… 2009 2009 2009

… 3914 116 3215

units per 1,000 persons … 11414 420 9215

Education and health Educational attainment (2000). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 1.5%; primary education 8.7%; incomplete secondary 19.9%; complete secondary 53.7%; incomplete higher 8.1%; complete higher 7.1%; not stated 1.0%. Literacy (2005): total percentage age 15 and over literate 95.8%; males literate 95.0%; females literate 96.7%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–16) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

2,333 2,716 …

36,833 34,399 …

15.8 12.7 …

91 85 … (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2006) 849 (1 per 389 persons); hospital beds (2007) 1,057 (1 per 316 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 14.9; undernourished population (2004–06) 18,000 (6% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,890 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 860 (marines with coast guard duties 100%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.7%; per capita expenditure U.S.$145. 1Includes areas of lakes and ponds, as well as lagoons and sounds almost entirely surrounded by land; area of land only is about 10,070 sq km (3,890 sq mi). 2For local administrative purposes, The Out (Family) Islands of the Bahamas are divided into 32 districts; New Providence Island is administered directly by the national government. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Not based on May 2010 census results. 5Land area only. 6Includes nonresident marriages. 7Statistically derived midpoint within range. 8Includes public corporations. 9Weights of retail price index components. 10Import taxes less imputed bank service charges. 11Includes 580 not adequately defined and 26,215 unemployed. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Much of which is transshipped from the petroleum storage terminal near Freeport. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • The Central Bank of The Bahamas http://www.bahamascentralbank.com • Department of Statistics http://statistics.bahamas.gov.bs

521

Nations of the World

Bahrain

Population economically active (2005): total 350,000; activity rate of total population 48.3% (participation rates: ages 15 and over c. 67%; female 23.2%; unemployed [Bahrainis only; February 2010] 3.7%).

Official name: Mamlakat al-Bahrayn (Kingdom of Bahrain). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with a parliament comprising two bodies (Shura Council [401]; Council of Representatives [40]). Head of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Manama. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Bahraini dinar (BD); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 BD = U.S.$2.66 = £1.72.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index12

area

population

Principal cities

sq mi

sq km

2001 census

Capital Central Muharraq2 Northern Southern3

Manama Al-Rifa( Muharraq2 Madinat Hamad (Awali

14.5 32.7 21.7 54.4 169.2 292.54

37.5 84.8 56.1 140.8 438.3 757.54

163,696 167,691 103,576 166,824 44,764 650,6045

TOTAL

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0 100.0

102.0 96.7

105.3 100.0

109.0 …

112.1 …

Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Population (2010): 1,216,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 4,157.3, persons per sq km 1,605.3. Urban-rural (2009): urban 88.5%; rural 11.5%. Sex distribution (2009): male 61.27%; female 38.73%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 21.1%; 15–29, 29.1%; 30–44, 31.7%; 45–59, 14.3%; 60–74, 2.8%; 75–84, 0.7%; 85 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2020) 1,436,000; (2030) 1,635,000. Doubling time: 53 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Bahraini Arab 63.9%6; Indo-Pakistani 14.8%, of which Urdu 4.5%, Malayali 3.5%; Persian 13.0%; Filipino 4.5%; British 2.1%; other 1.7%. Religious affiliation (2000): Muslim 82.4%, of which Shi(i c. 58%, Sunni c. 24%; Christian 10.5%; Hindu 6.3%; other 0.8%. Major urban areas (2001): Manama (2009) 163,000; Muharraq 91,307; Al-Rifa( 79,550; Madinat hamad 52,718; Al-(Ali 47,529; Madinat (Isa 36,833.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 15.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 2.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 13.2 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.79. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 4.5/1.1. Life expectancy at birth (2005): male 71.7 years; female 76.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 40.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 23.1; accidents, poisoning, and violence 20.4; endocrine, metabolic, and immunity diseases 20.3; diseases of the respiratory system 16.5; ill-defined conditions 51.1.

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

+798 7.4%

+974 7.9%

+932 6.6%

+899 4.6%

+2,705 13.1%

+2,150 8.5%

Imports (2007): U.S.$11,515,000,000 (crude petroleum 50.9%, machinery and apparatus 10.0%, road vehicles 7.9%, aluminum oxide 5.8%, food and live animals 4.0%). Major import sources (2007): Saudi Arabia 53.9%; Australia 6.2%; Japan 5.6%; China 4.3%; U.S. 4.1%. Exports (2007): U.S.$13,665,000,000 (refined petroleum 79.1%, aluminum [all forms] 9.0%, urea 2.4%, iron ore agglomerates 1.4%, methanol 1.3%). Major export destinations (2006)14: Saudi Arabia 20.9%; U.S. 9.3%; India 6.8%; Singapore 6.5%; Qatar 3.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2008): total length 2,449 mi, 3,942 km (paved 81%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 310,221; trucks and buses 59,362. Air transport (2008)15: passenger-km 13,656,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 614,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2002

273

386

2009 2009

1,57817 238

1,33917 202

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

121 18916 649 16517

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007 value in BD ’000,000 25.3 1,709.7 30.8 1,062.8 347.6 85.6 413.9 773.7 2,092.5 811.1 259.2 –676.29 6,936.0

Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

4,95318 5,19818 75619

students 86,084 77,928 18,40320

% of total value 0.4 24.6 } 0.4

labour force8 4,483

% of labour force8

2,780

0.9

15.3 5.0 1.2 6.0 11.2 30.2 11.7 3.7 –9.79 100.0

49,979 26,416 2,515 13,769 47,570 24,797 52,389 61,256 21,56010 307,514

16.2 8.6 0.8 4.5 15.5 8.1 17.0 19.9 7.010 100.011

1.5

student/ enrollment teacher ratio rate (%) 18 16.4 98 12.418 89 24.919 3020 (age 18–22)

Health (2008): physicians 2,322 (1 per 474 persons); hospital beds 2,104 (1 per 526 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 8.3; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 8,200 (army 73.2%, navy 8.5%, air force 18.3%)21. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 2.0%; per capita expenditure U.S.$597.

1All

2001

147 16016 551 14017

Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal education 24.0%; primary education 37.1%; secondary 26.4%; higher 12.5%. Literacy (2008): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 90.8%; males literate 91.7%; females literate 89.4%. teachers

Budget (2009). Revenue: BD 1,708,200,000 (petroleum and natural gas revenue 83.0%, other 17.0%). Expenditures: BD 2,082,200,000 (current expenditure 81.3%, development expenditure 18.7%). Public debt (June 2010): U.S.$5,269,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): dates 13,300, cow’s milk (2007) 11,600, goat meat 5,700, tomatoes 4,550, hen’s eggs (2007) 2,950, lemons and limes 1,000, onions 815, lettuce 806; livestock (number of live animals) 41,000 sheep, 23,000 goats, 470,000 chickens; roundwood 6,419 cu m, of which fuelwood 100%; fisheries production 14,179 (from aquaculture, negligible). Manufacturing (value added in BD ’000,000; 2007): petroleum products 436.8; aluminum 263.3; other metal industries 115.2; bricks, cement, tiles 90.8; food products 67.5. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 11,657,000,000 ([2007] 10,908,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 66,500,0007 ([2007] 95,160,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 11,176,000 (1,359,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 15,388,000,000 ([2007] 8,685,000,000). Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$19,713,000,000 (U.S.$25,420 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$33,480 per capita).

units per 1,000 persons

Education and health

Education (2007–08)

National economy

TOTAL

2005

97.5 104.7

Foreign trade13

Demography

Agriculture, fishing Crude petroleum, nat. gas Quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2004

95.2 107.0

Household income and expenditure (2005–06): Average household size (2001) 5.9; average annual income per household BD 14,227 (U.S.$37,838); sources of income: wages and salaries 70.2%, real estate 14.5%, transfers 8.4%, selfemployment 6.7%; expenditure: food, beverages, and tobacco 20.4%, other 79.6%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 2.8%, in permanent crops 5.6%, in pasture 5.6%, forest area 0.7%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,166; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 2,155. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 503; remittances (2008) 1,483; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 1,423.

Area and population Municipalities

2003

seats are appointed by the king. 2Official name is Al-Muharraq. 3Includes the area of Hawar island and other nearby islets awarded to Bahrain by the International Court of Justice in 2001. 4An extensive land reclamation scheme was under way in 2009. 5Includes 4,053 living abroad. 6Bahraini Arabs constituted 48.6% of the population in 2008. 7Includes offshore production totaling 54,800,000 barrels. 8Excludes small number of unemployed non-Bahrainis. 9Import duties less imputed bank service charges. 10Includes 5,424 inadequately defined and 16,136 unemployed Bahrainis. 11Of which c. 59% non-Bahrainis; non-Bahrainis constituted 76.1% of labour force in March 2010. 12Private sector. 13Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 14Excluding petroleum. 15Gulf Air and DHL International only. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 182001–02. 192004–05. 202005–06. 21U.S. troops in Bahrain (September 2009): 1,507.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Bahrain http://www.cbb.gov.bh • Central Informatics Organization http://www.cio.gov.bh/cio_eng/

522

Britannica World Data

Bangladesh

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$95,371,000,000 (U.S.$590 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,580 per capita).

Official name: Gana Prajatantri Bangladesh (People’s Republic of Bangladesh). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Parliament [3451]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Dhaka. Official language: Bengali (Bangla). Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Bangladesh taka (Tk); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Tk 69.65; 1 £ = Tk 107.60.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008–09 in value Tk ’000,000,00010 Agriculture, forestry Fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other

526 150 41 583 299 52 348 497 302 91 391 126 3,406

TOTAL

Area and population

area

population

Divisions

Administrative centres

sq mi

sq km

2001 census

Barisal Chittagong Dhaka Khulna Rajshahi Rangpur3 Sylhet

Barisal Chittagong Dhaka Khulna Rajshahi Rangpur Sylhet

5,134 13,039 12,015 8,600 7,025 6,301 4,863 56,9774

13,297 33,771 31,119 22,274 18,195 16,318 12,596 147,5704

8,514,000 25,187,313 40,592,431 15,185,026 17,045,5502 14,432,0562 8,290,857 129,247,233

TOTAL

labour force

15.4 4.4 1.2 17.1 8.8 1.5 10.2 14.6 8.9 2.7 11.5 3.7 100.0

% of labour force

21,672,000 1,095,000 51,000 5,224,000 1,524,000 76,000 3,976,000 7,820,000 746,000 882,000 4,290,000 2,104,000 49,461,00011

43.8 2.2 0.1 10.6 3.1 0.2 8.0 15.8 1.5 1.8 8.7 4.3 100.011

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 61.3%, in permanent crops 3.7%, in pasture 4.6%, forest area 6.7%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 91; remittances (2009) 10,431; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 848; official development assistance (2008) 2,061. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 184; remittances (2008) 3; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 11.

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 158,066,000. Density (2010)5: persons per sq mi 2,938.2, persons per sq km 1,134.4. Urban-rural (2009): urban 27.6%; rural 72.4%. Sex distribution (2009): male 48.78%; female 51.22%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 35.4%; 15–29, 26.8%; 30–44, 19.3%; 45–59, 11.8%; 60–74, 5.4%; 75–84, 1.2%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 180,753,000; (2030) 204,142,000. Ethnic composition (1997): Bengali 97.7%; tribal 1.9%, of which Chakma 0.4%, Saontal 0.2%, Marma 0.1%; other 0.4%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim (nearly all Sunni) 88.3%; Hindu 10.5%; Buddhist 0.6%; Christian (mostly Roman Catholic) 0.3%; other 0.3%. Major cities/metropolitan areas (2008): Dhaka 7,000,940/12,797,394; Chittagong 2,579,107/3,858,093; Khulna 855,650/1,388,425; Rajshahi 472,775/775,495; Sylhet 463,198; Comilla (2006) 404,200; Tungi (2006) 352,900.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 23.9 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.7 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.74. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 11.6/n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 65.6 years; female 68.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004)6: old age 100.2; infectious and parasitic diseases 98.3; diseases of the respiratory system 90.5; high blood pressure, heart disease, and stroke 61.0; suicide, accidents, and poisoning 35.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 26.6; unspecified 80.8.

National economy Budget (2008–09). Revenue: Tk 691,800,000,000 (tax revenue 80.3%, of which VAT 29.1%, taxes on income and profits 19.6%, import duties 13.8%; nontax revenue 19.7%). Expenditures: Tk 941,400,000,000 (current expenditure 66.6%, of which domestic interest 12.7%, education 9.8%, agriculture 8.7%, defense 5.7%, health 3.6%; development expenditure 24.4%; other 9.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$20,973,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2007–08): paddy rice 28,931,000, potatoes 5,762,000, sugarcane 4,983,656, goat’s milk 2,016,000, bananas 877,123, wheat 844,000, jute 832,000, rapeseed 227,930, pulses 203,535, allspice (2005) 138,000, tea 58,999, ginger 57,000, tobacco leaves 40,248; livestock (number of live animals; 2008) 56,400,000 goats, 25,500,000 cattle; roundwood (2008) 27,715,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 99%; fisheries production (2008) 2,563,296 (from aquaculture 39%). Mining and quarrying (2008): granite 1,500,000; marine salt 360,000. Manufacturing (value added in Tk ’000,000,000; 2007–08)7: small-scale 273.6, of which handloom-based 36.0; wearing apparel 222.7; food 120.9; textiles 63.8; cigarettes 40.0; medicine and pharmaceuticals 36.1.8 Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 26,904,000,000 ([2007] 21,383,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 1,000,000 (700,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 2,100,000 (9,033,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 797,000 (3,594,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008–099) 19,303,000,000 ([2008] 17,896,000,000). Household income. Average household size (2006) 4.7; average annual income per household (2005) Tk 86,438 (U.S.$1,344); sources of income (2000): selfemployment 56.9%, wages and salaries 28.1%, transfer payments 9.1%, other 5.9%; expenditure (2005): food and beverages 53.8%, housing 12.3%, energy 6.0%, clothing and footwear 5.5%. Population economically active (2004–05): total 49,461,000; activity rate of total population 36.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 59.7%; female 24.5%; unemployed or underemployed [2008] 38%). Price and earnings indexes (2004–05 = 100) Consumer price index Average wage index

2004–05 % of total value

2003–04

2004–05

2005–06

2006–07

2007–08

2008–09

93.4 94.5

100.0 100.0

106.8 109.8

116.5 114.7

126.9 128.3

133.7 152.5

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003–04

2004–05

2005–06

2006–07

2007–08

2008–09

–2,237 13.1%

–3,216 15.7%

–2,879 12.1%

–3,458 12.5%

–5,541 16.6%

–4,708 13.1%

Imports (2007): U.S.$17,623,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 18.0%, food 12.5%, refined petroleum 8.8%, vegetable fats and oils 8.8%, textile yarn and fabrics 6.8%, cotton 6.0%). Major import sources: China 15.6%; India 13.2%; Kuwait 7.2%; Japan 5.1%; Indonesia 5.1%. Exports (2007): U.S.$13,143,000,000 (knitted or woven clothing or accessories 71.5%, shrimp 4.6%, leather 2.2%, textile yarn 2.2%, bed linen 1.8%, refined petroleum 1.6%, jute 1.4%). Major export destinations: U.S. 25.7%; Germany 15.2%; U.K. 9.5%; France 6.5%; Italy 4.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 2,822 km; passenger-km (2007–08) 5,690,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007–08) 869,000,000. Roads (2007): total length 168,121 mi, 270,565 km (paved 30%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 158,109; trucks and buses 200,271. Air transport (2007–08)13: passenger-km 4,717,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 244,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

11,531

200915 2009

50,40016 1,523

units per 1,000 persons 85 31016 9.4

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

3,050 1,50014 617 5016

22 0.914 3.8 0.316

Education and health Educational attainment (2004)17. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 48.8%; incomplete primary education 17.9%; complete primary 7.7%; incomplete secondary 15.1%; complete secondary18 or higher 10.5%. Literacy (2009): total population age 15 and over literate 55.3%; males literate 61.7%; females literate 48.9%. Education (2003–04) Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary19

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

352,683 378,276 61,508

17,953,300 10,354,760 1,053,566

50.9 27.4 17.1

81 41 7 (age 18–22)

Health (2006): physicians 44,632 (1 per 3,110 persons); hospital beds 51,044 (1 per 2,719 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 49.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 40,200,000 (26% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,750 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 157,05320 (army 80.3%, navy 10.8%, air force 8.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.4%; per capita expenditure U.S.$8. 1Includes 45 indirectly elected seats reserved for women. 2Approximate figure. 3New division approved January 2010. 4The total area excluding the river area equals 53,797 sq mi (139,334 sq km). 5Based on the total area excluding the river area. 6Based on national sample registration system. 7Including small-scale manufacturers. 8Export processing zone manufactures (particularly ready-made garments) are of the greatest value. 9December 2008–November 2009. 10At constant prices of 1995–96. 11Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 12Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 13Biman Bangladesh Airlines only. 14Circulation. 15October 2008–September 2009. 16Subscribers. 17Sample survey based on 21,405 people. 18Through 5th year of secondary education (out of 7 years). 192005–06. 20Of which deployed as UN peacekeepers 7,989.

Internet resources for further information: • Bangladesh Bank http://www.bangladesh-bank.org • Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics http://www.bbs.gov.bd

523

Nations of the World

Barbados

Gross national income (2008): U.S.$3,530,000,000 (U.S.$13,829 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Barbados. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [21]; House of Assembly [30]). Head of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Bridgetown. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Barbados dollar (Bds$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Bds$2.00; 1 £ = Bds$3.09.

2008

TOTAL

2.3 0.8 5.4 5.2 3.0 5.0 24.3 15.2 13.7 5.2 19.98 100.0

population

sq mi

sq km

2000 census

22 14 17 12 13 10 14 15 13 23 13 166

57 36 44 31 34 26 36 39 34 60 34 4303

49,497 5,254 17,868 22,741 8,873 6,805 9,328 83,684 10,699 22,864 12,397 250,0104

labour force

% of labour force

3,700

2.6

6

6

6,700 13,6006 1,600 5,800 33,000 10,600 26,600 30,100 12,100 143,800

4.7 9.56 1.1 4.0 22.9 7.4 18.5 20.9 8.4 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; December 2006): U.S.$799,400,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,194; remittances (2009) 161; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 157; official development assistance (2008) 5. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 80; remittances (2008) 40; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 95. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 37.2%, in permanent crops 2.3%, in pasture 4.7%, forest area 4.0%.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 276,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 1,662.7, persons per sq km 641.9. Urban-rural (2005): urban 38.4%; rural 61.6%. Sex distribution (2007): male 48.36%; female 51.64%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 19.8%; 15–29, 22.4%; 30–44, 24.7%; 45–59, 20.2%; 60–74, 8.7%; 75–84, 3.1%; 85 and over, 1.1%. Population projection: (2020) 285,000; (2030) 288,000. Ethnic composition (2000): local black 87.1%; mixed race 6.0%; British expatriates 4.3%; U.S. white 1.2%; Indo-Pakistani 1.1%; other 0.3%. Religious affiliation (2000): Christian 72.5%, of which Anglican 28.3%, Pentecostal 18.7%, Adventist 5.5%, Methodist 5.1%; Rastafarian 1.1%; Muslim 0.7%; Hindu 0.3%; nonreligious 17.3%; other/unknown 8.1%. Major urban areas (2006): Bridgetown 98,700; Speightstown 3,600; Oistins 2,300; Bathsheba 1,800; Holetown 1,400.

2004

2005

2006

2007

–899 69.7%

–1,311 64.5%

–1,187 57.4%

–985 61.0%

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 12.9 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 9.0 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 3.9 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.68. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2000) 13.1/n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 71.4 years; female 76.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): diseases of the circulatory system 270.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 165.0; communicable diseases 84.1; diabetes mellitus 70.0; accidents, poisonings, and violence 29.3.

National economy Budget (2006–07). Revenue5: Bds$2,156,000,000 (tax revenue 95.8%, of which VAT 30.1%, corporate taxes 20.6%, personal income taxes 13.8%, import duties 6.8%; nontax revenue 4.2%). Expenditures: Bds$2,351,000,000 (current expenditure 89.1%, of which education 19.0%, general public service 15.7%, debt payments 14.0%, health 12.2%, roads and transportation 5.1%, defense 2.5%; development expenditure 10.9%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 387,000, coconuts 2,250, sweet potatoes 2,200, cucumbers and gherkins 1,500, yams 870, chilies and green peppers 800, okra 650; livestock (number of live animals) 20,000 pigs, 11,500 sheep, 3,600,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 11,100 cu m, of which fuelwood 46%; fisheries production 3,551 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2008): limestone 1,900,000, clay and shale 145,000. Manufacturing (2007): cement 294,184, raw sugar 34,700, rum (2005) 132,000 hectolitres, beer (2005) 87,000 hectolitres; other manufactures include industrial chemicals, electronic components, garments, and wooden furniture. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 924,000,000 (924,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 290,000 ([2007] negligible); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 1,000 (367,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 21,100,000 (30,162,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 2.8; income per household: n.a.; expenditure (2001): food 33.8%, medical and personal care 17.0%, housing 12.3%, household furnishings and operations 10.1%, education and recreation 7.4%, energy 6.3%. Population economically active (2008): total 143,800; activity rate of total population 52.2% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 67.6%; female 48.7%; unemployed 8.1%). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.0

94.2

100.0

107.3

111.6

120.7

125.1

2008

2009

–1,290 58.7%

–1,071 58.6%

Imports (2008): U.S.$1,744,000,000 (refined petroleum 16.8%; machinery and apparatus 16.0%; food 14.0%; chemicals and chemical products 10.7%; road vehicles 6.2%). Major import sources: U.S. 36.8%; Trin./Tob. 19.8%; U.K. 5.3%; Japan 3.6%; China 3.5%. Exports (2008): U.S.$454,000,000 (refined petroleum 20.2%; food 12.6%, of which raw sugar 5.0%; medicines 8.3%; rum 7.3%; crude petroleum 4.9%; machinery and apparatus 4.8%; watches 4.6%; gold/silver jewelry 4.4%). Major export destinations: U.S. 21.0%; ships’ stores and bunkers 19.7%; Trin./Tob. 9.5%; U.K. 9.1%; St. Lucia 5.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2006): total length 1,025 mi, 1,650 km (paved virtually 100%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 103,535; trucks and buses 15,782. Air transport: passenger-km, n.a.; (2003) metric ton-km cargo 200,000. Communications

Vital statistics

Consumer price index

161.4 56.0 384.7 365.8 214.4 356.3 1,720.3 1,079.8 971.2 366.0 1,406.28 7,082.1

TOTAL

area

Christ Church St. Andrew St. George St. James St. John St. Joseph St. Lucy St. Michael2 St. Peter St. Philip St. Thomas

% of total value

Agriculture, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, tourism Finance, real estate7 Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population Parishes1

in value Bds$’000,000

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

78

291

2009 2009

33711 136

1,31711 530

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2007 2009

40 4810 280 5711

148 20910 997 22411

Education and health Educational attainment (2003). Percentage of employed labour force12 having: no formal schooling 0.5%; primary education 14.9%; secondary 58.7%; technical/vocational 5.4%; university 19.6%; other/unknown 0.9%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 99.7%. Education (2006–07) teachers Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–15) Tertiary

1,553 1,43013 786

students 22,584 20,651 11,405

student/ teacher ratio 14.5 14.613 14.5

enrollment rate (%) 97 90 34 (age 16–20)

Health: physicians (2003) 369 (1 per 751 persons); hospital beds (2007) 630 (1 per 446 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 18.3; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 610 (army 82.0%, navy 18.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$118.

1Parishes and city (urban area) of Bridgetown have no local administrative function. 2Includes most of the city (urban area) of Bridgetown. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4The adjusted de jure census total including non-enumerated persons (16,172) and institutionalized persons (2,610) is 268,792. 5Current revenue only. 6Construction includes Mining and quarrying. 7Offshore banking and information services are important sources of revenue. 8Net indirect taxes. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Circulation. 11Subscribers. 12Represents about 129,300 people. 132005–06.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Barbados http://www.centralbank.org.bb • Barbados Statistical Service http://www.barstats.gov.bb

524

Britannica World Data

Belarus

36,173,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (83,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 12,800,000 (156,605,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 17,402,000 (5,689,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 198,942,000 (20,687,000,000). Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$53,630,000,000 (U.S.$5,540 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$12,380 per capita).

Official name: Respublika Belarus (Republic of Belarus). Form of government: republic with two legislative bodies (Council of the Republic [641]; House of Representatives [110]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Minsk. Official languages: Belarusian; Russian. Official religion: none2. Monetary unit: Belarusian rubel (or ruble) (Br); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Br 3,017; 1 £ = Br 4,661.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Agriculture, forestry Mining Manufacturing }7 Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance Public admin., defense } Services Other

in value Br ’000,000,000 7,110

area

% of labour force7 11.1

26.7

987,000

22.2

8,167 8,263 9,801

8.5 8.6 10.2

22,196

23.1

231,000 265,000 257,000 57,000 84,000 1,033,000 1,039,0009 4,446,000

5.2 5.9 5.8 1.3 1.9 23.2 23.49 100.0

15.58 100.0

population

Provinces

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

20103 estimate

Brest Homyel (Gomel) Hrodna (Grodno) Mahilyow (Mogilev) Minsk (Myensk) Vitsyebsk (Vitebsk)

Brest Homyel Hrodna Mahilyow Minsk Vitsyebsk

12,500 15,600 9,650 11,200 14,800 15,500

32,300 40,400 25,000 29,000 38,300 40,100

1,398,700 1,438,300 1,069,600 1,091,900 1,418,900 1,228,600

City Minsk (Myensk)

—

950 80,2004

2,500 207,6004

1,834,200 9,480,200

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 27.3%, in permanent crops 0.6%, in pasture 16.2%, forest area 39.0%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 363; remittances (2009) 339; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 1,432; official development assistance (2008) 110. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 668; remittances (2008) 142.

Foreign trade11

TOTAL

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 9,457,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 118.0, persons per sq km 45.6. Urban-rural (2009): urban 74.3%; rural 25.7%. Sex distribution (2009): male 46.61%; female 53.39%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 14.3%; 15–29, 23.2%; 30–44, 21.3%; 45–59, 22.3%; 60–74, 12.4%; 75–84, 5.4%; 85 and over, 1.1%. Population projection: (2020) 8,987,000; (2030) 8,447,000. Ethnic composition (1999): Belarusian 81.2%; Russian 11.4%; Polish 3.9%; Ukrainian 2.4%; Jewish 0.3%; other 0.8%. Religious affiliation (2007): nonreligious/atheist c. 50%; Belarusian Orthodox c. 40%; Roman Catholic c. 7%; other Christian c. 1%; Jewish c. 0.6%; other c. 1.4%. Major cities (20103): Minsk 1,834,200; Homyel 484,300; Mahilyow 354,000; Vitsyebsk 348,800; Hrodna 328,000; Brest 310,800.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.6 (world avg. 20.3); (2008) within marriage 79.9%; (2008) outside marriage 20.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 14.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): –2.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.42. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 8.3/3.7. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 64.7 years; female 76.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2003): diseases of the circulatory system 693.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 171.2; accidents, poisoning, and violence 161.6; diseases of the respiratory system 45.0.

National economy

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–1,612 7.5%

–2,593 8.6%

–721 2.2%

–2,584 6.1%

–4,418 8.3%

–6,581 9.1%

Imports (2008): U.S.$39,483,000,000 (crude petroleum 24.0%; nonelectrical machinery 10.8%; chemicals and chemical products 9.0%; iron and steel 7.1%; natural gas 6.8%; food 5.9%). Major import sources: Russia 59.8%; Germany 7.1%; Ukraine 5.4%; China 3.6%; Poland 2.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$32,902,000,000 (refined petroleum 33.0%; potassium chloride 10.3%; food 6.5%, of which dairy products 3.4%; road vehicles/parts 6.4%; iron and steel 5.0%; agricultural machinery/tractors 4.0%). Major export destinations: Russia 32.2%; Neth. 16.9%; Ukraine 8.5%; Latvia 6.6%; Poland 5.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 5,538 km; passenger-km 8,188,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 48,994,000,000. Roads (2005): total length 58,904 mi, 94,797 km (paved 89%); passenger-km (2008) 8,104,000,00012; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 24,231,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 2,329,243; trucks and buses 409,191. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 1,280,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 55,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

3,809

2009 2009

9,68614 3,969

units per 1,000 persons 386 1,00614 412

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

78 1,79613 4,437 1,09214

units per 1,000 persons 80 11913 460 11314

Education and health

Budget (2007). Revenue: Br 37,167,000,000 (taxes on goods and services 34.2%, social security contributions 30.3%, taxes on trade 16.9%, taxes on corporations 6.1%, other taxes 4.8%; nontax revenue 7.7%). Expenditures: Br 36,748,000,000 (social protection 32.9%; economic affairs 25.0%; general administration 23.8%; defense 3.2%; education 2.9%; health 2.6%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$3,752,000,000. Household income and expenditure (2004)5. Average household size 2.6; average annual income per household Br 6,520,956 (U.S.$3,019); sources of income (2009): wages and salaries 56.4%, transfers 18.7%, property income 2.6%, other 22.3%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 46.1%, housing and energy 11.0%, clothing and footwear 10.0%, recreation and culture 7.3%, health 5.2%. Population economically active (2009): 4,663,000; activity rate of total population 49.2% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 78.5%; female [1999] 52.8%; officially/unofficially unemployed [2008] 1.0%/c. 15–20%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index6

labour force7 493,000

25,655

14,8938 96,08710

TOTAL

Area and population

2003 % of total value 7.4

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

76.8 53.4

90.7 77.3

100.0 100.0

106.7 118.5

118.7 141.2

122.8 …

138.6 …

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): potatoes 8,749,000, cow’s milk 6,195,500, sugar beets 4,030,380, barley 2,212,480, wheat 2,045,420, triticale 1,818,650, rye 1,492,350, rapeseed 513,959, apples 379,809, sour cherries 44,599; livestock (number of live animals) 4,006,700 cattle, 3,597,800 pigs; roundwood (2009) 8,756,100 cu m, of which fuelwood 15%; fisheries production (2008) 5,050 (from aquaculture 82%). Mining and quarrying (2007): potash 4,972,000; peat 2,507,000. Manufacturing (2007): fertilizers 5,880,000; cement 3,820,000; crude steel (2005) 2,076,000; sausages 273,100; beer 3,560,000 hectolitres; footwear 11,300,000 pairs; refrigerators and freezers 1,072,000 units; tractors 59,600 units. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 30,100,000,000 ([2007]

Education (2006–07) teachers Primary (age 6–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–16) Tertiary

students

student/ teacher ratio

22,640 361,493 103,08515 823,253 42,121 556,526

16.0 8.515 13.2

enrollment rate (%) 91 87 69 (age 17–21)

Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 99.7%. Health (2009): physicians 48,400 (1 per 196 persons); hospital beds 105,900 (1 per 90 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 4.7; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,940 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 72,940 (army 40.6%, air force and air defense 24.9%, centrally controlled units 34.5%); paramilitary 110,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$70.

1Statutory number. 2However, a 2003 concordat grants the Belarusian Orthodox Church privileged status. 3January 1 estimate adjusted to 2009 preliminary census results. 4Rounded area figures; exact area figures are 80,153 sq mi (207,595 sq km). 5Based on a sample survey of 4,831 households. 6All calculations based on December only. 7Based on annual survey. 8Net taxes. 9Includes 136,000 registered unemployed and 799,000 undistributed self-employed and unregistered unemployed. 10Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Buses only. 13Circulation. 14Subscribers. 152005–06.

Internet resource for further information: • Ministry of Statistics and Analysis http://www.belstat.gov.by/homep/en/main.html

525

Nations of the World

Belgium

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

Official name: Koninkrijk België (Dutch); Royaume de Belgique (French); Königreich Belgien (German) (Kingdom of Belgium). Form of government: federal constitutional monarchy with two legislative bodies (Senate [711]; House of Representatives [150]). Head of state: Monarch. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Brussels. Official languages: Dutch; French; German. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1£ = >1.21. Area and population Regions2 Provinces

Capitals

Brussels4 Flanders Antwerp East Flanders Flemish Brabant Limburg West Flanders Wallonia7 Hainaut Liège Luxembourg Namur Walloon Brabant

Brussels Brussels5 Antwerp Gent (Ghent) Leuven Hasselt Brugge Namur8/Brussels9 Mons Liège Arlon Namur Wavre

TOTAL

Consumer price index Annual earnings index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.7 95.5

97.5 97.6

100.0 100.0

101.8 102.3

103.6 104.0

108.3 106.9

108.2 109.7

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$488,826,000,000 (U.S.$45,310 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$36,520 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 in value >’000,000

area

population

sq mi

sq km

20083 estimate

62 5,2216 1,107 1,151 813 935 1,214 6,5046 1,462 1,491 1,714 1,415 421 11,787

161 13,5226 2,867 2,982 2,106 2,422 3,144 16,8446 3,786 3,862 4,440 3,666 1,091 30,5286

1,048,491 6,161,600 1,715,707 1,408,484 1,060,232 826,690 1,150,487 3,456,775 1,300,097 1,053,722 264,084 465,380 373,492 10,666,866

Demography Population (2010): 10,868,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 922.0, persons per sq km 356.0. Urban-rural (2009): urban 97.4%; rural 2.6%. Sex distribution (20083): male 48.98%; female 51.02%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 16.9%; 15–29, 18.5%; 30–44, 21.2%; 45–59, 20.8%; 60–74, 14.1%; 75–84, 6.5%; 85 and over, 2.0%. Population projection: (2020) 11,410,000; (2030) 11,837,000. National composition (20083): Belgian 90.9%, of which Flemish-speaking 53.6%, French-speaking 36.4%, German-speaking 0.9%; Italian 1.6%; French 1.2%; Dutch 1.2%; Moroccan 0.7%; other 4.4%. Religious affiliation (2000): Roman Catholic c. 57%; undefined Christian c. 15%; Muslim c. 4%; nonreligious c. 17%; other c. 7%. Major cities/urban agglomerations (20083): Brussels 148,873/1,831,496; Antwerp 472,071/955,338; Liège 190,102/641,591; Gent 237,250/423,320; Charleroi 201,593/405,236.

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2,047 333 42,494 16,358 6,684 24,002 41,782 92,666 23,192 53,819 35,79610 339,1626

TOTAL

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 11.3 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 58.0%; outside of marriage 42.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 9.4 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.82. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 77.5 years; female 83.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004): diseases of the circulatory system 338.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 256.2; diseases of the respiratory system 107.6.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: >161,024,000,000 (social security contributions 30.7%; personal income tax 23.2%; taxes on goods and services 22.7%). Expenditures: >181,448,000,000 (social insurance benefits 47.1%, of which health 13.1%; wages 24.0%; interest on debt 7.0%; capital expenditure 6.1%). Public debt (December 2009; federal only): U.S.$431,089,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugar beets 4,371,700, cow’s milk 2,805,000, potatoes 2,803,600, wheat 1,869,200, pork 1,056,169, corn (maize) 743,200, chicory roots 386,307, apples 350,000, pears 280,000, leeks 170,000, mushrooms/truffles 40,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,270,000 pigs, 2,613,000 cattle; roundwood 4,700,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 15%; fisheries production 22,735. Mining and quarrying (2007): stone 340,000. Manufacturing (value added in >’000,000; 2009): chemicals and chemical products 8,435; base and fabricated metals 6,369; food/beverages/tobacco 6,178; nonelectrical machinery and equipment 2,882; transport equipment 2,721. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 90,780,000,000 ([2007] 84,884,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2008) none (6,530,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) none (222,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 28,178,000 (15,841,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) none ([2009] 16,877,000,000). Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size (2005) 2.4; average net income per household (2003) >24,455 (U.S.$27,602); sources of income (2003): wages and transfer payments 69.3%, property income 11.1%; expenditure (2004): housing 21.0%, food, beverages, tobacco 15.8%, transportation 13.4%, recreation and culture 8.6%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 24.2%, left fallow 0.8%, in permanent crops 0.8%, in pasture 19.4%, forest area 22.0%. Population economically active (2008): total 4,779,600; activity rate 44.6% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 67.1%; female 45.0%; unemployed [2009] 7.9%).

labour force

0.6 0.1 12.5 4.8 2.0 7.1 12.3 27.3 6.8 15.9 10.610 100.0

% of labour force

80,400 6,200 727,500 321,800 40,400 331,800 712,900 593,600 436,900 1,121,500 406,50011 4,779,6006

1.7 0.1 15.2 6.7 0.8 7.0 14.9 12.4 9.2 23.5 8.511 100.0 6

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 11,810; remittances (2009) 9,134; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 76,449. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 19,317; remittances (2008) 3,689; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 70,955.

Foreign trade 12 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+20,983 3.5%

+13,976 2.1%

+15,466 2.1%

+17,451 2.1%

+6,473 0.7%

+17,561 2.4%

Imports (2008): U.S.$470,715,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 13.5%, petroleum 10.5%, road vehicles/parts 10.5%, medicines 8.0%, base and fabricated metals 7.8%, food 6.3%, organic chemicals 6.0%). Major import sources: Neth. 19.5%; Germany 17.3%; France 11.0%; U.K. 5.7%; U.S. 5.5%. Exports (2008): U.S.$477,188,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 12.2%, road vehicles/parts 10.5%, medicines 8.6%, food 7.3%, iron and steel 5.9%, refined petroleum 5.8%, organic chemicals 5.7%, plastics [in primary form] 4.8%, diamonds 3.2%13). Major export destinations: Germany 19.9%; France 17.4%; Neth. 12.3%; U.K. 7.2%; U.S. 4.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007): route length 2,217 mi, 3,568 km; passenger-km 9,403,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 9,258,000,000. Roads (2006): total length 95,113 mi, 153,070 km (paved 78%); passenger-km 128,100,000,00014; metric ton-km cargo 38,356,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 5,006,294; trucks and buses 725,697. Air transport (2008)15: passenger-km 7,567,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,167,000,000. Communications

Vital statistics

2008 % of total value

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

5,800

557

2009 2009

12,41917 4,255

1,16717 400

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

3,977 1,38216 8,113 3,13417

units per 1,000 persons 377 12816 762 29417

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population ages 25–64 having: no formal schooling through lower-secondary education c. 32%; upper secondary/higher vocational c. 55%; university c. 15%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

65,574 81,87318 26,619

students 733,052 817,258 401,652

student/ teacher ratio 11.2 10.018 15.1

enrollment rate (%) 98 8718 63 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (20083) 38,402 (1 per 278 persons); hospital beds (2005) 70,795 (1 per 148 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 3.3.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 38,452 (army 36.4%, navy 4.2%, air force 18.7%, medical service 5.0%, joint service 35.7%)19. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.1%20; per capita expenditure U.S.$51920. 1Excludes

children of the monarch serving ex officio from age 18. 2Belgium has a complex division of responsibilities between 3 administrative regions and 3 linguistic communities. 3January 1. 4Officially, Brussels Capital Region. 5Dual capital of Flemish region and community. 6Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7The German community (within Wallonia [Jan. 1, 2008, pop. est. 74,169]) lacks expression as an administrative region. 8Capital of Walloon Region. 9Capital of French Community. 10Taxes less subsidies. 11Includes 333,700 unemployed. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13World’s leading diamond-trading centre. 14Passenger cars 110,000,000,000; buses 18,100,000,000. 15Brussels Airlines, EAT, and TNT Airways only. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 182005–06. 19Foreign forces at NATO headquarters (September 2009) U.S. 1,267. 20Includes military pensions.

Internet resource for further information: • Statistics Belgium http://www.statbel.fgov.be

526

Britannica World Data

Belize

Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$1,186,000,000 (U.S.$3,820 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$6,040 per capita).

Official name: Belize. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [121, 2]; House of Representatives [312]). Head of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Belmopan. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Belize dollar (BZ$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = BZ$2.00; 1 £ = BZ$3.09.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture, fishing, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate, insurance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

population

Districts

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

2009 estimate

Belize Cayo Corozal Orange Walk Stann Creek Toledo

Belize City San lgnacio/Santa Elena Corozal Orange Walk Dangriga Punta Gorda

1,663 2,006 718 1,790 986 1,704 8,8673

4,307 5,196 1,860 4,636 2,554 4,413 22,9653, 4

100,100 80,800 37,300 49,500 34,500 31,000 333,200

TOTAL

labour force

% of labour force

287,900 13,5007 339,2008 124,100 61,000 283,400 518,100 402,200 277,600 177,000 233,4009 2,717,400

10.6 0.57 12.58 4.6 2.2 10.4 19.1 14.8 10.2 6.5 8.69 100.0

24,837 507 8,367 6,769 1,047 3,996 36,143 3,672 10,562 15,246 11,11210 122,258

20.3 0.4 6.8 5.5 0.9 3.3 29.6 3.0 8.6 12.5 9.110 100.0

Foreign trade 11 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 345,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 38.9, persons per sq km 15.0. Urban-rural (2008): urban 51.4%; rural 48.6%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.97%; female 50.03%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 36.8%; 15–29, 26.6%; 30–44, 18.3%; 45–59, 11.1%; 60–74, 5.0%; 75–84, 1.6%; 85 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (2020) 417,000; (2030) 484,000. Doubling time: 31 years. Ethnic composition (2004): mestizo (Spanish-Indian) 48.4%; Creole (predominantly black) 27.0%; Mayan Indian 10.0%; Garifuna (black-Carib Indian) 5.7%; white 3.9%, of which Mennonite 3.2%; East Indian 3.0%; Chinese 0.9%; other 1.1%. Religious affiliation (2000): Roman Catholic 49.6%; Protestant 31.8%, of which Pentecostal 7.4%, Anglican 5.3%, Seventh-day Adventist 5.2%, Mennonite 4.1%; other Christian 1.9%; nonreligious 9.4%; other 7.3%. Major cities (2009): Belize City 66,700; Belmopan 20,000; San Ignacio/Santa Elena 19,900; Orange Walk 16,700; San Pedro (on Ambergris Caye) 12,900.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2007): 28.3 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2007): 5.7 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2007): 22.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 3.52. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2003): 6.3/0.6. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 66.4 years; female 70.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2001): diseases of the circulatory system 116.7; accidents 64.6, of which transport accidents 34.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 61.1; diseases of the respiratory system 47.4; diabetes mellitus 27.8.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: BZ$765,477,000 (tax revenue 75.2%, of which taxes on goods and services 30.3%, taxes on international trade 22.8%, taxes on income and profits 21.3%; grants 11.4%; nontax revenue 9.7%; other 3.7%). Expenditures: BZ$794,758,000 (current expenditure 80.0%; capital expenditure 20.0%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane (2009) 917,728, oranges 239,481, bananas 68,053, grapefruit 60,957, corn (maize) 37,051, concentrated orange juice 33,405, papayas 28,900, cashew nuts 1,090; livestock (number of live animals) 81,328 cattle, 1,670,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 715,196 cu m, of which fuelwood 94%; fisheries production (2008) 14,170 (from aquaculture 67%). Mining and quarrying (2008): limestone 300,000; sand and gravel 200,000 cu m. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): food products and beverages (significantly citrus concentrate, flour, sugar, and beer) 77.2; textiles, clothing, and footwear 3.6; other (incl. crude petroleum extraction) 64.3. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 197,000,000 (445,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 1,100,0005 (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (139,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 4.4; average annual household income: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure6: food, beverages, and tobacco 34.7%, transportation 17.0%, housing and energy 16.8%, clothing and footwear 9.2%. Population economically active (2005): total 110,786; activity rate of total population 38.2% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 64.2%; female 36.7%; unemployed [2009] 13.1%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

% of total value

Public debt (external, outstanding; December 2009): U.S.$1,016,000,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 278; remittances (2009) 74; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 143; official development assistance (2008) 25. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 41; remittances (2008) 29. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 3.1%, in permanent crops 1.4%, in pasture 2.2%, forest area 72.5%.

Area and population area

2007

in value BZ$’000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.6

96.6

100.0

104.2

106.6

113.5

112.2

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–193.2 32.3%

–303.0 41.8%

–231.1 32.4%

–385.9 41.3%

–417.7 43.9%

–541.4 52.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$836,500,000 (machinery and apparatus 14.6%; refined petroleum 14.4%; manufactured goods 13.8%; food products 9.6%; chemicals and chemical products 7.1%; road vehicles 5.2%). Major import sources: U.S. 34.2%; Netherlands Antilles 11.9%; Mexico 9.4%; Panama 8.9%; China 8.1%. Exports (2008): U.S.$295,100,000 (food products 57.2%, of which orange juice 15.8%, raw cane sugar 12.1%, bananas 11.3%, frozen crustaceans 7.3%, papayas and melons 3.8%; crude petroleum 40.1%). Major export destinations: U.S. 45.0%; U.K. 19.6%; Costa Rica 16.8%; Neth. 3.0%; Trin./Tob. 2.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2006): total length 1,868 mi, 3,007 km (paved 19%). Vehicles (2003): passenger cars 36,952; trucks and buses 7,380. Air transport (2001)12: passenger arrivals 256,564, passenger departures 240,900; cargo loaded 186 metric tons, cargo unloaded 1,272 metric tons. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2003

52

190

2009 2009

16214 31

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

52714 102

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2002 2007 2009 2009

35 013 36 8.014

units per 1,000 persons 132 013 117 2614

Education and health Educational attainment (2000). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 36.6%; primary education 40.9%; secondary 11.7%; postsecondary/advanced vocational 6.4%; university 3.8%; other/unknown 0.6%. Literacy (2003): total population age 15 and over literate 76.9%; males 77.1%; females 76.7%. Education (2006–07) Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–16) Tertiary15

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

2,268 1,796 97

51,898 30,475 722

22.9 17.0 7.4

97 67 2 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2006) 263 (1 per 1,140 persons); hospital beds (2005) 436 (1 per 665 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 21.2; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,750 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 1,050 (army 100%)16. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2007): 1.4%; per capita expenditure U.S.$58. 1All seats nonelected. 2Excludes speaker, who may be designated from outside either legislative house. 3Includes offshore cays totaling 266 sq mi (689 sq km). 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Crude petroleum production began in late 2005. 6Weights of consumer price index published by central bank in 2008. 7Excludes crude petroleum extraction. 8Includes crude petroleum extraction. 9Taxes less subsidies on products and less financial services indirectly measured. 10Includes 689 not adequately defined and 10,423 unemployed. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Belize international airport only. 13Circulation; the only daily newspaper is online only. 14Subscribers. 152003–04. 16Foreign forces (2009): British army 30.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Belize http://www.centralbank.org.bz • Statistical Institute of Belize http://statisticsbelize.org.bz

527

Nations of the World

Benin

tiles 42; beverages 36; bricks, tiles, and cement 21. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 132,000,000 (720,000,000)9; coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2005) 137,000 (negligible); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (1,011,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2008)10: total 3,580,000; activity rate of total population 41.3% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 73.7%; female 45.8%; unemployed, n.a.).

Official name: République du Bénin (Republic of Benin). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [83]). Head of state and government: President, assisted by Prime Minister1. Capital: Porto-Novo.2 Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

Price index (2005 = 100)

Area and population

area

Departments

Capitals

Alibori Atakora Atlantique Borgou Collines Donga Kouffo Littoral Mono Ouémé Plateau Zou

Kandi Natitingou Ouidah Parakou Savalou Djougou Dogbo Cotonou Lokossa Porto-Novo Sakété Abomey

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

2006 estimate

10,132 7,915 1,248 9,983 5,379 4,296 928 31 620 495 1,260 2,024 44,3103

26,242 20,499 3,233 25,856 13,931 11,126 2,404 79 1,605 1,281 3,264 5,243 114,763

619,900 634,600 982,300 861,900 625,700 400,200 621,800 719,900 403,000 836,400 461,700 673,500 7,840,900

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.9

100.0

103.8

105.1

113.5

115.9

Foreign trade12, 13 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Population (2010): 9,056,0004. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 204.4, persons per sq km 78.9. Urban-rural (2009): urban 41.6%; rural 58.4%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.99%; female 50.01%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 45.5%; 15–29, 27.3%; 30–44, 15.7%; 45–59, 7.4%; 60–74, 3.4%; 75–84, 0.6%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 11,956,000; (2030) 15,248,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (2002)5: Fon 39.2%; Adjara 15.2%; Yoruba (Nago) 12.3%; Bariba 9.2%; Fulani 7.0%; Somba (Otomary) 6.1%; Yoa-Lokpa 4.0%; other 7.0%. Religious affiliation (2002): Christian 42.8%, of which Roman Catholic 27.1%, Protestant 5.4%, indigenous Christian 5.3%; Muslim 24.4%; traditional beliefs 23.3%, of which voodoo 17.3%; nonreligious 6.5%; other 3.0%. Major urban localities (2006): Cotonou 719,912; Porto-Novo 255,878; Godomey 187,836; Parakou 178,304; Abomey-Calavi 75,226; Bohicon 74,070.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 39.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.9 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 30.1 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 5.58. Marriage rate per 1,000 population (2002): n.a.6 Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 57.4 years; female 59.8 years.

National economy

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–620.5 53.3%

–595.5 49.9%

–610.5 51.4%

–778.7 63.4%

–1,097.9 52.1%

–1,276.1 55.1%

Imports (2006): U.S.$1,003,300,000 (food products 24.9%, of which rice 11.1%, poultry cuts 4.4%; refined petroleum 15.3%; machinery and apparatus 7.0%; electricity 5.6%; fabrics 4.9%; used clothing 4.4%; road vehicles 4.3%; cement clinker 4.2%). Major import sources: France 17.2%; China 8.5%; Côte d’Ivoire 6.9%; Ghana 6.8%; U.K. 6.3%; Togo 5.3%. Exports (2006): U.S.$224,600,000 (raw cotton 40.4%; cigarettes 15.6%; food products 13.6%, of which cashews 7.4%). Major export destinations: China 24.0%; Nigeria 8.7%; India 8.6%; Niger 7.2%; Côte d’Ivoire 5.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 578 km; passenger-km (2005) 17,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2006) 28,900,000. Roads (2004): total length 11,800 mi, 19,000 km (paved 9.5%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 149,310; trucks and buses 36,700. Air transport (2003): passenger-km, n.a.; metric tonkm cargo 7,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

431

59

2009 2009

5,03315 127

56315 14

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

58 5014 200 1.815

7.0 1014 22 0.215

Education and health Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 63.5%; primary education 18.7%; secondary 15.9%; postsecondary 1.9%. Literacy (2005): total percentage of population age 15 and over literate 43.2%; males literate 58.8%; females literate 28.4%. Education (2005–06)

Budget (2007). Revenue: CFAF 634,000,000,000 (tax revenue 70.3%; nontax revenue 16.0%; grants 13.7%). Expenditures: CFAF 585,400,000,000 (current expenditures 65.6%; development expenditure 34.4%, of which externally financed 19.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$926,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$6,715,000,000 (U.S.$750 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,510 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

TOTAL

2004

94.1

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2002) 5.6; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1996)11: food and nonalcoholic beverages 38.2%, transportation 10.1%, expenditures in cafés and hotels 9.8%, housing and energy 9.5%, clothing and footwear 6.9%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 24.4%, in permanent crops 2.4%, in pasture 5.0%, forest area 20.1%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 209; remittances (2009) 266; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 143; official development assistance (2008) 641. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 60; remittances (2008) 67.

Demography

Agriculture, fishing Mining Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2003 Consumer price index

in value CFAF ’000,000 1,038,000 7,600 30,700 225,500 139,000 264,400 544,200 338,100 322,000 — 264,7008 3,174,200

2002 % of total value 32.7 0.2 1.0 7.1 4.4 8.3 17.1 10.7 10.1 } — 8.38 100.03

labour force7 1,324,000 39,400 2,800 253,100 70,300 95,600 815,400 2,800

% of labour force7 46.8 1.4 0.1 8.9 2.5 3.4 28.8 0.1

205,300

7.2

22,200 2,830,900

0.8 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava 2,629,280, yams 1,802,944, corn (maize) 1,030,470, oil palm fruit 250,000, tomatoes 163,200, dry beans 143,625, pineapples 136,123, sorghum 132,448, cotton lint 125,300, peanuts (groundnuts) 115,562, cashews 62,000, okra 48,060, fonio (local grain) 1,855; livestock (number of live animals) 1,905,000 cattle, 1,472,250 goats, 19,153,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 6,611,200 cu m, of which fuelwood 94%; fisheries production (2008) 37,675 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining (2008): clay 77,000, gold 20 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 1999): food products 74; tex-

teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

students

31,103 1,356,818 14,41016 435,44917 95518 42,603

student/ teacher ratio 43.6 23.916 29.418

enrollment rate (%) 87 1718 5 (age 19–23)

Health (2003): physicians 1,013 (1 per 7,135 persons); hospital beds (2001) 590 (1 per 11,238 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 66.2; undernourished population (2004–06) 1,600,000 (19% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,730 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 4,75019 (army 90.5%, navy 4.2%, air force 5.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$9. 1Office

of Prime Minister vacant from May 1998; the post of prime minister is not required per the constitution. 2Porto-Novo, the official capital established under the constitution, is the seat of the legislature, but the president and most government ministers reside in Cotonou. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Estimate of the U.S. Bureau of the Census International Database (June 2008 update). 5Data combine principal and related ethnic groups. 6In 2002, 27% of all marriages were polygamous. 7Age 10 years and over. 8Indirect taxes less subsidies and less imputed service charges. 9Mostly imported from Ghana. 10Estimates of ILO Employment Trends Unit. 11Weights of consumer price index components. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Excludes reexports (notably petroleum and food products particularly from Nigeria and Niger) valued at U.S.$473,000,000 in 2006. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 162003–04. 172004–05. 182000–01. 19Of which UN peacekeepers 1,178.

Internet resources for further information: • Institut National de la Statistique et de l’Analyse Economique http://www.insae-bj.org • La Banque de France: La Zone Franc http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm

528

Britannica World Data

Bermuda

Gross national income (2008): U.S.$5,414,000,000 (U.S.$83,659 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Bermuda. Political status: overseas territory (United Kingdom) with two legislative houses (Senate [111]; House of Assembly [36]). Head of state: British Monarch, represented by Governor. Head of government: Premier. Capital: Hamilton. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Bermuda dollar (Bd$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Bd$1.002; 1 £ = Bd$1.54. Area and population

2008 in value Bd$’000,000 Agriculture, fishing Quarrying } Construction Manufacturing Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate11 International business11 Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

area

Municipalities Hamilton St. George Parishes Devonshire Hamilton Paget Pembroke3 St. George’s4 Sandys Smith’s Southampton Warwick

sq mi

sq km

0.3 0.5

0.8 1.3

2.0 2.0 2.1 1.8 3.5 2.1 1.8 2.2 2.0 20.55, 6

TOTAL

5.1 5.1 5.3 4.6 8.0 5.4 4.7 5.6 5.1 53.15, 6

48

0.8

370

6.0

90 98 297 743 2,395 1,544 327 518 –33712 6,093

1.5 1.6 4.9 12.2 39.3 25.3 5.4 8.5 –5.512 100.0

labour force10 }

% of labour force10

717

1.8

3,649 915 412 2,602 9,635 7,858 4,761 4,223 5,441 — 40,21313

9.1 2.3 1.0 6.5 24.0 19.5 11.8 10.5 13.5 — 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 431; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 518. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 307; remittances, n.a.; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 570. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, left fallow, or in permanent crops (including land occupied by golf courses) c. 20%, forest area c. 20%.

population 2000 census 969 1,752 7,307 5,270 5,088 10,337 3,699 7,275 5,658 6,117 8,587 62,0597

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) Bd$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 68,300. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 3,332, persons per sq km 1,286. Urban-rural (2009): urban 100.0%; rural, none. Sex distribution (2008): male 48.22%; female 51.78%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 18.5%; 15–29, 18.0%; 30–44, 20.1%; 45–59, 24.1%; 60–74, 13.3%; 75–84, 4.5%; 85 and over, 1.5%. Population projection: (2020) 72,000; (2030) 73,000. Ethnic composition (2000): black 50.4%; British expatriates 29.0%; mixed black/white 10.0%; U.S. white 6.0%; Portuguese 4.5%; other 0.1%. Religious affiliation (2000): Protestant 64.3%, of which Anglican 22.6%, Methodist 14.9%; Roman Catholic 14.9%; nonreligious 13.8%; other 6.0%; unknown 1.0%. Major municipalities and settlements (2000): St. George 1,752; Hamilton 969; Tucker’s Town, n.a.; Flatts Village, n.a.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 12.2 (world avg. 20.3); (2002) within marriage 64.2%; (2002) outside of marriage 35.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 6.6 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 5.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.00. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 11.28/3.3. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 77.2 years; female 83.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 240; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 145; diseases of the respiratory system 45; accidents, injuries, and poisonings 30.

National economy Budget (2008–09). Revenue: Bd$966,100,000 (payroll taxes 36.2%, customs duties 25.0%, taxes on international companies 5.8%, stamp duties 5.1%, taxes on land 5.0%, other 22.9%). Expenditures: Bd$972,500,000 (wages and salaries 43.6%, grants 21.8%, debt 3.0%, other operating expenditure 31.6%). Public debt (March 2009): U.S.$483,300,000. Production (value in Bd$’000 except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): vegetables (including cabbages, carrots, and potatoes) 5,290, milk 1,992, eggs 344, fruits 302, honey 203, flowers (particularly lilies) 118; livestock (number of live animals) 1,000 horses, 650 cattle, 50,000 chickens; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 400 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: crushed stone for local use. Manufacturing: industries include pharmaceuticals, paints, fish processing, handicrafts, and small boat building.9 Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 643,000,000 (643,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (167,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure (2004). Average household size 2.3; average annual income per household Bd$106,233 (U.S.$106,233); sources of income: wages and salaries 65.1%, imputed income from owner occupancy 14.4%, self-employment 9.2%, net rental income 4.1%, other 7.2%; expenditure (2006): housing 34%, household furnishings 14%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 14%, transportation 9%, foreign travel 6%, health care 5%. Population economically active (2000): total 37,879; activity rate of total population 61.0% (participation rates: ages 16–64, 84.8%; female 48.3%; unemployed [Bermudians only, 2006] 3.0%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

% of total value

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.6

97.0

100.0

103.1

107.0

112.1

114.1

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–781 88.2%

–930 93.0%

–936 90.5%

–1,069 95.5%

–1,066 95.5%

–1,121 95.6%

Imports (2008): Bd$1,147,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 16.5%; food products 11.7%; refined petroleum 8.3%; chemicals and chemical products 6.6%; printed matter 5.5%; manufactures of metal 4.9%). Major import sources: U.S. 71.1%; Canada 6.7%; Venezuela 6.5%; U.K. 3.5%. Exports (2006): Bd$25,000,000 (including sales of fuel to aircraft and ships and reexports of pharmaceuticals; also rum and flowers). Major export destinations: more than 80% to the EU.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2006): total length 140 mi, 225 km (paved 100%)14. Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 22,793; trucks and buses 4,778. Air transport: visitor arrivals (2009) 235,860.15 Cruise-ship transport: visitor arrivals (2009) 318,528. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

68

1,077

2009 2009

8517

1,31017

58

890

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

34 1616 54 4017

units per 1,000 persons 535 23616 833 61717

Education and health Educational attainment (2000). Percentage of total population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 0.4%; primary education 7.0%; secondary 39.3%; postsecondary technical 25.7%; higher 26.8%; not stated 0.8%. Literacy (2005): total population age 15 and over literate, 98.5%. Education (2005–06) Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary18

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

567 747 88

4,678 4,518 886

8.3 6.0 10.1

92 … 25 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2008) 140 (1 per 481 persons); hospital beds (2007–08) 34019 (1 per 198 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2006–08 avg.) 4.5; undernourished population (2004–06) 5,000 (8% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,920 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (2009): 530; part-time defense force assists police and is drawn from Bermudian conscripts. 1All

seats are appointed. 2The Bermuda dollar is at par with the U.S. dollar. 3Excludes the area and population of the city of Hamilton. 4Excludes the area and population of the town of St. George. 5Includes 0.4 sq mi (1.1 sq km) of uninhabited islands. 6Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Excludes 8,335 short-term visitors, 901 institutionalized persons, and 39 transients. 8Marriages between nonresidents comprise 60% of all marriages. 9The economy of Bermuda is overwhelmingly based on service industries such as tourism, insurance companies, offshore financial centres, e-commerce companies, and ship repair facilities. 10Employed only. 11Bermuda is a major international financial centre, mainly due to its importance as an operating base for the international insurance and reinsurance industry. 12Taxes less imputed bank service charges. 1368% Bermudian, 32% non-Bermudian with work permits. 14Excludes 138 mi (222 km) of paved private roads. 15No airlines are headquartered in Bermuda. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 182006–07; many students attend universities abroad because Bermuda does not have a degree-conferring university, business school, or law school. 19King Edward VII Memorial Hospital only.

Internet resources for further information: • Bermuda Government, Department of Statistics http://www.statistics.gov.bm • Bermuda Online: Economy http://bermuda-online.org/economy.htm

529

Nations of the World

Bhutan

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$1,406,000,000 (U.S.$2,020 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$5,300 per capita).

Official name: Druk-Yul (Kingdom of Bhutan). Form of government: constitutional monarchy1 with two legislative houses (National Council [252]; National Assembly [47]). Head of state: Monarch. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Thimphu. Official language: Dzongkha (a Tibetan dialect). Official religion: 3. Monetary unit: ngultrum4 (Nu); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Nu 46.69; 1 £ = Nu 72.59.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Districts Bumthang Chukha (Chhukha) Dagana Gasa Haa Lhuentse (Lhuntse) Mongar (Monggar) Paro Pemagatshel Punakha Samdrup Jongkhar Samtse (Samchi)

labour force

% of labour force

10,256 1,229 4,598 6,239 10,341 3,264

18.9 2.3 8.5 11.5 19.1 6.0

204,400 500 14,700 1,400 3,500 3,000

62.8 0.2 4.5 0.4 1.1 0.9

10

5,366 5,061 3,763 2,438 1,5979 54,15011

TOTAL

area

population

sq km5

2005 census

Districts

2,611 1,728 1,344 4,185 1,651 2,764 1,881 1,229 499 922 2,227 1,497

16,116 74,387 18,222 3,116 11,648 15,395 37,069 36,433 13,864 17,715 39,961 60,100

Sarpang (Geylegphug) Thimphu Trashigang Trashiyangtse Trongsa Tsirang (Chirang) Wangdue Phodrang Zhemgang unallocated population TOTAL

area

population

sq km5

2005 census

2,188 1,843 2,188 1,382 1,728 614

41,549 98,676 51,134 17,740 13,419 18,667

3,878 2,035

31,135 18,636

38,394

37,443 672,4256

Demography Population (2010): 700,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 47.2, persons per sq km 18.2. Urban-rural (2007): urban 26.4%; rural 73.6%. Sex distribution (2008): male 52.50%; female 47.50%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 30.9%; 15–29, 31.9%; 30–44, 18.6%; 45–59, 10.6%; 60–74, 6.3%; 75–84, 1.5%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 782,000; (2030) 855,000. Doubling time: 33 years. Ethnic composition (2005): Bhutia (Ngalops) c. 50%; Nepalese (Gurung) c. 35%; Sharchops c. 15%. Religious affiliation (2005): Buddhist c. 74%; Hindu c. 25%; Christian c. 1%. Major towns (2005): Thimphu 79,185; Phuntsholing 20,537; Gelaphu 9,199; Wangdue 6,714; Samdrup Jongkhar 5,952; Samtse 4,981.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 20.6 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 7.5 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 13.1 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.48. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 64.8 years; female 66.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006)7: diseases of the digestive system 21.3, of which alcohol-related liver diseases 14.5; diseases of the respiratory system 13.6; diseases of the circulatory system 13.1; neonatal deaths 11.0.

National economy

9.9 9.3 6.9 4.5 2.99 100.011

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

90.8

95.0

100.0

105.0

110.4

119.7

124.8

900 1,800 28,100 54,400 12,90010 325,70011

0.3 0.6 8.6 16.7 4.010 100.0

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 3.3%, in permanent crops 0.7%, in pasture 10.6%, forest area 83.8%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 39; remittances (2007) 1.5; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 36; official development assistance (2008) 87. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a.

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices) Nu ’000,000 % of total

2002–03

2003–04

2004–05

2005–06

2006–07

2007–08

–3,681 25.4%

–3,966 21.7%

–10,816 39.5%

–5,103 16.0%

+2,062 4.2%

–3,086 7.5%

Imports (2008): Nu 23,636,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 18.8%, refined petroleum 11.9%, food 10.6%, road vehicles 9.0%, iron and steel 8.7%). Major import sources: India 74.0%; Japan 4.7%; Singapore 3.9%; China 3.6%; Thailand 1.7%. Exports (2008): Nu 22,684,000,000 (electricity 48.8%, ginger 45.3%, iron and steel 1.3%, oranges 1.1%). Major export destinations: India 95.1%; Bangladesh 2.8%; Nepal 0.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2009): total length 3,717 mi, 5,982 km (paved 45%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 23,687; trucks and buses 5,376. Air transport (2005): passenger-km 74,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,000,00013. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

25

33

2009 2009

32715 26

46915 38

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

13 1814 50 3.115

units per 1,000 persons 16 3714 72 4.415

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of head of household population having: no formal schooling 73.2%; incomplete/complete primary education 16.5%; incomplete/complete secondary 5.5%; higher 4.8%. Literacy (2007): total population age 6 and over literate 55.5%; males literate 65.7%; females literate 45.9%. Education (2005–06)

Budget (2007–08). Revenue: Nu 20,481,000,000 (grants 40.7%; nontax revenue 33.0%, of which dividends and transfers of profits 28.4%; tax revenue 23.7%, of which corporate income taxes 9.2%; other 2.6%). Expenditures: Nu 22,223,000,000 (capital expenditures 52.3%; current expenditures 47.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; July 2008): U.S.$779,900,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): rice 74,438, corn (maize) 61,789, potatoes 61,133, oranges 36,500, dry chilies and peppers 10,700, ginger 9,870, nutmeg, mace, and cardamom 5,800, mustard seed 3,385; livestock (number of live animals) 385,000 cattle, (2005) 45,538 yaks, 26,000 horses; roundwood (2009) 4,979,535 cu m, of which fuelwood 95%; fisheries production 180 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): dolomite 1,247,568; limestone 583,707; gypsum 248,445; ferrosilicon 36,600. Manufacturing (value of sales in Nu ’000,000; 2007): ferroalloys 1,886; cement 1,664; chemical products 1,406; wood board products (2006) 382. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 6,562,000,000 (1,140,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) 105,000 (101,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (73,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2007) 5.0; income per household: n.a.8; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2007): food and beverages 31.6%, education 15.6%, housing/energy 14.6%, clothing and footwear 6.5%, transportation and communication 6.3%, food away from home 6.1%. Population economically active (2009): total 325,700; activity rate of total population 47.7% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 71.4%; female [2005] 36.6%; officially unemployed 4.0%).

Consumer price index

% of total value

Agriculture, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Trade, restaurants Transportation and communications Finance and real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

2009

in value Nu ’000,000

Primary (age 6–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

3,503 1,973 375

162,225 45,035 4,141

29.2 22.8 11.0

79 38 6 (age 19–23)

Health (2008): physicians 171 (1 per 3,924 persons); hospital beds 1,159 (1 per 586 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 51.9; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (2009): about 8,00016, 17. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2005): c. 1.0%; per capita expenditure U.S.$11.

1Bhutan’s

first constitution was promulgated on July 18, 2008. 2Includes 5 nonelected members. 3Buddhism is the spiritual heritage of Bhutan per article 3.1 of the 2008 constitution. 4Indian currency is also accepted legal tender; the ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee. 5Estimated district areas are derived from district area percentages of total national area as published in the Statistical Yearbook of Bhutan (2003). 6Includes 634,972 residents and 37,453 temporary residents. 7Hospital-diagnosed deaths only. 8Bhutan reports household consumption expenditure in lieu of income data; in 2007 average annual household consumption expenditure was Nu 165,876 (U.S.$4,012). 9Taxes less subsidies. 10Unemployed. 11Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Includes weight of passengers and mail. 14Circulation of daily newspapers. 15Subscribers. 16Includes army, royal bodyguard, police, forest guards, and militia. 17India maintains a permanent military training presence.

Internet resources for further information: • Royal Monetary Authority of Bhutan http://www.rma.org.bt • National Statistics Bureau http://www.nsb.gov.bt

530

Britannica World Data

Bolivia

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Official name: Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia (Plurinational State of Bolivia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic1 with two legislative houses (Chamber of Senators [36]; Chamber of Deputies [130]). Head of state and government: President. Capitals: La Paz (administrative)2; Sucre (constitutional)2, 3. Official languages: Spanish and 36 indigenous languages3. Official religion: none3. Monetary unit: boliviano (Bs); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Bs 7.02; 1 £ = Bs 10.84.

in value Bs ’000,000 Agriculture Mining Crude petroleum, nat. gas Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Departments Beni Chuquisaca Cochabamba La Paz Oruro

area

population

sq km 213,564 51,524 55,631 133,9854 53,588

2001 census 362,521 531,522 1,455,711 2,350,466 391,870

Departments Pando Potosí Santa Cruz Tarija TOTAL

area

population

sq km 63,827 118,218 370,621 37,623 1,098,581

2001 census 52,525 709,013 2,029,471 391,226 8,274,325

Population (2010): 9,947,0005. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 23.5, persons per sq km 9.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 66.0%; rural 34.0%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.88%; female 50.12%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 36.3%; 15–29, 28.0%; 30–44, 18.3%; 45–59, 10.6%; 60–74, 5.3%; 75 and over, 1.5%. Population projection: (2020) 11,640,000; (2030) 13,262,000. Doubling time: 37 years. Ethnic composition (2006): Amerindian c. 55%, of which Quechua c. 29%, Aymara c. 24%; mestizo c. 30%; white c. 15%. Religious affiliation (2001): Roman Catholic c. 78%; Protestant/independent Christian c. 16%; other Christian c. 3%, of which Mormon 1.8%; nonreligious 2.5%; other 0.5%. Major cities (2001): Santa Cruz 1,116,059 (urban agglomeration [2009] 1,584,000); La Paz 789,585 (urban agglomeration [2009] 1,642,000); El Alto 647,3506; Cochabamba 516,683; Oruro 201,230; Sucre 193,873.

Vital statistics

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: Bs 58,394,500,000 (sales of hydrocarbons 45.1%, tax income [incl. royalties on minerals] 36.6%). Expenditures: Bs 54,478,200,000 (current expenditure 72.0%, capital expenditure 28.0%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 6,420,000, soybeans 1,600,000, corn (maize) 770,000, potatoes 735,000, plantains 446,000, rice 369,000, cassava 360,600, sunflower seeds 191,300, seed cotton 80,000, chestnuts 55,000; livestock (number of live animals) 9,177,000 sheep, 7,894,000 cattle, 2,592,000 pigs, 1,900,000 llamas, alpacas, vicuñas, and guanacos; roundwood 3,219,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 72%; fisheries production 7,430 (from aquaculture 8%). Mining and quarrying (2008): zinc 363,6207; lead 81,6007; tin 17,3207; tungsten 1,4507; silver 1,114,000 kg7; gold 8,405 kg. Manufacturing (value added in Bs ’000,000; 2009): beverages 1,914; bricks, cement, and ceramics 1,893; meat products 1,795; petroleum products 1,703; textiles, clothing, and leather products 1,084; flour and bakery products 1,0388. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 5,550,000,000 ([2008] 4,373,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 13,102,000 (22,995,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 1,866,000 (2,310,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 12,788,000,000 ([2008] 2,407,000,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 4.3; annual income per household (1999) Bs 16,980 (U.S.$2,920); expenditure (2000): food 28.6%, transportation and communications 23.1%, rent and energy 10.3%, expenditures in cafés and hotels 9.5%, recreation and culture 7.1%. Population economically active (2007): total 4,972,400; activity rate of total population 49.8% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2000] 71.8%; female 45.2%; registered unemployed [2009] 7.9%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

90.9 90.5

94.9 96.6

100.0 100.0

104.3 100.4

113.4 101.8

129.2 109.6

133.6 113.2

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$16,069,000,000 (U.S.$1,630 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$4,260 per capita).

11.2 7.9 } 5.0 11.6 2.5 2.2 8.8 9.7 8.8 11.9 4.3 16.111 100.0

% of labour force 10

1,686,700

34.2

72,400

1.5

514,900 316,300 15,400 272,400 833,100 164,900 152,300 641,900 257,100 4,927,400

10.5 6.4 0.3 5.5 16.9 3.4 3.1 13.0 5.2 100.0

Foreign trade 12 Balance of trade (current prices) 2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+367.2 8.9%

+456.1 8.9%

+1,399.1 19.9%

+1,290.7 15.5%

+1,461.0 12.8%

+437.9 4.7%

Imports (2007): U.S.$3,522,000,000 (chemical products 17.2%; road vehicles 13.4%; specialized machinery 8.1%; food products 7.9%; refined petroleum 7.6%; iron and steel 7.3%). Major import sources (2007): Brazil 20.2%; Argentina 16.9%; U.S. 11.7%; Japan 9.4%; China 7.6%; Peru 6.7%. Exports (2009): U.S.$4,847,700,000 (natural gas 40.6%; minerals 38.1%, of which zinc 14.2%, silver 12.6%, gold 2.4%; soybeans [all forms] 9.6%). Major export destinations (2007): Brazil 36.7%; Argentina 8.7%; U.S. 8.6%; Japan 8.5%; Venezuela 5.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 3,504 km; (2004) passenger-km 286,000,000; (2004) metric ton-km cargo 1,058,000,000. Roads (2004): total length 38,823 mi, 62,479 km (paved 7%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 175,000; trucks and buses 475,759. Air transport (2007)13: passenger-km 287,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 9,000,000. Communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 26.9 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.4 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 3.26. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2006): 2.2/n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 63.9 years; female 68.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 145.6; infectious and parasitic diseases 140.6; cardiovascular diseases 129.8; respiratory infections 78.2; accidents 63.9.

labour force10

Public debt (external, outstanding; December 2009): U.S.$2,569,000,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 275; remittances (2009) 1,109; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 387; official development assistance (2008) 628. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 281; remittances (2008) 72. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 2.1%, left fallow 1.2%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 30.5%, forest area 53.7%.

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography

Consumer price index Annual earnings index9

13,575 9,664 6,115 14,141 3,028 2,631 10,724 11,848 10,643 14,508 5,239 19,61111 121,727

TOTAL

Area and population

2007 % of total value

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

1,210

134

2009 2009

7,14815 810

72515 82

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

224 15514 1,103 28215

units per 1,000 persons 24 1614 112 2815

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 19 and over having: no formal schooling 10.7%; some to complete primary education 37.5%; some to complete secondary 27.2%; some to complete higher 24.4%; not specified 0.2%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 90.7%; males literate 96.0%; females literate 86.0%. Education (2006–07) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

62,430 57,912 15,685

1,512,002 1,052,014 352,554

24.2 18.1 22.5

94 70 38 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2007) 4,058 (1 per 2,323 persons); hospital beds (2008) 15,017 (1 per 639 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 43.2; undernourished population (2004–06) 2,100,000 (23% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,730 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 46,100 (army 75.5%, navy 10.4%, air force 14.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$25.

1New constitution promulgated Feb. 8, 2009; actual implementation of changes per new constitution will take time. 2Executive and legislative branches meet in La Paz, judiciary in Sucre. 3Per 2009 constitution. 4Includes the 3,690-sq-km area of the Bolivian part of Lake Titicaca. 5Estimate of U.S. Bureau of the Census International Database (December 2008 update). 6Within La Paz urban agglomeration. 7Metal content. 8In 2008 Bolivia ranked third in the world in coca production; 113 metric tons of cocaine were produced. 9Private sector; second quarter only. 10Population 10 years of age and over. 11Import duties and indirect taxes less imputed bank service charges. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13AeroSur, LAB (closed down in 2007), and Amaszonas airlines only. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • Instituto Nacional de Estadística http://www.ine.gob.bo • Banco Central de Bolivia http://www.bcb.gob.bo

531

Nations of the World

Bosnia and Herzegovina

sheep, 502,197 pigs, 459,218 cattle; roundwood (2009) 3,428,530 cu m, of which fuelwood 38%; fisheries production 9,625 (from aquaculture 79%). Mining (2008): iron ore (metal content) 1,120,000; bauxite 1,018,333; lime 215,787. Manufacturing (value of production in KM ’000,000; 2006): base metals and fabricated metal products 1,578; food, beverages, and tobacco products 1,255; wood and wood products 398; cement, bricks, and ceramics 352. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 14,823,000,000 (9,984,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 3,876,000 (4,552,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 10,579,000 (10,308,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (777,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 98,000 (1,169,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) none (412,000,000). Population economically active (2008): total 1,162,000; activity rate of total population 36.2% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 53.4%; female 37.3%; unemployed 23.4%).

Official name: Bosna i Hercegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina). Form of government: emerging republic with bicameral legislature (House of Peoples [151]; House of Representatives [42]). Heads of state: nominally a tripartite presidency. International authority: 2. Head of government: Prime Minister (Chairman of the Council of Ministers). Capital: Sarajevo. Official languages: Bosnian; Croatian; Serbian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: convertible marka (KM3, 4); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = KM 1.53; 1 £ = KM 2.36.

Price index (2005 = 100)

Area and population Autonomous regions Cantons

area

population

sq km

2008 estimate

Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBH) 26,110 Bosnia-Podrinje 505 Central Bosnia 3,189 Herzegovina-Neretva 4,401 Posavina 325 Sarajevo 1,277 Tuzla-Podrinje 2,649 Una-Sana 4,125

2,327,195 33,225 255,648 226,632 40,513 421,289 497,813 287,998

Autonomous regions Cantons Western Bosnia Western Herzegovina Zenica-Doboj Republika Srpska (RS)

area

population

sq km

2008 estimate

4,934 1,362 3,343

81,396 81,833 400,848

24,857

1,437,500

208

75,635

REMAINDER TOTAL

34 51,209

— 3,840,330

Population (2010): 3,839,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 194.2, persons per sq km 75.0. Urban-rural (2005): urban 45.7%; rural 54.3%. Sex distribution (2005): male 48.11%; female 51.89%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 16.6%; 15–29, 22.7%; 30–44, 22.6%; 45–59, 20.4%; 60–74, 13.3%; 75–84, 3.9%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2020) 3,754,000; (2030) 3,594,000. Ethnic composition (1999): Bosniac 44.0%; Serb 31.0%; Croat 17.0%; other 8.0%. Religious affiliation (2002): Sunni Muslim c. 40%; Serbian Orthodox c. 31%; Roman Catholic c. 15%; Protestant c. 4%; nonreligious/other c. 10%. Major cities (2008): Sarajevo 393,000; Banja Luka 164,200; Tuzla 83,800; Zenica 83,300; Mostar 66,900.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.1 (world avg. 20.3); (2006) within marriage 88.4%; (2006) outside of marriage 11.6%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 0.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.19. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 5.4/0.2. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 66.9 years; female 72.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2007): diseases of the circulatory system 481.9; neoplasms (cancers) 174.7; endocrine, metabolic, and nutritional disorders 41.2; diseases of the respiratory system 29.8.

National economy Budget (2006)5. Revenue: KM 9,075,000,000 (tax revenue 80.8%, of which VAT/sales tax 29.9%, social security contributions 26.7%, excise tax 11.4%; nontax revenue 13.7%; grants 5.5%). Expenditures: KM 8,655,000,000 (current expenditures 86.5%; development expenditures 13.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$3,006,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$17,721,000,000 (U.S.$4,700 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$8,740 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

TOTAL

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

…

…

100.0

106.1

107.7

115.7

115.3

Household expenditure (2004). Average household size 3.3; average annual household expenditure KM 15,622 (U.S.$9,919); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 31.3%, housing 16.0%, transport 9.9%, energy 7.5%, household furnishings 6.9%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 826; remittances (2009) 2,627; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 1,281; official development assistance (2008) 482. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 211; remittances (2008) 70. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 10.9%, left fallow 9.1%, in permanent crops 1.9%, in pasture 20.2%, forest area 42.7%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

District Brcko

Demography

Agriculture, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2003 Retail price index

2008

in value KM ’000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

1,803 501 2,556 1,269 1,060 1,643 3,611 3,025 2,361 2,735 3,4306 23,994

7.5 2.1 10.7 5.3 4.4 6.8 15.1 12.6 9.8 11.4 14.36 100.0

19,160 20,153 147,115 42,658 22,792 44,653 166,147 40,576 67,597 127,556 463,5937 1,162,000

1.6 1.7 12.7 3.7 2.0 3.8 14.3 3.5 5.8 11.0 39.97 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): corn (maize) 976,170, cow’s milk 737,199, potatoes 424,860, wheat 226,061, plums and sloes 132,623, cabbages 85,981, apples 51,946, dry chilies and peppers 30,000, raspberries 7,483; livestock (number of live animals) 1,030,510

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–3,449 55.0%

–4,068 50.9%

–4,665 49.4%

–4,131 37.6%

–5,568 40.1%

–7,163 41.6%

Imports (2008): U.S.$12,184,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 16.3%, food 11.7%, base and fabricated metals 11.1%, chemicals and chemical products 10.4%, refined petroleum 10.3%, road vehicles 7.2%). Major import sources: Croatia 17.1%; Germany 11.7%; Serbia 10.6%; Italy 9.3%; Slovenia 5.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$5,021,000,000 (aluminum 8.8%, metal manufactures 8.4%, iron and steel 7.4%, metal ore/metal scrap 5.4%, footwear 5.4%, electricity 5.4%, sawn wood 4.6%). Major export destinations: Croatia 19.2%; Serbia 15.1%; Germany 13.5%; Italy 12.6%; Slovenia 9.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 632 mi, 1,017 km; passenger-km 78,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,284,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 10,875 mi, 17,502 km (paved, n.a.); passenger-km 2,108,000,000; metric tonkm cargo 1,872,000,000. Vehicles: n.a. Air transport (2003): passenger-km 47,000,000; metric ton-km 6,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2002

950

248

2009 2009

3,2579 999

8659 265

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

246 1908 1,422 2929

64 488 377 789

Education and health Educational attainment (2004). Percentage of population age 18 and over having: no formal schooling 8.7%; incomplete primary education 11.4%; complete primary 21.4%; incomplete/complete secondary 49.8%; technical/university 8.7%. Literacy (2002): total population age 15 and over literate 94.6%; males literate 98.4%; females literate 91.1%. Education (2006–07) Primary (age 6–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–17) Tertiary10

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

… … 5,446

191,588 344,567 96,868

… … 17.8

… … … (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2005) 5,540 (1 per 694 persons); hospital beds (2004) 11,414 (1 per 337 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 5.3; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 11,09911, 12. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$73. 1All seats are nonelective. 2High Representative of the international community per the 1995 Dayton Peace Agreement/EU Special Representative. 3The KM is pegged to the euro. 4The euro also circulates as semiofficial legal tender. 5Combined total for the separately constructed budgets of the FBH, RS, and Brcko District along with the small central government budget. 6Taxes on products and imports less subsidies and imputed bank service charges. 7Includes 272,000 unemployed. 8Circulation. 9Subscribers. 10Data for 8 universities only. 11A formally combined military was established in 2006. 12EU-sponsored (EUFOR) peacekeeping troops (November 2009) 1,968.

Internet resources for further information: • Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina http://www.bhas.ba • Central Bank http://www.cbbh.ba

532

Britannica World Data

Botswana

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Official name: Republic of Botswana. Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative body1 (National Assembly [632]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Gaborone3. Official language: English4. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: pula (P); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = P 6.87; 1 £ = P 10.61.

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

% of total value

labour force6

% of labour force6

2,478 21,621 3,343 4,313 2,409 4,050 11,328 10,301 15,364 3,809 4,25711 83,27213

3.0 26.0 4.0 5.2 2.9 4.9 13.6 12.4 18.5 4.6 5.111 100.013

161,400 14,200 36,000 27,600 4,200 16,100 92,100 33,700 60,200 93,700 114,00012 653,200

24.7 2.2 5.5 4.2 0.6 2.5 14.1 5.2 9.2 14.3 17.512 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$395,000,000. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 0.4%; in permanent crops, less than 0.01; in pasture 45.2%; forest area 20.7%.

Area and population

Districts Central Ghanzi Kgalagadi Kgatleng Kweneng

2008

in value P ’000,000

area

population

sq km

2006 estimate

147,730 117,910 106,940 7,960 35,890

582,394 33,700 46,329 82,154 246,692

Districts North East North West South East Southern TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2006 estimate

5,120 129,930 1,780 28,470 581,730

139,533 157,201 284,839 200,398 1,773,240

Demography Population (2010): 2,029,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 9.0, persons per sq km 3.5. Urban-rural (2009): urban 60.4%; rural 39.6%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.99%; female 50.01%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 35.3%; 15–29, 32.9%; 30–44, 17.4%; 45–59, 9.0%; 60–74, 3.9%; 75–84, 1.2%; 85 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2020) 2,312,000; (2030) 2,519,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Tswana 66.8%; Kalanga 14.8%; Ndebele 1.7%; Herero 1.4%; San (Bushman) 1.3%; Afrikaner 1.3%; other 12.7%. Religious affiliation (2005): independent Christian 41.7%; traditional beliefs 35.0%; Protestant 12.8%; Muslim 0.3%; Hindu 0.2%; other 10.0%. Major cities (2006): Gaborone 214,400; Francistown 91,800; Molepolole 65,600; Selebi-Pikwe 54,700; Maun 51,600.

Vital statistics

Foreign trade 14 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–162 2.1%

+276 4.1%

+1,268 16.7%

+1,453 19.2%

+1,086 13.5%

–261 2.6%

Imports (2008): U.S.$5,099,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 17.8%, refined petroleum 15.3%, road vehicles 10.1%, food products 9.1%, diamonds 8.1%). Major import sources: South Africa 78.6%; U.K. 5.8%; China 2.8%; Israel 1.7%; U.S. 1.2%. Exports (2008): U.S.$4,838,000,000 (diamonds 64.5%, nickel matte 14.0%, apparel and clothing accessories 5.4%, copper ore/copper matte 3.2%). Major export destinations: U.K. 56.8%; South Africa 20.3%; China 4.9%; Zimbabwe 4.5%; Israel 3.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 552 mi, 888 km; (2003) passengerkm 572,000,000; (2004) metric ton-km cargo 636,700,000. Roads (2007)15: total length 5,540 mi, 8,916 km (paved 72%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 104,926; trucks and buses 105,754. Air transport (2008)16: passenger-km 120,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, 1,100,000. Communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 24.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.8 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.66. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 61.5 years; female 62.1 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 23.9%5 (world avg. 0.8%).

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

78

44

2009 2009

1,87418 144

96118 74

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

84 1117 120 1518

units per 1,000 persons 45 8.517 62 7.718

Education and health

National economy Budget (2006–07). Revenue: P 27,397,700,000 (tax revenue 92.1%, of which mineral royalties 47.9%, customs duties and excise tax 24.1%, non-mineral income tax 11.2%; nontax revenue 6.3%; grants 1.6%). Expenditures: P 19,737,400,000 (general government services including defense 29.2%; education 24.5%; economic services 14.5%; health 11.3%; transfers 10.2%). Population economically active (2008): total 653,2006; activity rate of total population 35.6%6 (participation rates: ages 15–59 [2001] 58.1%6; female [2001] 49.1%6; unemployed [2008] 17.5%).

Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 27.9%; primary education, n.a.; secondary, n.a.; postsecondary, n.a. Literacy (2005): total population over age 15 literate 81.4%; males literate 78.6%; females literate 84.1%. Education (2004–05) Primary (age 6–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

13,472 12,371 529

326,500 168,720 10,950

24.2 13.6 20.7

83 56 5 (age 18–22)

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index7

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

86.1 80.3

92.1 82.7

100.0 100.0

111.6 120.8

119.5 137.4

134.6 …

145.4 …

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cow’s milk 101,500, roots and tubers 94,000, pulses 25,850, sorghum 25,290, corn (maize) 12,000, game meat 11,500, sunflower seeds 7,000, goat’s milk 3,875; livestock (number of live animals) 2,450,000 cattle, 1,980,000 goats, 305,000 sheep; roundwood (2009) 778,900 cu m, of which fuelwood 87%; fisheries production 86 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2008): soda ash 263,566; salt 170,994; nickel ore (metal content) 28,940; copper ore (metal content) 22,000; cobalt (metal content) 337; semiprecious gemstones (mostly agate) 50,000 kg; gold 3,176 kg; diamonds 32,595,000 carats8, 9. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): beverages 61; textiles 18; tanned and processed leather 2; unspecified 290. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 1,119,000,000 (2,881,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 1,038,000 (1,099,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (678,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 513; remittances (2009) 158; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 326; official development assistance (2008) 716. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 488; remittances (2008) 120; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 35. Household income and expenditure (2002–03). Average household size (2004) 4.3; average annual disposable income per household P 29,095 (U.S.$5,320), of which cash income P 25,519 (U.S.$4,670); expenditure (2006)10: food and nonalcoholic beverages 21.8%, transportation 19.0%, housing and energy 11.5%, alcoholic beverages and tobacco 9.3%, clothing and footwear 7.5%, household furnishings 6.8%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$12,210,000,000 (U.S.$6,260 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$12,860 per capita).

Health (2007): physicians 478 (1 per 3,798 persons); hospital beds 3,704 (1 per 490 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 13.4; undernourished population (2004–06) 480,000 (26% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,830 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 9,000 (army 94.4%, navy, none [landlocked], air force 5.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.2%; per capita expenditure U.S.$150.

1In addition, the Ntlo ya Dikgosi (known as the House of Chiefs in English), a 35member body consisting of chiefs, subchiefs, and associated members, serves in an advisory capacity to the government. 2Includes 4 specially elected members and 2 ex officio members (the president and attorney general); the statutory number (63) includes the speaker who may be appointed from outside the National Assembly. 3The high court meets in Lobatse, but its move to Gaborone was pending in mid-2010. 4Tswana is the national language. 5Statistically derived midpoint within range. 6Excludes military. 7Citizens only. 8About 70% gem and near-gem quality (Botswana is the world’s leading producer of diamonds by value). 9The world’s most advanced diamond-sorting and diamond-valuing centre was opened at Gaborone in 2008. 10Weights of cost of living index. 11Import duties and indirect taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 12Unemployed. 13Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 14Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 15Roads maintained by central government only. 16Air Botswana only. 17Circulation. 18Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Statistical Office http://www.cso.gov.bw • Bank of Botswana http://www.bankofbotswana.bw

Nations of the World

Brazil

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 10.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.90. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 68.7 years; female 76.0 years. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2005): 6.3/1.3. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004)9: diseases of the circulatory system 178.5, of which cerebrovascular disease 56.9, ischemic heart disease 54.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 88.0; external causes 79.7, of which accidents 35.9, violence 35.2 (excl. suicide 5.0); diseases of the respiratory system 63.9; diseases of the digestive system 30.4; infectious and parasitic diseases 28.8; diabetes mellitus 24.5; causes unknown 79.3. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 0.6% (world avg. 0.8%).

Official name: República Federativa do Brasil (Federative Republic of Brazil). Form of government: multiparty federal republic with 2 legislative houses (Federal Senate [81]; Chamber of Deputies [513]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Brasília. Official language: Portuguese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: real (R$; plural reais); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = R$1.75; 1 £ = R$2.70.

Social indicators

Area and population States Acre Alagoas Amapá Amazonas Bahia Ceará Espírito Santo Goiás Maranhão Mato Grosso Mato Grosso do Sul Minas Gerais Pará Paraíba Paraná Pernambuco Piauí Rio de Janeiro Rio Grande do Norte Rio Grande do Sul Rondônia Roraima Santa Catarina São Paulo Sergipe Tocantins Federal District Distrito Federal

area

Capitals Rio Branco Maceió Macapá Manaus Salvador Fortaleza Vitória Goiânia São Luís Cuiabá Campo Grande Belo Horizonte Belém João Pessoa Curitiba Recife Teresina Rio de Janeiro Natal Porto Alegre Porto Velho Boa Vista Florianópolis São Paulo Aracaju Palmas Brasília

TOTAL

533

sq mi 58,912 10,721 55,141 606,468 218,029 57,462 17,791 131,308 128,179 348,788 137,887 226,460 481,736 21,792 76,956 37,958 97,116 16,871 20,385 108,784 91,729 86,602 36,813 95,834 8,459 107,190 2,240 3,287,6122, 3

population

sq km 152,581 27,768 142,815 1,570,746 564,693 148,826 46,078 340,087 331,983 903,358 357,125 586,528 1,247,690 56,440 199,315 98,312 251,529 43,696 52,797 281,749 237,576 224,299 95,346 248,209 21,910 277,621 5,802 8,514,8772, 3

2007 population count1 653,620 3,014,979 585,073 3,167,668 14,079,966 8,183,880 3,351,327 5,644,460 6,117,996 2,854,456 2,265,021 19,261,816 7,070,867 3,640,538 10,279,545 8,487,072 3,029,916 15,406,488 3,014,228 10,582,324 1,454,237 394,192 5,868,014 39,838,127 1,938,970 1,248,158 2,455,903 183,888,841

Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling or less than one year of primary education 15.0%; 1 to 3 years of primary education 13.7%; complete primary/incomplete secondary 40.2%; complete secondary 18.8%; 1 to 3 years of higher education 3.8%; 4 years or more of higher education 8.0%; unknown 0.5%. Distribution of income (2006) percentage of national income by quintile 1

2

3

4

3.0

6.8

11.3

18.3

5 (highest) 60.6

Quality of working life. Proportion of employed population receiving minimum wage (2002): 53.5%. Number and percentage of children (age 5–17) working: 5,400,000 (12.6% of age group). Access to services. Proportion of urban households having access to (2006): safe public (piped) water supply 93.2%; public (piped) sewage system 66.8%; garbage collection 90.3%. Rural households have far less access to services. Social participation. Voter turnout at last (October 2006) national legislative election: 83.3%. Trade union membership in total workforce (2001): 19,500,000. Practicing Roman Catholic population in total affiliated Roman Catholic population (2000): large cities 10–15%; towns and rural areas 60–70%. Social deviance. Annual murder rate per 100,000 population (2005): Brazil 29.6; Rio de Janeiro only (2002) 56; São Paulo only (2002) 54. Leisure. Favourite leisure activities include: playing and watching football (soccer), dancing, practicing capoeira, rehearsing all year in neighbourhood samba groups for celebrations of Carnival, and competing in water sports, volleyball, and basketball. Material well-being. Urban households possessing (2006): electricity 99.7%, colour television receiver 94.8%, refrigerator 93.3%, washing machine 42.2%, computer 25.5%, Internet access 19.6%, freezer 16.1%.

National economy Demography Population (2010): 193,253,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 58.8, persons per sq km 22.7. Urban-rural (2005): urban 84.2%; rural 15.8%. Sex distribution (2005): male 49.32%; female 50.68%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 27.6%; 15–29, 27.7%; 30–44, 21.7%; 45–59, 14.1%; 60–74, 6.6%; 75–84, 1.8%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2020) 207,143,243; (2030) 216,410,030. Doubling time: 70 years. Racial composition (2000): white 53.7%; mulatto and mestizo 39.1%; black and black/Amerindian 6.2%; Asian 0.5%; Amerindian 0.4%. Religious affiliation (2005)4: Roman Catholic 65.1%; Protestant 12.7%, of which Assemblies of God 9.2%; independent Christian 10.7%, of which Universal Church of the Kingdom of God 2.2%; Spiritist (Kardecist) 1.3%; Jehovah’s Witness 0.7%; African and syncretic religions 0.4%; Muslim 0.4%; nonreligious/other 8.7%. Major cities5 and metropolitan areas (2007): São Paulo 10,238,500 (19,226,426); Rio de Janeiro 6,093,500 (11,563,302); Belo Horizonte 2,412,900 (5,450,084); Porto Alegre 1,379,100 (3,896,515); Recife 1,533,600 (3,654,534); Salvador 2,891,400 (3,598,454); Brasília 2,348,600 (3,507,662); Fortaleza 2,431,400 (3,436,515); Curitiba 1,797,400 (3,124,596); Campinas 1,022,000 (2,635,261); Belém 1,399,800 (2,043,543); Goiânia 1,236,400 (1,973,892); Manaus 1,602,100 (1,612,475); Vitória 314,000 (1,609,532). Other principal cities5/metropolitan areas (2007) Santos São Luís Guarulhos Natal Maceió Joinville João Pessoa São Gonçalo Florianópolis Duque de Caxias

population 416,100/1,606,143 922,200/1,210,027 1,209,6007 774,200/1,174,886 871,900/1,089,295 470,400/1,041,494 675,000/1,004,580 960,8006 385,000/940,518 839,3006

Nova Iguaçu Teresina São Bernardo do Campo Campo Grande Londrina Osasco Santo André Jaboatão Blumenau

population 830,7006 737,100/778,341 767,8007 716,200/724,638 482,600/711,611 701,0007 667,9007 650,4008 270,700/617,462

Families. Average family size (2005) 3.2; (1996) 1–2 persons 25.2%, 3 persons 20.3%, 4 persons 22.2%, 5–6 persons 23.3%, 7 or more persons 9.0%. Emigration (2000): Brazilian emigrants living abroad 1,887,895; in the U.S. 42.3%, in Paraguay 23.4%, in Japan 12.0%. Immigration (2000): foreign-born immigrants living in Brazil 683,830; from Europe 56.3%, of which Portugal 31.2%; South/Central America 21.0%; Asia 17.8%, of which Japan 10.4%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 16.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 6.4 (world avg. 8.5).

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$1,564,008,000,000 (U.S.$8,070 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$10,260 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007 in value % of total U.S.$’000,000 value Agriculture, forestry Mining } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transportation and communications Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

}

72,300

5.5

64,900

4.9

206,000 59,300

15.7 4.5

96,700 203,100

7.4 15.4

434,800

33.1

177,100 1,314,200

13.5 100.0

labour force

200710 % of labour force

16,578,900 378,500 362,700 13,105,100 6,107,000 4,374,000 19,659,800 6,680,700 4,504,200 18,825,800 8,269,000 11 98,845,6003

16.8 0.4 0.4 13.3 6.2 4.4 19.9 6.8 4.6 19.0 8.411 100.0 3

Budget (2008). Revenue: R$716,647,000,000 (taxes and welfare contributions 67.6%, social security contributions 22.8%, other 9.6%). Expenditures: R$645,246,000,000 (social security and welfare 33.4%, transfers to state and local governments 20.6%, personnel 20.3%, other 25.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$73,623,000,000. Production (’000 metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 648,921, soybeans 59,917, corn (maize) 59,018, cow’s milk 27,752, cassava 25,878, oranges 18,390, rice 12,100, chicken meat 10,244, cattle meat 9,024, bananas 7,117, wheat 5,886, tomatoes 3,934, potatoes 3,676, dry beans 3,461, pig meat 3,015, coffee 2,791, coconuts 2,759, seed cotton 2,512, pineapples 2,492, sorghum 1,966, watermelons 1,950, papayas 1,900, hen’s eggs 1,845, cashew apples12 1,660, grapes 1,403, dry onions 1,299, tangerines 1,27313, mangoes and guavas 1,272, apples 1,121, lemons and limes 1,040, tobacco 850, oil palm fruit 660, maté 436, peanuts (groundnuts) 296, cashews 239, cacao beans 208, natural rubber 114, garlic 92, pepper 68, Brazil nuts 30; livestock (number of live animals) 175,437,000 cattle, 40,000,000 pigs, 16,500,000 sheep, 5,650,000 horses; roundwood (2009) 256,306,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 55%; fisheries production 1,065,186 (from aquaculture 27%). Mining and quarrying (metric tons; 2008): columbium (niobium) 82,000 of pyrochlore in concentrates14 (world rank: 1); iron ore (metal content) 233,514,000 (world rank: 2); tantalum 180 (world rank: 2); bauxite 28,097,500 (world rank: 3); asbestos fibre 287,673 (world rank: 3); graphite 76,200 (world rank: 3); kaolin (marketable product) 2,618,000; manganese (metal content) 2,091,200; copper (metal content) 245,633; nickel (metal content in ore) 54,060; tin (mine output, metal content) 10,558; gold 48,373 kg; diamonds 182,000 carats. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 7.0%, in permanent crops 0.8%, in pasture 23.3%, forest area 55.7%.

534

Britannica World Data 18,151,000,000 (18,890,000,000); ethanol (litres; 2007) 19,000,000,000 (16,700,000,000).

Manufacturing enterprises (2007) number of employees

value added15 (in U.S.$’000,000)

1,299,436 34,782 413,148

37,956 33,055 26,508

501,543

19,216

260,190 127,051

18,792 17,407

338,549 99,887 228,604 168,437 319,997

14,774 12,833 12,082 10,387 8,865

314,804 272,915 330,028 111,075 552,508 50,810 404,112

7,758 6,842 5,855 5,777 5,620 5,538 4,832

225,022 92,814

3,872 3,423

Food products Petroleum products Motor vehicles and parts Nonelectrical machinery and apparatus Paints, soaps, pharmaceuticals, and related products Iron and steel Electrical machinery and apparatus16 Industrial chemicals Beverages Paper and paper products Fabricated metal products Bricks, tiles, cement, and related products Plastics Textiles Publishing Clothing Nonferrous base metals Footwear, leather processing Wood and wood products (excl. furniture) Rubber products

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Population economically active (200710): total 98,845,600; activity rate of total population 52.2% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 73.5%; female 43.5%; unemployed [December 2007–November 2008] 7.9%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

87.8

93.6

100.0

104.2

108.0

114.1

119.7

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 5,785; remittances (2009) 4,910; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 32,822; official development assistance (2008) 460. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 10,962; remittances (2008) 1,191; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 18,575.

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+44,928 23.4%

+46,463 20.3%

+40,028 14.2%

+24,746 6.7%

+25,431 9.1%

Imports (2008): U.S.$173,197,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 26.6%, of which general industrial machinery 5.3%, telecommunications equipment 4.0%, power-generating machinery 3.5%, specialized machinery for particular industries 3.2%; mineral fuels 19.8%, of which crude petroleum 9.6%, refined petroleum 5.6%; chemicals and chemical products 19.6%, of which fertilizers 5.4%, organic chemicals 4.5%, medicines and pharmaceuticals 2.9%; road vehicles/parts 7.4%; food 3.7%; professional and scientific instruments 2.8%; iron and steel 2.5%). Major import sources: United States 14.9%; China 11.6%; Argentina 7.7%; Germany 6.9%; Nigeria 3.9%; Japan 3.9%; South Korea 3.1%; France 2.7%; Italy 2.7%; Chile 2.4%. Exports (2008): U.S.$198,628,000,000 (food 18.9%, of which meat 7.2%, sugars 2.8% [including raw cane sugar 1.8%], soybean animal foodstuffs 2.2%, coffee 2.1%; machinery and apparatus 10.2%, of which power-generating machinery 2.4%, machinery specialized for particular industries 2.3%; iron ore and concentrates 8.4%; road vehicles/parts 7.0%; iron and steel 6.9%; crude petroleum 6.9%; chemicals and chemical products 6.4%, of which organic chemicals 2.6%; soybeans 5.5%; aircraft/spacecraft 2.8%; refined petroleum 2.4%; nonferrous metals 2.1%; wood pulp and waste paper 2.0%). Major export destinations: United States 14.0%; Argentina 8.9%; China 8.3%; Netherlands 5.3%; Germany 4.5%; Japan 3.1%; Venezuela 2.6%; Italy 2.4%; Chile 2.4%; Russia 2.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2006): route length 29,605 km; (2005) passenger-km 5,852,000,00019; (2005) metric ton-km cargo 154,870,000,00019. Roads (2004): total length 1,088,558 mi, 1,751,868 km (paved [2000] 6%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 30,282,855; trucks and buses 7,694,824. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 66,144,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,807,000,000. Communications

Direction of trade (2007) imports

exports

U.S.$’000,000

%

U.S.$’000,000

%

11,332 35,245 12,618 4,610 3,391 31,957 8,675 … 1,709 1,955 23,282 1,708 1,979 18,890 18,805 10,410 3,483 — 120,621

9.4 29.2 10.5 3.8 2.8 26.5 7.2

8,571 33,303 10,749 4,321 2,047 46,430 7,211 1,805 3,741 3,301 36,110 2,362 4,260 25,336 33,387 14,417 4,265 2,848 160,649

5.3 20.7 6.7 2.7 1.3 28.9 4.5 1.1 2.3 2.1 22.5 1.5 2.6 15.8 20.8 9.0 2.7 1.8 100.0

Africa Asia-Pacific China Japan South Korea Europe Germany Portugal Russia United Kingdom North America Canada Mexico United States South America Argentina Chile NOT SPECIFIED TOTAL

17

1.4 1.6 19.3 1.4 1.6 15.7 15.6 8.6 2.9 — 100.0

Household income and expenditure (2002–03). Average household size 3.6; average annual income per household R$21,804 (U.S.$7,272), of which monetary income 85.7%, nonmonetary income 14.3%; sources of income, n.a.; expenditure: housing, energy, and household furnishings 35.5%, food and beverages 20.8%, transportation and communications 18.4%, health care 6.4%, education 4.1%. Financial aggregates18 2004 Exchange rate, R$ per: U.S. dollar £ SDR International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; ’000,000) SDRs (’000,000) Reserve pos. in IMF (’000,000) Foreign exchange (’000,000) Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) % world reserves Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) Govt. bond yield (%) Industrial share prices Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000) Balance of visible trade Imports, f.o.b. Exports, f.o.b. Balance of invisibles Balance of payments, current account

2004 +33,842 21.2%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2.65 5.13 4.12

2.34 4.03 3.34

2.14 4.19 3.21

1.77 3.55 2.80

2.34 3.41 3.60

1.74 2.71 2.73

52,462 4

53,245 29

85,156 8

179,433 2

192,844 1

237,364 4,527

— 52,458 1.08 0.1

— 53,216 1.08 0.1

— 85,148 1.08 0.1

— 179,431 1.08 0.1

— 192,843 1.08 0.1

950 231,888 1.08 0.1

24.55 … …

25.34 … …

19.98 … …

17.85 … …

20.48 … …

15.17 … …

+33,666 –62,809 96,475 –21,928

+44,703 –73,606 118,308 –30,719

+46,458 +40,031 +24,746 +25,290 –91,350 –120,618 –173,197 –127,705 137,807 160,649 197,942 152,995 –32,838 –38,481 –53,046 –49,592

+11,738

+13,984

+13,620

+1,550

–28,300

–24,302

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 444,583,000,000 (483,415,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 5,965,000 (20,915,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 638,500,000 (634,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 82,210,000 (76,687,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007)

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2003

65,949

369

2009 2009

173,95921 41,497

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

89821 214

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

29,340 8,19320 75,944 14,54121

161 5720 392 7521

Education and health Literacy (2007/2006): total population age 15 and over literate/functionally literate 90.5%/77.8%; males literate/functionally literate 90.1%/77.3%; females literate/functionally literate 90.9%/78.4%. Education (2004–05) teachers Primary (age 7–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

students

886,781 18,661,105 1,611,582 24,863,112 292,504 4,572,297

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

21.0 15.4 15.6

94 79 25 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2005) 505,841 (1 per 356 persons); hospital beds (2005) 432,190 (1 per 416 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 23.5; undernourished population (2004–06) 11,900,000 (6% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,850 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 327,710 (army 58.0%, navy 20.4%, air force 21.6%); paramilitary (public security forces) 395,000; reserve 1,340,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.7%; per capita expenditure U.S.$155.

1Includes both local censuses and estimates. 2Total area including inland water per survey of 2002. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Christian data include nominal Christians. 5Urban populations of municípios. 6Within Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area. 7Within São Paulo metropolitan area. 8Within Recife metropolitan area. 9Projected rates based on c. 87% of total deaths. 10As of September. 11Includes 209,400 not adequately defined and 8,059,600 unemployed. 12Edible stalks to which cashew nuts are attached. 13Includes mandarins and clementines. 14Niobium oxide content. 15At factor values. 16Includes televisions, radios, and telecommunications equipment. 17Less than 1%. 18End-of-period figures. 19Includes suburban services. 20Circulation. 21Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • IBGE: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística • http://www.ibge.gov.br/english • Central Bank of Brazil: Economic Data • http://www.bcb.gov.br/?english

Nations of the World

Population economically active (2008): total 188,8008; activity rate of total population 47.4% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2001] 65.9%; female 39.4%; unemployed 3.7%).

Brunei Official name: Negara Brunei Darussalam (State of Brunei Darussalam). Form of government: monarchy (sultanate) with one advisory body (Legislative Council [29]1). Head of state and government: Sultan. Capital: Bandar Seri Begawan. Official language: Malay2. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Brunei dollar (B$)3; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = B$1.35; 1 £ = B$2.08.

Price index (2005 = 100) 2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

98.8

100.0

100.1

100.4

103.1

104.7

Consumer price index

Area and population

area

population

Districts

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

2009 estimate

Belait Brunei and Muara Temburong Tutong

Kuala Belait Bandar Seri Begawan Bangar Tutong

1,052 220 504 450 2,226

2,724 571 1,304 1,166 5,765

67,100 283,300 10,100 45,700 406,200

TOTAL

535

Demography Population (2010): 414,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 186.0, persons per sq km 71.8. Urban-rural (2009): urban 75.2%; rural 24.8%. Sex distribution (2009): male 52.93%; female 47.07%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 27.2%; 15–29, 27.7%; 30–44, 25.1%; 45–59, 14.8%; 60–74, 4.1%; 75–84, 0.9%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 487,000; (2030) 557,000. Doubling time: 53 years. Ethnic composition (2003): Malay 66.6%; Chinese 10.9%; other indigenous 3.6%; other 18.9%. Religious affiliation (2006)4: Muslim 80.4%; Buddhist 7.9%; Christian 3.2%; traditional beliefs/other 8.5%. Major cities (2006): Bandar Seri Begawan 67,100; Kuala Belait 32,000; Seria 30,700; Tutong 19,600.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008–09): none. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2002) 5.6; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2002)9: food and nonalcoholic beverages 28.8%, transportation 22.5%, housing and energy 8.8%, household furnishings 8.6%, recreation and entertainment 8.1%, clothing and footwear 5.6%, communications 5.5%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 241; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 311. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 458; remittances (2008) 446; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 30.

Foreign trade10 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+3,094 53.8%

+3,635 56.1%

+4,758 61.5%

+5,953 64.0%

+5,567 57.0%

+7,969 60.8%

Imports (2008): U.S.$2,574,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 43.8%, manufactured goods 22.0%, food products 12.3%). Major import sources (2006): Malaysia 21.6%; Singapore 17.4%; Japan 12.8%; United States 9.0%; China 7.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$10,543,000,000 (crude petroleum 53.2%, liquefied natural gas 44.6%, garments 0.8%, other domestic exports 0.1%, reexports 1.3%). Major export destinations (2008)11: Japan 43.8%; Indonesia 20.3%; South Korea 15.0%; Australia 10.5%; India 3.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2004)12: length 19 km. Roads (2008): total length 1,847 mi, 2,972 km (paved 81%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 252,679; trucks and buses 18,266. Air transport (2008)13: passenger-km 3,818,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 106,000,000. Communications

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 16.1 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 2.7 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 13.4 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.70. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 6.0/1.35. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 76.6 years; female 79.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 91.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 57.4; diabetes mellitus 30.3; diseases of the respiratory system 29.5; accidents and violence 21.4.

National economy Budget (2007–08). Revenue: B$12,211,000,000 (tax revenue 65.2%, of which taxes on petroleum and natural gas companies 62.7%, import duties 1.1%; nontax revenue 34.8%, of which dividends paid by petroleum companies 19.0%, petroleum and natural gas royalties 9.6%). Expenditures: B$5,537,000,000 (current expenditure 81.7%; capital expenditure 18.3%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): chicken meat 18,270, vegetables 9,426, hen’s eggs 7,350, cassava 1,800, rice 1,200, pineapples 990, buffalo meat 414; livestock (number of live animals) 4,580 buffalo, 15,500,000 chickens; roundwood 123,800 cu m, of which fuelwood 9%; fisheries production 2,831 (from aquaculture 17%). Mining and quarrying: other than petroleum and natural gas, none except sand and gravel for construction. Manufacturing (value added in B$’000,000; 2008): liquefied natural gas 2,628; textiles and apparel 103; other manufactures 65. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 3,071,000,000 (2,980,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 48,200,000 ([2007] 2,452,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 1,250,000 (1,068,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) 13,394,000,000 ([2006] 1,457,000,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 0.6%, in permanent crops 0.9%, in pasture 0.6%, forest area 52.0%. Gross national income (at current market prices; 2008): U.S.$14,533,000,000 (U.S.$37,048 per capita).

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

215

648

2007 2009

39715 81

99715 202

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2007 2007

31 4114 319 2015

units per 1,000 persons 87 10314 798 5015

Education and health Educational attainment (1991). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 17.0%; primary education 43.3%; secondary 26.3%; postsecondary and higher 12.9%; not stated 0.5%. Literacy (2004): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 92.7%; males literate 95.2%; females literate 90.2%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

3,595 4,439 695

45,125 46,826 5,607

12.6 10.5 8.1

93 88 16 (age 19–23)

Health (2008): physicians 564 (1 per 706 persons); hospital beds 1,122 (1 per 355 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 7.0; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,880 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 7,000 (army 70.0%, navy 14.3%, air force 15.7%). British troops (November 2009) 550; Singaporean troops (2008) 500. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$918.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value B$’000,000 Agriculture, fishing, forestry Petroleum, natural gas Mining Manufacturing6 Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

2001 % of total value

130 11,672 … 2,796 534 115

0.6 57.2 } … 13.7 2.6 0.6

534 616 1,646 2,152 203 — 20,398

2.6 3.0 8.1 10.6 } 1.0 — 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

1,994

1.3

3,954

2.5

12,455 12,301 2,639

7.9 7.8 1.7

4,803 20,038 8,190

3.0 12.7 5.2

79,880

50.7

11,3407 157,594

7.27 100.0

1Legislative Council (suspended from 1984) reinstated September 2004 and enlarged September 2005; all seats are nonelected. 2All official documents that must be published by law in Malay are also required to be issued in an official English version. 3Pegged to the Singapore dollar at a ratio of 1:1. 4Based on governmental statistics for 185,430 citizens and 32,765 permanent residents. Religion data for c. 162,000 temporary residents (nearly all foreign workers) are unavailable. 5Muslim divorces only. 6Includes manufacture of liquefied natural gas (B$2,628,000,000; 12.9% of total value). 7Unemployed. 8Foreign workers accounted for 70% of the 160,500 economically active in 2004. 9Weights of consumer price index components. 10Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 11For crude petroleum, liquefied natural gas, and garments only. 12Privately owned light railway. 13Royal Brunei Airlines. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers.

Internet resource for further information: • Asian Development Bank http://www.adb.org

536

Britannica World Data

Bulgaria

added in ’000,000 leva; 2006): refined petroleum products, n.a.; food products 748; nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 686; wearing apparel 632; chemical products 495; iron and steel 235. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 42,789,000,000 ([2008] 34,684,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2009) 39,000 ([2006] 4,259,000); lignite (metric tons; 2009) 27,174,000 ([2007] 28,687,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 190,000 (52,057,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 5,938,000 (3,625,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 12,000,000 ([2008] 3,806,000,000). Household income and expenditure (2009). Average household size 2.5; income per household 9,122 leva (U.S.$6,485); sources of income: wages and salaries 52.2%, transfers 30.8% (of which pensions 27.6%), self-employment 4.8%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 36.5%, housing and energy 14.5%, transportation 6.0%, health 5.3%, communications 4.5%. Population economically active (2009): total 3,491,600; activity rate of total population 46.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64 c. 67%; female 47.5%; unemployed 6.9%).

Official name: Republika BUlgaria (Republic of Bulgaria). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative body (National Assembly [240]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Sofia. Official language: Bulgarian. Official religion: none1. Monetary unit: lev (Lv; plural leva); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = 1.53 leva; 1 £ = 2.36 leva. Area and population

Price index (2005 = 100)

area

population

Districts

sq km

20102 estimate

Districts

Blagoevgrad Burgas Dobrich Gabrovo Khaskovo KUrdzhali Kyustendil Lovech Montana Pazardzhik Pernik Pleven Plovdiv Razgrad

6,449 7,748 4,720 2,023 5,533 3,209 3,052 4,129 3,636 4,457 2,394 4,335 5,973 2,640

327,885 422,319 199,705 130,001 256,408 154,719 145,577 151,153 155,899 290,614 136,249 290,589 701,684 132,740

Ruse Shumen Silistra Sliven Smolyan Sofiya3 Sofiya-Grad4 Stara Zagora TUrgovishte Varna Veliko TUrnovo Vidin Vratsa Yambol TOTAL

area

population

sq km

20102 estimate

2,803 3,390 2,846 3,544 3,193 7,062 1,349 5,151 2,559 3,819 4,662 3,033 3,938 3,355 111,002

249,144 194,090 127,659 204,887 124,795 253,010 1,249,798 350,925 129,675 465,465 275,395 108,067 196,829 138,429 7,563,710

Demography Population (2010): 7,562,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 176.4, persons per sq km 68.1. Urban-rural (20102): urban 71.4%; rural 28.6%. Sex distribution (20102): male 48.38%; female 51.62%. Age breakdown (20102): under 15, 13.6%; 15–29, 19.4%; 30–44, 21.8%; 45–59, 20.9%; 60–74, 16.5%; 75–84, 6.5%; 85 and over, 1.3%. Population projection: (2020) 7,246,000; (2030) 6,936,000. Ethnic composition (2001): Bulgarian 83.9%; Turkish 9.4%; Rom (Gypsy) 4.7%; other 2.0%. Religious affiliation (2005)5: Bulgarian Orthodox c. 81%; Sunni Muslim c. 12%; Evangelical Protestant c. 2%; Catholic c. 1%; other c. 4%. Major cities (20102): Sofia 1,165,503; Plovdiv 348,465; Varna 320,837; Burgas 193,765; Ruse 156,509; Stara Zagora 140,456.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.7 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 48.9%; outside of marriage (2008) 51.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 14.2 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.57. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 69.5 years; female 76.6 years. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 3.4/1.5. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): diseases of the circulatory system 939.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 226.0; diseases of the respiratory system 54.7; accidents, injuries, and poisonings 45.0; diseases of the digestive system 43.0.

National economy Budget (20092). Revenue: 27,313,000,000 leva (tax revenue 81.2%, of which VAT 27.4%, social insurance 15.7%, excise taxes 14.8%; nontax revenue 14.3%; grants 4.1%). Expenditures: 25,323,000,000 leva (current expenditure 80.3%; capital expenditure 17.0%; other 2.7%). Public debt (June 2010)6: U.S.$60,303,700,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$43,732,000,000 (U.S.$5,770 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$12,290).

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

89.5

95.2

100.0

107.3

116.3

130.6

134.2

Consumer price index

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 3,804; remittances (2009) 2,101; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 9,529. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 2,380; remittances (2008) 74; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 394. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 22.6%, left fallow 5.2%, in permanent crops 1.8%, in pasture 17.5%, forest area 34.3%.

Foreign trade10 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–3,688 15.7%

–5,450 18.8%

–7,028 18.9%

–9,991 21.1%

–12,865 22.2%

–5,704 14.8%

Imports (2008): U.S.$33,773,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 20.7%; mineral fuels 14.3%; chemicals and chemical products 9.4%; road vehicles 8.8%; iron and steel 6.2%). Major import sources (2009): Russia 13.1%; Germany 12.3%; Italy 7.8%; Greece 6.1%; Romania 5.6%; Ukraine 4.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$22,478,000,000 (base and fabricated metals 20.7%, of which refined/unrefined copper 10.2%, iron and steel 5.5%; machinery and apparatus 13.4%; refined petroleum 13.4%; clothing and accessories 8.7%; food 8.1%). Major export destinations (2009): Germany 11.2%; Greece 9.4%; Italy 9.3%; Romania 8.6%; Turkey 7.3%; Belgium 5.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 4,294 km; (2008–0911) passenger-km 2,161,000,000; (2008–0911) metric ton-km cargo 3,200,000,000. Roads (2005): length 24,998 mi, 40,231 km (paved 98%); (2006) passenger-km 43,900,000,00012; (2008) metric ton-km cargo 11,027,000,000. Vehicles (2008): cars 2,366,196; trucks and buses 324,760. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 4,467,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 3,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2002

3,620

453

2009 2009

10,61714 2,164

1,40714 287

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

682 87013 3,395 97914

89 11513 450 13014

Education and health Educational attainment (2004). Percentage of population age 25–64 having: no formal schooling to complete primary education 28%; secondary 50%; higher 22%. Literacy (2006): total population age 15 and over literate 98.3%; males 98.7%; females 97.9%. Education (2009–10) Primary (age 7–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

15,054 48,291 22,662

260,340 531,980 287,086

17.3 11.0 12.7

93 81 41 (age 19–23)

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007 in value ’000,000 leva Agriculture, forestry Mining } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

}

2008 % of total value

2,028

5.1

2,111

5.3

5,724 2,651 4,337 3,578

14.5 6.7 11.0 9.1

12,041

30.4

7,0817 39,551

17.97 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

251,200 35,000 79,100 769,700 340,300 260,700 698,800 71,100 235,300 619,400 199,8008 3,560,400

7.1 1.0 2.2 21.6 9.6 7.3 19.6 2.0 6.6 17.4 5.68 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): wheat 4,632,210, corn (maize) 1,368,350, sunflower seeds 1,300,710, cow’s milk 1,143,190, barley 878,000, grapes 363,539, potatoes 353,060, tobacco 42,162; livestock (number of live animals) 1,526,392 sheep, 888,609 pigs, 602,056 cattle; roundwood (2009) 6,071,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 44%; fisheries production 14,018 (from aquaculture 37%). Mining and quarrying (2008): copper 109,0009; zinc 10,6009; gold 4,160 kg. Manufacturing (value

Health (20102): physicians 27,988 (1 per 271 persons); hospital beds (20092) 49,507 (1 per 153 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 9.0; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,950 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 34,975 (army 46.5%, navy 9.9%, air force 19.2%, central staff 24.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 2.2%; per capita expenditure U.S.$146. 1Bulgaria has no official religion; the constitution, however, refers to Eastern Orthodoxy as the “traditional” religion. 2January 1. 3District nearly encircles Sofiya-Grad district on north, east, and south. 4Sofiya-Grad includes Sofia city and immediately adjacent urban and rural areas. 5Unofficially up to 40% of the population is estimated to be atheist or agnostic. 6Central government only. 7Taxes less subsidies and imputed bank charges. 8Unemployed. 9Metal content of mine output. 10Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 11November–October. 12Passenger cars 31,000,000,000; buses 12,900,000,000. 13Circulation. 14Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • National Statistical Institute http://www.nsi.bg • Bulgarian National Bank http://www.bnb.bg

Nations of the World

Burkina Faso

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$8,036,000,000 (U.S.$510 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,170 per capita).

Official name: Burkina Faso (Burkina Faso). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative body (National Assembly [111]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Ouagadougou. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2006 in value CFAF ’000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

1,012,100 20,700 402,200 39,100 197,900 131,700 325,600 247,800 415,100 110,100 242,7007 3,145,000

TOTAL

Area and population

area

Regions

Capitals

Boucle du Mouhoun Cascades Centre Centre-Est Centre-Nord Centre-Ouest Centre-Sud Est Hauts-Bassins Nord Plateau Central Sahel Sud-Ouest

Dédougou Banfora Ouagadougou Tenkodogo Kava Koudougou Manga Fada N’gourma Bobo-Dioulasso Ouahigouya Ziniaré Dori Gaoua

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

2006 census1

13,190 7,117 1,083 5,659 7,660 8,388 4,368 17,849 9,785 6,255 3,299 13,653 6,237 104,543

34,162 18,434 2,805 14,656 19,840 21,726 11,313 46,228 25,343 16,199 8,545 35,360 16,153 270,764

1,442,749 531,808 1,727,390 1,132,016 1,202,025 1,186,566 641,443 1,212,284 1,469,604 1,185,796 696,372 968,442 620,767 14,017,262

1996 % of total value 32.2 0.7 12.8 1.2 6.3 4.2 10.3 7.9 13.2 } 3.5 7.77 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

4,513,868 3,979 71,565 2,813 21,076 20,580 224,581 13,131

88.9 0.1 1.4 0.1 0.4 0.4 4.4 0.3

103,926

2.0

100,0968 5,075,615

2.08 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$1,640,000,000. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 19.0%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 21.9%, forest area 24.7%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 53; remittances (2009) 49; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 172; official development assistance (2008) 998. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 53; remittances (2008) 44.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF ’000,000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 16,287,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 155.8, persons per sq km 60.2. Urban-rural (2009): urban 24.8%; rural 75.2%. Sex distribution (2009): male 48.26%; female 51.74%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 46.4%; 15–29, 26.2%; 30–44, 14.3%; 45–59, 7.6%; 60–74, 3.8%; 75–84, 0.9%; 85 and over, 0.3%; unknown 0.5%. Population projection: (2020) 21,871,000; (2030) 27,940,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1995): Mossi 47.9%; Fulani 10.3%; Lobi 6.9%; Bobo 6.9%; Mande 6.7%; Senufo 5.3%; Grosi 5.0%; Gurma 4.8%; Tuareg 3.1%. Religious affiliation (2006): Muslim 60.5%2; Roman Catholic 19.0%2; traditional beliefs 15.3%; Protestant/independent Christian 4.2%2; nonreligious 0.4%; other 0.6%. Major urban localities (2006): Ouagadougou 1,475,223; Bobo-Dioulasso 489,967; Koudougou 88,184; Banfora 75,917; Ouahigouya 73,153.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 44.3 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 13.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 31.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 6.28. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 51.0 years; female 54.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): lower respiratory infections c. 414; HIV/AIDS c. 256; malaria c. 207; diarrheal diseases c. 174; perinatal conditions c. 108. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 1.6%3 (world avg. 0.8%).

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–244.7 32.6%

–293.4 37.3%

–254.5 29.3%

–286.6 32.4%

–333.1 35.1%

–228.1 21.1%

Imports (2008): CFAF 640,800,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 28.6%, petroleum products 27.2%, food 9.9%). Major import sources (2005): France 18.7%; Côte d’Ivoire 17.9%; Togo 11.2%; Benin 6.8%; Ghana 5.8%. Exports (2008): CFAF 307,700,000,000 (raw cotton 32.5%, gold 21.9%6, shea nuts 5.5%). Major export destinations (2005): Togo 41.0%; Ghana 16.6%; Côte d’Ivoire 10.4%; France 9.8%; Switzerland 9.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: (2006) route length 509 km10; (2003) passenger-km 9,980,000; (2005) metric ton-km cargo 674,900,000. Roads (2007): total length 9,490 mi, 15,272 km (paved 18%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 97,052; trucks and buses 43,553. Air transport (2005): passenger-km 37,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

156

12

2009 2009

3,29912 167

20912 10.6

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

88 3611 178 6.012

Budget (2009). Revenue: CFAF 771,524,000,000 (tax revenue 64.1%, of which taxes on goods and services 36.7%, taxes on international transactions 11.6%; grants 30.1%; nontax revenue 5.8%). Expenditures: CFAF 959,595,000,000 (current expenditure 52.0%; development expenditure 47.7%; other 0.3%). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 5.9; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2003): food, beverages, and tobacco 48.8%, housing and energy 17.8%, transportation 7.0%, clothing 6.8%, health 4.4%, recreation and culture 4.1%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sorghum 1,521,500, millet 971,000, corn (maize) 894,560, seed cotton 690,0004, sugarcane 455,0004, dry cowpeas 253,1904, peanuts (groundnuts) 245,0004, rice 213,600, cattle meat 115,6905, shea nuts 70,0005, bambara beans 38,0005; livestock (number of live animals) 11,983,000 goats, 8,234,000 cattle, 8,003,160 sheep; roundwood 13,589,300 cu m, of which fuelwood 91%; fisheries production 11,005 (from aquaculture 4%). Mining and quarrying (2008): gold 7,633 kg6; granite 300,000 cu m. Manufacturing (value added in CFAF ’000,000; 1999): food products, beverages, and tobacco 126,125; textiles 46,217; chemicals and chemical products 9,335; cement, bricks, and ceramics 3,484; paper and paper products 2,150. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 612,000,000 (569,000,000); crude petroleum (2008) none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008) none ([2007] 678,000); natural gas (2008) none (none). Population economically active (2006): total 5,412,102; activity rate 38.6% (participation rates: over age 14, 72.7%; female 45.3%; officially unemployed 2.3%). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.3

94.0

100.0

102.3

102.1

113.0

115.9

units per 1,000 persons 6.0 2.311 11.3 0.412

Education and health Educational attainment (2003)13. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling or unknown 85.4%; incomplete to complete primary education 7.9%; incomplete to complete secondary 5.5%; higher 1.2%. Literacy (2007): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 28.3%; males literate 36.7%; females literate 21.0%. Education (2008–09)

National economy

Consumer price index

537

Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–19) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

38,983 18,251 2,515

1,906,279 467,658 47,587

48.9 25.6 18.9

63 15 3 (age 20–24)

Health: physicians (2008) 473 (1 per 32,207 persons); hospital beds (2006) 12,200 (1 per 1,111 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 84.5; undernourished population (2004–06) 1,300,000 (9% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,730 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 11,200 (army 57.1%, air force 5.4%, gendarmerie 37.5%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.2%; per capita expenditure U.S.$7.

1Final. 2Adherence to beliefs often nominal. 3Statistically derived midpoint within 42007. 52008. 6Commercial gold production resumed in October 2007 after an

range. 8-year hiatus; 5 to 6 new gold mines were operational or near operational by April 2009. 7Taxes less subsidies and imputed bank service charges. 8Includes 71,280 unemployed. 9Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and commodities and c.i.f. in trading partners. 10Burkina Faso part of Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire–Ouagadougou railway; 103 km of railway beyond Ouagadougou is operational but not in use. 11Circulation. 12Subscribers. 13Based on the 2003 Burkina Faso Demographic and Health Survey, comprising 57,737 people in 9,097 households, about 80% of which are located in rural areas.

Internet resources for further information: • Institut National de la Statistique et de la Démographie http://www.insd.bf • La Banque de France: La Zone Franc http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm

538

Britannica World Data

Burundi

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Official name: Republika y’u Burundi (Rundi); République du Burundi (French) (Republic of Burundi). Form of government: republic with two legislative bodies (Senate [411]; National Assembly [1062]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Vice Presidents. Capital: Bujumbura3. Official languages: Rundi; French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Burundi franc (FBu); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = FBu 1,225; 1 £ = FBu 1,892.

Agriculture Mining Public utilities } Manufacturing Construction Transp. and communications Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

Provinces Bubanza Bujumbura Bururi Cankuzo Cibitoke Gitega Karuzi Kayanza Kirundo Makamba Muramvya

population

sq km 1,089 1,232 2,465 1,965 1,636 1,979 1,457 1,233 1,703 1,960 696

2008 preliminary census 348,188 565,070 570,929 221,391 460,626 715,080 433,061 586,096 636,298 428,917 294,891

% of total value

342,000

34.1

10,4005 119,600 45,900 52,200 49,700

1.0 11.9 4.6 5.2 4.9

284,300

labour force

28.3 }

100,3008 1,004,400

% of labour force

2,574,443 1,419 1,672 33,867 19,737 8,504 25,822 2,005

93.1 — 0.1 1.2 0.7 0.3 0.9 0.1

85,191

10.08 100.0

3.1

13,270 2,765,945 4

0.5 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; March 2009): U.S.$1,246,000,000. Population economically active (2009): total 4,160,000; activity rate of total population 50.1% (participation rates [2006]: ages 15–64, 90.5%; female 51.5%; unemployed, n.a.).

Area and population area

1990

in value U.S.$’000

Provinces Muyinga Mwaro Ngozi Rutana Ruyigi Urban Province Bujumbura TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

area

population

sq km 1,836 840 1,474 1,959 2,339

2008 preliminary census 632,346 269,048 661,310 336,394 400,818

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

81.7

88.1

100.0

102.8

111.4

138.2

153.4

Consumer price index

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 38.7%, in permanent crops 13.6%, in pasture 37.0%, forest area 5.2%.

Foreign trade9 87 25,950 1,867 27,8164

478,155

Balance of trade (current prices) 8,038,618 U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 8,519,000. Density (2010)5: persons per sq mi 850.3, persons per sq km 328.3. Urban-rural (2009): urban 10.7%; rural 89.3%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.02%; female 50.98%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 41.4%; 15–29, 30.8%; 30–44, 14.7%; 45–59, 8.7%; 60–74, 3.5%; 75–84, 0.8%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 10,318,000; (2030) 11,936,000. Doubling time: 34 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Hutu 80.9%; Tutsi 15.6%; Lingala 1.6%; Twa Pygmy 1.0%; other 0.9%. Religious affiliation (2004): Christian c. 67%, of which Roman Catholic c. 62%, Protestant c. 5%; traditional beliefs c. 23%; Muslim (mostly Sunni) c. 10%. Major city and towns (2004): Bujumbura (2008) 478,155; Gitega 25,500; Ngozi 21,500; Bururi 20,500.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 41.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 31.7 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 6.33. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 56.2 years; female 59.4 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 2.0%6 (world avg. 0.8%). Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): HIV/AIDS-related c. 370; lower respiratory infections c. 185; diarrheal diseases c. 128; war-related c. 114; perinatal conditions c. 100; malaria c. 57.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: FBu 595,000,000,000 (grants 50.9%; tax revenue 39.3%, of which taxes on goods and services 21.2%, income tax 10.1%, taxes on international trade 7.4%; nontax revenue 3.4%; other 6.4%). Expenditures: FBu 594,000,000,000 (current expenditure 59.4%; capital expenditure 40.6%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): bananas 1,850,000, sweet potatoes 873,700, cassava 558,600, dry beans 205,200, corn (maize) 115,500, sorghum 85,600, rice 70,900, taros 58,130, peas 32,560, cow’s milk 19,300, coffee 15,000, cattle meat (2007) 13,410, tea 7,700; livestock (number of live animals) 1,650,000 goats, 480,000 cattle, 295,000 sheep; roundwood (2009) 9,298,300 cu m, of which fuelwood 96%; fisheries production 17,966 (from aquaculture 1%). Mining and quarrying (2008): columbite-tantalite ore 83,854 kg; gold 750 kg. Manufacturing (2009): beer 1,366,500 hectolitres; carbonated beverages 287,100 hectolitres; cottonseed oil 31,500 litres; sugar 14,300 tons; cigarettes 514,240,000 units; blankets (2005) 43,253 units; fabrics (2006) 2,866,000,000 sq m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 121,150,000 (206,700,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (52,000); natural gas, none (none); peat (metric tons; 2008) 7,500 ([2007] 5,000). Household income and expenditure (2004)7. Average household size 5.6; average annual income per household c. FBu 168,000 (c. U.S.$153); sources of income: agriculture/livestock c. 91%, other c. 9%; expenditure: food c. 46%, housing, n.a., debt service c. 14%, alcoholic beverages and tobacco c. 8%, transportation c. 6%, health c. 5%, clothing c. 4%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1.3; remittances (2009) 4.0; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) negligible; official development assistance (2008) 509. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 91; remittances (2008) negligible. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$1,232,000,000 (U.S.$150 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$390 per capita).

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–78.8 37.4%

–90.0 35.2%

–144.4 38.8%

–205.1 31.0%

–266.8 46.1%

–173.4 37.9%

Imports (2008): U.S.$315,200,000 (machinery and apparatus 23.3%, road vehicles 10.8%, medicines and pharmaceuticals 10.2%, food 8.6%, portland cement 6.7%, iron and steel 5.7%). Major import sources: Belgium 17.3%; Uganda 9.6%; France 9.1%; Kenya 8.8%; China 7.4%. Exports (2008): U.S.$141,800,000 (gold 43.0%10, coffee 27.8%, road vehicles 5.6%, black tea 4.8%, hides and skins 2.0%). Major export destinations: U.A.E. 43.5%; Switzerland 15.3%; Belgium 6.1%; Kenya 5.4%; Dem. Rep. of the Congo 4.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2004): total length 7,657 mi, 12,322 km (paved 10%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 15,466; trucks and buses 32,717. Air transport (2007–08)11: passenger arrivals 96,175, passenger departures 62,845; cargo unloaded 2,116 metric tons, cargo loaded 317 metric tons. Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

280

2009 2009

83813 32

units per 1,000 persons 37 10113 3.8

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

57 2012 65 0.213

units per 1,000 persons 7.0 2.412 7.8 —

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2007): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 56.1%; males literate 61.4%; females literate 51.1%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–19) Tertiary

students

28,67114 1,490,84414 8,222 243,202 24,290 1,48715

student/ teacher ratio 52.0 29.6 16.315

enrollment rate (%) 99 … 3 (age 20–24)

Health (2004): physicians 200 (1 per 37,581 persons); hospital beds (2006) 5,663 (1 per 1,429 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 64.9; undernourished population (2004–06) 4,900,000 (63% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,720 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 20,000 (army 100%)16. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 7.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$10.

134 seats are indirectly elected; additional seats (as of July 2010) are designated for the Twa ethnic group (3) or former presidents (4). 2Includes 6 additional appointed or co-opted seats (as of July 2010). 3Future move of capital to Gitega announced by president in March 2007. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Based on land area. 6Statistically derived midpoint within range. 7Based on a survey of 4,300 households in rural Burundi. 8Nearly all indirect taxes less subsidies. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Nearly all gold smuggled from neighbouring countries. 11Figures for Bujumbura airport only. 12Circulation. 13Subscribers. 142006–07. 152008–09. 16Burundian troops in Somalia as part of African Union (AU) peacekeeping mission (November 2009) 2,550; South African troops in Burundi representing AU peacekeeping mission (November 2009) 417.

Internet resource for further information: • Banque Centrale du Burundi http://www.brb-bi.net

539

Nations of the World

Cambodia

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$9,653,000,000 (U.S.$650 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,850 per capita).

Official name: Preahreacheanachakr Kampuchea (Kingdom of Cambodia). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [611]; National Assembly [123]). Head of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Phnom Penh. Official language: Khmer. Official religion: Buddhism. Monetary unit: riel (KHR); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = KHR 4,240; 1 £ = KHR 6,550.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007 in value KHR ’000,000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population area

population

Provinces

sq km

2008 census

Banteay Meanchey Battambang Kampong Cham Kampong Chanang Kampong Speu Kampong Thom Kampot Kandal Kep Koh Kong Kratie Mondul Kiri Oddar Meanchey Pailin Preah Vihear

6,679 11,702 9,799 5,521 7,017 13,814 4,873 3,568 336 11,160 11,094 14,288 6,158 803 13,788

677,872 1,025,174 1,679,992 472,341 716,944 631,409 585,850 1,265,280 35,753 117,481 319,217 61,107 185,819 70,486 171,139

10,406 133 6,073 2,338 195 2,423 4,645 2,689 668 3,069 2,4023 35,041

area

population

Provinces

sq km

2008 census

Prey Veng Pursat Ratanak Kiri Siemreap Sihanoukville Stung Treng Svay Rieng Takeo

4,883 12,692 10,782 10,299 868 11,092 2,966 3,563

947,372 397,161 150,466 896,443 221,396 111,671 482,788 844,906

290 178,035 3,000 181,035

1,327,615

Municipality Phnom Penh TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

13,395,682

Population (2010): 14,414,000. Density (2010)2: persons per sq mi 209.7, persons per sq km 81.0. Urban-rural (2008): urban 19.5%; rural 80.5%. Sex distribution (2008): male 48.64%; female 51.36%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 33.7%; 15–29, 31.5%; 30–44, 17.0%; 45–59, 11.4%; 60–74, 4.9%; 75 and over, 1.5%. Doubling time: 41 years. Population projection: (2020) 16,956,000; (2030) 19,247,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Khmer 85.2%; Chinese 6.4%; Vietnamese 3.0%; Cham 2.5%; Lao 0.6%; other 2.3%. Religious affiliation (2000): Buddhist 84.7%; Chinese folk religionist 4.7%; traditional beliefs 4.3%; Muslim 2.3%; Christian 1.1%; other 2.9%. Major urban areas (2008): Phnom Penh 1,242,992; Siemreap 168,662; Battambang 140,533; Paoy Paet 89,549; Preah Seihanu 89,447; Ta Khmau 80,141; Sisophon 61,631.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 26.2 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 17.8 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 3.00. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 59.6 years; female 64.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): cardiovascular diseases c. 158; HIV/AIDS-related c. 114; tuberculosis c. 90; diarrheal diseases c. 86; perinatal conditions c. 84.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: KHR 3,280,300,000,000 (tax revenue 58.3%, grants 20.0%, nontax revenue 17.2%, other 4.5%). Expenditures: KHR 3,294,700,000,000 (current expenditure 59.7%, development expenditure 40.3%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): rice 7,586,000, cassava 3,497,000, corn (maize) 924,000, sugarcane 350,000, soybeans 137,000, bananas (2008) 130,000, coconuts (2008) 71,000, oranges (2008) 63,000, rubber (2008) 31,676, tobacco leaves (2008) 17,404; livestock (number of live animals; 2008) 3,457,787 cattle, 2,215,641 pigs, 746,207 buffalo, (2005) 120,000 crocodiles; roundwood 8,853,400 cu m, of which fuelwood 99%; fisheries production (2008) 471,000 (from aquaculture 8%); aquatic plants production 16,000 (from aquaculture 100%). Mining and quarrying (2008): gold, n.a.; gemstones, n.a.; crude stones 2,039,336; salt 454,750. Manufacturing (value added in KHR ’000,000,000; 2002): wearing apparel 1,808; food products 392; base and fabricated metals 120; wood and paper products and publishing 101; textiles 96. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 1,349,000,000 (1,516,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (1,432,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (none); natural gas (cu m; 2007) none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 4.7; average annual extrapolated monetary and nonmonetary income (1993–94) KHR 2,031,000 (U.S.$787); sources of income (1993–94): monetary 67.4% (of which nonagricultural [mostly self-employment] 36.8%, agricultural 18.1%, wages and salaries 9.1%), non-monetary 32.6% (of which agricultural 11.4%); household expenditure (2002): food, beverages, and tobacco 62.6%, housing and energy 19.7%, health 6.0%, transportation and communications 3.4%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,121; remittances (2009) 312; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 722; official development assistance (2008) 743. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 108; remittances (2008) 164.

% of labour force

29.7 0.4 17.3 6.7 0.5 6.9 13.2 7.7 1.9 8.8 6.93 100.0

4,670,000 22,000 944,000 299,000 21,000 228,000 1,282,000 52,000 185,000 308,000 343,000 8,354,000

55.9 0.3 11.3 3.6 0.3 2.7 15.3 0.6 2.2 3.7 4.1 100.0

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

90.5

94.0

100.0

106.1

114.3

142.9

141.9

Consumer price index

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 21.5%, in permanent crops 0.9%, in pasture 8.5%, forest area 56.7%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–581 12.2%

–681 11.6%

–1,008 14.8%

–1,078 12.7%

–1,382 14.5%

–1,826 16.2%

Imports (2007): U.S.$5,471,000,000 (garment sector 25.2%, petroleum 24.6%, vehicles 3.1%, cigarettes 2.0%). Major import sources (2008): Thailand 27.1%; Vietnam 19.2%; China 14.7%; Hong Kong 8.2%; Singapore 7.8%. Exports (2007): U.S.$4,089,000,000 (remainder [mainly garments] 72.0%, rice 10.1%, rubber 3.8%, fish 2.6%). Major export destinations (2008): U.S. 54.5%; Germany 7.7%; Canada 5.9%; U.K. 5.5%; Vietnam 4.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 613 km; passenger-km (2005) 45,000,000; metric ton-km (2000) 92,000,000. Roads (2004): total length 23,770 mi, 38,257 km (paved 6%); passenger-km (1999) 201,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (1999) 3,200,000. Vehicles (2005): passenger cars 195,268; trucks and buses 35,272. Air transport (2007): passenger-km 432,000,000; metric tonkm cargo 2,000,000. Communications

Vital statistics

labour force

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$3,892,000,000. Population economically active (2008): total 7,053,398; activity rate of total population 52.7% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 80.0%; female 51.2%; unemployed4 1.7%).

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography

% of total value

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2008

1,646

113

2009 2009

5,5936 54

3786 3.7

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2008 2009 2009 2009

103 585 78 306

units per 1,000 persons 7.1 5.95 5.3 2.06

Education and health Educational attainment (2008). Percentage of literate population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 3.2%; incomplete primary education 47.2%; complete primary 26.8%; incomplete secondary 18.8%; secondary/vocational 2.2%; higher 1.8%. Literacy (2008): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 77.6%; males literate 85.1%; females literate 70.9%. Education (2006–07) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

48,736 34,051 5,930

2,479,644 911,317 92,340

50.9 26.8 15.6

89 317 5 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2004) 2,122 (1 per 6,169 persons); hospital beds (2002) 9,800 (1 per 1,405 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 58.4; undernourished population (2004–06) 3,500,000 (25% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,750 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 124,300 (army 60.3%, navy 2.3%, air force 1.2%, provincial forces 36.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 2.2%; per capita expenditure U.S.$15.

1Includes 59 indirectly elected seats and 2 nonelected seats. 2Based on land area. 3Indirect taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 4Registered; for population age 7 and over. 5Circulation. 6Subscribers. 72005–06.

Internet resource for further information: • National Institute of Statistics http://www.nis.gov.kh

540

Britannica World Data

Cameroon

Household income and expenditure (2004). Average household size 4.8; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 44.1%, clothing and footwear 13.1%, cafés and hotels 8.6%, transportation 7.4%, housing and energy 7.0%. Population economically active (2008): total 7,518,0007; activity rate of total population 39.4%7 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 68.1%7; female 39.9%7; unemployed 9.3%8, underemployed 68.8%8).

Official name: République du Cameroun (French); Republic of Cameroon (English). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [180]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Yaoundé. Official languages: French; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

Price index (2005 = 100)

Area and population

area

Regions

Capitals

Adamoua Centre Est Extrême-Nord Littoral Nord Nord-Ouest Ouest Sud Sud-Ouest

Ngaoundéré Yaoundé Bertoua Maroua Douala Garoua Bamenda Bafoussam Ebolowa Buea

2005 census

sq km 63,701 68,953 109,002 34,263 20,248 66,090 17,300 13,892 47,191 26,1101 466,750 9,600 476,3501

884,289 3,098,044 771,755 3,111,792 2,510,263 1,687,959 1,728,953 1,720,047 634,655 1,316,079

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2006): 35.6 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2006): 13.0 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2006): 22.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2006): 4.58. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 51.7 years; female 53.0 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 5.1%4 (world avg. 0.8%). Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): HIV/AIDS-related c. 308; lower respiratory infections c. 201; malaria c. 119; diarrheal diseases c. 88; perinatal conditions c. 69.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: CFAF 2,214,000,000,000 (non-oil revenue 59.3%, oil revenue 36.6%, grants 4.1%). Expenditures: CFAF 1,966,000,000,000 (current expenditure 71.0%, capital expenditure 29.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$2,129,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$22,890,000,000 (U.S.$1,170 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$2,200 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

TOTAL

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0

105.1

106.1

111.7

115.2

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population (2010): 19,640,000. Density (2010)3: persons per sq mi 109.0, persons per sq km 42.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 57.6%; rural 42.4%. Sex distribution (2005): male 49.42%; female 50.58%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 41.5%; 15–29, 29.0%; 30–44, 15.7%; 45–59, 8.8%; 60–74, 4.1%; 75–84, 0.8%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 24,278,000; (2030) 28,519,000. Doubling time: 31 years. Ethnic composition (2006): “western highlanders” c. 38.0%, including Bamileke c. 11.5%; “coastal tropical forest peoples” c. 12.0%, including Bassa c. 2.5%; “southern tropical forest peoples” c. 18.0%, including Ewondo (Yaunde) c. 8.0%; “mostly Islamic central highlanders” c. 14.0%, including Fulani c. 8.5%; “mostly traditional believers of central highlands and far north” or “Kirdi” c. 18.0%, including Mofa c. 2.5%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic 27.4%; traditional beliefs 22.2%; Protestant 20.2%; Sunni Muslim 20.0%; nonreligious/other 10.2%. Major urban areas (2006): Douala 1,371,400; Yaoundé 1,344,600; Kousséri 476,600; Garoua 461,300; Bamenda 419,400; Maroua 335,800.

Agriculture, fishing, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other

2005

98.0

Foreign trade 9 17,463,836

Demography

in value CFAF ’000,000,000

2004

97.8

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava 2,500,000, plantains 1,400,000, oil palm fruit 1,250,000, taro 1,200,000, corn (maize) 1,200,000, bananas 820,000, sorghum 600,000, tomatoes 420,000, yams 350,000, dry beans 250,000, cacao 187,532, peanuts (groundnuts) 160,000, seed cotton 130,000, cattle meat 94,000, game meat 62,000, melonseed 60,000, coffee 35,242; livestock (number of live animals) 6,000,000 cattle, 3,800,000 sheep; roundwood (2009) 12,348,500 cu m, of which fuelwood 79%; fisheries production 138,340 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): pozzolana 600,000; limestone 100,000; gold 1,800 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2002): food products 97; refined petroleum 88; beverages 78; paints, soaps, and varnishes 51; wood products (excl. furniture) 48; rubber products 38. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 5,600,000,000 (4,800,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 28,200,000 ([2007] 9,500,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 2,030,000 (1,636,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 412,000,000 (412,000,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 12.6%, in permanent crops 2.5%, in pasture 4.2%, forest area 44.0%.

population

sq mi 24,595 26,623 42,086 13,229 7,818 25,517 6,680 5,364 18,221 10,081 1 180,2132 3,707 183,9201, 2

LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

2003 Consumer price index

2006 % of total value

labour force5

% of labour force

20.9 9.7 14.2 3.0 1.0 6.0 20.9 9.9 6.7 1.0 6.76 100.0

4,013,000

53.9

3,660,000

46.1

CFAF ’000,000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+156.6 5.7%

+123.9 4.5%

+146.1 4.6%

+304.5 8.5%

+266.6 7.0%

+239.7 5.7%

Imports (2006): CFAF 1,647,600,000,000 (crude petroleum 29.4%, chemicals and chemical products 11.1%, machinery and apparatus 10.9%, cereals 9.0%, road vehicles 5.8%). Major import sources (2006): Nigeria 23.3%; France 17.2%; China 6.3%; Belgium 4.1%; Equatorial Guinea 3.5%. Exports (2008): CFAF 2,230,800,000,000 (crude petroleum 52.2%, refined petroleum [2007] 15.0%, sawn and rough wood 13.0%, cocoa 6.4%, aluminum 4.7%, raw cotton 2.0%, coffee 1.6%). Major export destinations (2006): Spain 25.9%; Italy 23.1%; France 10.7%; U.S. 6.4%; Neth. 6.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2006): route length 990 km; passenger-km 354,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,136,000,000. Roads (2006): total length 17,834 mi10, 28,702 km10 (paved 17%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 190,341; trucks and buses 63,113. Air transport: passenger-km (2005) 797,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 26,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

720

43

2009 2009

7,39712 323

37912 17

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

194 7511 750 0.912

units per 1,000 persons 11 3.911 38 0.0512

Education and health Educational attainment (2004)13: Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 32.9%; primary education 35.3%; secondary 26.2%; higher 4.2%; other/unknown 1.4%. Literacy (2007): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 78.8%; males 84.6%; females 73.2%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary15

students

69,544 3,201,477 43,19314 1,127,691 3,834 174,144

student/ teacher ratio 46.0 16.214 45.4

enrollment rate (%) 88 … 9 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2009) 1,55516 (1 per 12,315 persons); hospital beds (2006) 26,589 (1 per 667 persons); infant mortality rate (2006) 67.2; undernourished population (2004–06) 4,000,000 (23% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,800 calories).

Military 2,066 958 1,399 293 99 595 2,066 983 660 98 6656 9,882

}

7,673,000

100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 154; remittances (2009) 162; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 284; official development assistance (2008) 525. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 340; remittances (2008) 103.

Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 14,100 (army 88.7%, navy 9.2%, air force 2.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$16. 1Includes the 270 sq mi (700 sq km) area of Bakassi peninsula, which was formally ceded by Nigeria to Cameroon on Aug. 14, 2008; the 2008 pop. est. for Bakassi is roughly 250,000. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Based on land area. 4Statistically derived midpoint within range. 5FAO estimate. 6Indirect taxes less statistical discrepancy and less imputed bank service charges. 7ILO estimate. 8Per government survey. 9Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 10National roads only. 11Circulation. 12Subscribers. 13Based on 2004 survey of 17,506 persons. 142005–06. 152008–09. 16Public health only.

Internet resource for further information: • National Institute of Statistics http://www.statistics-cameroon.org

Nations of the World

Canada

541

piratory system 61.0; diseases of the nervous system 31.9; accidents 27.6; diseases of the digestive system 26.9; diabetes mellitus 24.3.

Official name: Canada. Form of government: federal multiparty parliamentary state with two legislative houses (Senate [1051, 2]; House of Commons [308]). Head of state: Queen of Canada (British Monarch). Representative of chief of state: Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Ottawa. Official languages: English; French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Canadian dollar (Can$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Can$1.05; 1 £ = Can$1.62.

Social indicators Educational attainment (2006). Percentage of population age 25–64 having: less than complete secondary education 15.5%; complete secondary 23.9%; higher vocational 12.4%; some college/university 25.3%; bachelor’s degree 14.6%; beyond bachelor’s/master’s 7.5%; doctorate 0.8%. Distribution of income (2006) percentage of family after-tax income by quintile

sq km

20103 estimate

Edmonton Victoria Winnipeg Fredericton

255,541 364,764 250,116 28,150

661,848 944,735 647,797 72,908

3,711,845 4,494,232 1,228,984 750,658

St. John’s Halifax Toronto Charlottetown Quebec Regina

156,453 21,345 415,599 2,185 595,391 251,367

405,212 55,284 1,076,395 5,660 1,542,056 651,036

510,805 940,744 13,134,455 141,232 7,870,026 1,038,018

519,735 808,185 186,272 3,855,1034

1,346,106 2,093,190 482,443 9,984,6704

43,281 32,558 33,992 33,930,830

Capitals

Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland and Labrador Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island Quebec Saskatchewan Territories Northwest Territories Nunavut Yukon

population

sq mi

Provinces

Yellowknife Iqaluit Whitehorse

TOTAL

2

3

4

7.6%

14.8%

24.3%

5 (highest) 51.0%

Quality of working life. Average workweek (2007): 35.6 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers for (2006): injury, accident, or industrial illness 1,998; death 5.9. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 employee-workdays (2001): 0.7. Average round-trip commuting time (2005): 63 minutes; mode of transportation (2006): auto driver 72.3%, auto passenger 7.7%, public transportation 11.0%, walking 6.4%, bicycling 1.3%, other/unknown 1.3%. Labour force covered by a pension plan (2006): 38.1%. Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election (October 2008): 58.8%. Trade union membership as percentage of civilian labour force (2007) 29.4%. Attendance at religious services on a weekly basis (2006): 17%. Social deviance (2007). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: violent crime 929.6, of which battery/aggravated battery/dangerous operation of vehicle 718.5, robbery 89.8, sexual assault 65.0, homicide 1.8; property crime 3,319.7, of which breaking and entering 700.3, auto theft 443.2, fraud 267.7. Leisure. Favourite leisure activities (hours weekly): television (2004) 21.4; radio (2006) 18.6; annual visits per capita to movie theatres (2006) 3.3; percentage of population participating in organized sports (2005) 28% (notably ice hockey and football [soccer]). Material well-being (2006). Households possessing: automobile 59.7%; truck/van 36.9%; landline telephone only (December 2007) 24.0%; cellular phone (December 2007) 72.4%; air conditioner 48.1%; cable television 65.2%; computer 75.4%; Internet access 68.1%; dishwasher 57.7%.

Area and population area

1 2.3%

National economy

Demography Population (2010): 34,132,000. Density (2010)5: persons per sq mi 9.7, persons per sq km 3.8. Urban-rural (2006): urban 80.2%; rural 19.8%. Sex distribution (2007): male 49.53%; female 50.47%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 17.0%; 15–29, 20.5%; 30–44, 21.9%; 45–59, 22.0%; 60–74, 12.2%; 75–84, 4.7%; 85 and over, 1.7%. Population projection: (2020) 37,366,000; (2030) 40,382,000. Population by mother tongue (2006): English 57.8%; French 22.1%; other 20.1%, of which Chinese languages 3.3%, Italian 1.5%, German 1.5%, Punjabi 1.2%, Spanish 1.2%, Arabic 0.9%, Tagalog 0.9%, Portuguese 0.7%, Polish 0.7%, Urdu 0.5%, Ukrainian 0.5%. Aboriginal population (2006): North American Indian 1,172,790 (2.2% of total population); Métis 698,025 (1.3%); Inuit (Eskimo) 50,485 (0.2%); other/multiple 34,500 (0.1%). Religious affiliation (2001): Christian 77.1%, of which Roman Catholic 43.2%, Protestant 28.3%, unspecified Christian 2.6%, Orthodox 1.7%, other Christian 1.3%; Muslim 2.0%; Jewish 1.1%; Hindu 1.0%; Buddhist 1.0%; Sikh 0.9%; nonreligious 16.5%; other 0.4%. Major metropolitan areas (2006): Toronto 5,113,149; Montreal 3,635,571; Vancouver 2,116,581; Ottawa-Gatineau 1,130,761; Calgary 1,079,310; Edmonton 1,034,945; Quebec 715,515; Winnipeg 694,668; Hamilton 692,911; London 457,720; Kitchener 451,235; St. Catharines–Niagara 390,317. Other metropolitan areas (2006) population Abbotsford Barrie Halifax Kelowna Kingston

159,020 177,061 372,858 162,276 152,358

population Oshawa Regina Saguenay St. John’s Saskatoon

330,594 194,971 151,643 181,113 233,923

population Sherbrooke Sudbury Trois-Rivières Victoria Windsor

186,952 158,258 141,529 330,088 323,342

Place of birth (2006): 80.2% native-born; 19.8% foreign-born, of which Asian 8.1%, European 7.3%, Latin American 1.2%, African 1.2%. Mobility (2006). Population living in the same residence as in 2001: 59.1%; different residence, same municipality 22.0%; same province, different municipality 12.1%; different province 2.9%; different country 3.9%. Households. Total number of households (2006) 12,437,470. Average household size 2.5; 1 person 26.8%, 2 persons 33.6%, 3 persons 15.9%, 4 persons 15.0%, 5 or more persons 8.7%. Immigration (2007): permanent immigrants admitted 236,758; from Asia/Pacific 47.6%, of which China 11.4%, India 11.0%, Philippines 8.1%; Africa/Middle East 20.5%; Europe 16.5%; Latin America 10.9%; U.S. 4.4%; refugee population (end of 2007) 175,741.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008–09): 11.3 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2007) 61.7%; outside of marriage (2007) 38.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008–09): 7.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008–09): 4.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 1.66. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2007) 4.6/(2004) 2.2. Life expectancy at birth (2005–07): male 78.3 years; female 83.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004): diseases of the circulatory system 226.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 208.3; diseases of the res-

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$1,422,977,000,000 (U.S.$42,170 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$37,590 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value Can$’000,0006 Agriculture, fishing, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation Trade, hotels, and restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

25,965 55,3118 175,617 74,570 31,143 56,755 172,669 305,53210 69,438 260,259 — 1,227,25911

2009 % of total value 2.1 4.58 14.3 6.1 2.5 4.6 14.1 24.910 5.7 21.2 — 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

320,5007 316,2009 1,790,600 1,161,400 147,800 820,300 3,695,700 1,099,000 926,600 6,570,800 1,520,100 18,369,000

1.87 1.79 9.7 6.3 0.8 4.5 20.1 6.0 5.0 35.8 8.3 100.0

Budget (2007–08)12. Revenue: Can$256,575,000,000 (personal income tax 46.2%, corporate income tax 16.3%, general sales tax 13.8%, contributions to social security 8.5%, other 15.2%). Expenditures: Can$242,814,000,000 (social services 37.0%, defense/police 11.8%, transfers to government subsectors 11.3%, health 10.6%, debt charges 8.4%, resource conservation and industrial development 4.5%, foreign affairs/international assistance 2.4%, education 2.3%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat 26,515,000, rapeseed 11,825,400, corn (maize) 9,561,200, barley 9,517,200, cow’s milk 8,213,300, potatoes 4,581,100, soybeans 3,503,700, dry peas 3,379,400, oats 2,798,200, pork (2008) 1,940,980, lentils 1,510,200, cattle meat (2008) 1,288,100, linseed 930,100, tomatoes 457,695, apples 413,096, mustard seed 208,300, canary seed 141,900, mushrooms (2008) 86,946, cranberries 86,776, blueberries 69,410, maple syrup 2,403,965 litres; livestock (number of live animals) 13,180,000 cattle, 12,400,000 pigs, (2008) 165,000,000 chickens, (2008) 5,880,000 turkeys; roundwood 107,266,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 2%; fisheries production (2008) 1,081,469 (from aquaculture 13%); aquatic plants production (2008) 16,614 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (value of production in Can$’000,000; 2008)13: potash 8,243 (1); nickel 5,856 (2); copper 4,438; gold 2,824; iron ore 2,427; diamonds 2,404; sand and gravel 1,496; uranium 1,488 (1); stone 1,373; zinc 1,268 (5); platinum group 592 (3); salt 538 (5); cobalt 434 (2); gypsum 76 (4); ilmenite 816,00014 (3); molybdenum (metal content) 7,72414 (5). Manufacturing (value added in Can$’000,000,000; 2008)6: transportation equipment 30.8; food 19.3; base chemicals, medicines, and soaps 15.6; machinery 13.7; fabricated metal products 13.4; base metals 11.8; wood products (excl. furniture) 9.6; paper products 9.5; rubber and plastic products 9.0; information and communication technologies 8.5. Population economically active (20073): total 17,825,800; activity rate of total population 55.6% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 67.5%; female 46.7%; unemployed [2009] 8.3%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index15

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

96.1 94.3

97.8 97.3

100.0 100.0

102.0 99.7

104.2 105.1

106.7 106.9

107.0 101.5

542

Britannica World Data

Public debt (March 2009): U.S.$655,211,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 2.5; average annual income per family (2006) Can$65,500 (U.S.$57,740); sources of income (2001): wages, salaries, and self-employment 71.8%, transfer payments 14.0%, other 14.2%; expenditure (2005): housing and energy 23.0%, transportation 14.4%, recreation and culture 10.3%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 9.6%, restaurants and hotels 7.0%, household furnishings and operations 6.6%, clothing 4.8%, health 4.2%, alcoholic beverages and tobacco 4.0%, communications 2.3%, education 1.4%. Financial aggregates16 2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Exchange rate, Can$ per: U.S. dollar 1.20 1.16 1.17 0.99 1.22 1.05 £ 2.38 2.20 2.30 1.98 1.79 1.64 SDR 1.87 1.66 1.75 1.56 1.89 1.64 International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; ’000,000) 34,429 32,962 34,994 40,991 43,778 54,238 SDRs (’000,000) 924 897 963 1,016 991 9,212 Reserve pos. in IMF (’000,000) 3,338 1,401 833 661 1,249 2,424 Foreign exchange (’000,000) 30,167 30,664 33,198 39,314 41,537 42,602 Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 % world reserves 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) 2.75 3.50 4.50 4.50 1.75 0.50 Govt. bond yield (long-term; %)17 5.08 4.39 4.30 4.34 4.04 3.89 Industrial share prices 82.0 100.0 114.5 122.7 79.7 104.2 (2005 = 100)17 Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000) Balance of visible trade, +50,503 +51,718 +43,542 +44,363 +63,494 +11,522 of which: Imports, f.o.b. –279,508 –320,181 –356,514 –387,665 –399,324 –313,160 Exports, f.o.b. 330,011 371,899 400,056 432,028 462,819 324,682 Balance of invisibles –27,557 –29,539 –25,683 –31,724 –36,990 –34,134 Balance of payments, current account +22,946 +22,179 +17,859 +12,639 +26,504 –22,612

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 639,841,000,000 (614,530,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 32,811,000 (23,258,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 35,635,000 (37,777,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 946,000,00018 ([2007] 652,188,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 89,483,000 (80,829,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 187,000,000,000 (92,900,000,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 5.0%, in permanent crops 0.8%, in pasture 1.7%, forest area 34.1%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 15,267; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 70,962. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 27,306; remittances, n.a.; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 60,568.

imports U.S.$’000,000 Africa Asia-Oceania China Japan South Korea Other Americas Mexico United States Other Americas Europe United Kingdom Germany Other Europe

7,429 70,188 30,424 13,521 5,084 21,159 220,619 14,123 191,996 14,500 51,642 9,569 9,817 32,256 349,88920

TOTAL

exports %

U.S.$’000,000

2.1 20.1 8.7 3.9 1.5 6.0 63.120 4.0 54.9 4.1 14.820 2.7 2.8 9.2 100.020

2,251 30,737 6,755 8,302 2,880 12,800 325,643 3,867 316,665 5,111 29,376 8,935 3,418 17,023 388,02020

% 0.6 7.920 1.7 2.1 0.7 3.3 83.9 1.0 81.6 1.3 7.6 2.3 0.9 4.4 100.0

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 46,688 km; passenger-km (2007) 1,444,656,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 357,444,000,000. Roads (2007): total length 1,409,000 km (paved [2004] c. 35%); passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo (2006) 234,294,000,000. Vehicles: passenger cars (2007) 12,266,332; trucks and buses (2005) 785,649. Air transport21: passenger-km (2008) 74,400,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 1,184,921,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

22,384

707

2009 2009

23,08123 18,251

68823 544

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s 31,051 4,11722 26,225 9,97123

units per 1,000 persons 943 14722 781 29723

Education and health Literacy (2006): total population age 15 and over literate virtually 100%. Education (2005–06) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

students

… 2,305,211 … 2,632,432 132,23025 1,326,71126

student/ teacher ratio 17.424 17.724 9.525

enrollment rate (%) 99 … 5326 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2006) 62,307 (1 per 524 persons); hospital beds (2005) 110,113 (1 per 294 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 5.1; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 65,72227 (army 52.9%, navy 16.8%, air force 30.3%); reserve 33,967; civilian coast guard 4,554. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$595.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) Can$’000,000,000 % of total

Direction of trade (2006)

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+41.0 5.5%

+43.2 5.2%

+46.2 5.5%

+40.0 4.7%

+51.5 5.4%

–6.9 1.0%

Imports (2008): Can$447,904,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 24.0%, of which nonelectrical machinery 12.2%; road vehicles 13.8%, of which cars 6.0%, parts for road vehicles 4.3%; mineral fuels 12.0%, of which crude petroleum 7.6%; chemicals and chemical products 10.3%; food products 5.1%). Major import sources: U.S. 52.6%; China 10.1%; Mexico 4.1%; Japan 3.5%; Germany 2.9%; U.K. 2.9%; Algeria 1.7%; South Korea 1.4%; Norway 1.4%; France 1.4%. Exports (2008): Can$499,384,000,000 (mineral fuels 26.9%, of which crude petroleum 13.6%, natural gas in gaseous state 6.6%; machinery and apparatus 11.6%; road vehicles 10.7%, of which cars 7.0%; chemicals and chemical products 8.3%; food products 6.6%; sawn wood, wood pulp, and paper products 6.2%; base nonferrous metals 4.3%). Major export destinations: U.S. 76.9%; U.K. 2.9%; China 2.4%; Japan 2.3%; Mexico 1.2%; Germany 0.9%; South Korea 0.9%; Belgium 0.8%. Trade by commodities (2006) imports SITC Group 00 Food and live animals 01 Beverages and tobacco 02 Crude materials, excluding fuels 03 Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials 04 Animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes 05 Chemicals and related products, n.e.s. 06 Basic manufactures 07 Machinery and transport equipment 08 Miscellaneous manufactured articles 09 Goods not classified by kind TOTAL

U.S.$’000,000

exports %

U.S.$’000,000

%

16,403 2,826

4.7 0.8

22,627 2,22719

5.8 0.619

9,852

2.8

29,354

7.6

31,903

9.1

77,534

20.0

567

0.1

…

…

35,912 46,215

10.3 13.2

29,441 59,438

7.6 15.3

156,759

44.8

123,224

31.8

40,779

11.7

22,510

5.8

8,673 349,889

2.4 100.0 20

21,665 388,020

5.6 100.0 20

1Statutory number. 2All seats are nonelected. 3January 1. 4Total area equals 3,855,103 sq mi (9,984,670 sq km), of which land area equals 3,511,023 sq mi (9,093,507 sq km), inland freshwater area equals 310,296 sq mi (803,663 sq km), and Great Lakes freshwater area equals 33,784 sq mi (87,500 sq km). 5Based on land area. 6At prices of 2002. 7Excludes fishing, forestry. 8Includes extraction of petroleum and natural gas (39,989; 3.3%). 9Includes fishing, forestry. 10Includes professional, scientific, and technical services (58,515; 4.8%). 11Summed total; reported total equals Can$1,225,687,000,000. 12Federal government revenue and expenditure only. 13World ranking by production volume is in parentheses. 14In metric tons; value of production data are confidential. 15Manufacturing only. 16End of period unless otherwise footnoted. 17Period average. 18From (in 2007): the Alberta oil sands c. 50%, conventional on land sources c. 38%, offshore Newfoundland in the Atlantic Ocean c. 12%. 19Includes 04 SITC group. 20Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 21Air Canada and Air Transat only. 22Circulation. 23Subscribers. 241999–2000. 252001–02. 262003–04. 27Canadian troops in Afghanistan as part of the NATO International Security Assistance Force (November 2009): 2,830.

Internet resource for further information: • Statistics Canada http://www.statcan.gc.ca

543

Nations of the World

Cape Verde

wood 100%; fisheries production 21,910 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2008): salt 1,600; pozzolana, n.a. Manufacturing (2003): cement (2008) 160,000; frozen fish 900; canned fish 200; other manufactured goods include clothing, footwear, and rum. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 269,000,000 (269,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (100,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2008): total 207,00013; activity rate of total population c. 41.5%13 (participation rates: ages 15–64 c. 68.6%13; female c. 43%13; unemployed [2006] 18.3%, underemployed [2006] c. 26%).

Official name: República de Cabo Verde (Republic of Cape Verde). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [72]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Praia. Official language: Portuguese1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: escudo (C.V.Esc.); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = C.V.Esc. 86.95; 1 £ = C.V.Esc. 134.32.

Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

Area and population Island Groups Islands/Counties Leeward Islands Brava4 Fogo5 Maio6 Santiago7 Windward Islands Boa Vista6 Sal6 Santa Luzia, Branco, and Raso8 Santo Antão5 São Nicolau9 São Vicente6

area

Principal towns Nova Sintra São Filipe Vila do Maio Praia Sal Rei Santa Maria — Porto Novo Ribeira Brava Mindelo

TOTAL

sq km 1,796 64 472 269 991 2,237 620 216

19 300 134 88 1,557

49 779 346 227 4,033

2009 projection2 341,164 6,141 37,804 8,132 289,087 167,478 6,007 20,041

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0

105.4

110.0

117.5

118.6

Balance of trade (current prices)

0 48,939 12,810 79,681 508,64210, 11

Population (2010): 509,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 326.9, persons per sq km 126.2. Urban-rural (2009): urban 60.3%; rural 39.7%. Sex distribution (2009): male 48.38%; female 51.62%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 34.2%; 15–29, 31.3%; 30–44, 17.3%; 45–59, 10.4%; 60–74, 4.3%; 75–84, 2.2%; 85 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2020) 583,000; (2030) 652,000. Doubling time: 45 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Cape Verdean mestico (black-white admixture) 69.6%; Fulani 12.2%; Balanta 10.0%; Mandyako 4.6%; Portuguese white 2.0%; other 1.6%. Religious affiliation (2000): Christian 95.1%, of which Roman Catholic 88.1%, Protestant 3.3%, independent Christian 2.7%; Muslim 2.8%; other 2.1%. Major urban localities (2009): Praia (on Santiago) 125,148; Mindelo (on São Vicente) 76,650; Santa Maria (on Sal) 18,780; Assomada (on Santiago) 13,562; Pedra Badejo (on Santiago) 11,348.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 22.2 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 6.5 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 15.7 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.62. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 68.0 years; female 72.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2007): diseases of the circulatory system 136.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 54.5; diseases of the respiratory system 46.8; accidents and violence 42.5; infectious and parasitic diseases 35.0.

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–308.6 74.5%

–377.9 76.7%

–348.8 66.3%

–463.8 70.8%

–663.9 80.2%

–715.0 75.5%

Imports (2008): U.S.$824,200,000 (food products 21.7%, machinery and apparatus 14.3%, refined petroleum 9.9%, fabricated/structural metals 9.8%, road vehicles 8.8%, chemicals and chemical products 6.0%). Major import sources (2008): Portugal 45.6%; Netherlands 14.6%; Spain 6.9%; Brazil 5.9%; Japan 3.4%. Exports (2007): U.S.$114,800,000 (refined petroleum [significantly for refueling services for ships and aircraft] 49.8%, transport containers 15.8%, fresh fish 8.3%, clothing 5.7%, footwear 4.0%). Major export destinations (2007): Côte d’Ivoire 30.7%; Portugal 21.6%; Netherlands 15.2%; Spain 9.1%; France 4.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2007): total length 1,398 mi, 2,250 km (paved [mostly with cobblestones] 78%). Vehicles (200415): passenger cars 23,811; trucks and buses 5,032. Air transport (2005): passenger-km 1,078,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2003

48

105

2009 2009

39217 72

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

77517 143

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2008

48

102

16

16

150 7.017

297 1417

Education and health Educational attainment (1990). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 47.9%; primary 40.9%; incomplete secondary 3.9%; complete secondary 1.4%; higher 1.5%; unknown 4.4%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 79.4%; males 87.5%; females 72.6%. Education (2007–08)

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: C.V.Esc. 40,129,000,000 (tax revenue 73.7%, of which VAT 29.2%, taxes on income and profits 21.2%, taxes on international transactions 14.7%; grants 16.0%; nontax revenue 6.5%; other 3.8%). Expenditures: C.V.Esc. 41,304,000,000 (current expenditure 60.6%; capital expenditure 39.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$689,200,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$1,520,000,000 (U.S.$3,010 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$3,530 per capita). 2008 in value C.V.Esc. ’000,000

1990 % of total value

9,673

7.4

9,164

7.0

15,162 25,999 30,293 12,717 15,789 2,397 9,82612 131,020

11.6 19.8 23.1 9.7 12.1 1.8 } 7.512 100.0

labour force 29,876 5,520 883 410 22,722 6,138 12,747 821

Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17)18 Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

3,132 3,195 792

76,299 60,783 6,658

24.4 19.0 8.4

84 61 12 (age 18–22)

Health (2007): physicians 230 (1 per 2,137 persons); hospital beds 1,01619 (1 per 484 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 28.9; undernourished population (2004–06) 70,000 (14% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,800 calories).

Military

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

TOTAL

2005

99.6

Foreign trade 14

Demography

Agriculture, fishing Manufacturing Public utilities } Mining Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2004

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 4.9; expenditure (2004): food 36.9%, transportation 14.1%, alcoholic beverages 10.1%, housing 7.9%, household furnishings and operation 6.4%, energy 5.2%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 12.4%, in permanent crops 0.7%, in pasture 6.2%, forest area 21.0%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 352; remittances (2009) 149; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 177; official development assistance (2008) 219. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 133; remittances (2008) 10.0.

population

sq mi 6933 25 182 104 383 8643 239 83

2003 101.5

% of labour force 24.7 4.6 0.7 0.3 18.9 5.1 10.6 0.7

17,358

14.4

24,090 120,565

20.0 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 25,500, corn (maize) 11,584, cow’s milk 10,600, goat’s milk 10,000, pig meat 7,850, bananas 6,800, coconut 6,000, mangoes 6,000, tomatoes 5,000, sweet potatoes 4,700, pulses 3,200; livestock (number of live animals) 224,200 pigs, 201,500 goats, 44,250 cattle; roundwood (2009) 1,845 cu m, of which fuel-

Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 1,200 (army 83.3%, air force 8.3%, coast guard 8.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$18.

1Cape Verdean Creole (Crioulo) is the national language. 2Based on the 2000 census. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Island/county areas are coterminous (including the nearby islets of Rei and Rombo). 5Administratively split into 3 counties. 6Island/county areas are coterminous. 7Administratively split into 9 counties. 8Islands administered from São Nicolau. 9Administratively split into 2 counties. 10Summed total; reported total is 508,633; excludes at least 700,000 Cape Verdeans living abroad. 112010 preliminary census total equals 491,575. 12Taxes and duties on imports less imputed bank service charges. 13ILO estimate. 14Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 15January 1. 16No daily newspapers in 2009; Cape Verde has 4 weeklies, however. 17Subscribers. 182006–07. 19Includes 259 beds

in health centres.

Internet resources for further information: • Instituto Nacional de Estatística de Cabo Verde http://www.ine.cv • Banco de Cabo Verde http://www.bcv.cv

544

Britannica World Data

Cayman Islands

Population economically active (2009): total 36,10014; activity rate of total population 68.3% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2007] 87.2%; female 49.0%; unemployed 6.0%).

Official name: Cayman Islands. Political status: overseas territory (United Kingdom) with one legislative house (Legislative Assembly [181]). Head of state: British Monarch, represented by Governor. Head of government: Premier. Capital: George Town. Official language: English2. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Cayman Islands dollar (CI$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) CI$1.00 = U.S.$1.20 = £0.78.

Price index (2005 = 100)

area sq mi 76 15 11 1027

Grand Cayman4 Cayman Brac5 Little Cayman5 TOTAL

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

89.2

93.1

100.0

100.8

104.5

108.8

107.4

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 2.5; average annual income per household (1999) CI$52,400 (U.S.$62,880); sources of income (1999): wages and salaries 76.2%, self-employment 13.4%, transfers 1.2%; expenditure (2008)15: housing and energy 39.4%, transportation 9.6%, food 8.0%, communication 7.0%, household furnishings 5.6%, recreation/culture 4.0%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 353; cruise ship visitors (mostly day-trip participants; 2009) 1,520,400; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 11,364. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances (2009) 97.3; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 4,040. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, left fallow, or in permanent crops 3.8%, in pasture 7.7%, forest area 47.7%.

Area and population Islands

2003 Consumer price index

population sq km 197 39 } 28 2647

20093 estimate 54,287 2,7226

Foreign trade16

57,009

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 53,000. Density (2010)8: persons per sq mi 569.9, persons per sq km 219.9. Urban-rural (2009): urban 100%; rural 0%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.58%; female 50.42%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 17.2%; 15–29, 20.3%; 30–44, 32.9%; 45–59, 18.7%; 60 and over, 10.9%. Population projection: (2020) 65,000; (2030) 72,000. Doubling time: 65 years. Place of birth (2008): Cayman Islands 39.5%; Jamaica 24.8%; U.S. 5.2%; U.K. 4.9%; Honduras 4.6%; Philippines 4.2%; other 16.8%.9 Religious affiliation (2007): Protestant 62.6%, of which Church of God 25.5%, Presbyterian/United Church 9.2%, Seventh-day Adventist 8.4%; Roman Catholic 12.6%; independent Christian 5.7%; Hindu 1.0%; Muslim 0.8%; nonreligious 6.1%; other/unknown 11.2%. Major urban areas (20093): George Town 29,764; West Bay 12,119; Bodden Town 9,119; Cayman Brac has 4 small settlements.

Vital statistics

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–526.5 93.0%

–698.5 94.5%

–926.9 90.4%

–847.2 95.2%

–837.9 95.0%

–862.6 96.9%

Imports (2008): CI$876,500,000 (refined petroleum 15.2%; food 10.9%; road vehicles 6.3%; refractory lime 5.3%; beverages 3.7%; remainder [significantly unspecified] 58.6%). Major import sources (2008): U.S. 74.5%; Netherlands Antilles 15.8%; Jamaica 0.7%; Japan 0.5%. Exports (2007): CI$21,500,000 (reexports 59.4%; domestic exports [including rum, other manufactured consumer goods, turtle products, fish, and cut flowers] 40.6%). Major export destinations (2008): U.S. 85.5%; U.K. 9.4%; Jamaica 5.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2002): total length 488 mi, 785 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 25,636; trucks and buses 7,030. Air transport (2007)17: passengers arriving 479,800, passengers departing 489,700; freight loaded 498 metric tons, freight unloaded 3,486 metric tons. Communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2006–08): 13.9 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2006–08): 3.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2006–08): 10.8 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 1.89. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2007): 9.110/3.0. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 77.6 years; female 82.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004): diseases of the circulatory system 86.8, of which ischemic heart disease 25.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 72.1; pneumonia 27.7; accidents 22.2; diabetes mellitus 18.5.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: CI$470,600,000 (taxes on goods and services 50.1%, of which financial services licenses 27.1%, work permit fees 7.8%; import duties 30.2%; nontax revenue 11.6%; other taxes 8.1%). Expenditures: CI$552,000,000 (current expenditure 82.3%; development expenditures/net lending 17.7%). Public debt (December 2009): U.S.$614,800,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): bananas 210, citrus fruit 55, guavas and mangoes 35, yams 18, avocados 15, natural honey 10; livestock (number of live animals) 2,520 cattle, 2,171 goats; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 125 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: crushed stone for local use. Manufacturing: industries include fish and turtle processing, handicrafts, and small-boat building. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 608,800,00011 (559,800,00011); coal (metric tons; 2006) none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (174,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) none (none). Gross national income (at current market prices; 2009): U.S.$2,912,000,000 (U.S.$53,036 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value U.S.$’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Trade, hotels, restaurants Transportation and communications Finance, real estate, insurance12 International business12 Pub. admin., defense Services12 Other

}

TOTAL

CI$’000,000 % of total

2007 % of total value

10.9

0.4

98.8

3.5

47.1 269.8 653.7

1.7 9.5 23.2

305.2

10.8

1,390.8

49.3

46.2 2,822.5

1.6 100.0

labour force 639 46 504 658 5,646 7,118

% of labour force 1.8 0.1 1.4 1.8 15.5 19.5

2,004

5.5

7,532 … 2,509 7,627 2,19313 36,476

20.6 … 6.9 20.9 6.013 100.0

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004 2009

…

number in ’000s … 3419 38

units per 1,000 persons … 76619 677

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

… 2009 2009 2009

… 1818 24 —

units per 1,000 persons … 32818 428 —

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 0.6%; primary education 4.4%; incomplete secondary 20.8%; complete secondary 28.7%; post-secondary 21.7%; university 18.6%; other/unknown 5.2%. Literacy: n.a. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–16) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

309 361 34

3,736 3,198 912

12.1 8.9 26.8

85 81 36 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2008) 156 (1 per 359 persons); hospital beds (2008) 119 (1 per 471 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 7.3; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel: none; defense is the responsibility of the United Kingdom.

1Includes three members appointed by the governor. 2Per constitution effective Nov. 6, 2009. 3January 1. 4Grand Cayman has no local government structure. 5Cayman Brac and Little Cayman together are administered by a district commissioner appointed by the governor. 6Includes c. 150 people on Little Cayman. 7Area includes 9 sq mi (23 sq km) of inland water. 8Density based on land area. 9In 2009 the population was 56% Caymanian citizens and 44% non-Caymanian. 10Excludes marriages in which both the bride and groom are visitors. 11Grand Cayman only. 12The Cayman Islands is the world’s largest centre for offshore banking, with 278 licensed banks, including 260 offshore (only) banking facilities, in 2008. In that year the assets of Cayman Islands banks exceeded U.S.$1,700,000,000,000. Trust management assets equal or exceed banking assets. Also of great importance to the economy are the captive insurance, mutual fund, and ship registration sectors. 13Includes 1,395 unemployed and 798 not adequately defined. 14Includes 18,165 Caymanian and 17,935 non-Caymanian. 15Weights of consumer price index components. 16Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 17Combined total for Grand Cayman and Cayman Brac airports. 18Circulation. 19Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • Economics and Statistics Office http://www.eso.ky • Cayman Islands Government http://www.gov.ky

545

Nations of the World

Central African Republic

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$1,975,000,000 (U.S.$450 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$750 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: République Centrafricaine (Central African Republic). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative body (National Assembly [105]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Bangui. Official languages: French; Sango. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

2008

Agriculture, fishing, forestry Mining } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels, restaurants Finance, real estate Services } Pub. admin., defense Other

Prefectures Bamingui-Bangoran Basse-Kotto Haut-Mbomou Haute-Kotto Kemo Lobaye Mambéré-Kadéï Mbomou Nana-Gribizi Nana-Mambéré

area

population

sq km 58,200 17,604 55,530 86,650 17,204 19,235 30,203 61,150 19,996 26,600

2003 census 43,229 249,150 57,602 90,316 118,420 246,875 364,795 164,009 117,816 233,666

Prefectures Ombella-M’poko Ouaka Ouham Ouham-Pendé Sangha-Mbaéré Vakaga

area

population

sq km 31,835 49,900 50,250 32,100 19,412 46,500

2003 census 356,725 276,710 369,220 430,506 101,074 52,255

Autonomous commune Bangui 67 TOTAL 622,436

622,771 3,895,139

Demography Population (2010): 4,845,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 20.2, persons per sq km 7.8. Urban-rural (2009): urban 38.7%; rural 61.3%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.41%; female 50.59%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 41.2%; 15–29, 28.4%; 30–44, 16.4%; 45–59, 8.4%; 60–74, 4.4%; 75–84, 1.1%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 5,991,000; (2030) 7,325,000. Doubling time: 33 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (2004): Gbaya (Baya) c. 33%; Banda c. 27%; Mandjia c. 13%; Sara c. 10%; Mbum c. 7%; Ngbaka c. 4%; other c. 6%. Religious affiliation (2005): Protestant/independent Christian c. 51%1; Roman Catholic c. 29%1; traditional beliefs c. 10%; Muslim c. 10%1. Major urban localities (2003): Bangui 622,771; Bimbo 124,176; Berbérati 76,918; Carnot 45,421; Bambari 41,356.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 37.1 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 15.6 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 21.5 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 4.73. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 48.0 years; female 50.5 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 6.3%2 (world avg. 0.8%). Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): HIV/AIDS-related c. 604; lower respiratory infections c. 184; malaria c. 158; diarrheal diseases c. 105.

National economy Budget (2006). Revenue: CFAF 176,300,000,000 (grants 58.4%; taxes 34.3%, of which taxes on goods and services 24.3%; nontax revenue 7.3%). Expenditures: CFAF 107,200,000,000 (current expenditure 58.3%; development expenditure 41.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$815,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava (2009) 642,900, yams 370,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 159,500, corn (maize) 146,770, bananas 120,000, cattle meat 90,480, plantains 82,000, sesame seeds 49,000, game meat 15,800, natural honey 14,000, pig meat 13,500, seed cotton (2009) 7,468, coffee (2007–08) 1,931; livestock (number of live animals) 4,069,000 goats, 3,950,000 cattle, 800,000 pigs; roundwood (2009) 6,857,500 cu m, of which fuelwood 88%; fisheries production 15,000 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): diamonds 377,200 carats3. Manufacturing (2004): aluminum sheets 184,100; soap 1,800; cigarettes 16,000,000 packets; logs and sawn wood 630,900 cu m; beer (2006) 123,100 hectolitres; soft drinks (2003) 38,400 hectolitres; other manufactures include footwear, textiles, and bicycles. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 160,000,000 (160,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (83,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 5.3; average annual income per household (1988) CFAF 91,985 (U.S.$435); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1991)4: food 70.5%, clothing 8.5%, energy 7.3%. Population economically active (2008)5: total 2,019,000; activity rate of total population 46.5% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 79.1%; female 46.6%; unemployed, n.a.). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

99.2

97.2

100.0

106.7

107.7

117.7

121.8

% of total value

labour force

1,038,556

51.5

71,523

3.5

146,414 52,830 56,619 291,631

7.3 2.6 2.8 14.5

1,113,900 15,400 1,500 22,400 7,000 1,500 118,000

80.4 1.1 0.1 1.6 0.5 0.1 8.5

249,849

12.4

15,600

1.1

91,700 — 1,387,000

6.6 — 100.0

108,1326 2,015,554

TOTAL

Area and population

1988

in value U.S.$’000

}

5.46 100.0

% of labour force

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 9.0; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 71; official development assistance (2008) 256. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 49; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 3.1%, in permanent crops 0.1%, in pasture 5.1%, forest area 36.4%.

Foreign trade7 Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF ’000,000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+6.1 4.3%

–9.2 6.1%

–24.8 15.5%

–23.5 12.5%

–33.9 16.6%

–68.2 34.0%

Imports (2005): CFAF 98,300,000,000 (refined petroleum 16.7%; logs and sawn wood 14.8%; food products 13.6%, of which cereals 6.6%; machinery and apparatus 8.6%; road vehicles 8.3%). Major import sources (2007): France 16.6%; Netherlands 13.0%; Cameroon 9.7%; U.S. 6.3%. Exports (2008): CFAF 68,200,000,000 (wood and wood products 51.1%; diamonds 33.5%; coffee 1.7%; cotton 1.4%). Major export destinations (2007): Belgium 22.7%; Indonesia 19.3%; Italy 7.7%; France 7.1%; Spain 6.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2005): total length 6,200 mi, 10,000 km (paved c. 7%)8. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 1,225; trucks and buses 58. Air transport (2003): passenger arrivals 19,2509, passenger departures 19,1079; metric ton-km cargo 7,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

24

6.1

2009 2009

16811 12

3811 2.8

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

13 510 23 —

units per 1,000 persons 3.0 1.110 5.1 —

Education and health Educational attainment (1994–95)12. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 54.1%; at least some primary education 30.5%; at least some secondary education 14.4%; unknown 1.0%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 56.6%; males literate 67.6%; females literate 46.4%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

6,427 1,166 340

608,075 93,341 10,427

94.6 80.1 30.7

67 10 2 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2004) 331 (1 per 11,867 persons); hospital beds (2006) 5,118 (1 per 833 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 103.8; undernourished population (2004–06) 1,700,000 (41% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,730 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 3,150 (army 63.5%, air force 4.8%, gendarmerie 31.7%)13. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.0%; per capita expenditure U.S.$5.

1Adherents may also incorporate traditional beliefs. 2Statistically derived midpoint of range. 3Official figure; a roughly equal amount was smuggled out of the country. 4Weights of consumer price index components. 5ILO estimates. 6Taxes less subsidies. 7Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 8National roads only; much of the 9,700 mi (15,600 km) local road network is unusable. 9Bangui airport only. 10Circulation. 11Subscribers. 12Based on demographic and health survey of 9,414 people. 13300 UN peacekeeping troops (in July 2010) to be withdrawn by the end of 2010.

Internet resource for further information: • Statistics, Economic Studies, and Social Division http://www.stat-centrafrique.com

546

Britannica World Data Population economically active (2008)6: total 4,190,000; activity rate of total population 38.4% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 71.1%; female 47.9%).

Chad Official name: Jumhuriyah Tshad (Arabic); République du Tchad (French) (Republic of Chad). Form of government: unitary republic with one legislative body (National Assembly [155]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: N’Djamena. Official languages: Arabic; French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

Price index (2005 = 100)

Regions Bahr el Gazel Batha Bourkou Chari-Baguirmi Ennedi Guéra Hadjer-Lamis Kanem Lac Logone Occidental Logone Oriental Mandoul Mayo-Kébbi Est

population

sq km 53,000 88,000 241,000 46,000 211,000 62,000 29,000 75,000 23,000 9,000 24,000 17,000 19,000

2009 census1 260,865 527,031 97,251 621,785 173,606 553,795 562,957 354,603 451,369 683,293 796,453 637,086 769,178

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

97.9

92.7

100.0

108.0

98.3

108.5

119.3

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$1,705,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$6,893,000,000 (U.S.$620 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,230 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007 in value CFAF ’000,000,000

Area and population area

2003 Consumer price index

Regions Mayo-Kébbi Ouest Moyen-Chari Ouaddaï Salamat Sila Tandjilé Tibesti Wadi Fira (Biltine) City N’Djamena OTHER UNCOUNTED2 TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2009 census1

14,000 41,000 30,000 66,000 37,000 17,000 130,000 51,000 1,000 — 1,284,000

565,087 598,284 731,679 308,605 289,776 682,817 21,970 494,933 993,492 98,191 11,274,1063

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Population (2010): 11,594,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 23.4, persons per sq km 9.0. Urban-rural (2009): urban 21.7%; rural 78.3%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.30%; female 50.70%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 47.3%; 15–29, 26.4%; 30–44, 13.7%; 45–59, 8.0%; 60–74, 3.8%; 75–84, 0.7%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 15,019,000; (2030) 19,124,000. Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (1993): Sara 27.7%; Sudanic Arab 12.3%; MayoKébbi peoples 11.5%; Kanem-Bornu peoples 9.0%; Ouaddaï peoples 8.7%; Hadjeray (Hadjaraï) 6.7%; Tangale (Tandjilé) peoples 6.5%; Gorane peoples 6.3%; Fitri-Batha peoples 4.7%; Fulani (Peul) 2.4%; other 4.2%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim 57.0%; traditional beliefs 18.8%; Protestant 10.5%; other (significantly Roman Catholic and nonreligious) 13.7%. Major cities (2009): N’Djamena 993,492; Moundou 132,411; Sarh 99,099; Abéché (2000) 63,165; Kelo (2000) 36,643; Pala (2000) 31,281.

labour force

20.9 } 41.5 6.0 1.1 0.3 1.7 12.5 … 8.6 5.1 2.37 100.0

% of labour force

1,904,248

83.1

33,670 10,885 2,026 13,252 211,812 1,071 61,875 45,453 9,271 2,291,5778

1.4 0.5 0.1 0.6 9.2 — 2.7 2.0 0.4 100.0

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 3.4%, in permanent crops 0.02%, in pasture 35.7%, forest area 9.3%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF ’000,000,000 % of total

Demography

700.7 1,390.9 200.3 37.6 10.3 55.3 417.9 … 288.9 172.5 78.47 3,352.8

1993 % of total value

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–104.0 13.0%

+657.3 39.5%

+1,157.7 53.6%

+1,077.2 43.3%

+1,017.3 40.6%

+1,020.1 36.2%

Imports (2008): CFAF 898,000,000,000 (petroleum sector 34.1%, nonpetroleum private sector 32.2%, public sector 20.4%). Major import sources (2007): France 20.4%; Cameroon 16.1%; U.S. 10.9%; China 10.0%; Germany 7.5%. Exports (2008): CFAF 1,918,100,000,000 (crude petroleum 88.5%, live cattle 6.4%, cotton 1.6%). Major export destinations (2007): U.S. 89.5%; Japan 3.7%; China 3.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2006): total length 24,855 mi, 40,000 km (paved 2%). Vehicles (2006): passenger cars 18,867; trucks and buses 28,152. Air transport: 9. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

55

5.9

2009 2009

2,68610 13

24010 1.2

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

19 — 188 —

2.0 — 17 —

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2007): 42.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2007): 16.7 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 5.56. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 46.2 years; female 48.3 years. Adult population (age 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 3.5%4 (world avg. 0.8%). Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): lower respiratory infections c. 226; HIV/AIDS-related c. 204; malaria c. 181; diarrheal diseases c. 124.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: CFAF 764,900,000,000 (petroleum revenue 73.6%, of which taxes on profits 55.7%, royalties and dividends 17.3%; nonpetroleum tax revenue 24.7%; other 1.7%). Expenditures: CFAF 709,300,000,000 (current expenditure 65.4%; development expenditure 34.6%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sorghum 685,430, millet 523,162, yams 405,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 403,210, corn (maize) 225,993, cow’s milk 188,055, rice 169,764, cassava 161,187, cattle meat 88,692, cotton lint 41,400, sesame seed 38,779, gum arabic (2007) 26,900, goat meat 23,640; livestock (number of live animals) 7,075,000 cattle, 6,288,000 goats, 2,886,000 sheep, 1,358,000 camels; roundwood (2009) 7,591,300 cu m, of which fuelwood 90%; fisheries production 40,000 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2009): aggregate (gravel) 350,000; natron 12,000. Manufacturing (2004–05): cotton fibre 88,158; refined sugar 51,823; woven cotton fabrics (2000) 1,000,000 metres; carbonated beverages 104,205 hectolitres; beer 76,485 hectolitres; edible oil (2003–04) 74,514 hectolitres; cigarettes 41,873,000 packs. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 105,000,000 (105,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 43,600,000 ([2007] 406,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (65,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 5.0; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2005)5: food and nonalcoholic beverages 46.2%, housing and energy 13.3%, clothing and footwear 10.9%, transportation 6.4%, hotels and cafés 4.6%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2005) 14; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 736; official development assistance (2008) 416. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2002) 80; remittances, n.a.

Education and health Educational attainment (2003)11. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 74.5%; primary education 17.4%; secondary education 6.8%; higher education 1.3%. Literacy (2007): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 53.7%; males 61.5%; females 46.3%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

students

23,938 1,495,961 9,55513 314,47013 1,30614 18,990

student/ teacher ratio 62.5 32.913 9.514

enrollment rate (%) 6112 1012 2 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2004) 345 (1 per 26,370 persons); hospital beds (2005) 3,760 (1 per 2,500 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 102.1; undernourished population (2004–06) 3,900,000 (38% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,740 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 25,350 (army 78.9%, air force 1.4%, other 19.7%)15. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.8%; per capita expenditure U.S.$14. 1Preliminary. 2Includes an estimated 94,011 people in Sila and 4,180 people in Tibesti. 3Includes 387,815 nomads and 291,233 refugees mostly from Sudan. 4Statistically derived midpoint of range. 5Weights of consumer price index components; N’Djamena only. 6ILO estimates. 7Taxes less subsidies. 8Official census total; summed total equals 2,293,563. 9Data unavailable for Toumaï Air Tchad, the national flag carrier. 10Subscribers. 11Based on the 2003 Chad Demographic and Health Survey, comprising 27,879 people in 5,369 households, about 80% of which were in rural areas. 122002–03. 132006–07. 142004–05. 151,900 UN peacekeeping troops (in July 2010) to be withdrawn

by the end of 2010.

Internet resources for further information: • National Institute of Statistics and Economic and Demographic Studies http://www.inseed-tchad.org • La Banque de France: La Zone Franc http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm

Nations of the World

Chile

547

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$160,569,000,000 (U.S.$9,460 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$13,430 per capita).

Official name: República de Chile (Republic of Chile). Form of government: multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [38]; Chamber of Deputies [120]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Santiago1. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: peso (Ch$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Ch$496.75; 1 £ = Ch$767.38.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value U.S.$’000,000 Agriculture, fishing Mining } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

Area and population area Regions sq km Aisén del General Carios Ibáñez del Campo 108,494 Antofagasta 126,049 Araucanía 31,842 16,873 Arica y Parinacota3 Atacama 75,176 Bío-Bío 37,069 Coquimbo 40,580 Libertador General Bernardo O’Higgins 16,387

population 2009 estimate2

103,700 568,400 962,100 186,100 278,500 2,023,000 708,400 874,800

area

population

Regions

sq km

2009 estimate2

Los Lagos Los Rios3 Magallanes y Antártica Chilena Maule Región Metropolitana Tarapacá Valparaíso

48,584 18,430

825,800 378,200

132,2914 30,296

158,1005 999,700

15,403 42,226 16,396 756,0964

6,814,600 307,400 1,739,900 16,928,9006

TOTAL

% of total value

6,769

4.0

38,530

22.7

23,342 10,846 12,956 14,751

13.8 6.4 7.6 8.7

53,199

31.4

9,18013 169,573

5.413 100.0

labour force

}

% of labour force

789,700 99,600 38,200 865,400 583,600 561,500 1,330,700 626,500

10.8 1.4 0.5 11.9 8.0 7.7 18.3 8.6

1,845,300

25.3

544,60014 7,285,100

7.514 100.0

Household income and expenditure (2008). Average household size 3.4; average annual income per household Ch$6,968,400 (U.S.$13,338); sources of income: salaries and wages 54.6%, rent, transfers, other 38.3%, self-employment 7.1%; expenditure: n.a. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,757; remittances (2009) 2; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 12,221; official development assistance (2008) 73. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,366; remittances (2008) 6; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 4,214.

Foreign trade15 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 16,746,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 57.4, persons per sq km 22.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 86.9%; rural 13.1%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.52%; female 50.48%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 23.6%; 15–29, 24.9%; 30–44, 21.2%; 45–59, 17.5%; 60–74, 9.5%; 75–84, 2.7%; 85 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (2020) 18,058,000; (2030) 18,984,000. Ethnic composition (2002): mestizo c. 72%; white c. 22%; Amerindian c. 5%, of which Araucanian (Mapuche) c. 4%; other c. 1%. Religious affiliation (2002)7: Roman Catholic 70.0%; Protestant/independent Christian 15.1%; atheist/nonreligious 8.3%; other 6.6%. Major cities/urban agglomerations (2002): Santiago 200,7928/5,428,5909; Valparaíso–Viña del Mar (263,499; 286,931)/803,683; Concepción 212,003/ 666,381; La Serena–Coquimbo (147,815; 148,434)/296,253; Antofagasta 285,255/285,255.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 14.6 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.8 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.92. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2006): 3.5/0.2. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 74.1 years; female 80.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 149.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 128.7; accidents and violence 48.6; diseases of the respiratory system 47.6.

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+7,727 13.5%

+8,532 11.5%

+20,274 20.9%

+20,502 17.9%

+10,912 8.6%

+12,055 13.1%

Imports (2008): U.S.$58,173,000,000 (petroleum 29.4%; machinery and apparatus 20.4%; chemicals and chemical products 11.2%; road vehicles 9.0%; food 6.5%). Major import sources: U.S. 19.9%; China 12.0%; Brazil 9.1%; Argentina 8.6%; South Korea 5.8%. Exports (2008): U.S.$69,085,000,000 (refined copper 30.3%; copper ore 18.6%; food products 14.0%, of which fruits 4.0%, fish 3.9%; other base metal ores 4.5%; pulp and waste paper 3.8%). Major export destinations: China 14.3%; U.S. 11.3%; Japan 10.5%; Netherlands 6.1%; Brazil 6.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 3,406 mi, 5,481 km; passenger-km 759,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 4,293,000,000. Roads (2003): total length 50,023 mi, 80,505 km (paved 22%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 1,840,024; trucks and buses 863,468. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 17,292,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,307,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2004

4,305

268

2009 2009

16,45017 3,575

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

96917 211

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2,277 58116 5,767 1,66517

141 3516 340 9817

Education and health

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: Ch$22,353,000,000,000 (tax revenue 78.5%, nontax revenue 18.5%, other 3.0%). Expenditures: Ch$18,399,000,000,000 (social protection 29.1%, education 18.8%, health 16.1%, transportation 9.4%, defense 4.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$8,818,000,000. Population economically active (2008): total 7,285,100; activity rate of total population 43.3% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 62.6%; female 37.6%; unemployed [2009] 9.8%).

Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling/other 5.4%; incomplete primary education 24.6%; complete primary 8.7%; secondary 43.9%; higher technical 4.9%; university 12.5%. Literacy (2006): total population age 15 and over literate 96.4%. Education (2006–07) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

66,862 67,970 54,649

1,679,017 1,611,631 753,398

25.1 23.7 13.8

94 85 52 (age 18–22)

Price and earnings indexes10 (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

96.0 92.6

97.0 95.3

100.0 100.0

103.4 105.4

107.9 113.1

117.4 122.7

119.1 …

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): grapes 2,350,000, cow’s milk 2,350,00011, apples 1,370,000, corn (maize) 1,345,70011, tomatoes 1,270,000, wheat 1,145,30011, potatoes 924,60011, chicken meat 513,36611, plums/sloes 300,000, avocados 250,000, kiwi fruit 170,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,950,000 sheep, 3,800,000 cattle, 2,725,00011 pigs; roundwood 54,833,00011 cu m, of which fuelwood 27%; fisheries production 4,397,956 (from aquaculture 19%); aquatic plants production 412,266 (from aquaculture 7%). Mining (2008): iron ore 5,670,00012; copper 5,330,00012; lithium carbonate 52,520; molybdenum 33,69012; iodine 15,500; silver 1,405,000 kg; gold 39,160 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): nonferrous base metals 26,784; refined petroleum 6,245; base chemicals 5,337; food products 5,309; paper and paper products 2,027; beverages 1,857. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 58,308,000,000 ([2007] 60,137,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2009) 624,000 ([2007] 5,721,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 901,000 ([2007] 78,310,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 10,452,000 (15,195,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 1,582,000,000 ([2007] 4,191,000,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 1.0%, left fallow 0.6%, in permanent crops 0.6%, in pasture 19.0%, forest area 21.8%.

Health (2008): physicians 22,247 (1 per 740 persons); hospital beds (2007) 37,797 (1 per 431 persons); infant mortality rate 7.711; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,880 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 60,560 (army 57.8%, navy 29.4%, air force 12.8%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 3.3%18; per capita expenditure U.S.$31518. 1Legislative 3Created in

bodies meet in Valparaíso. 2Official projection based on 2002 census. March 2007. 4Excludes the 480,000 sq mi (1,250,000 sq km) section of Antarctica claimed by Chile and “inland” (actually tidal) water areas. 5Includes 130 people (in 2005) in Chilean-claimed Antarctica. 6Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7For population age 15 years and older. 81 of 32 communes constituting Santiago province (4,656,690). 9Extends beyond Santiago province within the Región Metropolitana. 10Capital city only. 112009. 12Metal content. 13Import duties and VAT less imputed bank service charges. 14Unemployed. 15Exports f.o.b.; imports c.i.f. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 18Includes military pensions and funding for the paramilitary and the Copper Stabilisation Fund.

Internet resources for further information: • Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas http://www.ine.cl • Banco Central de Chile http://www.bcentral.cl/eng

548

Britannica World Data

China

Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 8.3/1.7. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 72.4 years; female 76.6 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 0.1%11 (world avg. 0.8%). Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 136.5; cerebrovascular diseases 100.3; heart diseases 80.1; diseases of the respiratory system 78.1; accidents and poisoning 40.1; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 173; diseases of the digestive system 123.

Official name: Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo (People’s Republic of China). Form of government: single-party people’s republic with one legislative house (National People’s Congress [3,0001]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Premier. Capital: Beijing (Peking). Official language: Mandarin Chinese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: renminbi (yuan) (Y); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Y 6.81; 1 £ = Y 10.52.

Social indicators Educational attainment (2008)7. Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no formal schooling 7.5%; incomplete/complete primary education 31.2%; some secondary 40.9%; complete secondary 13.7%; some postsecondary through advanced degree 6.7%. Distribution of income (2005) percentage of household income by decile

Area and population2 Provinces5 Anhui (Anhwei) Fujian (Fukien) Gansu (Kansu) Guangdong (Kwangtung) Guizhou (Kweichow) Hainan Hebei (Hopeh) Heilongjiang (Heilungkiang) Henan (Honan) Hubei (Hupeh) Hunan Jiangsu (Kiangsu) Jiangxi (Kiangsi) Jilin (Kirin) Liaoning (Liaoning) Qinghai (Tsinghai) Shaanxi (Shensi) Shandong (Shantung) Shanxi (Shansi) Sichuan (Szechwan) Yunnan Zhejiang (Chekiang)

area3

population

Capitals5 Hefei Fuzhou Lanzhou Guangzhou (Canton) Guiyang Haikou Shijiazhuang

sq mi

sq km

20094 estimate

54,000 47,500 141,500 76,100 67,200 13,200 78,200

139,900 123,100 366,500 197,100 174,000 34,300 202,700

61,350,000 36,040,000 26,280,000 95,440,000 37,930,000 8,540,000 69,890,000

Harbin Zhengzhou Wuhan Changsha Nanjing (Nanking) Nanchang Changchun Shenyang Xining Xi’an (Sian) Jinan Taiyuan Chengdu Kunming Hangzhou

179,000 64,500 72,400 81,300 39,600 63,600 72,200 58,300 278,400 75,600 59,200 60,700 188,000 168,400 39,300

463,600 167,000 187,500 210,500 102,600 164,800 187,000 151,000 721,000 195,800 153,300 157,100 487,000 436,200 101,800

38,250,000 94,290,000 57,110,000 63,800,000 76,770,000 44,000,000 27,340,000 43,150,000 5,540,000 37,620,000 94,170,000 34,110,000 81,380,000 45,430,000 51,200,000

Autonomous regions 5 Guangxi Zhuang (Kwangsi Chuang) Inner Mongolia (Nei Mongol) Ningxia Hui (Ningsia Hui) Tibet (Xizang) Xinjiang Uygur (Sinkiang Uighur)

Nanning

85,100

220,400

48,160,000

Hohhot

454,600

1,177,500

24,140,000

Yinchuan Lhasa Ürümqi (Urumchi)

25,600 471,700

66,400 1,221,600

6,180,000 2,870,000

635,900

1,646,900

21,310,000

Municipalities 5 Beijing (Peking) Chongqing (Chungking) Shanghai Tianjin (Tientsin)

— — — —

TOTAL

1 (lowest)

2

3–4

5–6

7–8

9

10 (highest)

2.4

3.3

9.8

14.7

22.0

16.4

31.4

Quality of working life. Average workweek (November 2007; hours actually worked): 45.5 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers for (2008): death in mining, industrial, or commercial enterprises 2.82. Death toll from work accidents (2008) 91,172. Access to services. Percentage of population having access to electricity (2005) 99.4%. Percentage of urban/rural population with improved water supply (2003) 99.2%/80.2%, of which tap water 95.8%/34.0%, deep wells with hand pump 2.3%/34.0%. Sewage system (1999): total (urban, rural) households with flush apparatus 20.7% (50.0%, 4.3%), with pit latrines 69.3% (33.6%, 86.7%), with no latrine 5.3% (7.8%, 4.1%). Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election: not applicable; members are indirectly elected. Trade union membership in total labour force (2006): 169,942,200 (c. 22%). Percentage of population who consider themselves religious (2005–06) 31.4%. Social deviance. Annual reported arrest rate per 100,000 population (2008) for: theft 256.6; robbery 20.9; fraud 20.7; injury 12.1; rape 2.3; homicide 1.1; abducting women/children 0.2%. Material well-being. Number of durable goods owned per 100 households (urban/rural; 20094): automobiles (8.8/n.a.); washing machines 94.6/49.1; refrigerators 93.6/30.2; colour televisions 132.9/99.2; computers 59.3/5.4; air conditioners 100.3/9.8; cameras 39.1/4.4; dishwashers 0.8/n.a.; microwave ovens 54.6/n.a.

National economy Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$4,830,313,000,000 (U.S.$3,620 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$6,710 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

6,500 31,700 2,400 4,400 3,696,100

16,800 16,950,000 82,000 28,390,000 6,200 18,880,000 11,300 11,760,000 9,572,900 1,328,020,0006

Demography Population (2010): 1,338,085,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 362.0, persons per sq km 139.8. Urban-rural (20104): urban 46.6%; rural 53.4%. Sex distribution (20104): male 51.43%; female 48.57%. Age breakdown (2008)7: under 15, 17.3%; 15–29, 21.2%; 30–44, 25.9%; 45–59, 21.6%; 60–74, 10.6%; 75–84, 2.9%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2020) 1,392,817,000; (2030) 1,399,811,000. Ethnic composition (2005)8: Han (Chinese) 90.95%; Zhuang 1.37%; Manchu 0.82%; Yi 0.79%; Hui 0.77%; Miao 0.75%; Uighur 0.74%; Tujia 0.65%; Tibetan 0.57%; Mongolian 0.49%; Dong 0.28%; Buyei 0.26%; Yao 0.24%; Korean 0.14%; Bai 0.14%; Hani 0.12%; Li 0.11%; Kazakh 0.09%; Tai 0.08%; other 0.64%. Religious affiliation (2005): nonreligious 39.2%; Chinese folk-religionist 28.7%; Christian 10.0%, of which unregistered Protestant 7.7%9, registered Protestant 1.2%9, unregistered Roman Catholic 0.5%9, registered Roman Catholic 0.4%9; Buddhist 8.4%; atheist 7.8%; traditional beliefs 4.4%; Muslim 1.5%. Major urban agglomerations (2009)10: Shanghai 16,344,000; Beijing 12,214,000; Chongqing 9,348,000; Shenzhen 8,847,000; Guangzhou 8,735,000; Tianjin 7,759,000; Wuhan 7,582,000; Dongguan 5,219,000; Shenyang 5,074,000; Foshan 4,876,000; Chengdu 4,869,000; Xi’an 4,704,000; Nanjing 4,404,000; Harbin 4,224,000; Hangzhou 3,813,000; Changchun 3,504,000; Shantou 3,475,000; Qingdao 3,268,000; Dalian 3,252,000; Jinan 3,186,000; Taiyuan 3,084,000; Kunming 3,062,000; Zhengzhou 2,914,000; Fuzhou 2,698,000; Nanchang 2,648,000; Wuxi 2,631,000; Wenzhou 2,558,000; Shijiazhuang 2,426,000. Households7. Average family household size 3.2, of which urban family households 3.08, rural family households 3.38; 1 person 8.9%, 2 persons 24.6%, 3 persons 30.3%, 4 persons 21.0%, 5 persons 10.0%, 6 persons 3.7%, 7 persons 1.0%, 8 persons 0.3%, 9 or more persons 0.2%. Mobility (2008)7. Population residing in registered enumeration area 90.6%; population not residing in registered enumeration area 9.4%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.1 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.53.

in value Y ’000,000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance/real estate Information services Pub. admin. Services } Other TOTAL

2,863 1,346 8,747 961 1,426 1,481 2,441 2,938 600

20094 % of total value 11.1 5.2 34.0 3.7 5.6 5.8 9.5 11.4 2.3

2,928

11.4

25,731

100.0

labour force (’000)

% of labour force

}

306,540

38.7

}

211,090

26.6

}

257,170

32.5

17,63012 792,430

2.212 100.0

Budget (2008)13. Revenue: Y 6,133,035,000,000 (tax revenue 88.4%, of which VAT 29.3%, corporate income taxes 18.2%, business tax 12.4%, individual income tax 6.1%; nontax revenue 11.6%). Expenditures: Y 6,259,266,000,000 (general administration 15.7%; education 14.4%; social security 10.9%; manufacturing/trade/finance 9.9%; agriculture/forestry/water conservancy 7.3%; defense 6.7%; public security 6.5%; health 4.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$89,283,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2007): grains—rice 185,490,000, corn (maize) 151,830,000, wheat 109,860,000, barley 3,851,000; oilseeds—soybeans 15,600,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 13,016,000, rapeseed 10,375,000, sunflower seeds 1,800,000; fruits and nuts— watermelons 63,000,000, apples 27,500,000, citrus 19,617,100, cantaloupes 13,650,000, pears 12,500,000, bananas 7,100,000; other—sugarcane 105,651,000, sweet potatoes 102,000,000, potatoes 72,000,000, cabbage 36,000,000, tomatoes 33,500,000, cucumbers 28,000,000, seed cotton 22,872,000, onions 20,500,000, eggplants 18,000,000, chilies and peppers 14,000,000, garlic 12,000,000, spinach 12,000,000, asparagus 6,250,000, tobacco leaves 2,395,000, tea 1,186,500, mulberry silkworm cocoons (2008) 831,000; livestock (number of live animals) 501,475,621 pigs, 197,267,883 goats, 171,961,000 sheep, 116,859,793 cattle, 22,717,000 water buffalo, 4,509,633,000 chickens, 736,912,000 ducks; roundwood (2009) 291,850,300 cu m, of which fuelwood 67%; fisheries production (2008) 47,527,107 (from aquaculture 69%); aquatic plants production (2008) 10,299,885 (from aquaculture 96%). Mining and quarrying (2008; by world rank): metal content of mine output—iron ore 270,000,000 (1), zinc 3,200,000 (1), manganese (2007) 2,000,000 (3), lead 1,500,000 (1), copper 960,000 (4), antimony 180,000 (1), tin 129,000 (1), tungsten 43,500 (1), silver 2,800 (3), gold 285 (1); metal ores—bauxite 35,000,000 (2), vanadium 20,000 (1); nonmetals—salt 59,520,000 (1), phosphate rock 15,200,000 (1), magnesite 10,000,000 (1), barite 4,600,000 (1),

Nations of the World fluorspar 3,250,000 (1), talc 2,200,000 (1), asbestos 280,000 (2), celestite 200,000 (1). Distribution of industrial production (percentage of total value added by source of funding; 2007) from: domestic sources 68.5%, of which private enterprises 23.2%, limited liability corporations 22.3%, shareholding corporations 9.9%, state-owned enterprises 9.0%, collectives 2.5%; foreign sources 21.0%; Hong Kong–, Macau-, or Taiwan-based enterprises 10.5%. Retail trade (percentage of total sales by sector; 2007): domestically funded enterprises 88.0%, of which limited liability corporations 29.6%, private enterprises 26.6%, shareholding corporations 20.1%, state-owned enterprises 6.9%, collectives 2.2%; foreign-funded enterprises 8.1%; Hong Kong–, Macau-, or Taiwan-based enterprises 3.9%. Manufacturing and mining enterprises (2007) no. of employees

value added (Y ’000,000)

7,161

3,044,300

900,714

11,220

5,879,200

792,457

22,981 14,091 19,322 26,757 27,914

3,802,800 4,085,900 4,491,500 4,207,100 6,262,600

734,042 697,448 605,378 510,754 491,392

24,278 18,140 6,701

4,484,100 2,648,000 1,562,700

484,919 464,245 447,761

2,149 13,409 18,008 150 5,748 14,770 15,376 4,422 6,644 8,376 7,452

806,400 2,565,100 2,734,800 186,100 1,373,400 4,141,900 2,240,500 1,010,200 1,350,300 1,380,300 2,569,800

309,698 306,736 301,041 291,882 228,660 226,511 213,714 188,366 186,156 174,305 148,039

4,526

1,069,700

116,325

7,852

1,061,800

103,029

184 7,537 2,183 2,899 3,004

906,700 4,637,000 551,100 491,400 466,200

645,083 469,633 97,332 92,878 51,724

no. of enterprises Manufacturing Iron and steel (base) Telecommunications equipment, computers, other electronics Industrial chemicals, paints, soaps Transport equipment Electrical machinery/apparatus General purpose machinery Textiles Cement, bricks, ceramics, other related products Food processing Nonferrous metals (base) Refined petroleum, coke, nuclear fuel Special purpose machinery Fabricated metal products Tobacco products Medicines and pharmaceuticals Clothing and footwear Plastics Beverages Food manufactures Paper and paper products Leather and fur products Professional, scientific, and measuring equipment Sawn wood; products of wood, bamboo, and rattan (excl. furniture) Mining Petroleum and natural gas Coal Nonferrous metals Ferrous metals Nonmetals

Balance of trade (current prices) 2004 U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2006

2007

2008

2006

2007

2008

2009

+177,475 10.1%

+261,820 12.0%

+298,131 11.6%

+197,611 9.0%

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: route length (2008) 48,364 mi, 77,834 km; (2009) passenger-km 787,890,000,000; (2009) metric ton-km cargo 2,523,920,000,000. Roads (20074): total length 2,317,834 mi, 3,730,200 km (paved [2005] 44%); (2009) passenger-km 1,345,070,000,000; (2009) metric ton-km cargo 3,638,350,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 29,616,499; trucks and buses 12,884,000. Air transport (2009): passenger-km 337,490,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 12,630,000,000. Inland waterways (2009): passenger-km 6,910,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 5,743,990,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

493,902

381

2009 2009

747,00019 313,680

55519 206

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

75,118 109,00018 384,000 103,64119

units per 1,000 persons 57 8218 285 7719

2009

Exchange rate, Y per: U.S. dollar 8.28 8.07 7.81 7.30 6.83 6.83 £ 15.99 13.90 15.33 14.62 9.96 11.06 SDR 12.85 11.53 11.75 11.54 10.53 10.71 International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; ’000,000) 614,500 821,514 1,068,493 1,530,282 1,949,260 2,416,044 SDRs (’000,000) 1,247 1,251 1,068 1,192 1,199 12,510 Reserve pos. in IMF (’000,000) 3,320 1,391 1,081 840 2,031 4,382 Foreign exchange (’000,000) 609,932 818,872 1,066,344 1,528,249 1,946,030 2,399,152 Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) … … 19.3 19.3 19.3 33.9 % world reserves … … 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.5 Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) 3.33 3.33 3.33 3.33 2.79 2.79 Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000) Balance of visible trade, +58,982 +134,189 +217,746 +315,381 +360,682 +249,510 of which: Imports, f.o.b. –534,410 –628,295 –751,936 –904,618 –1,073,919 –954,287 Exports, f.o.b. 593,393 762,484 969,682 1,220,000 1,434,601 1,203,797 Balance of invisibles +9,677 +26,629 +35,522 +56,452 +75,425 +47,632 Balance of payments, current account +68,659 +160,818 +253,268 +371,833 +436,107 +297,142

Population economically active (2008): total 783,855,00015; activity rate of total population 58.6%15 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 79.8%15; female 44.7%15; registered unemployed in urban areas [2009] 4.3%; urban unemployed including migrants, up to 9%; rural unemployment is substantial). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index16

2005

+32,097 +102,000 2.8% 7.2%

Imports (2008): U.S.$1,132,562,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 35.5%, of which electronic integrated circuits and micro-assemblies 11.4%, computers and office machines 4.1%; mineral fuels 14.9%, of which crude petroleum 11.4%; chemicals and chemical products 10.5%, of which organic chemicals 3.4%, plastics in primary forms 3.4%; metal ore and metal scrap 8.8%, of which iron ore 5.4%; optical instruments and apparatus 4.3%). Major import sources: Japan 13.3%; South Korea 9.9%; Taiwan 9.1%; China free trade zones 8.2%; United States 7.2%; Germany 4.9%; Australia 3.3%; Malaysia 2.8%; Saudi Arabia 2.7%; Brazil 2.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,430,693,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 42.3%, of which computers/office machines/parts 12.4%, electrical machinery and electronics 10.7%, telecommunications equipment and parts 8.1%; wearing apparel and accessories 8.4%; chemicals and chemical products 5.5%; iron and steel 5.0%; textile yarn, fabrics, and made-up articles 4.6%). Major export destinations: United States 17.7%; Hong Kong 13.3%; Japan 8.1%; South Korea 5.2%; Germany 4.2%; Netherlands 3.2%; United Kingdom 2.5%; Singapore 2.3%; Russia 2.3%; India 2.2%.

Financial aggregates14 2005

transfers 6.8%, property 3.1%; urban households—wages and salaries 66.2%, transfers 23.0%, business income 8.5%, property 2.3%. Expenditure (2008): rural (urban) households—food 43.7% (37.9%), housing and energy 18.5% (10.2%), education and recreation 8.6% (12.1%), transportation and communications 9.8% (12.6%), clothing 5.8% (10.4%), health and personal effects 6.7% (7.0%), household furnishings and operation 4.8% (6.2%). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 40,843; remittances (2009) 46,989; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 88,183; official development assistance (2008) 1,489. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 36,157; remittances (2008) 5,737; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 31,926. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 15.1%, in permanent crops 1.3%, in pasture 42.9%, forest area 22.0%.

Foreign trade17

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 3,714,650,000,000 (3,697,300,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2008) 2,610,000,000 ([2007] 2,514,000,000); lignite (metric tons; 2008) 110,000,000 (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 1,383,000,000 (2,785,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 253,977,000 (273,857,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 85,170,000,000 (88,700,000,000).

2004

549

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.7 79.3

98.3 89.1

100.0 100.0

101.5 114.0

106.4 132.5

112.7 153.5

111.9 …

Household income and expenditure. Average annual per capita disposable income of household (2009): rural households Y 5,153 (U.S.$754), urban households Y 17,175 (U.S.$2,514). Sources of income (2008): rural households—income from household businesses 51.2%, wages and salaries 38.9%,

Education and health Literacy (2008)7: total population age 15 and over literate 92.2%; males literate 96.0%; females literate 88.5%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 7–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

students

6,035,510 105,950,505 6,343,783 101,448,265 1,594,702 26,691,696

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

17.6 16.0 16.7

… … 23 (age 18–22)

Health (20104): physicians20 2,160,000 (1 per 618 persons); hospital beds 3,960,000 (1 per 337 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 17.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 127,400,000 (10% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,900 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 2,285,00021 (army 70.0%, navy 11.2%, air force 14.4%, strategic missile forces 4.4%); paramilitary 660,000; reserve c. 510,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.4%22; per capita expenditure U.S.$5322. 1Statutory number; includes 36 seats allotted to Hong Kong and 12 to Macau. 2Data for Taiwan; Quemoy and Matsu (island groups of Fujian province administered by Taiwan); Hong Kong; and Macau are excluded. 3Estimated figure(s). 4January 1. 5Preferred names in all instances are based on Pinyin transliteration (except for Inner Mongolia and Tibet, which are current English-language conventional names). 6The total population includes adjustments for sampling and survey errors and all military personnel; regional populations do not include any of the aforementioned. 7Based on 2008 national sample survey (about 0.9% of the total population). 8Based on 2005 national sample survey (about 1.0% of the total population). 9Percentage is rough estimate. 10Per United Nations World Urbanization Prospects: The 2009 Revision. 11Statistically derived midpoint of range. 12Includes 8,860,000 registered unemployed; remainder mostly activities not defined. 13For combined central and local governments. 14All data are for end of period. 15ILO estimate. 16Manufacturing only. 17Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 18Circulation. 19Subscribers. 20Includes assistant doctors. 21Of which UN peacekeepers deployed abroad 1,900. 22Official defense budget at market exchange rates.

Internet resource for further information: • National Bureau of Statistics of China http://www.stats.gov.cn/english

550

Britannica World Data

Colombia

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Official name: República de Colombia (Republic of Colombia). Form of government: unitary, multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [102]; House of Representatives [166]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Bogotá. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none1. Monetary unit: peso (Col$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Col$1,826; 1 £ = Col$2,820.

in value Col$’000,000 Agriculture, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Departments Amazonas Antioquia Arauca Atlántico Bolívar Boyacá Caldas Caquetá Casanare Cauca Cesar Chocó Córdoba

population 68,519 5,831,851 238,605 2,227,713 1,924,139 1,265,198 973,226 427,634 306,510 1,285,794 929,096 467,374 1,514,575

Departments Cundinamarca Guainía Guaviare Huila La Guajira Magdalena Meta Nariño Norte de Santander Putumayo Quindío Risaralda

population 2,355,408 36,381 98,189 1,038,061 715,175 1,180,703 817,857 1,578,877 1,267,028 319,804 542,752 911,239

Departments San Andrés y Providencia Santander Sucre Tolima Valle del Cauca Vaupés Vichada

population 72,923 1,975,963 792,377 1,371,253 4,257,741 39,231 60,463

Capital District Bogotá TOTAL

7,050,133 43,941,792

Demography Area: 440,831 sq mi, 1,141,748 sq km. Population (2010): 44,205,0002. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 100.3, persons per sq km 38.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 74.8%; rural 25.2%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.41%; female 50.59%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 28.3%; 15–29, 26.3%; 30–44, 21.8%; 45–59, 15.1%; 60–74, 6.5%; 75–84, 1.7%; 85 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2020) 49,085,000; (2030) 52,965,000. Ethnic composition (2006): mestizo c. 58%; white c. 20%; mulatto c. 14%; black c. 4%; black-Amerindian c. 3%; Amerindian c. 1%. Religious affiliation (2007): Roman Catholic c. 80.0%; Protestant/independent Christian c. 13.5%; Mormon c. 0.3%; nonreligious c. 2.0%; other c. 4.2%. Major cities (2009): Bogotá 7,243,698; Medellín 2,281,085; Cali 2,183,042; Barranquilla 1,174,971; Cartagena 888,012; Cúcuta 591,530.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 18.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 5.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 13.2 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 2.20. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 68.4 years; female 76.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005)3: diseases of the circulatory system 164.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 90.4; violence and suicides 70.1; diseases of the respiratory system 56.9; accidents 31.6. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 0.6% (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: Col$103,986,000,000,000 (tax revenue 56.4%, of which taxes on goods and services 26.1%, income taxes 16.7%; nontax revenue 39.3%; other 4.3%). Expenditures: Col$110,014,000,000,000 (interest on debt 25.1%; other 74.9%). Population economically active (2008): total 19,671,400; activity rate 45.5% (participation rates: ages 12–55, 63.3%; female 42.0%; unemployed [June 2009–May 2010] 12.1%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

33,349 16,402 69,279 28,835 11,576 32,839 47,573 64,864 26,415 45,630 35,881 412,643

TOTAL

Population (2007 estimate)

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

89.9 60.6

95.2 92.2

100.0 100.0

104.3 100.6

110.1 97.1

117.8 …

122.7 …

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 38,500,000, fruit 8,200,000, cow’s milk 7,400,000, plantains 3,400,000, rice 2,800,000, bananas 1,820,000, cassava 1,800,000, corn (maize) 1,700,000, coffee 700,000, avocados 185,000;4 livestock (number of live animals) 27,000,000 cattle, 3,400,000 sheep, 2,400,000 horses; roundwood 12,158,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 87%; fisheries production 201,400 (from aquaculture 33%). Mining and quarrying (2008): nickel (metal content) 64,200; gold 13,411 kg; emeralds 2,503,000 carats. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2005): processed food 3,471; petroleum products 2,873; medicines, fertilizers, soaps 1,956; beverages 1,813; iron and steel 1,120; cement, bricks, and ceramics 1,042; plastics 858; clothing 836.5 Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 50,580,000,000 (38,593,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2008) 95,520,000 ([2007] 4,480,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 244,800,000 (101,105,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 12,884,000 (8,848,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) 5,023,000,000 ([2007] 8,244,000,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 1.8%, in permanent crops 1.4%, in pasture 35.0%, forest area 54.6%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$226,138,000,000 (U.S.$4,950 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$8,500 per capita).

% of total value 8.1 4.0 16.8 7.0 2.8 8.0 11.5 15.7 6.4 11.0 } 8.7 100.0

labour force6

% of labour force6

3,341,900 108,300 2,444,500 916,900 88,700 1,491,800 4,563,100 1,301,600

16.4 0.5 12.0 4.5 0.5 7.3 22.4 6.4

3,894,900

19.1

2,213,5007 20,365,200

10.97 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; December 2009): U.S.$29,035,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (March 2004) 3.8; sources of income (2002): wages 42.6%, self-employment 38.9%; expenditure8 (2006): food and nonalcoholic beverages 27.8%, housing and energy 13.4%, transportation 12.8%, household furnishings 5.7%, health 4.9%, hotel and café expenditures 4.5%, alcohol and tobacco 3.9%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,844; remittances (2009) 4,273; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 8,756; official development assistance (2008) 972. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,739; remittances (2008) 88; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 1,390.

Foreign trade 9 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–369.8 1.1%

–13.8 0.0%

–1,771.4 3.5%

–2,905.7 4.6%

–2,042.9 2.6%

–44.5 0.1%

Imports (2008): U.S.$39,668,800,000 (machinery and apparatus 25.9%; chemicals and chemical products 18.7%; road vehicles 9.0%; food 8.4%; iron and steel 6.3%). Major import sources: U.S. 29.2%; China 11.5%; Mexico 7.9%; Brazil 5.9%; Germany 3.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$37,625,900,000 (crude petroleum 24.7%; food 13.1%, of which coffee 5.1%; coal 12.2%; chemicals and chemical products 7.8%; refined petroleum 7.3%; iron and steel 3.3%). Major export destinations: U.S. 38.0%; Venezuela 16.2%; Ecuador 4.0%; Switzerland 2.5%; Peru 2.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length10 825 mi, 1,327 km; passenger-km (2004) 25,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2005) 8,236,000,000. Roads (2006): total length 102,077 mi, 164,278 km (paved [2000] 23%); passenger-km (2005) 157,000,00011; metric ton-km cargo (2005) 38,199,000,000. Vehicles (2007): cars 1,674,441; trucks and buses 1,213,050. Air transport (2009): passengerkm 11,724,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 145,044,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

11,358

268

2009 2009

42,16013 7,500

92313 164

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

3,513 1,20012 20,789 2,11813

units per 1,000 persons 80 2712 455 4613

Education and health Educational attainment (2005)14. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no schooling/unknown 10.2%; primary education 40.1%; secondary 34.2%; higher 15.5%. Literacy (2007): population age 15 and over literate 92.7%; males literate 92.4%; females literate 92.8%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–16) Tertiary

students

179,806 5,285,523 186,121 4,772,189 87,39715 1,372,67416

student/ teacher ratio 29.4 25.6 15.016

enrollment rate (%) 90 71 35 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2006) 51,095 (1 per 849 persons); hospital beds (2004) 50,824 (1 per 833 persons); infant mortality rate (2007) 20.1; undernourished population (2004–06) 4,300,000 (10% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,790 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 285,220 (army 83.3%, navy 12.1%, air force 4.6%); paramilitary 144,097. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 3.8%17; per capita expenditure U.S.$22417. 1The 1973 concordat with the Vatican declares that Roman Catholicism is of fundamental importance to the Colombian community. 2Includes 2.7 million to 4.4 million internally displaced persons. 3Projected rates based on about 79% of total deaths. 4Also major producer of cut flowers (particularly roses and carnations). 5In 2008 Colombia ranked first in the world in coca production; 450 metric tons of cocaine were produced. 6Third quarter; includes ages 10 and over; excludes military. 7Unemployed. 8Actually household consumption. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Operable or rehabilitated lines only. 11Buses only. 12Circulation of daily newspapers. 13Subscribers. 14Based on the 2005 Colombia Demographic and Health Survey, comprising 117,205 people. 152005–06. 162006–07. 17Includes paramilitary.

Internet resource for further information: • National Administration Department of Statistics http://www.dane.gov.co

551

Nations of the World

Comoros1

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$571,000,000 (U.S.$870 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,300 per capita).

Official names: Udzima wa Komori (Comorian); Jumhuriyat al-Qamar al-Muttahidah (Arabic); Union des Comores (French); (Union of the Comoros)2. Form of government: republic3 with one legislative house (Assembly of the Union [334]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Vice Presidents. Capital: Moroni. Official languages2: Comorian (Shikomor); Arabic; French. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Comorian franc (CF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CF 384.29; 1 £ = CF 593.65.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, insurance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population area Autonomous islands Mwali (Mohéli) Ngazidja (Grande Comore) Ndzuwani (Anjouan)

Capitals Fomboni Moroni Mutsamudu

sq mi 112 443 164 719

TOTAL

population sq km 290 1,148 424 1,862

2003 census5 35,751 296,177 243,732 575,660

Population (2010): 691,0006. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 961.1, persons per sq km 371.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 28.1%; rural 71.9%. Sex distribution (2006): male 49.61%; female 50.39%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 42.7%; 15–29, 26.6%; 30–44, 17.8%; 45–59, 8.2%; 60–74, 3.9%; 75 and over, 0.8%. Population projection: (2020) 838,000; (2030) 975,000. Doubling time: 28 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Comorian (a mixture of Bantu, Arab, Malay, and Malagasy peoples) 97.1%; Makua 1.6%; French 0.4%; other 0.9%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim (nearly all Sunni) 98.4%; other 1.6%. Major cities (2002): Moroni (2007) 46,000; Mutsamudu 21,558; Domoni 13,254; Fomboni 13,053; Tsémbéhou 10,552.

Vital statistics

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: CF 33,945,000,000 (tax revenue 49.1%, of which taxes on international trade 17.6%, taxes on goods and services 11.5%; grants 37.7%; nontax revenue 13.2%). Expenditures: CF 37,314,000,000 (current expenditures 72.5%, of which interest on debt 2.2%; development expenditures 27.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2009): U.S.$254,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): coconuts 80,000, bananas 70,000, cassava 60,000, rice (2008) 20,000, taro 9,500, yams 4,200, corn (maize; 2008) 4,000, cloves (2008) 3,500, vanilla (2008) 50, ylang-ylang essence (2007) 25; other export crops grown in small quantities include coffee, cinnamon, and tuberoses; livestock (number of live animals) 118,000 goats, 50,000 cattle, 23,000 sheep; roundwood 8,650, of which fuelwood, n.a.; fisheries production (2008) 16,000 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: sand, gravel, and crushed stone from coral mining for local construction. Manufacturing: products of small-scale industries include processed vanilla and ylang-ylang, cement, handicrafts, soaps, soft drinks, woodwork, and clothing. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kWhr; 2007) 50,000,000 (50,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (40,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2008): total 324,0007; activity rate of total population 49.0%7 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 83.5%7; female 46.3%7; unemployed [2005] 13.3%). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.8

98.0

100.0

104.5

109.3

114.6

119.8

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 5.8; average annual income per household (2004) CF 699,0008 (U.S.$1,764); sources of income (2004)8: wages/self-employment 36.9%, value ascribed to self-produced food 27.7%, value ascribed to principal dwelling 23.9%; expenditure (1999)9: food, beverages, and tobacco products 68.0%, housing and energy 15.5%, clothing and footwear 4.7%, education 4.2%.

78,610 … 7,289 10,007 4,182

43.1 … 4.0 5.5 2.3

9,918 45,442

5.4 24.9

7,776 22,765 932 –4,49111 182,430

4.3 12.5 0.5 –2.511 100.0

labour force10

}

% of labour force10

270,000

71.8

106,000

28.2

376,000

100.0

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 2005

2006

2007

2008

–30.9 73.1%

–34.3 76.7%

–40.0 77.2%

–56.0 90.1%

Imports (2008): CF 59,040,000,000 (petroleum products 16.3%, road vehicles 7.8%, rice 7.5%, meat/fish 5.0%, cement 4.3%, iron and steel 2.4%, other 56.7%). Major import sources: France c. 14%; China c. 13%; India c. 11%; U.A.E. c. 10%; Italy c. 6%. Exports (2008): CF 3,063,000,000 (ylang-ylang 26.6%, vanilla 21.3%, cloves 20.1%). Major export destinations: France c. 29%; Turkey c. 16%; Greece c. 12%; Brazil c. 10%; Algeria c. 8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2004): total length 493 mi, 793 km (paved 70%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 19,245; trucks and buses 1,79014. Air transport (2001): passengers arriving/departing Moroni 108,000. Communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 31.9 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 6.5 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 25.4 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 3.9. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 60.0 years; female 64.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): infectious and parasitic diseases 261.6, of which malaria 65.0, diarrheal diseases 52.0, measles 49.8; diseases of the circulatory system 118.9; accidents and injuries 68.1; perinatal conditions 59.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 46.9.

% of total value

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 27; remittances (2009) 12; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 612; official development assistance (2008) 37. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 11; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow c. 43%, in permanent crops c. 30%, in pasture c. 8%, forest area c. 2%.13

CF ’000,000,000 % of total

Demography

Consumer price index

2004

in value CF ’000,000

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2002

13

23

2009 2009

10016 25

14816 38

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2005 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

5.0

6.3

15

15

24 —

36 —

Education and health Educational attainment (1996)17. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 72.7%18; primary education 11.0%18; secondary 15.1%; unknown 1.2%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 73.6%; males literate 79.3%; females literate 67.8%. Education (2004–05) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary20

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

3,050 3,138 130

106,700 43,349 1,779

35.0 13.8 13.7

5519 … 2 (age 19–23)

Health (2004): physicians 48 (1 per 12,417 persons); hospital beds (1995) 1,45012 (1 per 34212 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2006) 72.9; undernourished population (2004–06) 440,00021 (51% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,760 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (2008): the 1,100-member national army is not necessarily accepted by each of the islands; each island also has its own armed security. France provides training for military personnel. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2005): c. 3.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$21. 1Excludes

Mayotte, an overseas possession of France, unless otherwise indicated. 23 languages are official per 2001 constitution. 3A constitutional referendum effective from May 23, 2009, returned greater powers to the central government. 4Includes 15 indirectly elected seats. 5Preliminary. 6Excludes Comorians living abroad in France or Mayotte (about 150,000 people). 7ILO Employment Trends Unit estimate. 8Includes both monetary and nonmonetary income. 9Weights of consumer price index components. 10FAO estimate. 11Less imputed bank service charge. 12Estimated figure. 13In addition other equals c. 17%. 14Excludes buses. 15Circulation data unavailable for the one daily newspaper. 16Subscribers. 17Based on sample survey of 4,881 persons on all three islands. 18Basic education may also be received through Qur)anic schools. 191999–2000. 202003–04. 21Includes Mayotte.

Internet resource for further information: • African Development Bank Group: Statistics http://www.afdb.org/en/knowledge/statistics•

552

Britannica World Data

Congo, Democratic Republic of the

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Official name: République Democratique du Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative bodies (Senate [108]; National Assembly [500]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Kinshasa. Official language: French1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Congo franc (FC); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = FC 890.00; 1 £ = FC 1,375.2 Area and population Provinces3 Bandundu Bas-Congo Equateur Kasai-Occidental Kasai-Oriental Katanga Maniema Nord-Kivu Orientale Sud-Kivu City Kinshasa TOTAL

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Pub. admin., defense Finance and services Other

2,574,000 951,000 353,000 352,000 133,000 289,000 1,146,000 330,000 273,000 125,0007 6,526,000

TOTAL

% of total value

labour force

39.4 14.6 5.4 5.4 2.0 4.4 17.6 5.1 4.2 1.97 100.0

15,099,000

60.4

9,913,000

39.6

25,012,000

100.0

}

% of labour force

Household income and expenditure: n.a. Population economically active (2008)8: total 24,046,000; activity rate 37.4% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 71.9%; female 40.6%; unemployed, n.a.). Price index (2005 = 100) area

population

sq mi

sq km

1998 estimate

Bandundu Matadi Mbandaka Kananga Mbuji-Mayi Lubumbashi Kindu Goma Kisangani Bukavu

114,154 20,819 155,712 59,746 65,754 191,845 51,062 22,967 194,302 25,147

295,658 53,920 403,292 154,742 170,302 496,877 132,250 59,483 503,239 65,130

5,201,000 2,835,000 4,820,000 3,337,000 3,830,000 4,125,000 1,246,787 3,564,434 5,566,000 2,837,779

—

3,847 905,3554

9,965 2,344,8584

4,787,000 42,150,000

Capitals

2006

in value FC ’000,000

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

70.2

79.3

82.4

100.0

113.1

132.2

155.1

Consumer price index

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2005) 1.0; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 5379; official development assistance (2008) 1,610. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (1997) 7.0; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 3.0%, in permanent crops 0.4%, in pasture 6.6%, forest area 58.7%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 67,827,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 74.9, persons per sq km 28.9. Urban-rural (2009): urban 34.6%; rural 65.4%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.71%; female 50.29%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 47.2%; 15–29, 27.1%; 30–44, 14.2%; 45–59, 7.4%; 60–74, 3.4%; 75–84, 0.6%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 87,640,000; (2030) 108,594,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1983): Luba 18.0%; Kongo 16.1%; Mongo 13.5%; Rwanda 10.3%; Azande 6.1%; Bangi and Ngale 5.8%; Rundi 3.8%; Teke 2.7%; Boa 2.3%; Chokwe 1.8%; Lugbara 1.6%; Banda 1.4%; other 16.6%. Religious affiliation (2004): Roman Catholic c. 50%; Protestant c. 20%; Kimbanguist (indigenous Christian) c. 10%; Muslim c. 10%; traditional beliefs and syncretic sects c. 10%. Major urban areas (2009): Kinshasa 8,754,000; Lubumbashi 1,543,000; MbujiMayi 1,488,000; Kananga 878,000; Kisangani 812,000; Bukavu (2004) 471,789.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 42.6 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.6 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 31.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 6.20. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 52.6 years; female 56.2 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 1.2–1.5% (world avg. 0.8%). Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): diarrheal diseases c. 219; HIV/AIDS-related c. 217; lower respiratory infections c. 211; malaria c. 191; war and violence c. 107.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: FC 1,326,800,000,000 (customs and excise taxes 25.8%, taxes on goods and services 21.3%, income and profit taxes 19.1%, grants 9.2%, other revenue 24.6%). Expenditures: FC 1,478,700,000,000 (wages and salaries 30.6%, goods and services 18.8%, transfers and subsidies 15.3%, interest payments 13.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$10,872,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava 15,013,500, sugarcane 1,550,000, plantains 1,206,700, corn (maize) 1,156,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 370,000, rice 316,530, bananas 315,470, papayas 223,770, mangoes 208,440, pineapples 198,400, dried beans 113,240, game meat 89,055, avocados 65,220, melonseed 50,000, coffee 14,637; livestock (number of live animals) 4,046,100 goats, 965,130 pigs; roundwood (2009) 78,767,300 cu m, of which fuelwood 94%; fisheries production 238,970 (from aquaculture 1%). Mining and quarrying (2009): copper 309,1815; cobalt 56,2585; tin (2008) 11,8005; silver (2008) 34,083 kg; gold (2008) 3,300 kg; diamonds (2008) 20,947,000 carats6. Manufacturing (2008): cement 443,550; flour 199,000; steel 113,000; sugar 96,000; paints 41,000; printed fabrics (2007) 5,616,000 sq m; cigarettes 3,536,000,000 cartons; shoes 21,814,000 pairs; beer 3,040,000 hectolitres; soft drinks 1,400,000 hectolitres. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 7,665,000,000 ([2007] 7,366,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 128,000 (183,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 9,382,000 ([2007] negligible); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (432,000); natural gas, none (none). Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$10,720,000,000 (U.S.$160 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$300 per capita).

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+117 4.6%

+60 1.7%

–402 8.8%

+39 6.7%

+886 7.8%

–125 0.9%

Imports (2007): U.S.$5,257,000,000 (aid-related imports 14.1%, other imports 85.9%). Major import sources (2008): South Africa 28.4%; Belgium 9.9%; Zambia 7.1%; Zimbabwe 6.0%; China 5.9%. Exports (2007): U.S.$6,143,000,000 (cobalt 37.8%, copper 32.4%, diamonds 13.9%, crude petroleum 10.3%, coffee 0.8%). Major export destinations (2008): China 47.3%; Belgium 15.4%; Finland 9.6%; U.S. 8.1%; Zambia 4.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): length 2,490 mi, 4,007 km10; passenger-km (2006) 167,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2003) 506,010,000. Roads (2004): total length 95,378 mi, 153,497 km (paved c. 2%). Vehicles (1999): passenger cars 172,600; trucks and buses 34,600. Air transport (1999): passenger-km 263,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 39,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

146

2.7

2009 2009

10,16312 40

15412 0.6

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

… 5011 365 1.512

… 0.811 5.5 0.0212

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2008): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 66.6%; males literate 77.5%; females literate 56.1%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

255,594 188,808 20,112

9,973,365 3,129,488 306,400

39.0 16.6 15.2

… … 5 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2004) 5,827 (1 per 9,585 persons); hospital beds, n.a.; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2005) 116.5; undernourished population (2004–06) 43,900,000 (75% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,750 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): c. 145,000 (army c. 79.2%, central staff c. 9.6%, republican guard c. 4.8%, air force c. 1.8%, navy c. 4.6%); UN peacekeepers (July 2010): 17,750 troops, 1,200 police. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$3.

1National

languages are Kongo, Lingala, Swahili, and Tshiluba. 2Most transactions are conducted outside of the banking system and often with U.S. dollars. 3To be formally reorganized into 25 provinces and 1 city (Kinshasa) in late 2010 at earliest. 4Total area per more recent survey is 905,568 sq mi (2,345,410 sq km); the land part totals 875,525 sq mi (2,267,600 sq km). 5Mine output, metal content. 6Mostly artisanally mined; 20% of diamonds are of gem quality. 7Import duties. 8ILO estimates. 9Estimated figure. 10Generally serves mining centres; mostly in poor condition. 11Circulation. 12Subscribers.

Internet resource for further information: • Central Bank of the Democratic Republic of the Congo http://www.bcc.cd

Nations of the World

Congo, Republic of the

which fuelwood 35%; fisheries production 54,169 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): diamonds 110,000 carats6; gold 100 kg. Manufacturing (2004): residual fuel oil 437,0007; gas–diesel oils 141,0007; motor gasoline 63,0007; kerosene 55,0007; refined sugar 31,000; cigarettes 750,000,000 units; beer 674,000 hectolitres; soft drinks 436,000 hectolitres. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 407,000,000 (856,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 100,200,000 ([2007] 5,610,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 717,000 (389,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 21,100,000 (21,100,000). Population economically active (2008)8: total 1,554,000; activity rate of total population 43.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 72.9%; female 43.4%; unemployed, n.a.).

Official name: République du Congo (Republic of the Congo). Form of government: republic with two legislative houses (Senate [721]; National Assembly [137]). Head of state and government: President.2 Capital: Brazzaville. Official language: French3. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.7

97.0

100.0

106.5

109.4

117.4

123.3

Consumer price index

Area and population

area

Regions Bouenza Cuvette Cuvette-Ouest Kouilou Lékoumou Likouala Niari Plateaux Pool Sangha

Capitals Madingou Owando Ewo Pointe-Noire Sibiti Impfondo Dolisie Djambala Kinkala Ouesso

Communes Brazzaville Dolisie Mossendjo Nkayi Ouesso Pointe-Noire

— — — — — —

TOTAL

553

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 54; remittances (2009) 15; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 2,119; official development assistance (2008) 505. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 168; remittances (2008) 102. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 1.4%, in permanent crops 0.1%, in pasture 29.3%, forest area 65.7%.

population

sq mi 4,733 18,861 10,039 5,270 8,089 25,500 10,007 14,826 13,110 21,542

sq km 12,258 48,850 26,000 13,650 20,950 66,044 25,918 38,400 33,955 55,795

2007 census4 237,496 156,136 73,011 92,006 96,424 154,154 134,256 174,617 236,616 57,632

39 7 2 3 2 17 132,047

100 18 5 8 5 44 342,000

1,375,237 83,802 13,239 71,623 28,202 711,128 3,695,579

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF ’000,000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+1,074 52.7%

+1,074 48.2%

+1,817 57.0%

+2,125 50.2%

+1,487 38.0%

+2,289 47.7%

Imports (2007): CFAF 1,214,000,000,000 (nonpetroleum sector 62.5%, petroleum sector 37.5%). Major import sources (2008): France 22.2%; China 18.7%; India 6.0%; U.S. 5.6%; Italy 5.2%. Exports (2007): CFAF 2,701,000,000,000 (crude petroleum 90.1%, wood and wood products 4.6%, petroleum products 2.5%). Major export destinations (2008): U.S. 42.1%; China 30.1%; France 5.6%.

Demography Population (2010): 3,932,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 29.8, persons per sq km 11.5. Urban-rural (2007): urban 61.0%; rural 39.0%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.72%; female 50.28%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 46.1%; 15–29, 27.4%; 30–44, 14.8%; 45–59, 7.4%; 60–74, 3.4%; 75–84, 0.8%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 4,915,000; (2030) 5,731,000. Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Kongo 21.2%; Yombe 11.5%; Teke 10.7%; Kougni 8.0%; Mboshi 5.4%; Ngala 4.2%; Sundi 4.0%; other 35.0%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic c. 49%; independent Christian c. 13%; Protestant c. 11%; Muslim c. 2%; other (mostly traditional beliefs and nonreligious) c. 25%. Major cities (2007)4: Brazzaville 1,375,237; Pointe-Noire 711,128; Dolisie 83,802; Nkayi 71,623; Ouesso 28,202.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 41.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 12.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 29.5 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 5.92. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 52.5 years; female 55.0 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 3.5% (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: CFAF 2,465,900,000,000 (petroleum revenue 85.9%, nonpetroleum receipts 13.4%, grants 0.7%). Expenditures: CFAF 1,227,500,000,000 (current expenditure 63.8%, capital expenditure 36.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$5,084,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2000) 5.9. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$6,748,000,000 (U.S.$1,830 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$2,940 per capita).

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2006): route length 488 mi, 795 km; passenger-km 167,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 264,000,000. Roads (2004): total length 10,805 mi, 17,289 km (paved 5%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 56,000; trucks and buses 36,500. Air transport (2003): passenger-km 31,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2002

40

12

2009 2009

2,17110 24

58910 6.6

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

17 89 245 —

units per 1,000 persons 5.0 2.19 66 —

Education and health Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population ages 15–49 having11: no formal schooling 5.6%; primary education 28.1%; lower secondary 47.2%; upper secondary/higher 19.1%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 86.8%; males literate 92.1%; females literate 81.7%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary14

12,124 6,96513 894

students 628,081 232,02613 12,456

student/ teacher ratio 51.8 33.313 13.9

enrollment rate (%) 5912 … 4 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2005) 54915 (1 per 6,386 persons); hospital beds (2007) 3,32515 (1 per 1,117 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 81.7; undernourished population (2004–06) 700,000 (21% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,800 calories).

Military Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value CFAF ’000,000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Petroleum, mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Trade Transp. and commun. Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

}

2010 % of total value

199.9 3,173.6 193.7 143.7 25.4 270.1 210.5

4.2 66.7 4.1 3.0 0.5 5.7 4.4

465.5

9.8

77.15 4,759.5

1.65 100.0

labour force

}

% of labour force

487,000

32.0

1,037,000

68.0

1,524,000

100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava 1,000,000, sugarcane 600,000, bananas 88,000, plantains 65,000, game meat 28,000, palm oil (2009) 26,000, mangoes/guavas 26,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 23,000, coffee 2,200; livestock (number of live animals) 295,000 goats, 115,000 cattle, 100,000 sheep; roundwood (2009) 3,726,100 cu m, of

Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 10,000 (army 80.0%, navy 8.0%, air force 12.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$31.

1Statutory number. 2The post of prime minister, an extraconstitutional creation from January 2005, was abolished on Sept. 15, 2009. 3“Functional” national languages are Lingala and Monokutuba. 4Preliminary. 5Indirect taxes. 6Reported figure; the Republic of the Congo was formerly a major illegal transshipment conduit for diamonds from nearby countries and was expelled from the Kimberley Process between 2004 and 2007. 72007. 8ILO estimates. 9Circulation. 10Subscribers. 11Survey of 9,975 persons only (including 7,051 females and 2,924 males). 122005–06. 132003–04. 142002–03. 15Public sector only.

Internet resources for further information: • La Banque de France: La Zone Franc http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm • Republique du Congo: Centre National de la Statistique http://www.cnsee.org

554

Britannica World Data

Costa Rica

paper and paper products 96; bricks, tiles, and cement 95; printing and publishing 95; fabricated metal products 74. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 9,050,000,000 (9,213,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (21,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (5,454,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 713,000 (2,308,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (20082): total 2,059,613; activity rate of total population 45.4% (participation rates: ages 12–59 [2005] 60.8%; female [2005] 36.2%; unemployed 4.9%).

Official name: República de Costa Rica (Republic of Costa Rica). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Legislative Assembly [57]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: San José. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: Roman Catholicism. Monetary unit: Costa Rican colón (C); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = C503.74; 1 £ = C778.18. Area and population Capitals

Alajuela Cartago Guanacaste Heredia Limón Puntarenas San José

Alajuela Cartago Liberia Heredia Limón Puntarenas San José

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

78.2 …

87.9 …

100.0 …

111.5 …

121.9 …

138.3 …

149.1 …

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

area

Provinces

TOTAL

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

Household income and expenditure (2004–05). Average household size 3.7; average annual household income C4,225,680 (U.S.$9,214); sources of income: wages and salaries 67.9%, rent 11.0%, transfers 10.9%, self-employment 8.1%; expenditure: food, beverages, and tobacco 21.9%, housing and energy 19.3%, transportation 14.8%, recreation and culture 7.9%, wearing apparel 6.9%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 2,276; remittances (2009) 574; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 1,793; official development assistance (2008) 66. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 593; remittances (2008) 271; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 122. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 3.9%, in permanent crops 5.9%, in pasture 44.1%, overall forest area 46.9%9.

population

sq mi

sq km

20081 estimate

3,766 1,207 3,915 1,026 3,547 4,354 1,915 19,730

9,753 3,125 10,141 2,657 9,188 11,277 4,959 51,100

821,390 489,673 303,618 403,907 399,241 414,730 1,522,749 4,355,308

Demography Population (2010): 4,516,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 228.9, persons per sq km 88.4. Urban-rural (2009): urban 63.9%; rural 36.1%. Sex distribution (20062): male 50.76%; female 49.24%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 25.5%; 15–29, 28.0%; 30–44, 22.0%; 45–59, 15.5%; 60–74, 6.8%; 75–84, 1.8%; 85 and over, 0.4%. Population projection: (2020) 5,098,000; (2030) 5,571,000. Doubling time: 55 years. Ethnic composition (2000): white 77.0%; mestizo 17.0%; black/mulatto 3.0%; East Asian (mostly Chinese) 2.0%; Amerindian 1.0%. Religious affiliation (2004): Roman Catholic (practicing) c. 47%; Roman Catholic (nonpracticing) c. 25%; Evangelical Protestant c. 13%; nonreligious c. 10%; other c. 5%. Major cities (20092): San José 356,1743 (urban agglomeration 1,461,0004); Limón 65,6005; Alajuela 50,9895; San Francisco 48,0365; Liberia 42,4005; Puntarenas 38,1005.

Foreign trade 10 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–2,050 14.7%

–2,023 12.4%

–3,816 20.8%

–3,830 17.7%

–5,545 22.1%

–2,617 13.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$15,289,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 29.1%, of which electronic integrated circuits/micro-assemblies 9.6%; chemicals and chemical products 14.7%; petroleum 13.9%; base and fabricated metals 9.5%; food 7.0%). Major import sources: U.S. 38.2%; Mexico 6.2%; China 5.7%; Japan 5.4%; Venezuela 4.5%. Exports (2008): U.S.$9,744,000,000 (food products 29.4%, of which bananas 7.3%, pineapples 5.9%, coffee 3.5%; parts for office machines/computers 10.8%; electronic integrated circuits/micro-assemblies 10.7%; medical/surgical instruments 6.3%; medicines 3.3%). Major export destinations: U.S. 38.2%; China 6.3%; Netherlands 5.1%; Nicaragua 4.1%; Hong Kong 4.0%.

Vital statistics

Transport and communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 16.6 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2007) 40.1%; outside of marriage (2007) 59.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.1 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.95. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2007) 5.8/(1998) 2.2. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 76.8 years; female 81.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2003): diseases of the circulatory system 105.0; communicable diseases 92.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 78.1; accidents and violence 46.0.

Transport. Railroads (2007): 278 km11; passenger-km 870,000; metric ton-km cargo 230,000. Roads (2007): total length 22,789 mi, 36,654 km (paved 26%); passenger-km 27,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 538,384; trucks and buses 151,933. Air transport (2005)12: passengerkm 2,284,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 10,351,000.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: C2,106,400,000,000 (taxes on goods and services 59.1%, income tax 25.2%, taxes on international trade 7.9%, social contributions 1.8%, grants 1.0%). Expenditures: C2,025,500,000,000 (education 31.8%, interest on debt 20.7%, social protection 16.0%, public order 11.4%, transportation 10.7%, health 2.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$3,043,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$28,661,000,000 (U.S.$6,260 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$10,940).

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

1,068

257

2009 2009

1,95014 1,493

42614 326

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

1,069,408 29,729 2,870,103 911,101 300,568 1,519,643 2,844,879 1,522,581 719,358 4,256,297 744,3776 16,788,044

6.4 0.2 17.1 5.4 1.8 9.1 16.9 9.1 4.3 24.4 4.46 100.08

241,632 2,167 239,538 152,445 27,953 143,045 477,917 190,920 93,762 377,311 112,9237 2,059,613

11.7 0.1 11.6 7.4 1.4 6.9 23.2 9.3 4.6 18.3 5.57 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 4,100,000, bananas 2,127,000, pineapples 1,870,121, cow’s milk 916,657, oil palm fruit 897,750, cassava 451,700, oranges 350,000, rice 256,460, green coffee 91,627, plantains 60,000; livestock (number of live animals; 2008) 1,287,100 cattle, 440,000 pigs, 23,500,000 chickens; roundwood 4,596,300 cu m, of which fuelwood 74%; fisheries production (2008) 48,785 (from aquaculture 55%). Mining and quarrying (2008): limestone 270,000; gold 198 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2003): food products 734; beverages 188; paints, soaps, and pharmaceuticals 169; plastic products 121;

units per 1,000 persons

1,000 27213 1,579 27514

233 8113 345 6014

Educational attainment (2004). Percentage of population age 5 and over having: no formal schooling 9.9%; incomplete primary education 23.3%; complete primary 24.5%; incomplete secondary 18.2%; complete secondary 8.5%; higher 12.7%; other/unknown 2.9%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 96.0%; males literate 95.7%; females literate 96.2%. teachers

in value C’000,000

number in ’000s

Education and health

20082

2009

TOTAL

Medium

Education (2007–08)

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Public administration Services Other

Communications

Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary

28,186 24,347 4,49416

students 534,816 380,813 110,71717

student/ teacher ratio 19.0 15.6 17.716

enrollment rate (%) … 6415 2517 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2004) 6,600 (1 per 644 persons); hospital beds (2003) 5,908 (1 per 714 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 8.8; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Paramilitary expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$40. The army was officially abolished in 1948. Paramilitary (police) forces had 9,800 members in November 2009. 1January 1. 2July 1. 3Population of San José canton. 42009 estimate of UN World Urbanization Prospects: The 2009 Revision. 5Urban population of commune. 6Taxes less subsidies and imputed bank service charges. 7Includes 101,905 unemployed. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 9Forest area overlaps with other categories. 10Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 11Limited service on part of route is primarily for tourist trains. 12Lacsa (Costa Rican Airlines) only. 13Circulation of daily newspapers. 14Subscribers. 152006–07. 162002–03. 172004–05.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Costa Rica http://www.bccr.fi.cr • National Institute of Statistics and the Census http://www.inec.go.cr

Nations of the World

Côte d’Ivoire

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$22,418,000,000 (U.S.$1,060 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,640 per capita).

Official name: République de Côte d’Ivoire (Republic of Côte d’Ivoire [Ivory Coast]). Form of government: transitional regime1 with one legislative house (National Assembly [2252]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister3. De facto capital: Abidjan. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

2006

in value CFAF ’000,000,000

% of total value

labour force

2,415.4 564.1 1,542.3 119.0 239.7 733.9 952.2 445.0 1,086.5 1,585.3 733.910 10,417.3

23.2 5.4 14.8 1.1 2.3 7.1 9.1 4.3 10.4 15.2 7.110 100.0

3,303,000

42.6

4,446,000

57.4

7,749,000

100.0

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

}

% of labour force

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 8.8%, in permanent crops 13.2%, in pasture 41.5%, forest area 32.8%.

Area and population area

population

Regions

sq km

2002 estimate

Agnebi Bafing Bas-Sassandra Denguélé Dix-huit Montagnes Fromager Haut-Sassandra Lacs Lagunes Marahoué

9,080 8,720 25,800 20,600 16,600 6,900 15,200 8,940 14,200 8,500

720,900 178,400 443,200 277,000 1,125,800 679,900 1,186,600 597,500 4,210,200 651,700

Regions Moyen-Cavally Moyen-Comoé N)zi-Comoé Savanes Sud-Bandama Sud-Comoé Vallée du Bandama Worodougou Zanzan TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2002 estimate

14,150 6,900 19,560 40,323 10,650 6,250 28,530 21,900 38,000 320,803

443,200 488,200 909,800 1,215,100 826,300 536,500 1,335,500 400,200 839,000 17,065,000

Demography Population (2010): 21,059,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 170.0, persons per sq km 65.6. Urban-rural (2008): urban 49.0%; rural 51.0%. Sex distribution (2007): male 50.75%; female 49.25%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 41.2%; 15–29, 29.2%; 30–44, 16.5%; 45–59, 8.4%; 60–74, 3.9%; 75–84, 0.6%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 25,504,000; (2030) 29,724,000. Ethnolinguistic composition (1998)4: Akan 42.1%; Mande 26.5%; other 31.4%. Religious affiliation (2005): traditional beliefs c. 37%; Christian c. 32%, of which Roman Catholic c. 17%, Protestant c. 8%, independent Christian c. 7%; Muslim c. 28%; other c. 3%. Major cities (2009): Abidjan 4,009,0005; Yamoussoukro 808,0005; Bouaké 642,700; Daloa 241,020; Korhogo (2003) 115,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 36.7 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 13.3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 4.33. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 50.7 years; female 54.1 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 3.9%6 (world avg. 0.8%). Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): HIV/AIDS-related c. 299; malaria c. 153; lower respiratory infections c. 132; diarrheal diseases c. 102; perinatal conditions c. 92.

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+1,864 16.5%

+1,383 10.5%

+2,327 16.7%

+1,385 9.4%

+1,895 10.7%

Imports (2008): U.S.$7,884,000,000 (crude petroleum 33.9%; food products 17.5%, of which rice 5.9%, fish 5.0%; machinery and apparatus 11.3%; road vehicles 5.1%). Major import sources: Nigeria 29.3%; France 12.7%; China 6.9%; Thailand 4.5%; Venezuela 3.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$9,779,000,000 (cocoa [all forms] 27.0%; refined petroleum 20.8%; crude petroleum 15.6%; natural rubber 5.1%; toiletries/soaps 2.6%; rough/sawn wood 2.3%). Major export destinations: France 13.9%; Neth. 11.3%; U.S. 9.7%; Germany 7.1%; Nigeria 6.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: route length (2006) 395 mi, 636 km12; (2001) passengerkm 182,000,00013; (2001) metric ton-km cargo 699,000,00013. Roads (2004): total length 49,710 mi, 80,000 km (paved 8%). Vehicles: passenger cars (2002) 114,000; trucks and buses (2001) 54,900. Air transport: 14. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

880

52

2009 2009

13,34616 282

63316 13

Budget (2008). Revenue: CFAF 2,156,200,000,000 (tax revenue 76.0%, nontax revenue 15.7%, grants 8.3%). Expenditures: CFAF 2,217,200,000,000 (current expenditure 84.8%, capital expenditure 14.4%, net lending 0.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$10,615,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): yams 6,933,000, cassava 2,951,000, sugarcane 1,630,000, plantains 1,555,000, cacao beans (2009) 1,223,000, oil palm fruit 1,200,000, rice 684,000, corn (maize) 681,000, bananas 360,000, cashew nuts 280,000, natural rubber 188,500, coffee (2009) 150,000, game meat 135,000, okra 115,900, cotton lint 50,000, chilies/dry peppers 20,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,631,000 sheep, 1,538,000 cattle; roundwood 10,303,900 cu m, of which fuelwood 86%; fisheries production 59,290 (from aquaculture 2%). Mining and quarrying (2008): manganese 176,600; gold 4,205 kg; diamonds 300,000 carats7. Manufacturing (value added in CFAF ’000,000,000; 1997): food 156.6, of which cocoa and chocolate 72.4, vegetable oils 62.7; chemicals 60.2; wood products 55.9; refined petroleum 46.0; textiles 37.9. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 5,631,000,000 (4,859,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 21,100,000 ([2007] 26,600,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 3,200,000 (931,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 1,200,000,000 (1,200,000,000). Population economically active (2008)8: total 8,126,000; activity rate of total population 39.5% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 67.3%; female 36.7%). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.9

96.3

100.0

102.5

104.4

111.0

112.1

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 8.0; expenditure (1996)9: food 32.2%, housing and energy 13.9%, hotels and restaurants 12.3%, transportation 9.6%, clothing 7.4%, household equipment 5.7%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 104; remittances (2009) 193; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 366; official development assistance (2008) 617. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 396; remittances (2008) 19.

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

262 20015 968 1016

16 9.715 46 0.516

Education and health Educational attainment (1998–99)17. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 62.3%; primary education 19.4%; secondary 14.3%; higher 3.3%; unknown 0.7%. Literacy (2007): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 55.5%; males 65.1%; females 45.5%. Education (2007–08) teachers

National economy

Consumer price index

555

Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

56,248 … …

students 2,356,240 736,64919 156,77220

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

41.9 … …

5518 2019 …

Health: physicians (2004) 2,081 (1 per 8,143 persons); hospital beds (2006) 7,731 (1 per 2,500 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 96.7; undernourished population (2004–06) 2,500,000 (14% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,780 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 17,050 (army 38.1%, navy 5.3%, air force 4.1%, presidential guard 7.9%, gendarmerie21 44.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$17.22 1A

peace accord signed between the 2002–07 warring factions enabled the creation of a power-sharing transitional government in April 2007. 2Statutory number; no elections between December 2000 and September 2010. 3Both positions were transitional as of mid-2010. 4Local population only (in 1998 foreigners constituted 26% of the population). 5Urban agglomeration. 6Statistically derived midpoint of range. 7Annual UN sanctions on rough diamond exports have been imposed from November 2004 to November 2010. 8ILO estimates. 9Weights of consumer price index components. 10Indirect taxes less imputed bank service charges. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Côte d’Ivoire part of Abidjan to Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, railway. 13Data for entire length of Abidjan–Ouagadougou railway. 14Data unavailable for Air Ivoire, the national airline. 15Circulation. 16Subscribers. 17Based on sample survey of 4,572 persons (38% urban, 62% rural). 182002–03. 192001–02. 202006–07. 21The gendarmerie or the national police force reinforces the army. 22Peacekeeping troops: UN (July 2010) 7,200; French (November 2009) 900.

Internet resources for further information: • La Banque de France: La Zone Franc http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/ rapport-annuel-zone-franc.htm • Institut National de la Statistique http://www.ins.ci

556

Britannica World Data

Croatia

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$61,208,000,000 (U.S.$13,810 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$19,170 per capita).

Official name: Republika Hrvatska (Republic of Croatia). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Croatian Parliament [153]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Zagreb. Official language: Croatian. Official religion: none1. Monetary unit: kuna (kn; plural kune); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = kn 5.68; 1 £ = kn 8.77.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 in value kn ’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, hunting, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing } Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

Area and population area

population

Counties

sq km

2009 estimate

Bjelovar-Bilogora Dubrovnik-Neretva Istra (Istria) Karlovac Koprivnica-Kri\evci Krapina-Zagorje Lika-Senj Medimurje Osijek-Baranja Po\ega-Slavonia Primorje-Gorski kotar Sibenik-Knin

2,638 1,782 2,813 3,622 1,734 1,230 5,350 730 4,149 1,821 3,590 2,994

124,646 127,473 214,991 132,150 119,586 136,357 49,924 117,891 319,239 81,891 304,228 114,122

Counties

area

population

sq km

2009 estimate

4,448 2,027 4,524 1,260 2,021 2,448 3,643 3,078

171,975 172,681 482,501 180,252 87,596 197,472 175,682 328,123

640 56,542

790,298 4,429,078

Sisak-Moslavina Slavonski Brod-Posavina Split-Dalmatia Vara\din Virovitica-Podravina Vukovar-Srijem Zadar Zagreb City Zagreb TOTAL

19,512

5.9

55,549

16.7

23,189 24,216 44,540 70,847

7.0 7.3 13.4 21.3

52,241

15.7

42,9702 333,0634

12.92 100.04

labour force

% of labour force

69,560 8,841 272,812 38,340 140,661 114,024 329,223 152,597 113,466 257,746 264,6883 1,761,958

3.9 0.5 15.5 2.2 8.0 6.5 18.7 8.7 6.4 14.6 15.03 100.0

Household income and expenditure (2005). Average household size (2001) 3.0; average annual income per household kn 69,180 (U.S.$11,629); sources: wages 51.0%, pensions 17.9%, self-employment 16.5%; expenditure (2009): food and nonalcoholic beverages 32.1%, housing and energy 14.4%, transportation 11.0%, clothing and footwear 7.3%, recreation and culture 6.0%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 11,267; remittances (2009) 1,436; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 4,589; official development assistance (2008) 397. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,109; remittances (2008) 116; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 976. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 14.9%, left fallow 0.3%, in permanent crops 1.5%, in pasture 5.6%, forest area 39.6%.

Foreign trade 5 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 4,426,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 202.7, persons per sq km 78.3. Urban-rural (2008): urban 57.3%; rural 42.7%. Sex distribution (2009): male 48.23%; female 51.77%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 15.3%; 15–29, 19.4%; 30–44, 20.6%; 45–59, 21.9%; 60–74, 15.4%; 75 and over, 7.4%. Population projection: (2020) 4,333,000; (2030) 4,195,000. Ethnic composition (2001): Croat 89.6%; Serb 4.5%; Bosniac 0.5%; Italian 0.4%; Hungarian 0.4%; other 4.6%. Religious affiliation (2001): Christian 92.6%, of which Roman Catholic 87.8%, Eastern Orthodox 4.4%; Muslim 1.3%; nonreligious/atheist 5.2%; other 0.9%. Major cities (2001): Zagreb (2008) 788,000; Split 175,140; Rijeka 143,800; Osijek 90,411; Zadar 69,556.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.1 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 88.5%; outside of marriage (2008) 11.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.8 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.47. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 5.1/1.1. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 72.9 years; female 79.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 591.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 299.5; accidents, violence, and poisoning 68.4; diseases of the digestive system 54.9.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: kn 115,772,655,000 (tax revenue 60.1%, of which VAT 35.7%, excise taxes 10.3%, corporate taxes 9.1%; social security contributions 35.2%; nontax revenue 4.7%). Expenditures: kn 115,292,426,000 (social security and welfare 45.6%; compensation of employees 26.0%; goods and services 7.0%; other 21.4%). Public debt (external; October 2009): U.S.$59,400,000,000. Population economically active (2008): total 1,784,800; activity rate 42.2% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 63.2%; female 45.5%; unemployed [July 2009–June 2010] 16.5%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Annual earnings index

% of total value

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.8 90.0

96.8 95.4

100.0 100.0

103.2 105.2

106.2 110.6

112.6 118.3

115.3 121.4

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): corn (maize) 2,182,521, sugar beets 1,217,041, wheat 936,076, potatoes 270,251, barley 243,609, grapes 206,437, apples 93,355, sunflower seeds 82,098, rapeseed 80,424, olives 32,592, tobacco leaves 13,348; livestock (number of live animals) 1,250,000 pigs, 619,000 sheep, 447,000 cattle; roundwood 4,242,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 20%; fisheries production (2008) 61,041 (from aquaculture 20%). Mining and quarrying (2008): ceramic clay 300,000; ornamental stone 1,000,000 sq m. Manufacturing (value added in kn ’000,000; 2007): food products, beverages, and tobacco 10,248; base and fabricated metals 3,982; electrical equipment and machinery 3,756; bricks, cement, and ceramics 3,581; coke, refined petroleum products, and nuclear fuel 3,106. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009–10) 14,105,000,000 ([2008] 18,000,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (1,081,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009–10) 5,682,200 ([2009] 38,690,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008) 4,300,000 ([2007] 4,675,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009–10) 2,429,568,000 ([2009] 3,205,000,000).

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–8,565 34.7%

–9,788 35.8%

–11,126 34.9%

–13,469 35.3%

–16,603 37.0%

–10,729 33.9%

Imports (2008): U.S.$30,727,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 18.8%, petroleum 13.2%, base and fabricated metals 10.7%, road vehicles/parts 8.6%, food 7.1%). Major import sources: Italy 17.1%; Germany 13.4%; Russia 10.4%; China 6.1%; Slovenia 5.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$14,124,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 18.2%, mineral fuels 12.9%, ships and boats [particularly tankers] 11.5%, chemicals and chemical products 9.9%, food 7.4%). Major export destinations: Italy 19.1%; Bos.-Her. 15.4%; Germany 10.7%; Slovenia 7.8%; Austria 5.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2009): route length 1,691 mi, 2,722 km; passenger-km 1,835,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,641,000,000. Roads (2009): total length 18,233 mi, 29,343 km (paved 91%); passenger-km (2006) 28,500,000,0006; metric ton-km cargo (2009) 9,429,000,000. Vehicles (20107): passenger cars 1,522,851; trucks and buses 165,625. Air transport (2009): passenger-km 1,636,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,621,000. Communications

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

1,401

315

2009 2009

6,0359 1,859

1,3679 421

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

842 5358 2,234 6859

units per 1,000 persons 191 1218 506 1559

Education and health Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no schooling or unknown 3.5%; incomplete primary education 15.8%; primary 21.7%; secondary 47.1%; postsecondary and higher 11.9%. Literacy (2008): population age 15 and over literate 98.7%; males 99.5%; females 98.0%. Education (2009–10) teachers Primary (age 7–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–18) Tertiary

11,746 44,341 8,76811

students 167,452 374,182 134,18811

student/ teacher ratio 14.3 8.4 15.311

enrollment rate (%) 9010 8810 44 (age 19–23)10

Health (2008): physicians 9,044 (1 per 490 persons); hospital beds 24,000 (1 per 185 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 5.3; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,980 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 18,600 (army 61.2%, navy 10.0%, air force 18.8%, joint staff 10.0%); reserve 21,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$230. 1However, the Roman Catholic Church receives state financial support through concordats with the Vatican. 2Taxes on products less subsidies. 3Includes 263,174 unemployed. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 6Passenger cars 25,000,000,000; buses 3,500,000,000. 7June 30. 8Circulation. 9Subscribers. 102006–07. 112008–09.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bureau of Statistics http://www.dzs.hr/default_e.htm • Croatian National Bank http://www.hnb.hr/eindex.htm

Nations of the World

Cuba

Gross national income (2008): U.S.$61,758,000,000 (U.S.$5,512 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: República de Cuba (Republic of Cuba). Form of government: unitary socialist republic with one legislative house (National Assembly of the People’s Power [614]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Havana. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Cuban peso (CUP); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CUP 26.501; 1 £ = CUP 40.941.

2009

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Finance, real estate Trade, hotels, and restaurants Pub. admin., social security Services Other TOTAL

Area and population

area2

Provinces

Capitals

Camagüey Ciego de Avila Cienfuegos Ciudad de la Habana Granma Guantánamo Holguín La Habana4 Las Tunas Matanzas Pinar del Río Sancti Spíritus Santiago de Cuba Villa Clara

Camagüey Ciego de Avila Cienfuegos — Bayamo Guantánamo Holguín Havana Las Tunas Matanzas Pinar del Río Sancti Spíritus Santiago de Cuba Santa Clara

Special municipality Isla de la Juventud

Nueva Gerona

TOTAL

sq mi

population sq km

20103 estimate

6,029 2,619 1,614 278 3,234 2,381 3,588 2,213 2,544 4,557 4,210 2,601 2,377 3,248

15,615 6,783 4,180 721 8,375 6,168 9,293 5,732 6,588 11,803 10,904 6,737 6,156 8,412

782,582 422,643 405,545 2,141,993 835,808 510,944 1,037,326 747,491 536,112 690,223 729,292 465,542 1,047,181 803,690

934 42,427

2,419 109,886

86,256 11,242,628

Demography Population (2010): 11,239,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 264.9, persons per sq km 102.3. Urban-rural (2009): urban 75.4%; rural 24.6%. Sex distribution (2009): male 50.09%; female 49.91%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 17.6%; 15–29, 20.4%; 30–44, 25.5%; 45–59, 19.3%; 60–74, 12.0%; 75–84, 3.7%; 85 and over, 1.5%. Population projection: (2020) 11,193,000; (2030) 11,019,000. Ethnic composition (1994): mixed 51.0%; white 37.0%; black 11.0%; other 1.0%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic c. 47%; Protestant c. 5%; nonreligious c. 22%; other c. 26%.5 Major cities (20093): Havana 2,148,132; Santiago de Cuba 426,679; Camagüey 306,393; Holguín 276,956; Guantánamo 208,055; Santa Clara 207,170.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.6 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.7 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 3.9 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.70. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 5.5/3.2. Life expectancy at birth (2005–07): male 76.0 years; female 80.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): diseases of the circulatory system 197.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 189.7; cerebrovascular disease 83.7; influenza and pneumonia 47.3; accidents 42.6; lower respiratory diseases 27.7.

2008

in value CUP ’0007

% of total value7

1,981,200 273,900 6,230,900 664,700 2,883,700 4,186,200 2,620,800 10,540,600 1,805,600 14,700,200 419,500 46,307,300

4.3 0.6 13.5 1.4 6.2 9.0 5.7 22.8 3.9 31.7 0.9 100.0

Budget (2008). Revenue: CUP 42,055,600,000 (tax revenue 61.5%; nontax revenue 38.5%). Expenditures: CUP 46,255,600,000 (current revenue 90.3%, of which education 16.2%, health 15.5%, social security contributions 9.5%, public safety and defense 4.4%; capital expenditure 9.7%). Public debt (2009): U.S.$19,386,000,0006. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 14,900,000, tomatoes 750,000, cow’s milk 600,000, rice 564,000, sweet potatoes 437,000, plantains 425,000, pumpkins, squash, and gourds 413,000, cassava 316,000, corn (maize) 305,000, oranges 261,000, tobacco leaves 25,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,893,000 cattle, 2,584,000 sheep, 1,768,000 pigs, 30,800,000 chickens; roundwood 2,034,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 63%; fisheries production (2008) 60,895 (from aquaculture 54%). Mining and quarrying (2008): nickel (metal content) 67,265; cobalt (metal content) 3,175. Manufacturing (2009): cement 1,677,500; steel 269,000; cigarettes 13,100,000,000 units; colour televisions (2008) 94,200 units; beer 2,433,800 hectolitres; other alcoholic beverages (excluding wine) 1,000,500 hectolitres. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 17,709,100,000 (17,709,100,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (14,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 18,730,000 (31,100,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 2,020,000 (5,038,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 1,186,000,000 (1,186,000,000). Population economically active (2008): total 5,027,900; activity rate 44.7% (participation rates: ages 17–64, 62.6%; female 38.0%; unemployed 1.6%). Price and earnings indexes (2006 = 100) 2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0 …

107.1 …

108.8 …

107.6 …

labour force

}

% of labour force

919,100 26,700 543,100 79,800 245,200 301,400 123,000 610,200

18.3 0.5 10.8 1.6 4.9 6.0 2.4 12.1

2,099,700

41.8

79,7008 5,027,900

1.68 100.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2002) 3.2. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 2,267; remittances (2003) 1,200; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 316; official development assistance (2008) 127. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 21.3%, left fallow 11.2%, in permanent crops 3.8%, in pasture 23.9%, forest area 25.7%.

Foreign trade 9 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

–3,586 51.9%

–2,755 49.2%

–2,985 47.1%

–3,278 41.3%

–5,766 55.4%

–7,193 54.7%

Imports (2005): U.S.$8,084,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 19.3%; food 17.4%, of which cereals 7.3%; refined petroleum 14.5%; crude petroleum 10.5%; chemicals and chemical products 8.0%). Major import sources (2008): Venezuela 31.4%; China 10.4%; Spain 8.7%; U.S. 5.6%; Canada 4.6%. Exports (2005): U.S.$2,318,000,000 (nickel oxide 46.3%; food 12.7%, of which raw cane sugar 7.1%; cigars/cheroots/cigarillos 9.8%; medicine 9.1%). Major export destinations (2008): Canada 20.9%; China 18.4%; Venezuela 11.3%; Neth. 7.8%; Spain 5.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2005)10: route length 2,526 mi, 4,065 km; (2008) passenger-km 1,056,000,000; (2008) metric ton-km cargo 1,388,000,000. Roads (2000): total length 37,814 mi, 60,856 km (paved 49%); (2008) passenger-km 6,551,000,00011, 12; (2008) metric ton-km cargo 2,222,000,000. Vehicles (1998): passenger cars 172,574; trucks and buses 185,495. Air transport (2008)13: passenger-km 3,096,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 45,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

3,000

267

2009 2009

44315 1,168

4015 104

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

377 1,80014 1,605 2.015

units per 1,000 persons 33 16014 143 0.215

Education and health Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 14.1%; primary education 17.2%; secondary 26.6%; vocational/technical/teacher training 32.8%; university 9.3%. Literacy (2004): total population age 15 and over literate 96.9%; males 97.0%; females 96.8%. Education (2008–09)

National economy

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

557

Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

92,016 85,957 154,807

868,477 826,088 970,895

9.4 9.6 6.3

99 83 118 (age 18–23)

Health (2009): physicians 74,880 (1 per 150 persons); hospital beds 66,375 (1 per 169 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 4.8; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,900 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 49,000 (army 77.6%, navy 6.1%, air force 16.3%); reserve 39,000; paramilitary 1,120,000; U.S. military forces at Naval Base Guantanamo Bay (September 2009) 926. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 4.0%; per capita expenditure U.S.$20416. 1Domestic

transactions only; the Cuban convertible peso (CUC) is used for international transactions—1 U.S.$ = CUC 0.93; 1 £ = CUC 1.43. 2Areas of major landmasses are: island of Cuba 40,369 sq mi (104,556 sq km); Isla de la Juventud 851 sq mi (2,204 sq km); numerous adjacent cays (administratively a part of provinces or the Isla de la Juventud) 1,207 sq mi (3,126 sq km). 3January 1. 4Province bordering Ciudad de la Habana on the east, south, and west. 5Up to 70% of the population also practice Santería. 6CIA estimate using the exchange rate of the Cuban convertible peso (CUC). 7At constant 1997 prices. 8Unemployed. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Cuban Railways only; excludes railways linking sugar plantations to factories totaling 2,817 mi (4,533 km) in 2005. 11Excludes tourism-related transport. 12Buses and taxis only. 13Cubana airline only. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 16Using exchange rate of Cuban convertible peso.

Internet resources for further information: • Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas http://www.one.cu • Naciones Unidas en Cuba http://www.onu.org.cu

558

Britannica World Data

Cyprus

Foreign trade 10 Imports (2008): U.S.$10,849,000,000 (refined petroleum 18.7%, machinery and apparatus 14.6%, road vehicles 12.2%, food 9.9%). Major import sources: Greece 16.8%; Italy 10.5%; U.K. 8.7%; Germany 8.2%; Israel 8.0%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,717,000,000 (refined petroleum 19.8%, food 16.9%, medicine 9.2%, prostheses/body implants 6.1%, photosensitive semiconductor devices 5.2%, cigars/cigarettes 4.6%). Major export destinations: bunker and ships’ stores 19.9%; Greece 18.8%; U.K. 10.2%; Germany 5.3%.

Island of Cyprus Area: 3,572 sq mi, 9,251 sq km. Population (2010): 1,085,0001.

Transport and communications Transport. Roads (2008): total length 7,656 mi, 12,321 km (paved 65%). Vehicles (2008): cars 443,517; trucks and buses 125,181. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 3,384,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 46,000,000. Communications

Two de facto states currently exist on the island of Cyprus: the Republic of Cyprus (ROC), predominantly Greek in character, occupying the southern two-thirds of the island, which is the original and still the internationally recognized de jure government of the whole island; and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), proclaimed unilaterally Nov. 15, 1983, on territory originally secured for the Turkish Cypriot population by the July 20, 1974, intervention of Turkey. Only Turkey recognizes the TRNC. Provision of separate data below does not imply recognition of either state’s claims but is necessitated by the lack of unified data.

Republic of Cyprus

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

276

2009 2008

9789, 12 4159

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

384 PCs Dailies 1,1229, 12 Internet users 4769 Broadband

Demography

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 11.6 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 6.5 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.46. Life expectancy at birth (2006–07): male 78.3 years; female 81.9 years.

249 1009, 11 4349 1769, 12

309 939, 11 4989 2029, 12

Educational attainment (2008). Percentage of population age 20 and over having: no formal schooling/incomplete primary education 7%; complete primary 17%; secondary 46%; higher education 30%. Health (2007): physicians 2,143 (1 per 366 persons); hospital beds 2,916 (1 per 269 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 3.5.

Military

Vital statistics

2004 2009 2009 2008

Education and health

Official name: Kipriakí Dhimokratía (Greek); K:br:s Cumhuriyeti (Turkish) (Republic of Cyprus). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a unicameral legislature (House of Representatives [802]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Lefkosia (conventional Nicosia). Official languages: Greek; Turkish. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.213. Area4: 2,276 sq mi, 5,896 sq km. Population (2010): 805,0005. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 17.1%; 15–29, 23.9%; 30–44, 21.5%; 45–59, 19.7%; 60–74, 12.5%; 75 and over, 5.3%. Ethnic composition (2000): Greek Cypriot 91.8%; Armenian 3.3%; Arab 2.9%, of which Lebanese 2.5%; British 1.4%; other 0.6%. Religious affiliation (2001): Greek Orthodox 94.8%; Roman Catholic 2.1%, of which Maronite 0.6%; Anglican 1.0%; Muslim 0.6%; other 1.5%. Urban areas (20086): Lefkosia 231,8007; Limassol 183,000; Larnaca 81,700.

units per 1,000 persons

number in ’000s

Total active duty personnel (2009): 10,050 (national guard 100%); Greek troops 950. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.2%; per capita expenditure U.S.$674. Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Cyprus http://www.centralbank.gov.cy • Rep. of Cyprus Statistical Service http://www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/ statistics.nsf/index_en/index_en?OpenDocument

Official name: Kuzey K:br:s Türk Cumhuriyeti (Turkish) (Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus). Capital: Lefko÷a (conventional Nicosia). Official language: Turkish. Monetary unit: new Turkish lira (YTL); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = YTL 1.52; 1 £ = YTL 2.34; 1 YTL = 1,000,000 (old) TL. Population (2010): 280,0001 (Lefko÷a 49,23713; Magusa [Famagusta] 34,80313; Girne [Kyrenia] 24,12213; Güzelyurt [Morphou] 12,42513). Sex distribution (2006): male 53.99%; female 46.01%. Ethnic composition (2006): Turkish Cypriot/Turkish 96.8%; other 3.2%. Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 15.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 6.8 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008) 1.80. Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: >6,088,400,000 (tax revenue 87.6%, of which VAT 24.8%; nontax revenue 10.9%; grants 1.5%). Expenditures: >7,108,727,000 (current expenditures 91.4%; development expenditures 8.6%). Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$23,039,000,000 (U.S.$29,100 per capita); (2007) purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$26,370 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, insurance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

in value >’000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

312.0 57.3 1,132.7 1,405.0 339.3 1,032.4 2,971.5 4,119.0 1,503.4 2,104.5 1,971.48 16,948.5

1.9 0.3 6.7 8.3 2.0 6.1 17.5 24.3 8.9 12.4 11.68 100.0

27,800 600 37,100 38,600 1,800 24,500 106,800 41,500 27,800 72,600 25,700 404,800

6.9 0.1 9.2 9.5 0.4 6.1 26.4 10.3 6.9 17.9 6.3 100.0

Production. Agriculture/livestock (in ’000 metric tons; 2009): cow’s milk 150.0, potatoes 131.8, pork 58.1, grapes 27.5, chicken meat 26.8, olives 13.6. Manufacturing (value added in >’000,000; 2008): food products, beverages, and tobacco 439; cement, bricks, and ceramics 217; base metals and fabricated metal products 171; paper and paper products 111. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 4,993,000,000 (4,556,000,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 2,770; remittances (2009) 165; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 4,012. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,571; remittances (2008) 580; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 3,414. Land use as % of total land area (2007)9: in temporary crops 10.3%, left fallow 2.2%, in permanent crops 4.4%, in pasture 0.1%, forest area 18.9%.

Agriculture and fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Pub. admin. Finance, real estate Services Other TOTAL

in value YTL ’000 271,514 53,640 194,636 399,647 261,169 619,493 632,637 1,154,441 549,665 542,176 414,92915 5,093,947

% of total value 5.3 1.1 3.8 7.8 5.1 12.2 12.4 22.7 10.8 10.6 8.215 100.0

labour force14 3,171 113 7,171 10,491 860 6,082 22,066 14,854 6,642 19,773 — 91,223

% of labour force14 3.5 0.1 7.9 11.5 0.9 6.7 24.2 16.3 7.3 21.6 — 100.0

Budget (2007). Revenue: YTL 1,912,021,000 (indirect taxes 29.4%, direct taxes 20.5%, foreign aid 14.8%, other 35.3%). Expenditures: YTL 2,125,064,000 (social transfers 39.8%, wages 35.6%, investments 10.7%, defense 5.6%). Imports (2007): U.S.$1,539,200,000 (machinery and transport equipment 25.5%, food 10.6%). Major import sources: Turkey 67.9%; EU 16.1%. Exports (2007): U.S.$83,700,000 (citrus fruits 27.1%, minerals 9.7%). Major export destinations: Turkey 58.4%; EU 13.2%. Health (2008): physicians 557 (1 per 493 persons); hospital beds 1,211 (1 per 227 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 14.3. Internet resource for further information: • Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus State Planning Organization • http://www.devplan.org 1Includes 160,000–170,000 immigrants (mostly from Turkey); excludes 2,791 British military in the Sovereign Base Areas (SBA) in the ROC and 842 UN peacekeeping troops. 2Twenty-four seats reserved for Turkish Cypriots are not occupied. 3The Cyprus pound (£C) was the former monetary unit; on Jan. 1, 2008, 1 £C = >1.71. 4Area includes 99 sq mi (256 sq km) of British military SBA and c. 107 sq mi (c. 278 sq km) of the UN Buffer Zone. 5Excludes British and UN military forces. 6January 1. 7ROC only. 8Import duties and VAT less imputed bank service charges. 9Island of Cyprus. 10Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 11Circulation. 12Subscribers. 132006 census. 14Employed only. 15Import duties.

559

Nations of the World

Czech Republic

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

Official name: Deská republika (Czech Republic). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [81]; Chamber of Deputies [200]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Prague. Official language: Czech. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: koruna (Kc); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Kc 19.31; 1 £ = Kc 29.83.

population

sq km

20091 estimate

11,015 4,759 3,314 3,163 5,426 5,267 4,519 7,561

1,230,691 554,520 308,403 437,325 1,250,255 642,137 515,185 569,627

Regions Central Bohemia Hradec Králové Karlovy Vary Liberec Moravia–Silesia Olomouc Pardubice Plze5

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

98.2 95.0

100.0 100.0

102.5 102.9

105.5 110.3

112.2 119.5

113.4 123.7

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value Kc ’000,000

area Regions

sq km

population 20091 estimate

South Bohemia South Moravia Ústí Vysocina Zlín

10,057 7,195 5,335 6,795 3,964

636,328 1,147,146 835,891 515,411 591,412

496 78,8652

1,233,211 10,467,542

Capital city Prague (Praha) TOTAL

Demography Population (2010): 10,526,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 345.7, persons per sq km 133.5. Urban-rural (2009): urban 73.5%; rural 26.5%. Sex distribution (20091): male 49.07%; female 50.93%. Age breakdown (20091): under 15, 14.1%; 15–29, 20.3%; 30–44, 23.4%; 45–59, 20.5%; 60–74, 15.1%; 75–84, 5.3%; 85 and over, 1.3%. Population projection: (2020) 10,800,000; (2030) 10,925,000. Ethnic composition (2001): Czech 90.4%; Moravian 3.7%; Slovak 1.9%; Polish 0.5%; German 0.4%; Silesian 0.1%; Rom (Gypsy) 0.1%; other 2.9%. Religious affiliation (2008): atheist c. 39%; Roman Catholic c. 33%; Protestant (mostly Lutheran) c. 3%; independent Catholic (Hussite Church of the Czech Republic) c. 1%; Muslim 0.1%; Jewish, negligible; nonreligious/other c. 24%. Major cities (20091): Prague 1,233,211; Brno 370,592; Ostrava 307,767; Plze5 169,273; Liberec 100,914; Olomouc 100,373.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.3 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 61.1%; outside of marriage 38.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.2 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.49. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 4.6/2.8. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 74.0 years; female 80.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 501.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 268.3; accidents, poisoning, and violence 58.4; diseases of the respiratory system 55.0; diseases of the digestive system 45.5.

National economy (2008)3.

2004

95.5 89.1

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$181,547,000,000 (U.S.$17,310 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$23,610 per capita).

Area and population area

2003 Consumer price index Annual earnings index

Budget Revenue: Kc 1,485,928,000,000 (tax revenue 85.9%, of which social security contributions 34.6%, taxes on goods and services 28.0%, taxes on income and profits 22.3%; nontax revenue 6.5%; grants 4.3%; other 3.3%). Expenditures: Kc 1,502,195,000,000 (social security and welfare 30.7%; health 14.6%; transportation and communications 12.2%; education 9.5%; general public services 7.2%; defense 2.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; March 2010): U.S.$28,724,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat 4,358,070, sugar beets 3,038,220, cow’s milk 2,780,661, barley 2,003,032, rapeseed 1,128,119, potatoes (2008) 769,561, pig meat 300,136; livestock (number of live animals) 1,909,232 pigs, 1,349,286 cattle; roundwood 16,187,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 12%; fisheries production (2008) 24,559 (from aquaculture 83%). Mining and quarrying (2008): kaolin 3,833,000; feldspar 488,000. Manufacturing (value added in Kc ’000,000; 2006): motor vehicles/parts 4,586; nonelectrical machinery/apparatus 3,648; fabricated/ structural metal products 3,491; electrical machinery/apparatus 2,537; base metals 1,843; plastics 1,400; bricks, cement, and ceramics 1,071; electronic valves/telecommunications equipment/televisions 953; base chemicals 937. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 82,236,000,000 ([2007] 72,045,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2009) 11,000,000 ([2007] 4,141,000); lignite (metric tons; 2009) 45,700,000 ([2007] 54,200,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 4,004,000 ([2007] 50,700,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 5,351,000 (6,962,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 203,000,000 ([2007] 8,537,000,000). Household income and expenditure (2004). Average household size 2.5; average annual money income per household Kc 295,011 (U.S.$11,479); sources of income: wages and salaries 66.7%, transfer payments 20.6%, self-employment 8.8%, other 3.9%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 21.3%, housing and energy 19.3%, transportation 11.0%, recreation and culture 10.9%, household furnishings 6.5%. Population economically active (2007): total 5,198,300; activity rate of total population 50.4% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 69.8%; female 43.6%; unemployed [May 2009–April 2010] 8.8%).

Agriculture, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

77,416 47,429 850,283 208,902 139,800

2.1 1.3 22.9 5.6 3.8

166,000 56,000 1,433,000 462,000 78,000

3.2 1.1 27.4 8.8 1.5

331,541 511,663 589,787 184,464 377,309 387,2744 3,705,868

8.9 13.8 15.9 5.0 10.2 10.54 100.0

375,000 810,000 485,000 327,000 812,000 230,0005 5,232,0002

7.2 15.5 9.3 6.2 15.5 4.45 100.02

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 7,719; remittances (2009) 1,395; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 6,540. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 4,587; remittances (2008) 3,826; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 2,428. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 38.9%, left fallow 0.4%, in permanent crops 3.1%, in pasture 12.7%, forest area 34.3%.

Foreign trade6 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–934 0.7%

+1,681 1.1%

+1,711 0.9%

+4,078 1.7%

+4,253 1.5%

+7,973 3.7%

Imports (2008): U.S.$141,834,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 31.9%; mineral fuels 10.4%; chemicals and chemical products 10.1%; road vehicles/parts 8.3%). Major import sources: Germany 26.7%; China 8.8%; Russia 6.4%; Poland 5.8%; Slovakia 5.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$146,087,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 36.0%, of which electrical machinery 9.0%, computers/office machines/parts 7.2%; motor vehicles/parts 15.6%; base/manufactured metals 10.9%; chemicals and chemical products 5.7%). Major export destinations: Germany 30.7%; Slovakia 9.2%; Poland 6.5%; France 5.3%; U.K. 4.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007): route length 5,958 mi, 9,588 km; passenger-km (2008) 6,794,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 15,542,000,000. Roads (2007): total length 79,853 mi, 128,511 km (paved, virtually 100%); passenger-km 86,000,000,0007; metric ton-km cargo 50,877,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 4,280,0818; trucks and buses 554,332. Air transport (2008)9: passenger-km 7,790,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 27,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

5,488

538

2009 2009

14,25811 2,092

1,37511 202

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

5,100 1,36510 6,681 2,02011

500 13010 644 19511

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 25–64 having: no formal schooling to lower secondary education 9%; upper secondary 76%; higher 14%; unknown 1%. Literacy: n.a. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–18) Tertiary

24,893 79,822 22,54912

students 459,899 903,691 394,544

student/ teacher ratio 18.5 11.3 15.012

enrollment rate (%) 9012 … 59 (age 19–23)

Health (2009): physicians 36,9211 (1 per 283 persons); hospital beds 63,2631, 13 (1 per 165 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 2.9; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,990 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 17,93214 (army 70.6%, air force 29.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$304. 1January

1. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Consolidated general government. 4Taxes less subsidies on products. 5Unemployed. 6Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 7Passenger cars 70,000,000,000; buses 16,000,000,000. 8Includes vans. 9Czech Airlines only. 10Circulation. 11Subscribers. 122005–06. 13Excludes beds at resorts with mineral springs. 14Active only; civilian support totals 7,888.

Internet resources for further information: • Czech Statistical Office http://www.czso.cz • Czech National Bank http://www.cnb.cz/en/index.html

560

Britannica World Data

Denmark1

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$325,847,000,000 (U.S.$58,930 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$37,720 per capita).

Official name: Kongeriget Danmark (Kingdom of Denmark). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (Folketing [179]). Head of state: Danish Monarch. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Copenhagen. Official language: Danish. Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran. Monetary unit: Danish krone (DKK; plural kroner); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = DKK 5.82; 1 £ = DKK 8.99.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value DKK ’000,000 18,489 66,853 209,269 86,243 23,622 128,823 193,272 357,182 87,814 306,960 261,1888 1,739,7164

Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

% of total labour value force7 1.1 } 89,000 3.8 12.0 400,000 5.0 194,000 1.4 14,000 7.4 174,000 11.1 537,000 20.5 448,000 5.0 } 991,000 17.6 15.08 70,0009 4 100.0 2,917,000

% of labour force7 3.1 13.7 6.7 0.5 6.0 18.4 15.4 34.0 2.49 100.0 4

Area and population area Regions2

Capitals

Capital (Hovedstaden) Central Jutland (Midtjylland) North Jutland (Nordjylland) South Denmark (Syddanmark) Zealand (Sjælland)

Hillerød

sq mi

Viborg Ålborg Vejle Sorø

TOTAL

population 20103 estimate

sq km

989

2,561

1,680,271

5,067

13,124

1,253,998

3,062

7,933

4,713 2,808 16,6404

12,206 7,273 43,0984

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 6,686; remittances (2009) 859; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 9,532. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 9,678; remittances (2008) 3,227; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 20,159. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 43.0%, left fallow 0.3%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 19.3%, forest area 11.9%.

579,628 1,200,277 820,564 5,534,738

Foreign trade10 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 5,546,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 333.3, persons per sq km 128.7. Urban-rural (20093): urban 86.6%; rural 13.4%. Sex distribution (20093): male 49.57%; female 50.43%. Age breakdown (20093): under 15, 18.3%; 15–29, 17.6%; 30–44, 21.3%; 45–59, 20.0%; 60–74, 15.8%; 75–84, 5.0%; 85 and over, 2.0%. Population projection: (2020) 5,699,000; (2030) 5,862,000. Ethnic composition (20073)5: Danish 91.9%; Turkish 0.6%; German 0.5%; Iraqi 0.4%; Swedish 0.4%; Norwegian 0.3%; Bosnian 0.3%; other 5.6%. Religious affiliation (2006): Evangelical Lutheran 83.0%; other Christian 1.3%; Muslim 3.7%; nonreligious 5.4%; atheist 1.5%; other 5.1%. Major urban areas (20103): Greater Copenhagen 1,181,239; Århus 242,914; Odense 166,305; Ålborg 102,312; Esbjerg 71,459.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.4 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 53.8%; outside of marriage (2008) 46.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.9 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 1.5 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.84. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 6.0/2.7. Life expectancy at birth (2008–09): male 76.5 years; female 80.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): diseases of the circulatory system 324.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 281.1; diseases of the respiratory system 96.6; mental disorders/diseases of the nervous system 71.1.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: DKK 694,084,000,000 (taxes on income and profits 44.4%, taxes on goods and services 39.8%, other 15.8%). Expenditures: DKK 613,412,000,000 (social protection 35.1%, education 11.4%, economic affairs 5.8%, defense 4.3%, health 0.2%). National debt (August 2010): U.S.$72,560,000,000. Population economically active (2008): total 2,917,4006; activity rate of total population 53.3%7 (participation rates: ages 16–64, 79.1%6; female 47.2%6; unemployed 2.1%).

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+7,895 5.6%

+8,150 5.2%

+6,284 3.6%

+4,414 2.2%

+5,875 2.6%

+9,645 5.6%

Imports (2008): U.S.$109,785,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 23.0%; chemicals and chemical products 10.8%; food 9.9%; road vehicles 7.3%; petroleum 6.7%). Major import sources: Germany 21.2%; Sweden 14.0%; Netherlands 6.8%; China 5.9%; U.K. 5.1%. Exports (2008): U.S.$115,660,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 22.4%, of which general industrial machinery 7.3%, power-generating machinery 4.6%; food 15.7%, of which meat 5.1% (including swine meat 3.3%); petroleum 8.9%; medicine and pharmaceuticals 6.9%). Major export destinations: Germany 17.5%; Sweden 14.6%; U.K. 8.1%; Norway 6.1%; U.S. 5.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (20093): route length 1,657 mi, 2,667 km; passenger-km (2008) 6,471,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 1,949,000,000. Roads (20093): total length 45,565 mi, 73,331 km (paved 100%); passenger-km (2007) 71,339,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 19,480,000,000. Vehicles (20093): passenger cars 2,099,090; trucks and buses 530,968. Air transport (2008)11: passenger-km 5,316,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 8,748,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

5,264

2009 2009

7,40613 2,062

units per 1,000 persons 977 1,35413 377

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

3,543 1,05812 4,751 2,07113

659 23512 868 37913

Education and health Educational attainment (2004). Percentage of population age 25–69 having: completed lower secondary or not stated 30.3%; completed upper secondary or vocational 43.9%; undergraduate 19.6%; graduate 6.2%. Literacy: 100%. Education (2006–07) teachers Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

39,85414 43,92114 …

students

student/ teacher ratio

415,793 475,140 232,194

9.914 10.114 …

enrollment rate (%) 96 90 67 (age 19–23)15

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

97.1 94.3

98.2 97.2

100.0 100.0

101.9 103.1

103.6 107.0

107.2 111.8

108.6 115.2

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2005) 2.2; average annual disposable income per household (2003) DKK 270,176 (U.S.$41,010); sources of gross income (2003): wages and salaries 63.8%, transfers 24.6%, property income 6.8%, self-employment 3.9%; expenditure (2003): housing 22.5%, transportation and communications 15.7%, food 11.1%, recreation and entertainment 11.1%, energy 7.5%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat 5,996,000, cow’s milk 4,814,000, barley 3,421,000, sugar beets 2,100,000, potatoes 1,750,000, rapeseed 634,800, mushrooms and truffles 11,000; livestock (number of live animals) 12,369,145 pigs, (2007) 2,832,069 minks, 1,540,340 cattle; roundwood 2,786,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 40%; fisheries production (2008) 725,539 metric tons (from aquaculture 3%). Mining and quarrying (2008): sand and gravel 28,600,000 cu m; chalk 1,900,000 metric tons. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 2,754; food products 2,743; printing and publishing 2,205; electrical machinery and apparatus 1,955; professional, scientific, and measuring equipment 1,805; plastics 1,698. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 39,154,000,000 (38,204,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (7,908,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 112,251,000 (57,417,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 7,582,000 (6,881,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 9,856,000,000 (4,842,000,000).

Health: physicians (2004) 19,450 (1 per 278 persons); hospital beds (2005) 20,487 (1 per 265 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 4.0; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 26,58516 (army 39.8%, air force 13.0%, navy 13.1%, joint staff 34.1%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.4%; per capita expenditure U.S.$829.

1Data in this statistical presentation nearly always exclude the Faroe Islands and Greenland. 2New administrative scheme as of Jan. 1, 2007. 3January 1. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Based on native land. 6De jure population only. 7Percentage of de jure population economically active based on total population. 8Taxes less subsidies on products. 9Includes 10,100 not adequately defined and 59,900 unemployed. 10Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 11Danish share of Scandinavian Airlines System. 12Circulation. 13Subscribers. 142000–01. 152005–06. 16In addition, the home guard (reserves) number 53,507.

Internet resources for further information: • Statistics Denmark http://www.dst.dk/yearbook • StatBank Denmark http://www.statbank.dk

Nations of the World

Djibouti

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Official name: Jumhuriyah Jibuti (Arabic); République de Djibouti (French) (Republic of Djibouti). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [65]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Djibouti. Official languages: Arabic; French. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Djibouti franc (FDJ); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = FDJ 177.721; 1 £ = FDJ 274.54.

labour force

% of labour force

4,880 1,369 3,480 11,277 7,833 37,852 21,817 17,441 22,548 2,458 18,0407 148,995

3.3 0.9 2.3 7.6 5.3 25.4 14.6 11.7 15.1 1.7 12.17 100.0

282,000

74.0

99,000

26.0

381,000

100.0

Capitals Ali Sabieh Arta Dikhil Obock Tadjourah

sq mi 850 700 2,775 1,800 2,750

sq km 2,200 1,800 7,200 4,700 7,100

2009 census2 86,949 42,380 88,948 37,856 86,704

City Djibouti

—

75 8,950

200 23,200

475,322 818,159

}

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 7.8; remittances (2009) 30; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 176; official development assistance (2008) 121. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 4.0; remittances (2008) 5. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, left fallow, or in permanent crops 0.1%, in pasture 73.3%, forest area 0.2%.

population

Regions Ali Sabieh Arta Dikhil Obock Tadjourah

TOTAL

% of total value

TOTAL

area

20106

in value FDJ ’000,000 Agriculture, hunting, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, insurance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 833,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 93.1, persons per sq km 35.9. Urban-rural (2009): urban 70.6%; rural 29.4%. Sex distribution (2008): male 46.60%; female 53.40%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 37.0%; 15–29, 30.3%; 30–44, 18.1%; 45–59, 9.4%; 60–74, 4.3%; 75–84, 0.8%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 974,000; (2030) 1,131,000. Doubling time: 39 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Somali 46.0%; Afar 35.4%; Arab 11.0%; mixed African and European 3.0%; French 1.6%; other/unspecified 3.0%. Religious affiliation (2000): Muslim (nearly all Sunnl) 94.1%; Christian 4.5%, of which Orthodox 3.0%, Roman Catholic 1.4%; nonreligious 1.3%; other 0.1%. Major city and towns (2009)3: Djibouti 475,322; Ali Sabieh 37,939; Dikhil 24,886; Tadjourah 14,820; Arta 13,260.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 26.3 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.5 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 17.8 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.92. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (1999): 8.9/2.8. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 57.9 years; female 62.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): communicable diseases 742; cardiovascular diseases 205; accidents, injuries, and violence 81; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 62; respiratory diseases 22. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 3.1% (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: FDJ 67,677,000,000 (tax revenue 67.7%; nontax revenue 16.6%; grants 15.7%). Expenditures: FDJ 69,812,000,000 (current expenditures 63.3%, of which wages and salaries 34.5%; capital expenditures 36.7%). Public debt (external, 2009): U.S.$658,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): vegetables 24,000, lemons and limes 1,800, dry beans 1,500, tomatoes 1,200, mangoes and guavas 450, dry chilies and peppers 300; livestock (number of live animals) 512,000 goats, 466,000 sheep, 297,000 cattle, 70,000 camels; roundwood, none; fisheries production 450 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: mineral production limited to locally used construction materials such as basalt and salt (2008) 118,000. Manufacturing (value added in FDJ ’000,000; 2000): beverages 1,030; animal products and hides 879; other food products 529; jewelry 160. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 292,000,000 (292,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (139,000); natural gas, none (none); geothermal, wind, and solar resources are substantial but largely undeveloped. Population economically active (2008): total 377,0004; activity rate of total population 44.4%4 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 71.8%4; female 43.8%4; unemployed [2007] c. 59%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

561

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.1

97.0

100.0

103.5

108.6

121.6

123.6

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 6.3; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1999)5: food 36.2%, housing and energy 18.1%, tobacco and related products 14.4%, transportation 8.8%, household furnishings 7.7%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$1,106,000,000 (U.S.$1,280 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$2,480 per capita).

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–201.0 73.0%

–223.4 74.6%

–237.8 75.1%

–280.5 71.8%

–415.1 78.1%

–505.3 78.6%

Imports (2007): U.S.$473,200,000 (top 20 agricultural imports c. 55%, of which palm oil c. 15%, refined sugar c. 9%, rice c. 5%; remainder c. 45%). Major import sources (2008): Saudi Arabia c. 21%; India c. 17%; China c. 11%; U.S. c. 6%; Malaysia c. 6%. Exports (2007): U.S.$58,100,000 (camels c. 32%; raw sugar c. 27%; cattle c. 26%; rice c. 6%). Major export destinations (2008): Somalia c. 80%; U.A.E. c. 4%; Yemen c. 4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): length 62 mi, 100 km8, 9; passenger-km (1999) 81,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2002) 201,000,000. Roads (2002): total length 1,796 mi, 2,890 km (paved 13%); passenger-km (2009) n.a.; metric tonkm cargo (2009) n.a. Vehicles (2002): passenger cars 15,700; trucks and buses 3,200. Air transport (2005): passenger arrivals and departures 219,119; metric tons of freight loaded and unloaded 10,973. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2005

53

70

2009 2009

12911 17

14911 20

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2008 2009 2009 2009

31 5.010 26 5.311

units per 1,000 persons 38 6.110 30 6.111

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2007): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 72.2%; males literate 81.2%; females literate 63.8%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary12

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

1,657 1,201 121

56,395 41,159 2,192

34.0 34.3 18.1

41 22 3 (age 19–23)

Health (2007): physicians13 85 (1 per 9,274 persons); hospital beds13 1,220 (1 per 646 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 58.3; undernourished population (2004–06) 210,000 (31% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,820 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 10,450 (army 76.6%, navy 1.9%, air force 2.4%, gendarmerie 19.1%); paramilitary 2,500. Foreign troops (2009): French 1,690; U.S. 1,207. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.4%; per capita expenditure U.S.$18.

1Pegged

rate of Djibouti franc to U.S.$. 2Preliminary. 3All populations include military and paramilitary personnel and refugees/homeless persons. 4ILO estimate. 5Weights of consumer price index components for Djibouti city only. 6Midyear estimates. 7Indirect taxes. 8Djibouti portion of 492 mi (791 km) Chemins de Fer Djibouto-Ethiopien linking Djibouti city and Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 9Djibouti city–Dire Dawa (Ethiopia) link only section of railway open in late 2009 due to railway rehabilitation under way nearer to Addis Ababa. 10Circulation of daily newspapers. 11Subscribers. 122006–07. 13Public health institutions only.

Internet resources for further information: • Banque Centrale de Djibouti http://www.banque-centrale.dj • Ministry of Finance http://www.ministere-finances.dj

562

Britannica World Data Population economically active (2001)4: total 27,865; activity rate of total population 40.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 64.7%; female 38.9%; unemployed [2002] c. 25%).

Dominica Official name: Commonwealth of Dominica. Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (House of Assembly [321]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Roseau. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar (EC$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = EC$2.70; 1 £ = EC$4.17. Area and population

Price index (2005 = 100)

area

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

96.0

98.3

100.0

102.6

105.9

112.6

112.7

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): root crops 27,020 (of which taro 11,200, yams 8,000, yautia 4,550, sweet potatoes 1,850), bananas 20,000, grapefruit and pomelos 17,000, coconuts 12,000, oranges 7,200, cow’s milk 6,100, plantains 5,775; livestock (number of live animals) 13,500 cattle, 9,700 goats, 7,600 sheep; roundwood (2009) 7,600 cu m, of which fuelwood 100%; fisheries production 694 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying: pumice, limestone, and sand and gravel are quarried primarily for local consumption. Manufacturing (2006): toilet and laundry soap 7,901; liquid disinfectant 1,861; toothpaste 1,376; crude coconut oil (2001) 855; other products include fruit juices, beer, garments, bottled spring water, and cardboard boxes. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 85,000,000 (85,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (39,000); natural gas, none (none). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 81; remittances (2009) 4; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 50; official development assistance (2008) 22. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 11; remittances (2008) negligible.

population

Parishes

sq mi

sq km

2001 census

St. Andrew St. David St. George St. John St. Joseph St. Luke St. Mark St. Patrick St. Paul St. Peter

69.3 49.0 20.7 22.5 46.4 4.3 3.8 32.6 26.0 10.7 285.32

179.6 126.8 53.5 58.5 120.1 11.1 9.9 84.4 67.4 27.7 739.02

10,240 6,758 19,825 5,327 5,765 1,571 1,907 8,383 8,397 1,452 69,6253

TOTAL

2003 Consumer price index

Foreign trade10 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 72,200. Density (2010)2: persons per sq mi 249.0, persons per sq km 96.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 67.2%; rural 32.8%. Sex distribution (2006): male 50.34%; female 49.66%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 26.1%; 15–29, 23.8%; 30–44, 27.4%; 45–59, 12.4%; 60–74, 7.0%; 75 and over, 3.3%. Population projection: (2020) 75,000; (2030) 77,000. Doubling time: 82 years. Ethnic composition (2000): black 88.3%; mulatto 7.3%; black-Amerindian 1.7%; British expatriates 1.0%; Indo-Pakistani 1.0%; other 0.7%. Religious affiliation (2001): Roman Catholic c. 61%; four largest Protestant groups (including Seventh-day Adventist, Pentecostal groups, and Methodist) c. 28%; nonreligious c. 6%; other c. 5%. Major towns (2008): Roseau (2009) 13,600; Portsmouth 3,300; Marigot 2,700; Atkinson 2,300; Berekua 2,100.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2006): 15.3 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (1991) 24.1%; outside of marriage (1991) 75.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2006): 6.7 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2006): 8.5 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2006): 1.94. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (1999) 4.7/(1998) 0.9. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 72.0 years; female 77.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2003): diseases of the circulatory system 262.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 173.3; endocrine and metabolic diseases 61.6; diseases of the respiratory system 51.6; infectious and parasitic diseases 34.4.

National economy Budget (2009–10). Revenue: EC$467,700,000 (tax revenue 67.3%, grants 25.5%, nontax revenue 7.0%, capital revenue 0.2%). Expenditures: EC$468,800,000 (current expenditure 64.1%, capital expenditure 35.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2007): U.S.$290,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$360,000,000 (U.S.$4,900 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$8,470 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, hotels, restaurants Finance, real estate Services Pub. admin., defense Other TOTAL

2001

in value EC$’000,000 118.8 7.9 40.7 83.2 41.3

% of total value 12.3 0.8 4.2 8.6 4.3

labour force 4 5,218 164 1,933 2,420 410

105.8

11.0

1,558

5.6

128.1 115.1 13.8 142.2 168.05 964.9

13.3 11.9 1.4 14.7 17.45 100.07

5,120 1,144

18.4 4.1

6,801

24.4

3,0976 27,865

11.16 100.0

}

% of labour force 4 18.7 0.6 6.9 8.7 1.5

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 6.7%, in permanent crops 21.3%, in pasture 2.7%, forest area 60.7%. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2003) 3.0; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (2001)8: wages and salaries 68.2%, self-employment 24.4%, other 7.4%; expenditure (2001)9: food 32.9%, transportation and communications 19.4%, housing 11.2%, household furnishings 9.4%, clothing and footwear 8.2%, energy 5.9%.

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–87.7 52.7%

–103.8 55.7%

–123.5 59.6%

–125.4 60.2%

–158.9 68.3%

–192.4 70.6%

Imports (2008): U.S.$232,400,000 (machinery and apparatus 17.8%; food 16.0%; refined petroleum 14.5%; chemicals and chemical products 8.7%; road vehicles 6.2%). Major import sources: U.S. 39.7%; Trinidad and Tobago 21.3%; U.K. 4.6%; Japan 4.3%; Canada 2.7%. Exports (2008): U.S.$40,000,000 (food 37.3%, of which bananas 20.0%, roots and tubers 6.0%; soap 33.2%; pebbles/gravel/used cement aggregates 8.0%; paints and varnishes 7.0%). Major export destinations: Jamaica 16.3%; Antigua and Barbuda 15.3%; France (including overseas departments) 13.8%; U.K. 13.3%; Trinidad and Tobago 8.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2002): total length 490 mi, 788 km (paved 50%). Vehicles (2005): passenger cars 10,000; trucks and buses 8,000. Air transport: n.a. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2000

16

220

2009 2009

10611 18

1,59111 263

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2004

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

13 0 28 1611

182 0 420 24011

Education and health Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: primary education 62%; secondary 31%; vocational/university 7%. Literacy (2004): total population age 15 and over literate, 88.0%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 5–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary

500 506 …12

students 8,369 7,309 229

student/ teacher ratio 16.7 14.4 …12

enrollment rate (%) 72 68 4 (age 17–21)

Health (2004): physicians 38 (1 per 1,824 persons); hospital beds (2002) 270 (1 per 257 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 23.3; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,870 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (2008): none13.

1Includes 21 elective seats, 9 appointees of the president, the speaker (elected from outside of the House of Assembly membership as of the 2005 elections), and the attorney general serving ex officio. 2Total area of Dominica per more recent survey is 290 sq mi (751 sq km). 3The total population including institutionalized persons equals 71,474. 4Excludes institutionalized population. 5Taxes less imputed banking service charges and subsidies. 6Includes 3,054 unemployed and 43 unclassified by economic activity. 7Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 8For employed labour force only. 9Weights of consumer price index components. 10Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 11Subscribers. 12Data not available for Ross University School of Medicine in Dominica. 13300-member police force includes a coast guard unit.

Internet resource for further information: • Eastern Caribbean Central Bank http://www.eccb-centralbank.org

Nations of the World

Dominican Republic

plantains 340,370, avocados 187,398, cattle meat 101,106, cocoa beans 42,154, tobacco 12,000; livestock (number of live animals) 2,653,000 cattle, 100,500,000 chickens; roundwood 905,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 99%; fisheries production 16,404 (from aquaculture 6%). Mining (2008): gypsum 350,000.10 Manufacturing (2005): cement 2,779,000; refined sugar 139,203; beer 4,541,000 hectolitres; rum 499,000 hectolitres; cigarettes 165,015,000 packets of 20 units.11 Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 14,839,000,000 (14,839,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (728,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (12,900,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 1,756,000 (5,317,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) none (437,000,000). Population economically active (2007): total 4,204,800; activity rate of total population 45.2% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 64.3%; female 38.7%; unemployed [2009] 14.9%).

Official name: República Dominicana (Dominican Republic). Form of government: multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [32]; Chamber of Deputies [183]).1 Head of state and government: President. Capital: Santo Domingo. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none2. Monetary unit: Dominican peso (RD$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = RD$37.00; 1 £ = RD$57.16.

Price index (2005 = 100)

area

Azua Baoruco Barahona Dajabón Duarte El Seíbo (El Seybo) Elías Piña Espaillat Hato Mayor Hermanas Mirabal Independencia La Altagracia La Romana La Vega María Trinidad Sánchez Monseñor Nouel Monte Cristi Monte Plata

sq km

population 2002 census

2,532 1,283 1,739 1,021 1,605 1,786 1,424 838 1,329 440 2,008 3,010 654 2,286 1,271 992 1,925 2,633

208,857 91,480 179,239 62,046 283,805 89,261 63,879 225,091 87,631 96,356 50,833 182,020 219,812 385,101 135,727 167,618 111,014 180,376

Provinces

sq km

area

population 2002 census

Pedernales Peravia Puerto Plata Samaná San Cristóbal San José de Ocoa San Juan San Pedro de Macorís Sánchez Ramírez Santiago Santiago Rodríguez Santo Domingo Valverde

2,077 998 1,857 854 1,265 650 3,571 1,255 1,196 2,836 1,112 1,296 823

21,207 169,865 312,706 91,875 532,880 62,368 241,105 301,744 151,179 908,250 59,629 1,817,754 158,293

National District Santo Domingo (city) TOTAL

104 913,540 48,6713, 4 8,562,541

Demography Population (2010): 9,884,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 526.0, persons per sq km 203.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 68.5%; rural 31.5%. Sex distribution (2009): male 50.69%; female 49.31%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 30.5%; 15–29, 26.8%; 30–44, 20.2%; 45–59, 13.5%; 60–74, 6.7%; 75–84, 1.9%; 85 and over, 0.4%. Population projection: (2020) 11,055,000; (2030) 12,010,000. Ethnic composition (2003)5: mulatto c. 73%; white c. 16%; black c. 11%. Religious affiliation (2004): Roman Catholic 64.4%; other Christian 11.4%; nonreligious 22.5%; other 1.7%. Major urban centres (2002): Santo Domingo 1,887,5866; Santiago 507,418; San Pedro de Macorís 193,713; La Romana 191,303; San Cristóbal 137,422.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 20.2 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.51. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 4.0/1.8. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 74.8 years; female 79.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): cardiovascular diseases 202.1; HIV/AIDS-related 98.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 76.6.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: RD$329,826,000,000 (tax revenue 71.6%, of which taxes on goods and services 42.4%, income taxes 17.7%; loans 19.9%; nontax revenue 3.2%; other 5.3%). Expenditures: RD$263,139,000,000 (current expenditure 65.2%; development expenditure 21.7%; debt payments 13.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$7,146,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$45,664,000,000 (U.S.$4,530 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$8,100 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Pub. admin., defense Finance, real estate Services Other TOTAL

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

63.4

96.0

100.0

107.6

114.2

126.3

128.2

Consumer price index

Area and population Provinces

563

in value RD$’000,0007

% of total value

26,354 768 73,275 14,362 4,980 76,525 50,879 3,786 31,417 27,729 32,4898 342,564

7.7 0.2 21.4 4.2 1.5 22.3 14.9 1.1 9.2 8.1 9.58 100.03

labour force 538,382 11,256 380,733 226,253 30,664 277,717 1,014,197 170,153 85,529 900,603 635,9099 4,271,396

% of labour force 12.6 0.3 8.9 5.3 0.7 6.5 23.7 4.0 2.0 21.1 14.99 100.0

Household income and expenditure (2007). Average household size (2002) 3.9; average annual household income RD$137,103 (U.S.$4,122); sources of income: wages and salaries 44.1%, self-employment 30.5%, transfers 16.4%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 21.4%, transportation 17.3%, hotels and cafés 13.8%, housing and energy 10.0%, health 6.1%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 4,823,910, rice 644,277, bananas 439,569, chicken meat 346,408,

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 4,176; remittances (2009) 3,344; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 2,231; official development assistance (2008) 153. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 314; remittances (2008) 28. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 17.0%, in permanent crops 10.3%, in pasture 24.8%, forest area 28.5%.

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,839 13.2%

–3,579 22.2%

–5,464 28.7%

–7,656 38.2%

–10,768 49.2%

–6,820 38.4%

Imports (2008): U.S.$16,338,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 16.4%, refined petroleum 13.2%, food products 7.8%, crude petroleum 7.6%, road vehicles 6.4%). Major import sources: U.S. 40.3%; Venezuela 8.6%; China 8.0%; Mexico 5.3%; Colombia 4.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$5,570,000,000 (food 11.1%, apparel and clothing accessories 11.0%, medical/surgical instruments 9.0%, ferronickel 8.3%, tobacco [all forms] 7.2%, precious metal jewelry 6.3%, switches/fuses 5.4%). Major export destinations: U.S. 61.0%; Haiti 10.2%; Netherlands 3.2%; Spain 3.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2006)13: route length 321 mi, 517 km. Roads (2002): total length 12,244 mi, 19,705 km (paved 51%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 630,815; trucks and buses 383,869. Air transport: (1999) passenger-km 4,900,000; (2003) metric ton-km cargo 200,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

1,950

209

2009 2009

8,63015 965

85515 96

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

331 24514 2,701 39615

35 2414 268 3915

Education and health Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of population age 25 and older having: no formal education 1.7%; incomplete/complete primary education 53.1%; secondary 25.9%; undergraduate 15.9%; graduate 1.0%; unknown/ other 2.4%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 89.1%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary16

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

66,539 37,164 11,367

1,305,661 868,017 293,565

19.6 23.4 25.8

80 58 33 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2007) 14,47917 (1 per 655 persons); hospital beds (2008) 9,566 (1 per 1,005 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 24.1; undernourished population (2004–06) 2,000,000 (21% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,840 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 49,910 (army 81.0%, navy 8.0%, air force 11.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.7%; per capita expenditure U.S.$33. 1New constitution promulgated on Jan. 26, 2010. 2Roman Catholicism is the state religion per concordat with Vatican City. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Mainland total is 48,512 sq km and offshore islands total is 159 sq km. 5Significantly excludes data for Haitians (about 10% of the population). 62002 census population for national district region (combined population of Santo Domingo province and the national district) is 2,731,294. 7At prices of 1991. 8Taxes on products less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 9Unemployed. 10Nickel mining ended late 2008; extraction for gold to resume in 2011. 11Manufactured goods assembled in free zones include electronic components, clothing, and footwear. 12Includes imports and exports of free zones. 13Excludes railways operated by sugarcane growers only. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 162003–04. 17Public sector only.

Internet resources for further information: • Banco Central de la República Dominicana http://www.bancentral.gov.do • Oficina Nacional de Estadística http://www.one.gov.do

564

Britannica World Data

East Timor (Timor-Leste1)

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 4.7; average annual income per household, n.a.8; sources of income, n.a.; expenditure (2001)9: food 56.7%, housing 10.2%, clothing and footwear 8.9%, household furnishings 7.9%, alcohol and tobacco products 4.8%. Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$2,706,000,000 (U.S.$2,460 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$4,690).

Official name: República Democrática de Timor-Leste (Portuguese); Repúblika Demokrátika Timor Lorosa’e (Tetum) (Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste [East Timor]). Form of government: republic with one legislative body (National Parliament [65]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Dili. Official languages: Portuguese; Tetum2. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: dollar (U.S.$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = £0.65.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2004

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, insurance Services Pub. admin., defense Other TOTAL

Area and population

area

Districts

Capitals

Aileu Ainaro Ambeno (Ocussi) exclave Baucau (Baukau) Bobonaro Covalima Dili Ermera Lautem Liquiça Manatuto Manufahi Viqueque

Aileu Ainaro Pante Macassar Baucau Maliana Suai Dili Ermera Los Palos Liquiça Manatuto Same Viqueque

TOTAL

% of total value10

labour force

% of labour force

31.6 0.8 3.7 1.0 9.4 9.4 7.5 8.7 0.6 27.3 — 100.0

340,000

81.3

78,000

18.7

418,000

100.0

}

population 2010 preliminary census

sq mi

sq km

285 310

737 804

45,512 59,382

814 1,506 1,376 1,203 367 768 1,813 549 1,782 1,323 1,877 14,919

65,524 111,484 89,787 60,063 234,331 114,635 60,218 63,329 43,246 48,894 70,177 1,066,582

314 581 531 464 142 297 701 212 688 511 725 5,7603

2003

in value U.S.$’000,00010 107.1 2.8 12.5 3.3 31.9 31.8 25.4 29.4 2.1 92.7 — 339.0

Demography Population (2010): 1,143,0004. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 198.4, persons per sq km 76.6. Urban-rural (2005): urban 7.8%; rural 92.2%. Sex distribution (2009): male 50.76%; female 49.24%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 45.0%; 15–29, 25.3%; 30–44, 15.1%; 45–59, 9.6%; 60–74, 4.0%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2020) 1,467,000; (2030) 1,800,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (1999): East Timorese c. 80%; other (nearly all Indonesian, and particularly West Timorese) c. 20%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic c. 98%5; Protestant c. 1%6; Muslim c. 1%6. Major urban areas (2004): Dili 151,026; Los Palos (Lospalos) 12,612; Same 9,966; Pante Macassar 9,754; Maliana 9,721.

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) negligible; official development assistance (2008) 278. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 11.4%, in permanent crops 4.6%, in pasture 10.1%, forest area 52.2%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–40.5 16.1%

–65.7 43.0%

–40.1 24.8%

–187.0 83.0%

–219.4 69.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$268,583,000 (mineral fuels 26.5%, motor vehicles 16.3%, cereals 9.5%, electrical equipment 6.5%, machinery and parts 6.5%). Major import sources: Indonesia 42.5%; Singapore 17.1%; Australia 13.8%; Vietnam 7.0%; Japan 4.5%. Exports (2008): U.S.$49,206,000 (domestic exports 26.2%, of which coffee 25.7%; reexports 73.8%). Major export destinations11: Germany 26.9%; U.S. 26.8%; Indonesia 16.6%; Singapore 10.0%; Portugal 6.4%; Japan 5.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2005): total length 3,107 mi, 5,000 km (paved 50%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 1,15912; trucks and buses 45712. Communications Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

200213 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

…

…

11615 2.4

10215 2.1

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

… 3.014 2.1 0.215

units per 1,000 persons … 4.114 1.9 0.115

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 40.3 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.7 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 30.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 5.7. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (1997–98): 0.4/0.1. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 64.0 years; female 68.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): communicable diseases 308; cardiovascular diseases 181; accidents 87; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 59; respiratory diseases 41.

National economy Budget (2005–06). Revenue: U.S.$485,000,000 (oil and gas revenue 93.1%, of which taxes 74.8%, royalties 15.5%; domestic revenue 6.9%). Expenditures: U.S.$93,000,000 (current expenditure 71.3%; capital expenditure 16.9%; previous year spending 11.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): corn (maize) 71,526, rice 60,420, cassava 41,212, sweet potatoes 26,000, coconuts 14,000, coffee 12,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 4,000, candlenut (2001) 1,063, cinnamon 75; livestock (number of live animals) 388,270 pigs, 145,407 cattle, 102,216 buffalo, 20,000 beehives, 1,000,000 chickens; roundwood, n.a.; sandalwood exports were formerly more significant; fisheries production 3,176 (from aquaculture 2%); aquatic plants production 100 (from aquaculture 100%). Mining and quarrying (2006): commercial quantities of marble are exported. Manufacturing (2001): principally the production of textiles, garments, handicrafts, bottled water, and processed coffee. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 135,000,000 (135,000,000); coal, n.a. (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 1,159,000 (negligible); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 6,745,000 (60,000); natural gas, n.a. (n.a.). Population economically active (2008): total 427,0007; activity rate of total population 39%7 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 73%7; female 41%7; unemployed [2000] c. 50%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.8

98.9

100.0

103.9

114.6

125.0

125.9

Education and health Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal education 54.3%, some primary education 14.4%, complete primary 6.2%, lower secondary 10.4%, upper secondary and higher 14.7%. Literacy (2005): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 49%; males literate 54%; females literate 45%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

7,358 3,916 1,196

215,741 85,849 16,727

29.3 21.9 14.0

83 2316 15 (age 18–22)17

Health: physicians (2009) 210 (1 per 5,310 persons); hospital beds (1999) 560 (1 per 1,277 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 83.5; undernourished population (2004–06) 240,000 (23% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,81018 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 1,332 (army 93.8%, coastal patrol 6.2%). Foreign troops (November 2009): Australian 650; New Zealander 155. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP: n.a. 1Timor-Leste is the preferred short-form name per the United Nations. 2Indonesian and English are “working” languages. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Not based on 2010 preliminary census results. 5Some vestiges of traditional beliefs are also practiced in conjunction with Roman Catholicism. 6Most Protestants and Muslims left East Timor after 1999. 7ILO estimate. 8Minimum annual wage (1999) U.S.$276; average public administration wage (2003) U.S.$1,500. 9Weights of consumer price index components for Dili only. 10Figures do not include value added from petroleum (part of the GNI but not GDP), which in 2004 equaled U.S.$168,000,000. 11Excludes reexports. 12Registered vehicles only. 13Locally produced television service commenced in May 2002. 14Circulation of daily newspapers. 15Subscribers. 162000–01. 172007–08. 18Value for Indonesia used for East Timor.

Internet resources for further information: • Banking and Payments Authority of Timor-Leste http://www.bancocentral.tl/en • Direcção Nacional de Estatística http://dne.mopf.gov.tl

Nations of the World

Ecuador

diture: food, beverages, and tobacco 23.8%, housing and energy 19.1%, transportation and communications 12.9%, restaurants and hotels 10.4%. Public debt (external, outstanding; July 2010): U.S.$7,903,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$53,630,000,000 (U.S.$3,940 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$8,040 per capita).

Official name: República del Ecuador (Republic of Ecuador). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one acting legislative body (National Assembly [124]1). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Quito. Official language: Spanish2. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: dollar (U.S.$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = £0.65.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value U.S.$’000,000

Area and population Regions Provinces Amazonica Morona-Santiago Napo Orellana Pastaza Sucumbíos Zamora-Chinchipe Costa El Oro Esmeraldas Guayas3 Los Ríos Manabí Santa Elena3 Insular Galápagos

area

population

sq km

2010 projection

Regions Provinces

115,745 23,797 12,484 21,675 29,325 18,008 10,456 68,324 5,817 15,896 16,803 7,151 18,894 3,763 8,010 8,010

708,566 137,254 102,775 120,781 81,417 177,561 88,778 7,052,227 642,479 518,781 3,474,229 780,443 1,366,173 270,122 24,366 24,366

Sierra Azuay Bolívar Cañar Carchi Chimborazo Cotopaxi Imbabura Loja Pichincha4 Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas4 Tungurahua NON-DELIMITED AREAS TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2010 projection

63,516 7,995 3,926 3,142 3,750 6,470 5,984 4,615 10,995 9,465

6,384,594 714,341 185,049 234,467 171,943 461,268 423,336 421,930 446,809 2,461,126

3,805 3,369 775 256,370

335,712 528,613 35,147 14,204,900

Demography Population (2010): 14,219,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 143.6, persons per sq km 55.5. Urban-rural (2009): urban 66.3%; rural 33.7%. Sex distribution (2007): male 49.77%; female 50.23%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 32.1%; 15–29, 27.5%; 30–44, 19.5%; 45–59, 12.5%; 60–74, 6.1%; 75–84, 1.8%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Doubling time: 68 years. Population projection: (2020) 15,871,000; (2030) 17,216,000. Ethnic composition (2000): mestizo 42.0%; Amerindian 40.8%; white 10.6%; black 5.0%; other 1.6%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic (practicing) c. 35%; Roman Catholic (non-practicing) c. 50%; other (significantly Evangelical Protestant) c. 15%. Major cities (2003): Guayaquil 2,634,0005; Quito 1,801,0005; Cuenca 303,994; Machala 217,266; Santo Domingo de los Colorados 211,689.

Agriculture Crude petroleum, nat. gas Other mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

3,478 9,867 113 6,2677 5,344 667 3,3078 6,3609 1,29010 2,773 13,82811 915 54,209

TOTAL

6.4 18.2 } 2.6 9.27 9.9 1.2 6.18 11.79 2.410 5.1 25.511 1.7 100.0

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2006

2007

2008

2009

+1,462 6.1%

+1,261 4.8%

+1,095 3.0%

–310 1.1%

Imports (2008): U.S.$17,415,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 21.2%, mineral fuels 18.7%, chemicals and chemical products 15.7%, road vehicles/parts 10.5%, iron and steel 7.6%, food 7.2%). Major import sources: U.S. 14.9%; China 12.2%; Colombia 9.5%; Japan 5.0%; Brazil 4.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$18,510,000,000 (crude petroleum 57.1%, bananas and plantains 8.9%, fish [all forms] 5.4%, refined petroleum 5.1%, shrimp 3.6%, cut flowers 3.1%). Major export destinations: U.S. 45.3%; Peru 9.2%; Chile 8.1%; Panama 4.8%; Colombia 4.2%.

Transport and communications Transport (2007). Railroads: route length 600 mi, 965 km13; passenger-km 2,200,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Roads: total length 27,135 mi, 43,670 km (paved 15%); passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo 1,193,000,000. Vehicles: passenger cars 507,469; trucks and buses 334,405. Air transport: passenger-km 3,693,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 139,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

3,298

253 1,00015 147

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0

103.0

105.4

114.2

120.1

Household income and expenditure (2003)6. Average household size (2008) 3.9; average annual income per household U.S.$8,161; sources of income: wages 47.0%, self-employment 25.6%, transfer payments 15.7%, rent 11.7%; expen-

12.7 6.1 0.4 6.6 30.5 6.0 4.0 17.8 7.912 100.0

2005

13,63515 2,004

97.6

537,200 258,700 18,800 280,100 1,289,800 251,600 168,200 752,100 333,60012 4,225,400

+551 2.8%

2009 2009

2004

0.3

+198 1.3%

2004

95.0

7.7

10,700

2004

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

324,600

Balance of trade (current prices)

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 15.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.56. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 5.5/1.2. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 72.2 years; female 78.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): diseases of the circulatory system 79.6; accidents and violence 45.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 38.6; diabetes mellitus 29.0; pneumonia and influenza 22.1; unspecified 140.3.

Price index (2005 = 100)

% of labour force

Foreign trade

date

Budget (2009). Revenue: U.S.$11,583,000,000 (nonpetroleum revenue 80.2%, of which value-added tax 26.1%, income tax 21.7%, customs duties 8.0%; petroleum export revenue 19.8%). Expenditures: U.S.$14,218,000,000 (current expenditure 62.8%; capital expenditure 37.2%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 8,473,000, bananas 7,637,000, oil palm fruit (2008) 2,100,000, rice 1,579,000, corn (maize) 811,000, plantains 549,000, cocoa beans 121,000, coffee 34,000, pyrethrum and dried flowers (2007) 105; livestock (live animals) 5,195,000 cattle, 1,406,000 pigs, 820,000 sheep, 110,000,000 (2008) chickens; roundwood 6,016,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 68%; fisheries production (2008) 606,359 (from aquaculture 28%). Mining and quarrying (2007): limestone 5,374,000; gold 3,186 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2005): refined petroleum 1,885; food products 1,010; beverages 441; bricks, cement, and ceramics 254; printing and publishing 200; plastics 143. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 17,339,000,000 (18,161,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 177,400,000 ([2007] 61,500,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 7,423,000 (7,999,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 1,246,000,000 ([2008] 255,000,000). Population economically active (2006): total 4,204,800; activity rate of total population 45.2% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 69.6%; female 38.7%; unemployed [2009] 8.5%).

labour force

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 742; remittances (2009) 2,500; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 502; official development assistance (2008) 231. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 542; remittances (2008) 83. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 3.6%, left fallow 0.7%, in permanent crops 4.4%, in pasture 18.1%, forest area 37.8%.

Medium

National economy

2005 % of total value

Vital statistics

Consumer price index

565

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

866 70514 2,052 24115

65 5014 151 1815

Education and health Educational attainment (1995). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling/incomplete primary education 18.8%; complete primary/incomplete secondary 47.2%; complete secondary 16.1%; higher 17.9%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 84.2%; males 87.3%; females 81.7%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

90,430 85,099 26,910

2,040,617 1,247,316 534,522

22.6 14.7 19.9

9716 62 42 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2008) 27,150 (1 per 508 persons); hospital beds (2007) 20,523 (1 per 663 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 15.2; undernourished population (2004–06) 1,700,000 (13% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,770 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 57,983 (army 80.2%, navy 12.6%, air force 7.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.0%; per capita expenditure U.S.$80. 1Permanent legislature reinstated with April 2009 elections. 2Quechua and Shuar are also official languages for the indigenous peoples. 3Santa Elena created from part of Guayas in October 2007. 4Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas created from part of Pichincha in October 2007. 52009 population of urban agglomeration. 6Based on a survey of urban households only. 7Includes refined petroleum. 8Transportation only. 9Trade only. 10Finance only. 11Includes hotels, restaurants, communications, real estate, education, and health. 12Unemployed. 13176 mi (284 km) of the railway were operable in 2007. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 162006–07.

Internet resources for further information: • Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos http://www.inec.gov.ec/default.asp • Banco Central del Ecuador http://www.bce.fin.ec

566

Britannica World Data

Egypt

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 4.2. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$172,023,000,000 (U.S.$2,070 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$5,690 per capita).

Official name: Jumhuriyat Misr al-(Arabiyah (Arab Republic of Egypt). Form of government: republic with two legislative houses (Consultative Assembly [2641]; People’s Assembly [5182]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Cairo. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Egyptian pound (LE); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = LE 5.71; 1 £ = LE 8.82.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008–09

area

population

sq km

20103 estimate

212,112 27,574 203,685 33,140

352,885 374,071 306,722 154,941

376,505

199,810

10,130 3,471 589 1,942 1,442 3,437 1,532 1,001 4,180

5,071,346 5,338,831 1,180,991 4,262,200 1,029,136 2,798,942 3,496,380 4,546,564 5,736,644

Regions Governorates Frontier Matruh North Sinai Red Sea South Sinai Al-Wadi al-Jadid Lower Egypt Al-Buhayrah Al-Daqahliyah Dumyat Al-Gharbiyah Al-lsma(iliyah Kafr al-Shaykh Al-Minufiyah Al-Qalyubiyah Al-Sharqiyah

135,464.6 147,966.3 164,523.3 44,026.0 16,020.4 98,973.212 148,111.5 98,674.3 94,120.1 42,332.1 — 990,211.8

13.7 14.9 16.6 4.4 1.6 10.012 15.0 10.0 9.5 4.3 — 100.0

TOTAL

Regions Governorates Upper Egypt Aswan Asyut Bani Suwayf Al-Fayyum Al-Jizah (Giza) Al-Minya Qina Sawhaj “6 October”5 Urban Alexandria Cairo Hulwan5 Luxor Port Said Suez REMAINDER TOTAL

area

population

sq km

20103 estimate

679 1,553 …4 …4 100 …4 1,851 1,547 …4

1,258,882 3,701,392 2,470,960 2,721,478 3,326,444 4,481,879 3,209,982 4,004,613 2,780,921

2,679 214 7,500 55 72 17,840 87,1706 1,002,000

4,362,168 7,137,218 1,831,505 484,132 604,451 549,759 77,775,247

Demography Population (2010): 84,474,0007. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 218.4, persons per sq km 84.3. Urban-rural (2009): urban 43.0%; rural 57.0%. Sex distribution (20103): male 51.13%; female 48.87%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 31.7%; 15–29, 31.3%; 30–44, 18.5%; 45–59, 12.4%; 60–74, 5.1%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2020) 98,638,000; (2030) 110,907,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Egyptian Arab 84.1%; Sudanese Arab 5.5%; Arabized Berber 2.0%; Bedouin 2.0%; Rom (Gypsy) 1.6%; other 4.8%. Religious affiliation (2000): Muslim 84.4%8; Christian 15.1%, of which Orthodox 13.6%, Protestant 0.8%, Roman Catholic 0.3%; nonreligious 0.5%. Major cities (’000; 2006): Cairo 6,759 (11,8939, 10); Alexandria 4,085; Al-Jizah 2,891; Shubra al-Khaymah 1,026; Port Said 571; Suez 512.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008–09): 25.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008–09): 6.3 (world avg. 8.5). Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 8.1/0.8. Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.80. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 70.2 years; female 74.8 years.

labour force

% of labour force

7,116,000 37,000 2,567,000 2,268,000 297,000 1,575,000 2,849,000 614,000 1,890,000 3,268,000 2,169,00013 24,650,000

28.9 0.1 10.4 9.2 1.2 6.4 11.6 2.5 7.7 13.2 8.813 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 10,985; remittances (2009) 7,150; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007– 09 avg.) 9,262; official development assistance (2008) 1,348. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 2,915; remittances (2008) 241; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 1,052.

Foreign trade14 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

–5,419 25.5%

–9,168 30.1%

–6,911 20.1%

2007 –10,828 25.2%

2008 –26,528 33.6%

Imports (2008): U.S.$52,752,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 18.2%; food products 12.3%, of which cereals 5.9%; chemicals and chemical products 12.0%; mineral fuels 10.9%; iron and steel 8.8%; road vehicles 5.6%). Major import sources: U.S. 10.8%; China 8.4%; Germany 6.2%; Saudi Arabia 5.9%; Italy 5.7%; Russia 4.3%. Exports (2008): U.S.$26,224,000,000 (refined petroleum 18.9%; LNG 13.7%; food products 9.6%; crude petroleum 8.4%; organic chemicals/fertilizers/plastics 5.7%). Major export destinations: Italy 10.3%; India 6.3%; Spain 5.7%; Neth. 5.7%; bunkers and ships’ stores 5.0%; U.S. 4.9%; Saudi Arabia 4.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007–08): length (2009) 3,418 mi, 5,500 km; passengerkm 63,840,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 4,790,000,000. Roads (2006): total length 61,933 mi, 99,672 km (paved 81%); passenger-km 145,576,000,00015; metric ton-km cargo 47,445,000,000. Vehicles (20073): passenger cars 2,372,287; trucks and buses 1,541,986. Inland water (2008–09): Suez Canal, number of transits 19,354; metric ton cargo 811,400,000. Air transport (2009): passenger-km 16,325,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 176,858,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2005

18,000

233

2009 2009

55,35217 10,313

66717 124

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2008 2009 2009 2009

3,261 4,01816 16,636 1,07617

40 4816 200 1317

Education and health

National economy Budget (2009–10). Revenue: LE 297,639,000,000 (nontax revenue 41.4%, taxes on goods and services 22.5%, corporate taxes 20.2%). Expenditures: LE 391,050,000,000 (social protection 36.4%, wages and salaries 21.8%, interest on debt 16.0%, defense 6.0%). Public debt (external; August 2010): U.S.$32,277,100,000. Population economically active (2009): total 25,400,000; activity rate 30.4% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 51.2%; female 23.4%; unemployed [April 2009–March 2010] 9.3%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

% of total value11

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

2008

in value LE ’000,00011

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

85.7

95.4

100.0

107.6

117.7

139.2

155.6

Production (’000; metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 17,000, wheat 8,523, rice 7,500, corn (maize) 6,800, potatoes 4,000, oranges 2,200, grapes 1,550, dates 1,350, seed cotton 550, olives 500; livestock (’000; number of live animals) 5,500 sheep, 5,000 cattle, 4,550 goats, 110 camels; roundwood 17,551,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 98%; fisheries production (2008) 1,067,630 (from aquaculture 65%). Mining and quarrying (2008): phosphate rock 5,523; gypsum 2,381. Manufacturing (value added in LE ’000,000; 2006): base metals 9,671; food products and beverages 9,244; chemicals and chemical products 8,568; cement, bricks, and ceramics 7,386; coke and refined petroleum products 6,854. Energy production (consumption): electricity (’000,000 kW-hr; 2009–10) 134,204 ([2008–09] 112,404); coal (’000 metric tons; 2007) 25 (1,708); crude petroleum (’000 barrels; 2009–10) 211,121 ([2007] 193,050); petroleum products (’000 metric tons; 2007) 32,494 (32,810); natural gas (’000,000 cu m; 2009) 62,700 (42,500). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 3.0%, in permanent crops 0.5%, in pasture, n.a., forest area 0.1%.

Educational attainment (2006). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling 41.6%; incomplete primary education/incomplete secondary 20.7%; complete secondary/some higher 28.1%; university 9.4%; advanced degree 0.2%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 72.0%; males 83.6%; females 60.7%. Education (2008–09) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

31.5 15.1 29.4

8918 6618 28 (age 18–22)18

330,491 10,407,217 454,420 6,881,794 79,774 2,345,407

Health (2008–09): physicians 174,000 (1 per 471 persons); hospital beds 208,000 (1 per 394 persons); infant mortality rate 16.0; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,840 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 468,500 (army 72.6%, navy 3.9%, air force [including air defense] 23.5%).19 Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$56. 1Has limited legislative authority; 88 seats are appointed. 2Ten seats are appointed. 3January 1. 4Area of new or newly delimited governorate unavailable in early 2010. 5Officially created in April 2008. 6Includes total area of undemarcated regions and inland water area. 7Estimate of United Nations World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision. 8Nearly all Sunni; Shi(i make up less than 1% of population. 92007. 10Urban agglomeration. 11At factor cost. 12Transportation includes earnings from traffic on the Suez Canal. 13Includes 2,143,000 unemployed. 14Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 15Undefined; probably buses and taxis only. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 182007–08. 19Foreign forces: 11-nation

non-UN peacekeeping force in Sinai (2009) 1,657.

Internet resources for further information: • CAPMAS http://www.capmas.gov.eg • Central Bank of Egypt http://www.cbe.org.eg

Nations of the World

El Salvador

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$20,800,000,000 (U.S.$3,370 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$6,360 per capita).

Official name: República de El Salvador (Republic of El Salvador). Form of government: republic with one legislative house (Legislative Assembly [84]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: San Salvador. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none1. Monetary unit: dollar (U.S.$)2; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = £0.65.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

population

sq km 1,240 1,104 2,017 756 1,653 1,224 2,074 1,447

2007 unadjusted census 319,503 149,326 192,788 231,480 660,652 308,087 238,217 174,406

Departments San Miguel San Salvador San Vicente Santa Ana Sonsonate Usulután TOTAL

area

population

sq km 2,077 886 1,184 2,023 1,225 2,130 21,040

2007 unadjusted census 434,003 1,567,156 161,645 523,655 438,960 344,235 5,744,113

labour force

% of labour force

2,693 86 4,452 860 417 1,992 4,434 3,296 1,404 1,595 8866 22,115

12.2 0.4 20.1 3.9 1.9 9.0 20.0 14.9 6.4 7.2 4.06 100.0

435,800 3,700 403,600 148,400 10,200 103,200 720,600 114,400 98,700 380,100 167,1007 2,585,800

16.9 0.1 15.6 5.7 0.4 4.0 27.9 4.4 3.8 14.7 6.57 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 894; remittances (2009) 3,480; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 908; official development assistance (2008) 233. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 624; remittances (2008) 29.

Foreign trade8 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 6,052,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 745.0, persons per sq km 287.6. Urban-rural (2008): urban 64.8%; rural 35.2%. Sex distribution (2009): male 48.30%; female 51.70%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 32.5%; 15–29, 28.3%; 30–44, 18.7%; 45–59, 11.7%; 60–74, 6.4%; 75–84, 1.9%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2020) 6,217,000; (2030) 6,340,000. Doubling time: 53 years. Ethnic composition (2000): mestizo 88.3%; Amerindian 9.1%, of which Pipil 4.0%; white 1.6%; other/unknown 1.0%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic c. 71%; independent Christian c. 11%; Protestant c. 10%; Jehovah’s Witness c. 2%; other c. 6%. Major cities (2007): San Salvador 316,090 (urban agglomeration 1,566,629); Soyapango 241,4033; Santa Ana 204,340; San Miguel 158,136; Mejicanos 140,7513.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 20.2 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (c. 2003) 27%; outside of marriage (c. 2003) 73%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 6.9 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 13.3 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.20. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 4.6/1.0. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 66.8 years; female 76.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): diseases of the circulatory system 92.8; homicide and suicide 62.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 57.1; diseases of the respiratory system 45.9; accidents 39.0.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: U.S.$3,584,400,000 (tax revenue 72.8%, social security contributions 9.9%, nontax revenue 6.1%, grants 3.0%, other 8.2%). Expenditures: U.S.$4,385,500,000 (current expenditure 85.3%, capital expenditure 14.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2009): U.S.$6,343,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 5,736,000, corn (maize) 785,965, cow’s milk 541,615, chicken meat 97,727, plantains 96,493, mangoes/guavas 85,000, dry beans 80,110, coffee 76,591, lemons and limes 55,953; livestock (number of live animals) 1,342,000 cattle, (2008) 14,748,000 chickens; roundwood 4,898,700 cu m, of which fuelwood 86%; fisheries production (2008) 51,766 (from aquaculture 7%). Mining and quarrying (2008): limestone 1,200,000. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2008)4: food products 619, of which flour and bakery products 202, sugar products 157; maquiladora industries 238; textiles and wearing apparel 227; chemicals and chemical products 185; beverages 170. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 5,806,000,000 (5,837,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (7,030,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 927,000 (1,952,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 4.0; average annual income per household (2008) U.S.$6,059; expenditure (June 2005)5: food, beverages, and tobacco 36.4%, housing and energy 16.8%, transportation and communications 10.2%, household furnishings 8.4%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 17.4%, left fallow 15.5%, in permanent crops 11.4%, in pasture 30.7%, forest area 13.9%. Population economically active (2008): total 2,495,908; activity rate of total population 40.8% (participation rates: ages 16–64, 62.9%; female 41.3%; unemployed 5.9%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

% of total value

TOTAL

area

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

91.4

95.5

100.0

104.0

108.8

116.1

117.3

2007

in value U.S.$’000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

Departments Ahuachapán Cabañas Chalatenango Cuscatlán La Libertad La Paz La Unión Morazán

567

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–3,024 31.4%

–3,271 32.4%

–3,957 34.8%

–4,728 37.2%

–5,205 36.4%

–3,457 31.3%

Imports (2008): U.S.$9,754,000,000 (petroleum 17.3%; chemicals and chemical products 15.4%; machinery and apparatus 13.1%; food 12.3%; fabrics 7.1%). Major import sources: U.S. 34.4%; Mexico 9.0%; Guatemala 8.5%; China 4.9%; Honduras 3.8%. Exports (2008): U.S.$4,549,000,000 (apparel and clothing accessories 34.7%, of which T-shirts/athletic jerseys 19.1%; food 17.8%, of which coffee 5.7%; paper and paper products 3.8%). Major export destinations: U.S. 48.1%; Guatemala 13.6%; Honduras 13.0%; Nicaragua 5.5%; Costa Rica 3.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007)9: length 176 mi, 283 km. Roads (2002): total length 11,458 km (paved 23%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 283,787; trucks and buses 290,094. Air transport (2008)10: passenger-km 10,233,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 65,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

1,560

2009 2009

7,56612 1,099

units per 1,000 persons 233 1,22812 178

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

359 28011 889 14912

units per 1,000 persons 52 4611 144 2412

Education and health Educational attainment (2004). Percentage of population over age 25 having: no formal schooling 22.0%; primary education: grades 1–3 19.1%, grades 4–6 19.9%; secondary: grades 7–9 13.9%, grades 10–12 14.6%; higher 10.5%. Literacy (2008): total population age 16 and over literate 83.5%; males literate 86.6%; females literate 80.8%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

30,474 20,484 8,562

students 993,795 539,277 138,615

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

32.6 26.3 16.2

94 55 25 (age 19–23)

Health (2005): physicians 8,670 (1 per 794 persons); hospital beds 4,816 (1 per 1,429 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 30.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 600,000 (10% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,760 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 15,500 (army 89.4%, navy 4.5%, air force 6.1%); paramilitary 17,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$21.

1Roman Catholicism, tion. 2The U.S. dollar

although not official, enjoys special recognition in the constituhas been legal tender in El Salvador from Jan. 1, 2001. 3Within San Salvador urban agglomeration. 4At constant prices of 1990. 5Weights of consumer price index components. 6Import duties and VAT less imputed bank service charges. 7Unemployed less 500 not adequately defined. 8Imports c.i.f., exports f.o.b. (including assembled components for reexport). 9All rail service was suspended from 2002; very limited passenger service was resumed in 2007. 10TACA only (a regional airline of 5 independently owned Central American airlines headquartered in El Salvador). 11Circulation. 12Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • Banco Central de Reserva de El Salvador http://www.bcr.gob.sv • Dirección General de Estadística y Censos http://www.digestyc.gob.sv

568

Britannica World Data

Equatorial Guinea

4,500, cacao beans 3,000; livestock (number of live animals) 38,000 sheep, 9,100 goats, 6,300 pigs, 5,100 cattle; roundwood (2009) 607,800 cu m, of which fuelwood 31%; fisheries production (2008) 5,400 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: gold (2009) 200 kg. Manufacturing (2004): methanol 1,027,300; processed timber 31,200 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 95,000,000 (95,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 113,000,000 (negligible); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 4,592,000 (195,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 7,900,000,000 ([2007] 1,672,000,000). Population economically active (2008): total 251,0006; activity rate of total population 38.1%6 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 66.4%6; female 38.4%6; unemployed, n.a.).

Official name: República de Guinea Ecuatorial (Spanish); République du Guinée Équatoriale (French) (Republic of Equatorial Guinea). Form of government: republic with one legislative house (House of People’s Representatives [100]). Head of state and government: President assisted by the Prime Minister. Capital: Malabo. Official languages: Spanish; French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

Price index (2000 = 100) Consumer price index

Area and population area Regions Provinces Insular Annobón Bioko Norte Bioko Sur Continental Centro-Sur Kie-Ntem Litoral 2 Wele-Nzas

Capitals

sq mi 7851 7 300 479 10,0451 3,834 1,522 2,573 2,115 10,8311

Palé Malabo Luba Evinayong Ebebiyin Bata Mongomo

TOTAL

population 2002 census 265,470 5,008 231,428 29,034 749,529 125,856 167,279 298,414 157,980 1,014,9993

sq km 2,034 17 776 1,241 26,017 9,931 3,943 6,665 5,478 28,051

Demography Population (2010): 651,0004. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 60.1, persons per sq km 23.2. Urban-rural (2009): urban 39.5%; rural 60.5%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.57%; female 50.43%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 42.0%; 15–29, 26.6%; 30–44, 16.6%; 45–59, 8.7%; 60–74, 5.0%; 75–84, 1.0%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 836,0004; (2030) 1,037,0004. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Fang 56.6%; migrant labourers from Nigeria 12.5%, of which Yoruba 8.0%, Igbo 4.0%; Bubi 10.0%; Seke 2.9%; Spaniard 2.8%; other 15.2%. Religious affiliation (2000): Roman Catholic 79.9%; Sunni Muslim 4.1%; independent Christian 3.7%; Protestant 3.2%; traditional beliefs 2.1%; nonreligious/atheist 4.9%; other 2.1%. Major cities (2003): Malabo (2009) 128,000; Bata 66,800; Mbini 11,600; Ebebiyin 9,100; Luba 6,800.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 37.1 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 9.7 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 27.4 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 5.16. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 60.4 years; female 62.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): infectious and parasitic diseases 812.5, of which HIV/AIDS 274.3, malaria 178.4, diarrheal diseases 94.9, respiratory infections 89.5; diseases of the circulatory system 197.5; accidents, poisoning, and violence 124.3. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 3.4% (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: CFAF 2,368,100,000,000 (tax revenue 38.2%, of which corporate tax 33.2%; nontax revenue 61.8%, of which royalties 46.2%). Expenditures: CFAF 2,827,500,000,000 (current expenditure 12.2%, of which goods and services 5.5%, subsidies 4.0%; capital expenditure 87.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2009): U.S.$626,100,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$8,398,000,000 (U.S.$12,420 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$19,350 per capita).

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

117.1

125.7

131.0

138.4

144.5

148.6

156.8

Household income and expenditure. Average household size, n.a.; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2000)7: food and beverages 60.4%, clothing 14.7%, household furnishings 8.6%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 4.6%, in permanent crops 3.2%, in pasture 3.7%, forest area 57.1%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2005) 5; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 2,085; official development assistance (2008) 38. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF ’000,000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+910 38.8%

+1,600 49.2%

+3,035 68.7%

+3,235 60.5%

+3,571 57.4%

+4,699 57.1%

Imports (2008): CFAF 1,767,000,000,000 (for petroleum sector 22.1%, for nonpetroleum sector 77.9%). Major import sources: China c. 18%; Spain c. 14%; U.S. c. 12%; France c. 11%; Côte d’Ivoire c. 8%. Exports (2008): CFAF 6,466,000,000,000 (crude petroleum 78.1%, methanol 21.2%, timber 0.4%). Major export destinations: U.S. c. 23%; Spain c. 18%; China c. 15%; Taiwan c. 11%; France c. 8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2000): total length 1,790 mi, 2,880 km (paved, n.a.). Vehicles (2002): passenger cars 8,380; trucks and buses 6,618. Air transport: n.a.8. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2002

55

116

2009 2009

44510 10

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

65810 15

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

7.0 09 14 0.210

units per 1,000 persons 3.3 09 21 0.310

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2008): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 93.0%; males literate 96.9%; females literate 89.1%. Education (1999–2000) teachers Primary (age 7–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

2,93611 894 206

students 81,09911 21,17313 1,003

student/ teacher ratio 27.611 23.2 3.9

enrollment rate (%) 6612 2214 3 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2004) 101 (1 per 5,020 persons); hospital beds (1998) 907 (1 per 472 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 83.8; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 1,320 (army 83.3%, navy 9.1%, air force 7.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$18.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 in value CFAF ’000,000 Agriculture, fishing Forestry Crude petroleum Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

2003 % of total value

134,000 47,700 3,393,800 775,000 1,060,100 54,100

2.3 0.8 58.8 13.4 18.4 0.9

9,500 85,700 34,700 76,000 34,800 65,8005 5,771,200

0.2 1.5 0.6 1.3 0.6 1.25 100.0

labour force

}

% of labour force

141,000

69.1

63,000

30.9

204,000

100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2007): roots and tubers 105,000 (of which cassava 45,000, sweet potatoes 36,000), oil palm fruit 35,000, plantains 31,000, bananas 20,000, coconuts 6,000, coffee

1Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 2Includes three islets in Corisco Bay. 3Official government census figures; credible estimates are significantly lower. 4Estimate of the U.S. Bureau of the Census International Database (March 2008 update). 5Import duties. 6Estimate of the ILO Employment Trends Unit. 7Weights of consumer price index components. 8Data unavailable for Ecuato Guineana, the national airline. 9Circulation. 10Subscribers. 112006–07. 122002–03. 132001–02. 142000–01.

Internet resources for further information: • La Banque de France: La Zone Franc http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm • Ministerio de Planificación, Desarrollo Económico, e Inversiones Públicas http://www.dgecnstat-ge.org

569

Nations of the World

Eritrea

Household income and expenditure (1996–97). Average household size (2004) 5.0; average annual disposable income per household Nfa 10,967 (U.S. $1,707); sources of income9: wages and salaries 34.0%, transfers 29.3%, rent 19.8%, self-employment 16.9%; expenditure9: food 36.2%, housing 30.2%, clothing and footwear 9.3%, energy 6.8%, household furnishings 4.6%, transportation and communications 4.1%. Population economically active (2008): 2,057,000; activity rate of total population 41.7% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 72.7%; female 43.7%).

Official name: State of Eritrea1. Form of government: transitional regime2 with one interim legislative body ([transitional] National Assembly [150]3). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Asmara. Official language: none4. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: nakfa (Nfa); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Nfa 15.37; 1 £ = Nfa 23.74.

Inflation rate (2005 = 100)

Area and population

area5

population sq km

2002 estimate

8,960 3,090

23,200 8,000

580,700 1,018,000

Assab (Aseb) Barentu Asmara (Asmera)

10,660 12,820 500

27,600 33,200 1,300

274,800 747,200 727,800

Massawa

10,730 46,760

27,800 121,100

569,000 3,917,500

Regions

Capitals

Anseba Debub Debub-Keih-Bahri (Southern Red Sea) Gash-Barka Maekel Semien-Keih-Bahri (Northern Red Sea)

Keren Mendefera

sq mi

TOTAL

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

71.0

88.9

100.0

115.1

125.8

150.8

203.2

Inflation rate

Demography Population (2010): 5,224,000. Density (2010)6: persons per sq mi 134.0, persons per sq km 51.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 21.1%; rural 78.9%. Sex distribution (2007): male 49.35%; female 50.65%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 43.2%; 15–29, 27.6%; 30–44, 16.3%; 45–59, 7.5%; 60–74, 4.4%; 75–84, 0.9%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 6,719,000; (2030) 8,086,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (2004): Tigrinya (Tigray) 50.0%; Tigré 31.4%; Afar 5.0%; Saho 5.0%; Beja 2.5%; Bilen 2.1%; other 4.0%. Religious affiliation (2004): Muslim (virtually all Sunnl) c. 50%; Christian c. 48%, of which Eritrean Orthodox c. 40%, Roman Catholic c. 5%, Protestant c. 2%; traditional beliefs c. 2%. Major cities (2003): Asmara (2009) 649,0007; Keren 57,000; Assab 28,000; Afabet 25,000; Massawa 25,000; Mendefera 25,000; Teseney 25,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2007): 35.7 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2007): 8.8 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2007): 26.9 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 4.96. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 59.0 years; female 63.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): infectious and parasitic diseases 459.1, of which HIV/AIDS 168.0, diarrheal diseases 64.8, malaria 61.4; diseases of the circulatory system 104.9; accidents, poisoning, and violence 74.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 42.8.

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 46; remittances (2007) c. 225; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) none; official development assistance (2008) 143. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 6.4%, in permanent crops 0.02%, in pasture 68.3%, forest area 15.3%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–426 97.0%

–449 95.2%

–472 95.6%

… …

… …

–513 93.8%

Imports (2008): U.S.$530,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 24.9%; sugars/confectioneries 7.8%; cereals 7.4%; vehicles [excl. railway] 4.4%). Major import sources (2008): Saudi Arabia c. 21%; India c. 14%; Italy c. 13%; China c. 10%; U.S. c. 5%. Exports (2008): U.S.$17,000,000 (vehicles [excl. railway] 26.9%; hides, skins, and leather 10.8%; oil seeds [particularly sesame] 7.8%; apparel 7.3%). Major export destinations (2008): India c. 25%; Italy c. 21%; Sudan c. 14%; China c. 13%; France c. 5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007): route length 190 mi, 306 km10. Roads (2008): total length 2,492 mi, 4,010 km (paved 22%). Vehicles (1996): automobiles 5,940; trucks and buses, n.a. Air transport: n.a. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

250

58

2009 2009

14111 48

2811 9.6

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

38 — 250 —

Budget (2008). Revenue: Nfa 4,457,000,000 (tax revenue 55.2%, of which direct taxes 38.6%, import duties 7.7%; nontax revenue 31.3%; grants 13.5%). Expenditures: Nfa 9,844,000,000 (current expenditure 70.1%; capital expenditure 23.7%; net lending 6.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$957,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$1,716,000,000 (U.S.$348 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

8 — 49 —

Education and health Educational attainment (2002)12. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal education 66.4%, incomplete primary education 16.6%, complete primary 1.3%, incomplete secondary 5.8%, complete secondary 5.7%, higher 3.0%, unknown 1.2%. Literacy (2006): total population age 15 and over literate 61.4%; males 72.3%; females 50.7%. Education (2007–08)

National economy

units per 1,000 persons

Primary (age 7–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary14

teachers

students

6,626 4,42513 620

314,034 229,079 9,949

student/ teacher ratio 47.4 49.313 16.0

enrollment rate (%) 39 26 2 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2004) 215 (1 per 20,791 persons); hospital beds (2006) 5,500 (1 per 833 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 45.4; undernourished population (2004–06) 3,000,000 (66% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,680 calories).

2008

Agriculture, fishing Mining } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

in value U.S.$’000,000 333.1

% of total value 22.6

18.6

1.2

85.1 165.7 165.0 257.7

5.8 11.2 11.2 17.5

372.2

25.2

78.4 1,475.8

5.3 100.0

}

labour force8 1,087

% of labour force 77.0

324

23.0

1,411

100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sorghum 302,515, roots and tubers 96,000, millet 63,254, cow’s milk 39,200, pulses 33,670, cattle meat 17,178, sesame seeds 10,897, sheep meat 6,580; livestock (number of live animals) 2,130,000 sheep, 1,970,000 cattle, 1,730,000 goats; roundwood 2,566,700 cu m, of which fuelwood 99.9%; fisheries production 1,665 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2009): coral 60,000, basalt 45,000, granite 25,000. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): beverages 18; furniture/unspecified manufactures 9; textiles 7; food products 5; bricks, cement, and ceramics 3. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 288,000,000 (288,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (181,000); natural gas, none (none).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 201,750 (army 99.1%, navy 0.7%, air force 0.2%). Mandate for the UN peacekeeping force along the EritreanEthiopian border was terminated in July 2008. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2003): 24.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$49.

1The name in Tigrinya, the most widely spoken local language, is Hagere Iertra. 2New constitution ratified in May 1997 was not implemented in September 2010. 3All seats indirectly elected; last elections were held in 1994. 4The de facto “working” languages of government are Tigrinya, English, and Arabic. 5Approximate figures. The published total area is 46,774 sq mi (121,144 sq km); water area is 7,776 sq mi (20,140 sq km). 6Based on land area only. 7Urban agglomeration. 8Estimated employed only. 9Data taken from a 1996–97 survey of the 12 largest urban centres in the country. 10Out of use from 1978; 73-mi (118-km) section from Massawa to Asmara reopened in 2003. 11Subscribers. 12Based on household survey of 14,201 persons. 132006–07. 142008–09.

Internet resource for further information: • African Development Bank Group: Interim Country Strategy Paper for Eritrea 2009–2011 http://www.afdb.org/en/

570

Britannica World Data

Estonia

self-employment 3.3%; expenditure: food and beverages 28.3%, transportation and communications 16.8%, housing 15.0%, recreation and culture 7.6%. Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$918,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$18,846,000,000 (U.S.$14,060 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$18,890 per capita).

Official name: Eesti Vabariik (Republic of Estonia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (Riigikogu, or Parliament [101]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tallinn. Official language: Estonian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: kroon (EEK)1; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = EEK 12.22; 1 £ = EEK 18.89. Area and population

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

area

Counties

Capitals

Harju Hiiu Ida-Viru Järva Jõgeva Lääne Lääne-Viru Pärnu Põlva Rapla Saare Tartu Valga Viljandi Võru

Tallinn Kärdla Jõhvi Paide Jõgeva Haapsalu Rakvere Pärnu Põlva Rapla Kuressaare Tartu Valga Viljandi Võru

sq mi 1,673 395 1,299 950 1,005 920 1,401 1,856 836 1,151 1,128 1,156 789 1,321 890 16,7693, 4, 5

TOTAL

20102 estimate

5,757 2,258 37,092 6,009 18,393 33,923 22,662 53,163 14,110 26,753 28,0317 248,1493

2.3 0.9 14.9 2.4 7.4 13.7 9.1 21.4 5.7 10.8 11.37 100.03

TOTAL

4,333 526,505 1,023 10,032 3,364 168,656 2,460 36,058 2,604 36,671 2,383 27,366 3,628 66,996 4,807 88,428 2,165 30,889 2,980 36,620 2,922 34,644 2,993 150,074 2,044 34,048 3,422 55,447 2,305 37,693 43,4323, 4, 5 1,340,127

labour force 25,500 6,000 138,500 8,900 79,900 117,700 55,700 62,300 38,400 123,600 38,4008 694,900

% of labour force 3.7 0.9 19.9 1.3 11.5 16.9 8.0 9.0 5.5 17.8 5.58 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,212; remittances (2009) 350; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 2,164. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 808; remittances (2008) 113; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 1,313. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 9.4%, left fallow 0.4%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 9.4%, forest area 54.3%.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 1,340,000. Density (2010)6: persons per sq mi 81.9, persons per sq km 31.6. Urban-rural (20092): urban 68.0%; rural 32.0%. Sex distribution (20092): male 46.05%; female 53.95%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 14.9%; 15–29, 21.6%; 30–44, 19.9%; 45–59, 20.5%; 60–74, 15.3%; 75–84, 6.3%; 85 and over, 1.5%. Population projection: (2020) 1,334,000; (2030) 1,302,000. Ethnic composition (20092): Estonian 68.7%; Russian 25.6%; Ukrainian 2.1%; Belarusian 1.2%; Finnish 0.8%; other 1.6%. Religious affiliation (2000): Christian 63.5%, of which unaffiliated Christian 25.6%, Protestant (mostly Lutheran) 17.2%, Orthodox 16.5%, independent Christian 3.3%; nonreligious 25.1%; atheist 10.9%; other 0.5%. Major cities (20102): Tallinn 399,340; Tartu 103,284; Narva 65,881; Kohtla-Järve 44,492; Pärnu 44,083.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 12.0 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 40.9%; outside of marriage 59.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 12.4 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.66. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 4.6/2.6. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 68.6 years; female 79.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 676.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 264.3; accidents, poisoning, and violence 101.3; diseases of the digestive system 54.1.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–2,534 16.2%

–2,770 14.4%

–4,601 18.6%

–4,926 17.3%

–3,583 11.6%

–1,155 6.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$17,278,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 20.0%, refined petroleum 13.2%, chemicals/chemical products 9.9%, road vehicles 8.9%, food products 7.0%, iron and steel 5.7%). Major import sources: Germany 11.8%; Russia 10.1%; Finland 9.7%; Lithuania 6.4%; Sweden 6.3%. Exports (2008): U.S.$13,695,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 20.0%, sawn wood/wood manufactures [incl. paper/furniture] 11.1%, refined petroleum 9.7%, road vehicles/parts 7.3%, electrical machinery/electronics 6.9%, food products 6.5%, telecommunications equipment 4.3%). Major export destinations: Finland 16.7%; Russia 15.1%; Sweden 12.6%; Latvia 9.1%; U.S. 5.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (20092): route length 571 mi, 919 km; passenger-km (2008) 274,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 5,943,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 3,606 mi, 58,034 km (paved 29%); passenger-km (2006) 12,900,000,00010; metric ton-km cargo 8,279,000,000. Vehicles (20092): passenger cars 551,830; trucks and buses 87,642. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 980,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,600,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

686

507

2009 2009

2,72112 493

2,03012 368

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

700 22711 970 33912

522 16911 724 25312

Education and health

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: EEK 69,209,800,000 (tax revenue 59.5%, of which taxes on goods and services 46.7%, taxes on income and profits 12.8%; social contributions 21.6%; grants/nontax revenue 18.9%). Expenditures: EEK 63,085,800,000 (social protection 31.4%; general administration 17.8%; economic affairs 13.1%; education 9.5%; health 7.1%; defense 5.0%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cow’s milk 691,800, barley 349,100, wheat 342,500, potatoes 125,200, rapeseed 111,100, oats 77,500; livestock (number of live animals) 379,000 pigs, 242,000 cattle; roundwood 4,860,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 22%; fisheries production 101,850 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): oil shale 16,100,000; peat 706,000. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): wood products (excluding furniture) 211; food products 197; printing and publishing 141; fabricated metal products 137; furniture 136; sawn wood 134. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 8,736,000,000 ([2007] 7,686,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) none (130,000); lignite (metric tons; 2009) 14,928,000 ([2007] 16,810,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2009) none (975,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) none ([2008] 1,501,000,000). Population economically active (2008): total 694,900; activity rate of total population 51.8% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 73.6%; female 49.5%; unemployed [April 2009–March 2010] 15.9%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

% of total value

Agriculture, fishing, forestry, and hunting Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Trade, restaurants Transp. and commun. Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

population sq km

in value EEK ’000,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.2 83.3

96.1 90.3

100.0 100.0

104.4 116.5

111.3 140.4

122.9 159.9

122.8 …

Household income and expenditure (2005). Average household size (2004) 2.5; average annual disposable income per household member EEK 41,176 (U.S.$3,272); sources of income: wages and salaries 66.1%, transfers 25.6%,

Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population ages 25–64 having: less than upper secondary education 11%; complete upper secondary 56%; higher 33%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

6,141 11,272 6,35813

74,629 106,093 68,168

student/ teacher ratio 12.2 9.4 10.713

enrollment rate (%) 94 90 64 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (20082) 4,504 (1 per 298 persons); hospital beds (20082) 7,473 (1 per 179 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 5.0; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 4,75014 (army 88.4%, navy 6.3%, air force 5.3%). Military expenditure as a percentage of GDP (2009): 1.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$285. 1The euro (>) replaced the kroon (EEK) on Jan. 1, 2011, at an exchange rate of >1 = EEK 15.65. 2January 1. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Total includes 1,596 sq mi (4,133 sq km) of Baltic Sea Islands and the areas of small inland lakes. 5The total area of Estonia including the Estonian portion of Lake Peipus (590 sq mi [1,529 sq km]), Lake Võrtsjärv, and Muuga harbour is 17,462 sq mi (45,227 sq km). 6Based on land area of 16,367 sq mi (42,390 sq km). 7Net taxes. 8Unemployed. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Passenger cars 10,000,000,000; buses 2,900,000,000. 11Circulation. 12Subscribers. 132005–06. 14Other military groups include the Defence League (10,766) and the Reserve (25,000).

Internet resources for further information: • Statistical Office of Estonia http://www.stat.ee • Bank of Estonia http://www.bankofestonia.info

Nations of the World

Ethiopia

3,465 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): food products 171; bricks, cement, and ceramics 153; beverages 139; textiles 37; tobacco products 32. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007–08) 3,530,280,000 ([2007] 3,503,000,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2005) none (5,640,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) n.a. (1,844,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 11.3%, left fallow 1.2%, in permanent crops 1.0%, in pasture 21.5%, forest area 12.7%. Population economically active (2008): total 38,149,000; activity rate of total population 47.3%8 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 85.9%8; female 47.1%8; unemployed [2005] 5.0%).

Official name: Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Form of government: federal republic with two legislative houses (House of the Federation [135]; House of Peoples’ Representatives [547]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Addis Ababa. Official language: none1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: birr (Br); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Br 13.63; 1 £ = Br 21.06.

Price index (2005 = 100)

area

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

2007 census

Afar (Affar) Amhara (Amara) Benishangul Gumuz Gambella Harari (Hareri) Oromia (Oromiya) Somali (Sumale) Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples’ (SNNP) Tigray

Asayita (Asaita) Bahir Dar

27,820 59,733

72,053 154,709

1,390,273 17,221,976

Asosa (Asossa) Gambella Harar (Harer) Addis Ababa Jijiga

19,575 11,499 129 109,861 107,8202

50,699 29,783 334 284,538 279,2522

784,345 307,096 183,415 26,993,933 4,445,219

40,725 32,711

105,476 84,722

14,929,548 4,316,988

203 602 410,678

527 1,559 1,063,652

— —

TOTAL

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2,739,551 341,834 73,750,9323

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 44.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 11.8 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 6.17. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 52.5 years; female 57.5 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 2.1% (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2006–07). Revenue: Br 30,274,000,000 (tax revenue 57.3%, of which import duties 27.0%, income and profits tax 16.1%, sales tax 9.5%; grants 28.0%; nontax revenue 14.7%). Expenditures: Br 35,564,000,000 (capital expenditure 51.7%, of which economic development 32.0%; current expenditure 48.3%, of which education 13.8%, defense 8.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$2,826,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$27,153,000,000 (U.S.$330 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$930 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008–09 in value % of total Br ’000,000 value

TOTAL

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0

112.3

131.7

190.1

206.1

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population (2010): 79,456,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 193.5, persons per sq km 74.7. Urban-rural (2007): urban 16.2%; rural 83.8%. Sex distribution (2007): male 50.46%; female 49.54%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 45.0%; 15–29, 28.3%; 30–44, 14.7%; 45–59, 7.2%; 60–74, 3.7%; 75–84, 0.8%; 85 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2020) 96,553,000; (2030) 112,545,000. Ethnic composition (2007): Oromo 34.5%; Amhara 26.9%; Somali 6.2%; Tigray 6.1%; Sidamo 4.0%; Gurage 2.5%; Welaita 2.3%; other 17.5%. Religious affiliation (2007): Orthodox 43.5%; Muslim 33.9%; Protestant 18.6%; traditional beliefs 2.7%; Roman Catholic 0.7%; other 0.6%. Major cities (2007): Addis Ababa 2,739,551; Dire Dawa 233,224; Adama (Nazret) 220,212; Mekele 215,914; Gonder 207,044; Hawassa 157,139.

160,491 1,270 12,621 16,074 4,037 12,719 56,744 29,111 10,320 15,666 17,0535 336,106

2005

89.6

Foreign trade10

Demography

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2004

86.8

Household income and expenditure (1999–2000). Average household size (2004) 5.3; sources of income9: self-employment 70.9% (of which agriculture-based 57.6%), wages and salaries 10.9%, salvaging 6.6%, rent 3.9%, other 7.7%; expenditure9: food and beverages 52.8%, housing and energy 14.4%, household operations 13.9%, clothing and footwear 7.9%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 377; remittances (2009) 301; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 287; official development assistance (2008) 3,327. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 156; remittances (2008) 15.

population

Regional states

Cities Addis Ababa Dire Dawa

2003 Consumer price index

Area and population

Hawassa (Awasa) Mekele

571

47.8 0.4 3.8 4.8 1.2 3.8 16.9 8.7 3.1 } 4.7 5.15 100.07

labour force

19954 % of labour force

21,605,317 16,540 384,955 61,232 17,066 103,154 935,937 19,451

87.8 0.1 1.6 0.2 0.1 0.4 3.8 0.1

1,252,224

5.1

210,1846 24,606,060

0.96 100.07

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): roots and tubers (2008) 4,950,000, corn (maize) 3,932,500, teff (2008–09) 3,028,000, sorghum 2,804,350, wheat 2,537,640, barley 1,519,400, dry broad beans (2008) 688,670, chickpeas 312,080, coffee 260,239, maté (2007) 260,000, sesame seeds 185,000; leading producer of beeswax, honey, cut flowers, and khat; livestock (number of live animals) 50,884,000 cattle, 25,980,000 sheep, 21,961,000 goats, 8,076,000 horses, mules, and asses, 2,400,000 camels, (2000) 4,000 civets; roundwood 101,417,400 cu m, of which fuelwood 97%; fisheries production (2008) 16,700 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2008): rock salt 260,000; tantalum 37,000 kg; niobium 8,300 kg; gold

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–1,399 58.5%

–2,090 60.6%

–2,784 60.3%

–3,081 60.1%

–3,871 60.1%

–5,652 64.5%

Imports (2008): U.S.$8,680,000,000 (refined petroleum 22.7%; machinery and apparatus 22.5%; food 10.8%, of which cereals 7.3%; road vehicles 5.9%; iron and steel 5.9%). Major import sources: China 20.2%; Saudi Arabia 14.2%; U.A.E. 8.4%; India 7.3%; Italy 5.8%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,602,000,000 (coffee 34.7%; sesame seeds 13.1%; legumes 7.3%; cut flowers 6.5%; gold 5.0%; live animals/meat 4.7%; leather 3.8%). Major export destinations: Germany 10.5%; Saudi Arabia 7.7%; Neth. 7.4%; U.S. 7.2%; Switzerland 6.2%; China 5.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007): route length 423 mi, 681 km11; passenger-km (2006–07) 28,200,00012; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Roads (2007–08): total length 44,359 km (paved 14%); passenger-km (2006–07) 9,968,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 70,893; trucks and buses 166,095. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 9,300,000,000; metric tonkm cargo 227,760,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2003

547

7.9

2009 2009

4,05214 915

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

4914 11

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

551 9213 445 3.514

units per 1,000 persons 7.0 2.013 5.4 —14

Education and health Educational attainment (2000)15. Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 63.8%; incomplete primary education 21.6%; primary 2.6%; incomplete secondary 8.1%; secondary 2.5%; post-secondary 1.4%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 47.5%. Education (2006–07) teachers Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

students

124,20216 12,174,719 … 3,430,129 8,355 210,456

student/ teacher ratio 66.616 … 25.2

enrollment rate (%) 71 24 3 (age 19–23)

Health (2004–05): physicians 1,077 (1 per 66,236 persons); hospital beds (2007–08) 13,145 (1 per 6,062 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 82.6; undernourished population (2004–06) 34,600,000 (44% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,680 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 138,000 (army 97.8%, air force 2.2%); mandate for the UN peacekeeping force along the Ethiopian-Eritrean border was terminated in July 2008. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$4. 1Amharic

is the “working” language. 2Estimate. 3Includes special enumeration areas having a population of 96,754. 4For ages 10 and up. 5Taxes on products less imputed bank service charges. 6First-time job seekers. 7Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 8Estimate of the ILO Employment Trends Unit. 9Based on the national Household Income and Expenditure Survey, comprising 17,332 households. 10Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 11Length of Ethiopian segment of Addis Ababa–Djibouti railroad; rehabilitation of railway was under way from 2007. 12Includes Djibouti part of Addis Ababa–Djibouti railroad. 13Circulation of daily newspapers. 14Subscribers. 15Based on the national Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey, comprising 14,072 households. 162003–04.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia http://www.csa.gov.et • National Bank of Ethiopia http://www.nbe.gov.et

572

Britannica World Data

Faroe Islands1

Population economically active (2006): total 29,400; activity rate of total population c. 61% (participation rates: ages 16–74, 85.8%; female 44.8%; unemployed [September 2009–August 2010] 5.6%).

Official name: Føroyar (Faroese); Færøerne (Danish) (Faroe Islands). Political status: self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark with one legislative house (Løgting, or Parliament [33]). Head of state: Danish Monarch. Heads of government: High Commissioner (for Denmark); Prime Minister (for Faroe Islands). Capital: Tórshavn (Thorshavn). Official languages: Faroese; Danish. Official religion: Faroese Lutheran2. Monetary unit: Danish krone3 (DKK); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = DKK 5.82; 1£ = DKK 8.98.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

area

Regions4 Eysturoy Nordhoy (Northern) Sandoy Streymoy Sudhuroy Vágar

Runavík Klaksvík Skopun Tórshavn Tvøroyri Sørvágur

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

20105 estimate

110 93 48 151 64 73 5406

286 241 125 392 167 188 1,399

10,826 5,878 1,385 22,717 4,763 3,081 48,650

Population (2010): 48,800. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 90.4, persons per sq km 34.9. Urban-rural (20105): urban 40.8%; rural 59.2%. Sex distribution (20105): male 52.02%; female 47.98%. Age breakdown (20105): under 15, 21.9%; 15–29, 19.1%; 30–44, 19.8%; 45–59, 19.1%; 60–74, 13.3%; 75–84, 4.8%; 85 and over, 2.0%. Population projection: (2020) 51,000; (2030) 54,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Faroese 97.0%; Danish 2.5%; other Scandinavian 0.4%; other 0.1%. Religious affiliation (2005): Protestant c. 91%, of which Lutheran c. 79%, Plymouth Brethren c. 10%; other (mostly nonreligious) c. 9%. Major municipalities (20105): Tórshavn 19,873; Klaksvík 4,590; Runavík 3,793; Eystur 1,962; Vága 1,941.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.6 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (1998) 62.0%; outside of marriage (1998) 38.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.9 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.7 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.33. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 4.6/1.3. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 76.8 years; female 82.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2007): diseases of the circulatory system 316.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 177.9; diseases of the respiratory system 86.9; accidents, poisoning, and violence 55.8; diseases of the digestive system 39.3.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: DKK 4,042,000,000 (tax revenue 84.3%, transfers from the Danish government 15.7%). Expenditures: DKK 4,544,000,000 (current expenditure 94.9%, development expenditure 5.1%). Gross national income (at current market prices; 2008): U.S.$2,360,000,000 (U.S.$48,436 per capita). 2009

TOTAL

8

397 702 147 898 1,079 1,692 669 2,795 — 10,1986

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0 100.0

101.4 106.7

105.1 114.0

111.8 111.4

… 105.9

17.88 — 8

3.9 6.9 1.4 8.8 10.6 16.6 6.6 27.4 — 100.0

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–73 1.0%

–904 11.2%

–823 9.6%

–1,466 15.3%

–690 7.4%

–101 1.2%

Imports (2008): DKK 5,013,000,000 (goods for household consumption 26.9%; fuels, lubricants, and electric current 21.0%; goods for the construction industry 10.9%; machinery and apparatus 10.0%; road vehicles 5.5%). Major import sources (2009): Denmark 30.4%; Norway 18.1%; Germany 6.1%; Sweden 6.0%; China 4.3%. Exports (2008): DKK 4,323,000,000 (chilled and frozen fish 63.3%; ships/boats and related products 14.0%; salted fish 10.4%; dried, smoked, canned, and other conserved fish 8.1%). Major export destinations (2009): United Kingdom 17.3%; Denmark 10.9%; France 10.7%; Norway 8.7%; Germany 8.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2007): total length 292 mi, 470 km (paved 99%); passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Vehicles (20105): passenger cars 19,873; trucks, vans, and buses 4,686. Air transport (2009)13: passenger-km 265,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2008

1614

30414

2009 2009

5714

1,14314 420

21

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

… 2615 38 1714

… 54215 752 34114

Education and health Educational attainment (2008). Percentage of population age 15–74 having: no formal schooling to complete primary education 30%; incomplete/complete secondary 45%; incomplete/complete higher 25%. Literacy: n.a. Education (2005–06) teachers Primary (age, n.a.) Secondary/Voc. (age, n.a.) Tertiary17

… … 22

students 5,56716 3,44616 150

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

… … 6.8

… … …

Health (2007): physicians 88 (1 per 549 persons); hospital beds 243 (1 per 199 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 4.5; undernourished population, n.a.

Defense responsibility lies with Denmark.

2008 % of total value7

Balance of trade (current prices)

Military

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Agriculture Mining Fishing/fish processing Manufacturing (excluding fish-related) Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance and real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2005

96.7 95.1

Foreign trade12

DKK ’000,000 % of total

Demography

in value DKK ’000,0007 1,8188 —

2004

96.1 …

Public debt (external, outstanding; January 2009): U.S.$511,448,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size: n.a.; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1998)11: food and beverages 25.1%, transportation and communications 17.7%, housing 12.5%, recreation 11.9%, energy 7.7%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2005) c. 25; remittances (2003) 44; foreign direct investment (FDI), n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances (2008) 5; FDI, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, left fallow, or in permanent crops 2.1%; in pasture, n.a.; forest area 0.1%.

Area and population Largest municipalities

2003 Consumer price index Annual earnings index

labour force

% of labour force

77 74 4,546

0.3 0.3 17.5

969 2,057 148 1,951 3,828 1,759 9,202 827 5729 26,010

3.7 7.9 0.6 7.5 14.7 6.8 35.4 3.2 2.29 100.06

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): potatoes 1,400, other vegetables, grass, hay, and silage are produced; livestock (number of live animals) 68,000 sheep, (2009) 2,043 cattle; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 559,572 (including blue whiting 229,500, pollock 63,900, cod 27,100, and haddock 11,400; from aquaculture 7% [including salmon 31,565]). Pilot whales captured (2009) 310. Mining and quarrying: negligible10. Manufacturing: principally fish processing; also handicrafts, woolen textiles and clothing, and small ship repair. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 275,528,000 ([2008] 264,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2009) none (216,551); natural gas, none (none).

1English-language

alternative spelling is Faeroe Islands. 2Formally independent of the national Danish Lutheran church from July 2007. 3The local currency, the Faroese króna (plural krónur), is equivalent to the Danish krone. Banknotes used are Faroese or Danish; coins are Danish. 4Represents the 5 main islands (with associated islets) and the northeasternmost (Northern) islands. Actual local administration is based on 34 municipalities. 5January 1. 6Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7At factor cost. 8Agriculture includes Fishing/fish processing. 9Includes 429 unemployed. 10The maritime boundary demarcation agreement between the Shetland Islands (U.K.) and the Faroes in 1999 has allowed for the still unsuccessful exploration for deep-sea petroleum as of mid-2008. 11Weights of consumer price index components. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Atlantic Airways only. 14Subscribers. 15Circulation. 162002–03. 17University of the Faroe Islands.

Internet resources for further information: • Statistics Faroe Islands http://www.hagstova.fo • Governmental Bank of the Faroe Islands http://landsbank.fo/Default.asp • Danmarks Statistik http://www.dst.dk/HomeUK.aspx

Nations of the World

Fiji

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Official name: Republic of the Fiji Islands1, 2. Form of government: interim regime3.4 Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Suva. Official languages: 2. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Fiji dollar (F$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = F$1.96; 1 £ = F$3.03.

area

population

Divisions Provinces

sq km

2007 census

Central Naitasiri Namosi Rewa Serua Tailevu Eastern Kadavu Lau Lomaiviti

4,2935 1,666 570 272 830 955 1,376 478 487 411

342,389 160,759 6,898 100,791 18,249 55,692 37,311 10,167 10,683 16,461

2004

in value F$’000,00010 Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services

Divisions Provinces Northern Bua Cakaudrove Macuata Western Ba Nadroga/Navosa Ra Fijian dependency Rotuma TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2007 census

6,1996 1,379 2,816 2,004 6,3605 2,634 2,385 1,341

135,956 14,176 49,339 72,441 319,613 231,762 58,387 29,464

46 18,2727

2,002 837,271

Demography Population (2010): 844,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 119.6, persons per sq km 46.2. Urban-rural (2009): urban 51.5%; rural 48.5%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.82%; female 49.18%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 29.8%; 15–29, 27.5%; 30–44, 20.5%; 45–59, 14.6%; 60–74, 6.4%; 75–84, 1.1%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 882,000; (2030) 937,000. Doubling time: 50 years. Ethnic composition (2007): Fijian 56.8%; Indian 37.5%; other Pacific islanders 3.0%, of which Rotuman (Polynesian/other) 1.2%; European/part-European 1.7%; Chinese 0.6%; other 0.4%. Religious affiliation (2007): Christian 64.4%, of which Methodist 34.6%, Roman Catholic 9.1%, Assemblies of God 5.7%; Hindu 27.9%; Muslim 6.3%; other 1.4%. Major urban areas (2007): Nasinu 87,4468; Suva 85,691 (urban agglomeration 241,432); Lautoka 52,220; Nausori 47,6048; Nadi 42,284.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 21.5 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 7.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 14.1 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.81. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2004): 8.6/n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 67.9 years; female 73.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 250.9; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 152.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 73.0; infectious and parasitic diseases 47.9; accidents and violence 45.4; diseases of the respiratory system 42.3.

Budget (2008). Revenue: F$1,455,000,000 (direct taxes 30.1%, VAT 27.6%, customs duties 22.8%, fees and fines 7.5%, other 12.0%). Expenditures: F$1,427,000,000 (current expenditure 81.5%, remainder 18.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; June 2010): U.S.$282,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 2,247,000, coconuts 150,000, taro 69,863, cow’s milk (2008) 58,000, cassava 42,332, chicken meat 11,866, rice 11,637, cattle meat 8,360, yaqona (kava) (2008) 3,286, ginger 2,787; livestock (number of live animals) (2008) 312,000 cattle, 3,500,000 chickens; roundwood 578,600 cu m, of which fuelwood 18%; fisheries production (2008) 48,681 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2009–109): gold 1,856 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2004): food products 63; textiles and clothing 53; beverages 46; sawn wood and wood products including furniture 28. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 836,000,000 (837,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (1,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (452,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2007) 4.7; average annual income per household (2002–03) F$12,753 (U.S.$6,176); sources of income (2002–03): wages and salaries 54.0%, self-employment 17.1%; expenditure (2005): food and nonalcoholic beverages 40.3%, transportation 16.2%, housing 9.9%, energy 9.2%. Population economically active (2007): total 334,787; activity rate of total population 40.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 57.0%; female 33.9%; unemployed [2009] 8.6%). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.0

97.7

100.0

102.5

107.4

115.7

120.0

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$3,356,000,000 (U.S.$3,950 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$4,570 per capita).

labour force11

14.1 0.2 13.5 2.9 1.2 14.3 16.6 20.1 6.5 } 10.5 100.07

% of labour force11

89,523 3,222 43,088 16,950 2,508 22,551 66,043 10,220

28.3 1.0 13.6 5.4 0.8 7.1 20.9 3.2

61,936

19.6

316,041

100.07

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 546; remittances (2009) 117; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 296; official development assistance (2008) 45. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 96; remittances (2008) 32. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 9.3%, in permanent crops 4.5%, in pasture 9.6%, forest area 54.7%.

Foreign trade12, 13 Balance of trade (current prices) F$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,029 30.8%

–1,536 39.3%

–1,945 45.3%

–1,680 41.0%

–2,130 42.0%

–1,578 39.1%

Imports (2008): F$3,601,000,000 (mineral fuels 33.9%, machinery and transport equipment 20.2%, food products 14.4%). Major import sources: Singapore 34.8%; Australia 19.7%; New Zealand 13.3%; U.S. 6.7%; China 4.3%. Exports (2008): F$1,471,000,000 (reexports [mostly petroleum products] 33.2%, sugar 16.9%, fish 9.1%, mineral water [2007] 9.1%, clothing 6.9%, lumber 4.0%). Major export destinations: U.K. 14.9%; Australia 12.3%; U.S. 12.2%; other Pacific Islands 10.5%; New Zealand 5.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007)14: track length 370 mi, 595 km. Roads (2002): total length 2,140 mi, 3,440 km (paved 49%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 94,387; trucks and buses 50,218. Air transport (2008)15: passenger-km 3,809,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 75,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2003

98

118

2009 2009

64017 137

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

75417 161

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

44 4016 114 2117

52 4816 134 2517

Education and health Educational attainment (1996). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 4.4%; some education 22.3%; incomplete secondary 47.7%; complete secondary 17.0%; some higher 6.7%; university degree 1.9%. Literacy (2003): total population age 15 and over literate 93.7%; males 95.5%; females 91.9%. Education (2007–08) teachers

National economy

% of total value

619.6 7.9 592.5 129.2 53.0 626.6 725.7 879.6 284.2 462.0 4,380.3

TOTAL

Area and population

Consumer price index

573

Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

3,939 5,265 943

students 102,543 98,561 12,71719

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

26.0 18.7 …

89 7918 1519 (age 19–23)

Health (2008): physicians 352 (1 per 2,381 persons); hospital beds 1,743 (1 per 481 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 13.1; undernourished population (2004–06) 40,000 (less than 5% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,850 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 3,500 (army 91.4%, navy 8.6%, air force, none); reserve 6,000.20 Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$62.

1Fijian

long/short-form names: Matanitu Tu-Vaka-i-koya ko Viti/Viti; Hindustani longform name: Fiji Ripablik. 2English, Fijian, and Hindustani (Fijian Hindi) had equal status per 1997 constitution. 3Backed by the military from December 2006; the 1997 constitution was not formally abrogated until April 2009. 4The people’s charter, a precursor to a possible new constitution, was approved by the president in late December 2008. 5Central and Western divisions together (10,653 sq km) comprise Viti Levu (10,429 sq km), Fiji’s main island, and smaller nearby islands. 6Northern division (6,199 sq km) is composed mostly of Fiji’s second largest island, Vanua Levu (5,556 sq km). 7Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 8Within Suva urban agglomeration. 9For fiscal year ending August 31; Vatukuolamine only. 10At constant prices of 2005. 11Data for paid employees only who are 15 and over. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13All export data include reexports. 14All privately owned sugarcane-related railways. 15Air Pacific only. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 182005–06. 192004–05. 20Peacekeepers abroad (both UN and non-UN) 559.

Internet resources for further information: • Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics http://www.statsfiji.gov.fj • Reserve Bank of Fiji http://www.reservebank.gov.fj

574

Britannica World Data

Finland

Household income and expenditure (2004). Average household size 2.2; disposable income per household >31,706 (U.S.$39,367); sources of gross income (2003): wages and salaries 74.4%, rent 18.0%, self-employment 7.1%; expenditure (2008): housing and energy 24.9%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 12.4%, recreation and culture 11.9%, transportation 11.7%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$243,850,000,000 (U.S.$45,680 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$34,430 per capita).

Official names1: Suomen Tasavalta (Finnish); Republiken Finland (Swedish) (Republic of Finland). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Parliament [200]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Helsinki. Official languages: none1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Area and population2 area

population

area

population 20093

20093 Regions Finland, Central Finland, Southwest Kainuu Kanta-Häme Karelia, North Karelia, South Kymenlaakso Lapland Ostrobothnia Ostrobothnia, Central Ostrobothnia, North Ostrobothnia, South

sq km

estimate

Regions

sq km

estimate

16,707 10,663 21,504 5,200 17,763 5,613 5,112 92,664 7,749

271,747 461,177 83,160 173,041 166,129 134,448 182,754 183,963 175,985

Päijät-Häme Satakunta Savo, North Savo, South Tampere Region Uusimaa Uusimaa, East

5,127 7,957 16,771 13,986 12,447 6,395 2,736

200,847 227,652 248,423 156,632 480,705 1,408,020 93,491

5,273

71,029

35,236

386,144

13,444

Autonomous Region Åland (Aland Islands) 1,553 TOTAL LAND AREA 303,8994 FRESHWATER AREA 34,526 TOTAL 338,4244

Agriculture, fishing, forestry Manufacturing Mining and public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense } Services Other

% of total value

6,021 49,692 5,436 12,338 22,285 25,671

TOTAL

labour force

2.5 20.3 2.2 5.1 9.1 10.5

91,093

37.2

32,156 244,692

13.1 100.0

% of labour force

114,000 465,000 … 162,000 181,000 381,000 336,000 }

4.3 17.6 … 6.1 6.8 14.4 12.7

801,000

30.2

208,0008 2,648,000

7.98 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 3,220; remittances (2009) 770; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007– 09 avg.) 12,961. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 4,501; remittances (2008) 391; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 18,488. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 4.5%, left fallow 0.8%, in permanent crops 0.03%, in pasture 2.3%, forest area 74.0%.

Foreign trade9 27,456

Balance of trade (current prices) 2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+8,187 9.1%

+5,426 5.5%

+6,237 5.3%

+6,073 4.8%

+3,213 2.5%

+1,753 2.0%

5,326,314

193,511

>’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 5,364,000. Density (2010)5: persons per sq mi 45.7, persons per sq km 17.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 84.8%; rural 15.2%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.06%; female 50.94%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 16.6%; 15–29, 18.8%; 30–44, 18.8%; 45–59, 21.4%; 60–74, 16.4%; 75–84, 6.0%; 85 and over, 2.0%. Population projection: (2020) 5,621,000; (2030) 5,835,000. Linguistic composition (2009): Finnish 90.8%; Swedish 5.4%; Russian 0.9%; other 2.9%. Religious affiliation (2009): Evangelical Lutheran 79.9%; nonreligious 17.7%; Finnish (Greek) Orthodox 1.1%; other 1.3%. Major cities (2009): Helsinki 583,350 (urban agglomeration [2007] 1,115,000); Espoo 244,3306; Tampere 211,507; Vantaa 197,6366; Turku 176,087; Oulu 139,133.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.3 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 59.3%; outside of marriage (2008) 40.7%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.86. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 5.6/2.5. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 76.5 years; female 83.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): cardiovascular disease 379.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 211.1; diseases of the nervous system 93.4; accidents and violence 70.1; diseases of the respiratory system 37.2.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: >46,291,000,000 (tax revenue 80.6%, of which turnover taxes 33.0%, income and property taxes 30.9%, excise duties 11.1%; other 19.4%). Expenditures: >46,291,000,000 (social security and health 20.5%; education 13.2%; agriculture and forestry 6.1%; defense 6.0%). Public debt (March 2010; central government only): U.S.$94,500,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): barley 2,171,000, oats 1,114,700, wheat 887,000, potatoes 755,300, sugar beets 559,000; livestock (number of live animals7) 1,381,000 pigs, 918,000 cattle, 193,000 reindeer; roundwood 41,653,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 12%; fisheries production (2008) 171,838 (from aquaculture 8%). Mining and quarrying (2008): talc 528,000; zinc (metal content) 51,900; copper (metal content) 13,000. Manufacturing (value added in >’000,000; 2008): electrical and optical equipment (largely telephone apparatus) 7,827; nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 3,731; fabricated metal products 3,142; paper and paper products 2,653; food and beverages 2,311; base metals 1,850; chemicals and chemical products 1,535. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 68,712,000,000 ([2007] 93,806,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) none (7,075,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) none ([2007] 81,600,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 13,381,000 (10,656,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) none (4,438,000,000). Population economically active (2008): total 2,725,600; activity rate of total population 51.3% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 76.1%; female 47.8%; unemployed [2009] 8.2%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

2006

in value U.S.$’000,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

99.0 92.4

99.1 96.2

100.0 100.0

101.6 102.9

104.1 106.4

108.3 112.3

108.3 116.7

Imports (2008): >62,938,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 25.8%; petroleum 13.3%; chemicals and chemical products 10.4%; road vehicles/parts 8.6%; base/fabricated metals 8.2%). Major import sources: Russia 16.3%; Germany 14.0%; Sweden 10.0%; China 7.0%; Neth. 4.1%. Exports (2008): >66,151,000,000 (telecommunications equipment/parts 13.4%; paper and cardboard 11.4%; iron and steel 7.0%; specialized machinery for particular industries 6.7%; refined petroleum 6.5%; general industrial machinery 5.7%; road vehicles 4.9%). Major export destinations: Russia 11.6%; Sweden 10.1%; Germany 10.0%; U.S. 6.3%; U.K. 5.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2009)10: route length 3,678 mi, 5,919 km; passenger-km 3,900,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 8,900,000,000. Roads (2009)10: total length 48,567 mi, 78,161 km (paved [2007] 65%); passenger-km (2008) 70,900,000,00011; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 29,856,000,000. Vehicles (2009): passenger cars 2,776,664; trucks and buses 443,912. Air transport (2008)12: passenger-km 23,518,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 545,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

3,540

2009 2009

7,70014 1,400

units per 1,000 persons 679 1,44614 269

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2,644 2,04913 4,481 1,56614

500 38413 841 29414

Education and health Educational attainment (20043). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: incomplete upper-secondary education 35.6%; complete upper secondary or vocational 35.8%; higher 28.6%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

24,830 42,991 14,225

357,403 431,233 309,648

14.4 10.0 21.8

96 96 94 (age 19–23)

Health (2009): physicians 19,500 (1 per 274 persons); hospital beds (2007) 36,095 (1 per 147 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 2.6; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 22,550 (army 71.0%, navy 16.8%, air force 12.2%); reserve 350,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$789. 1Finnish and Swedish are national (not official) languages. 2Administrative changes from Jan. 1, 2010: the regions created in 1997 (as second-order administrative subdivisions except for Åland) replaced the 5 former provinces as first-order administrative subdivisions. 3January 1. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Based on land area only. 6Within Helsinki urban agglomeration. 7From farms of 1 hectare and larger only. 8Includes 204,000 unemployed persons not previously employed and 4,000 not adequately defined. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Excludes Åland. 11Passenger cars 63,400,000,000; buses 7,500,000,000. 12Finnair and Blue1 airlines only. 13Circulation. 14Subscribers.

Internet resource for further information: • Statistics Finland http://www.stat.fi/index_en.html

Nations of the World

France1

Area and population

(continued) area

Official name: République Française (French Republic). Form of government: republic with two legislative houses (Parliament; Senate [343], National Assembly [577]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Paris. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21. Area and population area Regions Departments Alsace Bas-Rhin Haut-Rhin Aquitaine Dordogne Gironde Landes Lot-et-Garonne Pyrénées-Atlantiques Auvergne Allier Cantal Haute-Loire Puy-de-Dôme Basse-Normandie (Lower Normandy) Calvados Manche Orne Bourgogne (Burgundy) Côte-d’Or Nièvre Saône-et-Loire Yonne Bretagne (Brittany) Côtes-d’Armor Finistère llle-et-Vilaine Morbihan Centre Cher Eure-et-Loir Indre Indre-et-Loire Loir-et-Cher Loiret Champagne-Ardenne Ardennes Aube Haute-Marne Marne Corse (Corsica)3 Corse-du-Sud Haute-Corse Franche-Comté Doubs Haute-Saône Jura Territoire de Belfort Haute-Normandie (Upper Normandy) Eure Seine-Maritime Île-de-France Essonne Hauts-de-Seine Paris Seine-et-Marne Seine-Saint-Denis Val-de-Marne Val-d’Oise Yvelines Languedoc-Roussillon Aude Gard Hérault Lozère Pyrénées-Orientales Limousin Corrèze Creuse Haute-Vienne Lorraine Meurthe-et-Moselle Meuse Moselle Vosges Midi-Pyrénées Ariège Aveyron Gers Haute-Garonne Haute-Pyrénées Lot Tarn Tarn-et-Garonne Nord-Pas-de-Calais Nord Pas-de-Calais

Capitals Strasbourg Strasbourg Colmar Bordeaux Périgueux Bordeaux Mont-de-Marsan Agen Pau Clermont-Ferrand Moulins Aurillac Le Puy-en-Velay Clermont-Ferrand Caen Caen Saint-Lô Alençon Dijon Dijon Nevers Mâcon Auxerre Rennes Saint-Brieuc Quimper Rennes Vannes Orléans Bourges Chartres Châteauroux Tours Blois Orléans Châlons-en-Champagne Charleville-Mézières Troyes Chaumont Châlons-en-Champagne Ajaccio Ajaccio Bastia Besançon Besançon Vesoul Lons-le-Saunier Belfort Rouen Évreux Rouen Paris Évry Nanterre Paris Melun Bobigny Créteil Cergy/Pontoise Versailles Montpellier Carcassonne Nîmes Montpellier Mende Perpignan Limoges Tulle Guéret Limoges Metz Nancy Bar-le-Duc Metz Épinal Toulouse Foix Rodez Auch Toulouse Tarbes Cahors Albi Montauban Lille Lille Arras

population

sq mi

sq km

1,836 1,361

4,755 3,525

3,498 3,861 3,569 2,070 2,952

9,060 10,000 9,243 5,361 7,645

2,834 2,211 1,922 3,077

7,340 5,726 4,977 7,970

2,142 2,293 2,356

5,548 5,938 6,103

3,383 2,632 3,311 2,868

8,763 6,817 8,575 7,427

2,656 2,600 2,616 2,634

6,878 6,733 6,775 6,823

2,793 2,270 2,622 2,366 2,449 2,616

7,235 5,880 6,791 6,127 6,343 6,775

2,019 2,318 2,398 3,151

5,229 6,004 6,211 8,162

1,550 1,802

4,014 4,666

2,021 2,070 1,930 235

5,234 5,360 4,999 609

2,332 2,424

6,040 6,278

696 68 40 2,284 91 95 481 882

1,804 176 105 5,915 236 245 1,246 2,284

2,370 2,260 2,356 1,995 1,589

6,139 5,853 6,101 5,167 4,116

2,261 2,149 2,131

5,857 5,565 5,520

2,024 2,400 2,400 2,268

5,241 6,216 6,216 5,874

1,888 3,373 2,416 2,436 1,724 2,014 2,223 1,435

4,890 8,736 6,257 6,309 4,464 5,217 5,758 3,718

2,217 2,576

5,742 6,671

20082 estimate 1,837,500 1,091,000 746,500 3,175,500 408,500 1,422,500 371,500 326,000 647,000 1,341,500 342,500 148,500 221,500 629,000 1,464,000 676,000 496,000 292,000 1,636,000 520,500 221,000 552,500 342,000 3,141,000 579,000 888,500 965,500 708,000 2,535,000 314,500 424,000 232,500 585,500 327,500 651,000 1,338,500 284,000 302,000 186,500 566,000 303,000 141,500 161,500 1,163,000 522,500 238,000 259,500 143,000 1,819,500 575,500 1,244,000 11,672,500 1,209,500 1,557,500 2,199,500 1,301,500 1,517,000 1,311,500 1,167,000 1,409,000 2,587,500 349,500 696,500 1,023,000 77,000 441,500 739,000 242,500 123,500 373,000 2,341,000 727,500 194,000 1,039,500 380,000 2,837,500 150,000 275,500 184,500 1,220,000 229,000 172,000 372,000 234,500 4,022,000 2,563,000 1,459,000

Regions Departments

Capitals

Pays de la Loire Loire-Atlantique Maine-et-Loire Mayenne Sarthe Vendée Picardie (Picardy) Aisne Oise Somme Poitou-Charentes Charente Charente-Maritime Deux-Sèvres Vienne Provence-Alpes–Côte d’Azur Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Alpes-Maritimes Bouches-du-Rhône Hautes-Alpes Var Vaucluse Rhône-Alpes Ain Ardèche Drôme Haute-Savoie Isère Loire Rhône Savoie

Nantes Nantes Angers Laval Le Mans La Roche-sur-Yon Amiens Laon Beauvais Amiens Poitiers Angoulême La Rochelle Niort Poitiers Marseille Digne Nice Marseille Gap Toulon Avignon Lyon Bourg-en-Bresse Privas Valence Annecy Grenoble Saint-Étienne Lyon Chambéry

TOTAL

575

population

sq mi

sq km

2,631 2,767 1,998 2,396 2,595

6,815 7,166 5,175 6,206 6,720

2,845 2,263 2,382

7,369 5,860 6,170

2,300 2,650 2,316 2,699

5,956 6,864 5,999 6,990

2,674 1,660 1,964 2,142 2,306 1,377

6,925 4,299 5,087 5,549 5,973 3,567

2,225 2,135 2,521 1,694 2,869 1,846 1,254 2,327 210,0264

5,762 5,529 6,530 4,388 7,431 4,781 3,249 6,028 543,9654

20082 estimate 3,510,500 1,259,000 775,000 302,000 559,500 615,000 1,903,500 537,500 799,500 566,500 1,749,500 350,500 609,500 365,000 424,500 4,900,500 157,500 1,089,500 1,973,000 133,500 1,005,000 542,000 6,113,000 580,500 312,000 477,500 715,000 1,188,500 741,500 1,689,000 409,000 62,131,000

Demography Population (2010): 62,962,0005. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 299.8, persons per sq km 115.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 84.6%; rural 15.4%. Sex distribution (20102): male 48.43%; female 51.57%. Age breakdown (20102): under 15, 18.3%; 15–29, 18.8%; 30–44, 19.9%; 45–59, 20.1%; 60–74, 14.0%; 75–84, 6.4%; 85 and over, 2.5%. Population projection: (2020) 65,726,000; (2030) 67,288,000. Ethnic composition (2000): French 76.9%; Algerian and Moroccan Berber 2.2%; Italian 1.9%; Portuguese 1.5%; Moroccan Arab 1.5%; Fleming 1.4%; Algerian Arab 1.3%; Basque 1.3%; Jewish 1.2%; German 1.2%; Vietnamese 1.0%; Catalan 0.5%; other 8.1%. Religious affiliation (2004): Roman Catholic 64.3%, of which practicing c. 8%; nonreligious/atheist c. 27%; Muslim 4.3%; Protestant 1.9%; Buddhist c. 1%; Jewish 0.6%; Jehovah’s Witness 0.4%; Orthodox 0.2%; other 0.3%. Major cities/urban agglomerations (2007/2006): Paris 2,193,030/10,142,977; Marseille 852,395/1,418,481; Lyon 472,330/1,417,463; Lille 225,789/1,016,205; Nice 348,721/940,017; Toulouse 439,453/850,873; Bordeaux 235,178/803,117; Nantes 283,025/568,743; Toulon 166,537/543,065; Douai-Lens: Douai 42,621, Lens 36,011/512,462; Strasbourg 272,123/440,265; Grenoble 156,793/427,658; Rouen 108,569/388,798; Valenciennes (2005) 41,506/355,660; Nancy 105,349/331,279; Metz 123,580/322,946; Montpellier 253,712/318,225; Tours 136,578/306,974; Saint-Étienne 175,318/286,400; Rennes 207,922/ 282,550. Households (2004). Average household size (2006) 2.31; 1 person 32.8%, 2 persons 32.5%, 3 persons 15.1%, 4 persons 12.8%, 5 persons or more 6.8%. Individual households 14,320,000 (56.0%); collective households 11,232,000 (44.0%). Immigration: total immigrant population (20052) c. 4,850,000; immigrants admitted (2002) 205,707, of which North African 30.7%, EU 20.8%, subSaharan African 15.2%, Asian 14.1%, other European 11.8%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.6 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 47.5%; outside of marriage (2008) 52.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.6 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.98. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2009) 4.0/(2008) 2.1. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 77.8 years; female 84.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2007): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 241.6; diseases of the circulatory system 237.9; accidents and violence 59.2; diseases of the respiratory system 51.7; diseases of the digestive system 37.1. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 0.4% (world avg. 0.8%).

Social indicators Educational attainment (2006). Percentage of population age 15 and over with no formal schooling through incomplete secondary education 45.5%, complete lower vocational 21.2%, complete secondary 13.3%, incomplete/complete higher 19.8%, unknown 0.2%. Quality of working life. Legally worked week for full-time employees (2009) 35.0 hours. Rate of fatal injuries per 100,000 insured workers (2004): 3.7. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workers (2004): 13. Trade union membership (2003): 1,900,000 (c. 8% of labour force). Access to services (2004). Proportion of principal residences having: electricity 97.4%; indoor toilet 94.6%; indoor kitchen with sink 94.2%; hot water 60.3%; air conditioner 15.4%. Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last (May 2007) national election: 84.0%. Population over 15 years of age participating in voluntary associations (1997): 28.0%. Percentage of population who “never” or “almost never” attend church services (2000) 60%; percentage of Roman Catholic population who attend Mass weekly (2003) 12%.

576

Britannica World Data

Social deviance. Offense rate per 100,000 population (2006) for: murder 1.5, rape 16.0, other assault 269.2; theft (including burglary and housebreaking) 3,403.8. Incidence per 100,000 in general population of: homicide (2001) 0.8; suicide (2001) 16.1. Leisure (2007). Members of sports federations: 16,254,000, of which football (soccer) 2,321,000. Movie tickets sold: 178,000,000. Average daily hours of television viewing for population age 4 and over: 3.45. Material well-being (2004). Households possessing: automobile (2007) 82%; colour television 95%; personal computer 45%; washing machine 92%; microwave 74%; dishwasher (2001) 39%.

National economy Gross national income (GNI; 2009)6: U.S.$2,754,606,000,000 (U.S.$43,990 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$35,020 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

in value >’000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

35,000 … 203,800 117,100 37,400 77,400 174,300 633,900 135,200 338,300 197,6007 1,950,1009

1.8 … 10.5 6.0 1.9 4.0 8.9 32.5 6.9 17.4 10.17 100.0

789,100 25,500 3,877,200 1,860,000 201,200 1,640,700 4,291,800 3,578,100 2,652,500 6,795,300 2,271,8008 27,983,5009

2.8 0.1 13.9 6.6 0.7 5.9 15.3 12.8 9.5 24.3 8.18 100.0

Budget (2007). Revenue: >369,600,000,000 (tax revenue 80.0%, of which taxes on goods and services 43.6%; social contributions 10.9%; grants 4.5%). Expenditures: >411,410,000,000 (social protection 20.0%; education 19.4%; economic affairs 13.8%; debt service 11.1%; defense 8.2%). Public debt (20092): U.S.$1,846,330,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat 38,324,700, sugar beets 34,913,000, corn (maize) 15,299,900, barley 12,879,600, potatoes 7,164,200, grapes 6,000,000, rapeseed 5,584,100, apples 2,050,000, triticale 2,015,500, sunflower seeds 1,703,900, tomatoes 725,000, oats 572,800, green peas 405,000, cauliflower and broccoli 400,000, string beans 365,000, peaches and nectarines 310,000, sorghum 309,900, carrots and turnips 300,000, mushrooms and truffles 160,000, pears 160,000, spinach 130,000, chicory roots (2008) 125,475, apricots 100,000, flax fibre and tow (2008) 95,000, garlic 21,000; livestock (number of live animals) 18,591,000 cattle, 14,810,000 pigs, 7,715,200 sheep, 176,000,000 chickens, 26,000,000 turkeys, 22,500,000 ducks; roundwood 58,192,766 cu m, of which fuelwood 50%; fisheries production (2008) 694,960 (from aquaculture 34%); aquatic plants production 39,792 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): gypsum 3,500,000; crude talc 420,000; kaolin 300,000; gold10 1,500 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): chemicals and chemical products 35,549; transportation equipment 33,822, of which motor vehicles 13,459, aircraft and spacecraft 9,499; fabricated metal products 27,754; food and food products 20,939; general purpose machinery 14,188; printing and publishing 13,651; electrical machinery and apparatus 11,262; medical, measuring, and testing appliances 10,592; plastic products 9,985; base metals 8,753; bricks, cement, and ceramics 8,414; electronics 8,127; special purpose machinery 7,294; textiles and wearing apparel 6,376; beverages 6,068; paper and paper products 5,189; furniture 4,503. Financial aggregates11

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Exchange rate, > per: U.S. dollar 0.73 0.85 0.76 0.68 0.72 0.69 £ 1.42 1.46 1.49 1.36 1.01 1.13 SDR 1.14 1.21 1.14 1.07 1.07 1.09 International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; ’000,000) 35,314 27,753 42,652 45,710 33,617 46,633 SDRs (’000,000) 875 878 948 995 966 15,234 Reserve pos. in IMF (’000,000) 5,363 2,878 1,417 1,127 2,270 3,671 Foreign exchange 29,077 23,996 40,287 43,587 30,382 27,729 Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) 95.98 90.85 87.44 83.69 80.13 78.30 % world reserves 10.7 10.3 11.2 11.5 12.0 12.4 Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) … … … … … … Govt. bond yield (%) 4.10 3.41 3.80 4.30 4.23 3.65 Industrial share prices 81.0 100.0 117.5 119.1 68.2 83.5 (2005 = 100)12 Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000) Balance of visible trade –4,840 –27,840 –38,120 –56,810 –87,260 –61,970 Imports, f.o.b. –425,950 –467,290 –522,890 –605,340 –692,580 –535,830 Exports, f.o.b. 421,110 439,450 484,770 548,530 605,320 473,860 Balance of invisibles +15,870 +17,580 +25,130 +30,200 +32,470 +10,110 Balance of payments, current account +11,030 –10,260 –12,990 –26,610 –54,790 –51,860

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 518,123,000,000 ([2007] 513,027,000,00013); hard coal (metric tons; 2009) 147,000 (16,756,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) negligible (51,00013); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009–10) 6,663,000 ([2009] 684,375,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 73,923,00013 (72,997,00013); natural gas (cu m; 2008–09) 837,663,800 ([2009] 44,840,000,000). Retail trade (value of sales in >’000,000; 2004): large food stores 162,600; large nonfood stores 136,400; auto repair shops 120,400; pharmacies and stores selling orthopedic equipment 32,600; shops selling bread, pastries, or meat 31,800; small food stores and boutiques 15,300. Population economically active (2008): total 27,983,500; activity rate of total population 44.9% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 70.1%; female 47.5%; unemployed [July 2009–June 2010] 9.8%).

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

96.2

98.3

100.0

101.7

103.2

106.1

106.2

Consumer price index

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 2.3; average disposable income per household (2004) >28,340 (U.S.$35,187); sources of income (2004): wages and salaries 66%, transfers 23%, self-employment 7%, other 4%; expenditure (2009): housing and energy 19.7%, transportation 10.9%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 10.4%, recreation and culture 7.0%, restaurants and hotels 4.7%, household furnishings 4.5%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 56,274; remittances (2009) 15,252; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 72,702. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 43,346; remittances (2008) 6,247; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 157,514. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 25.7%, left fallow 2.2%, in permanent crops 2.0%, in pasture 23.8%, forest area 28.5%.

Foreign trade14 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–4,850 0.6%

–27,840 3.1%

–38,120 3.8%

–55,930 4.9%

–86,880 6.7%

–75,400 7.6%

Imports (2008)13: U.S.$695,004,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 20.4%, of which electrical machinery/apparatus/parts 5.0%, general industrial machinery 4.1%; mineral fuels 16.9%, of which crude petroleum 8.6%, refined petroleum 3.7%; chemicals and chemical products 12.8%, of which medicines and pharmaceuticals 3.6%; road vehicles/parts 10.0%; apparel and clothing accessories 3.4%; iron and steel 3.4%). Major import sources: Germany 16.4%; Belgium 8.5%; Italy 8.1%; Spain 6.5%; China 6.5%; U.S. 5.5%; U.K. 4.8%; Neth. 4.1%; Russia 2.9%; Switzerland 2.3%. Exports (2008)13: U.S.$594,505,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 24.9%, of which electrical machinery/apparatus/parts 5.9%; chemicals and chemical products 16.8%, of which medicines and pharmaceuticals 5.6%, perfumery and cosmetics 2.4%; road vehicles/parts 10.1%; food 8.2%; aircraft/parts 6.4%; mineral fuels 5.1%, of which petroleum 3.4%; iron and steel 3.9%; alcoholic beverages [mostly wine] 2.4%). Major export destinations: Germany 14.6%; Italy 8.8%; Spain 8.4%; U.K. 7.9%; Belgium 7.6%; U.S. 5.9%; Neth. 4.2%; Switzerland 3.0%; China 2.2%; Russia 1.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length (in operation) 18,152 mi, 29,213 km; passenger-km (2009) 86,307,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 41,190,000,000. Roads (2007): total length 591,001 mi, 951,125 km (paved 100%); passenger-km (2006) 768,900,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 211,445,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 30,700,000; trucks and buses 6,353,000. Air transport (2009–10)15: passenger-km 123,784,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2009) 11,155,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

23,723

391

2009 2009

59,54317 35,500

95517 569

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

40,400 7,36216 44,625 19,39817

652 11816 716 31117

Education and health Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

217,428 480,564 110,441

4,139,284 5,899,298 2,164,538

19.0 12.3 19.6

98 98 55 (age 18–22)

Health (2008): physicians 213,821 (1 per 291 persons); hospital beds 440,656 (1 per 141 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 3.6; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 352,77118 (army 38.0%, navy 12.5%, air force 16.3%, headquarters staff 1.5%, health services 2.4%, gendarmerie 29.3%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.3%6, 19; per capita expenditure U.S.$1,0476, 19. 1Since 2005 international and country sources are more likely to combine social and economic data for the four French overseas departments (FODs; that is, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Réunion) with metropolitan France. Britannica World Data continues to compile separate pages for the four FODs and acknowledges that some data are without a doubt double-counted. Data for France are footnoted if taken from an international source that clearly cites the inclusion of the FODs. 2January 1. 3Commonly referred to as a region but officially a territorial collectivity with special status. 4Area including four FODs equals 244,317 sq mi (632,777 sq km). 5Excludes population of four FODs totaling 1,882,000 people in mid-2010. 6Includes the overseas departments of French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Réunion. 7Taxes on products less subsidies. 8Includes 2,070,000 unemployed. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 10Metal content. 11Data are end of year unless otherwise indicated. 12Period average. 13Includes Monaco. 14Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 15Air France only. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 18About 22,000 troops are stationed outside of metropolitan France, including c. 3,100 in Afghanistan, c. 2,800 in Germany, and c. 1,700 in Djibouti. 19Includes military pensions.

Internet resource for further information: • INSEE http://www.insee.fr/en

577

Nations of the World

French Guiana

Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 2008): U.S.$4,693,000,000 (U.S.$20,806 per capita).

Official name: Département d’OutreMer de la Guyane française (Overseas Department of French Guiana).1 Political status: overseas department/ overseas region of France with two legislative houses (General Council2 [19]; Regional Council3 [31]). Head of state: President of France. Heads of government: Prefect (for France); President of the General Council (for French Guiana); President of the Regional Council (for French Guiana). Capital: Cayenne. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2005 in value >’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing } Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

2002 % of total value

107

4.3

278 174 42 102 250

11.3 7.1 1.7 4.1 10.1

1,559

63.1

–42 2,470

–1.7 100.0

labour force11

% of labour force11

1,024 409 1,053 2,583 644 2,134 4,815 830 9,758 14,975 11,095 49,320

2.1 0.8 2.1 5.2 1.3 4.3 9.8 1.7 19.8 30.4 22.5 100.0

Population economically active (2009): total 70,701; activity rate of total population 30.6% (participation rates [2008]: ages 15 and over, 50.9%; female 45.9%; unemployed 20.7%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)12

Area and population area Arrondissements

Capitals

Cayenne Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni

Cayenne Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

2006 census4

17,727 14,526 32,253

45,913 37,621 83,534

147,817 58,137 205,954

Demography Population (2010): 237,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 7.3, persons per sq km 2.8. Urban-rural (2009): urban 76.1%; rural 23.9%. Sex distribution (2005): male 50.58%; female 49.42%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 29.3%; 15–29, 22.8%; 30–44, 21.1%; 45–59, 17.4%; 60–74, 7.2%; 75 and over, 2.2%. Population projection: (2020) 299,000; (2030) 363,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Guianese Mulatto 37.9%; French 8.0%; Haitian 8.0%; Surinamese 6.0%; Antillean 5.0%; Chinese 5.0%; Brazilian 4.9%; East Indian 4.0%; other (other West Indian, Hmong, other South American) 21.2%. Religious affiliation (2000): Christian 84.6%, of which Roman Catholic 80.0%, Protestant 3.9%; Chinese folk-religionist 3.6%; Spiritist 3.5%; nonreligious/atheist 3.0%; traditional beliefs 1.9%; Hindu 1.6%; Muslim 0.9%; other 0.9%. Major cities (2007)5: Cayenne (2009) 62,000 (urban agglomeration 76,519); Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni 34,149; Kourou 25,688; Matoury 24,893; RémireMontjoly 18,5116.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 27.7 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 12.1%; outside of marriage 87.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 3.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 24.3 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 3.2. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2008) 2.7/(2007) 1.0. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 72.8 years; female 80.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): external causes 76.0, of which accidents 50.8; diseases of the circulatory system 75.0, of which cerebrovascular disease 25.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 58.2; infectious and parasitic diseases 32.1; certain conditions originating in the perinatal period 15.3.

National economy Budget (2008)7. Revenue: >287,300,000 (current expenditure 85.2%, of which tax revenue 59.4%, grants and subsidies 16.8%, other revenue 9.0%; capital expenditure 14.8%). Expenditures: >272,800,000 (current expenditure 80.2%; capital expenditure 19.8%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava 10,300, rice 8,671, cabbages 6,300, sugarcane 5,500, bananas 4,500, taro 4,100, tomatoes 3,700, green beans 3,300; livestock (number of live animals) 11,000 pigs, 9,300 cattle; roundwood (2009) 196,500 cu m, of which fuelwood 59%; fisheries production 3,957 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2008): clays 5,000; gold 2,000 kg8. Manufacturing: cement (2006) 62,000; rum (2007) 2,965 hectolitres; other products include finished wood products, leather goods, clothing, rosewood essence, yogurt, and beer. Number of satellites launched from the Kourou Space Centre (2009): 79. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 763,000,000 ([2009] 722,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (282,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 3.5; income per household (2000) >30,542 (U.S.$28,139); sources of income (2007): wages and salaries 81.5%, self-employment 6.3%; expenditure (2005)10: food and beverages 21.7%, housing and energy 20.8%, transportation and communications 15.4%, restaurants and hotels 7.9%, household furnishings 7.3%, clothing and footwear 6.4%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 0.14%, in permanent crops 0.04%, in pasture 0.08%, forest area 91.5%.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

97.1 93.5

98.6 94.0

100.0 100.0

103.3 103.1

106.4 105.1

110.0 108.5

110.9 110.2

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index13

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 49; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment, n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) >’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–581 76.3%

–641 77.5%

–627 71.8%

–779 70.0%

–951 82.6%

–825 77.5%

Imports (2009): >944,700,000 (machinery and apparatus 21.8%, food and agricultural products 16.4%, mineral fuels 15.7%, road vehicles 12.8%). Major import sources: France c. 37%; other EU c. 10%; Latin America c. 6%. Exports (2009): >119,700,000 (motor vehicles/parts 28.1%, gold 21.1%, electrical machinery and electronics 20.9%, fish 5.3%, shrimp 5.3%, transport equipment 4.3%). Major export destinations: France c. 44%; other EU c. 25%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2004): total length 808 mi, 1,300 km (paved, n.a.). Vehicles (2001): passenger cars 32,900; trucks and buses 11,900. Air transport (2007)14: passenger-km 55,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

1998

37

202

2009 2009

21816 48

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

96516 213

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

33 1515 58 …

168 6515 257 …

Education and health Educational attainment (1999). Percentage of population age 20 and over having: no formal education through lower secondary education 57.3%; vocational 17.5%; upper secondary 9.3%; incomplete higher 5.6%; completed higher 6.7%; other 3.6%. Literacy: n.a. Education (2008–09) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18)18 Tertiary

2,13917 2,12917 …

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

40,178 28,758 …

… … …

… … … (age 19–23)

Health (2008): physicians 377 (1 per 598 persons); hospital beds 647 (1 per 349 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2005) 12.1; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): French troops c. 2,100 (army [including the French Foreign Legion] c. 69%, navy c. 7%, air force, n.a., gendarmerie c. 24%).

1French Guiana is simultaneously administered as an overseas region (région d’outremer). 2Assembly for overseas department. 3Assembly for overseas region. 4Total of 22 commune censuses taken between 2004 and 2008. 5Commune population. 6Within Cayenne urban agglomeration. 7Data are for budget managed by French Guiana’s Regional Council. 8Legal production only. 9In 2004 the European Space Agency accounted for 26% of GDP and employed 8,300. 10Weights of consumer price index components. 11Employed only. 12Indices based on end-of-year figures. 13Based on minimum-level wage in public administration. 14Air Guyane Express. 15Circulation. 16Subscribers. 172004–05. 18Excludes vocational.

Internet resources for further information: • IEDOM Guyane: Rapport Annuel http://www.iedom.fr • INSEE Guyane http://www.insee.fr/fr/regions/guyane

578

Britannica World Data

French Polynesia

Gross domestic product (2008): U.S.$4,724,000,000 (U.S.$17,781 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Pays d’Outre-Mer de la Polynésie Française (French) (Overseas Country of French Polynesia).1 Political status: overseas collectivity (France) with one legislative house (Assembly [57]). Head of state: President of France. Heads of government: High Commissioner (for France); President of the Government (for French Polynesia). Capital: Papeete. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFP franc (CFPF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFPF 93.14; 1 £ = CFPF 143.88.

2008

Agriculture, fishing Mining and quarrying } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Services } Pub. admin., defense Other TOTAL

Area and population area Administrative subdivisions/ Principal islands Îles Australes Îles du Vent Moorea Tahiti Îles Marquises

sq km 148 1,194 1,049

population 2007 census 6,304 194,683 16,208 178,173 8,658

area Administrative subdivisions/ Principal islands Îles Sous le Vent Bora-Bora Raiatea Îles Tuamotu et Gambier TOTAL

population 2007 census 33,165 8,930 12,008

sq km 404

726 4,0002

16,896 259,706

Demography Population (2010): 269,000. Density (2010)3: persons per sq mi 197.9, persons per sq km 76.4. Urban-rural (2009): urban 51.3%; rural 48.7%. Sex distribution (2007): male 51.25%; female 48.75%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 26.0%; 15–29, 26.6%; 30–44, 23.4%; 45–59, 15.3%; 60–74, 6.9%; 75 and over, 1.8%. Population projection: (2020) 300,000; (2030) 325,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Polynesian 58.4%, of which Tahitian 41.0%, Tuamotuan 8.5%; mixed European-Polynesian 17.0%; Han Chinese 11.3%; French 11.0%; other 2.3%. Religious affiliation (2005): Protestant c. 36%, of which Maohi Protestant Church (Presbyterian) c. 33%; Roman Catholic c. 31%; other Christian c. 11%, of which Mormon c. 6%; Chinese folk-religionist, nonreligious, and other c. 22%. Major communes (2007): Faaa 29,7814; Papeete 26,050 (urban agglomeration 131,6955); Punaauia 25,3994; Pirae 14,5514; Nunue 4,9276.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 17.0 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2004) c. 26%; outside of marriage (2004) c. 74%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.18. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 4.0/n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 73.0 years; female 78.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): diseases of the circulatory system 123.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 114.4; diseases of the respiratory system 53.5; accidents and violence 52.7.

2006 % of total value 2.7

83.8

1.8

290.5 279.1 354.4 1,152.0

6.1 5.9 7.5 24.4

2,508.4

53.1

–71.9 4,724.5

–1.5 100.0

Budget (2009)7. Revenue: CFPF 140,567,000,000 (tax revenue 76.1%, loans 8.1%, nontax revenue 2.9%, other 12.9%). Expenditures: CFPF 140,567,000,000 (current expenditure 75.4%, capital expenditure 17.0%, debt service 7.6%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): coconuts 87,000, cassava 4,300, pineapples 3,000, noni8 juice and puree (export production; 2009) 2,634, hen’s eggs 2,390, tomatoes 1,242, pig meat 1,100, lettuce 700, vanilla 49; livestock (number of live animals) 31,000 pigs, 270,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 4,300 cu m, of which fuelwood 100%; fisheries production 11,953 (from aquaculture, negligible); export production of black pearls (2009) 15,331 kg. Mining and quarrying: submerged phosphate deposits at Mataiva Atoll were not mined in 2009. Manufacturing (2008): copra 10,423; coconut oil 5,595; other manufactures include beer, dairy products, monoï oil (primarily refined coconut and sandalwood oils), printed cloth, and sandals. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 687,000,000 (687,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (261,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2007): total 107,926; activity rate of total population 41.6% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 56.2%; female 41.0%; unemployed 11.7%). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

99.2

99.6

100.0

102.7

104.8

108.2

108.3

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 522; remittances (2009) 761; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 35. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 159; remittances (2008) 56; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 21.

labour force9 2,808 156 53710 4,64510 5,961 6,509 17,578 6,307 8,469 15,070 — 68,040

% of labour force9 4.1 0.2 0.810 6.810 8.8 9.6 25.8 9.3 12.4 22.2 — 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2007) 3.8; average annual income per household, n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2000–01): food and beverages 21.9%, housing 19.2%, transportation 16.7%, hotel and café expenditures 7.7%, culture and recreation 6.9%, household furnishings 5.8%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 0.8%, in permanent crops 6.0%, in pasture 5.5%, forest area 28.7%.

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) CFPF ’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–124,300 77.8%

–143,400 78.0%

–139,700 81.6%

–145,000 82.3%

–162,400 83.1%

–136,400 86.4%

Imports (2008): CFPF 178,900,000,000 (food 17.7%; machinery and apparatus 17.3%; refined petroleum 13.8%; motor vehicles and parts 9.0%). Major import sources: France 30.1%; Singapore 14.2%; U.S. 9.9%; China 7.4%; New Zealand 6.2%. Exports (2008): CFPF 16,500,000,000 (black cultured pearls 51.9%; aircraft/parts 12.3%; gold/silver/pearl jewelry 11.9%; fruit [particularly noni8] 2.9%; corals, shells 2.8%; fish 1.6%; vanilla 1.2%). Major export destinations: Hong Kong 41.4%; France 19.7%; Japan 14.2%; U.S. 8.1%; New Caledonia 2.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2006): total length 390 mi, 792 km (paved 33%). Motor vehicles: n.a. Air transport (2007)12: passenger-km 4,356,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 106,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2004

56

223

2009 2009

20814 54

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

77414 202

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

28 2013 120 3014

units per 1,000 persons 109 7513 446 11214

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 4.4%; primary education 19.9%; lower secondary 20.8%; vocational 19.8%; upper secondary 18.7%; higher 16.4%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Education (2006–07)

National economy

Consumer price index

in value U.S.$’000,000 128.2

Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary15

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

… … 74

26,939 33,193 2,649

… … 35.8

… … … (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2009) 478 (1 per 559 persons); hospital beds (2007) 894 (1 per 290 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008): 5.0; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 1,350 French troops (army 47.4%, navy 52.6%, air force, n.a.).

1French Polynesia in Tahitian is Polynesia Farani; the Tahitian language provides the fundamental element of cultural identity per article 57 of the Statute of Autonomy. 2Approximate total area including inland water; total land area is 3,521 sq km (1,359 sq mi). 3Based on land area. 4Part of Papeete urban agglomeration. 5Preliminary census total. 6Located on Bora-Bora, Nunue is the largest town not on the island of Tahiti. 7Territorial budget only; excludes French grants and subsidies (CFPF 170,000,000,000 in 2007). 8Fruit known locally as nono; also known as Indian mulberry. 9Salaried employees only. 10The manufacture of energy-generating products is included in Public utilities. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Air Tahiti and Air Tahiti Nui only. 13Circulation. 14Subscribers. 15University of French Polynesia only.

Internet resources for further information: • Institut de la Statistique de la Polynésie Française http://www.ispf.pf • IEOM La Polynésie française: Rapport Annuel http://www.ieom.fr/ieom/

Nations of the World

Gabon

tion (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 1,844,000,000 (1,844,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 87,100,000 ([2007] 6,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 793,000 (552,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) 187,000,000 ([2007] 156,000,000). Population economically active (2008)7: total 687,000; activity rate of total population 47.4% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 76.9%; female 46.3%; unemployed [2006] c. 21%).

Official name: République Gabonaise (Gabonese Republic). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a Parliament comprising two legislative houses (Senate [102]; National Assembly [120]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Libreville. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

Price index (2005 = 100)

area Capitals

Estuaire Haut-Ogooué Moyen-Ogooué Ngounié Nyanga Ogooué-lvindo Ogooué-Lolo Ogooué-Maritime Woleu-Ntem

Libreville Franceville Lambaréné Mouila Tchibanga Makokou Koulamoutou Port-Gentil Oyem

TOTAL

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

96.0

96.4

100.0

98.6

103.6

109.0

111.1

Consumer price index

Household income and expenditure (2004). Average household size 5.0; average annual income per household8 CFAF 1,730,000 (U.S.$3,275); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2008): food 30.5%, beverages and tobacco 9.1%, communications 5.7%, clothing and footwear 5.6%, hotels and cafés 4.9%, transportation 4.7%, unspecified 22.8%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2005) 9; remittances (2009) 11; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 170; official development assistance (2008) 55. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2005) 274; remittances (2008) 186; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 81. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 1.3%, in permanent crops 0.7%, in pasture 18.1%; overall forest area (overlapping with other categories) 84.4%.

Area and population Provinces

579

population

sq mi

sq km

2003 census1

8,008 14,111 7,156 14,575 8,218 17,790 9,799 8,838 14,851 103,3472

20,740 36,547 18,535 37,750 21,285 46,075 25,380 22,890 38,465 267,667

662,028 228,471 60,990 101,415 50,297 64,163 64,534 128,774 157,013 1,517,685

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF ’000,000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 1,501,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 14.5, persons per sq km 5.6. Urban-rural (2009): urban 85.6%; rural 14.4%. Sex distribution (2007): male 49.67%; female 50.33%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 42.1%; 15–29, 27.6%; 30–44, 15.5%; 45–59, 9.0%; 60–74, 4.5%; 75–84, 1.1%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 1,779,000; (2030) 2,044,000. Doubling time: 29 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Fang 28.6%; Punu 10.2%; Nzebi 8.9%; French 6.7%; Mpongwe 4.1%; Teke 4.0%; other 37.5%. Religious affiliation (2005): Christian c. 73%3, of which Roman Catholic c. 45%3, Protestant/independent Christian c. 28%3; Muslim c. 12%4; traditional beliefs c. 10%; nonreligious c. 5%. Major urban areas (2003): Libreville (2009) 619,000; Port-Gentil 116,200; Franceville 41,300; Lambaréné 9,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2007): 36.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2007): 12.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2007): 23.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 4.71. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 52.8 years; female 55.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): HIV/AIDS-related c. 206; malaria c. 87; ischemic heart disease c. 76; cerebrovascular disease c. 65; measles c. 54. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 5.9%5 (world avg. 0.8%).

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+1,509 54.0%

+2,165 60.2%

+2,152 59.8%

+2,351 59.0%

+2,575 61.2%

+3,207 63.0%

Imports (2008): CFAF 940,000,000,000 (petroleum sector 27.4%, mining sector 4.8%, forest sector 0.7%, remainder 67.1%). Major import sources: France 35.4%; Belgium/Luxembourg 13.8%; U.S. 7.4%; China 3.9%; Neth. 3.4%. Exports (2008): CFAF 4,147,000,000,000 (petroleum 76.4%, manganese ore and concentrate 14.7%, wood [all forms] 5.3%). Major export destinations: U.S. 51.8%; China 13.2%; India 6.4%; France 6.0%; Neth. 3.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2005): route length 506 mi, 814 km; (2003) passengerkm 86,000,000; (2003) metric ton-km cargo 2,998,000,000. Roads (2007): total length 5,700 mi, 9,170 km (paved 12%). Vehicles (2002): passenger cars 25,600; trucks and buses 17,000. Air transport: (2005) passenger-km 829,000,000; (2007) metric ton-km cargo 70,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2004

220

173

2009 2009

1,37311 27

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

93111 18

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

46 2010 99 3.011

Budget (2008). Revenue: CFAF 2,078,100,000,000 (oil revenues 65.5%, other revenues 34.5%). Expenditures: CFAF 1,296,300,000,000 (current expenditure 69.9%, capital expenditure 30.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$2,247,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$10,869,000,000 (U.S.$7,370 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$12,460 per capita).

36 1410 67 2.011

Education and health Educational attainment (2000)12: no formal schooling 6.2%; incomplete primary and complete primary education 32.7%; lower secondary 41.3%; upper secondary 14.2%; higher 5.6%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 86.2%; males literate 90.2%; females literate 82.2%. Education (2003–04)

National economy

units per 1,000 persons

teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

7,807 … …

students 281,371 105,19114 …

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

36.0 … …

8013 … … (age 19–23)

Health (2008): physicians 271 (1 per 5,343 persons); hospital beds 3,724 (1 per 389 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 53.5; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Crude petroleum Other mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Services } Pub. admin., defense Other TOTAL

Military

2006

in value CFAF ’000,000

% of total value

labour force

268,400 3,728,000 283,600 285,300 158,300 53,100 321,000 287,400 60,800

3.8 53.0 4.0 4.1 2.2 0.7 4.6 4.1 0.9

193,000

30.4

442,000

69.6

1,236,400

17.6

350,5006 7,032,800

5.06 100.0

635,000

100.0

}

% of labour force

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): plantains 275,000, cassava 240,000, sugarcane 220,000, yams 158,000, taro 56,000, vegetables 36,000, oil palm fruit 33,500, game meat 21,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 18,000, natural rubber (2008) 12,000; livestock (number of live animals) 215,000 pigs, 3,200,000 chickens; roundwood 3,934,100 cu m, of which fuelwood 14%; fisheries production 30,124 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2009): manganese ore 1,992,000. Manufacturing (value added in CFAF ’000,000,000; 2008): agricultural products 85.0; refined petroleum products 48.1; wood products 43.2. Energy produc-

Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 4,700 (army 68.1%, navy 10.6%, air force 21.3%); French troops (2009) 775. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$93.

1Results

are disputed by international authorities. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Many also practice elements of traditional beliefs. 4Mostly foreigners. 5Statistically derived midpoint within range. 6Royalties and import taxes. 7ILO estimates. 8Figures based on a national sample survey of 529 households. 9Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and commodities and c.i.f. in trading partners. 10Circulation. 11Subscribers. 12Figures based on a national sample survey of people ages 15–59 from 6,203 households. 132000–01. 142001–02.

Internet resources for further information: • Direction Générale des Statistiques http://www.stat-gabon.org/ • La Banque de France: La Zone Franc http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm

580

Britannica World Data

Gambia, The

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Official name: Republic of The Gambia. Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [531]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Banjul. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: dalasi (D); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = D 29.00; 1 £ = D 44.80.

in value D ’000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public administration Services Other

Divisions Basse Brikama Janjanbureh (Georgetown) Kerewan Kuntaur Mansakonko

area

population

sq km 2,048 1,764

2006 estimate 217,014 453,456

1,463 2,199 1,501 1,561

113,674 178,072 82,028 74,420

5,590 374 1,241 820 334 2,231 6,824 2,543 832 953 1,23710 22,97812, 13

TOTAL

Area and population

Municipal Council Kanifing2, 3

area

population

sq km 76

2006 estimate 358,133

24.3 1.6 5.4 3.6 1.5 9.7 29.7 11.1 3.6 } 4.1 5.410 100.0

labour force9

% of labour force9

181,752 398 21,682 9,679 1,858 14,203 54,728 2,415

52.6 0.1 6.3 2.8 0.5 4.1 15.8 0.7

41,254

11.9

17,41211 345,381

5.011 100.013

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 83; remittances (2009) 65; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 64; official development assistance (2008) 94. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 8; remittances (2008) 12.

Foreign trade14 Balance of trade (current prices)

City Banjul3 SUBTOTAL REMAINDER TOTAL

12 10,624 1,008 11,6324

33,131 1,509,928

Demography Population (2010): 1,751,0005. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 389.9, persons per sq km 150.5. Urban-rural (2009): urban 57.4%; rural 42.6%. Sex distribution (2007): male 49.92%; female 50.08%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 44.1%; 15–29, 26.9%; 30–44, 15.6%; 45–59, 8.8%; 60–74, 3.8%; 75–84, 0.7%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 2,227,000; (2030) 2,736,000. Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnic composition (2003): Malinke c. 42%; Fulani c. 18%; Wolof c. 16%; Diola c. 10%; Soninke c. 9%; other c. 5%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim c. 90%; Christian (mostly Roman Catholic) c. 9%; traditional beliefs/other c. 1%. Major cities/urban areas (2006): Serekunda 335,7002; Brikama 80,700; Bakau 45,5002; Banjul 33,131 (Greater Banjul [2003] 523,5893); Farafenni 30,400.

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

–62.3 18.6%

–50.0 19.1%

–106.0 35.4%

–142.5 46.8%

–138.2 45.1%

–171.5 48.4%

Imports (2007): U.S.$262,900,000 (imports for domestic use 70.0%, of which petroleum products 10.8%; imports for reexport [principally to Senegal] 30.0%). Major import sources: Denmark c. 14%; U.S. c. 13%; China c. 11%; Germany c. 8%; U.K. c. 8%. Exports (2007): U.S.$91,400,000 (reexports 86.3%; peanut [groundnut] oil 3.3%; peanuts [groundnuts] 2.7%; fish 2.0%). Major export destinations: reexports (principally to Senegal) 86.3%; domestic exports 13.7%, of which to Senegal 3.5%, to U.K. 2.7%, to France 1.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2004): total length 2,325 mi, 3,742 km (paved 19%); passenger-km (2003) 16,100,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) n.a. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 8,815; trucks and buses 3,613. Air transport (2001)15: passenger arrivals 300,000, passenger departures 300,000; cargo loaded and unloaded 2,700 metric tons. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Vital statistics

Medium

date

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2007): 39.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2007): 13.0 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2007): 26.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 5.20. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 52.3 years; female 56.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): infectious and parasitic diseases c. 404, of which malaria c. 94; cardiovascular diseases c. 172; lower respiratory infections c. 145; accidents c. 80.

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

20

13

2009 2009

1,43317 49

84017 29

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

53 416 130 0.317

33 2.316 76 0.217

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2009): total population age 15 and over literate 45.3%; males literate 56.7%; females literate 34.3%. Education (2007–08)

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: D 4,142,000,000 (tax revenue 81.6%; nontax revenue 9.6%; grants 8.8%). Expenditures: D 4,627,000,000 (current expenditure 61.3%, of which wages and salaries 19.8%; capital expenditure 36.3%; net lending 2.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$420,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): millet 144,870, peanuts (groundnuts) 121,950, paddy rice 79,000, corn (maize) 54,625, oil palm fruit (2008) 35,000, sorghum 31,880, fresh vegetables (2008) 10,000, cassava (2008) 7,800, pulses ([2008] mostly beans) 3,300; livestock (number of live animals) 432,000 cattle, 380,000 goats, 209,500 sheep; roundwood 787,600 cu m, of which fuelwood 86%; fisheries production (2008) 42,645 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying: sand, clay ([2007] 6,713), and gravel are excavated for local use. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$; 1995): food products and beverages 6,000,000; textiles, clothing, and footwear 750,000; wood products 550,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 213,000,000 (229,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (127,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) none (2,306,000). Population economically active (2008)6: total 743,000; activity rate of total population 44.8% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 77.8%; female 46.3%; unemployed, n.a.). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

1993 % of total value

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

83.5

95.4

100.0

102.1

107.5

112.3

117.4

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2003) 8.6; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1991)7: food and beverages 58.0%, clothing and footwear 17.5%, energy and water 5.4%, housing 5.1%, education, health, transportation and communications, recreation, and other 14.0%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 34.8%, in permanent crops 0.6%, in pasture 45.9%, forest area 47.5%8. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$743,000,000 (U.S.$440 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,330 per capita).

Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary18

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

6,429 4,358 134

220,931 105,237 1,530

34.4 24.1 11.4

69 42 1 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2003) 156 (1 per 9,769 persons); hospital beds (2005) 1,221 (1 per 1,250 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 73.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 460,000 (29% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,770 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 80019 (army 100%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.2%; per capita expenditure U.S.$10.

1Includes 5 nonelective seats. 2Kanifing includes the urban areas of Serekunda and Bakau. 3Kanifing and Banjul make up most of Greater Banjul. 4Includes national area near the mouth of the Gambia River not allocated by division. 5Estimate of the United Nations World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision. 6ILO estimates. 7Low-income population in Banjul and Kanifing only; weights of consumer price index components. 8Forest area overlaps with other categories. 9Based on census data excluding numerous unemployed. 10Less imputed bank service charges. 11Not adequately defined. 12Reexports make up about 1/ of The Gambia’s GDP; goods imported into The Gambia 3 under lower taxes are reexported (sometimes illegally) to nearby countries (particularly Senegal). 13Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 14Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 15Yumdum International Airport at Banjul. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 182003–04. 19Of which deployed as UN peacekeepers in Sudan, 201.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Statistics Department • http://www.gambia.gm/Statistics/Statistics.htm • Central Bank of The Gambia • http://www.cbg.gm

Nations of the World

Georgia

581

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$11,080,000,000 (U.S.$2,530 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI10 (U.S.$4,700 per capita).

Official name: Sakartvelo (Georgia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (Parliament [150]). Head of state and government: President, assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Tbilisi1. Official language: Georgian. Official religion: none2. Monetary unit: Georgian lari (GEL); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = GEL 1.84; 1 £ = GEL 2.84.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population area

population

Regions

sq km

20093 estimate

Guria Imereti Kakheti Kvemo Kartli Mtskheta-Mtianeti Racha-Lechkhumi & Kvemo Svaneti Samegrelo & Zemo Svaneti Samtskhe-Javakheti Shida Kartli

2,032 6,475 11,311 6,072 5,4004

138,800 693,500 401,400 488,800 105,200

4,8504

47,700

7,440 6,413 3,5504

468,000 208,100 313,000

City Tbilisi (T’bilisi) Autonomous republic Ajaria (Adjara) Autonomous republics/ disputed areas5 Abkhazia South Ossetia7 REMAINDER TOTAL

area

population

sq km

20093 estimate

7004

1,136,600

2,880

382,400

8,640 3,9004 — 69,7008

180,0006 55,0006 1,900 4,385,4009

Population (2010): 4,356,00010. Density (2010)10: persons per sq mi 197.4, persons per sq km 76.2. Urban-rural (20103)10: urban 53.0%; rural 47.0%. Sex distribution (20103)10: male 47.54%; female 52.46%. Age breakdown (20103)10: under 15, 17.1%; 15–29, 23.6%; 30–44, 20.7%; 45–59, 20.3%; 60–74, 12.3%; 75 and over, 6.0%. Population projection10: (2020) 4,097,000; (2030) 3,888,000. Ethnic composition (2002)10: Georgian 83.8%; Azerbaijani 6.5%; Armenian 5.7%; Russian 1.5%; Ossetian 0.9%; other 1.6%. Religious affiliation (2005)11: Georgian Orthodox 54.8%; Sunni Muslim 14.5%; Shi(i Muslim 5.0%; Armenian Apostolic (Orthodox) 3.9%; Catholic 0.8%; Yazidi 0.4%; Protestant 0.4%; nonreligious 13.0%; other 7.2%. Major cities (20103): Tbilisi 1,152,500; Kutaisi 192,500; Batumi 123,500; Rustavi 119,500; Zugdidi (20093) 72,300.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009)10: 14.5 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 68.6%; outside of marriage 31.4%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009)10: 10.6 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008)10: 1.67. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009)10: 7.2/0.9. Life expectancy at birth (2009)10: male 69.2 years; female 77.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009)10: diseases of the circulatory system 588.1; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 115.0; accidents, poisoning, and violence 37.0; diseases of the digestive system 27.1.

% of total value

1,488.4 105.9 1,793.1 463.7 949.3 1,845.6 2,587.9 1,620.4 2,457.6 2,421.6 2,215.212 17,948.614

8.3 0.6 10.0 2.6 5.3 10.3 14.4 9.0 13.7 13.5 12.312 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

910,500 4,700 82,700 18,200 71,200 71,700 186,800 52,000 64,300 242,000 261,20013 1,965,300

46.3 0.2 4.2 0.9 3.6 3.6 9.5 2.6 3.3 12.3 13.313 100.014

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2009) 470; remittances (2009–10) 907; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 1,359; official development assistance (2008) 888. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 204; remittances (2009–10) 77; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 38. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops and left fallow 6.7%, in permanent crops 1.6%, in pasture 27.9%, forest area 39.7%.

Foreign trade15 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,199 48.1%

–1,624 48.4%

–2,742 59.4%

–3,983 61.8%

–4,559 60.3%

–3,243 58.8%

Imports (2008): U.S.$6,056,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 18.1%; refined petroleum 12.6%; food 12.2%; road vehicles 10.4%). Major import sources (2009): Turkey 18.0%; Ukraine 9.6%; Azerbaijan 8.6%; Germany 6.9%; Russia 6.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,497,000,000 (ferrosilico-manganese 15.4%; ferrous waste and scrap 8.6%; copper ore/concentrates 7.9%; motor vehicles 7.6%; food 7.0%; gold 6.7%; ammonium nitrate 6.6%; wine/grape brandy 5.5%). Major export destinations (2009): Turkey 19.9%; Azerbaijan 14.7%; Canada 10.3%; Armenia (2008) 8.2%; Ukraine 7.4%; Bulgaria 7.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): 1,561 km; passenger-km 674,500,000; metric tonkm cargo 6,515,700,000. Roads (2007): 20,329 km (paved 94%); passengerkm (2008) 5,568,000,00016; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 601,000,000. Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 466,900; trucks and buses 105,100. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 485,700,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,900,000. Communications

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

1,627

357

2009 2009

2,83718 620

66618 146

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2008 2009 2009 2009

1,191 4317 1,300 15018

units per 1,000 persons 272 9.817 305 3518

Education and health

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: GEL 5,158,600,000 (tax revenue 72.4%, of which VAT 38.3%, social tax 14.0%, taxes on corporate profits 8.4%, excise tax 8.3%; nontax revenue 23.3%; grants 4.3%). Expenditures: GEL 5,237,100,000 (defense 28.6%; social security and welfare 14.8%; general public service 14.6%; public order 13.1%; education 7.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; June 2010): U.S.$2,862,500,000. Population economically active (2009): total 1,991,800; activity rate of total population 45.4% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 63.6%; female 46.2%; unemployed 16.9%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

2007

in value GEL ’000,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

87.4 61.7

92.3 76.7

100.0 100.0

109.2 136.1

119.3 180.3

131.2 261.9

133.4 …

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): cow’s milk 512,000, corn (maize) 290,300, potatoes 216,700, grapes 149,900, oranges 93,600, apples 78,800, tomatoes 67,200, wheat 53,800, tea (2007) 23,800, hazelnuts 21,800; livestock (number of live animals) 1,045,500 cattle, 524,200 sheep; roundwood 838,006, of which fuelwood 87%; fisheries production (2008) 26,692 (from aquaculture 1%). Mining and quarrying (2007): manganese ore 350,000; gold 2,000 kg. Manufacturing (value added in GEL ’000,000; 2008): base and fabricated metals 314.1; food products, beverages, and tobacco 241.1; cement, bricks, and ceramics 145.8; chemicals and chemical products 66.8; transportation equipment 62.7. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 8,303,000,000 (7,935,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) 14,000 (48,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 363,139 (4,745,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 13,000 (809,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 8,000,000 (1,730,000,000). Household income and expenditure (2008). Average household size (2004) 3.7; average annual income per household GEL 5,407 (U.S.$3,835); sources of income: wages and salaries 36.9%, transfers 14.0%, remittances 13.9%, selfemployment 11.7%, agricultural income 6.7%; expenditure: food, beverages, and tobacco 39.5%, energy 10.4%, transportation 8.8%, health 8.5%.

Educational attainment (2004). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal education/unknown 1.6%; primary education 4.1%; incomplete secondary 10.5%; secondary 48.2%; incomplete higher 12.3%; higher 23.3%. Literacy (2008): virtually 100%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

25,098 40,919 17,824

311,265 305,388 129,926

12.4 7.5 7.3

99 8219 34 (age 17–21)

Health (2009): physicians 20,609 (1 per 213 persons); hospital beds 13,600 (1 per 322 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births10 14.9; undernourished population (2004–06) 550,00011 (12% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,920 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 21,15020 (army 84.0%, national guard 7.5%, navy 2.3%, air force 6.2%).21 Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 8.0%; per capita expenditure U.S.$235. 1Officially T’bilisi. 2Special recognition is 3January 1. 4Approximate areas. 5On Aug.

given to the Georgian Orthodox Church. 26, 2008, Russia became the first country to recognize Abkhazia’s and South Ossetia’s independence from Georgia. 62009 rough estimate. 7Georgia claims as part of Shida Kartli region. 8Reported total; summed total equals 69,663 sq km. Includes areas of Abkhazia and South Ossetia; total area excluding 2 autonomous republics/disputed areas equals 57,160 sq km (22,070 sq mi). 9Excludes the populations of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. 10Excludes Abkhazia and South Ossetia. 11Includes Abkhazia and South Ossetia. 12Taxes on products less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 13Including 261,000 unemployed. 14Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 15Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 16Buses only. 17Circulation. 18Subscribers. 192006–07. 20Excluding 11,700 paramilitary troops. 21Russian troops in Abkhazia and South Ossetia (November 2009) c. 3,400.

Internet resources for further information: • National Bank of Georgia http://www.nbg.gov.ge • National Statistics Office of Georgia http://www.geostat.ge

582

Britannica World Data

Germany

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.9 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 68.2%; outside of marriage (2008) 31.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): –2.3 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.37. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2009) 4.6/(2008) 2.3. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 77.2 years; female 82.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 434.4, of which ischemic heart disease 164.2, cerebrovascular disease 76.9, hypertensive diseases 37.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 263.0; diseases of the respiratory system 71.9; diseases of the digestive system 53.2; accidents and violence 38.4; diabetes mellitus 27.2; diseases of the genitourinary system 22.6; infectious and parasitic diseases 17.8.

Official name: Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal Republic of Germany). Form of government: federal multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Bundesrat, or Federal Council [69]; German Bundestag, or Federal Assembly [6221]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Chancellor. Capital: Berlin2. Official language: German. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Social indicators

Area and population area Federal states3

Capitals

Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Berlin Brandenburg Bremen Hamburg Hesse Lower Saxony Mecklenburg–West Pomerania North Rhine–Westphalia Rhineland-Palatinate Saarland Saxony Saxony-Anhalt Schleswig-Holstein Thuringia

Stuttgart Munich — Potsdam Bremen Hamburg Wiesbaden Hannover Schwerin Düsseldorf Mainz Saarbrücken Dresden Magdeburg Kiel Erfurt

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

20094 estimate

13,804 27,240 344 11,382 156 292 8,153 18,388 8,952 13,161 7,665 992 7,111 7,895 6,100 6,244 137,879

35,751 70,552 891 29,480 404 755 21,115 47,625 23,185 34,086 19,853 2,569 18,418 20,447 15,799 16,172 357,1045

10,749,506 12,519,728 3,431,675 2,522,493 661,866 1,772,100 6,064,953 7,947,244 1,664,356 17,933,064 4,028,351 1,030,324 4,192,801 2,381,872 2,834,260 2,267,763 82,002,356

Demography Population (2010): 81,644,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 592.1, persons per sq km 228.6. Urban-rural (2008): urban 84.1%; rural 15.9%6. Population projection: (2020) 79,908,000; (2030) 77,344,000. Major cities (20094; urban agglomerations): Dortmund 584,412 (4,694,6867); Essen 579,759 (4,694,6867); Duisburg 494,048 (4,694,6867); Bochum 378,596 (4,694,6867); Berlin 3,431,675 (4,298,182); Hamburg 1,772,100 (2,599,171); Munich 1,326,807 (1,996,826); Frankfurt am Main 664,838 (1,922,101); Cologne 995,420 (1,895,166); Stuttgart 600,068 (1,783,755); Mannheim 311,342 (1,249,806); Düsseldorf 584,217 (1,219,515); Nuremberg (Nürnberg) 503,638 (1,051,535); Hannover 519,619 (969,816); Bonn 317,949 (884,398); Bremen 547,360 (852,538); Dresden 512,234 (780,561); Wuppertal 353,308 (766,679); Saarbrücken 176,749 (676,883); Leipzig 515,469 (646,031); Wiesbaden-Mainz 276,742, 197,623 (643,793); Aachen 259,269 (620,343); Karlsruhe 290,736 (610,549); Bielefeld 323,615 (591,862); Augsburg 263,313 (454,772); Chemnitz 243,880 (448,682); Hagen-Iserlohn 192,177, 95,598 (448,619); Freiburg im Breisgau 219,665 (392,744); Mönchengladbach 258,848 (367,776). Other principal cities (20094) Braunschweig Darmstadt Erfurt Gelsenkirchen7 Göttingen Halle Hamm Heidelberg Heilbronn Herne7 Ingolstadt Kassel

population 246,012 142,310 203,333 262,063 121,455 233,013 182,459 145,642 122,098 166,924 123,925 194,168

Kiel Krefeld Leverkusen Lübeck Ludwigshafen am Rhein Magdeburg Mülheim an der Ruhr7 Münster Neuss Oberhausen7

population 237,579 236,333 161,322 210,892 163,467 230,047 168,288 273,875 151,254 215,670

Oldenburg Osnabrück Paderborn Potsdam Recklingshausen7 Regensburg Rostock Solingen Ulm Wolfsburg Würzburg

population 160,279 163,286 144,811 152,966 120,059 133,525 201,096 161,779 121,648 120,538 133,501

Sex distribution (20104): male 49.03%; female 50.97%. Ethnic composition (by nationality; 2000): German 88.2%; Turkish 3.4% (including Kurdish 0.7%); Italian 1.0%; Greek 0.7%; Serb 0.6%; Russian 0.6%; Polish 0.4%; other 5.1%. Households (2009). Number of households 40,188,000; average household size 2.0; 1 person 39.8%, more than 1 person 60.2%. Age breakdown (20094): under 15, 13.6%; 15–29, 17.5%; 30–44, 21.2%; 45–59, 22.2%; 60–74, 16.9%; 75–84, 6.4%; 85 and over, 2.2%. Religious affiliation (2005): Protestant 35.0%, of which Lutheran/Reformed churches c. 34%; Roman Catholic 32.5%; Sunni Muslim 4.3%; Orthodox 1.7%; New Apostolic (an independent Christian group) 0.5%; Buddhist 0.3%; Jewish 0.2%; nonreligious 18.0%; atheist 2.0%; other 5.5%. Resident foreign population (20084): 6,744,900 (8.2% of total population); region/country of birth: EU countries 34.7%, of which Italy 7.8%, Poland 5.7%, Greece 4.4%, Austria 2.6%; Turkey 25.4%; other Asian countries 12.1%; combined Serbia and Montenegro 4.9%; African countries 4.0%; Croatia 3.3%; Russia 2.8%; Bosnia and Herzegovina 2.3%; U.S. 1.5%; other 9.0%. Population with immigrant background (2008): 14,800,000 (18% of total population). Immigration/emigration trends (2009): foreigners arriving 721,000; emigrants (including many foreigners returning home) 734,000, of which Germans 155,000.

Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 25–64 having: no formal schooling through primary education 3%; lower secondary 13%; upper secondary 53%; post-secondary non-tertiary 7%; higher vocational 9%; university 14%; advanced degree 1%. Quality of working life. Average workweek (2007): 38.4 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers (2007) for: injuries or accidents at work 2,803; deaths 2.16. Proportion of labour force insured for damages of income loss resulting from: injury, virtually 100%; permanent disability, virtually 100%; death, virtually 100%. Average days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workers (2008): 3.7. Access to services. Proportion of dwellings (2002) having: electricity, virtually 100%; piped water supply, virtually 100%; flush sewage disposal (1993) 98.4%; public fire protection, virtually 100%. Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last (September 2005) national election 77.7%. Trade union membership in total workforce (20094): 6,441,045 (15.4%). Population “religious”/“deeply religious” (2007): in western Germany 78%/21%; in eastern Germany 36%/8%; 15% of Roman Catholics “regularly” attend religious services. Social deviance (2006)8. Conviction rate per 100,000 population for: murder9 and manslaughter 0.8; sexual abuse of children 3.1; rape 2.7; assault and battery 91.3; theft 195.3; fraud 132.4. Leisure. Favourite sporting activities by total membership (2008)10: soccer 6,564,000; gymnastics 5,012,000; tennis 1,587,000; shooting 1,462,000; track and field 891,000; handball 848,000; alpine-related (not skiing) 783,000; horseback riding 758,000; sport fishing 653,000; ping-pong 615,000; skiing 606,000; swimming 575,000. Other leisure activities include using mobile devices/computers, going to the cinema, attending theatrical and musical performances, visiting museums, and taking part in package tours. Material well-being (2008). Households possessing: automobile 77.1%; navigation system 20.7%; bicycle 79.5%; refrigerator 98.6%; freezer 52.4%; dishwasher 62.5%; microwave oven 69.6%; washing machine (2004) 95.5%; clothes dryer 38.5%; DVD player 69.1%; personal stationary computer 62.1%; personal mobile computer 34.7%; Internet access 64.4%; MP3 player 37.3%.

National economy Budget (2007)11. Revenue: >1,064,730,000,000 (tax revenue 54.5%, of which individual income taxes 21.6%, general taxes on goods and services 15.6%, excise taxes 6.0%; social security contributions 37.6%; nontax revenue 7.5%; other 0.4%). Expenditures: >1,061,590,000,000 (social protection 45.7%; health 14.0%; education 9.1%; economic affairs 7.2%; public debt payments 6.3%; public order 3.5%; defense 2.4%). Public debt (June 2010)12: U.S.$2,270,000,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted; 2009). Agriculture, forestry, fishing: cereal grains 49,748,000 (of which wheat 25,190,000, barley 12,288,000, rye 4,270,000, triticale 2,514,000), cow’s milk 28,656,000, sugar beets 25,919,000, potatoes 11,617,000, rapeseed 6,307,000, pig meat 5,277,000, grapes 1,330,000, cattle meat 1,193,000, apples 965,100, asparagus 98,200, gooseberries 42,000, hops 42,000; livestock (number of live animals) 26,887,000 pigs, 12,945,000 cattle, 118,000,000 chickens; roundwood 56,634,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 15%; fisheries production (2008) 273,476 (from aquaculture 16%). Mining and quarrying (metric tons; 2008): salt 15,519,00013; kaolin 3,612,00014; potash (potassium oxide content) 3,280,00014; bentonite 414,000; feldspar 161,416; barite 78,941. Manufacturing enterprises (2005)

Motor vehicles General purpose machinery Fabricated metal products Special purpose machinery Food products Paints, soaps, pharmaceuticals Motor vehicle parts Components and control apparatus for electricity distribution Medical equipment and instruments Plastics Electrical equipment and accessories (not electricity- or television-related) Iron and steel Structural metal products, tanks Bricks, cement, ceramics Publishing Paper and paper products Printing and printing-related services Furniture

no. of employees 516,461 506,461 543,629 472,082 735,803 268,827 309,014

wages as a % of avg. of all manufacturing wages 144.7 113.1 84.3 107.5 55.5 123.3 118.5

value added at factor values (U.S.$’000,000)15 56,071 45,036 39,114 38,937 35,346 32,761 26,806

269,703 283,349 301,622

131.7 90.8 84.8

25,047 22,178 21,176

217,618 126,902 221,576 177,289 190,104 143,919 160,339 155,271

102.9 111.3 82.2 87.6 81.1 97.6 87.9 79.2

17,337 15,406 15,152 13,055 12,259 12,224 10,889 9,663

Nations of the World

Manufacturing enterprises (2005)

Price index (2005 = 100)

(continued)

no. of employees Sawn wood and wood products (excluding furniture) Aircraft and spacecraft Electronic valves and tubes and related products Refined petroleum products Base nonferrous metals Television-, telecommunications/ sound equipment–related Rubber products Beverages Casting of metals Office and computing machinery

wages as a % of avg. of all value added manufacturing at factor values wages (U.S.$’000,000)15

109,970 72,976

69.2 162.0

8,271 8,065

72,621 … 62,754

117.6 … 118.2

7,808 6,928 6,299

… 75,390 64,842 69,306 41,651

… 99.7 100.5 99.2 136.2

5,796 5,782 5,693 5,443 4,632

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 474,340,000,000 ([2007] 620,545,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2009) 13,700,000 ([2007] 70,100,000); lignite (metric tons; 2009) 169,700,00016 ([2007] 180,500,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 31,500,000 ([2007] 801,900,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 102,550,000 (88,325,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 19,465,000,000 ([2007] 91,372,000,000). In 2009 Germany was a world leader in the production of wind and solar power. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$3,484,689,000,000 (U.S.$42,560 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$36,890 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value >’000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Services } Pub. admin., defense Other TOTAL

% of total value

20,250 5,730 516,990 49,540 95,230 128,040 269,390 659,160

0.8 0.2 20.7 2.0 3.8 5.2 10.8 26.4

494,450

19.8

257,02017 2,495,800

10.317 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

872,000 109,000 8,516,000 346,000 2,521,000 2,147,000 6,749,000 5,473,000 9,133,000 2,836,000 3,173,00018 41,875,000

2.1 0.3 20.3 0.8 6.0 5.1 16.1 13.1 21.8 6.8 7.618 100.0

Household income and expenditure. Average annual disposable income per household (2008) >34,824 (U.S.$51,009); sources of income (2003): wages and salaries 42.1%, transfers 24.6%, property income 9.0%, self-employment 4.8%, other 19.5%; expenditure (2006): housing and energy 24.4%, transportation 14.1%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 11.0%, recreation and culture 9.3%, household furnishings 6.9%, restaurants and hotels 5.4%, clothing and footwear 5.2%, health 4.8% Financial

aggregates19 2003

2004

2005

583

2006

2007

2008

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

96.9

98.5

100.0

101.6

103.9

106.6

107.0

Consumer price index

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 40,019; remittances (2009) 9,865; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 45,528. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 91,692; remittances (2008) 14,976; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 119,930.

Foreign trade20 Balance of trade (current prices) 2004 U.S.$’000,000 +193,592 % of total 11.9%

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+197,313 11.2%

+199,750 9.8%

+269,533 11.3%

+261,928 9.8%

+186,511 9.1%

Imports (2008): U.S.$1,204,209,000,000 (machinery and equipment 21.7%, of which electrical machinery/parts 6.4%, general industrial machinery 3.7%; manufactured goods 13.6%, of which iron and steel 3.6%; mineral fuels 13.6%, of which crude petroleum 9.0%; road vehicles/parts 7.5%; food products 5.3%; medicines and pharmaceuticals 3.9%; special transactions 12.9%). Major import sources: Neth. 8.8%; France 8.2%; China 7.2%; U.S. 5.6%; Italy 5.6%; U.K. 5.4%; Belgium 4.9%; Russia 4.4%; Austria 4.0%; Switzerland 3.8%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,466,137,000,000 (machinery and equipment 27.9%, of which electrical machinery and electronic components 7.3%, general industrial machinery 7.3%, machinery specialized for particular industries 4.8%; transport equipment 18.3%, of which road vehicles/parts 15.5%; chemicals and chemical products 14.6%, of which medicines and pharmaceuticals 4.6%; manufactured goods 13.8%, of which base and fabricated metals 8.4%). Major export destinations: France 9.7%; U.S. 7.2%; U.K. 6.7%; Neth. 6.6%; Italy 6.4%; Austria 5.4%; Belgium 5.2%; Spain 4.4%; Switzerland 4.0%; Poland 4.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2006): route length 25,606 mi, 41,209 km; (2008) passenger-km 60,663,000,000; (2008) metric ton-km cargo 115,652,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 400,316 mi, 644,248 km (paved, n.a.); (2006) passenger-km 935,200,000,00021; (2008) metric ton-km cargo 256,327,000,000. Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 41,183,594; trucks and buses 4,321,367. Air transport (2008)22: passenger-km 210,682,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 8,330,000,000. Inland Waterway (2008): passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo 48,719,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

55,758

675

2009 2009

105,00024 48,700

1,27824 593

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

53,967 19,74623 65,124 25,00024

656 24123 793 30424

2009

Exchange rate, > per: U.S. dollar 0.79 0.73 0.85 0.76 0.68 0.72 0.69 £ 1.41 1.42 1.46 1.49 1.36 1.05 1.12 SDR 1.18 1.14 1.21 1.14 1.07 1.11 1.09 International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; ’000,000) 50,694 48,823 45,140 41,687 44,327 43,137 59,925 SDRs (’000,000) 1,942 2,061 1,892 2,010 2,162 2,198 19,101 Reserve pos. in IMF (’000,000) 7,656 6,863 3,483 1,958 1,396 2,382 3,896 Foreign exchange 41,095 39,899 39,765 37,719 40,768 38,557 36,928 Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) 110.58 110.38 110.21 110.04 109.87 109.72 109.53 % world reserves … … 11.15 11.27 11.44 11.42 11.28 Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) … … … … … … … Govt. bond yield (%) 4.1 4.0 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.0 3.2 Share prices (2005 = 100) 75.2 80.0 100.0 121.3 142.6 79.4 95.4 Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000,000) Balance of visible trade +144.74 +186.04 +193.14 +198.05 +270.62 +265.10 +188.22 Imports, f.o.b. –602.63 –721.75 –790.00 –938.11 –1,079.75 –1,222.20 –956.65 Exports, f.o.b. 747.37 907.79 983.14 1,136.16 1,350.37 1,487.30 1,144.87 Balance of invisibles –97.81 –58.04 –50.37 –8.93 –16.06 –19.04 –20.11 Balance of payments, current account +46.93 +128.00 +142.77 +189.12 +254.56 +246.06 +168.11

Education and health Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

239,761 597,269 304,686

3,236,158 7,907,105 …

13.5 13.2 …

9825 … … (age 19–23)

Health (2008): physicians (2010) 325,94526 (1 per 251 persons); hospital beds 504,05127 (1 per 163 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 4.0; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 250,613 (army 65.4%, navy 9.8%, air force 24.8%); reserve 161,812; German peacekeeping troops abroad (November 2009) c. 7,900, including c. 4,400 in Afghanistan, 2,500 in Kosovo; U.S. troops in Germany (September 2009) 52,658; British troops (November 2009) 22,350; French troops (November 2009) 2,800. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.3%28; per capita expenditure U.S.$57128.

Selected service enterprises (2004)

Transport, storage, and communication Air Land, pipelines Water Transport support, travel agencies Postal services, telecommunications Real estate Rental of equipment and goods Computer-related activities Research and development Other business activities

no. of enterprises

no. of employees

409 58,329 2,408 22,258 8,137 175,620 14,464 45,205 4,185 323,742

53,002 656,597 26,678 501,724 610,549 383,122 80,217 370,346 87,840 3,057,849

annual turnover (>’000,000) 11,765 55,747 18,109 87,973 101,715 94,487 26,984 58,525 6,820 191,162

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 26.2%, left fallow 1.9%, in permanent crops 0.6%, in pasture 20.0%, forest area 31.8%. Population economically active (2008): total 41,875,000; activity rate of total population 51.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 76.0%; female 45.4%; unemployed [June 2009–May 2010] 7.4%).

1Current

number of seats; statutory number is 598. 2Some ministries remain in Bonn. The federal supreme court meets in Karlsruhe. 3State names used in this table are English conventional. 4January 1. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 6Rural population is defined as being communes with 5,000 or less population. 7Part of the Ruhrgebiet (“Ruhr region”) urban agglomeration. 8Excludes eastern Germany except for the former East Berlin. 9Includes attempted murder. 10Includes both active and passive membership. 11General government budget (combined budgets of central, state, and local governments). 12Includes debt of federal states. 13World rank: 3. 14World rank: 4. 152006. 16World rank: 1. 17Taxes less subsidies. 18Includes 3,141,000 unemployed. 19End-of-period figures. 20Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 21Passenger cars 869,000,000,000; buses 66,200,000,000. 22Lufthansa, Air Berlin, Condor, and Hapag Lloyd only. 23Circulation. 24Subscribers. 252006–07. 26Active physicians only. 27Excludes rehabilitation facilities. 28Includes military pensions.

Internet resource for further information: • Federal Statistical Office of Germany (in English) • http://www.destatis.de/e_home.htm

584

Britannica World Data

Ghana

350,550, coconuts (2008) 316,000, chilies and peppers (2008) 279,000, cashews 34,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,625,000 goats, 3,642,000 sheep, 1,438,000 cattle; roundwood 36,755,400 cu m, of which fuelwood 96%; fisheries production (2008) 355,425 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): bauxite 738,000; manganese (metal content) 380,000; gold 80,503 kg9; gem diamonds 643,000 carats. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2003): wood products 157; chemical products 115; food products 108; petroleum products 55; precious and nonferrous metal products (including gold) 47; plastic products 39. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 6,984,000,000 (7,170,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 2,190,000 ([2007] 14,463,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 1,232,000 (2,065,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2008): total 10,647,00010; activity rate of total population 45.6%10 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 75.4%10; female 49.2%10; unemployed [2001] 20.3%).

Official name: Republic of Ghana. Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Parliament [230]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Accra. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Ghana cedi (GHC)1; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = GHC1.43; 1 £ = GHC2.21.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Area and population

area

Regions

Capitals

Ashanti Brong-Ahafo Central Eastern Greater Accra Northern Upper East Upper West Volta Western

Kumasi Sunyani Cape Coast Koforidua Accra Tamale Bolgatanga Wa Ho Sekondi-Takoradi

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

2007 estimate

9,417 15,273 3,794 7,461 1,253 27,175 3,414 7,134 7,942 9,236 92,0982

24,389 39,557 9,826 19,323 3,245 70,384 8,842 18,476 20,570 23,921 238,533

4,459,435 2,120,881 1,777,337 2,251,180 3,903,564 2,121,567 978,121 618,730 1,798,247 2,358,849 22,387,911

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

77.1 68.1

86.9 82.9

100.0 100.0

110.9 118.5

122.8 140.7

143.1 166.7

170.7 196.3

Consumer price index Daily earnings index11

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 919; remittances (2009) 123; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 1,253; official development assistance (2008) 1,293. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 542; remittances (2008) 6. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 18.0%, in permanent crops 10.5%, in pasture 36.7%, forest area 23.2%.

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 24,340,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 264.3, persons per sq km 102.0. Urban-rural (2009): urban 50.7%; rural 49.3%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.02%; female 49.98%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 37.7%; 15–29, 29.4%; 30–44, 18.3%; 45–59, 9.5%; 60–74, 4.1%; 75–84, 0.9%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 28,784,000; (2030) 32,989,000. Doubling time: 35 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Akan 41.6%; Mossi 23.0%; Ewe 10.0%; GaAdangme 7.2%; Gurma 3.4%; Nzima 1.8%; Yoruba 1.6%; other 11.4%. Religious affiliation (2005): Protestant 23.7%; traditional beliefs 21.5%; Sunni Muslim 20.1%; independent Christian 15.9%; Roman Catholic 12.2%; other 6.6%. Major urban agglomerations (2009): Accra 2,370,000; Kumasi 1,850,000; Tamale 447,300; Takoradi 308,300; Tema 175,700; Cape Coast 175,700.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 29.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 9.3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 3.78. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 58.5 years; female 60.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): communicable diseases (excluding HIV/AIDS; significantly malaria) 458; cardiovascular diseases 159; HIV/AIDS 147; accidents and violence 83; malignant neoplasms 61. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 1.9%3 (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: GHC6,048,000,000 (tax revenue 74.2%, of which income tax 28.4%, VAT 21.0%, trade tax 12.6%, petroleum tax 5.7%; grants 18.2%; nontax revenue 7.6%). Expenditures: GHC7,330,000,000 (current expenditure 66.9%, of which wages and salaries 33.8%, interest payments 14.1%, transfers 8.2%; capital expenditure 33.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; December 2009): U.S.$5,007,900,000. Household income and expenditure (2006). Average household size 4.04; mean annual household income4 GHC1,217 (U.S.$1,327); sources of income4: income from agriculture 34.8%, wages and salaries 28.6%, other self-employment 24.5%, remittances 8.9%; expenditure4: food and nonalcoholic beverages 43.2%, housing and energy 9.5%, education 8.9%, clothing 8.7%, transportation 7.3%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$16,604,000,000 (U.S.$700 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,480 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining, quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

in value GHC’000,000 6,996 1,389 1,575 2,006 468 1,098 1,590 1,076 2,771 641 2,0807 21,690

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–886 16.0%

–1,623 24.9%

–1,819 22.9%

–1,715 19.2%

–3,744 34.6%

–5,025 38.4%

Imports (2008): U.S.$9,058,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 22.5%; road vehicles 13.9%; food 12.9%, of which cereals 5.9%; crude petroleum 12.7%). Major import sources: China 11.7%; Nigeria 8.7%; U.S. 7.7%; Belgium 5.0%; U.K. 4.3%; India 4.3%. Exports (2008): U.S.$4,033,000,000 (gold 45.0%; cocoa [all forms] 27.3%; sawn wood 3.6%; veneers, plywood 3.4%; cashews 3.0%). Major export destinations: South Africa 44.0%; Neth. 11.7%; India 5.3%; U.K. 3.7%; Malaysia 3.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2006): route length 588 mi, 947 km13; (2004) passengerkm 80,000,000, metric ton-km cargo 216,000,000. Roads (2005): total length 57,614 km (paved 15%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 493,770; trucks and buses 279,492. Air transport14: (2004) passenger-km 363,000,000; (2003) metric ton-km cargo 17,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

1,114

53

2009 2009

15,11016 267

63416 11.0

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

112 20015 1,297 2716

units per 1,000 persons 5.2 815 54 1.116

Education and health Educational attainment (2003)17. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling or unknown 41.8%; incomplete primary education 9.6%; primary 3.6%; incomplete secondary 35.0%; secondary 5.4%; higher 4.6%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 65.8%; males literate 72.3%; females literate 59.3%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary18

112,443 99,001 4,011

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

3,625,178 1,723,734 140,017

32.2 18.7 34.9

77 47 6 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2004) 3,240 (1 per 6,631 persons); hospital beds (2001) 18,448 (1 per 1,089 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 52.5; undernourished population (2004–06) 1,700,000 (8% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,800 calories).

1999 % of total value 32.3 6.4 7.3 9.2 2.2 5.1 7.3 5.0 12.8 } 3.0 9.67 100.02

labour force5, 6

% of labour force5

3,778,000 48,000 798,000 97,000 14,000 150,000 1,257,000 52,000

50.5 0.6 10.7 1.3 0.2 2.0 16.8 0.7

673,000 613,0008 7,480,000

9.0 8.28 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): cassava 12,230,600, yams 5,777,900, plantains 3,562,500, oil palm fruit 2,103,600, corn (maize) 1,619,590, taro 1,504,000, cacao (2008) 700,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 485,100, oranges (2008) 480,000, rice 391,440, sorghum

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 15,50019 (army 74.2%, navy 12.9%, air force 12.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.8%; per capita expenditure U.S.$11. 1The Ghana cedi (GHC) replaced the cedi (C) on July 1, 2007, at a rate of 1 GHC = C10,000. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Statistically derived midpoint within range. 4Based on the Ghana Living Standards Survey of 8,687 households. 5Ages 15–64 only. 6Derived figures calculated from percentages. 7Indirect taxes. 8Unemployed. 9Legal production only. 10Estimate of the ILO Employment Trends Unit. 11Minimum daily wage. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Of which about 391 mi, 630 km were operable. 14Ghana Airways only, which subsequently ceased operations in July 2004. 15Circulation. 16Subscribers. 17Based on the Ghana Demographic and Health Survey of 6,251 households. 182006–07. 19Of which deployed UN peacekeepers 2,831.

Internet resources for further information: • Bank of Ghana http://www.bog.gov.gh • Ghana Statistical Service http://www.statsghana.gov.gh

Nations of the World

Greece

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$323,055,000,000 (U.S.$28,630 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$28,440 per capita).

Official name: Ellinikí Dhimokratía (Hellenic Republic). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Hellenic Parliament [300]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Athens. Official language: Greek. Official religion: 1. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

population

sq km

2008 estimate

9,122 8,336 2,307

506,483 606,274 228,572

21,010

772,766

Regions2

% of total value

7,803 936 23,361 10,173 5,652 20,300 52,590 38,680 18,174 33,055 28,4178 239,1413

3.3 0.4 9.8 4.3 2.4 8.5 22.0 16.2 7.6 13.8 11.98 100.03

TOTAL

area

Regions2 Epirus Greater Athens Macedonia Peloponnese Thessaly Thrace TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2008 estimate

9,203 3,808 34,178 21,379 14,037 8,578 131,9573

351,786 4,061,326 2,469,322 1,114,636 736,079 366,541 11,213,785

2009

in value >’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining, quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

Insular Aegean Islands Crete Ionian Islands Mainland Central Greece and Euboea

585

labour force

% of labour force

520,000 13,500 529,000 367,700 59,300 293,000 1,116,900 429,100 372,800 784,500 462,3009 4,948,100

10.5 0.3 10.7 7.4 1.2 5.9 22.6 8.7 7.5 15.9 9.39 100.0

Public debt (consolidated, general; 2010): U.S.$374,759,000,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 17,416; remittances (2009) 2,009; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 4,125. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 3,930; remittances (2008) 1,912; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 4,052. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 19.8%, in permanent crops 8.8%, in pasture 35.7%, forest area 29.6%.

Foreign trade10 Demography

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population (2010): 11,329,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 222.4, persons per sq km 85.9. Urban-rural (2005): urban 60.4%; rural 39.6%. Sex distribution (2006): male 49.51%; female 50.49%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 14.3%; 15–29, 19.3%; 30–44, 22.9%; 45–59, 19.7%; 60–74, 15.8%; 75–84, 6.6%; 85 and over, 1.4%. Population projection: (2020) 11,432,000; (2030) 11,381,000. Ethnic composition (2000)4: Greek 90.4%; Macedonian 1.8%; Albanian 1.5%; Turkish 1.4%; Pomak 0.9%; Rom (Gypsy) 0.9%; other 3.1%. Religious affiliation (2005)5: Orthodox c. 90%; Sunni Muslim c. 5%; Roman Catholic c. 2%; other c. 3%. Major cities (2001): Athens 745,514 (urban agglomeration 3,187,734); Thessaloníki 363,987 (urban agglomeration 800,764); Piraeus (Piraiévs) 175,6976; Pátrai 161,114; Peristérion 137,9186; Irákleio (Iráklion) 133,012.

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–37,564 55.2%

–37,460 51.8%

–42,796 50.5%

–52,595 52.8%

–63,792 55.6%

–43,943 50.1%

Imports (2008): U.S.$89,301,000,000 (mineral fuels 20.0%; machinery and apparatus 14.7%; food 8.6%; road vehicles/parts 7.7%; medicine and pharmaceuticals 6.0%; ships and tankers 3.8%). Major import sources: Germany 11.9%; Italy 11.4%; Russia 7.3%; China 5.5%; France 5.1%. Exports (2008): U.S.$25,509,000,000 (food 15.6%, of which vegetables and fruit 7.7%; machinery and apparatus 10.6%; refined petroleum 10.1%; apparel 6.0%; iron and steel 5.6%; medicine 4.9%; aluminum 4.2%). Major export destinations: Italy 11.5%; Germany 10.5%; Bulgaria 7.1%; Cyprus 6.4%; U.S. 5.1%.

Transport and communications Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.7 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 93.5%; outside of marriage (2008) 6.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.8 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.45. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2009) 4.7/(2007) 1.2. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 77.2 years; female 82.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 352.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 280.2; cerebrovascular diseases 186.1; diseases of the respiratory system 66.7; accidents, poisoning, and violence 38.4.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: >89,100,000,000 (tax revenue 51.0%, of which VAT 28.8%, income taxes 19.2%; social contributions 35.7%; other revenue 13.3%). Expenditures: >95,398,000,000 (social benefits 41.1%; wages and salaries 23.8%; goods and services 10.5%; interest payments 10.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): corn (maize) 2,352,000, olives (2008) 2,313,055, wheat 1,830,000, tomatoes 1,350,000, sugar beets 1,000,000, grapes 850,000, potatoes 848,000, oranges 800,000, peaches and nectarines 734,000, seed cotton 715,000, barley 280,000, apples 235,000, rice 205,000; livestock (number of live animals) 8,994,000 sheep, 4,178,000 goats, 1,340,000 beehives; roundwood 1,742,916 cu m, of which fuelwood 46%; fisheries production (2008) 203,859 (from aquaculture 56%). Mining and quarrying (2008): bauxite 2,176,300; nickel (metal content) 16,700; marble 150,000 cu m. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2005): food products and beverages c. 5,300; textiles c. 1,950; chemicals and chemical products c. 1,750; cement, bricks, and ceramics c. 1,600; refined petroleum and coal derivatives c. 1,500; wearing apparel c. 1,500; basic metals c. 1,450. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 63,496,000,000 (67,851,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) none (710,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 66,308,000 (66,373,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 535,000 (140,300,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 21,238,000 (18,907,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 26,000,000 (3,993,000,000). Population economically active (2008): total 4,974,000; activity rate of total population 44.2% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 67.7%; female [2007] 40.9%; unemployed [January–March 2009] 9.3%).

Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

6,152

558

2009 2009

13,29512 5,930

1,19112 531

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.9 93.8

96.6 98.4

100.0 100.0

103.2 102.1

106.2 105.6

110.6 108.1

111.9 113.8

Household income and expenditure (1998–99). Average household size (2004) 3.1; income per family Dr 6,429,0007 (U.S.$21,390); sources of income: wages and salaries 21.8%, transfer payments 21.7%, income from agriculture, forestry, fishing 15.6%, self-employment 11.9%, other 29.0%; expenditure (2004–05): food 17.1%, transportation 12.6%, housing and energy 10.7%, café/hotel expenditures 9.6%, clothing and footwear 8.4%.

units per 1,000 persons

1,058 1,10011 4,971 1,91712

94 11611 445 17212

Education and health Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 12.7%; primary education 34.3%; lower secondary 8.5%; upper secondary 25.7%; higher 18.8%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 97.1%; males 98.2%; females 96.0%. Education (2005–06) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

61,251 86,024 28,863

645,324 704,515 653,003

10.5 8.2 22.6

99 92 95 (age 18–22)

Health (2006): physicians 21,03813 (1 per 436 persons); hospital beds 44,30713 (1 per 207 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 3.4; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 156,600 (army 59.7%, navy 12.8%, air force 20.1%, joint staff 7.4%); reserve 237,500; Greek troops in Cyprus (2009) 950; U.S. troops in Greece (2009) 371. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.8%14; per capita expenditure U.S.$89914. 1The

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 1,583 mi, 2,548 km; passenger-km (2007) 1,930,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 835,000,000. Roads (2005): total length 34,863 km (paved 93%); passenger-km (2006) 111,800,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 28,850,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 4,798,530; trucks and buses 1,283,047. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 6,612,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 69,660,000.

autocephalous Greek Orthodox Church has special recognition per the constitution. 2Traditional regions; local administration is based on 13 administrative regions and 1 autonomous self-governing monastic region (Mount Athos). 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Unofficial source; government states there are no ethnic divisions in Greece. 5Including non-citizen residents. 6Within Athens urban agglomeration. 7The drachma (Dr) was the former monetary unit; on Jan. 1, 2002, Dr 340.75 = >1. 8Taxes less subsidies. 9Unemployed. 10Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 11Circulation of daily newspapers. 12Subscribers. 13Public health institutions only. 14Includes military pensions.

Internet resources for further information: • Bank of Greece http://www.bankofgreece.gr/Pages/en • National Statistical Service of Greece http://www.statistics.gr

586

Britannica World Data

Greenland

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Official name: Kalaallit Nunaat (Greenlandic)1 (Greenland). Political status: self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark with one legislative house (Parliament [31])2. Head of state: Danish Monarch. Heads of government: High Commissioner (for Denmark); Prime Minister (for Greenland). Capital: Nuuk. Official language: Greenlandic. Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran (Lutheran Church of Greenland). Monetary unit: Danish krone (DKK); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = DKK 5.81; 1 £ = DKK 8.98.

2006

in value U.S.$’000,000 Agriculture, fishing, hunting, trapping Mining } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Public administration Services Other

}

% of total value

92

4.2

57

2.6

170 129 103 178

7.7 5.9 4.7 8.1

1,118

50.9

TOTAL

}

15.910 100.0

35010 2,197

labour force9

% of labour force9

1,456 160 420 924 2,904 2,582 5,862 1,446

5.0 0.5 1.4 3.1 9.9 8.8 19.9 4.9

13,718

46.5

— 29,472

— 100.0

Population economically active (20094): total 32,652; activity rate of total population 58.1% (participation rates: ages 15–62 [20044] 83.5%; female [2006] 48.6%; unemployed11 7.1%). Price index (2005 = 100)

Area and population area

population

Municipalities3

Administrative centre

sq km

20104 estimate

Kujalleq Qaasuitsup Qeqqata Sermersooq

Qaqortoq Ilulissat Sisimiut Nuuk

19,700 225,900 37,500 222,100

51,000 585,100 97,000 575,300

7,589 17,749 9,677 21,232

Unincorporated areas Northeast Greenland National Park Pituffik (Thule Air Base)

— Pituffik

331,100 … 836,3006

857,600 … 2,166,0006

— …5 56,4527

TOTAL

sq mi

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

96.8

97.8

100.0

102.2

107.7

112.6

Consumer price index

Public debt (2008): none12.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 56,400. Density (2010)8: persons per sq mi 0.36, persons per sq km 0.14. Urban-rural (20104): urban (town) 84.1%; rural (settlement) 15.9%. Sex distribution (20104): male 53.03%; female 46.97%. Age breakdown (20084): under 15, 23.7%; 15–29, 22.1%; 30–44, 23.3%; 45–59, 20.4%; 60–74, 8.7%; 75 and over, 1.8%. Population projection: (2020) 57,000; (2030) 57,000. Doubling time: 75 years. Ethnic composition (20104): Inuit (Greenland Eskimo) 88%; Danish and others 12%. Religious affiliation (2000): Protestant 69.2%, of which Evangelical Lutheran 64.2%, Pentecostal 2.8%; other Christian 27.4%; other/nonreligious 3.4%. Major towns (20104): Nuuk 15,469; Sisimiut 5,460; Ilulissat 4,546; Qaqortoq 3,306; Aasiaat 3,005.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 15.9 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (1993) 29.2%; outside of marriage (1993) 70.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 6.6 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.3 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.36. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (1999): 4.5/n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 66.6 years; female 71.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006; 2 categories only): malignant neoplasms (cancers) c. 186; suicide c. 88.

National economy Budget (general government; 2008). Revenue: DKK 8,847,000,000 (block grant from Danish government 45.2%, taxes on income and wealth 34.1%, import duties 6.2%, other 14.5%). Expenditures: DKK 8,756,000,000 (social welfare 25.9%, education 18.9%, health 12.7%, general administration 11.2%, economic affairs 11.0%, housing 4.4%, public order 3.6%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing, other marine: locally grown broccoli, cauliflower, and cabbage sold commercially for the first time in 2007, potatoes also produced; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (2008) 214,100 (of which prawn 135,100, Greenland halibut 40,100, Atlantic cod 25,300, lumpfish 6,500, crab 2,200); number of other marine catch (2007) narwhals 331, pilot whales 287, minke whales 167, beluga whales 120, porpoises 2,901, seals 159,528, walrus 133; livestock (number of live animals; 2008) 20,494 sheep, 2,500 tame reindeer, 203 horses; number of animals killed (2007) reindeer 14,927, musk ox 2,396, polar bear 130. Mining (2008): gold 1,518 kg. Manufacturing: principally fish and prawn processing, handicrafts, hides and skins, and ship repair. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 376,000,000 (213,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (170,000); natural gas, none (none). Tourism (2009): number of overnight stays at hotels 224,801, of which visitors from within Greenland 57,438, from Denmark 30,050, from the U.S. 5,718. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow, negligible; in permanent crops, none; in pasture 0.6%; forest area, negligible (1.2 sq mi [2 sq km]). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (20094) 2.5; average disposable income per household (2008) DKK 260,014 (U.S.$48,869); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1994): food, beverages, and tobacco 41.6%, housing and energy 22.4%, transportation and communications 10.2%, recreation 6.4%. Gross national income (2009): U.S.$1,857,000,000 (U.S.$32,960 per capita).

DKK ’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–746 14.0%

–987 17.8%

–1,165 19.4%

–1,308 21.8%

–1,323 22.2%

–1,948 28.3%

Imports (2008): DKK 4,421,000,000 (mineral fuels [mostly refined petroleum] 26.9%, machinery and transport equipment 20.9%, food 16.8%, manufactured products 13.6%). Major import sources: Denmark 60.2%; Sweden 25.7%; Norway 2.4%; Germany 2.3%; China 1.2%. Exports (2008): DKK 2,473,000,000 (prawn 50.8%, Greenland halibut 18.4%, cod 11.2%, gold 6.1%, crab 1.7%). Major export destinations: Denmark 85.2%; Canada 6.1%; U.K. 2.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1998): total length13 93 mi, 150 km (paved 60%); passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 5,125; trucks and buses 435. Air transport (2009)14: passenger-km 458,534,000; metric ton-km cargo 49,934,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2002

…15

…15

2009 2009

5417 22

93317 385

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2009 2009 2009 2009

… —16 36 1217

… —16 628 21317

Education and health Educational attainment (2002). Two-thirds of labour force has no formal education. Literacy (2001): total population age 15 and over literate: virtually 100%. Education (2007–08) Primary Secondary/Voc. Tertiary18

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

1,189 … 29

10,255 … 230

8.6 … 7.9

… … …

Health: physicians (20054) 91 (1 per 626 persons); hospital beds (2007) 227 (1 per 249 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 9.6; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel. Denmark is responsible for Greenland’s defense. Greenlanders are not liable for military service. U.S. air force personnel at Thule Air Base (September 2009): 144. 1Called Grønland in Danish, an official language of Greenland 2A referendum approved in November 2008 endorsed the

prior to June 21, 2009. gradual expansion of Greenland’s autonomy from Denmark; the Greenland government assumed greater 3 responsibility for local matters on June 21, 2009. New administrative structure from Jan. 1, 2009. 4January 1. 5There were 144 U.S. military personnel in September 2009. 6Surveyed ice-free area in 1996 was 158,475 sq mi (410,449 sq km) and permanent ice area was 677,855 sq mi (1,755,637 sq km), making the total surveyed area 836,330 sq mi (2,166,086 sq km). 7Includes 205 in unknown municipality. 8Population density calculated with reference to ice-free area only. 9Employed persons only. 10Includes taxes and import duties. 11Town residents only. 12But government-owned corporations have debt obligations in ships and buildings. 13All short roads in towns; there are no roads between towns. 14Air Greenland A/S only. 15In 2002, 97% of households had a television. 16There are no daily newspapers in Greenland. One paper is published twice a week, one weekly. 17Subscribers. 182006–07; summed total for the University of Greenland and the Teacher Training School.

Internet resources for further information: • Statistics Greenland http://www.stat.gl/ • Danmarks Statistik Yearbook http://www.dst.dk/HomeUK/Statistics/ofs/Publications/Yearbook.aspx

Nations of the World

Grenada

587

excavation of limestone, sand, and gravel for local use. Manufacturing (value of production in EC$’000; 1997): wheat flour 13,390; soft drinks 9,798; beer 7,072; animal feed 5,852; rum 5,497; toilet paper 4,237; malt 4,192; stout 3,835; cigarettes 1,053. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 169,568,000 ([2007] 171,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (78,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2003) 3.3; income per capita (2000) EC$8,922 (U.S.$3,400); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2001)8: food, beverages, and tobacco 38.6%, transportation and communications 15.7%, housing 10.2%, clothing and footwear 9.8%. Population economically active (2004): total 37,000; activity rate of total population c. 35% (participation rate: ages 15–64 [1998] c. 78%; female [1998] 43.5%; unemployed [2008] 24.9%).

Official name: Grenada. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [13]; House of Representatives [15]). Head of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: St. George’s. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Eastern Caribbean dollar (EC$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = EC$2.70; 1 £ = EC$4.17.

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

91.9

94.2

100.0

101.7

109.2

114.8

112.1

Consumer price index

Area and population area Parishes1

Principal towns

St. Andrew St. David St. George St. John St. Mark St. Patrick

Grenville St. David’s … Gouyave Victoria Sauteurs

Town St. George’s

—

Grenadian dependencies1 Carriacou Petite Martinique

Hillsborough …

sq mi 38 17 252 14 10 16

99 44 652 35 25 42

2

2

10 3 133

TOTAL

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 105; remittances (2009) 26; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 151; official development assistance (2008) 33. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 13; remittances (2008) 4. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 5.9%, in permanent crops 29.4%, in pasture 2.9%, forest area 12.1%.

population sq km

2001 census 24,749 11,486 37,0572 8,591 3,994 10,674

Foreign trade9

2, 3

26 8} 344

Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

6,081

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–218.9 77.6%

–306.4 84.7%

–273.5 84.3%

–331.7 83.2%

–332.8 84.5%

102,632

Demography Population (2010): 108,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 812.0, persons per sq km 314.0. Urban-rural (2009): urban 30.9%; rural 69.1%. Sex distribution (2008): male 51.96%; female 48.04%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 32.4%; 15–29, 33.7%; 30–44, 21.6%; 45–59, 8.2%; 60–74, 3.1%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2020) 113,000; (2030) 116,000. Doubling time: 71 years. Ethnic composition (2000): black 51.7%; mixed 40.0%; Indo-Pakistani 4.0%; white 0.9%; other 3.4%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic c. 41%; Protestant (of which significantly Anglican and Seventh-day Adventist) c. 30%; Rastafarian c. 5%; nonreligious/other c. 24%. Major localities (2006): St. George’s 4,300 (urban agglomeration [2007] 32,000); Gouyave 3,400; Grenville 2,500; Victoria 2,300.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 19.5 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.1 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.3. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2001): 5.0/1.1. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 74.0 years; female 77.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): diseases of the circulatory system 413; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 178; diabetes mellitus 63; diseases of the respiratory system 25.

Imports (2008): U.S.$363,300,000 (refined petroleum 18.6%; food 17.9%; machinery and apparatus 15.2%; road vehicles 5.3%; manufactures of metal 4.9%). Major import sources: U.S. 30.9%; Trinidad and Tobago 24.9%; Venezuela 7.0%; U.K. 4.4%; Japan 3.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$30,500,000 (food 57.0%, of which wheat flour 24.6%, spices [nearly all nutmeg and mace] 8.9%, tuna 8.5%, cocoa 7.5%; toilet paper 9.5%; general industrial machinery 4.5%; road vehicles 4.3%). Major export destinations: U.S. 16.4%; Dominica 16.4%; Saint Lucia 11.1%; Barbados 9.5%; St. Kitts and Nevis 8.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2000): total length 700 mi, 1,127 km (paved 61%). Vehicles (2001): passenger cars 15,800; trucks and buses 4,200. Air transport: n.a. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

38

375

2009 2009

6410 29

61610 275

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

16 — 25 1410

155 — 241 13510

Education and health Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 18 and over having: no formal schooling or unknown 7.6%; primary education 65.1%; secondary 21.7%; higher 5.6%, of which university 1.5%. Literacy (2004): total population age 15 and over literate 98.0%. Education (2007–08) teachers

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: EC$431,100,000 (tax revenue 88.1%, of which tax on international trade 45.9%, income taxes 20.2%; grants 6.8%; nontax revenue 5.1%). Expenditures: EC$533,700,000 (current expenditure 78.1%, of which wages 35.8%, transfers 17.6%, debt service 8.5%; capital expenditure 21.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$507,370,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$580,000,000 (U.S.$5,580 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$7,720 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Agriculture Quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Primary (age 5–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary

615 751 …

students 13,873 12,469 7,37911

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

22.6 16.6 …

93 89 … (age 17–21)

Health (2007): physicians (2006) 96 (1 per 1,111 persons); hospital beds 279 (1 per 385 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 11.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 24,000 (23% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,840 calories).

Military

1998

in value EC$’000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

92.6 6.3 58.7 102.0 95.7 269.3 181.2 197.1 274.2 282.0 132.64 1,691.7

5.5 0.4 3.5 6.0 5.7 15.9 10.7 11.7 16.2 16.7 7.84 100.06

4,794 58 2,579 5,163 505 2,043 8,298 1,312 1,879 6,837 7,5475 41,015

11.7 0.1 6.3 12.6 1.2 5.0 20.2 3.2 4.6 16.7 18.45 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 7,200, coconuts 6,500, roots and tubers 4,060, nutmeg 2,8007, grapefruit 2,100, mangoes 2,000, avocados 1,600, bananas 1,3367, oranges 900, plantains 740, cacao 2267, cinnamon 50, cloves 20; livestock (number of live animals) 13,200 sheep, 7,200 goats, 2,650 pigs, 270,000 chickens; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 2,380 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying:

Total active duty personnel (2008): paramilitary and coast guard units only. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP: n.a.; per capita expenditure, n.a.

1Grenada does not have a local government system. 2St. George local council includes St. George’s town. 3Preliminary 2001 census figure for St. George’s town is 3,908. 4Taxes on products less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 5Includes 1,321 participants in activities not adequately defined and 6,226 unemployed. 6Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Hurricanes Ivan and Emily, which struck Grenada in September 2004 and June 2005, respectively, destroyed much of the nutmeg and cacao fields as well as the banana crop; it is estimated that it will take a decade to regrow the nutmeg groves. 8Weights of consumer price index components. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Subscribers. 112008–09.

Internet resources for further information: • Eastern Caribbean Central Bank http://www.eccb-centralbank.org • Caricom Statistics http://www.caricomstats.org

588

Britannica World Data

Guadeloupe

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Official name: Département d’OutreMer de la Guadeloupe (Overseas Department of Guadeloupe).1, 2 Political status: overseas department/ overseas region (France) with two legislative houses (General Council3 [40]; Regional Council4 [41]). Head of state: President of France. Heads of government: Prefect (for France); President of the General Council (for Guadeloupe); President of the Regional Council (for Guadeloupe). Capital: Basse-Terre. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

in value >’000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Services Pub. admin., defense Other

}

2008 % of total value

labour force12

% of labour force12

241 … 353 43 678 273 986

3.0 … 4.3 0.5 8.3 3.4 12.1

2,375 … 7,237 1,010 8,562 7,748 24,608

2.0 … 6.0 0.8 7.1 6.5 20.6

5,189

63.7

384 8,147

TOTAL

}

4.7 100.0

46,275

38.7

19,123 2,735 119,673

16.0 2.3 100.0

Household income and expenditure (2006). Average household size 3.213; disposable income per household (2000) >25,441 (U.S.$23,439); sources of income (2000): wages and salaries 81.5%, transfer payments 17.2%, property 1.3%; expenditure14: food and beverages 20.9%, energy 10.1%, housing 8.9%, clothing 7.8%, health 6.5%, transportation and communications 6.1%.

Foreign trade15 Area and population5

area

population

Arrondissements

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

mid-2006 estimate6

Basse-Terre7 Pointe-à-Pitre8

Basse-Terre Pointe-à-Pitre

330 299 629

855 775 1,630

189,529 211,207 400,736

TOTAL

Balance of trade (current prices) >’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 409,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 650.2, persons per sq km 250.9. Urban-rural (2009): urban 98.5%; rural 1.5%. Sex distribution (20079): male 47.00%; female 53.00%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 23.1%; 15–29, 19.8%; 30–44, 22.6%; 45–59, 17.8%; 60–74, 10.3%; 75–84, 5.1%; 85 and over, 1.3%. Population projection5: (2020) 424,000; (2030) 431,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Creole (mulatto) 76.7%; black 10.0%; Guadeloupe mestizo (French–East Asian) 10.0%; white 2.0%; other 1.3%. Religious affiliation (2000): Roman Catholic 86.4%; Protestant 4.5%; Jehovah’s Witness 3.9%; nonreligious/atheist 3.1%; other 2.1%. Major communes (2006)6: Les Abymes 60,05310; Baie-Mahault 27,90610; Le Gosier 27,37010; Pointe-à-Pitre 17,541 (urban agglomeration 177,336); Basse-Terre 12,834 (urban agglomeration 46,319).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 13.2 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (1999) 34.7%; outside of marriage (1999) 65.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.0 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 6.2 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.30. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2007): 3.6/2.0. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 76.2 years; female 83.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 210.5, of which cerebrovascular disease 72.2, hypertensive diseases 31.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 178.1; accidents 43.8; diabetes mellitus 37.3; diseases of the digestive system 34.6.

National economy Budget (2008)11. Revenue: >684,000,000 (grants and subsidies 44.5%; indirect taxes 33.3%; direct taxes 16.6%; loans 2.0%; other 3.6%). Expenditures: >624,100,000 (current expenditures 83.8%; development expenditures 16.2%). Public debt: n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 732,500, bananas (2009) 55,676, vegetables 33,824, roots and tubers 13,400, melons 9,078, plantains 9,000, pineapples 5,300, cattle meat 3,300; livestock (number of live animals) 75,000 cattle, 30,000 pigs, 475,000 chickens; roundwood 32,200 cu m, of which fuelwood 99%; fisheries production 10,133 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): pumice 210,000. Manufacturing (value added in >’000,000; 2006): food and agricultural products (including rum) 51; machinery and apparatus 43; other products include clothing, wooden furniture and posts, and metalware. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 1,227,000,000 (1,227,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (668,000); natural gas, none (none). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 344; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment, n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 12.4%, in permanent crops 1.8%, in pasture 11.8%, forest area 46.9%. Population economically active (2006): total 219,000; activity rate of total population 48.5% (participation rates: ages 15–59, 74.8%; female 50.5%; unemployed [2009] 23.5%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.5

96.9

100.0

102.0

103.3

105.7

105.9

Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 2008): U.S.$10,652,000,000 (U.S.$26,192 per capita).

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,691 85.8%

–2,000 84.4%

–2,123 85.0%

–2,192 82.2%

–2,396 85.4%

–1,659 85.6%

Imports (2008): >2,601,000,000 (refined petroleum 18.5%; agricultural and food products 14.5%; machinery and apparatus 12.4%; road vehicles 12.2%; pharmaceuticals 5.4%). Major import sources: France (metropolitan) 52.1%; other EU countries 13.3%; Martinique 8.1%; U.S. 5.6%. Exports (2008): >205,000,000 (refined petroleum 20.5%; sugar 13.3%; bananas 10.0%; rum 8.4%; base and fabricated metals 7.2%; electrical machinery and electronics 5.1%). Major export destinations: France (metropolitan) 38.5%; Martinique 21.5%; French Guiana 19.5%; other EU countries 6.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2009): total length16 643 mi, 1,035 km (paved, n.a.). Vehicles (2001): passenger cars 117,700; trucks and buses 31,400. Air transport (2007): passenger-km17 3,794,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

125

289

2005 2009

31519 251

71019 539

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

90 218 109 …

200 4.918 234 …

Education and health Educational attainment (2006). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal education through incomplete secondary education 60.0%; complete lower vocational 15.7%; complete secondary 12.1%; incomplete/ complete higher 12.2%. Literacy: n.a. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

3,38420 4,69620 …

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

38,189 53,153 8,718

… … …

… … … (age 18–22)

Health (20079): physicians 1,014 (1 per 398 persons); hospital beds 1,513 (1 per 266 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2006) 9.0; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): French troops in West Indies (Guadeloupe and Martinique) c. 1,825 (army c. 42%, navy c. 25%, air force, n.a., gendarmerie c. 33%).

1On Feb. 22, 2007, Saint-Martin (the northern half of the island of St. Martin) and Saint-Barthélemy formally separated from Guadeloupe to become overseas collectivities of France. 2Guadeloupe is simultaneously administered as an overseas region (région d’outre-mer). 3Assembly for overseas department. 4Assembly for overseas region. 5Excludes Saint-Martin (2010 pop. 38,100) and Saint-Barthélemy (2010 pop. 9,000). 6Actually totals for combined/assorted censuses taken over a 5-year span (2004–08). 7Comprises Basse-Terre 325 sq mi (842 sq km), pop. 186,661, and Îles des Saintes 5 sq mi (13 sq km), pop. 2,868. 8Comprises Grande-Terre 230 sq mi (596 sq km), pop. 197,603; Marie-Galante 61 sq mi (158 sq km), pop. 12,009; La Désirade 8 sq mi (21 sq km), pop. 1,595; and the uninhabited Îles de la Petite-Terre. 9January 1. 10Within Pointe-à-Pitre urban agglomeration. 11Departmental budget. 12Employed workers only excluding the informal sector. 13Including secondary residences; excluding vacant homes. 14Weights of consumer price index components. 15Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 16National and departmental roads only. 17Air Caraïbes only. 18Circulation. 19Subscribers. 202004–05.

Internet resources for further information: • INSEE Guadeloupe http://www.insee.fr/fr/regions/guadeloupe • Region Guadeloupe http://www.cr-guadeloupe.fr

Nations of the World

Guam

589

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Official name: Guåhan (Chamorro); Territory of Guam (English). Political status: self-governing, organized, unincorporated territory of the United States with one legislative house (Guam Legislature [15]). Head of state: President of the United States. Head of government: Governor. Capital: Hagåtña (formerly Agana). Official languages: Chamorro; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: United States dollar (U.S.$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = £0.65.

in value U.S.$’000,0007 Agriculture Manufacturing Construction Trade Transp. and commun. Finance Pub. admin. (local) Pub. admin., defense (federal) Services (tourism-related) Other

}

TOTAL

Area and population land area

population1

sq km

2000 census

Municipalities

29 16 23 16 78 3 3 49 26 16

5,656 2,090 8,652 5,923 42,980 1,100 3,940 3,052 13,313 2,163

Mongmong-TotoMaite Piti Santa Rita Sinajana Talofofo Tamuning Umatac Yigo Yona

Municipalities Agat Asan Barrigada Chalan Pago-Ordot Dededo Hagåtña Hagåtña Heights Inarajan Mangilao Merizo

land area

population1

sq km

2000 census

5 18 42 3 44 16 16 91 52 5412

5,845 1,666 7,500 2,853 3,215 18,012 887 19,474 6,484 154,805

TOTAL

Demography Population (2010): 187,000. Density (2010)3: persons per sq mi 894.7, persons per sq km 345.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 93.3%; rural 6.7%. Sex distribution (2009): male 50.86%; female 49.14%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 27.8%; 15–29, 23.5%; 30–44, 20.9%; 45–59, 17.1%; 60–74, 8.2%; 75 and over, 2.5%. Population projection: (2020) 224,000; (2030) 243,000. Doubling time: 52 years. Ethnic composition (2007): Chamorro 41.4%; other Micronesian 10.3%; Filipino 29.3%; white 4.0%; other (mostly mixed race) 15.0%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic c. 72%; Protestant c. 12%; nonreligious/other c. 16%. Major populated places (2000): Tamuning 10,833; Mangilao 7,794; Yigo 6,391; Astumbo 5,207; Hagåtña 1,122.

2009 % of total value

labour force6

% of labour force6

c. 2,354

c. 55.0

300 1,720 6,210 13,520 4,6508 2,5209 11,490

0.5 2.6 9.3 20.3 7.08 3.89 17.2

c. 1,177 c. 749 — 4,280

c. 27.5 c. 17.5 — 100.0

3,750 15,940 6,51010 66,610

5.6 23.9 9.810 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2005) 1,149 (of which significantly from Japanese tourists); remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment, n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow c. 2%, in permanent crops c. 19%, in pasture c. 15%, forest area c. 48%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)11 U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

–340 74%

–545 83%

–547 84%

–498 83%

–448 81%

–414 69%

Imports (2008): U.S.$224,914,00012 (food products and nonalcoholic beverages 29.7%, motor cars 17.2%, leather luggage and handbags 8.6%, perfumes 3.6%). Major import sources: significantly U.S. and Japan. Exports (2008): U.S.$104,878,000 (motor cars 45.8%, fish 18.3%, precious metal jewelry 8.1%, perfumes 3.6%, leather luggage and handbags 3.4%, iron and steel 3.3%). Major export destinations (2008): U.S. 26.8%; remainder 73.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2004): total length 550 mi, 885 km (paved 76%)13. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 65,355; trucks and buses 25,439. Air transport (2008)14: passenger-km 3,908,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 81,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

1997

106

668

2004 2009

9816 66

59416 369

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2008 2009 2009 2009

… 2015 90 3.016

… 10915 506 1716

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 18.2 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2004) 42.8%; outside of marriage (2004) 57.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.6 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 13.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.54. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2005) 13.2/(2004) 11.9. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 75.9 years; female 82.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): ischemic heart disease 130.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 57.1; cerebrovascular disease 38.3; accidents 27.7; diabetes mellitus 19.4; suicide 17.1.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: U.S.$816,300,000 (taxes 62.0%, federal contributions 28.7%, other 9.3%). Expenditures: U.S.$880,600,000 (public education 27.5%, general administration 10.8%, public order 10.6%, health 8.7%, interest 2.0%). Public debt (September 2008): U.S.$313,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): coconuts 53,200, eggs 16,000, roots and tubers 2,500, watermelons 2,500, fruits 2,100, vegetables 1,900; livestock (number of live animals) 5,200 pigs, 210,000 chickens; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 464 (from aquaculture 35%). Mining and quarrying: sand and gravel. Manufacturing (value of sales in U.S.$’000; 2007): cement, bricks, and ceramics 72,811; food processing 23,244; printing and publishing 10,008; other industries include textiles/garments and boat building. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 1,879,000,000 (1,879,000,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2002) none (1,333,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 3.5; annual average (median) household income (2008) U.S.$45,7864 (U.S.$37,741)4; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2007)5: health care 20.4%, household furnishings 15.7%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 14.7%, energy 11.3%, transportation 8.6%, clothing and footwear 6.7%, housing 5.3%. Population economically active (2009): total 66,6106; activity rate of total population c. 36% (participation rates: over age 15, 58.4%; female 39.2%; unemployed 9.8%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

87.6

92.9

100.0

111.7

119.3

126.7

128.8

Gross domestic product (at current market prices; 2007): U.S.$4,280,000,000 (U.S.$24,675 per capita).

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling through incomplete secondary education 21.1%; completed secondary 56.7%; completed university 22.2%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Education (2008–09) teachers 5–13)17

Primary (age Secondary/Voc. (age 14–17) Tertiary

1,91718 1,10818 …

students 27,715 12,160 8,83719

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

14.5 10.9 …

… … … (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2007) 14120 (1 per 1,256 persons); hospital beds (2007) 172 (1 per 1,029 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 6.1; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty U.S. personnel (November 2009): 2,916 (army 1.4%, navy 32.2%, air force 66.1%, marine corps 0.3%)21.

1Includes active-duty U.S. military personnel, U.S. Department of Defense employees, and dependents of both. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Based on land area; total area per most recent survey including area designated as inland water equals 217 sq mi (561 sq km). 4Excludes all military, dependents of military, and nonresident aliens. 5Weights of consumer price index components. 6Civilian labour force only, including unemployed. 7Per U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis. 8Includes utilities. 9Includes real estate. 10Unemployed. 11Includes (significantly petroleum) imports for transshipment to Micronesia. 12Excludes some imports for transshipment. 13Public roads only; 426 mi (685 km) of roads are private (including roads on federal government installations). 14Continental Micronesia only. 15Circulation. 16Subscribers. 17Includes kindergarten. 182005–06. 19Combined total of Guam Community College and the University of Guam. 20Includes military physicians licensed by the Guam public health office. 21A 2006 agreement to move 8,000 U.S. Marines from Okinawa to Guam by 2014 was ratified by the Japanese Diet in May 2009.

Internet resource for further information: • Guam Bureau of Statistics and Plans http://bsp.guam.gov

590

Britannica World Data

Guatemala

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$36,951,000,000 (U.S.$2,630 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$4,590 per capita).

Official name: República de Guatemala (Republic of Guatemala). Form of government: republic with one legislative house (Congress of the Republic [158]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Guatemala City. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: quetzal (Q); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Q 8.05; 1 £ = Q 12.44.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007 % of total value

29,365 4,121 47,972 13,433 6,392 18,270 39,884 7,883 16,971 63,731 13,1077 261,129

11.2 1.6 18.4 5.1 2.5 7.0 15.3 3.0 6.5 24.4 5.07 100.0

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population area

population

Departments

sq km

2006 estimate

Alta Verapaz Baja Verapaz Chimaltenango Chiquimula El Progreso Escuintla Guatemala Huehuetenango Izabal Jalapa Jutiapa

9,569 3,104 1,960 2,361 1,910 4,356 2,218 7,285 8,981 2,050 3,199

914,414 245,787 519,667 342,681 150,826 610,731 2,975,417 986,224 364,924 279,242 426,497

Departments Petén Quetzaltenango Quiché Retalhuleu Sacatepéquez San Marcos Santa Rosa Sololá Suchitepéquez Totonicapán Zacapa TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2006 estimate

33,635 2,098 10,172 1,844 462 3,802 2,936 1,050 2,409 1,043 2,673 109,117

441,799 735,162 769,364 273,328 278,064 905,116 332,724 361,184 464,304 395,324 215,050 12,987,829

2006

in value Q ’000,000

labour force5

% of labour force5

1,791,400 7,500 854,800 354,900 12,400 160,700 1,226,9006 176,100 115,500 690,400 — 5,390,5008

33.2 0.1 15.9 6.6 0.2 3.0 22.86 3.3 2.1 12.8 — 100.0

Population economically active (2006): total 5,565,200; activity rate of total population 42.8% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 68.0%; female 38.1%; unemployed, n.a.). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

85.9

92.2

100.0

106.4

113.3

127.6

130.0

Consumer price index

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 14.7%, in permanent crops 8.8%, in pasture 18.2%, forest area 35.7%.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 14,377,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 341.3, persons per sq km 131.8. Urban-rural (2009): urban 48.9%; rural 51.1%. Sex distribution (2008): male 48.79%; female 51.21%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 41.5%; 15–29, 28.6%; 30–44, 14.7%; 45–59, 9.6%; 60–74, 4.4%; 75–84, 1.1%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 18,091,000; (2030) 21,692,000. Doubling time: 32 years. Ethnic composition (2002): mestizo 60.0%; Maya 39.3%, of which Quiché 11.3%, Kekchi 7.6%, Cakchiquel 7.4%, Mam 5.5%; other 0.7%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic c. 57%; Protestant/independent Christian c. 40%1; traditional Mayan religions c. 1%; other c. 2%. Major cities (2002)2: Guatemala City (2009) 1,075,000; Mixco 277,4003; Villa Nueva 187,7003; Quetzaltenango 106,700; Escuintla 65,400.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 27.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 5.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 21.9 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 3.70. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 3.8/0.2. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 66.7 years; female 73.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004): diseases of the respiratory system 91.2, of which pneumonia 77.4; external causes 78.8, of which violence 27.5, accidents 20.6, unclassified 28.7; diseases of the circulatory system 64.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 51.2; infectious and parasitic diseases 45.0.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: Q 35,448,000,000 (tax revenue 94.1%, of which taxes on goods and services 58.1%, corporate income taxes 24.7%; nontax revenue 2.8%; social contributions 2.1%; grants 1.0%). Expenditures: Q 40,133,000,000 (education 19.6%; general public services 18.5%; transport 12.6%; housing and communities 12.1%; public order 11.0%; health 7.4%; defense 2.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2009): U.S.$4,927,600,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 25,436,700, hen’s eggs 1,700,000, bananas 1,569,500, corn (maize) 1,294,400, oil palm fruit 1,233,300, coffee 248,615, plantains 198,950, cardamom and nutmeg 28,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,261,200 cattle, 2,735,500 pigs, 31,400,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 17,772,700 cu m, of which fuelwood 97%; fisheries production 41,553 (from aquaculture 45%). Mining and quarrying (2008): zinc (metal content) 26,000; silver 99,900 kg; gold 7,500 kg. Manufacturing (value added in Q ’000,000; 2007): food products, beverages, and tobacco products 24,429; textiles, wearing apparel, and footwear 8,340; cement, bricks, and rubber or plastic products 4,284. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 7,980,000,000 ([2007] 8,631,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (660,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 4,930,000 ([2007] 620,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 26,000 (3,224,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) 400,000 ([2007] none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2002) 4.4; income per household (1989) Q 4,306 (U.S.$1,529); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2000)4: food and beverages 32.9%, household furnishings 14.7%, clothing 11.8%, recreation and culture 9.2%, health 7.3%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,068; remittances (2009) 4,044; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 688; official development assistance (2008) 536. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 606; remittances (2008) 18; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 21.

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–4,084 43.7%

–4,880 45.4%

–5,119 32.9%

–6,342 49.8%

–6,646 32.5%

–6,785 30.5%

Imports (2008): U.S.$14,522,000,000 (refined petroleum 17.1%; chemicals and chemical products 16.5%; machinery and apparatus 14.8%; food products 10.2%; road vehicles/parts 6.6%). Major import sources: U.S. 36.7%; Mexico 9.7%; China 5.8%; El Salvador 4.7%; Netherlands Antilles 3.2%. Exports (2008): U.S.$7,737,000,000 (food products 32.1%, of which coffee 8.4%, raw sugar 4.9%, bananas 4.4%; apparel and clothing accessories 15.9%, of which women’s outerwear 8.0%; crude petroleum 4.8%; toiletries and soaps 3.8%; silver 3.4%). Major export destinations: U.S. 39.4%; El Salvador 12.6%; Honduras 9.5%; Mexico 6.6%; Nicaragua 4.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007): route length 497 mi, 800 km10. Roads (2002): total length 8,727 mi, 14,044 km (paved 39%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 1,558,14511. Air transport (1999): passenger-km 342,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2003) 200,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

2,000

167

2009 2009

17,30813 1,413

1,23413 101

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

262 49012 2,280 11013

21 3512 163 7.813

Education and health Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of heads of households having: no formal schooling 33.3%; incomplete/complete primary education 46.1%; incomplete/complete secondary 15.0%; higher 5.6%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 73.8%; males literate 79.5%; females literate 68.7%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–17) Tertiary14

84,980 54,498 3,843

students 2,500,575 902,796 233,88515

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

29.4 16.6 29.2

95 40 18 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (200616) 12,273 (1 per 1,049 persons); hospital beds (2005) 8,894 (1 per 1,429 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2006) 30.8; undernourished population (2004–06) 2,100,000 (16% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,690 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 15,212 (army 88.4%, navy 5.9%, air force 5.7%); paramilitary 19,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.4%; per capita expenditure U.S.$11. 1Rough estimate; may also incorporate Mayan spiritual ritual. 2Urban populations of municipios. 3Within Guatemala department. 4Weights of consumer price index components. 510 years and older; employed only. 6Includes restaurants and hotels. 7Taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Last operating rail service was shut down in September 2007; no passenger service is available. 11Includes trucks and buses. 12Circulation. 13Subscribers. 142005–06. 152006–07. 16January 1.

Internet resources for further information: • Banco de Guatemala http://www.banguat.gob.gt • Instituto Nacional de Estadística http://www.ine.gob.gt

Nations of the World

Guernsey1

591

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Area and population

Dependencies of Guernsey Alderney Brechou Herm7 Jethou7 Lihou7 Little Sark Sark (Great Sark) TOTAL (ROUNDED)

Horticulture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate, insurance, international business Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

area sq mi

Parishes of Guernsey Castel Forest St. Andrew St. Martin St. Peter (St. Pierre du Bois) St. Peter Port St. Sampson St. Saviour Torteval Vale

3.9 1.6 1.7 2.8 2.4 2.5 2.4 2.5 1.2 3.4

201011

2007

Official name: Bailiwick of Guernsey. Political status: crown dependency (United Kingdom) with one legislative house (States of Deliberation [502, 3, 4]). Head of state: British Monarch represented by Lieutenant Governor. Head of government: Chief Minister5 assisted by the Policy Council. Capital: St. Peter Port. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Guernsey pound6; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 Guernsey pound = U.S.$1.54. population sq km

2001 census

10.2 4.1 4.5 7.3 6.2 6.4 6.3 6.4 3.1 8.9

8,975 1,549 2,409 6,267 2,188 16,488 8,592 2,696 973 9,573

in value £’000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

23,241 — 41,120 131,430 12,467 74,864 200,862

1.4 — 2.5 7.9 0.8 4.5 12.1

501 — 732 3,112 424 2,008 6,437

1.5 — 2.2 9.5 1.3 6.1 19.6

760,534

45.9

253,033

15.3

158,03912 1,655,590

9.612 100.0

10,347 5,526 3,217 51313 32,817

31.5 16.8 9.8 1.613 100.014

Public debt (July 2010): none. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2001) 2.6; expenditure (2005–06): housing 33.8%, recreation and culture 13.9%, household furnishings and communications 11.4%, transportation 9.7%, food 9.7%, food away from home 4.8%, alcohol and tobacco products 4.5%, clothing and footwear 3.7%, energy 3.4%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (1996) 275 (total visitors [2009] 304,000); remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment, n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007)9: in temporary crops or left fallow c. 18%; in permanent crops, n.a.; in pasture c. 20%, forest area c. 4%.

Foreign trade 3.07 0.12 0.50 0.07 0.06 0.42 1.62 30.3

7.94 0.30 1.29 0.18 0.15 1.09 } 4.19 78.5

2,294 0 95 2 0 591 62,692

Imports (2007): petroleum products are important. Major import sources: significantly United Kingdom. Exports (2006)15: £46,910,000 (high-value young plants exported to final producers 74.5%; postal and cut flowers [particularly freesia, roses, and carnations] 18.5%; edibles [mostly niche crops] 7.0%). Major export destinations: mostly United Kingdom.

Transport and communications Demography Population (2010)8: 65,300. Density (2010)8: persons per sq mi 2,155.1, persons per sq km 831.8. Urban-rural (2005)8, 9: urban 30.9%; rural 69.1%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.42%; female 50.58%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 15.2%; 15–29, 19.6%; 30–44, 21.4%; 45–59, 21.4%; 60–74, 14.5%; 75–84, 5.6%; 85 and over, 2.3%. Population projection8: (2020) 67,000; (2030) 68,000. Population by place of birth (2001): Guernsey 64.3%; United Kingdom 27.4%; Portugal 1.9%; Jersey 0.7%; Ireland 0.7%; Alderney 0.2%; Sark 0.1%; other Europe 3.2%; other 1.5%. Religious affiliation (2000)8, 9: Protestant 51.0%, of which Anglican 44.1%; unaffiliated Christian 20.1%; Roman Catholic 14.6%; nonreligious 12.4%; other 1.9%. Major cities (2001)10: St. Peter Port 16,488; Vale 9,573; Castel 8,975; St. Sampson 8,592; St. Martin 6,267.

Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2009): n.a.16; passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Vehicles (2009): passenger cars 61,747; trucks and buses 14,030. Air transport17: passenger-km (2009) 104,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 56,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2007

…

…

2005 2009

43.819 45

79019 691

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2009 2008 2009 2009

… 1618 48 …

… 24418 735 …

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2006): virtually 100%. Education (2009–10) teachers

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 10.2 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2000) 65.2%; outside of marriage (2000) 34.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 7.7 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 2.5 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.53. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2000): 5.7/2.9. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 79.6 years; female 85.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2007): malignant neoplasms (cancers) c. 202; ischemic heart disease c. 70; other cardiovascular diseases c. 207.

Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–16) Tertiary

… … …

students 4,406 4,292 85820

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

… … …

… … … (age 17–21)

Health (2006): physicians 102 (1 per 625 persons); hospital beds c. 548 (1 per 116 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 3.5; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel: the United Kingdom is responsible for defense.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: £341,000,000 (income tax 80.1%, customs duties and excise taxes 8.5%, document duties 4.1%, property taxes 3.8%, company fees 1.8%, other 1.7%). Expenditures: £325,507,000 (health 32.9%, education 22.2%, social security and welfare 14.5%, law and order 9.1%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of exports in £’000; 2006): young plants 34,950, postal and cut flowers 8,700, edibles 3,260; livestock (number of live animals; 1999) 3,262 cattle; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production (2008) 1,636 (from aquaculture, n.a.), of which crabs 802, bass 123, scallops 102, lobsters 67, black bream 55. Mining and quarrying: n.a. Manufacturing (2008): includes small-scale manufacturers of furniture, ceramics, confectionery, fabricated metals, and jewelry. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 158,000,000 ([2009–10] 366,262,000). Population economically active (201011): total 32,817; activity rate of total population 50.3% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2001] 79.1%; female 45.3%; unemployed [July 2009–June 2010] 1.4%). Retail price index (June 2005 = 100) Retail price index11

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0

103.4

108.1

113.6

112.3

Gross national income (2009): U.S.$2,827,660,000 (U.S.$43,326 per capita).

1Data exclude Alderney and Sark unless otherwise noted. 2The States of Deliberation was reorganized in 2004. 3Includes 3 ex officio members (2 of whom have no voting rights) and 2 representatives from Alderney. 4Alderney and Sark have their own parliaments. The States of Alderney has a president and 10 elected members; Sark’s feudal system of government ended with elections to a 28-member assembly in December 2008. 5The first Chief Minister was elected by the States of Deliberation in May 2004. 6Equivalent in value to pound sterling (£); the Guernsey government issues both paper money and coins. 7Islets that are directly administered by Guernsey. 8Includes Alderney, Sark, and other dependencies. 9Includes Jersey. 10Populations of parishes. 11June. 12Less pensions (£34,206,000) and adjustment to profit account (£1,405,000). 13Includes 481 unemployed. 14Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 15Horticultural exports only. 16Roads are narrow and unsuitable for large commercial vehicles. 17Aurigny Air Services Ltd. only. 18Circulation of Guernsey Press and Star. 19Subscribers. 20Studying in the United Kingdom.

Internet resource for further information: • The States of Guernsey http://www.gov.gg/ccm/portal

592

Britannica World Data

Guinea

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$3,771,000,000 (U.S.$370 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$940 per capita).

Official name: République de Guinée (Republic of Guinea). Form of government: transitional regime1, 2. Head of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister of caretaker government1, 2. Capital: Conakry. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Guinean franc (FG); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = FG 5,580; 1 £ = FG 8,620.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Regions

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

population 1996 census

Boké Faranah Kankan Kindia Labé Mamou Nzérékoré

Boké Faranah Kankan Kindia Labé Mamou Nzérékoré

12,041 13,738 27,855 11,148 8,830 6,592 14,540

31,186 35,581 72,145 28,873 22,869 17,074 37,658

760,119 602,845 1,011,644 928,312 799,545 612,218 1,348,787

Special zone Conakry

Conakry

174 94,918

450 245,836

1,092,936 7,156,406

22.7 21.4 6.4 9.8 0.4 2.4 15.6 5.6 7.3 … 8.46 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

2,433,480 34,975 90,885 60,526 4,690 77,070 373,709 3,440 63,192 132,045 4,822 3,278,834

74.2 1.1 2.8 1.9 0.1 2.4 11.4 0.1 1.9 4.0 0.1 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1.5; remittances (2009) 71; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 303; official development assistance (2008) 319. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 9; remittances (2008) 119. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 9.0%, in permanent crops 2.7%, in pasture 43.5%, forest area 27.1%.

Foreign trade 7 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 10,324,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 108.8, persons per sq km 42.0. Urban-rural (2009): urban 34.9%; rural 65.1%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.00%; female 50.00%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 42.9%; 15–29, 26.5%; 30–44, 16.0%; 45–59, 9.2%; 60–74, 4.4%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2020) 13,467,000; (2030) 16,897,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Fulani 38.3%; Malinke 25.6%; Susu 12.2%; Kpelle 5.2%; Kisi 4.8%; other 13.9%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim (nearly all Sunni) c. 85%3; Christian c. 8%3; traditional beliefs c. 7%. Major cities (2004): Conakry (2009) 1,597,000; Kankan 113,900; Labé (2001) 64,500; Kindia (2001) 56,000; Nzérékoré (2001) 55,000.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–326.3 20.6%

–852.1 34.9%

–301.9 15.8%

–222.5 9.5%

–421.1 12.4%

Imports (2008): U.S.$1,907,900,000 (refined petroleum 32.8%; machinery and apparatus 21.5%, of which civil engineering equipment 7.5%; food 10.2%; road vehicles 6.6%). Major import sources: Neth. 20.6%; France 10.1%; U.K. 7.9%; China 6.7%; Belgium 5.2%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,486,800,000 (bauxite 40.1%; gold 32.0%; alumina 11.3%; printed matter 7.9%; natural rubber 1.6%). Major export destinations: France 24.5%; Switzerland 19.5%; Russia 10.6%; Spain 9.9%; Ireland 7.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length (mostly for bauxite transport) 245 mi, 395 km8; passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo (1993) 710,000,000. Roads (2009): total length 4,199 mi, 6,758 km9 (paved 35%9). Vehicles (2003): passenger cars 47,524; trucks and buses 26,467. Air transport: n.a. Communications

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 37.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 11.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 26.5 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 5.25. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: n.a./n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 55.1 years; female 58.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): infectious and parasitic diseases 682; cardiovascular diseases 150; injuries and accidents 118; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 62; cerebrovascular diseases 52.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: FG 3,854,400,000,000 (tax revenue 81.9%, of which taxes on domestic production and trade 29.8%, mining sector revenue 22.0%, taxes on international trade 18.5%; nontax revenue 5.4%; grants 12.7%). Expenditures: FG 3,735,600,000,000 (current expenditure 65.2%, of which wages and salaries 23.0%, interest on debt 14.6%; capital expenditure 34.6%; net lending and restructuring 0.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; April 2010): U.S.$3,035,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): rice 1,534,088, cassava 1,122,171, corn (maize) 952,170, oil palm fruit 830,000, plantains 436,000, fonio 341,218, peanuts (groundnuts) 315,107, sugarcane 283,000, citrus fruits 218,000, sweet potatoes 204,598, mangoes 166,000, bananas 162,000, pineapples 109,000, coffee 18,000; livestock (number of live animals) 4,408,956 cattle, (2009) 1,800,000 goats, (2009) 1,500,000 sheep, 18,900,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 12,496,500 cu m, of which fuelwood 95%; fisheries production 74,000 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2009–10): bauxite 15,749,630; gold 779,320 troy oz; diamonds 423,510 carats. Manufacturing (2009–10): cement 285,100; flour 45,720; paints 5,451. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009–10) 642,800,000 ([2007] 973,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (394,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009–10) 83,460 ([2007] 102,500). Household income and expenditure (1994–95). Average household size (2004) 6.6; average annual household income4 FG 1,905,899 (U.S.$1,952); sources of income4: agriculture 49.3%, self-employment 22.2%, wages and salaries 15.7%; expenditure4: food 50.0%, housing 14.0%, health 12.3%, transportation and communications 8.4%, clothing 6.3%. Population economically active (2008)5: total 4,720,000; activity rate of total population 48.0% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 84.0%; female 46.8%; unemployed, n.a.). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

% of total value

4,738.6 4,473.0 1,329.6 2,054.1 77.0 504.5 3,263.1 1,175.3 1,518.7 … 1,759.16 20,893.0

TOTAL

area

Area and population

TOTAL

1996

in value FG ’000,000,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

64.8

76.1

100.0

134.7

165.5

197.4

205.0

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

140

16

2009 2009

5,60711 22

56011 2.2

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

47 2510 90 —

units per 1,000 persons 5.0 1.910 9.5 —

Education and health Educational attainment of those age 25 and over having attended school (1999)12: none or unknown 81.4%; primary 7.8%; secondary 6.8%; higher 4.0%. Literacy (2008): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 38.0%; males literate 49.6%; females literate 26.4%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–19) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

30,933 15,941 2,163

1,364,491 530,705 80,222

44.1 33.3 37.1

71 28 9 (age 20–24)

Health: physicians (2006) 689 (1 per 13,660 persons); hospital beds (2005) 2,766 (1 per 3,333 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 67.4; undernourished population (2004–06) 1,500,000 (16% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,760 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 12,300 (army 69.1%, navy 3.3%, air force 6.5%, gendarmerie 8.1%, republican guard 13.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.0%; per capita expenditure U.S.$5.

1From Feb. 15, 2010, under authority of the military. 2Constitution suspended from December 2008; new constitution promulgated by interim president on May 7, 2010. 3Significantly influenced by traditional beliefs and rituals. 4Based on the national Enquête Intégrale sur les Conditions de Vie des Ménages avec Module Budget et Consommation, comprising 4,416 households. 5ILO estimates. 6Indirect taxes and taxes on products less subsidies. 7Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 8Length of bauxite railways; other tracks are nonoperational. 9Officially reported figure. 10Circulation of daily newspapers, which are subject to rigorous government censorship. 11Subscribers. 12Based on the national Enquête Démographique et de Santé, comprising 5,090 households.

Internet resources for further information: • National Statistics Directorate http://www.stat-guinee.org • Banque Centrale de la Republique de Guinée http://www.bcrg-guinee.org

Nations of the World

Guinea-Bissau

footwear 7.6%, transport and communications 6.5%, household furnishings 4.4%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$826,000,0009 (U.S.$510 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,060 per capita).

Official name: Républica da Guiné-Bissau (Republic of Guinea-Bissau). Form of government: civilian/military regime1 with one legislative house (National People’s Assembly [1022]). Head of state and government: President assisted by the Prime Minister. Capital: Bissau. Official language: Portuguese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31. Area and population

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 in value U.S.$’000,000 Agriculture, fishing Mining } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transportation and communications Trade, hotels Finance, services } Pub. admin., defense Other area

Regions Bafatá Biombo Bolama/Bijagós Cacheu Gabú Oio Quinara Tombali

Chief towns Bafatá Quinhámel Bolama Cacheu Gabú Bissorã Fulacunda Catió

Autonomous sector Bissau

––

TOTAL

593

TOTAL

population 2009 census3 225,516 94,869 33,929 199,674 214,520 226,263 65,946 102,482

sq mi 2,309 324 1,013 1,998 3,533 2,086 1,212 1,443

sq km 5,981 840 2,624 5,175 9,150 5,403 3,138 3,736

30 13,9484

78 36,1254

2006 % of total value

236.4

58.4

3.5

0.9

32.3 12.2

8.0 3.0

11.2 68.3

2.8 16.9

34.5

8.5

6.0 404.4

1.5 100.0

labour force10

}

% of labour force

568,000

81.3

131,000

18.7

699,000

100.0

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 10.7%, in permanent crops 8.9%, in pasture 38.4%, forest area 73.0%11.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF ’000,000,000 % of total

384,960 1,548,159

Demography Population (2010): 1,593,000. Density (2010)5: persons per sq mi 146.7, persons per sq km 56.6. Urban-rural (2009): urban 29.9%; rural 70.1%. Sex distribution (2009): male 48.82%; female 51.18%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 42.6%; 15–29, 25.7%; 30–44, 16.2%; 45–59, 10.0%; 60–74, 4.5%; 75–84, 0.9%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 1,926,000; (2030) 2,270,000. Doubling time: 29 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Balante 25.0%; Fulani (locally Fulakunda) 17.1%; Mandyako 12.0%; Malinke 10.0%; Guinean mestiço (Portuguese-black) 9.2%; Pepel 6.3%; nonindigenous Cape Verdean mulatto 1.0%; other 19.4%. Religious affiliation (2005): traditional beliefs c. 49%; Muslim c. 42%; Christian/other c. 9%. Major cities (2004): Bissau 305,700; Bafatá 15,000; Cacheu 14,000; Gabú 10,000.

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–8.6 8.3%

–27.6 26.2%

–29.2 22.2%

–31.9 22.2%

–37.5 25.0%

Imports (2008): CFAF 87,900,000,000 (agricultural products 32.1%, petroleum products 22.8%, machinery and apparatus 22.8%). Major import sources: Portugal c. 24%; Senegal c. 17%; India c. 11%; Pakistan c. 5%; France c. 5%. Exports (2008): CFAF 56,000,000,000 (cashews 86.3%, fish and shrimp 4.5%). Major export destinations: India c. 64%; Nigeria c. 30%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2003): total length 1,710 mi, 2,755 km (paved 28%). Vehicles (2002): passenger cars, trucks, and buses 1,985. Air transport (2003): passenger arrivals 17,834, passenger departures 18,528; cargo unloaded, n.a.; cargo loaded, n.a. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

47

36

2009 2009

56012 4.8

34812 3.0

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

2.9 — 37 —

2.0 — 23 —

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2007): 41.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2007): 17.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2007): 24.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2005): 4.93. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: n.a./n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 43.4 years; female 46.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): diseases of the circulatory system 165; HIV/AIDS 126; accidents, poisoning, and violence 114; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 66; chronic respiratory diseases 41.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: CFAF 95,900,000,000 (grants 63.1%, tax revenue 27.7%, nontax revenue 9.2%). Expenditures: CFAF 88,700,000,000 (current expenditures 56.7%, capital expenditures 43.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$1,004,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): rice 148,757, roots and tubers 122,737, cashew nuts 81,000, oil palm fruit 80,000, coconuts 45,500, plantains 40,000, millet 31,388, peanuts (groundnuts) 29,651, vegetables 28,000, pork (2009) 12,792, cattle meat (2009) 6,149; livestock (number of live animals; 2009) 620,000 cattle, 410,000 pigs; roundwood (2009) 592,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 71%; fisheries production 6,750 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: small-scale production of clays, limestone, and granite. Manufacturing (2003): processed wood 11,000; bakery products 7,900; wood products 4,400; dried and smoked fish 3,800; soap 2,400; vegetable oils 37,000 hectolitres. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 70,000,000 (70,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (93,000); natural gas, none (none). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 2.8; remittances (2009) 23; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 13; official development assistance (2008) 132. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 16; remittances (2008) 5. Population economically active (2008)6: total 645,000; activity rate of total population 41.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 73.3%; female 42.5%; unemployed, n.a.). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.9

96.8

100.0

102.0

106.7

117.8

115.9

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1996) 6.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2001–02)7, 8: food and nonalcoholic beverages 59.7%, housing and energy 13.6%, clothing and

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 64.6%; males literate 75.1%; females literate 54.4%. Education (2005–06) Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

4,327 1,480 25

269,287 55,176 3,689

62.2 37.3 147.6

5213 1013 3 (age 18–22)

Health (2006): physicians 18814 (1 per 7,760 persons); hospital beds 1,686 (1 per 865 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2006) 138; undernourished population (2004–06) 440,000 (31% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,720 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): c. 6,450 (army c. 62%, navy c. 5%, air force c. 2%, gendarmerie c. 31%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 3.8%; per capita expenditure U.S.$12.

1A

constitution adopted by the National Assembly in 2001 was not promulgated 9 years later. In November 2010 the military was the power behind the country’s democratic facade. 2Includes 2 unfilled seats reserved for citizens of Guinea-Bissau residing abroad. 3Preliminary. 4Includes water area of about 3,089 sq mi (8,000 sq km). 5Based on land area of 10,859 sq mi (28,125 sq km). 6ILO estimates. 7Bissau only. 8Weights of consumer price index components. 9Formal economy only; in 2010 much of Guinea-Bissau’s income was derived from trafficking South American cocaine into Europe. 10FAO estimate. 11Forest area overlaps with other categories. 12Subscribers. 131999–2000. 14Includes 40 Cuban doctors.

Internet resources for further information: • La Banque de France: La Zone Franc http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm • National Institute of Statistics and Census http://www.stat-guinebissau.com

594

Britannica World Data

Guyana

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Official name: Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [651]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Georgetown. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Guyanese dollar (G$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = G$203.70; 1 £ = G$314.68.

% of total value

14,328 25,928 15,310 22,701

5.6 10.1 6.0 8.9

6,880

2.7

Sugar Other agriculture Fishing, forestry Mining Manufacturing } Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

26,946 13,133 13,925 19,191 39,178 4,736 53,5656 255,8238

TOTAL

Area and population

area

population 2002 census

Administrative regions

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

Mabaruma Anna Regina

7,853 2,392

20,339 6,195

24,275 49,253

Vreed en Hoop Paradise Fort Wellington New Amsterdam Bartica Mahdia

1,450 862 1,618 13,990 18,229 7,742

3,755 2,232 4,190 36,234 47,213 20,051

103,061 310,320 52,428 123,695 17,597 10,095

Lethem Linden

22,297 6,579 83,0122

57,750 17,040 214,9992

19,387 41,112 751,223

Region 4 Region 5 Region 6 Region 7 Region 8 Region 9 Region 10

(Barima-Waini) (Pomeroon-Supenaam) (Essequibo lslands–West Demerara) (Demerara-Mahaica) (Mahaica-Berbice) (East Berbice–Corentyne) (Cuyuni-Mazaruni) (Potaro-Siparuni) (Upper Takutu–Upper Essequibo) (Upper Demerara–Berbice)

TOTAL

Demography Population (2010): 748,000. Density (2010)3: persons per sq mi 9.8, persons per sq km 4.0. Urban-rural (2005): urban 38.5%; rural 61.5%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.06%; female 49.94%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 26.5%; 15–29, 29.7%; 30–44, 23.0%; 45–59, 13.3%; 60–74, 5.6%; 75 and over, 1.9%. Population projection: (2020) 754,000; (2030) 819,000. Doubling time: 67 years. Ethnic composition (2002): East Indian 43.5%; black 30.2%; mixed race 16.7%; Amerindian 9.2%; other 0.4%. Religious affiliation (2002): Christian 57.3%, of which Protestant/independent Christian 48.2% (including Anglican 6.9%), Roman Catholic 8.0%, Jehovah’s Witness 1.1%; Hindu 28.4%; Muslim 7.2%; Rastafarian 0.5%; nonreligious 4.3%; other/unknown 2.3%. Major urban areas (2006): Georgetown 236,900; Linden 44,900; New Amsterdam 35,700; Corriverton 12,700; Bartica 11,300.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 18.5 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 7.9 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 10.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.60. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2006): 6.1/n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2005): male 62.9 years; female 68.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 194.2; homicide/violence/suicide 59.6; diabetes mellitus 58.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 48.6; accidents 39.6; HIV/AIDS-related 39.2. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 2.5%4 (world avg. 0.8%).

Budget (2008): Revenue: G$99,513,000,000 (current revenue 82.9%, of which VAT 24.1%, company income tax 18.7%, excise tax 13.2%, personal income tax 12.7%; grants 13.7%; other 3.4%). Expenditures: G$105,838,000,000 (current expenditure 59.5%; development expenditure 40.5%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 2,766,500, rice 507,000, coconuts 70,000, roots and tubers 41,134, cassava (manioc) 20,184, pumpkins, squash, and gourds 7,000, oranges 6,000, bananas 5,892, plantains 4,193, mangoes 4,085; livestock (number of live animals) 130,000 sheep, 110,000 cattle, 19,900,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 1,378,900 cu m, of which fuelwood 62%; fisheries production 42,460 (from aquaculture 1%), of which shrimp or prawns 16,717. Mining and quarrying (2008): bauxite 1,995,000; gold 8,131 kg; diamonds 169,000 carats. Manufacturing (2008): flour 35,700; margarine 1,528; rum 142,000 hectolitres; beer and stout 84,000 hectolitres; soft drinks 3,966,000 cases; pharmaceuticals 20,400,000 tablets. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 867,000,000 (867,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (491,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2008): total 342,0005; activity rate of total population 44.8%5 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 68.0%5; female 34.5%5; unemployed [2002] 11.7%). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

89.4

93.5

100.0

106.6

119.7

129.4

133.2

Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$1,081,000,000 (U.S.$1,420 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$2,510 per capita).

}

10.5 5.1 5.4 7.5 15.3 1.9 20.96 100.08

labour force

% of labour force

51,200

18.8

9,500 30,600 2,300 16,200 17,000 43,500 10,500 15,100 34,600 41,3007 271,800

3.5 11.3 0.8 6.0 6.3 16.0 3.9 5.6 12.7 15.27 100.08

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2009): U.S.$933,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2002) 4.1. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 59; remittances (2009) 266; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 144; official development assistance (2008) 166. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 52; remittances (2008) 61. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 2.1%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 6.2%, forest area 76.7%.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–84.7 9.1%

–92.8 7.9%

–239.4 18.2%

–325.5 24.7%

–244.1 13.5%

–582.7 25.9%

Imports (2008): U.S.$1,417,000,000 (refined petroleum 34.2%, machinery and apparatus 16.2%, food 11.2%, chemicals and chemical products 9.7%). Major import sources: Trinidad and Tobago 29.0%; U.S. 26.6%; Netherlands Antilles 6.5%; Venezuela 5.6%; China 5.4%. Exports (2008): U.S.$834,300,000 (gold 22.7%, bauxite 22.3%, raw cane sugar 13.9%, rice 13.0%, shrimp 4.7%, sawn wood 4.1%, diamonds 3.5%). Major export destinations: Canada 22.5%; U.S. 17.5%; U.K. 13.5%; Ukraine 5.4%; Jamaica 4.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): none. Roads (2000): total length 4,952 mi, 7,970 km (paved 7%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 44,739; trucks and buses 28,112. Air transport: passenger-km (2000) 299,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2003) 200,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

125

169

2005 2009

28111 130

37511 171

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

29 3010 220 2.011

units per 1,000 persons 39 5210 289 2.611

Education and health Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 3.0%; primary education 26.0%; secondary 62.1%; post-secondary 3.7%; higher 4.8%; other 0.4%. Literacy (2005): total population age 15 and over literate 99.0%; males literate 99.2%; females literate 98.7%. Education (2007–08)

National economy

Consumer price index

2002

in value G$’000,000

Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

4,204 3,574 816

107,456 74,673 7,306

25.6 20.9 9.0

95 … 12 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2005) 323 (1 per 2,325 persons); hospital beds (2004–05) 1,887 (1 per 401 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2005) 33.3; undernourished population (2004–06) 47,000 (6% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,840 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 1,100 (army 81.8%, navy 9.1%, air force 9.1%); paramilitary 1,500. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 5.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$87.

1Excludes 3 nonelected ministers, one nonelected parliamentary secretary, and the speaker. 2Includes inland water area equaling c. 7,000 sq mi (c. 18,000 sq km). 3Based on land area only. 4Statistically derived midpoint within range. 5Estimate of the ILO Employment Trends Unit. 6Indirect taxes less subsidies. 7Includes 32,100 unemployed. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Circulation of daily newspapers. 11Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • Bank of Guyana http://www.bankofguyana.org.gy • Bureau of Statistics http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy

595

Nations of the World

Population economically active (2008): total 4,377,00013; activity rate of total population 44.3%13 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 70.4%13; female 42.8%13; unemployed14).

Haiti Official name: Repiblik d’ Ayiti (Haitian Creole); République d’Haïti (French) (Republic of Haiti). Form of government: republic with two legislative houses (Senate [30]; Chamber of Deputies [99]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Port-au-Prince. Official languages: Haitian Creole; French. Official religions: 1. Monetary unit: gourde (G); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = G 39.75; 1 £ = G 61.41.

Price index (2005 = 100)

area

Capitals Gonaïves Hinche Jérémie Miragoâne Cap-Haïtien Fort-Liberté Port-de-Paix Port-au-Prince Les Cayes Jacmel

sq mi 1,924 1,419 807 471 813 697 840 1,864 1,079 781 10,6953

TOTAL

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0

113.1

122.7

141.8

141.7

Foreign trade 16

2006 estimate2 1,410,385 622,420 356,900 281,410 868,755 330,609 578,583 3,418,666 640,838 504,163 9,012,729

Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Population (2010): 9,649,0004. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 902.2, persons per sq km 348.3. Urban-rural (2007): urban 40.1%; rural 59.9%. Sex distribution (2007): male 49.47%; female 50.53%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 38.4%; 15–29, 28.6%; 30–44, 17.4%; 45–59, 9.7%; 60–74, 4.8%; 75–84, 1.0%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 10,693,000; (2030) 11,784,000. Ethnic composition (2000): black 94.2%; mulatto 5.4%; other 0.4%. Religious affiliation (2003): Roman Catholic 54.7%5; Protestant/independent Christian 28.5%, of which Baptist 15.4%, Pentecostal 7.9%; voodoo 2.1%; nonreligious 10.2%; other/unknown 4.5%. Major cities (2009): Port-au-Prince 875,978 (metropolitan area [March 2010] c. 1,700,000); Carrefour 430,2506; Delmas 359,4516; Pétionville 271,1756; Cité Soleil 241,0556; Gonaïves 228,725; Cap-Haïtien 155,505.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–832.8 52.4%

–849.6 48.1%

–1,112.1 52.1%

–1,096.0 51.2%

–1,617.6 62.3%

–1,445.2 56.8%

Imports (2009): U.S.$2,142,800,000 (diverse manufactured goods 27.5%, food 22.6%, mineral fuels 17.9%, machinery and transport equipment 9.2%). Major import sources (2008): U.S. c. 34%; Dominican Republic c. 23%; Netherlands Antilles c. 11%; China c. 5%. Exports (2009): U.S.$550,400,000 (reassembled manufactures [mostly wearing apparel] 89.3%, mangoes 1.9%, essential oils [mostly vetiver] 1.8%, cacao 1.4%). Major export destinations (2008): U.S. c. 70%; Dominican Republic c. 9%; Canada c. 3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroad: none. Roads (2000): total length 2,585 mi, 4,160 km (paved 24%). Vehicles (1999): passenger cars 93,000; trucks and buses 61,600. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

60

7.2

2009 2009

3,64818 108

36418 11

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

499 2017 1,000 —

units per 1,000 persons 52 2.217 100 —

Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2007): 27.9 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2007): 9.2 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 3.50. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 59.1 years; female 62.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2003)7: diseases of the circulatory system c. 175; infectious and parasitic diseases c. 157; pneumonia and influenza c. 41; malignant neoplasms (cancers) c. 37; malnutrition c. 31. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 2.2%8 (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2008–09). Revenue: U.S.$1,206,000,000 (grants 40.8%, domestic taxes 40.1%, customs duties 18.2%, other 0.9%)9. Expenditures: U.S.$1,536,000,000 (current expenditure 52.2%, capital expenditure 47.8%). Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$6,464,000,000 (U.S.$660 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,180 per capita). 2007–08

Educational attainment (2000). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling or unknown 46.1%; incomplete primary education 28.9%; primary 5.3%; incomplete secondary 15.6%; secondary 1.8%; higher 2.3%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 53%19. Education (2005–06) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

… … 92020

… … 12,48220

… … 13.620

… … … (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (1999) 1,910 (1 per 4,000 persons); hospital beds (2000) 6,431 (1 per 1,234 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 71.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 5,400,000 (58% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,860 calories).

Military

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

TOTAL

2005

86.4

population sq km 4,984 3,675 2,091 1,219 2,106 1,805 2,176 4,827 2,794 2,023 27,7003

Demography

Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Services Pub. admin., defense } Other

2004

70.4

Public debt (external, outstanding; March 2010): U.S.$1,467,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2003) 4.6; sources of income (2001): self-employment 37%, transfers 25%, wages 20%, self-consumption 11%; expenditure (1996)15: food/beverages/tobacco 49.4%, housing/energy 9.1%, transportation 8.7%, clothing/footwear 8.5%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 279; remittances (2009) 1,323; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 48; official development assistance (2008) 912. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 64; remittances (2008) 96. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 32.7%, in permanent crops 10.9%, in pasture 17.8%, forest area 3.8%.

Area and population Departments Artibonite Centre Grand’Anse Nippes Nord Nord-Est Nord-Ouest Ouest Sud Sud-Est

2003 Consumer price index

Total active duty personnel:

2003

in value G ’000,00010

% of total value

labour force11

3,204 16 1,029 1,085 52 967 3,868 1,653

23.4 0.1 7.5 7.9 0.4 7.1 28.2 12.1

… … … … … … … …

45.7 0.3 6.5 2.7 0.2 2.1 29.2 1.6

1,514

11.0

…

11.7

31312 13,701

2.312 100.0

… …

… 100.0

21, 22.

% of labour force11

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava (manioc) 435,000, bananas 295,000, mangoes/mangosteens/guavas 295,000, yams 235,000, sweet potatoes 230,000, plantains 200,000, rice 110,000, dry beans 65,000, avocados 58,000, cattle meat 42,000, coffee 35,000, cacao 8,000; livestock (number of live animals) 1,455,000 cattle, 1,001,000 pigs; roundwood 2,263,400 cu m, of which fuelwood 89%; fisheries production 10,000 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2009): sand 2,000,000 cu m. Manufacturing (export value in U.S.$’000; 2009–10): reassembled manufactures (mostly wearing apparel) 191,620; essential oils (mostly vetiver) 4,960; not reassembled clothing/textiles 2,931. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 469,000,000 (469,000,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (732,000).

1Roman

Catholicism has special recognition per concordat with the Vatican; Vodou (Voodoo) became officially sanctioned per governmental decree of April 2003. 2Per Haitian Chamber of Commerce. 3Approximate figure. Includes four offshore islands totaling about 382 sq mi (989 sq km) in area; excludes the 2.1 sq mi (5.4 sq km) Navassa (Navase) Island, which is administered by the U.S. but also claimed by Haiti. 4Roughly 275,000 people were killed in the January 2010 earthquake; 1.3 million people were displaced in September 2010. 5About 80% of all Roman Catholics also practice voodoo. 6Within Port-au-Prince metropolitan area. 7Projected rates based on c. 9% of total deaths. 8Statistically derived midpoint within range. 9Donor pledges in response to 2010 earthquake (for 2009–10): humanitarian aid U.S.$3,047,000,000; recovery and reconstruction assistance U.S.$3,407,000,000. 10At prices of 1986–87. 11Based on national survey. 12Import duties less imputed bank service charges. 13ILO estimate. 14Unofficial estimate (2009) is c. 70%. 15Weights of consumer price index components. 16Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 17Circulation. 18Subscribers. 19Haiti uses Haitian Creole literacy rate rather than French literacy rate. 20Combined figures for the State University and Quisqueya University. 21The Haitian army was disbanded in 1995. The national police force had 2,000 personnel in late 2009. 22UN peacekeepers (August 2010): 8,800 troops, 3,100 police.

Internet resources for further information: • IHSI http://www.ihsi.ht/produit_economie_comptes_na_pib.htm • Banque de la République d’Haïti http://www.brh.net

596

Britannica World Data

Honduras

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$13,624,000,000 (U.S.$1,820 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$3,730 per capita).

Official name: República de Honduras (Republic of Honduras). Form of government: multiparty republic1 with one legislative house (National Congress [128]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Tegucigalpa. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: lempira (L); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = L 18.90; 1 £ = L 29.20.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

area

Administrative centres

Atlántida Choluteca Colón Comayagua Copán Cortés El Paraíso Francisco Morazán Gracias a Dios Intibucá Islas de la Bahía La Paz Lempira Ocotepeque Olancho Santa Bárbara Valle Yoro

La Ceiba Choluteca Trujillo Comayagua Santa Rosa de Copán San Pedro Sula Yuscarán Tegucigalpa Puerto Lempira La Esperanza Roatán La Paz Gracias Nueva Ocotepeque Juticalpa Santa Bárbara Nacaome Yoro

sq mi 1,688 1,515 1,683 3,185 1,978 1,252 2,892 3,328 6,563 1,206 91 975 1,632 629 9,230 1,940 643 3,004 43,4332

TOTAL

population 2001 census

sq km 4,372 3,923 4,360 8,249 5,124 3,242 7,489 8,619 16,997 3,123 236 2,525 4,228 1,630 23,905 5,024 1,665 7,781 112,492

344,099 390,805 246,708 352,881 288,766 1,202,510 350,054 1,180,676 67,384 179,862 38,073 156,560 250,067 108,029 419,561 342,054 151,841 465,414 6,535,344

Demography Population (2010): 7,616,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 175.4, persons per sq km 67.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 50.8%; rural 49.2%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.95%; female 50.05%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 40.5%; 15–29, 29.2%; 30–44, 16.7%; 45–59, 8.6%; 60–74, 3.9%; 75 and over, 1.1%. Population projection: (2020) 9,136,000; (2030) 10,492,000. Ethnic composition (2000): mestizo 86.6%; Amerindian 5.5%; black (including Black Carib) 4.3%; white 2.3%; other 1.3%. Religious affiliation (2002): Roman Catholic c. 63%; Evangelical Protestant c. 23%; other c. 14%. Major cities (2009): Tegucigalpa 990,600; San Pedro Sula 646,300; Choloma 223,900; La Ceiba 172,900; El Progreso 122,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 27.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.0 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 3.2. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2000–02): 1.0/n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 70.1 years; female 74.9 years. Major causes of death (percent of total; 2000–02): diseases of the circulatory system 23.6%; accidents and violence 21.3%; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 12.2%; diseases of the respiratory system 10.9%.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: L 52,343,000,000 (tax revenue 80.5%; nontax revenue 8.5%; grants 11.0%). Expenditures: L 58,650,000,000 (current expenditure 78.7%, of which wages and salaries 41.8%; capital expenditure 21.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; January 2009): U.S.$2,900,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 6,203,136, oil palm fruit 1,526,000, bananas 690,625, corn (maize) 587,235, oranges 270,096, cantaloupes 229,912, coffee 205,800, pineapples 135,186, plantains 71,484; livestock (number of live animals) 2,697,581 cattle, 424,819 pigs, 38,645,000 chickens; roundwood 9,278,800 cu m, of which fuelwood 93%; fisheries production (2008) 59,984 (from aquaculture 78%). Mining and quarrying (2007): zinc (metal content) 38,000; silver 50,000 kg; gypsum (2008) 5,500; gold 4,100 kg. Manufacturing (value added in L ’000,000; 2008): food, beverages, and tobacco 21,997; textiles and wearing apparel 15,624; fabricated metal products 4,905. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 6,589,300,000 (6,589,300,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (201,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (2,476,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 621; remittances (2009) 2,553; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 787; official development assistance (2008) 564. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 344; remittances (2008) 2.0; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 1.3. Population economically active (2006): total 2,811,800; activity rate of total population 40.0% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 60.0%; female 34.7%; officially unemployed [2008] 3.5%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Earnings index3

% of total value

labour force

31,192 1,990 46,674 15,943 3,348 19,959 42,691 45,138 19,257 38,517 5,8344 270,543

11.5 0.7 17.3 5.9 1.2 7.4 15.8 16.7 7.1 14.2 2.24 100.0

1,161,800 8,100 411,500 205,800 11,800 104,500 692,800 95,400

Agriculture Mining, quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other

Area and population Departments

in value L ’000,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

85.0 93.7

91.9 94.5

100.0 100.0

105.5 105.1

112.9 108.0

125.8 108.2

132.7 …

TOTAL

}

% of labour force 37.1 0.3 13.1 6.6 0.4 3.3 22.1 3.0

443,7005

14.25

3,135,400

100.02

Household income and expenditure (2004). Average household size (2006) 4.8; average annual income per household L 85,860 (U.S.$4,716); sources of income: wages and salaries c. 51%, self-employment c. 34%, remittances c. 8%, other c. 7%; expenditure (December 1999)6: food and nonalcoholic beverages 32%, housing and energy 19%, transportation 9%, clothing 8%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 9.5%, in permanent crops 3.2%, in pasture 15.2%, forest area 38.7%.

Foreign trade7, 8 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–1,020 12.0%

–1,293 12.5%

–1,497 12.9%

–2,027 16.1%

–3,104 21.2%

–4,052 23.9%

Imports (2008): U.S.$11,170,000,000 (goods for reassembly 21.0%, of which textiles 16.7%; mineral fuels 17.8%; machinery and apparatus 14.3%; chemicals and chemical products 13.9%; food products 11.8%). Major import sources: U.S. 48.8%; Guatemala 7.2%; El Salvador 5.8%; Mexico 4.5%; Panama 3.4%. Exports (2008): U.S.$6,199,000,000 (reassembled goods 57.4%, of which garments incl. knitwear 44.8%; coffee 10.1%; bananas 6.2%; palm oil 3.0%). Major export destinations: U.S. 61.2%; El Salvador 8.2%; Nicaragua 7.3%; Guatemala 3.3%; Mexico 2.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): serviceable lines 47 mi, 75 km; most tracks are out of use but not dismantled. Roads (2008): total length 8,848 mi, 14,239 km (paved 22%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 224,628; trucks and buses 490,956. Air transport: n.a.9 Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

1,000

2009 2009

7,71411 830

units per 1,000 persons 143 1,03311 111

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

143 19010 732 —

units per 1,000 persons 20 3910 98 —

Education and health Educational attainment (2005–06)12. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling/unknown 16.7%; incomplete primary education 37.0%; complete primary 22.7%; secondary 17.6%; higher 6.0%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 83.1%; males literate 82.4%; females literate 83.7%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary

38,283 18,155 5,262

students 1,276,495 566,938 147,740

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

33.3 31.2 28.1

97 … 19 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2006) 5,977 (1 per 1,176 persons); hospital beds (2008) 6,929 (1 per 1,056 persons); infant mortality rate (2007) 20.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 850,000 (12% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,720 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 12,000 (army 69.2%, navy 11.7%, air force 19.1%); reserve 60,000; U.S. troops (September 2009) 416. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.7%; per capita expenditure U.S.$14. 1An interim regime supported by the military held power from June 28, 2009, to Jan. 27, 2010, when a democratically elected president was installed. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Minimum wage. 4Taxes and import duties less imputed bank service charges. 5Includes official unemployment figures; unofficial estimates of unemployment are significantly higher. 6Weights of consumer price index components. 7Import figures are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 8All figures include goods reassembled for export. 9Honduras did not have a national airline in 2009. 10Circulation of daily newspapers. 11Subscribers. 12Based on the Encuesta Nacional de Demografía y Salud 2005–06.

Internet resources for further information: • Banco Central de Honduras http://www.bch.hn • Instituto Nacional de Estadística http://www.ine-hn.org

Nations of the World

Hong Kong

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 15,043; remittances (2008) 355; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 54,137. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 15,888; remittances (2008) 394; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 54,644. Population economically active (2008): total 3,648,9008; activity rate of total population 52.3% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 70.2%; female 46.5%; unemployed [March–May 2009] 5.3%).

Official name: Xianggang Tebie Xingzhengqu (Chinese); Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (English). Political status: special administrative region of China with one legislative house (Legislative Council [601]). Head of state: President of China. Head of government: Chief Executive. Government offices: 2. Official languages: Chinese; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Hong Kong dollar (HK$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = HK$7.78; 1 £ = HK$12.01.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Average earnings index9

area

Hong Kong Island Kowloon New Territories (mainland) New Territories (islands4) marine TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

2006 by-census

31 18 289 88 — 426

81 47 748 228 — 1,104

1,268,112 2,019,533 3,436,513 137,122 3,066 6,864,346

U.S.$’000,000,000 % of total

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.7 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.7 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.06. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 7.0/2.7. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 79.8 years; female 86.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 183.2; diseases of the circulatory system 140.7; pneumonia 74.8; chronic lower respiratory diseases 27.2.

National economy Budget (2007–08). Revenue: HK$358,465,000,000 (earnings and profits taxes 37.3%; indirect taxes 26.9%; capital revenue 22.9%; other 12.9%). Expenditures: HK$252,400,000,000 (education 21.3%; social welfare 13.8%; health 13.3%; police 11.1%; housing 5.7%; economic services 5.3%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 20075): U.S.$1,673,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$219,255,000,000 (U.S.$31,420 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$43,960 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

TOTAL

824 96 38,710 47,922 38,421 120,647 442,454

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

99.1 99.9

100.0 100.0

102.1 103.3

104.1 106.1

108.6 111.2

109.2 108.9

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population (2010): 7,045,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 16,538, persons per sq km 6,381. Urban-rural (2009): urban 100.0%. Sex distribution (2009): male 47.06%; female 52.94%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 12.5%; 15–29, 20.4%; 30–44, 24.5%; 45–59, 25.0%; 60–74, 11.3%; 75–84, 4.7%; 85 and over, 1.6%. Population projection: (2020) 7,675,000; (2030) 8,157,000. Ethnic composition (2006): Chinese 95.0%; Filipino 1.6%; Indonesian 1.3%; assorted Caucasian 0.5%; Indian 0.3%; Nepalese 0.2%; other 1.1%. Religious affiliation (2002): nonreligious/non-practitioner of religion c. 57%; Protestant c. 4.5%; Roman Catholic c. 3.5%; Muslim c. 1.5%; remainder (mostly Buddhist, Taoist, or Confucianist) 33.5%. Major built-up areas (2006): Kowloon 2,019,533; Victoria 981,714; Tuen Mun 488,249; Sha Tin 425,140; Tseung Kwan O 344,872.

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance, insurance, and real estate Pub. admin., defense, and services Other

2004

Foreign trade11

Demography

in value HK$’000,000

2003 99.5 110.3

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 3.0; median annual income per household (2001) HK$224,500 (U.S.$28,800); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2001): housing and energy 22.2%, clothing and footwear 15.2%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 13.5%, household furnishings 12.6%, transportation 11.0%. Land use as % of total land area (2000): in temporary and permanent crops 5.4%, in pasture 29.3%10; overall forest area 18.0%.

Area and population Geographic areas3

597

% of total value

labour force

0.1 — 2.3 2.9 2.3 7.2 26.4

11,003 — 168,710 278,738 11,003 385,098 1,224,978

418,389

25.0

279,909 265,4256 1,675,1717

16.7 15.86 100.07

% of labour force 0.3 — 4.6 7.6 0.3 10.5 33.4

612,489

16.7

975,581 … 3,667,600

26.6 … 100.0

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–7.4 1.4%

–8.0 1.4%

–13.1 2.0%

–20.7 2.9%

–22.7 3.0%

–28.8 4.3%

Imports (2008): U.S.$392,962,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 51.9%, of which electronic integrated circuits/microassemblies 13.2%, telecommunications equipment/parts 10.6%, computers/office machines/parts 9.0%; garments 4.7%; video games/toys/sporting goods 3.6%; diamonds 3.1%; food 3.0%). Major import sources: China 46.1%; Japan 10.0%; Singapore 6.4%; Taiwan 6.3%; U.S. 5.0%. Exports (2008): U.S.$370,242,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 54.4%, of which telecommunications equipment/parts 13.4%, electronic integrated circuits/microassemblies 11.7%, computers/office machines/parts 10.0%; garments 7.5%; video games/toys/sporting goods 4.2%). Major export destinations: China 48.2%; U.S. 12.5%; Japan 4.3%; Germany 3.3%; U.K. 2.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2009): route length 130 mi, 210 km12; passenger-km 4,731,000,00013; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Roads (2008): total length 1,268 mi, 2,040 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 401,000; trucks and buses 128,000. Air transport (2008)14: passenger-km 90,975,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 8,592,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

3,467

507

2009 2009

12,20716 4,188

1,73816 597

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s 4,751 2,20015 4,300 2,06116

686 35515 612 29316

Education and health Educational attainment (2008). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 5.4%; primary education 18.2%; secondary 46.3%; matriculation 5.4%; nondegree higher 8.2%; higher degree 16.5%. Literacy (2000): total population age 15 and over literate 93.5%; males literate 96.5%; females literate 90.2%. Education (2006–07) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

24,468 30,334 …

414,501 540,898 157,858

16.9 17.8 …

9117 79 34 (age 19–23)

Health (2008): physicians 12,21518, 19 (1 per 571 persons); hospital beds 35,048 (1 per 199 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 1.7; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): c. 5,000 troops of Chinese military (including elements of army, navy, and air force); Hong Kong residents are exempted from military service.

1Thirty

seats are directly elected by ordinary voters, and the remaining 30 are elected by special interest groups. 2On Hong Kong Island in historic capital area of Victoria. 18 districts of Hong Kong have no administrative function. District councils advise the government on local matters. 4Primarily Lantau. 5January 1. 6Includes ownership of premises and taxes on production and imports. 7Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 8Does not include unemployed not previously employed. 9Manufacturing sector only. 10Represents grassland that may not be grazed. 11Imports are c.i.f., exports f.o.b. 12Excludes 36 km of light rail and 16 km of tramway. 13Data for Kowloon–Canton Railway part of MTR (Mass Transit Railway). 14Cathay Pacific and Dragonair only. 15Circulation of daily newspapers. 16Subscribers. 172005–06. 18Registered personnel; all may not be present and working in the country. 19There were an additional 5,860 practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine in Hong Kong at the beginning of 2006. 3The

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): vegetables 16,400, fruits 1,395, eggs 2,894,000 units, cut flowers are also produced; livestock (number of live animals) 87,240 pigs, 4,664,000 chickens; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 162,800 (from aquaculture 3%). Quarrying (2006): stone/aggregates 6,000,000. Manufacturing (value added in HK$’000,000; 2007): publishing and printed materials 13,689; food 6,346; transport equipment 4,203; textiles 3,222; wearing apparel 2,211; chemicals and chemical products 2,080; electronic parts and components 1,817; machinery and apparatus 1,688. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kWhr; 2007) 38,948,000,000 (45,872,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) none (11,872,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (3,482,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) none (2,006,000,000).

units per 1,000 persons

Internet resources for further information: • Census and Statistics Department http://www.censtatd.gov.hk • Hong Kong Government site http://www.gov.hk/en/residents/

598

Britannica World Data

Hungary

Population economically active (2009): total 4,202,600; activity rate of total population 41.9% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 61.6%; female 45.8%; unemployed [July 2009–June 2010] 11.0%).

Official name: Magyar Köztársaság (Republic of Hungary). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [386]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Budapest. Official language: Hungarian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: forint (Ft); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Ft 221.90; 1 £ = Ft 342.79.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

Capitals Kecskemét Pécs Bekéscsaba Miskolc Szeged Székesfehérvár Györ Debrecen Eger Szolnok Tatabánya Salgótarján Budapest 2 Kaposvár Nyíregyháza Szekszárd Szombathely Veszprém Zalaegerszeg

Capital city Budapest2 TOTAL

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

96.6 91.9

100.0 100.0

103.9 107.8

112.1 111.0

118.9 117.8

123.9 122.8

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 in value Ft ’000,000 area

Bács-Kiskun Baranya Békés Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén Csongrád Fejér Györ-Moson-Sopron Hajdú-Bihar Heves Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok Komárom-Esztergom Nógrád Pest Somogy Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg Tolna Vas Veszprém Zala

2004

90.4 84.7

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$130,114,000,000 (U.S.$12,980 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$18,570 per capita).

Area and population Counties

2003 Consumer price index Annual earnings index

sq mi

population sq km

20101 estimate

3,261 1,710 2,174 2,798 1,646 1,683 1,579 2,398 1,404 2,155 875 982 2,468 2,331 2,292 1,430 1,288 1,781 1,461

8,445 4,430 5,631 7,247 4,263 4,359 4,089 6,211 3,637 5,582 2,265 2,544 6,393 6,036 5,937 3,703 3,336 4,613 3,784

528,418 393,758 366,556 692,771 423,240 427,416 448,435 541,298 311,454 390,775 312,431 204,917 1,229,880 320,578 560,429 233,650 259,364 358,807 288,591

203 35,919

525 93,030

1,721,556 10,014,324

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Public administration Services Other TOTAL

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

2.8 0.2 2.9 18.1 3.7 6.7 11.2 19.9 7.6 11.7 15.33 100.05

175,800 8,500 84,100 794,600 293,300 345,300 702,000 369,800 304,700 617,100 507,4004 4,202,600

4.2 0.2 2.0 18.9 7.0 8.2 16.7 8.8 7.2 14.7 12.14 100.0

730,253 54,905 749,184 4,710,845 976,749 1,735,593 2,909,425 5,185,718 1,975,058 3,041,402 3,985,1953 26,054,327

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (20091) 2.3; income per household6 (2001) Ft 2,898,000 (U.S.$10,300); sources of income (2007): wages 52.1%, transfers 28.8%, self-employment 11.7%; expenditure (2008): transportation and communications 19.5%, housing and energy 19.3%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 17.5%.

Foreign trade7 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 10,005,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 278.5, persons per sq km 107.5. Urban-rural (2009): urban 67.7%; rural 32.3%. Sex distribution (20101): male 47.50%; female 52.50%. Age breakdown (20091): under 15, 14.9%; 15–29, 19.8%; 30–44, 22.4%; 45–59, 20.8%; 60–74, 14.9%; 75–84, 5.7%; 85 and over, 1.5%. Population projection: (2020) 9,875,000; (2030) 9,633,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Hungarian 84.4%; Rom 5.3%; Ruthenian 2.9%; German 2.4%; Romanian 1.0%; Slovak 0.9%; Jewish 0.6%; other 2.5%. Religious affiliation (2001): Roman Catholic 51.9%; Reformed 15.9%; Lutheran 3.0%; Greek Catholic 2.6%; Jewish 0.1%; nonreligious 14.5%; other/unknown 12.0%. Major cities (20101): Budapest 1,721,556; Debrecen 207,270; Szeged 169,713; Miskolc 169,226; Pécs 157,680.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.6 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 59.2%; outside of marriage 40.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 13.0 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.33. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 3.7/2.4. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 70.1 years; female 77.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 645.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 326.5; diseases of the digestive system 84.4; accidents, poisoning, and violence 73.3.

National economy Budget (2006). Revenue: Ft 8,653,000,000,000 (social security contributions 34.6%; taxes on goods and services 34.0%; personal income taxes 13.2%). Expenditures: Ft 10,710,700,000,000 (social protection 38.0%; economic affairs 12.5%; health 11.6%; public debt 8.6%; education 8.6%; defense 3.1%). Public debt (20101): U.S.$116,800,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): corn (maize) 7,528,380, wheat 4,419,163, sunflower seeds 1,256,185, sugar beets 737,014, rapeseed 579,365, apples 575,368, Hungarian red paprika (2006) 32,633; livestock (number of live animals) 3,383,000 pigs, 1,236,000 sheep, 701,000 cattle; roundwood 5,244,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 55%; fisheries production (2008) 23,081 (from aquaculture 68%). Mining and quarrying (2008): bauxite 511,000. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): transportation equipment 2,976; chemical products 2,247; electrical machinery and apparatus 2,153; electronics 1,910. Energy production (consumption): electricity (’000,000 kW-hr; 2009–10) 30,056 ([2008] 37,400); hard coal (’000 metric tons; 2007) none (1,965); lignite (’000 metric tons; 2008) 9,333 ([2007] 10,088); crude petroleum (’000 barrels; 2009) 4,937 (57,743); petroleum products (’000 metric tons; 2007) 6,418 (6,485); natural gas (’000,000 cu m; 2009) 5,758 (11,320). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 6,033; remittances (2009) 2,290; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 42,634. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 4,037; remittances (2008) 1,562; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 39,905. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 47.4%, left fallow 3.7%, in permanent crops 2.2%, in pasture 11.5%, forest area 22.4%.

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

20098

–4,780 4.1%

–3,648 2.8%

–2,923 1.9%

–69 0.0%

–574 0.3%

–1,068 0.8%

Imports (2008): U.S.$108,785,000,000 (electrical machinery/electronic devices 12.9%; nonelectrical machinery 12.2%; mineral fuels 8.5%; telecommunications equipment 8.4%; road vehicles 8.1%). Major import sources: Germany 25.5%; Russia 9.3%; Austria 6.2%; China 5.6%; Neth. 4.5%. Exports (2008): U.S.$108,211,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 46.1%, of which telecommunications equipment 11.6%, electrical machinery 9.6%, road vehicles/parts 10.8%; food 6.0%). Major export destinations: Germany 26.7%; Italy 5.3%; Romania 5.3%; Austria 4.9%; Slovakia 4.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2009): route length (2008) 5,006 mi, 8,057 km; passengerkm 8,073,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,663,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 99,455 mi, 160,057 km (paved 44%); passenger-km (2006) 64,900,000,0009; metric ton-km cargo (2009) 35,373,000,000. Vehicles (20101): passenger cars 3,013,719; trucks and buses 437,136. Air transport (2009)10: passenger-km 3,654,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 9,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

4,810

475

2009 2009

11,79312 3,069

1,18012 307

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2,574 1,23911 6,176 1,88012

256 12411 618 18812

Education and health Educational attainment (2008). Population age 25–64 having: no formal schooling through primary education 2%; lower-secondary 19%; upper secondary/higher vocational 60%; university 18%; unknown 1%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 7–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

37,844 90,423 23,634

394,246 924,414 413,715

10.4 10.2 17.5

90 91 65 (age 19–23)

Health (2008): physicians 31,024 (1 per 324 persons); hospital beds 70,714 (1 per 142 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 5.1; undernourished population (2004–06) n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 29,450 (army 37.2%, air force 19.2%, joint staff 43.6%); reserves 44,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$186. 1January 1. 2Budapest acts as the capital of Pest county even though it is administratively not part of Pest county. 3Taxes less subsidies on products. 4Includes 420,700 unemployed. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 6Adjusted disposable income including government transfers. 7Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 8Excludes December. 9Passenger cars 47,000,000,000; buses 17,900,000,000. 10Malév Hungarian Airlines only. 11Circulation of daily newspapers. 12Subscribers.

Internet resource for further information: • Hungarian Central Statistical Office http://portal.ksh.hu

Nations of the World

Iceland

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Official name: Lydhveldidh Ísland (Republic of Iceland). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Althingi, or Parliament [63]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Reykjavík. Official language: Icelandic. Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran. Monetary unit: króna (ISK); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = ISK 119.65; 1 £ = ISK 184.84.

Agriculture Fishing Mining, quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Services } Public administration Other

area

population

Principal centres

sq mi

sq km

20091 estimate

Capital region3 East Northeast Northwest South Southwest West Westfjords

Reykjavík Egilsstadhir Akureyri Saudhárkrókur Selfoss Keflavík Borgarnes Ísafjördhur —

410 8,773 8,482 4,918 9,469 320 3,689 3,633 75 39,769

1,062 22,721 21,968 12,737 24,526 829 9,554 9,409 194 103,000

201,251 12,849 29,081 7,401 24,150 21,544 15,707 7,385 0 319,368

Population (2010): 317,000. Density (2010)4: persons per sq mi 34.5, persons per sq km 13.3. Urban-rural (20081): urban 93.1%; rural 6.9%. Sex distribution (2010): male 50.26%; female 49.74%. Age breakdown (2010): under 15, 20.9%; 15–29, 22.1%; 30–44, 20.6%; 45–59, 19.4%; 60–74, 11.2%; 75–84, 4.3%; 85 and over, 1.5%. Population projection: (2020) 342,000; (2030) 370,000. Ethnic composition (20091)5: Icelandic 92.4%; European 6.4%, of which Polish 3.4%, Nordic 0.5%; Asian 0.7%; other 0.5%. Religious affiliation (2010): Evangelical Lutheran 79.2%; Roman Catholic 3.0%; other Christian 6.9%; nonreligious/other 10.9%. Major cities (2010): Reykjavík 118,488 (urban area 201,300); Kópavogur 30,5466; Hafnarfjördhur 25,9376; Akureyri 17,733; Gardhabær 10,7376.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 15.7 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 35.9%; outside of marriage 64.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 6.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.4 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.22. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 4.6/1.7. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 79.7 years; female 83.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): diseases of the circulatory system 228.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 176.0; diseases of the respiratory system 54.8; diseases of the nervous system 51.4; accidents 36.9.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: ISK 454,588,000,000 (tax revenue 78.4%, of which VAT 42.9%, individual income tax 31.5%; nontax revenue 21.6%). Expenditures: ISK 403,199,000,000 (social security and health 48.8%; education 10.6%; social affairs 9.4%; interest payment 6.9%). Public debt (December 2008): U.S.$9,906,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): potatoes 12,500, tomatoes 1,621, cucumbers 1,516, hay 2,091,688 cu m; livestock (number of live animals) 457,861 sheep, 72,012 cattle, 33,806 mink; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production (value in ISK ’000,000): 115,454, of which cod 36,901, haddock 15,391, redfish 10,011, saithe 7,813, herring 3,641, blue whiting 2,707; fisheries production by tonnage 1,129,621 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2007): pumice 95,000. Manufacturing (value of sales in ISK ’000,000; 2008): base metals (nearly all aluminum and ferrosilicon) 196,547; preserved and processed fish 162,252; other food products and beverages 72,049; cement, bricks, and ceramics 17,742; fabricated metal products 14,992. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 16,468,000,000 (16,468,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (138,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008) none (849,000); natural gas, none (none). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 624; remittances (2009) 23; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 2,552. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,103; remittances (2008) 100; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 2,380. Population economically active (2007): total 181,500; activity rate of total population 58.3% (participation rates: ages 16–64, 87.7%; female 45.5%; unemployed [April–June 2009] 9.1%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.4 88.0

96.0 93.3

100.0 100.0

106.7 109.8

112.1 119.2

126.3 129.1

141.4 133.8

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$13,789,000,000 (U.S.$43,220 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$33,390 per capita).

1.2 4.2 0.1 9.8 9.2 4.1 6.8 9.9 23.2

287.1

19.5

177.27 1,476.5

12.07 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

6,000 4,500

3.3 2.5

19,200

10.6

15,700 1,700 11,100 31,600 25,900 52,100 8,900 4,8008 181,500

8.7 0.9 6.1 17.4 14.3 28.7 4.9 2.68 100.0

}

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 2.5; annual employment income per household (2008) ISK 3,673,000 (U.S.$41,600); sources of income (2001): wages and salaries 78.6%, pension 10.3%, selfemployment 2.0%, other 9.1%; expenditure (2005–07): housing and energy 25.7%, transportation and communications 20.6%, recreation, education, and culture 13.3%, food 11.8%, household furnishings 6.6%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, left fallow, or in permanent crops 0.07%; in pasture 22.7%; forest area 0.5%.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) ISK ’000,000 % of total

Demography

% of total value

18.2 62.4 1.3 144.2 136.4 59.8 100.1 146.8 343.0

TOTAL

Geographic regions2

Consumer price index Annual earnings index

2007

in value ISK ’000,000,000

Area and population

REMAINDER TOTAL

599

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–37,787 8.5%

–94,539 19.6%

–158,461 24.6%

–92,145 13.1%

–6,665 0.7%

+87,192 9.6%

Imports (2008): ISK 542,279,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 21.3%, refined petroleum 11.2%, alumina 10.3%, road vehicles 7.1%, food products 7.0%, aircraft/parts 3.5%). Major import sources: Norway 11.2%; Germany 10.3%; Sweden 9.0%; U.S. 8.0%; Denmark 7.3%; China 6.6%. Exports (2008): ISK 470,997,000,000 (aluminum 39.0%, fresh fish 21.7%, dried/salted fish 8.0%, aircraft 6.1%, fish foodstuff for animals 3.0%, ferrosilicon 2.5%). Major export destinations: Netherlands 34.4%; U.K. 11.6%; Germany 11.3%; U.S. 5.6%; Japan 4.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (20091): total length 7,996 mi, 12,869 km (paved 34%10); passenger-km (2006) 5,600,000,00011; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Vehicles (20091): passenger cars 209,740; trucks and buses 33,774. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 3,861,000,00012; metric ton-km cargo 143,000,00013. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

101

2009 2009

34915 185

units per 1,000 persons 345 1,08215 574

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

142 5014 302 10715

481 19914 935 33215

Education and health Educational attainment (2007): Percentage of population ages 25–64 having: primary education 3%; lower secondary 33%; upper secondary 23%; postsecondary non-tertiary 11%; higher vocational 4%; university 25%; advanced degree 1%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Education (2005–06) Primary (age 6–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–19) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

2,903 3,144 1,865

30,421 33,900 15,721

10.5 10.8 8.4

98 90 73 (age 20–24)

Health: physicians (2009) 1,190 (1 per 268 persons); hospital beds (2002) 2,162 (1 per 133 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 2.5; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 130 coast guard (paramilitary) personnel; Iceland has no military.16 Coast guard expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$140.

1January 1. 2Actual local administration is based on 78 municipalities. 3Includes municipalities adjacent to Reykjavík. 4Population density calculated with reference to 9,191 sq mi (23,805 sq km) area free of glaciers (covering 4,603 sq mi [11,922 sq km]), lava fields or wasteland (covering 24,918 sq mi [64,538 sq km]), and lakes (covering 1,064 sq mi [2,757 sq km]). 5By citizenship. 6Within Reykjavík urban area. 7Taxes on products less subsidies. 8Includes 4,200 unemployed. 9Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 10Includes oil-gravelled roads. 11Pass. cars 5,000,000,000; buses 600,000,000. 12Icelandair and Air Iceland. 13Icelandair only. 14Circulation of daily newspapers. 15Subscribers. 16NATO members (from July 2007) police Icelandic airspace.

Internet resources for further information: • Statistics Iceland http://www.statice.is • Central Bank of Iceland http://www.sedlabanki.is

600

Britannica World Data 1.18%; Bhili/Bhilodi 0.93%14; Santhali 0.63%; Kashmiri 0.54%; Nepali 0.28%; Gondi 0.26%14; Sindhi 0.25%; Konkani 0.24%; Dogri 0.22%; Khandeshi 0.20%14; Tulu 0.17%14; Kurukh/Oraon 0.17%14; Manipuri 0.14%; Bodo 0.13%; Khasi 0.11%14; Mundari 0.10%14; Ho 0.10%14; Sanskrit 0.0013%; other c. 1.41%. Hindi (roughly 66%) and English (roughly 33%) are also spoken as lingua francas. Castes/tribes (2001): number of Scheduled Castes (formerly referred to as “Untouchables”) 166,635,700; number of Scheduled Tribes (aboriginal peoples) 84,326,240. Religious affiliation (2005): Hindu 72.04%; Muslim 12.26%, of which Sunni 8.06%, Shi(i 4.20%; Christian 6.81%, of which Independent 3.23%, Protestant 1.74%, Roman Catholic 1.62%, Orthodox 0.22%; traditional beliefs 3.83%; Sikh 1.87%; Buddhist 0.67%; Jain 0.51%; Baha)i 0.17%; Zoroastrian (Parsi) 0.02%15; nonreligious 1.22%; atheist 0.17%; remainder 0.43%. Households (2001). Total number of households 193,579,954. Average household size 5.3. Type of household: permanent 51.8%; semipermanent 30.0%; temporary 18.2%. Average number of rooms per household 2.2; 1 room 38.4%, 2 rooms 30.0%, 3 rooms 14.3%, 4 rooms 7.5%, 5 rooms 2.9%, 6 or more rooms 3.7%, unspecified number of rooms 3.2%.

India Official name: Bharat (Hindi); Republic of India (English). Form of government: multiparty federal republic with two legislative houses (Council of States [2451]; House of the People [5452]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: New Delhi. Official languages: Hindi; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Indian rupee (Re, plural Rs3); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Rs 46.81; 1 £ = Rs 72.31. Area and population area States Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa (Odisha) Punjab Rajasthan Sikkim Tamil Nadu Tripura Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal

Capitals Hyderabad Itanagar Dispur Patna Raipur Panaji Gandhinagar Chandigarh Shimla Srinagar Ranchi Bangalore (Bengaluru) Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) Bhopal Mumbai (Bombay) Imphal Shillong Aizawl Kohima Bhubaneshwar Chandigarh Jaipur Gangtok Chennai (Madras) Agartala Lucknow Dehra Dun Kolkata (Calcutta)

Union Territories Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Lakshadweep Puducherry (Pondicherry)

Port Blair Chandigarh Silvassa Daman Kavaratti Puducherry (Pondicherry)

National Capital Territory Delhi

Delhi

TOTAL

population

sq mi 106,204 32,333 30,285 38,301 52,199 1,429 75,685 17,070 21,495 39,146 28,833 74,051

sq km 275,068 83,743 78,438 99,200 135,194 3,702 196,024 44,212 55,673 101,387 74,677 191,791

2008 projection4 82,180,000 1,200,000 29,929,000 93,823,000 23,646,000 1,628,000 56,408,000 23,772,000 6,550,000 12,366,000 30,010,000 57,399,000

15,005 119,016 118,800 8,621 8,660 8,139 6,401 60,119 19,445 132,139 2,740 50,216 4,049 93,933 19,739 34,267

38,863 308,252 307,690 22,327 22,429 21,081 16,579 155,707 50,362 342,239 7,096 130,058 10,486 243,286 51,125 88,752

34,232,000 69,279,000 106,894,000 2,627,000 2,536,000 980,000 2,187,000 39,899,000 26,591,000 64,641,000 594,000 66,396,000 3,510,000 190,891,000 9,497,000 87,869,000

3,185 44 190 43 12

8,249 114 491 112 32

411,000 1,063,000 262,000 188,000 69,000

190

492

1,074,000

573 1,222,5595, 6

1,483 3,166,4145

17,076,000 1,147,677,000

Demography Population (2010): 1,173,108,0007. Density (2010)5: persons per sq mi 959.6, persons per sq km 370.5. Urban-rural (2008): urban 29.0%; rural 71.0%. Sex distribution (2008): male 51.87%; female 48.13%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 30.9%; 15–29, 26.9%; 30–44, 21.2%; 45–59, 13.1%; 60–74, 6.4%; 75–84, 1.3%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 1,326,093,000; (2030) 1,460,743,000. Major cities (2009; urban agglomerations, 2009): Delhi 12,260,000 (22,157,000); Mumbai (Bombay) 13,920,000 (20,041,000); Kolkata (Calcutta) 5,080,000 (15,552,000); Chennai (Madras) 4,590,000 (7,547,000); Bangalore (Bengaluru) 5,310,000 (7,218,000); Hyderabad 4,030,000 (6,751,000); Ahmadabad 3,910,000 (5,717,000); Pune (Poona) 3,340,000 (5,002,000); Surat 3,230,000 (4,168,000); Kanpur 3,140,000 (3,364,000); Jaipur 3,100,000 (3,131,000); Lucknow 2,690,000 (2,873,000); Nagpur 2,400,000 (2,607,000); Patna 1,810,000 (2,321,000); Indore 1,810,000 (2,173,000); Vadodara 1,306,2278 (1,872,000); Bhopal 1,750,000 (1,843,000); Coimbatore 930,8828 (1,807,000); Ludhiana 1,700,000 (1,760,000); New Delhi9 302,3638. Other principal cities (2001) population Agra 1,275,134 Allahabad 975,393 Amritsar 966,862 Chandigarh 808,515 Faridabad 1,055,938 Ghaziabad 968,256 Guwahati 809,895 Gwalior 827,026 Howrah (Haora)10 1,007,532 Hubli-Dharwad 786,195 Jabalpur 932,484 Jodhpur 851,051

population Kalyan-Dombivali11 Madurai Meerut Mysuru (Mysore) Nashik (Nasik) PimpriChinchwad12 Rajkot Ranchi Shambajinagar (Aurangabad) Sholapur (Solapur)

1,193,512 928,869 1,068,772 755,379 1,077,236 1,012,472 967,476 847,093

population Srinagar Thane (Thana)11 Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) Tiruchirappalli Varanasi (Benares) Vijayawada Vishakhapatnam

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 22.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 8.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 14.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.80. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 63.0 years; female 67.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): infectious and parasitic diseases 420, of which HIV/AIDS 34; diseases of the circulatory system 268, of which ischemic heart disease 146; accidents, homicide, and other violence 100; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 71; chronic respiratory diseases 58. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2008): 0.4% (world avg. 0.8%). Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 48.1%; incomplete primary education 9.0%; complete primary 22.1%; secondary 13.7%; higher 7.1%.

Social indicators

Distribution of expenditure (2004–05) percentage of household expenditure by decile/quintile 1

2

3.6

4.5

3

1,091,918 851,282 982,904

873,311 872,478

Linguistic composition (2001)13: Hindi 41.03%; Bengali 8.11%; Telugu 7.19%; Marathi 6.99%; Tamil 5.91%; Urdu 5.01%; Gujarati 4.48%; Kannada 3.69%; Malayalam 3.21%; Oriya 3.21%; Punjabi 2.83%; Assamese 1.28%; Maithili

5

6

—14.9—

7

8

—20.4—

9 14.2

10 (highest) 31.1

Quality of working life. Average workweek (2006): 46.916. Rate of fatal injuries per 100,000 employees (2006) 3816. Agricultural workers in servitude (“debt bondage”) to creditors (early 1990s) 10–20%. Children ages 5–14 working as child labourers (2003): 35,000,000 (14% of age group). Percentage of population living below the poverty line (official estimate; 2009–10): 37.2%. Access to services (2005–06)17. Percentage of total (urban, rural) households having access to: electricity for lighting purposes 67.9% (93.1%, 55.7%), kerosene for lighting purposes (2001) 36.9% (8.3%, 46.6%), water closets 24.3% (50.8%, 11.4%), pit latrines 7.9% (7.0%, 8.6%), no latrines 55.3% (16.8%, 74.0%), closed drainage for waste water (2001) 12.5% (34.5%, 3.9%), open drainage for waste water (2001) 33.9% (43.4%, 30.3%), no drainage for waste water (2001) 53.6% (22.1%, 65.8%). Type of fuel used for cooking in households: firewood 54.4% (23.0%, 69.6%), LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) 24.7% (58.7%, 8.2%), dung 10.6% (2.8%, 14.4%), kerosene 3.2% (8.2%, 0.8%), coal 1.9% (4.3%, 0.8%). Source of drinking water: hand pump or tube well 42.8% (21.3%, 53.2%), piped water 24.5% (50.7%, 11.8%), well 9.3% (2.9%, 12.4%), river, canal, spring, public tank, pond, or lake 1.5% (0.8%, 1.8%). Social participation. Eligible voters participating in April/May 2009 national election: 63.2%. Trade union membership (2002) 24,601,58918. Social deviance (2008)19. Offense rate per 100,000 population for: theft 27.8; cruelty by husband 7.1; riots 5.8; molestation of women 3.5; murder 2.9; kidnapping/abduction 2.7, of which women/girls 2.0; rape 1.9; robbery 1.8; dowry deaths 0.7; dacoity (gang robbery) 0.4. Rate of suicide per 100,000 population (2007): 10.5. Material well-being (2005–06)17. Total (urban, rural) households possessing: television receivers 44.2% (73.2%, 30.1%), scooters, motorcycles, or mopeds 17.2% (30.5%, 10.8%), cars, jeeps, or vans 2.7% (6.1%, 1.0%). Households availing banking services (2001) 35.5% (49.5%, 30.1%). Agricultural households with access to credit (2008) 48.6%

National economy Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$1,356,085,000,000 (U.S.$1,170 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$3,230 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008–09

898,440 1,262,551 744,983 752,066

4

—11.3—

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. } Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services } Other TOTAL

1999–2000

in value Rs ’000,000,000

% of total value

8,618 1,254 7,804 4,370 795

17.5 2.5 15.8 8.9 1.6

12,467

25.3

6,912

14.0

7,112

14.4

49,332

100.0

labour force 190,940,000 2,260,000 40,790,000 14,950,000 1,150,000 13,650,000 37,540,000 4,620,000 30,840,000 … 26,580,00020 363,330,0006

% of labour force 52.6 0.6 11.2 4.1 0.3 3.8 10.3 1.3 8.5 … 7.320 100.0

601

Nations of the World Budget (2008–09). Revenue: Rs 9,009,530,000,000 (tax revenue 51.7%, of which corporate taxes 18.3%, income tax 10.0%, excise taxes 9.8%; capital revenue 37.6%; nontax revenue 10.7%). Expenditures: Rs 9,009,530,000,000 (current expenditure 89.2%, of which public debt payments 21.4%, subsidies 14.3%, defense 8.2%; capital expenditure 10.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$78,733,000,000. Production (in ’000 metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 285,029, cereals 246,774 (of which rice 131,274, wheat 80,680, corn [maize] 17,300, millet 8,590, sorghum 7,240), vegetables (2008) 89,218 (of which dry onions [2008] 13,565, tomatoes [2008] 10,303, eggplants [2008] 9,678, okra [2008] 4,179), fruits (2008) 67,209 (of which bananas [2008] 26,217, mangoes [2008] 13,64921, papayas [2008] 3,629, lemons and limes [2008] 2,429), water buffalo milk 60,900, cow’s milk 44,100, potatoes 34,391, soybeans 10,217, rapeseed 7,201, chickpeas 6,540, peanuts (groundnuts) 5,525, cotton lint 3,794, hen’s eggs 3,060, pigeon peas 2,470, jute (2008) 1,846, chilies and peppers (2008) 1,270, castor oil seed 1,098, sunflower seed 1,044, natural rubber (2008) 819, tea (2008) 805, garlic (2008) 645, sesame seed 601, tobacco (2008) 520, ginger 380, safflower seed 189, anise, badian, fennel, and coriander 110; livestock (number of live animals) 172,451,000 cattle, 126,009,000 goats, 106,630,000 water buffalo, 65,717,000 sheep; roundwood 330,974,500 cu m, of which fuelwood 93%; fisheries production 7,584 (from aquaculture 46%). Mining and quarrying (2008): iron ore 141,00022, 23; bauxite 21,21024; chromite 3,90025; barite 1,10025; manganese 96022; zinc 33722; lead 87.322; copper 30.622; mica 1.726; silver 96,000 kg; gem diamonds 15,000 carats. Manufacturing enterprises (2005)

Refined petroleum products Iron and steel Pharmaceuticals, paints, and soaps Base chemicals Textiles (spun and woven only) Motor vehicles Bricks, cement, ceramics Food products (vegetable-, pulse-, or seed-based) General purpose machinery Base nonferrous metals Parts of motor vehicles Special purpose machinery Electrical motors, generators, and transformers Wearing apparel Cigarettes, other tobacco products Fabricated metal products Paper and paper products Plastics Structural metal products

no. of persons engaged

annual wages per employee (U.S.$)

annual value added (U.S.$’000,000)

54,546 430,053 596,764 201,454 1,028,045 84,856 524,267

5,346 3,070 2,223 3,543 1,319 5,132 1,187

10,408 8,785 7,059 5,731 4,313 3,915 3,261

690,553 219,562 81,106 253,003 214,521

1,091 2,823 2,020 2,318 2,670

2,672 2,339 2,176 2,138 1,959

83,209 540,231 473,608 239,824 177,696 198,276 132,902

3,214 1,133 472 1,606 1,745 1,373 1,971

1,347 1,343 1,268 1,238 1,224 1,174 1,063

2005–06

2006–07

2007–08

2008–09

2009–10

–46,075 18.3%

–59,321 19.0%

–88,522 21.3%

–118,401 24.2%

–108,161 23.2%

Imports (2008–09): U.S.$303,696,000,000 (crude and refined petroleum 30.8%; electronics 7.7%; nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 7.1%; gold 6.8%; precious stones/semiprecious stones/pearls 5.5%; transport equipment 4.4%; manufactured fertilizers 3.9%; coal/coke 3.3%; iron and steel 3.1%). Major import sources: China 10.6%; U.A.E. 7.6%; Saudi Arabia 6.4%; U.S. 6.1%; Iran 4.0%; Germany 3.9%; Switzerland 3.8%; Australia 3.6%; Kuwait 3.1%; South Korea 2.8%. Exports (2008–09): U.S.$185,295,000,000 (gems and jewelry [significantly diamonds] 15.1%; refined petroleum products 14.9%; textiles and wearing apparel 10.8%, of which ready-made garments 5.9%; food, beverages, and tobacco 9.5%; chemicals and chemical products 8.4%; transportation equipment 6.0%; machinery and apparatus 5.9%; fabricated metal products 4.1%; electronic goods 3.7%; iron and steel 3.1%). Major export destinations: U.A.E. 12.9%; U.S. 11.3%; China 5.0%; Singapore 4.4%; U.K. 3.6%; Hong Kong 3.6%; Netherlands 3.4%; Germany 3.4%; Saudi Arabia 2.7%; Belgium 2.4%.

units per 1,000 persons

number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

88,876

83

2009 2009

525,09030 37,060

43830 31

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

38,434 109,90029 61,300 7,74630

units per 1,000 persons 33 9529 51 6.530

Literacy (2007): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 66.0%; males literate 76.9%; females literate 54.5%.

2006

2007

2008

2009

43.59 84.19 67.69

45.07 77.61 64.41

44.25 86.86 66.56

39.42 78.97 62.29

48.46 70.64 74.63

46.68 75.60 73.18

126,593 5

131,924 170,738 266,988 247,419 265,182 4 1 3 3 5,169

1,424 125,164 11.502 1.3

902 550 432 813 1,430 131,018 170,187 266,553 246,603 258,583 11.502 11.502 11.502 11.502 17.932 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.8

6.00 10.9

6.00 10.8

6.00 11.2

6.00 13.0

6.00 13.3

6.00 12.2

69.8

100.0

148.7

222.4

110.2

190.6

–17,600 –32,517 –42,804 –58,710 –95,539 –134,692 –166,572 –208,024 77,939 102,175 123,768 149,314 +18,380 +22,233 +33,505 +47,426

–95,808 –283,720 187,912 +59,720

… … … …

–9,299 –11,284 –36,088

…

Population economically active (2008)28: total 466,270,000; activity rate of total population 39.5% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 61.0%; female 27.8%; unemployed [2009] 10.7%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2004–05 –27,982 14.3%

Education and health

2005

–10,284

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Communications

2004

+780

Balance of trade (current prices)

Transport. Railroads (2007): route length 39,225 mi, 63,126 km; (2008–09) passenger-km 733,000,000,000; (2008–09) metric ton-km cargo 512,000,000,000. Roads (2004): total length 2,251,000 mi, 3,622,000 km (paved 49%). Vehicles (2006): passenger cars 11,526,000; trucks and buses 5,428,000. Air transport (2008–09): passenger-km 75,932,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,071,000,000.

Financial aggregates27 2003

Foreign trade

Transport and communications

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 756,422,000,000 ([2007] 818,245,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2009) 521,371,000 ([2007–08] 502,660,000); lignite (metric tons; 2009) 35,727,000 ([2007–08] 34,657,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 247,200,000 ([2007–08] 1,186,382,800); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008–09) 149,519,000 ([2007–08] 140,697,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 38,653,000,000 (51,282,000,000).

Exchange rate, Rs per: U.S. dollar 45.61 £ 81.40 SDR 67.77 International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; ’000,000) 98,938 SDRs (’000,000) 3 Reserve pos. in IMF (’000,000) 1,318 Foreign exchange (’000,000) 97,617 Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) 11.502 % world reserves 1.3 Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) 6.00 Advance (prime) rate (%) 11.5 Industrial share prices (2005 = 100) 59.2 Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000) Balance of visible trade –7,188 Imports, f.o.b. –68,081 Exports, f.o.b. 60,893 Balance of invisibles +15,961 Balance of payments, current account +8,773

ages 50.0%, housing and energy 11.2%, clothing and footwear 7.8%, health 6.7%, transportation 4.1%, tobacco and intoxicants 2.3%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 53.4%, in permanent crops 3.6%, in pasture 3.5%, forest area 22.8%.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

92.4

95.9

100.0

105.8

112.5

121.9

135.2

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 11,832; remittances (2009) 49,256; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 33,344; official development assistance (2008) 2,108. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 9,602; remittances (2008) 1,580; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 16,876. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2005–06)17 4.7; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2003): food and nonalcoholic bever-

Education (2006–07) teachers Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

students

3,387,90531 140,357,454 2,586,21131 96,049,060 538,76931 14,862,962

student/ teacher ratio 40.231 32.731 18.631

enrollment rate (%) 90 … 13 (age 18–22)

Health (2008): physicians32, 33 696,700 (1 per 1,696 persons); hospital beds32, 33 482,500 (1 per 2,449 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 54.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 251,500,000 (22% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,770 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 1,325,000 (army 85.3%, navy 4.4%, air force 9.6%, coast guard 0.7%); paramilitary 987,821; reserve 1,155,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$27.

1Includes

12 members appointed by the President. 2Includes 2 Anglo-Indians appointed by the President. 3The first symbol for the rupee was announced in July 2010; it should be adopted internationally by mid-2012. 4Populations are March 1, 2008, official projections based on the 2001 Indian census results. 5Excludes 46,660 sq mi (120,849 sq km) of territory in the Kashmir region claimed by India as part of Jammu and Kashmir state but administered by Pakistan or China; inland water constitutes 9.6% of total area of India. 6Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Estimate of the U.S. Bureau of the Census International Database (June 2009 update). 82001 census. 9Within Delhi urban agglomeration. 10Within Kolkata urban agglomeration. 11Within Mumbai urban agglomeration. 12Within Pune urban agglomeration. 13Data are for the 22 scheduled (“officially recognized”) languages of India (including associated languages/dialects of each of the 22) unless otherwise footnoted. 14Nonscheduled (“not officially recognized”) language. 152000 estimate. 16Data apply to the workers employed in the “organized sector” only (27.3 million in 2006–07, of which 18.0 million were employed in the public sector and 9.3 million were employed in the private sector); few legal protections exist for the more than 370 million workers in the “unorganized sector.” 172005–06 data based on the National Family Health Survey 2005–06, comprising 515,507 people in 109,041 households. 18Registered with Ministry of Labour only. 19Crimes reported to National Crime Records Bureau by police authorities of state governments. 20Unemployed. 21Includes mangosteens and guavas. 22Metal content. 23World rank: 4. 24World rank: 3. 25World rank: 2. 26World rank: 1. 27End-ofperiod. 28ILO estimates. 29Circulation of daily newspapers. 30Subscribers. 312003–04. 32Government hospitals only. 33January 1.

Internet resources for further information: • Reserve Bank of India http://www.rbi.org.in • Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation http://mospi.nic.in

602

Britannica World Data

Indonesia

145,076,000 ([2007] 38,354,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 34,516,000 (30,238,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 200910) 259,103,000 ([2007] 337,029,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 40,411,000 (53,524,000); natural gas (cu m; 200910) 63,610,000,000 ([2007] 31,990,000,000). Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$513,356,000,000 (U.S.$2,230 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$4,060 per capita).

Official name: Republik Indonesia (Republic of Indonesia). Form of government: multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Regional Representatives Council1 [128]; House of Representatives [560]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Jakarta. Official language: Indonesian. Official religion: monotheism. Monetary unit: rupiah (Rp); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Rp 9,010; 1 £ = Rp 13,919.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Area and population area

population

sq km

2009 estimate

73,071 5,780

12,604,700 3,551,000

48,718

4,619,700

18,573

4,434,000

Celebes Central Sulawesi Gorontalo North Sulawesi South Sulawesi Southeast Sulawesi West Sulawesi

188,522 61,841 11,257 13,852 46,717 38,068 16,787

16,767,700 2,480,300 984,000 2,228,900 7,908,500 2,118,300 1,047,700

Java2 Banten Central Java East Java Jakarta3 West Java Yogyakarta4

129,438 134,160,100 9,663 9,782,800 32,800 32,864,600 47,800 37,286,200 664 9,223,000 35,378 41,501,600 3,133 3,501,900

Island(s) Provinces Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands Bali East Nusa Tenggara West Nusa Tenggara (Sulawesi)2

area

population

Island(s) Provinces Kalimantan2, 5 Central Kalimantan East Kalimantan South Kalimantan West Kalimantan

sq km 544,150 153,565 204,534 38,744 147,307

2009 estimate 13,065,800 2,085,800 3,164,800 3,496,100 4,319,100

Maluku6 & Papua2 Maluku North Maluku Papua West Papua7

494,957 46,914 31,983 319,036 97,024

5,155,900 1,339,500 975,000 2,097,500 743,900

Sumatra2 Aceh8 Bangka-Belitung Bengkulu Jambi Lampung North Sumatra Riau Riau Islands South Sumatra West Sumatra TOTAL

480,793 49,615,400 57,956 4,363,500 16,424 1,138,100 19,919 1,666,900 50,058 2,834,200 34,624 7,491,900 72,981 13,248,400 87,024 5,306,500 8,202 1,515,300 91,592 7,222,600 42,013 4,828,000 1,910,931 231,369,600

Demography Population (2010): 232,517,0009. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 315.1, persons per sq km 121.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 44.0%; rural 56.0%. Sex distribution (2009): male 50.01%; female 49.99%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 27.0%; 15–29, 27.2%; 30–44, 23.3%; 45–59, 14.7%; 60–74, 6.1%; 75 and over, 1.7%. Population projection: (2020) 254,218,000; (2030) 271,485,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Javanese 36.4%; Sundanese 13.7%; Malay 9.4%; Madurese 7.2%; Han Chinese 4.0%; Minangkabau 3.6%; other 25.7%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim (excluding syncretists) 55.8%; Neoreligionists (syncretists) 21.2%; Christian 13.2%; Hindu 3.2%; traditional beliefs 2.6%; nonreligious 1.8%; other 2.2%. Major urban agglomerations (2009): Jakarta 9,121,000; Surabaya 2,518,000; Bandung 2,384,000; Medan 2,107,000; Semarang 1,301,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2006): 20.1 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2006): 6.3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 2.17. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 67.4 years; female 72.4 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 0.2% (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: Rp 984,787,000,000,000 (tax revenue 73.7%, of which income tax 36.3%, VAT 25.3%; nontax revenue 26.3%, of which revenue from natural resources 17.6%). Expenditures: Rp 716,376,000,000,000 (subsidies 23.3%; personnel expenditures 20.0%; interest payment 14.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$76,904,000,000. Population economically active (2008): total 111,947,265; activity rate 49.2% (participation rates: over age 15, 67.2%; unemployed 8.4%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

85.2

90.5

100.0

113.1

120.3

132.4

140.9

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 4.0. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): rice 64,398,890, sugarcane 26,500,000, cassava 22,039,148, coconuts (2008) 19,500,000, corn (maize) 17,629,740, palm oil (2008) 16,900,000, natural rubber (2008) 2,921,872; livestock (number of live animals) 15,768,480 goats, 12,859,037 cattle, 10,199,484 sheep; roundwood 100,584,700 cu m, of which fuelwood 65%; fisheries production (2008) 6,647,219 (from aquaculture 25%); aquatic plants production (2008) 2,147,978 (from aquaculture 99%). Mining and quarrying (2008): bauxite 1,152,000; copper (metal content) 651,000; nickel (metal content) 192,600; tin (metal content) 53,228; silver 226,051 kg; gold 64,390 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): food products 8,542; textiles and wearing apparel 6,208; chemicals and chemical products 5,977; transport equipment 5,515; tobacco products 5,397; paper products 3,353. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 142,236,000,000 (142,236,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 200910)

in value Rp ’000,000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

713,291 543,364 1,380,731 40,847 419,322 312,454 692,119 368,130 257,548 226,223 — 4,954,029

14.4 11.0 27.9 0.8 8.4 6.3 14.0 7.4 5.2 4.6 — 100.0

41,331,706 1,070,540 12,549,376 201,114 5,438,965 6,179,503 21,221,744 1,459,985

36.9 1.0 11.2 0.2 4.9 5.5 19.0 1.3

13,099,817

11.6

9,394,51511 111,947,265

8.411 100.0

Agriculture, fishing, forestry Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

}

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 7,377; remittances (2009) 6,791; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 7,041; official development assistance (2008) 1,225. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 5,397; remittances (2008) 1,766; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 4,508. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 12.1%, in permanent crops 8.6%, in pasture 6.1%, forest area 46.8%.

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+25,058 21.2%

+27,959 19.5%

+39,733 24.5%

+39,627 21.0%

+7,776 4.7%

+27,053 12.8%

Imports (2008): U.S.$129,244,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 25.3%, petroleum 23.5%, chemicals and chemical products 12.3%, iron and steel 6.9%, food 6.1%, road vehicles 5.1%). Major import sources: Singapore 16.9%; China 11.8%; Japan 11.7%; Malaysia 6.9%; U.S. 6.1%. Exports (2008): U.S.$137,020,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 9.9%, natural gas 9.5%, crude petroleum 9.1%, palm oil 9.0%, coal 7.7%, food 5.8%, apparel 4.6%, natural rubber 4.4%, copper [all forms] 3.9%). Major export destinations: Japan 20.2%; U.S. 9.5%; Singapore 9.4%; China 8.5%; South Korea 6.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007): route length 2,984 mi, 4,803 km; passenger-km (2008) 16,800,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 4,425,000,000. Roads (2007): length 246,287 mi, 396,362 km (paved 56%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 9,859,926; trucks and buses 7,729,844. Air transport (2008)13: passenger-km 17,677,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 275,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2003

33,255

153

2009 2009

159,24815 33,958

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

69315 148

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

3,285 5,72814 20,000 1,70015

15 2514 87 7.415

Education and health Educational attainment (2002–03). Percentage of population ages 15–64 having: no schooling or incomplete primary education 19.3%; primary and some secondary 57.2%; complete secondary 19.3%; higher 4.2%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 92.2%; males 95.4%; females 89.1%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

1,687,371 1,531,383 286,127

29,498,266 18,314,900 4,419,577

17.5 12.0 15.4

96 68 21 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2003) 29,499 (1 per 7,368 persons); hospital beds (2001) 124,834 (1 per 1,697 persons); infant mortality rate (2008) 26.8; undernourished population (2004–06) 36,700,000 (16% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,810 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 302,000 (army 77.2%, navy 14.9%, air force 7.9%); reserve 400,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$15. 1Has limited legislative authority. 2Includes area and population of nearby islands. 3Special capital district. 4Special district. 5Kalimantan is the name of the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. 6Conventionally the Moluccas. 7The final status of West Papua (the westernmost part of Papua known as West Irian Jaya prior to April 2007) was unresolved. 8Autonomous province. 9Estimate of the United Nations World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision. 10January–September only. 11Unemployed. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Garuda Indonesia only. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers.

Internet resource for further information: • Statistics Indonesia http://www.bps.go.id

Nations of the World

Iran

603

53,800,000 sheep, 25,300,000 goats, 7,610,000 cattle, 152,000 camels; roundwood 886,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 8%; fisheries production 562,821 (from aquaculture 28%). Mining and quarrying (2008): gypsum 12,000,000; iron ore 12,000,0008; copper ore 248,0008; chromite 180,000; zinc 150,0008. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2005): base metals 3,032; motor vehicles and parts 2,850; refined petroleum products 2,210; cement, bricks, and ceramics 2,158. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008–09) 215,800,000,000 (162,000,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2008) 2,000,000 ([2007] 1,973,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009–10) 1,281,715,000 ([2009] 660,285,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 76,343,000 (70,023,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 116,300,000,000 (119,000,000,000). Population economically active (2008): total 22,892,000; activity rate of total population 31.9% (participation rates: ages 10 and over, 42.0%; female 17.7%; unemployed [2009] 11.8%).

Official name: Jomhuri-ye Eslami-ye ‰ran (Islamic Republic of Iran). Form of government: unitary Islamic republic with one legislative house (Islamic Consultative Assembly [2901]). Supreme political/religious authority: Leader. Head of state and government: President. Capital: Tehran. Official language: Farsi (Persian). Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: rial (Rls); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Rls 10,008; 1 £ = Rls 15,460.

Price and earnings indexes (2004–05 = 100) 2003–04

2004–05

2005–06

2006–07

2007–08

2008–09

86.8 92.8

100.0 100.0

110.4 118.8

123.5 140.7

146.2 171.7

183.3 206.0

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index9

Area and population area

population

Provinces

sq km

2010 estimate

Ardabil Azarbayjan-e Gharbi Azarbayjan-e Sharqi Bushehr Chahar Mahall va Bakhtiari Esfahan Fars Gilan Golestan Hamadan Hormozgan Ilam Kerman Kermanshah Khorasan-e Jonubi Khorasan-e Razavi

17,800 37,411 45,650 22,743

1,242,956 3,016,301 3,691,270 943,535

16,332 107,029 122,608 14,042 20,367 19,368 70,697 20,133 180,726 24,998 95,385 118,854

892,909 4,804,458 4,528,514 2,453,469 1,687,086 1,699,588 1,558,878 566,332 2,947,346 1,905,793 676,794 5,940,766

Provinces Khorasan-e Shomali Khuzestan Kohgiluyeh va Buyer Ahmad Kordestan Lorestan Markazi Mazandaran Qazvin Qom Semnan Sistan va Baluchestan Tehran Yazd Zanjan TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2010 estimate

28,434 64,055

838,781 4,471,488

15,504 29,137 28,294 29,127 23,842 15,567 11,526 97,491

669,140 1,467,585 1,758,226 1,392,435 3,037,336 1,212,464 1,127,713 624,482

181,785 18,814 129,285 21,773 1,628,7502

2,733,205 14,795,116 1,065,893 983,369 74,733,2303

Demography Population (2010): 73,887,000. Density (2010)4: persons per sq mi 117.5, persons per sq km 45.4. Urban-rural (2009–10): urban 71.77%; rural 28.23%. Sex distribution (2009–10): male 50.79%; female 49.21%. Age breakdown (2006–07): under 15, 25.1%; 15–29, 35.4%; 30–44, 20.6%; 45–59, 11.6%; 60–74, 5.4%; 75–84, 1.6%; 85 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2020) 82,411,000; (2030) 88,509,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Persian 34.9%; Azerbaijani 15.9%; Kurd 13.0%; Luri 7.2%; Gilaki 5.1%; Mazandarani 5.1%; Afghan 2.8%; other 16.0%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim 98.2% (Shi(i 86.1%, Sunni 10.1%, other 2.0%); Baha)i 0.5%; Christian 0.4%; Zoroastrian 0.1%; other 0.8%. Major cities (2007): Tehran 7,873,000; Mashhad 2,469,000; Esfahan 1,628,000; Karaj 1,423,000; Tabriz 1,413,000; Shiraz 1,240,000.

Vital statistics

Household income and expenditure (2006–07). Average household size 4.1; annual average income per urban household Rls 65,509,108 (U.S.$6,822); sources of urban income: wages 35.4%, self-employment 25.9%; expenditure: housing and energy 29.5%, food, beverages, and tobacco 22.6%, transportation/communications 15.3%, health 7.9%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,908; remittances (2009) 1,072; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 2,100; official development assistance (2008) 98. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 8,685; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 346. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 7.6%, left fallow 2.7%, in permanent crops 1.0%, in pasture 18.1%, forest area 6.8%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003–04

2004–05

2005–06

2006–07

2007–08

2008–09

+4,430 7.0%

+5,073 6.1%

+21,143 19.6%

+26,204 20.8%

+39,427 25.3%

+32,039 18.9%

Imports (2005–06): U.S.$40,969,000,000 (nonelectrical machinery 23.5%, base metals 13.8%, road vehicles 13.0%, chemical products 10.7%). Major import sources (2008): U.A.E. c. 19%; China c. 13%; Germany c. 9%; South Korea c. 7%. Exports (2008–09): U.S.$100,571,000,000 (petroleum/natural gas 85.2%, organic chemicals 3.1%, plastics 1.4%, pistachios 0.7%, handwoven carpets 0.4%). Major export destinations (2008): China c. 15%; Japan c. 14%; India c. 9%; South Korea c. 6%; Turkey c. 6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008–09): route length 5,407 mi, 8,702 km; passengerkm 14,100,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 20,500,000,000. Roads (2006–07): length 45,118 mi, 72,611 km (paved 92%). Vehicles (2006–07): passenger cars 920,136; trucks and buses 184,629. Air transport (2009–10): passenger-km 8,005,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 66,723,000. Communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 18.6 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 5.9 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.90. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2006–07): 11.0/1.3. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 71.7 years; female 73.6 years. Major causes of death (2008): 5.

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

11,566

173

2009 2009

52,55511 25,804

70811 348

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

7,678 1,60010 27,915 40011

106 2210 376 5.411

National economy

Education and health

Budget (2008–09). Revenue: Rls 948,745,000,000,000 (petroleum and natural gas revenue 73.5%; taxes 19.0%, of which taxes on income and profits 11.8%; other 7.5%). Expenditures: Rls 923,015,000,000,000 (current expenditure 65.8%; development expenditures 26.3%; other 7.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$8,902,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$330,619,000,000 (U.S.$4,530 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$11,490 per capita).

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 82.3%; males literate 87.3%; females literate 77.2%.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007–08 in value Rls ’000,000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Petroleum Other mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

268,002 709,021 19,142 276,876 131,470 30,148 191,497 280,590 504,997 221,743 73,498 –83,8076 2,623,177

2008 % of total value 10.2 27.0 0.7 } 10.6 5.0 1.1 7.3 10.7 19.3 8.5 2.8 –3.26 100.0

labour force 4,344,000

% of labour force 19.0

128,000

0.6

3,512,000 2,791,000 180,000

15.3 12.2 0.8

2,067,000 3,192,000 805,000 1,332,000 2,130,000 2,411,0007 22,892,000

9.0 14.0 3.5 5.8 9.3 10.57 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): wheat 7,956,647, potatoes 4,706,722, sugarcane 3,097,481, apples 2,718,775, oranges 2,619,735, rice 2,183,962, sugar beets 1,829,303, grapes 1,739,503, dates 1,006,406, seed cotton 294,100, cherries 198,768, pistachios 192,269, almonds 126,679, chickpeas 113,349; livestock (number of live animals)

Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

students

350,525 7,027,775 409,69913 8,187,132 143,503 3,391,852

student/ teacher ratio 20.0 20.313 23.6

enrollment rate (%) 9412 75 36 (age 18–22)

Health (2008): physicians 63,924 (1 per 1,124 persons); hospital beds 99,118 (1 per 725 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 21.8; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,810 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 523,000 (army 66.9%, revolutionary guard corps 23.9%, navy 3.5%, air force 5.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.8%14; per capita expenditure U.S.$13114. 1Includes

seats reserved for Christians (3), of which Armenian 2; Jews (1); and Zoroastrians (1). 2Reported total of land area only (summed land area total equals 1,628,777 sq km); estimated total area is 1,648,200 sq km. 3Detail does not add to total given because of statistical discrepancy. 4Based on estimated total area. 5Per official announcement by deputy health minister: road accidents, heart disease, depression/suicide, addiction. 6Less imputed bank service charges. 7Includes 2,392,000 unemployed. 8Metal content. 9Minimum wage. 10Circulation of daily newspapers. 11Subscribers. 122005–06. 132006–07. 14Excludes defense industry funding.

Internet resources for further information: • Statistical Centre of Iran http://www.amar.org.ir • Central Bank of Iran http://www.cbi.ir/default_en.aspx

604

Britannica World Data

Iraq

Price index (2005 = 100)

Official name: Al-Jumhuriyah al-(Iraqiyah (Republic of Iraq). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Council of Representatives of Iraq [3251]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Baghdad. Official languages: Arabic; Kurdish. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Iraqi dinar (ID); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = ID 1,172; 1 £ = ID 1,810.

2005

2006

2007

2008

73.0

100.0

153.2

200.5

205.8

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$69,653,000,000 (U.S.$2,210 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$3,340 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value ID ’000,000,000

Area and population

area

population

Governorates

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

2004 estimate

Al-Anbar Babil Baghdad Al-Basrah Dhi Qar Diyala 2 Karbala) Maysan Al-Muthanna¯ Al-Najaf Ninawa2 Al-Qadisiyah “alah al-Din Al-Ta)mim2 Wasit

Al-Ramadi Al-Hillah Baghdad Al-Basrah Al-Nasiriyah Ba(qubah Karbala) Al-(Amarah Al-Samawah Al-Najaf Mosul Al-Diwaniyah Tikrit Karkuk (Kirku¯k) Al-Kut

53,208 2,163 1,572 7,363 4,981 6,828 1,944 6,205 19,977 11,129 14,410 3,148 9,407 3,737 6,623

137,808 5,603 4,071 19,070 12,900 17,685 5,034 16,072 51,740 28,824 37,323 8,153 24,363 9,679 17,153

1,328,776 1,493,718 6,554,126 1,797,821 1,472,405 1,418,455 787,072 762,872 554,994 978,400 2,554,270 911,641 1,119,369 854,470 971,280

Region Kurdistan Region (in part)

Irbil

14,923 167,618

38,650 434,128

3,579,916 27,139,585

TOTAL

2004 Consumer price index

Demography Population (2010): 31,467,0003. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 187.7, persons per sq km 72.5. Urban-rural (2009): urban 66.3%; rural 33.7%. Sex distribution (2007): male 50.35%; female 49.65%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 39.4%; 15–29, 29.8%; 30–44, 18.4%; 45–59, 7.9%; 60–74, 3.3%; 75–84, 1.0%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 40,228,000; (2030) 48,909,000. Doubling time: 27 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Arab 64.7%; Kurd 23.0%; Turkmen/Azerbaijani 6.8%; other 5.5%. Religious affiliation (2000): Shi(i Muslim 62.0%; Sunni Muslim 34.0%; Christian (primarily Chaldean rite and Syrian rite Catholic and Nestorian) 3.2%; other (primarily Yazidi syncretist) 0.8%. Major urban agglomerations (2009): Baghdad 5,751,000; Mosul 1,402,000; Irbil 981,000; Al-Basrah 905,000; Al-Sulaymaniyah 806,000; Karkuk (2003) 750,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 30.7 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 5.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 25.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 3.97. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2008) 8.1/(1997) 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 68.3 years; female 71.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): communicable diseases 377; diseases of the circulatory system 187; accidents and violence 115; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 54.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: ID 58,714,000,000,000 (crude oil export revenue 80.3%, oil-related public enterprises 9.8%, grants 4.9%, other 5.0%). Expenditures: ID 48,153,000,000,000 (current expenditure 79.6%, development expenditure 20.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2010): U.S.$45,090,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat 1,700,400, tomatoes 913,493, dates 507,002, barley 501,508, cucumbers/gherkins 420,945, eggplants 396,155, watermelons 326,742, buffalo’s milk (2008) 300,000, grapes 194,731, okra 152,751, leguminous vegetables 144,327; livestock (number of live animals) 7,800,000 sheep, 1,600,000 cattle; roundwood 118,500 cu m, of which fuelwood 50%; fisheries production (2008) 53,718 (from aquaculture 36%). Mining and quarrying (2008): salt 109,000. Manufacturing (2008): gasoline 17,228,000 barrels; distillate fuels 30,551,000 barrels; residual fuels 76,577,000 barrels. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 33,183,000,000 (34,538,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 884,000,000 ([2007] 146,315,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008) 25,940,000 ([2007] 25,773,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 1,422,000,000 (1,422,000,000). Household income and expenditure (2004). Average household size 6.4; median annual household income ID 2,230,000 (U.S.$1,517); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1993)4: food 63.2%, housing 11.5%, clothing 9.7%. Population economically active (2008)5: total 7,303,000; activity rate of total population 24.3% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 43.2%; female 16.1%; unemployed [UN estimate; 2009] 18%).

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

% of total value

5,717 86,867 2,332 1,308 5,973 12,031 10,078 12,970

3.7 55.7 1.5 0.8 3.8 7.7 6.5 8.3

19,394

12.4

–688 7 155,982

–0.47 100.0

labour force6

% of labour force6

1,781,600 32,400 369,400 161,600 823,500 608,100 1,229,800 55,900 1,003,300 1,523,500 17,000 7,606,100

23.4 0.4 4.9 2.1 10.8 8.0 16.2 0.8 13.2 20.0 0.2 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances (2006) 389; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 1,299; official development assistance (2008) 9,870. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances (2008) 781; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 53. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 11.9%, in permanent crops 0.6%, in pasture 9.1%, forest area 1.9%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

… …

… …

+3,695 8.5%

+9,637 18.7%

+20,031 33.9%

+28,230 28.5%

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Imports (2008): U.S.$35,496,000,000 (machinery and transport equipment 38.5%, assorted manufactured goods 27.2%, mineral fuels and lubricants 9.8%, oils and fats 6.4%). Major import sources: Syria c. 26%; Turkey c. 20%; U.S. c. 11%; China c. 6%; Jordan c. 6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$63,726,000,000 (crude petroleum 97.1%, refined petroleum 2.4%, remainder 0.5%). Major export destinations: U.S. c. 39%; India c. 12%; Italy c. 10%; South Korea c. 7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2010): route length 1,412 mi, 2,272 km8; passenger-km (2005) 2,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2005) 73,000,000. Roads (2002): total length 28,303 mi, 45,550 km (paved 84%). Vehicles (2006): passenger cars 784,794; trucks and buses 1,457,474. Air transport: 9. Communications Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001 2009 2009

number in ’000s 472 19,72210 1,108

units per 1,000 persons 19 64110 36

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

… … 325 —

… … 10.0 —

Education and health Educational attainment (2004)11. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 28%; incomplete primary education 12%; primary 36%; secondary 9%; higher 15%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 77.6%; males 86.0%; females 69.2%. Education (2004–05) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

215,795 93,219 19,231

4,430,267 1,751,164 424,908

20.5 18.8 22.1

87 40 16 (age 18–22)

Health (2008): physicians 16,00012 (1 per 1,901 persons); hospital beds (2003) 34,505 (1 per 778 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 46.2; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 578,269 (army 32.3%, navy 0.4%, air force 0.5%, ministry of interior 66.8%13); U.S. forces (August 2010): 49,700. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP: n.a.

1Includes 8 seats reserved for minorities. 2Kurdistan Region has de facto authority in part. 3Including about 750,000 Iraqi refugees in Syria, 500,000 Iraqi refugees in Jordan, and 500,000 Iraqi refugees elsewhere; about 1.5 million Iraqis were internally displaced in January 2010. 4Weights of consumer price index components. 5ILO estimates. 6Employed only; per Labor Force Survey. 7Imputed bank service charges. 8Some lines were not operational in early 2010. 9Data unavailable for Iraqi Airways, the national airlines. 10Subscribers. 11Based on the Iraq Living Conditions Survey, which comprised 21,668 households and was conducted between March and August 2004. 12End of 2008 estimate. 13Includes national police and highway patrol.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Iraq http://www.cbi.iq • Central Organization for Statistics http://cosit.gov.iq/english

Nations of the World

Ireland

of which fuelwood 4%; fisheries production (2008) 262,552 (from aquaculture 22%). Mining and quarrying (2008): zinc ore 398,2008; lead ore 50,2008. Manufacturing (gross value added in >’000,000; 2005): chemicals and chemical products 12,000; electrical and optical equipment 7,097; food, beverages, and tobacco 6,391; paper products, printing, and publishing 4,440. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 28,226,000,000 (29,556,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (2,391,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (24,841,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 3,245,000 (7,432,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 431,900,000 (5,010,000,000); peat (metric tons; 2008) 4,300,000 (n.a.). Population economically active (2008): total 2,236,000; activity rate 50.6% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 71.9%; female 43.2%; unemployed 6.3%).

Official name: Éire (Irish); Ireland1 (English). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with two legislative houses (Senate [602]; House of Representatives [166]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Dublin. Official languages: Irish; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.213.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

Provinces Counties/Cities Connaught (Connacht) Galway Galway (city) Leitrim Mayo Roscommon Sligo Leinster Carlow Dublin (city) Dun LaoghaireRathdown Fingal Kildare Kilkenny Laoighis Longford Louth Meath Offaly

population

sq km

2006 census

17,711 6,098 51 1,590 5,586 2,548 1,838 19,8014 897 118

504,121 159,256 72,414 28,950 123,839 58,768 60,894 2,295,123 50,349 506,211

126 455 1,695 2,073 1,720 1,091 826 2,342 2,001

194,038 239,992 186,335 87,558 67,059 34,391 111,267 162,831 70,868

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.5 83.2

97.6 93.3

100.0 100.0

103.9 101.7

109.0 107.6

113.4 105.4

108.3 106.4

Consumer price index Weekly earnings index

Area and population area

Provinces Counties/Cities South Dublin Westmeath Wexford Wicklow Munster Clare Cork Cork (city) Kerry Limerick Limerick (city) North Tipperary South Tipperary Waterford Waterford (city) Ulster (part of) Cavan Donegal Monaghan TOTAL

area

population

sq km 224 1,840 2,367 2,027 24,674 3,450 7,460 40 4,807 2,735 21 2,046 2,258 1,816 41 8,088 1,932 4,861 1,295 70,2734

2006 census 246,935 79,346 131,749 126,194 1,173,340 110,950 361,877 119,418 139,835 131,516 52,539 66,023 83,221 62,213 45,748 267,264 64,003 147,264 55,997 4,239,848

Demography Population (2010): 4,451,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 164.0, persons per sq km 63.3. Urban-rural (2005): urban 60.5%; rural 39.5%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.89%; female 50.11%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 20.6%; 15–29, 23.4%; 30–44, 23.1%; 45–59, 17.5%; 60–74, 10.6%; 75–84, 3.6%; 85 and over, 1.2%. Population projection: (2020) 4,762,000; (2030) 4,988,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Irish 95.0%; British 1.7%, of which English 1.4%; Ulster Irish 1.0%; U.S. white 0.8%; other 1.5%. Religious affiliation (2006): Roman Catholic 86.8%; Church of Ireland (Anglican) 3.0%; other Christian 2.7%; nonreligious 4.4%; other 3.1%. Major cities (2006): Dublin 506,211 (urban agglomeration 1,186,159); Cork 119,418; Galway 72,414; Limerick 52,539; Waterford 45,748.

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 2.8; average annual disposable income per household (1999–2000) £Ir 22,589 (U.S.$28,800); expenditure (2004): housing and energy 20.7%, food, beverages, and tobacco 14.9%, hotels and restaurants 14.2%, transportation and communications 14.0%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 6,342; remittances (2009) 567; foreign direct disinvestment (2006–08 avg.) –288. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 10,425; remittances (2008) 2,691; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 16,657. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 5.5%, in permanent crops 0.04%, in pasture 56.6%, forest area 10.1%.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) >’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+34,460 25.9%

+32,505 22.6%

+16,858 11.2%

+27,069 17.8%

+28,895 20.0%

+39,084 30.2%

Imports (2008): >57,840,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 25.3%, of which computers/office machines/parts 11.8%; mineral fuels 11.5%; food 8.1%; road vehicles 5.6%; medicines and pharmaceuticals 5.0%). Major import sources: U.K. 33.4%; U.S. 11.7%; Germany 8.1%; China 6.8%; Neth. 5.0%. Exports (2008): >86,735,000,000 (organic chemicals 20.6%; medicinal and pharmaceutical products 19.3%; computers/office machines/parts 10.8%; food 8.2%; essential oils used in food/drink 5.6%). Major export destinations: U.S. 19.3%; U.K. 18.4%; Belgium 14.2%; Germany 7.1%; France 5.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length (2007) 1,163 mi, 1,872 km; passenger-km 1,976,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 103,000,000. Roads (2003): length 60,026 mi, 96,602 km (paved 100%); passenger-km (2006) 34,900,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 17,402,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 1,882,901; trucks and buses 345,87410. Air transport (2008)11: passenger-km 78,700,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 142,000,000. Communications

Vital statistics

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 16.7 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 66.9%; outside of marriage (2008) 33.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 6.5 (world avg. 8.5). Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2009) 4.8/(2007) 0.8. Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.10. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 77.5 years; female 82.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 223.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 185.5; diseases of the respiratory system 77.7; accidents and violence 37.6.

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2002

2,707

2009 2009

4,87113 2,080

National economy Budget (2005). Revenue: >39,849,000,000 (VAT 30.3%, income taxes 28.3%, corporate taxes 13.5%). Expenditures: >33,496,000,000 (current expenditure 88.4%, capital expenditure 11.6%). Total public debt (2008): c. U.S.$90,000,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$197,206,000,000 (U.S.$44,310 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$33,280 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2005

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

605

2008

in value >’000,000

% of total value

2,955 497 34,893 1,667 14,256 7,549 16,881 35,850 6,418 21,265 18,9326 161,163

1.8 0.3 21.7 1.0 8.8 4.7 10.5 22.2 4.0 13.2 11.76 100.04

}

labour force5

% of labour force5

114,800

5.4

287,300

13.6

241,400 164,000 432,700 221,700 102,700 443,400 104,7007 2,112,8004

11.4 7.8 20.5 10.5 4.9 21.0 5.07 100.04

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): barley 1,167,000, wheat 674,100, potatoes 361,300, oats 146,100, mushrooms (2008) 75,000, wool (2008) 13,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,716,100 cattle, 4,778,000 sheep, 1,468,200 pigs; roundwood 2,349,000 cu m,

units per 1,000 persons 694 1,07913 461

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2,536 76712 3,043 97613

582 21812 674 21613

Education and health Educational attainment (2006). Percentage of population ages 15–64 having: no formal schooling/primary education 15.1%; some/complete secondary 46.5%; postsecondary certificate 9.4%; some higher 9.5%; complete higher 16.8%; unknown 2.7%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 4–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary

30,697 29,72914 13,975

students 486,921 318,382 178,518

student/ teacher ratio 15.9 10.514 12.8

enrollment rate (%) 97 88 58 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2004) 11,141 (1 per 365 persons); hospital beds (2006) 12,05115 (1 per 352 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 3.1; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 10,460 (army 81.3%, navy 10.5%, air force 8.2%); reserve 14,875. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$330.

1As provided by the constitution. 2Includes 11 nonelective seats. 3The Irish pound was the former monetary unit; on Jan. 1, 2002, 1 £Ir = >1.27. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Ages 15 and over, employed only. 6Taxes less subsidies plus minuscule statistical discrepancy. 7Unspecified. 8Metal content. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Excludes buses. 11Ryanair Aer Lingus and Aer Arann only. 12Circulation. 13Subscribers. 142005–06. 15Publicly funded acute hospitals only.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Statistics Office (Ireland) http://www.cso.ie • Central Bank of Ireland http://www.centralbank.ie

606

Britannica World Data

Isle of Man

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008–09

Official name: Isle of Man1. Political status: crown dependency (United Kingdom) with two legislative bodies2 (Legislative Council [113]; House of Keys [24]). Head of state: British Monarch represented by Lieutenant-Governor. Head of government: Chief Minister assisted by the Council of Ministers. Capital: Douglas. Official language: English4. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Manx pound (£M)5; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 £M = U.S.$1.54.

in value £’0008 Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate, insurance International business Pub. admin., defense Services Other

area sq km

population 2006 census

Towns Castletown Douglas Peel Ramsey

2.3 10.1 1.7 3.7

3,109 26,218 4,280 7,309

Villages Laxey Onchan Port Erin Port St. Mary

2.4 24.7 2.6 1.4

1,768 9,172 3,575 1,913

Parishes Andreas Arbory

31.1 17.7

1,381 1,723

23,818 15,380 146,343 173,721 40,701 216,341 187,743 1,205,08110 399,02710 130,406 625,992 5,59111 3,170,14312

TOTAL

Area and population area sq km Parishes (cont.) Ballaugh Braddan Bride German Jurby Lezayre Lonan Malew Marown Maughold Michael Patrick Rushen Santon TOTAL

23.6 42.6 21.7 45.3 17.7 62.3 35.2 47.1 26.7 34.5 33.9 42.2 24.6 16.9 572.06

population 2006 census 1,042 3,151 418 995 659 1,237 1,563 2,304 2,086 950 1,640 1,294 1,591 680 80,058

Demography

2006

% of total value8 0.8 0.5 4.6 5.5 1.3 6.8 5.9

5.4

3,374 603 3,171 6,8099

8.1 1.4 7.6 16.39

11,143

26.7

2,898 9,876 1,029 41,793

6.9 23.6 2.5 100.0

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

91.3 96.7

96.0 99.1

100.0 100.0

103.0 109.6

107.1 112.7

112.6 116.2

113.3 118.6

Retail price index Weekly earnings index

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 163; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (FDI) n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a.; FDI, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, left fallow, or in permanent crops c. 12%, in pasture c. 33%, forest area c. 6%.

Foreign trade13 Imports: n.a. Major import sources: mostly the United Kingdom. Exports: traditional exports including scallops, herring, beef, lambs, and tweeds are of declining importance; light manufacturing is encouraged. Major export destinations: mostly the United Kingdom.

Vital statistics

Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy: n.a.

Budget (2007–08). Revenue: £598,318,000 (customs duties and excise taxes 71.8%; income taxes 26.6%; nontax revenue 1.6%). Expenditures: £518,186,000 (health and social security 43.5%; education 19.5%; transportation 7.5%; home affairs 7.2%; local government/environment 5.7%; tourism and recreation 5.2%). Production. Agriculture, forestry, fishing: main crops include hay, oats, barley, wheat, and orchard crops; livestock (number of live animals; 2009) 144,919 sheep, 33,989 cattle, 710 pigs; roundwood, n.a.; fish catch (value of principal catch in £; 2008): scallops 2,325,000, lobster 441,000, queen scallops 300,300, crab (2007) 295,000; fisheries production by tonnage (2008) 2,770 metric tons (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: sand, gravel, and limestone. Manufacturing (value added in £; 2006–07): electrical and nonelectrical machinery/apparatus, textiles, other 121,700,000; food and beverages 24,400,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) n.a. (387,400,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products, n.a. (n.a.); natural gas, none (n.a.). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 2.4; average annual income per household (2006–07) £36,624 (U.S.$70,648); sources of income (2006–07): wages and salaries 72.1%, interest/private pensions 11.3%, transfer payments 11.0%, self-employment 2.1%, other 3.5%; expenditure (January 2008)7: recreation and culture 22.2%, housing and energy 15.5%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 13.1%, transportation 12.0%, restaurants and hotels 8.1%, household furnishings 5.7%. Gross national income (at current market prices; 2008–09): U.S.$5,509,000,000 (U.S.$67,471 per capita).

1.5

2,248

Public debt: n.a. Population economically active (2006): total 41,793; activity rate of total population 52.2% (participation rates: ages 16–64, 79.9%; female 45.8%; unemployed [August 2010] 1.8%).

Transport and communications

National economy

% of labour force

642 }

38.010 } 12.610 4.1 19.7 0.211 100.0

Population (2010): 82,900. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 375.3, persons per sq km 144.9. Urban-rural (2006): urban 71.6%; rural 28.4%. Sex distribution (2006): male 49.37%; female 50.63%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 16.9%; 15–29, 17.2%; 30–44, 22.0%; 45–59, 21.1%; 60–74, 14.4%; 75–84, 6.0%; 85 and over, 2.4%. Population projection: (2020) 85,000; (2030) 87,000. Population by place of birth (2006): Isle of Man 47.6%; United Kingdom 43.9%, of which England 37.2%, Scotland 3.4%, Northern Ireland 2.1%, Wales 1.2%; Ireland 2.1%; other Europe 2.0%; other 4.4%. Religious affiliation (2000): Christian 63.7%, of which Anglican 40.5%, Methodist 9.9%, Roman Catholic 8.2%; other (mostly nonreligious) 36.3%. Major towns (2006): Douglas 26,218; Onchan 9,172; Ramsey 7,309; Peel 4,280; Port Erin 3,575.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.5 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2006) 62.1%; outside of marriage (2006) 37.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.0 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 2.5 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2006): 1.65. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2006) 5.3/(2003) 4.4. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 75.3 years; female 81.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): diseases of the circulatory system 347.5, of which ischemic heart diseases 123.4, cerebrovascular disease 86.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 246.7; diseases of the respiratory system 146.0; diseases of the digestive system 35.2; accidents 26.4.

labour force

Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 39 mi, 63 km14. Roads (2006): total length 500 mi, 800 km (paved virtually 100%). Vehicles (2003): passenger cars 50,596; trucks and buses 11,637. Air transport: n.a. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2000

29

355

2009 2009

… …

… …

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2009 2007 2009 2009

… 0 … …

… 0 … …

Education and health Education (2008–09) teachers Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

… … …

students 5,139 5,574 1,43315

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

… … …

… … … (age 18–22)

Health (2006): physicians 130 (1 per 616 persons); hospital beds 35516 (1 per 225 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 5.0; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel:

17.

1Ellan Vannin 4Manx Gaelic

in Manx Gaelic. 2Collective name is Tynwald. 3Includes 3 ex officio seats. has limited official recognition. 5Equivalent in value to pound sterling (£); the Isle of Man government issues both paper money and coins. 6220.9 sq mi. 7Weights of consumer price index components. 8At factor cost. 9Includes entertainment and catering. 10The Isle of Man is an international finance centre with 40 licensed banks, 166 authorized insurers, and 27,577 registered companies at the end of 2008; nearly U.S.$83,000,000,000 was deposited in the island at the end of 2008. 11Ownership of dwellings and nonprofit surpluses less imputed bank service charges. 12Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 13Because of the customs union between the Isle of Man and the U.K. since 1980, there are no customs controls on the movement of goods between the Isle of Man and the U.K. 14Length of three tourist (novel) railways operating in summer. 152007–08; includes Isle of Man College and students studying abroad; excludes Isle of Man International Business School. 16Combined total for Noble’s Hospital and Ramsey and District Cottage Hospital. 17The United Kingdom is responsible for defense.

Internet resources for further information: • Isle of Man Government: Economic Affairs http://www.gov.im/treasury/economic • Isle of Man Finance http://www.gov.im/iomfinance

Nations of the World

Israel

1,761; fabricated metals 1,308; transportation equipment 1,243; plastic products 893. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 54,504,000,000 ([2007] 53,010,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2008) none (12,882,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 429,000 (429,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 8,200 ([2007] 74,200,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2006) 10,687,000 (11,572,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) 1,189,000,000 (1,189,000,000). Population economically active (2008): total 2,957,100; activity rate 42.1% (participation rates: ages 15 and over, 56.5%; female 46.6%; unemployed [July 2009–June 2010] 7.1%).

Official name: Medinat Yisra)el (Hebrew); Dawlat Isra)il (Arabic) (State of Israel). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Knesset [120]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital (proclaimed): Jerusalem; international recognition of its capital status has largely been withheld. Official languages: Hebrew; Arabic. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: new Israeli sheqel (NIS); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = NIS 3.78; 1 £ = NIS 5.85.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

99.1 95.1

98.7 97.3

100.0 100.0

102.1 104.6

102.6 109.2

107.4 112.8

110.9 117.3

Consumer price index Daily earnings index

Area and population

area1

population

Districts

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

20102 estimate

Central (Ha Merkaz) Haifa (Ìefa) Jerusalem (Yerushalayim) Northern (Ha Ýafon) Southern (Ha Darom) Tel Aviv

Ramla Haifa Jerusalem Tiberias Beersheba Tel Aviv–Yafo

500 334 252 1,727 5,477 66 8,3573

1,294 866 653 4,473 14,185 172 21,643

1,814,300 898,400 924,100 1,257,200 1,084,200 1,277,100 7,255,3004

TOTAL

607

Household income and expenditure (2007). Average household size (2008) 3.3; gross annual income per household NIS 155,220 (U.S.$40,368); sources of income: salaries and wages 66.6%, self-employment 11.3%; expenditure: housing 22.3%, transport and communications 20.1%, food and beverages 16.9%, education and entertainment 13.3%, household operations 10.1%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 4,056; remittances (2009) 1,313; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 7,856. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 3,439; remittances (2008) 3,537; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 5,662. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 9.9%, left fallow 4.3%, in permanent crops 3.2%, in pasture 5.8%, forest area 8.0%.

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 7,302,0005. Density (2010)5: persons per sq mi 873.8, persons per sq km 337.4. Urban-rural (20102): urban 91.7%; rural 8.3%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.45%; female 50.55%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 27.9%; 15–29, 23.2%; 30–44, 19.7%; 45–59, 15.3%; 60–74, 9.2%; 75–84, 3.4%; 85 and over, 1.3%. Population projection5: (2020) 8,326,000; (2030) 9,240,000. Ethnic composition (20102): Jewish 75.5%; Arab 20.3%; other 4.2%. Religious affiliation (20102): Jewish 75.5%; Muslim 17.0%; Christian 2.0%; Druze 1.7%; other 3.8%. Major cities (20102): Jerusalem 773,000; Tel Aviv–Yafo 403,700 (metro area 3,297,800); Haifa 265,600 (metro area 1,034,200); Beersheba 194,300 (metro area 589,400).

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–2,349 3.0%

–2,262 2.6%

–1,042 1.1%

–2,528 2.3%

–3,833 3.0%

–5,091 5.7%

Imports (2008): U.S.$65,170,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 19.7%; crude petroleum 16.7%; diamonds 14.3%; chemicals and chemical products 10.9%; road vehicles 6.4%; food 5.4%). Major import sources: U.S. 12.3%; Belgium 6.5%; China 6.5%; Switzerland 6.1%; Germany 6.0%; unspecified 17.0%. Exports (2008): U.S.$61,337,000,000 (polished diamonds 25.3%; chemicals and chemical products 25.2%, of which medicines 7.4%; machinery and apparatus 19.5%, of which electrical machinery/electronics 6.2%; rough diamonds 6.3%). Major export destinations: U.S. 32.6%; Belgium 7.5%; Hong Kong 6.8%; India 3.8%; Neth. 3.3%.

Transport and communications Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 21.5 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 95.6%6; outside of marriage 4.4%6. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.2 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.96. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 6.8/1.8. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 79.7 years; female 83.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): malignant neoplasms 138.2; diseases of the circulatory system 138.0; diabetes mellitus 33.5; diseases of the respiratory system 28.1; kidney diseases 19.9; unspecified 65.8.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: NIS 310,945,000,000 (tax revenue 57.9%, of which income tax 26.1%, VAT 18.2%; internal loans 24.4%; external loans and grants 5.9%; other 11.8%). Expenditures: NIS 320,931,000,000 (debt repayment 21.7%; defense 17.4%; education 11.2%; interest 10.4%; social affairs 9.4%; health 5.7%). Public debt (December 2009): U.S.$158,056,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$191,585,000,000 (U.S.$25,740 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$27,040 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value NIS ’000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing } Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

% of total value

11,422

1.6

111,625

15.6

32,301 12,728 49,324 71,023 178,595 117,1027 83,992 46,2268 714,338

4.5 1.8 6.9 9.9 25.0 16.47 11.8 6.58 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

47,900 … 432,000 150,700 19,900 174,500 507,800 488,100 130,600 802,200 203,400 2,957,100

1.6 … 14.6 5.1 0.7 5.9 17.2 16.5 4.4 27.1 6.9 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): cow’s milk 1,277,000, potatoes 608,832, tomatoes 454,761, chicken meat 436,000, grapefruit 249,4149, carrots 233,10110, chilies and green peppers (2008) 178,423, grapes 89,986, peaches and nectarines 77,966, avocados 68,578; livestock (number of live animals) 404,000 cattle, 41,095,000 chickens; roundwood 27,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 8%; fisheries production (2008) 25,047 (from aquaculture 86%). Mining and quarrying (2008): potash 2,300,000, bromine 164,000, magnesium metal 35,000, diamonds 460,000 carats11. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): soaps, medicines, pharmaceuticals 2,585; medical, measuring, and testing appliances 2,502; electronics and telecommunications equipment 2,336; food products

Transport. Railroads (2009): route length 606 mi, 975 km; (2008) passengerkm 1,968,000,000; (2008) metric ton-km cargo 1,056,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 11,244 mi, 18,096 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (2009)2: passenger cars 1,875,765; trucks and buses 388,285. Air transport (2008)13: passengerkm 17,776,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 963,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

2,136

2009 2009

9,02215 3,250

units per 1,000 persons 330 1,25815 453

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

5,037 70014 3,700 1,85015

734 9414 516 25815

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 25–64 having: no formal schooling/unknown 1%; primary 12%; secondary 44%; postsecondary, vocational, and higher 43%. Literacy (2004): total population age 15 and over literate 97.1%; males literate 98.5%; females literate 95.9%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

63,550 52,580 …

841,394 614,711 325,246

13.2 11.7 …

97 86 60 (age 18–22)

Health (2009): physicians 25,5422, 16 (1 per 290 persons); hospital beds (2010) 42,1192, 17 (1 per 179 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 3.8.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 176,500 (army 75.4%, navy 5.4%, air force 19.2%); reserve 565,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 4.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$1,372. 1Excludes

the West Bank (2,183 sq mi [5,655 sq km]), the Gaza Strip (141 sq mi [365 sq km]), the Sea of Galilee (63 sq mi [164 sq km]), and the Dead Sea (102 sq mi [265 sq km]); includes the Golan Heights (446 sq mi [1,154 sq km]) and East Jerusalem (27 sq mi [70 sq km]). 2January 1. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Includes the population of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem; excludes the Jewish population of the West Bank. 5Excludes estimated mid-year Jewish population of the West Bank ([2010] 310,000). 6Jewish women only. 7Includes community services. 8Taxes on products less imputed bank service charges and statistical discrepancy. 9Includes pomelos. 10Includes turnips. 11Imported diamonds cut in Israel. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13El Al, Arkia Israel, and CAL Cargo only. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 16Up to age 65. 17Includes beds in old-age homes and kibbutzim.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bureau of Statistics http://www.cbs.gov.il/engindex.htm • Bank of Israel http://www.bankisrael.gov.il/firsteng.htm

608

Britannica World Data

Italy

Area and population

(continued) population

area3

Official name: Repubblica Italiana (Italian Republic). Form of government: republic with two legislative houses (Senate [3221]; Chamber of Deputies [630]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Rome. Official language: Italian.2 Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Regions Provinces5

Area and population area3 Regions Provinces5 Abruzzo (Abruzzi) Chieti L’Aquila Pescara Teramo Basilicata Matera Potenza Calabria Catanzaro Cosenza Crotone Reggio di Calabria Vibo Valentia Campania Avellino Benevento Caserta Napoli Salerno Emilia-Romagna Bologna Ferrara Forlì-Cesena Modena Parma Piacenza Ravenna Reggio nell’Emilia Rimini Lazio Frosinone Latina Rieti Roma Viterbo Liguria Genova Imperia La Spezia Savona Lombardy5 Bergamo Brescia Como Cremona Lecco Lodi Mantova Milano5 Pavia Sondrio Varese Marche5 Ancona Ascoli Piceno5 Macerata Pesaro e Urbino Molise Campobasso Isernia Piedmont Alessandria Asti Biella Cuneo Novara Torino Verbano-CusioOssola Vercelli Puglia5 Bari5 Brindisi Foggia5 Lecce Taranto Tuscany Arezzo Firenze Grosseto Livorno Lucca Massa-Carrara Pisa Pistoia Prato Siena Umbria Perugia Terni

population

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

20104 estimate

L’Aquila Chieti L’Aquila Pescara Teramo Potenza Matera Potenza Catanzaro Catanzaro Cosenza Crotone Reggio di Calabria Vibo Valentia Naples Avellino Benevento Caserta Naples Salerno Bologna Bologna Ferrara Forlì Modena Parma Piacenza Ravenna Reggio nell’Emilia Rimini Rome Frosinone Latina Rieti Rome Viterbo Genoa Genoa Imperia La Spezia Savona Milan Bergamo Brescia Como Cremona Lecco Lodi Mantova Milan Pavia Sondrio Varese Ancona Ancona Ascoli Piceno Macerata Pesaro Campobasso Campobasso Isernia Turin Alessandria Asti Biella Cuneo Novara Turin

4,156 999 1,944 473 752 3,859 1,331 2,527 5,823 924 2,568 662 1,229 440 5,247 1,078 800 1,019 452 1,900 8,539 1,429 1,016 969 1,039 1,332 1,000 718 885 154 6,655 1,251 869 1,061 2,066 1,395 2,093 709 446 341 596 9,213 1,051 1,846 497 684 315 302 903 765 1,145 1,240 463 3,743 749 806 1,071 1,117 1,713 1,123 590 9,808 1,375 583 352 2,665 530 2,637

10,763 2,587 5,034 1,225 1,948 9,995 3,447 6,545 15,081 2,392 6,650 1,716 3,183 1,139 13,590 2,792 2,071 2,639 1,171 4,922 22,117 3,702 2,632 2,510 2,690 3,449 2,589 1,859 2,292 400 17,236 3,239 2,251 2,749 5,352 3,612 5,422 1,836 1,155 882 1,545 23,863 2,722 4,782 1,288 1,771 816 783 2,339 1,980 2,965 3,212 1,199 9,694 1,940 2,087 2,774 2,892 4,438 2,909 1,529 25,402 3,560 1,511 913 6,903 1,373 6,830

1,338,898 396,852 309,264 321,192 311,590 588,879 203,570 385,309 2,009,330 368,219 734,652 173,812 565,756 166,891 5,824,662 439,036 288,283 910,006 3,079,685 1,107,652 4,377,435 984,342 358,972 392,329 694,579 437,349 288,003 389,509 525,267 307,085 5,681,868 497,849 551,217 159,979 4,154,684 318,139 1,615,986 883,180 221,885 223,606 287,315 9,826,141 1,087,204 1,242,923 590,050 362,061 337,912 225,825 412,606 3,963,916 544,230 182,709 876,705 1,577,676 478,319 391,066 324,369 383,922 320,229 231,440 88,789 4,446,230 439,414 221,151 186,698 589,586 368,864 2,297,598

Verbania Vercelli Bari Bari Brindisi Foggia Lecce Taranto Florence Arezzo Florence Grosseto Livorno Lucca Massa Pisa Pistoia Prato Siena Perugia Perugia Terni

858 806 7,474 1,980 710 2,774 1,065 941 8,878 1,248 1,365 1,739 468 684 447 945 373 133 1,475 3,265 2,446 819

2,221 2,088 19,358 5,129 1,838 7,185 2,759 2,437 22,993 3,232 3,536 4,504 1,213 1,773 1,157 2,448 965 344 3,821 8,456 6,334 2,122

163,121 179,798 4,084,035 1,604,093 403,096 682,765 813,556 580,525 3,730,130 348,127 991,862 227,063 341,453 392,182 203,642 414,154 292,108 248,174 271,365 900,790 667,071 233,719

Veneto Belluno Padova Rovigo Treviso Venezia Verona Vicenza Autonomous regions Provinces Friuli-Venezia Giulia Gorizia Pordenone Trieste Udine Sardinia Cagliari Carbonia-Iglesias Medio Campidano Nuoro Ogliastra Olbia-Tempio Oristano Sassari Sicily Agrigento Caltanissetta Catania Enna Messina Palermo Ragusa Siracusa Trapani Trentino–Alto Adige (Trentino-Südtirol) Bolzano (Bozen) Trento Valle d’Aosta (Vallée d’Aoste) TOTAL

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

20104 estimate

Venice Belluno Padova Rovigo Treviso Venice Verona Vicenza

7,104 1,420 827 691 956 950 1,195 1,051

18,399 3,678 2,142 1,789 2,477 2,460 3,096 2,722

4,912,438 213,876 927,730 247,297 883,840 858,915 914,382 866,398

Trieste Gorizia Pordenone Trieste Udine Cagliari Cagliari Carbonia, Iglesias Sanluri, Villacidro Nuoro Lanusei; Tortolì Olbia Oristano Sassari Palermo Agrigento Caltanissetta Catania Enna Messina Palermo Ragusa Siracusa Trapani

3,034 180 878 82 1,889 9,301 1,764 577 585 1,519 716 1,312 1,174 1,653 9,927 1,175 822 1,371 989 1,254 1,927 623 814 951

7,858 467 2,273 212 4,893 24,090 4,570 1,495 1,516 3,934 1,854 3,399 3,040 4,282 25,711 3,042 2,128 3,552 2,562 3,248 4,992 1,614 2,109 2,462

1,234,079 142,627 313,870 236,546 541,036 1,672,404 561,080 130,186 102,647 161,020 58,006 156,121 166,712 336,632 5,042,992 454,593 272,052 1,087,682 173,009 653,810 1,246,094 316,113 403,356 436,283

Trento (Trient) Bolzano (Bozen) Trento (Trient)

5,254 2,857 2,401

13,607 7,400 6,218

1,028,260 503,434 524,826

1,260 116,346

3,263 301,336

127,866 60,340,328

Aosta (Aoste)

Demography Population (2010): 60,487,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 519.9, persons per sq km 200.7. Urban-rural (2005): urban 67.6%; rural 32.4%. Sex distribution (20094): male 48.55%; female 51.45%. Age breakdown (20084): under 15, 14.1%; 15–29, 16.3%; 30–44, 23.8%; 45–59, 20.1%; 60–74, 16.1%; 75–84, 7.2%; 85 and over, 2.4%. Population projection: (2020) 61,902,000; (2030) 62,353,000. Ethnolinguistic composition (2000): Italian 96.0%; North African Arab 0.9%; Italo-Albanian 0.8%; Albanian 0.5%; German 0.4%; Austrian 0.4%; other 1.0%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic c. 83%, of which practicing c. 28%; Muslim c. 2%; nonreligious/atheist c. 14%; other c. 1%. Major cities/urban agglomerations (20104/2007): Rome 2,743,796 (3,339,000); Milan 1,307,495 (2,945,000); Naples 962,940 (2,250,000); Turin 909,538 (1,652,000); Palermo 656,081 (863,000); Genoa 609,746; Bologna 377,220; Florence 368,901; Bari 320,150; Catania 295,591; Venice 270,801; Verona 264,475; Messina 242,864; Padua 212,989; Trieste 205,523; Taranto 193,136; Brescia 191,618; Prato 186,798; Reggio di Calabria 185,854; Parma 184,467; Modena 183,114. Households. Average household size (20084) 2.4; composition of households (2001): 1 person 24.9%, 2 persons 27.1%, 3 persons 21.6%, 4 persons 19.0%, 5 or more persons 7.4%. Family households (2001): 21,810,676, of which couple with children 41.5%, single family 24.9%, couple without children 20.8%, mother with children 7.3%, father with children 1.6%. Immigration (20084): resident foreigners 3,432,651, of which from EU countries 17.7%, other Europe 23.0%, North African countries 15.2%, other Africa 6.6%, Asian countries 7.7%, other/not stated 29.8%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.5 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2007) 79.3%; outside of marriage (2007) 20.7%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.8 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): –0.3 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 1.37. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 4.0/(2007) 0.8. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 78.9 years; female 84.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 373.4; malignant neoplasms 286.2; diseases of the respiratory system 60.7; diseases of the digestive system 39.2. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 0.4%6 (world avg. 0.8%).

Social indicators Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population ages 25 to 64 having: no formal schooling through primary education 15%; lower secondary 33%; upper secondary 37%; university 13%; other 2%. Quality of working life. Average workweek (2008): 34.6 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 workers (2007) for: nonfatal injury 2,647; fatal injury 4. Number of working days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workers (2007): 52.6. Material well-being. Rate per 100 households possessing (2008): mobile phone 88.5; personal computer 50.1; Internet access 42.0; satellite dish 30.7. Transport used for work per 100 employees (includes double-counting; 2008): car 75.7%, walking 11.1%, bus 4.9%, motorcycle/motorbike 4.6%, bicycle 3.1%, train 2.9%, underground 2.5%, other 2.9%.

Nations of the World Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election (April 2008): over 80%. Trade union membership in total workforce (2004): c. 30%. Social deviance (2007). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder/manslaughter 4.6; rape 8.2; theft 2,756; battery 132.2; robbery 86.2. Access to services (2002). Nearly 100% of dwellings have access to electricity, a safe water supply, and toilet facilities. Leisure (2006). Favourite leisure activities (attendance per 100 people age 6 and over): cinema 48.9; museum/art exhibition 27.7; sporting events 27.3; discotheque 24.8; archaeological sites/monuments 21.1.

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (20084) 2.4; average annual disposable income per household (2008) >19,342 (U.S.$28,332); sources of income (1996): salaries and wages 38.8%, property income and self-employment 38.5%, transfer payments 22.0%; expenditure (20074): housing and energy 31.4%, food and beverages 18.8%, transportation and communications 16.7%, clothing 6.3%, leisure 5.4%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 22.7%, left fallow 1.7%, in permanent crops 8.6%, in pasture 14.2%, forest area 34.6%.

Foreign trade12

National economy Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$2,112,492,000,000 (U.S.$35,080 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$31,330 per capita).

2009 in value >’000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

2008 % of total value

labour force

% of labour force

25,084 4,865 220,602 85,932 31,327

1.6 0.3 14.5 5.7 2.1

895,000 36,000 4,805,000 1,970,000 144,000

3.6 0.1 19.1 7.9 0.6

99,599 203,946 393,893 93,207 209,271 153,1447 1,520,870

6.5 13.4 25.9 6.1 13.8 10.17 100.0

1,294,000 4,719,000 3,271,000 1,436,000 4,798,000 1,728,0008 25,096,000

5.2 18.8 13.0 5.7 19.1 6.98 100.0

Budget (2006)9. Revenue: >672,610,000,000 (taxes on goods and services 27.6%, social security contributions 27.6%, individual income taxes 24.4%, nontax revenue 6.7%, taxes on corporations 6.4%). Expenditures: >722,750,000,000 (social protection 37.2%, health 14.4%, economic affairs 12.0%, public debt 9.5%, education 9.2%, defense 2.8%). Public debt (May 2009): U.S.$2,137,581,000,000. Financial aggregates 2004

2005

2006

Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

2007

2008

2009

Exchange rate, > per10: U.S. dollar 0.73 0.85 0.76 0.68 0.72 0.69 £ 1.42 1.46 1.49 1.36 1.03 1.08 SDR 1.14 1.21 1.14 1.07 1.11 1.09 International reserves (U.S.$)10 Total (excl. gold; ’000,000) 27,859 25,515 25,662 28,385 37,088 45,770 SDRs (’000,000) 145 229 272 331 261 9,414 Reserve pos. in IMF (’000,000) 3,703 1,758 977 735 1,520 1,835 Foreign exchange (’000,000) 24,011 23,528 24,413 27,319 35,306 34,521 Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) 78.83 78.83 78.83 78.83 78.83 78.83 % world reserves … 8.1 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.1 Interest and prices Central bank discount (%) … … … … … … Govt. bond yield (%) 4.26 3.56 4.05 4.49 4.68 4.31 Share prices11 (2005 = 100) 84.0 100.0 115.7 127.0 88.1 63.0 Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000) Balance of visible trade +10,893 +564 –12,511 +4,242 –51 +3,259 Imports, f.o.b. –341,278 –371,814 –430,585 –498,142 –546,908 –403,900 Exports, f.o.b. 352,171 372,378 418,074 502,384 546,857 407,160 Balance of invisibles –27,349 –30,277 –35,534 –55,274 –77,978 –69,458 Balance of payments, current account –16,456 –29,713 –48,045 –51,032 –78,029 –66,199

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 316,719,000,000 ([2007] 360,171,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) 158,000 (25,118,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 36,400,000 ([2007] 680,004,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 91,714,000 (75,191,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) 9,103,000,000 ([2007] 84,927,000,000). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): cow’s milk 12,000,000, grapes 8,242,500, corn (maize) 7,877,700, tomatoes 6,382,700, wheat 6,341,000, olives 3,600,500, sugar beets 3,307,700, oranges 2,478,200, apples 2,176,200, potatoes 1,753,200, peaches and nectarines 1,638,100, pig meat 1,588,444, cattle meat 1,055,006, pears 831,100, artichokes 486,600, kiwi fruit 436,300, hazelnuts (2008) 111,841; livestock (number of live animals) 9,252,400 pigs, 8,175,200 sheep, 6,124,000 cattle, (2008) 100,000,000 chickens; roundwood 7,580,994 cu m, of which fuelwood 66%; fisheries production (2008) 417,254 (from aquaculture 43%). Mining and quarrying (2008): limestone 32,900,000; feldspar 4,700,000 [world rank: 2]; marble and travertine 4,600,000; pozzolana 4,000,000 [world rank: 2]. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2005): fabricated metal products 34,849; food products 21,119; general purpose machinery 19,782; paints, soaps, pharmaceuticals 14,945; special purpose machinery 13,548; bricks, cement, ceramics 12,684; printing and publishing 10,567; plastic products 9,205; textiles 9,063; motor vehicles and parts 8,533; wearing apparel 8,317; furniture 8,195; iron and steel 7,298; footwear and leather products 6,643. Population economically active (2008): total 25,096,600; activity rate of total population 42.2% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 63.0%; female 40.7%; unemployed [2009] 7.8%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

609

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.9 94.1

98.1 97.1

100.0 100.0

102.1 103.2

104.0 106.1

107.4 108.3

108.3 111.6

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 46,232; remittances (2009) 1,902; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 32,158. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 30,839; remittances (2008) 12,718; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 58,894.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,724 0.2%

–11,879 1.6%

–25,412 3.0%

–11,619 1.1%

–16,887 1.5%

–4,058 0.7%

Imports (2008): U.S.$553,962,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 15.9%, of which nonelectrical machinery 7.7%; chemicals and chemical products 12.2%; crude petroleum 10.6%; road vehicles/parts 9.5%; food 6.5%; iron and steel 5.9%). Major import sources: Germany 15.7%; France 8.5%; China 6.3%; Netherlands 5.1%; Spain 3.9%; Belgium 3.8%; Libya 3.8%; U.S. 3.1%; Switzerland 3.0%; U.K. 2.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$537,075,000,000 (nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 21.0%, of which general industrial machinery 10.2%, specialized machinery for particular industries 6.3%; chemicals and chemical products 9.9%; road vehicles/parts 7.7%; iron and steel 5.4%; electrical machinery and apparatus 5.1%; food 4.9%; apparel and clothing accessories 4.7%; manufactures of metals 4.4%; refined petroleum 3.9%; furniture 2.6%; footwear 2.1%). Major export destinations: Germany 12.7%; France 11.1%; Spain 6.5%; U.S. 6.3%; U.K. 5.2%; Switzerland 4.0%; Russia 2.9%; Belgium 2.6%; Poland 2.6%; Austria 2.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 10,163 mi, 16,356 km; passenger-km 45,767,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 20,118,000,000. Roads (2005): total length 303,040 mi, 487,700 km (paved 100%); passenger-km (2006) 795,700,000,00013; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 179,411,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 35,680,000; trucks and buses 4,534,020. Air transport (2008)14: passenger-km 39,421,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,231,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

28,153

2009 2009

90,61316 21,300

units per 1,000 persons 494 1,51416 356

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

21,791 4,84215 29,236 11,80016

367 9415 488 19716

Education and health Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 98.9%; males literate 99.1%; females literate 98.6%. Education (2005–06) Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

264,378 426,822 99,595

2,790,254 4,531,571 2,029,023

10.6 10.6 20.4

99 94 67 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2006) 215,000 (1 per 274 persons); hospital beds (2005) 234,428 (1 per 250 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 3.8; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 293,202 (army 36.9%, navy 11.6%, air force 14.7%, carabinieri 36.8%); U.S. military forces (September 2009) 9,707. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.3%17; per capita expenditure U.S.$516.

1Included

7 nonelective seats in June 2009 (4 presidential appointees and 3 former presidents serving ex officio). 2In addition, German is locally official in the region of Trentino–Alto Adige and French is locally official in the region of Valle d’Aosta. 3Region areas are based on an end-of-2002 survey; province areas are based on an older survey and therefore may not sum to the region area. 4January 1. 5Three new provinces were formally established in June 2009. Monza and Brianza province was created from part of Milano province, Lombardy region; Fermo from part of Ascoli Piceno province, Marche region; and Barletta-Andria-Trani from parts of Bari and Foggia provinces, Puglia region. 6Statistically derived midpoint within range. 7Taxes less subsidies. 8Includes 1,692,000 unemployed. 9According to the general government budget; for Italy this is the central government budget and some of the local government budget. 10End of year. 11Yearly average. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Pass. cars 693,000,000,000; buses 102,700,000,000. 14Air One, Alitalia, Livingston S.P.A., and Meridiana airlines only. 15Circulation of daily newspapers. 16Subscribers. 17Includes military pensions.

Internet resources for further information: • National Statistical Institute http://www.istat.it • Banca d’Italia http://www.bancaditalia.it

610

Britannica World Data

Jamaica

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$13,541,000,000 (U.S.$5,020 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$7,320 per capita).

Official name: Jamaica. Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [211]; House of Representatives [60]). Head of state: British Monarch represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kingston. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Jamaican dollar (J$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = J$84.65; 1 £ = J$130.77.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population Parishes Clarendon Hanover Kingston Manchester Portland Saint Andrew Saint Ann Saint Catherine Saint Elizabeth Saint James Saint Mary Saint Thomas Trelawny Westmoreland

area sq mi

sq km

May Pen Lucea

462 174 9 320 314 166 468 460 468 230 236 287 338 312 4,244

1,196 450 22 830 814 431 1,213 1,192 1,212 595 611 743 875 807 10,991

3

Mandeville Port Antonio 3

Saint Ann’s Bay Spanish Town Black River Montego Bay Port Maria Morant Bay Falmouth Savanna-la-Mar

TOTAL

20092 estimate 246,518 69,926 3

190,920 82,245 666,1823 173,414 498,451 151,122 184,412 114,317 94,245 75,618 144,988 2,692,358

labour force7

% of labour force7

58,768.1 8,955.8 86,367.5 76,496.5 37,916.0 101,204.4 233,407.2 199,881.0 133,291.7 61,418.5 85,741.68 1,083,448.3

5.4 0.8 8.0 7.1 3.5 9.3 21.5 18.5 12.3 5.7 7.98 100.0

232,900 6,400 85,200 116,500 8,500 79,300 330,400 77,800 55,600 240,700 171,7009 1,405,000

16.6 0.5 6.1 8.3 0.6 5.6 23.5 5.5 4.0 17.1 12.29 100.0

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 2,702,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 636.7, persons per sq km 245.8. Urban-rural (2009): urban 52.0%; rural 48.0%. Sex distribution (20092): male 49.28%; female 50.72%. Age breakdown (20092): under 15, 27.9%; 15–29, 25.0%; 30–44, 23.8%; 45–59, 12.4%; 60–74, 7.1%; 75 and over, 3.8%. Population projection: (2020) 2,767,000; (2030) 2,805,000. Doubling time: 67 years. Ethnic composition (2001): black 91.6%; mixed race 6.2%; East Indian 0.9%; Chinese 0.2%; white 0.2%; other/unknown 0.9%. Religious affiliation (2001): Protestant 61.2%, of which Church of God 23.8%4, Seventh-day Adventist 10.8%, Pentecostal 9.5%; Roman Catholic 2.6%; other Christian 1.7%; Rastafarian 0.9%; nonreligious 20.9%; other 12.7%. Major cities (2006): Kingston 585,3005; Spanish Town 148,800; Portmore 103,900; Montego Bay 82,700; Mandeville 47,700; May Pen 44,800.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 16.3 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 6.5 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.8 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.30. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 7.9/0.7. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 71.3 years; female 77.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): circulatory diseases 321, of which cerebrovascular disease 135; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 130; communicable diseases 106; diabetes 81.

National economy Budget (2009–10). Revenue: J$300,193,300,000 (tax revenue 88.6%, nontax revenue 7.0%, grants and other revenue 4.4%). Expenditures: J$421,458,500,000 (interest 44.8%, wages and salaries 30.0%, capital expenditures 8.2%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 1,968,000, fruit (2007) 415,000 (of which oranges 142,000), coconuts 265,600, goat’s milk 165,000, bananas 125,000, chicken meat (2009) 107,000, yams 102,284, pumpkins, squash, and gourds 34,119, pimiento and allspice (2005) 10,400, coffee 3,300; livestock (number of live animals) 440,000 goats, 14,100,000 chickens; roundwood 829,200 cu m, of which fuelwood 67%; fisheries production 19,123 (from aquaculture 31%). Mining and quarrying (2008): bauxite 14,697,000; alumina 3,991,000; limestone (2007) 2,950,000; gypsum 238,000. Manufacturing (2008): cement 724,600,000; animal feeds (2005) 367,600; sugar 140,000; flour 132,561; molasses 62,654; beer 859,870 hectolitres; rum [and other distilled spirits] 265,349 hectolitres; cigarettes (2005) 724,313,000 units. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kWhr; 2007) 7,782,000,000 (7,782,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) none (36,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (6,267,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 838,000 (4,418,000); natural gas, none (none). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 16.1%, in permanent crops 10.2%, in pasture 21.1%, forest area 31.2%. Population economically active (20106): total 1,242,000; activity rate of total population 46.0% (participation rates: ages 14 and over, 62.0%; female 45.1%; unemployed 11.4%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

% of total value

Public debt (external, outstanding; April 2010): U.S.$7,729,300,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 3.5; average annual income per household: n.a.; expenditure (2006)10: food and nonalcoholic beverages 37.5%, housing/energy 12.8%, transportation 12.8%, restaurants and hotels 6.2%, household furnishings 4.9%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,984; remittances (2009–10) 2,212; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 1,122; official development assistance (2008) 79. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 298; remittances (2009–10) 270; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 94.

population

Capitals

in value J$’000,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

76.6

86.9

100.0

108.4

118.6

144.7

158.6

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,944 37.8%

–2,581 43.7%

–2,943 40.8%

–3,841 44.8%

–5,047 50.2%

–3,123 53.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$8,465,000,000 (refined petroleum 29.5%; chemicals and chemical products 11.5%; food 10.5%; machinery and apparatus 10.2%; crude petroleum 10.2%). Major import sources: U.S. 39.4%; Trinidad and Tobago 17.5%; Venezuela 11.6%; China 3.8%; Brazil 2.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$2,439,000,000 (alumina 50.5%; refined petroleum 17.9%; food 10.6%, of which raw sugar 4.3%, coffee 1.1%; undenatured ethyl alcohol 6.2%; rum 1.8%; beer 1.4%). Major export destinations: U.S. 40.3%; Canada 10.6%; U.K. 9.2%; Neth. 7.8%; France 5.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 27 mi, 43 km12. Roads (2007): total length 13,745 mi, 22,121 km (paved [2005] 74%). Vehicles: passenger cars (2006) 373,742; trucks and buses (2004) 128,239. Air transport (2008)13: passenger-km 3,027,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 12,400,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

1,006

2009 2009

2,97115 302

units per 1,000 persons 374 1,09315 111

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

179 11514 1,581 11215

68 4314 582 4115

Education and health Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 0.9%; primary education 25.5%; secondary 55.5%; higher 12.3%, of which university 4.2%; unknown 5.8%. Literacy (2008): population age 15 and over literate 85.9%; males 80.6%; females 90.8%. Education (2004–05) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary16

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

11,793 13,336 2,006

326,411 246,332 45,770

27.7 18.5 22.8

90 78 19 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2005) 2,253 (1 per 1,176 persons); hospital beds (2006) 5,326 (1 per 500 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 16.7; undernourished population (2004–06) 140,000 (5% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,860 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 2,830 (army 88.3%, coast guard 6.7%, air force 5.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.7%; per capita expenditure U.S.$33. 1All seats appointed by Governor-General. 2January 1. 3The parishes of Kingston and Saint Andrew are jointly administered from the Half Way Tree section of Saint Andrew. 4Includes numerous denominations. 5Urban population of the amalgamated Kingston and St. Andrew parishes. 6April. 7October. 8Taxes on products less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 9Includes 25,900 not adequately defined and 145,800 unemployed. 10Weights of consumer price index components. 11Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 12Only operable railway transported bauxite. 13Air Jamaica. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 162002–03.

Internet resources for further information: • Statistical Institute of Jamaica http://www.statinja.gov.jm • Bank of Jamaica http://www.boj.org.jm

Nations of the World

Major metropolitan areas (2009): Tokyo 36,507,000; −saka-Kobe 11,325,000; Nagoya 3,257,000; Fukuoka–Kita-Kyushu 2,809,000; Sapporo 2,673,000; Sendai 2,362,000; Hiroshima 2,079,000; Kyoto 1,805,000.

Japan Official name: Nihon, or Nippon (Japan). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with a national Diet consisting of two legislative houses (House of Councillors [242]; House of Representatives [480]). Symbol of state: Emperor. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Tokyo. Official language: Japanese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: yen (¥); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = ¥84.47; 1 £ = ¥130.49.

Other principal cities (20091) population

Area and population

area

population 20091 estimate

Regions Prefectures

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

Chubu Aichi Fukui Gifu Ishikawa Nagano Niigata Shizuoka Toyama Yamanashi

Nagoya Fukui Gifu Kanazawa Nagano Niigata Shizuoka Toyama Kofu

25,786 1,991 1,617 4,092 1,616 5,245 4,858 3,003 1,640 1,724

66,786 5,156 4,189 10,598 4,185 13,585 12,582 7,779 4,247 4,465

21,772,516 7,414,098 808,589 2,086,590 1,166,656 2,160,602 2,383,650 3,787,982 1,095,217 869,132

Chugoku Hiroshima Okayama Shimane Tottori Yamaguchi

Hiroshima Okayama Matsue Tottori Yamaguchi

12,322 3,273 2,746 2,590 1,354 2,359

31,913 8,477 7,112 6,707 3,507 6,110

7,578,288 2,866,571 1,943,655 720,112 591,150 1,456,800

Hokkaido Hokkaido

Sapporo

32,221 32,221

83,453 83,453

5,517,449 5,517,449

Kanto Chiba Gumma Ibaraki Kanagawa Saitama Tochigi Tokyo-to

Chiba Maebashi Mito Yokohama Saitama Utsunomiya Tokyo

12,522 1,991 2,457 2,354 932 1,466 2,474 848

32,432 5,156 6,363 6,096 2,415 3,797 6,408 2,197

42,333,117 6,183,743 2,006,903 2,967,404 9,005,176 7,170,362 2,010,732 12,988,797

Kinki Hyogo Kyoto-fu Mie Nara ¯ saka-fu O Shiga Wakayama

Kobe Kyoto Tsu Nara ¯ saka O ¯ tsu O Wakayama

12,783 3,240 1,781 2,230 1,425 731 1,551 1,825

33,108 8,392 4,613 5,776 3,691 1,893 4,017 4,726

22,742,540 5,599,359 2,631,441 1,862,575 1,400,951 8,840,372 1,402,132 1,005,710

Kyushu Fukuoka Kagoshima Kumamoto Miyazaki Nagasaki ¯ ita O Okinawa Saga

Fukuoka Kagoshima Kumamoto Miyazaki Nagasaki ¯ ita O Naha Saga

17,157 1,919 3,547 2,859 2,986 1,580 2,447 877 942

44,436 4,971 9,187 7,404 7,734 4,092 6,338 2,271 2,439

14,595,361 5,066,856 1,711,746 1,815,985 1,132,768 1,432,236 1,197,220 1,385,725 852,825

Matsuyama Takamatsu Kochi Tokushima

7,259 2,192 724 2,743 1,600

18,802 5,676 1,876 7,105 4,145

3,994,507 1,437,549 1,000,169 767,520 789,269

25,825 4,483 3,709 5,321 5,899 2,813 3,600 145,8982

66,886 11,612 9,606 13,782 15,278 7,285 9,323 377,8732

9,383,924 1,097,626 1,382,637 2,042,816 1,340,852 2,340,029 1,179,964 127,917,702

Shikoku Ehime Kagawa Kochi Tokushima Tohoku Akita Aomori Fukushima Iwate Miyagi Yamagata TOTAL

Akita Aomori Fukushima Morioka Sendai Yamagata

611

Demography Population (2010): 127,320,0003. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 872.5, persons per sq km 336.9. Urban-rural (2009): urban 66.6%; rural 33.4%. Sex distribution (20104): male 48.69%; female 51.31%. Age breakdown (20104): under 15, 13.3%; 15–29, 15.9%; 30–44, 20.9%; 45–59, 19.1%; 60–74, 19.7%; 75–84, 8.1%; 85 and over, 3.0%. Population projection: (2020) 123,981,000; (2030) 117,725,000. Composition by nationality (2006): Japanese 98.4%; Korean 0.5%; Chinese 0.4%; Brazilian 0.2%; other 0.5%. Immigration/Emigration (20075): permanent immigrants/registered aliens in Japan 2,152,973, from Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and China 28.2%, from North and South Korea 27.6%, from Brazil 14.7%, from the Philippines 9.4%, from Peru 2.8%, from the U.S. 2.4%, from Thailand 1.9%, from Vietnam 1.7%, other 11.3%. Japanese nationals living abroad 1,085,671, in the U.S. 34.5%, in China 11.8%, in the U.K. 5.9%, in Australia 5.8%, in Brazil 5.7%, in Canada 4.4%, in Thailand 3.9%, other 28.0%. Permanent expatriates (including those with dual nationality) 339,774, of which living in the U.S. 37.4%, in Brazil 17.6%, in Australia 9.0%, in Canada 8.8%. Major cities (20104): Tokyo 8,843,000; Yokohama 3,681,000; −saka 2,668,000; Nagoya 2,259,000; Sapporo 1,910,000; Kobe 1,538,000; Kyoto 1,464,000; Fukuoka 1,461,000; Kawasaki 1,420,000; Saitama 1,229,100; Hiroshima 1,173,000; Sendai 1,037,000; Kita-Kyushu 981,000.

Akita Amagasaki Aomori Asahikawa Chiba Fujisawa Fukuyama Funabashi Gifu Hachioji Hamamatsu ¯ saka Higashi-O Himeji Hirakata Ichikawa Ichinomiya Iwaki Kagoshima Kanazawa Kashiwa

population Kasugai Kawagoe Kawaguchi Kochi Koriyama Koshigaya Kumamoto Kurashiki Kurume Machida Maebashi Matsudo Matsuyama Miyazaki Nagano Nagasaki Naha Nara Niigata Nishinomiya

325,837 462,561 302,143 349,331 955,279 407,287 462,247 600,025 411,179 575,578 811,397 505,415 536,446 407,353 475,751 378,915 345,310 605,424 457,273 397,446

302,929 340,461 501,769 343,776 338,835 323,460 729,739 473,983 304,124 419,205 338,793 484,194 515,772 398,407 384,327 444,117 314,897 365,470 812,223 480,980

population ¯ ita O Okayama Okazaki ¯ tsu O Sagamihara Sakai Shizuoka Suita Takamatsu Takasaki Takatsuki Tokorozawa Toyama Toyohashi Toyonaka Toyota Utsunomiya Wakayama Yokkaichi Yokosuka

470,826 704,189 373,527 332,823 712,318 837,853 717,198 355,083 418,749 369,088 353,919 339,696 420,423 377,094 388,544 424,681 510,068 369,958 307,456 419,838

Religious affiliation (2003): Shinto and related beliefs 84.2%6; Buddhism and related beliefs 73.6%6; Christian 1.7%; Muslim 0.1%; other 7.8%. Households (2007). Total households (2009) 48,013,000; average household size (20104) 3.1; composition of households 1 person 28.2%, 2 persons 28.0%, 3 persons 18.5%, 4 persons 16.2%, 5 persons 6.1%, 6 or more persons 3.0%. Family households (2009) 32,823,000 (68.4%); nonfamily 15,189,000 (31.6%). Type of household (2008) Total number of occupied dwelling units: 49,598,300 number of dwellings

percentage of total

48,281,000 1,523,6007 81,4007 27,450,000 20,684,000

97.3 3.37 0.27 55.3 41.7

1,330,000 134,000

2.7 0.3

by legal tenure of householder owned rented other

30,316,000 17,770,000 1,512,300

61.1 35.8 3.1

by kind of amenities flush toilet bathroom

45,008,500 47,386,200

90.7 95.5

by year of construction 1950 and earlier 1951–70 1971–80 1981–90 1991–2000 2001–2008 (Sept.) not reported/unknown

1,858,300 5,052,400 8,969,000 9,957,600 11,582,800 8,624,100 3,554,100

3.7 10.2 18.1 20.1 23.3 17.4 7.2

by kind of dwelling exclusively for living mixed use combined with nondwelling detached house apartment building tenement (substandard or overcrowded building) other

Mobility (2009). Percentage of total population moving: within a prefecture 1.9%; between prefectures 2.2%.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.5 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): –0.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.37. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 5.6 (average age at first marriage, men 30.4 years; women 28.6 years)/2.0. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 79.6 years; female 86.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 269.8; heart disease 141.7; cerebrovascular disease 95.9; pneumonia 87.8; accidents 29.6; suicide 24.1; renal failure 17.8; diseases of the liver 12.5; pulmonary disease 12.0; diabetes mellitus 11.0.

Social indicators Educational attainment (2008). Percentage of population ages 25–64 having: no formal schooling through upper secondary education 57%; higher vocational 19%; university 24%. Distribution of income (2000) percentage of average household income by quintile 1

2

3

4

11.2

15.3

18.8

23.0

5 (highest) 31.7

Quality of working life. Average hours worked per week (20108): 40.6. Annual rate of deaths/nonfatal injuries per 100,000 workers (2008): 1.9/177.5. Proportion of labour force insured for damages or income loss resulting from injury, permanent disability, and death (2005): 53.1%. Average man-days lost to labour stoppages per 1,000 workdays (2006): 1.8. Average duration of journey to work (2008): 27.8 minutes. Access to services (2004). Proportion of households having access to: safe public water supply 96.9%; public sewage system c. 68%. Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election (August 2009): 69%. Adult population working as volunteers at least once

612

Britannica World Data

in the year (2006) 26.2%. Trade union membership in total workforce (2008): 15.8%. Social deviance (2009). Offense rate per 100,000 population for: homicide 0.9; robbery 3.5; larceny and theft 101.9. Incidence in general population of: alcoholism per 100,000 population, n.a.; drug and substance abuse (2005) 0.1. Rate of suicide per 100,000 population: 24.1.

3.8%, furniture and household utensils 3.8%, clothing and footwear 3.0%, education 2.6%. Population economically active (20109): total 66,150,000; activity rate of total population 52.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 74.3%; female 42.1%; unemployed [September 2009–August 2010] 5.1%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

Leisure/use of personal time Discretionary daily activities (2006) (Population age 10 years and over)

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

weekly average hrs./min. Total discretionary daily time of which Hobbies and amusements Sports Learning (except schoolwork) Social activities Radio, television, newspapers, and magazines Rest and relaxation Other activities

6:23

Favourite sports according to the rates of participation (2007): males—jogging/marathon 24.9%, bowling 24.1%, fishing 16.4%, baseball 15.9%, gymnastics 14.5%, swimming in pool 13.5%; females—gymnastics 24.1%, bowling 21.4%, jogging/marathon 16.5%, swimming in pool 14.5%, aerobics 7.8%, badminton 7.4%. Favourite amusements according to the rates of participation (2007): males— lotteries 40.7%, karaoke 40.3%, home video games 32.2%; females—karaoke 37.8%, lotteries 36.1%, card games 28.5%. Favourite hobbies according to the rates of participation (2007): average for both sexes—personal computer–related activities c. 37%, listening to music c. 34%, gardening c. 28%. Favourite excursions according to the rates of participation (2007): average for both sexes—taking part in domestic sightseeing tours c. 52%, going for a drive c. 46%, visiting zoos, museums, aquariums, or botanical gardens c. 38%, visiting amusement parks c. 26%, picnicking/hiking c. 24%. Material well-being (2007). Households possessing: automobile (2003–04) 81.6%; air conditioner (2002) 87.2%; personal computer 85.0%.

National economy Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$4,830,313,000,000 (U.S.$37,870 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$33,280 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 20109

in value ¥’000,000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

7,372.3 407.8 100,279.3 30,923.8 9,007.7

1.5 0.1 19.8 6.1 1.8

2,500,000 … 10,310,000 4,960,000 …

3.8 … 15.6 7.5 …

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

34,001.1 69,617.1 91,200.7 48,220.1 124,867.6 –10,785.410 505,111.912

TOTAL

6.7 13.8 18.1 9.5 24.7 –2.110 100.0

5,390,000 14,400,000 2,910,000 2,170,000 18,880,000 4,620,00011 66,150,00012

8.1 21.8 4.4 3.3 28.5 7.011 100.0

Budget (2009–10)13. Revenue: ¥92,299,000,000,000 (government bonds 48.0%; income tax 13.7%; VAT 10.4%; corporate taxes 6.4%; other 21.5%). Expenditures: ¥92,299,000,000,000 (social security 29.5%; debt service 22.4%; public works 6.3%; education and science 6.1%; national defense 5.2%). Public debt (July 2010): U.S.$10,461,800,000,000. Financial aggregates 2003 Exchange rate5, ¥ per: U.S. dollar 107.10 £ 191.14 SDR 159.15 International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; ’000,000) 663,289 SDRs (’000,000) 2,766 Reserve pos. in IMF (’000,000) 7,733 Foreign exchange (’000,000) 652,790 Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) 24.60 % world reserves … Interest and prices 0.10 Central bank discount (%)5 Govt. bond yield (%) 1.01 Share prices (2005 = 100) 72.3 Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000,000) Balance of visible trade +106.40 Imports, f.o.b. –342.72 Exports, f.o.b. 449.12 Balance of invisibles +29.82 Balance of payments, current account +136.22

2004

2005

104.12 201.10 161.70

117.97 203.13 168.61

2006

2007

118.95 114.00 233.50 228.39 178.95 180.15

2008

2009

90.75 132.30 139.78

92.06 149.09 144.32

833,891 834,275 879,682 952,784 1,009,365 1,022,236 2,839 2,584 2,812 3,033 3,032 20,968 6,789

2,658

4,313

824,264 828,813 874,936 948,356 1,003,674 24.60 24.60 24.60 24.60 24.60 … … 2.5 2.6 2.6

996,955 24.60 2.5

0.10 1.50 88.1

2,877

0.10 1.36 100.0

1,934

0.40 1.73 128.2

1,395

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.3 99.4

100.0 100.0

100.2 100.6

100.3 102.3

101.7 101.4

100.3 98.9

Retail and wholesale trade (2004)

0:45 0:15 0:12 0:22 2:24 1:25 1:00

2008

2003 100.3 99.4

0.75 1.65 131.1

0.30 1.45 93.5

0.30 1.34 68.4

+132.13 +93.96 +81.30 +104.75 –406.87 –473.61 –534.51 –573.34 539.00 567.57 615.81 678.09 +39.93 +71.82 +89.22 +105.74

+38.13 –708.34 746.47 +118.50

+43.63 –501.65 545.28 +98.56

+172.06 +165.78 +170.52 +210.49

+156.63

+142.19

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (20109)14 3.1; average annual disposable income per household (2009) ¥5,134,800 (U.S.$55,668); sources of income (1994): wages and salaries 59.0%, transfer payments 20.5%, self-employment 12.8%, other 7.7%; expenditure (20109)14: food 23.8%, transportation and communications 14.5%, culture and recreation 11.7%, housing 6.9%, fuel, light, and water charges 6.8%, medical care

Retail trade Food and beverages Grocery Liquors General merchandise Department stores Motor vehicles and bicycles Furniture and home furnishings Apparel and accessories Gasoline service stations Books and stationery Wholesale trade Machinery and equipment Motor vehicles and parts General machinery except electrical General merchandise Farm, livestock, and fishery products Food and beverages Building materials Minerals and metals Chemicals Textiles, apparel, and accessories Drugs and toilet goods

no. of establishments

avg. no. of employees

annual sales (¥’000,000,000)

1,238,296 444,693 38,536 60,194 5,555 1,982 87,009 115,135 177,881 62,557 54,338 375,378 89,913 18,078 33,075 1,245 39,520 45,069 84,063 17,063 15,191 30,322 18,709

7,767,000 3,154,000 855,000 177,000 541,000 517,000 542,000 517,000 698,000 400,000 636,000 3,805,000 1,018,000 180,000 308,000 38,000 406,000 482,000 712,000 185,000 151,000 307,000 245,000

133,285 41,434 17,099 3,330 16,897 16,392 16,189 11,371 11,009 10,937 4,745 405,646 98,795 15,109 24,043 49,031 42,628 43,819 87,387 40,962 20,940 18,898 22,023

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): rice 10,592,500, sugar beets 3,649,000, potatoes 2,785,000, sugarcane 1,515,000, cabbages 1,300,000, dry onions 1,154,000, tangerines and mandarin oranges 1,066,00015, sweet potatoes 1,026,000, apples 840,10015, tomatoes 716,900, wheat 674,200, cucumbers 620,200, carrots and turnips 620,000, green onions 558,70015, lettuce 535,000, eggplant 349,200, pears 326,40015, spinach 288,000, persimmons 258,000, pumpkins 235,000, soybeans 229,900, grapes 209,10015, yams 190,000, taro 185,000, strawberries 185,000, peaches and nectarines 150,20015, chilies 142,700, apricots 120,60015, tea 86,000, mushrooms 67,00015, ginger 52,000, chestnuts 21,700, garlic 20,500, cherries 16,60015; cut flowers (number of flowers) 4,551,000; livestock (number of live animals) 9,899,000 pigs, 4,423,000 cattle, 285,349,000 chickens; roundwood 17,805,100 cu m, of which fuelwood 1%; fisheries production16 5,429,000, of which mackerel 471,000, squid 292,000, bonito 275,000, pollack 227,000, tuna 206,000 (from aquaculture [including aquatic plants] 23% [of which laver 344,000, oysters 209,000, yellowtail 153,000, wakame (seaweed) 61,000, pearls 19,000]); whales caught (2009–10) 507. Mining and quarrying (2009): limestone 132,350,000; gypsum 5,800,000 (world rank: 6); silica (industrial sand and gravel) 4,500,000 (world rank: 9); dolomite15 3,370,000; pyrophyllite15 350,000; magnesium15 13,000; iodine 9,300 (world rank: 2); gold15 6,868 kg; silver15 5,000 kg. Manufacturing enterprises (2005) avg. no. of persons engaged Food products Paints, soaps, and pharmaceuticals Motor vehicle parts Special purpose machinery Motor vehicles Iron and steel General purpose machinery Plastics Fabricated metal products (not structural) Electronic valves and tubes Television and radio receivers, sound or video equipment Base chemicals Printing Publishing Structural metal products Bricks, cement, and ceramics Paper and paper products Medical appliances and instruments Beverages Office machines and computers Domestic appliances Rubber products Electricity distribution and control apparatus

annual wages as a % of avg. of all mfg. wages

value added (U.S.$’000,000)

1,067,940

60.5

80,059

203,164 533,865 481,666 157,138 136,210 376,192 393,660

148.4 142.9 101.0 220.1 167.6 117.2 79.3

65,407 61,424 58,629 56,461 47,941 45,210 39,458

433,195 247,858

77.8 148.4

39,340 37,958

268,461 105,820 328,159 … 259,709 220,148 197,817

128.0 174.1 76.0 … 66.5 63.8 90.7

36,464 33,896 29,260 … 24,878 24,306 23,363

155,601 64,097 118,012 83,741 108,272

117.2 97.0 142.7 115.5 108.8

19,779 18,609 15,170 12,493 11,985

114,290

107.8

10,216

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009–10) 924,330,000,000 (906,680,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2008) 1,300,00017 ([2007] 186,983,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009–10) 5,778,080 ([2009] 1,552,630,500); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 171,212,000 (170,147,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009–10) 3,549,000,000 (94,000,000,000). Composition of energy supply by source (2007): crude oil and petroleum products 43.9%; coal 22.1%; natural gas 17.9%; nuclear power 10.2%; hydroelectric power 2.8%; other, including solar and geothermal power, 3.1%.

Nations of the World Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 10,820; remittances (2009) 1,846; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 19,638. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 27,901; remittances (2008) 4,743; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 92,089. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 10.2%, in permanent crops 0.9%, in pasture 1.7%, forest area 68.2%.

Foreign trade18

613

Urban transport (2000)21: passengers carried 57,719,000, of which by rail 34,020,000, by road 19,466,000, by subway 4,233,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

107,527

842

2009 2009

114,91723 44,364

90423 349

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

units per 1,000 persons

number in ’000s 86,389 50,35322 99,144 31,70923

675 39522 780 24923

Balance of trade (current prices) ¥’000,000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+12,023 10.9%

+8,810 7.2%

+8,213 5.7%

+9,505 6.1%

+1,951 1.2%

+2,816 2.7%

Imports (2008): ¥78,815,000,000,000 (mineral fuels 35.1%, of which crude petroleum 20.4%, LNG 5.9%, coal 3.9%, refined petroleum 3.1%; machinery and apparatus 17.9%, of which nonelectrical machinery/apparatus/parts 4.6%, office machines/computers/parts 3.2%, microcircuits and transistors 3.1%; chemicals and chemical products 7.2%; food 7.0%; metal ores and metal scrap [particularly iron and copper] 4.4%; apparel and clothing accessories 3.4%; nonferrous base metals [particularly aluminum and platinumgroup] 3.1%; road vehicles 2.1%). Major import sources: China 18.8%; U.S. 10.4%; Saudi Arabia 6.7%; U.A.E. 6.2%; Australia 6.2%; Indonesia 4.3%; South Korea 3.9%; Qatar 3.5%; Malaysia 3.0%; unspecified Asia (probably Taiwan) 2.9%. Exports (2008): ¥80,766,000,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 37.2%, of which machinery specialized for particular industries 6.4%, microcircuits, transistors, photosensitive devices 5.7%, general industrial machinery 5.5%, telecommunications, sound recording, and reproducing equipment 4.4%, power-generating machinery 3.8%, office machines/computers/parts 3.1%; road vehicles 21.8%, of which passenger cars 14.8%, parts for road vehicles 3.9%; chemicals and chemical products 8.8%; iron and steel 5.6%; professional, scientific, and controlling instruments 2.8%). Major export destinations: U.S. 17.8%; China 16.0%; South Korea 7.6%; unspecified Asia (probably Taiwan) 5.9%; Hong Kong 5.2%; Thailand 3.8%; Germany 3.4%; Singapore 3.1%; Netherlands 2.7%; Australia 2.2%.

imports U.S.$’000,000

00 Food and live animals 01 Beverages and tobacco 02 Crude materials, excluding fuels 03 Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials 04 Animal and vegetable oils, fats, and waxes 05 Chemicals and related products, n.e.s. 06 Basic manufactures 07 Machinery and transport equipment 08 Miscellaneous manufactured articles 09 Goods not classified by kind/remainder

45,475 5,852

exports %

U.S.$’000,000

%

7.3 0.9

… …

… …

49,539

8.0

8,953

1.3

172,785

27.8

9,280

1.3

…

…

…

…

45,521 60,475

7.3 9.7

65,191 83,628

9.1 11.7

150,712

24.2

451,952

63.3

79,539

12.8

52,492

7.3

12,345 622,243

2.0 100.0

42,831 714,327

6.0 100.0

U.S.$’000,000

%

U.S.$’000,000

%

14,768 383,453 176,592 87,134 101,513 31,252 72,021 10,563 82,464 22,797 4,925 622,243

2.4 61.6 28.4 14.0 16.3 5.0 11.6 1.7 13.2 3.7 0.8 100.0

11,492 374,138 247,800 87,168 28,345 14,203 108,971 10,770 156,223 33,266 5,264 714,327

1.6 52.4 34.7 12.2 4.0 2.0 15.2 1.5 21.9 4.7 0.7 100.0

TOTAL

Other communications media (2008–09) titles Print (2007–08) Books (new) of which Social sciences Fiction Arts Engineering Natural sciences History Philosophy Magazines/journals (2006–07) Weekly Monthly

78,013 16,196 12,759 10,921 8,623 6,563 5,131 3,933 4,511 133 2,620

titles Cinema (2008) Feature films Domestic Foreign

806 418 388 traffic (’000)

Post Postal offices Mail Domestic International Parcels Domestic International

24,539 20,114,00012 20,054,000 59,800 2,806,200 2,804,700 1,500

Education and health Literacy: total population age 15 and over literate, virtually 100%. Education (2007–08)

Trade by commodity group (2007) SITC group

Radio and television broadcasting (2007): total radio stations 1,703, of which commercial 807; total television stations 15,386, of which commercial 8,115. Commercial broadcasting hours (by percentage of programs): reports—radio 12.7%, television 19.9%; education—radio 2.3%, television 12.4%; culture— radio 12.6%, television 25.1%; entertainment—radio 69.8%, television 36.2%. Advertisements (daily average): radio 137, television 500.

Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

391,967 607,062 516,232

7,166,285 7,355,678 3,938,632

18.3 12.1 7.6

100 98 58 (age 18–22)

Health (2008): physicians 283,915 (1 per 450 persons); dentists 98,063 (1 per 1,302 persons); nurses and assistant nurses 1,252,224 (1 per 102 persons); pharmacists 249,251 (1 per 512 persons); midwives 27,789 (1 per 4,595 persons); hospital beds 1,609,403 (1 per 79 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 2.4; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 230,010 (army 60.2%, navy 18.4%, air force 15.1%, central staff 1.0%, coast guard 5.3%); reserve 41,800. U.S. troops (September 2009) 35,96524. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.0%; per capita expenditure U.S.$412.

Direction of trade (2007) imports Africa Asia Eastern Asia Southeastern Asia Western Asia Australia Europe (excl. Russia) Russia North America Latin America and Caribbean REMAINDER TOTAL

exports

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length (2009) 16,426 mi, 26,435 km; passengers carried 22,976,000; passenger-km 404,590,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 22,260,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 747,991 mi, 1,203,777 km (paved 80%); passenger-km 905,910,000,00019; metric ton-km cargo 346,420,000,000. Vehicles (201020): passenger cars 58,005,000; trucks and buses 15,751,000. Air transport (2009–10): passengers carried (2009) 99,300,000; passenger-km 124,865,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,398,519,000. Distribution of traffic (2008)

Road Rail (intercity) Inland water Air TOTAL

cargo carried (’000,000 tons)

% of national total

4,718 46 379 1 5,144

91.7 0.9 7.4 0.0 100.0

passengers carried (’000,000) 66,774 22,976 99 91 89,940

% of national total 74.2 25.6 0.1 0.1 100.0

1October 1. 2Region areas do not sum to total given because of particular excluded inland water areas; total area per 2008 survey equals 145,925 sq mi (377,944 sq km). 3July 1 estimate. 4August 1. 5End of year. 6Many Japanese practice both Shintoism and Buddhism. 72003. 8July. 9August. 10Statistical discrepancy and import duties less imputed bank service charges and less consumption taxes for gross capital formation. 11Includes 1,250,000 not adequately defined and 3,370,000 unemployed. 12Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 13Budgeted funds for General Account. 14Households with two or more persons. 152008. 16Fisheries production (2008) 4,981,071 (from aquaculture 15%); aquatic plants production (2008) 560,100 (from aquaculture 81%). 17All major coal mines were closed by 2002 but 8 smaller mines were still operational in 2008. 18Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 19Passenger cars 769,080,000,000; trucks and buses 136,830,000,000. 20June 1. 21Tokyo, Nagoya, and −saka metropolis traffic range only. 22Circulation of daily newspapers. 23Subscribers. 24Includes 2,700 troops deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Internet resources for further information: • Bank of Japan http://www.boj.or.jp/en/index.htm • Statistics Bureau and Statistical Research and Training Institute http://www.stat.go.jp/english/index.htm

614

Britannica World Data

Jersey

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2007) 2.3; average/median annual gross household income (2009–10) £J 44,720 (U.S.$70,876)/£J 34,684 (U.S.$54,970); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2004–05): housing 29.2%, recreation 14.2%, transportation 11.6%, food 9.8%, restaurants and hotels 5.8%, household furnishings 5.5%. Population economically active (2008): total 54,210; activity rate of total population c. 59% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [male], 15–59 [female] c. 85%; female c. 48%; unemployed [2009] 1.7%).

Official name: Bailiwick of Jersey. Political status: crown dependency (United Kingdom) with one legislative house (Assembly of the States of Jersey [581]). Head of state: British Monarch represented by Lieutenant Governor. Head of government: Chief Minister2 assisted by the Council of Ministers. Capital: Saint Helier. Official language: English3. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Jersey pound (£J); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 Jersey pound = U.S.$1.54; at par with the British pound. Area and population Parishes Grouville St. Brelade St. Clement St. Helier St. John St. Lawrence St. Martin St. Mary St. Ouen St. Peter St. Saviour Trinity TOTAL

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index13 Weekly earnings index

2004 96.5 96.2

2005 100.0 100.0

2006 102.9 103.8

2007 107.3 109.4

2008 113.4 113.2

2009 113.0 116.6

2010 116.2 117.9

Public debt: none. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 441; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (FDI) n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a.; FDI, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007)4: in temporary crops or left fallow c. 18%; in permanent crops, n.a.; in pasture c. 20%; forest area c. 4%.

area

population

sq mi

sq km

2001 census

3.0 4.9 1.6 4.1 3.4 3.7 3.8 2.5 5.8 4.5 3.6 4.7 45.6

7.8 12.8 4.2 10.6 8.7 9.5 9.9 6.5 15.0 11.6 9.3 12.3 118.2

4,702 10,134 8,196 28,310 2,618 4,702 3,628 1,591 3,803 4,293 12,491 2,718 87,186

Foreign trade Imports: 14. Major import sources (2007): significantly the United Kingdom. Exports: 14; agricultural and marine exports (2007): £J 34,435,000 (potatoes 67.7%, greenhouse tomatoes 11.9%, lobsters 5.5%, flowers 3.3%, zucchini 2.0%). Major export destinations: significantly the United Kingdom.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (1995): total length 346 mi, 557 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (2002): passenger cars 74,007; trucks and buses 12,957. Air transport (2009): 733,822 passenger arrivals. Communications

Demography Population (2010): 93,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 2,039, persons per sq km 786.8. Urban-rural (2009)4: urban 31.3%; rural 68.7%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.03%; female 50.97%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 17.0%; 15–29, 21.1%; 30–44, 20.3%; 45–59, 21.3%; 60–74, 13.6%; 75–84, 4.8%; 85 and over, 1.9%. Population projection: (2020) 98,000; (2030) 101,000. Population by place of birth (2008)5: Jersey 48.5%; United Kingdom, Guernsey, or Isle of Man 39.7%; Portugal 3.7%; Poland 0.8%; other 7.3%. Religious affiliation (2000)4: Christian 86.0%, of which Anglican 44.1%, Roman Catholic 14.6%, other Protestant 6.9%, unaffiliated Christian 20.1%; nonreligious/atheist 13.4%; other 0.6%. Major towns (2001)6: St. Helier 28,310; St. Saviour 12,491; St. Brelade 10,134.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.9 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 2.7 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.57. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2007) 6.5/(2001) 3.2. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 77.1 years; female 82.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2004–08 avg.): diseases of the circulatory system c. 270; malignant neoplasms (cancers) c. 223; diseases of the respiratory system c. 100; diseases of the digestive system c. 33.

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

200615

…

2006 2009

units per 1,000 persons …

10218

1,14818

74

802

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

200616 2008 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

… 2017 29 …

… 22017 320 …

Education and health Educational attainment (2008)5. Percentage of male population (16–64), female population (16–59) having: no formal degree/unknown c. 20%; primary education, n.a.; secondary c. 55%; higher c. 25%. Literacy (2008): virtually 100%. Education (2009) Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–16) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

… … …

6,956 6,305 …

… … …

… … … (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2001) 174 (1 per 500 persons); hospital beds (2010) 43319 (1 per 215 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 5.8; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel: none; defense is the responsibility of the United Kingdom.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: £J 660,000,000 (income tax 75.6%, import duties 7.6%, VAT 4.8%, stamp duties 3.6%, other 8.4%). Expenditures: £J 665,000,000 (current expenditure 78.5%, capital expenditure 21.5%). Production. Agriculture, forestry, fishing (value of export crops in £J ’000; 2008): potatoes 24,500, tomatoes 3,400, zucchini 678, narcissus 585, narcissus bulbs 500, cow’s milk (2009) 20,900 metric tons; livestock (number of live animals; 2008) 5,092 cattle (of which 3,050 dairy heifers), 772 horses, 25,741 chickens; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production (metric tons; 2008) 2,549 (including brown crabs 481, scallops 331, whelks 298, spider crabs 179; from aquaculture 38% [including oysters 830]). Mining and quarrying: n.a. Manufacturing: light industry, mainly electrical goods, textiles, and clothing. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 38,390,600 (651,821,000); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008) n.a. (102,586); natural gas, none (n.a.). Gross national income (2009): U.S.$5,757,000,000 (c. U.S.$62,474 per capita). Structure of gross value added7 and labour force 2009 in value £J ’000,000 Agriculture, fishing Mining and quarrying Construction Manufacturing Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels, restaurants Finance, real estate, services9, 10 Pub. admin., defense Other TOTAL

62 … 226 53 37 167 378 1,859 304 53511 3,621

% of total value 1.7 … } 6.3 1.5 1.0 4.6 10.4 51.3 8.4 14.811 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

2,210

3.9

5,240

9.1

1,360 530 2,8108 14,540

2.4 0.9 4.98 25.4

22,810 6,750 96012 57,210

39.9 11.8 1.712 100.0

1Includes 53 elected officials and 5 ex officio members (4 of the 5 ex officio members have no voting rights). 2The first chief minister of Jersey was elected in December 2005. 3Until the 1960s French was an official language of Jersey and is still used by the court and legal professions; Jerriais, a Norman-French dialect, is spoken by a small number of residents. 4Includes Guernsey. 5Based on the Jersey Annual Social Survey 2008, comprising 1,859 people. 6Population of parishes. 7Gross value added total includes subsidies but excludes taxes. 8Includes storage. 9Includes trust and funds management, legal support, and accountancy. 10In 2009 Jersey was an international finance centre with 47 banks and 1,287 administered investment funds; about U.S.$275,000,000,000 was deposited in the banks. 11Rental income. 12Unemployed. 13June. 14Customs ceased recording imports and exports as of 1980. 15In 2006 98% of households had a television. 16In 2006 76% of households had a computer. 17Circulation of the Jersey Evening Post. 18Subscribers. 19The main hospital (Jersey General Hospital) only.

Internet resource for further information: • States of Jersey: Statistics http://www.gov.je/statistics

Nations of the World

Jordan

615

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Official name: Al-Mamlakah al-Urduniyah al-Hashimiyah (Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [551]; House of Representatives [1202]). Head of state and government: King assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Amman. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Jordanian dinar (JD); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) JD 1.00 = U.S.$1.41 = £0.91.

(Ajlun (Amman Al-(Aqabah Al-Balqa) Irbid Jarash Al-Karak Ma(an Madaba Al-Mafraq Al-Tafilah Al-Zarqa)

(Ajlun Amman Al-(Aqabah Al-Salt Irbid Jarash Al-Karak Ma(an Madaba Al-Mafraq Al-Tafilah Al-Zarqa)

TOTAL

% of labour force

312 312 1,890 478 208 1,510 1,016 1,673 2,198 578 1,0506 11,225

2.8 2.8 16.8 4.3 1.9 13.5 9.1 14.9 19.6 5.1 9.46 100.08

39,000 14,000 137,000 71,000 18,000 110,000 224,000 184,000 59,000 246,000 191,0007 1,293,000

3.0 1.1 10.6 5.5 1.4 8.5 17.3 14.2 4.5 19.1 14.87 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 2,943; remittances (2008) 3,604; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 2,612; official development assistance (2008) 742. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,004; remittances (2008) 472; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 44. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 5.4; income per household (2006) JD 6,220 (U.S.$8,770); sources of income (2006): wages and salaries 45.3%, transfer payments 21.7%, rent and property income 18.4%, self-employment 14.6%; expenditure (2006): food and beverages 33.0%, housing and energy 26.8%, transp. and commun. 15.8%, education 7.0%, clothing and footwear 5.0%, alcohol and tobacco 3.6%.

population

sq mi

sq km

20103 estimate

162 2,926 2,664 432 607 158 1,349 12,677 363 10,248 853 1,838 34,277

420 7,579 6,900 1,119 1,572 410 3,495 32,832 940 26,541 2,209 4,761 88,778

137,500 2,315,600 130,300 400,600 1,064,400 179,400 233,200 113,700 149,500 281,100 83,700 891,000 5,980,000

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 6,046,0004. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 176.4, persons per sq km 68.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 78.5%; rural 21.5%. Sex distribution (2008): male 51.05%; female 48.95%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 37.2%; 15–29, 28.9%; 30–44, 20.7%; 45–59, 8.2%; 60–74, 4.2%; 75–84, 0.7%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 6,867,000; (2030) 8,125,000. Doubling time: 32 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Arab 97.8%, of which Jordanian 32.4%, Palestinian 32.2%, Iraqi 14.0%, Bedouin 12.8%; Circassian 1.2%; other 1.0%. Religious affiliation (2005): Sunni Muslim c. 95%; Christian c. 3%; other (mostly Shi(i Muslim and Druze) c. 2%. Major cities (2004): Amman (2009) 1,088,000; Al-Zarqa) 395,227; Irbid 250,645; Al-Rusayfah 227,735; Al-Quwaysimah 135,500; Wadi al-Sir 122,032.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 29.1 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 7.0 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 3.50. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 10.4/2.2. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 71.6 years; female 74.4 years.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–4,252 35.3%

–6,176 41.9%

–6,280 37.8%

–7,831 40.7%

–9,090 36.9%

–8,002 38.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$16,872,000,000 (crude petroleum 16.1%; machinery and apparatus 16.0%; food 14.2%, of which cereals 5.7%; chemicals and chemical products 9.5%; road vehicles/parts 6.9%; iron and steel 5.1%). Major import sources: Saudi Arabia 21.6%; China 10.4%; Germany 6.0%; United States 4.6%; Egypt 4.3%. Exports (2008): U.S.$7,782,000,000 (fertilizers [all types] 24.3%; apparel/accessories 13.4%; food products 10.8%, of which vegetables 5.1%; machinery and apparatus 10.7%; medicines 6.6%; inorganic chemicals 5.8%). Major export destinations: Iraq 16.5%; India 16.5%; U.S. 13.5%; free zones 8.5%; Saudi Arabia 7.0%; U.A.E. 4.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 314 mi, 506 km; (2006) passengerkm 600,000; (2006) metric ton-km cargo 400,000,000. Roads (2007): total length 4,827 mi, 7,768 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 536,665; trucks and buses 248,058. Air transport (2008)10: passenger-km 7,669,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 197,000,000. Communications

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: JD 3,971,500,000 (tax revenue 75.4%, of which taxes on goods and services 39.5%, taxes on corporations 10.0%, customs duties 9.3%, property taxes 7.7%; nontax revenue 15.5%; grants 8.6%). Expenditures: JD 4,540,100,000 (social protection 28.0%; defense 16.7%; education 13.9%; public order 8.8%; economic affairs 7.6%; health 7.1%; public debt 7.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2009): U.S.$5,304,200,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): tomatoes 653,693, cow’s milk 244,600, olives 140,719, cucumbers and gherkins 137,681, potatoes 118,705, eggplants 106,793, watermelons 106,323, cauliflower/broccoli 80,320, hen’s eggs 45,900, tangerines and mandarin oranges 32,544; livestock (number of live animals) 2,070,940 sheep, 919,740 goats, (2008) 25,000,000 chickens; roundwood 289,500 cu m, of which fuelwood 99%; fisheries production (2008) 1,040 (from aquaculture 52%). Mining and quarrying (2009): phosphate ore 5,152,900; potash (crude salts) 1,122,700; bromine (2008) 106,000. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): bricks, cement, and ceramics 472; food products 295; wearing apparel 273; tobacco products 265; base chemicals 182; iron and steel 156. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 12,682,000,000 ([2007] 12,870,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 15,604 ([2007] 29,500,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 3,821,000 (4,701,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) 210,000,000 ([2007] 2,581,600,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 1.1%, left fallow 0.5%, in permanent crops 0.9%, in pasture 8.4%, forest area 0.9%. Population economically active (2008): total 1,983,0005; activity rate of total population 32.3%5 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 52.3%5; female 22.8%5; unemployed 12.7%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

labour force

TOTAL

area Capitals

% of total value

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Pub. admin., defense Finance, real estate Services Other

Area and population Governorates

2003

in value JD ’000,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.5

96.6

100.0

106.3

112.0

128.7

127.8

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$22,264,000,000 (U.S.$3,740 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$5,840 per capita).

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

1,065

198

2009 2009

6,01412 501

95212 79

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

383 32011 5,300 1,36812

67 4711 339 8812

Education and health Educational attainment (2004). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling: illiterate 14.0%, literate 4.8%; primary/lower secondary education 36.6%; upper secondary 19.4%; some higher 25.1%, of which advanced degree 2.1%; unknown 0.1%. Literacy (2008): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 92.3%; males 95.9%; females 88.6%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

39,44113 34,29413 9,681

students

student/ teacher ratio

817,160 700,342 254,752

19.913 17.913 26.3

enrollment rate (%) 89 82 41 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2007) 15,280 (1 per 375 persons); hospital beds (2008) 11,200 (1 per 517 persons); infant mortality rate (2008) 19.0; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,750 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 100,500 (army 84.6%, navy 0.5%, air force 14.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 11.0%; per capita expenditure U.S.$386. 1Appointed by the king. 2Includes 9 seats reserved for Christians and 3 seats reserved for Circassians. 3January 1. 4Includes roughly 2.0 million registered Palestinian refugees of whom c. 350,000 reside in camps; excludes 500,000 Iraqi refugees. 5ILO estimate. 6Net taxes on products less imputed bank service charges. 7Including 4,000 not adequately defined and 187,000 unemployed. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Royal Jordanian and Jordan Aviation only. 11Circulation of daily newspapers. 12Subscribers. 132002–03.

Internet resources for further information: • Dept. of Statistics http://www.dos.gov.jo • Central Bank of Jordan http://www.cbj.gov.jo

616

Britannica World Data

Kazakhstan

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Official name: Qazaqstan Respublikasy (Kazakh); Respublika Kazakhstan (Russian) (Republic of Kazakhstan). Form of government: unitary republic1 with a Parliament consisting of two chambers (Senate [472] and House of Representatives [107]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Astana. Official languages: Kazakh; Russian3. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: tenge (T); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = T 147.15; 1 £ = T 227.32.

population

sq km

20094 estimate

224,000 146,200 300,600 118,600

1,667,143 741,897 712,130 501,623

151,300 165,600

618,785 425,684

117,300 124,800 428,000

2,381,543 748,823 1,346,373

Provinces Almaty Aqmola Aqtöbe Atyrau Batys Qazaqstan (Western Kazakhstan) Mangghystau Ongtüstik Qazaqstan (Southern Kazakhstan) Pavlodar Qaraghandy

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

842 3,004 1,853 273 1,304 1,623 2,112 3,280 268 990 3886 15,937

5.3 18.8 11.6 1.7 8.2 10.2 13.3 20.6 1.7 6.2 2.46 100.0

2,370,000 200,000 573,000 165,000 549,000 589,000 1,253,000 474,200 353,000 1,330,400 558,1007 8,415,1008

28.2 2.4 6.8 2.0 6.5 7.0 14.9 5.6 4.2 15.8 6.67 100.0

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population area

in value T ’000,000,000

area

population

Provinces

sq km

20094 estimate

Qostanay Qyzylorda5 Shyghys Qazaqstan (Eastern Kazakhstan) Soltüstik Qazaqstan (Northern Kazakhstan) Zhambyl Cities Almaty Astana

196,000 226,000

889,368 641,563

283,200

1,417,764

98,000 144,300

648,236 1,031,144

300 700 2,724,900

1,365,105 639,311 15,776,492

TOTAL

Demography Population (2010): 16,310,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 15.5, persons per sq km 6.0. Urban-rural (2009): urban 54.0%; rural 46.0%. Sex distribution (2009): male 48.25%; female 51.75%. Age breakdown (20104): under 15, 24.3%; 15–29, 27.2%; 30–44, 21.0%; 45–59, 17.3%; 60–74, 7.7%; 75–84, 2.1%; 85 and over, 0.4%. Population projection: (2020) 17,317,000; (2030) 17,854,000. Ethnic composition (2009): Kazakh 63.1%; Russian 23.7%; Uzbek 2.8%; Ukrainian 2.1%; Uighur 1.4%; Tatar 1.3%; German 1.1%; other 4.5%. Religious affiliation (2000): Muslim (mostly Sunni) 42.7%; nonreligious 29.3%; Christian 16.7%, of which Orthodox 8.6%; atheist 10.9%; other 0.4%. Major cities (2009): Almaty 1,365,105; Astana 639,311; Shymkent (Chimkent) 566,996; Qaraghandy (Karaganda) 465,634; Taraz 347,486.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 22.5 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.0 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.88. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 8.8/2.5. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 63.6 years; female 73.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): diseases of the circulatory system 416.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 112.8; accidents, poisoning, and violence 108.4; diseases of the respiratory system 48.5.

Household income and expenditure (2008). Average household size (2004) 3.8; sources of income: salaries/wages 77.4%, pensions 11.5%, agriculture 4.1%; expenditure: food and beverages 42.5%, clothing 10.6%, housing 10.4%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,012; remittances (2009) 117; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 13,173. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,022; remittances (2008) 3,559; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 2,421. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 8.4%, in permanent crops 0.04%, in pasture 68.6%, forest area 1.2%.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) 2004 U.S.$’000,000 % of total

+7,290 22.4%

2005

2006

+10,497 +14,581 23.2% 23.6%

2007

2008

2009

+14,999 18.6%

+33,357 30.6%

+15,430 21.4%

Imports (2008): U.S.$37,815,000,000 (mineral fuels 14.4%; iron and steel 11.0%; general industrial machinery 10.0%; machinery specialized for particular industries 6.9%; road vehicles 6.4%; food 6.0%). Major import sources: Russia 36.4%; China 12.1%; Germany 6.8%; Ukraine 5.6%; U.S. 5.1%. Exports (2008): U.S.$71,172,000,000 (crude petroleum 61.1%; iron and steel 8.3%; nonferrous metals 6.3%, of which refined copper 3.4%; metal ore and metal scrap 5.0%; food 4.0%, of which wheat 3.2%). Major export destinations: Italy 16.7%; Switzerland 15.9%; China 10.8%; Russia 8.7%; France 7.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 8,827 mi, 14,205 km; passenger-km 14,719,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 214,900,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 58,160 mi, 93,600 km (paved 90%); passenger-km 106,878,000,00010; metric ton-km cargo 63,500,000,000. Vehicles (20084): passenger cars 2,183,131; trucks and buses 442,566. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 5,495,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 70,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

5,106

2009 2009

14,99512 3,763

units per 1,000 persons 338 95912 241

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

… 32011 5,300 1,36812

… 2011 339 8812

Education and health

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: T 2,895,975,900,000 (tax revenue 81.4%, transfers 8.9%, capital revenue 3.2%). Expenditures: T 2,678,280,300,000 (social security 18.8%, education 17.0%, health 11.2%, transportation and communications 10.8%, public order 9.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding; June 2010): U.S.$3,369,000,000. Population economically active (2009): total 8,457,900; activity rate of total population 52.6% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2008] 78.2%; female 49.4%; unemployed [March 2010] 6.2%).

Educational attainment (1999). Population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling/some primary education 9.1%; primary education 23.1%; secondary/some postsecondary 57.8%; higher 10.0%. Literacy (2008): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 99.7%; males 99.8%; females 99.5%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 6–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

57,962 179,237 37,814

950,976 1,740,549 635,241

16.4 9.7 16.8

89 89 41 (age 18–22)

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

87.0 68.1

93.0 83.4

100.0 100.0

108.6 120.4

120.3 154.3

140.9 179.3

151.2 …

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat 17,052,000, cow’s milk 5,267,000, potatoes 2,755,600, barley 2,519,000, corn (maize) 417,000; livestock (number of live animals) 16,770,400 sheep and goats, 5,991,600 cattle, 148,300 camels; roundwood 247,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 20%; fisheries production (2008) 55,902 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2007): iron ore 13,600,000; bauxite 4,800,000; chromite 3,687,200 (world rank: 2); copper (metal content) 405,000; zinc (metal content) 386,000; silver 800,000 kg; gold 22,000 kg. Manufacturing (value of production in T ’000,000; 2008): base metals 1,408,325; food products 757,757; machinery and apparatus 297,501; coke, refined petroleum products, and nuclear fuel 235,309. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008–09) 77,556,000,000 ([2008] 80,603,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2008–09) 95,011,000 ([2007] 71,706,000); lignite (metric tons; 2008–09) 4,478,000 ([2007] 3,903,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008–09) 515,758,000 ([2008] 59,461,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 12,996,000 (10,284,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) 11,273,000,000 (588,000,000). Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$107,125,000,000 (U.S.$6,740 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$10,270 per capita).

Health (2008): physicians 58,945 (1 per 266 persons); hospital beds 120,840 (1 per 130 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 18.2; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,910 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 49,000 (army 61.2%, navy 6.1%, air force 24.5%, Ministry of Defense staff 8.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$84. 1No election since independence in 1991 has been deemed free and fair by international standards. 2Includes 15 nonelective seats. 3Russian has official equal status per article 7.2 of the constitution. 4January 1. 5Includes an area of 6,700 sq km (2,600 sq mi) enclosing the Bayqongyr (Baykonur) space launch facilities and the city of Bayqongyr (formerly Leninsk) leased to Russia in 1995 until 2050. The estimated 70,000 residents of Bayqongyr are excluded from the Qyzylorda population total. 6Taxes on products less imputed bank service charges. 7Includes 558,000 unemployed and 100 undefined. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Passenger cars only. 11Circulation of daily newspapers. 12Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • National Bank of Kazakhstan http://www.nationalbank.kz • Agency of Statistics of Kazakhstan http://www.eng.stat.kz

Nations of the World

Kenya

617

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$30,686,000,000 (U.S.$770 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,570 per capita).

Official name: Jamhuri ya Kenya (Swahili); Republic of Kenya (English). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house1 (National Assembly [2242]). Head of state and government: President assisted by the Prime Minister3. Capital: Nairobi. Official languages: Swahili; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Kenyan shilling (K Sh); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = K Sh 80.55; 1 £ = K Sh 124.43.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

area

Provincial headquarters

Central Coast Eastern North Eastern Nyanza Rift Valley Western

Nyeri Mombasa Embu Garissa Kisumu Nakuru Kakamega

Special area Nairobi

—

TOTAL

sq km

2009 census

5,087 32,279 61,734 48,997 6,240 67,131 3,228

13,176 83,603 159,891 126,902 16,162 173,868 8,360

4,383,743 3,325,307 5,668,123 2,310,757 5,442,711 10,006,805 4,334,282

264 224,9614

684 582,646

3,138,369 38,610,097

23.8 0.7 10.6 3.8 1.5 10.2 11.2 9.8 5.0 } 12.5 10.89 4 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

334,6008 6,0008 253,8008 79,9008 19,5008 132,9008 185,9008 90,4008

3.98 0.18 2.98 0.98 0.28 1.58 2.28 1.08 8.78

755,4008 6,814,90010 8,673,300

78.610 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$6,268,000,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 752; remittances (2009) 1,686; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006– 08 avg.) 292; official development assistance (2008) 1,360. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 266; remittances (2008) 16; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 35. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 9.1%, in permanent crops 0.9%, in pasture 37.4%, forest area 6.1%.

population

sq mi

% of total value

499,421 14,630 223,353 80,135 30,805 214,983 234,535 206,029 104,828 263,306 227,7749 2,099,7984

TOTAL

Area and population Provinces

2006

in value K Sh ’000,000

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) 2004 K Sh ’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 40,863,0005. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 181.6, persons per sq km 70.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 21.9%; rural 78.1%. Sex distribution (2006): male 48.90%; female 51.10%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 43.1%; 15–29, 30.2%; 30–44, 15.2%; 45–59, 7.0%; 60–74, 3.5%; 75 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2020) 52,034,000; (2030) 63,199,000. Doubling time: 25 years. Ethnic composition (2004): Kikuyu c. 21%; Luhya c. 14%; Luo c. 13%; Kalenjin c. 11%; Kamba c. 11%; Gusii c. 6%; Meru c. 5%; other c. 19%. Religious affiliation (2006)6: Protestant/independent Christian c. 66%; Roman Catholic c. 23%; Muslim c. 8%; nonreligious c. 2%; traditional beliefs c. 1%. Major cities (2006): Nairobi (2009) 3,138,369; Mombasa (2009) 939,370; Nakuru 266,500; Eldoret 227,800; Kisumu 220,000; Ruiru 120,900; Thika 102,300.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 38.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 27.1 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 4.9. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 54.3 years; female 54.2 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 7.1–8.5% (world avg. 0.8%).

2005

2006

–148,209 –220,763 –278,969 25.8% 31.2% 36.0%

2007

2008

2009

–330,525 –423,829 37.6% 38.0%

–443,148 39.1%

Imports (2008): K Sh 769,766,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 18.4%, refined petroleum 15.9%, chemicals and chemical products 13.1%, crude petroleum 10.6%, road vehicles 7.3%, food 6.2%). Major import sources: U.A.E. 14.9%; India 11.8%; China 8.4%; South Africa 6.1%; Japan 5.8%. Exports (2008): K Sh 345,937,000,000 (tea 18.6%, cut flowers 8.9%, vegetables 5.5%, apparel/accessories 5.1%, inorganic chemicals 4.4%, petroleum 3.8%, coffee 2.9%). Major export destinations: Uganda 12.3%; U.K. 11.0%; Tanzania 8.5%; Neth. 7.6%; U.S. 6.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2005): route length (2008) 1,817 mi, 2,924 km; passenger-km 489,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,358,000,000. Roads (2004): total length 39,311 mi, 63,265 km (paved 14%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 562,376; trucks and buses 230,976. Air transport (2008)12: passenger-km 8,829,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 238,451,000. Communications Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2000 2009 2009

number in ’000s 758 19,36514 664

units per 1,000 persons 25 48714 17

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

529 31013 3,996 8.314

14 1413 100 0.214

National economy

Education and health

Budget (2008–09). Revenue: K Sh 511,355,000,000 (tax revenue 85.5%, of which income and profit taxes 39.9%, VAT 24.8%, excise tax 13.7%; nontax revenue 11.0%; grants 3.5%). Expenditures: K Sh 621,909,000,000 (current expenditure 74.3%, of which interest payments 8.4%; development expenditure 25.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 5,610,702, cow’s milk 4,070,000, corn (maize) 2,439,000, sweet potatoes 930,784, cassava 819,967, cabbages and other brassicas (2008) 609,292, plantains (2008) 593,370, bananas (2008) 593,370, tomatoes (2008) 559,680, pineapples (2008) 429,065, potatoes 400,000, cattle meat 375,000, tea 314,100, dry beans (2008) 265,006, wheat 129,200, pigeon peas (2008) 84,168, coffee 57,000, supplier of cut flowers for EU; livestock (number of live animals) 12,490,130 cattle, 9,903,300 sheep; roundwood 22,386,900 cu m, of which fuelwood 94%; fisheries production (2008) 137,738 (from aquaculture 3%). Mining and quarrying (2008): soda ash 513,415; fluorspar 98,248; salt 24,345; tourmaline 7,000 kg; ruby 4,500 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): food products 473; coke oven products (nearly all soda ash) 268; glass and glass products 244; beverages 175; iron and steel 106. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 5,694,000,000 (5,301,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (110,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (11,700,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 1,579,000 (3,193,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 4.5; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2005): food and beverages c. 44%, transportation c. 9%, housing and energy c. 8%, cafés and hotels c. 5%, clothing and footwear c. 3%, unspecified c. 22%. Population economically active (2008): total 18,181,0007; activity rate of total population 46.9%7 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 83.2%7; female 46.5%7; unemployed 40%).

Educational attainment (1998–99). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no formal schooling 16.4%; primary education 59.0%; secondary 19.7%; university 1.1%; other/unknown 3.8%. Literacy (2008): total population over age 15 literate 86.5%; males literate 90.3%; females literate 82.8%.

Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

81.2

90.7

100.0

114.5

125.6

158.6

173.2

Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

147,596 103,956 …

students 6,868,810 3,106,919 167,98315

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

46.5 29.9 …

82 49 415 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2007) 6,271 (1 per 5,886 persons); hospital beds (2006) 51,481 (1 per 714 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2006) 59.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 10,800,000 (30% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,750 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 24,120 (army 82.9%, navy 6.7%, air force 10.4%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.8%; per capita expenditure U.S.$17. 1A

new constitution promulgated Aug. 27, 2010, provides for the establishment of a 68-seat Senate; elections are expected in 2012. 2Includes 12 nonelective seats and 2 ex officio members. 3The 2010 constitution abolishes the post of Prime Minister effective from the 2012 presidential election. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Estimate of United Nations World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision. 6Based on 2006 survey that excludes the mostly Muslim North Eastern province. 7ILO estimate. 8Formally employed only. 9Taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 10Includes informally employed, small-scale farmers and pastoralists, unemployed, self-employed, and unpaid family workers. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Kenya Airways and African Express. 13Circulation. 14Subscribers. 152008–09.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Kenya http://www.centralbank.go.ke • Central Bureau of Statistics http://www.knbs.or.ke

618

Britannica World Data

Kiribati

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$185,000,000 (U.S.$1,890 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$3,350 per capita).

Official name: Republic of Kiribati.1 Form of government: unitary republic with a unicameral legislature (House of Assembly [462]). Head of state and government: President. Seats of government: islet villages of Bairiki (executive), Ambo (legislative), Betio (judicial) on South Tarawa. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Australian dollar ($A); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = $A 1.10; 1 £ = $A 1.70.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value $A ’000,000 Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

area3

population

Island/Atoll Groups Islands/Atolls4

sq km

2005 census

Gilbert Group (Kiribati) Abaiang Abemama Aranuka Arorae Banaba6 Beru Butaritari Kuria Maiana Makin Marakei Nikunau Nonouti Onotoa Tabiteuea, North Tabiteuea, South

285.55 17.5 27.4 11.6 9.5 6.3 17.7 13.5 15.5 16.7 7.9 14.1 19.1 19.9 15.6 25.8 11.9

83,683 5,502 3,404 1,158 1,256 301 2,169 3,280 1,082 1,908 2,385 2,741 1,912 3,179 1,644 3,600 1,298

Island/Atoll Groups Islands/Atolls4

area3

population

sq km

2005 census

4.7 15.3 15.8

875 5,678 40,311

Tamana Tarawa, North Tarawa, South

Line and Phoenix Group 525.05 Northern Line 431.7 Kiritimati (Christmas) 388.4 Tabuaeran (Fanning) 33.7 Teraina (Washington) 9.6 Southern Line7 and 93.4 Phoenix Group8 Kanton (Canton) in Phoenix Group 9.2 TOTAL 810.5

$A ’000,000 % of total

41 41 92,533

Population (2010): 99,500. Density (2010)9: persons per sq mi 355.4, persons per sq km 137.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 43.9%; rural 56.1%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.20%; female 50.80%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 35.2%; 15–29, 29.3%; 30–44, 18.3%; 45–59, 11.5%; 60–74, 4.6%; 75–84, 1.0%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 112,000; (2030) 123,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Micronesian 98.8%; Polynesian 0.7%; European 0.2%; other 0.3%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic 55.3%; Kiribati Protestant (Congregational) 35.7%; Mormon 3.1%; Baha)i 2.2%; other/nonreligious 3.7%. Major villages (2005)10: Betio 12,509; Bikenibeu 6,170; Teaoraereke 3,939; Bairiki 2,766.

60.912 … 0.8 1.4 0.8 4.0 5.1 1.0 18.8 1.2 6.114 100.05

Foreign trade

5,115 2,539

22,51812 … 305 511 293 1,473 1,873 356 6,953 433 2,25414 36,969

% of labour force

Public debt (external, outstanding; December 2008): U.S.$10,100,000. Household income and expenditure (2006)15. Average household size 6.3; average annual household income U.S.$8,745; sources of income: wages 35.4%, rent 13.9%, agriculture 10.9%, remittances 9.6%; expenditure: food 46.8%, housing 16.7%, household operations 15.1%, transportation 6.6%.

Balance of trade (current prices)

1,155

labour force

25.8 0.1 5.4 2.0 –0.1 10.8 5.8 18.4 15.7 13.7 2.413 100.0

8,850 8,809

Demography

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–75.0 89.4%

–77.4 92.0%

–94.4 89.3%

–79.0 92.1%

–71.5 74.7%

–79.1 81.8%

–79.2 85.5%

Imports (2005): $A 96,900,000 (food 29.6%, of which rice 10.7%, meat 6.4%; refined petroleum 16.8%; machinery and apparatus 14.6%, of which starting equipment/generators 6.2%; road vehicles 5.7%). Major import sources (2009): Fiji c. 40%; Australia c. 26%; Japan c. 11%; New Zealand c. 5%; China c. 3%. Exports (2007): $A 11,655,000 (domestic exports 81.0%, of which crude coconut oil 45.7%, copra/copra cake 14.4%, fish 10.7%, handicrafts 8.3%, seaweed 1.9%; reexports 19.0%). Major export destinations (2005): free zones c. 34%; Australia c. 22%; Fiji c. 17%; other Asia (probably Taiwan) c. 14%.

Transport and communications Transport. Roads (2000): total length 416 mi, 670 km (paved, n.a.). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 9,600; trucks and buses 4,480. Air transport: n.a.16 Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

4

2009 2009

1.017 4

units per 1,000 persons 44 1017 41

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2007 2009 2009

1 0 2.0 —

11 0 20 —

Education and health

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 23.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.6 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 16.2 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 3.00. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 61.3 years; female 66.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): diseases of the circulatory system 90.7; infectious and parasitic diseases 75.6; perinatal conditions 68.0; diseases of the respiratory system 67.0; diseases of the digestive system 59.4; endocrine and metabolic disorders 52.9; unspecified 137.2.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: $A 161,700,000 (grants 57.5%, fishing license fees 19.9%, tax revenue 18.4%, other 4.2%). Expenditures: $A 183,000,000 (development expenditure 50.9%, current expenditure 49.1%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): coconuts 131,300, roots and tubers 10,400 (of which taro 2,200), vegetables 6,200, bananas 5,800, pig meat 888; livestock (number of live animals) 12,600 pigs, 480,000 chickens; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 34,305 (from aquaculture, negligible); aquatic plants (all seaweed) production 2,000 (from aquaculture 100%). Mining and quarrying: small amounts of salt. Manufacturing: copra (9,135 metric tons produced in 2008), processed fish, clothing, and handicrafts. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kWhr; 2009) 22,000,000 (21,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (11,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2001) 3.2; remittances (2009) 9; foreign direct disinvestment (2007–09 avg.) –1; official development assistance (2008) 27. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (1999) 2.0; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow c. 2%, in permanent crops c. 43%, in pasture, none, forest area c. 3%. Population economically active (2005): total 36,969; activity rate of total population 38.8% (participation rates: over age 15, 63.4%; female 45.9%; unemployed 6.1%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index11

41.1 0.1 8.6 3.2 –0.1 17.2 9.3 29.3 25.1 21.9 3.913 159.75

TOTAL

Area and population

2005

% of total value

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

101.3

100.3

100.0

98.6

102.7

113.9

123.4

Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 5 and over having: no schooling/unknown 9.2%; primary education 40.3%; secondary 47.6%; higher 2.9%. Literacy (2005): population age 15 and over literate 91.0%; males literate, n.a.; females literate, n.a. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary20

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

645 664 5

16,123 11,583 300

25.0 17.4 60.0

9718 6819 … (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2006) 30 (1 per 3,120 persons); hospital beds (2005) 140 (1 per 681 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 41.4; undernourished population (2004–06) 5,000 (5% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,760 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2008): none; defense assistance is provided by Australia and New Zealand.

1Ribaberikin Kiribati in Gilbertese (also known as I-Kiribati). 2Includes two nonelective members. 3Includes uninhabited islands in Southern Line and Phoenix Group. 4Administratively Kiribati has six district councils; in addition, each of the 21 inhabited islands have their own island councils. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 6Banaba is actually an isolated island to the west of the Gilbert Group. 7Includes Caroline (Millennium), Malden, Starbuck, Vostok, and Flint islands. Total area is c. 64 sq km. 8Includes Birnie, Enderbury, McKean, Manra, Nikumaroro, Orona, Rawaki (Phoenix), and Kanton (Canton) islands. Total area is c. 29 sq km. 9Based on inhabited island areas (726 sq km [280 sq mi]) only. 10All on South Tarawa. 11Urban Tarawa only. 12Includes 21,582 persons engaged in “village work” (subsistence agriculture or fishing). 13Indirect taxes less imputed bank service charges and less subsidies. 14Unemployed. 15Based on the 2006 Household Income and Expenditure Survey, comprising 1,161 households. 16Air Kiribati operates scheduled services to outer islands. 17Subscribers. 182001–02. 192004–05. 202006–07; Kiribati campus, University of the South Pacific.

Internet resources for further information: • Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Key_Indicators/2010 • Kiribati Statistics Office http://www.spc.int/prism/Country/KI/Stats

Nations of the World

Korea, North

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (1999) 4.6. Public debt (external, outstanding; 2001): U.S.$12,500,000,000. Gross national income (2008): U.S.$24,815,000,000 (U.S.$1,033 per capita).

Official name: Chosón MinjujuUi In’min Konghwaguk (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea). Form of government: unitary single-party republic with one legislative house (Supreme People’s Assembly [687]). Head of state and government: Supreme Leader1/Chairman of the National Defense Commission. Capital: P’yóngyang. Official language: Korean. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: ([new] North Korean) won (W); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = 1.43 [new] won; l £ = 2.21 [new] won2.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

2004

in value U.S.$’000,000 Agriculture Mining } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Pub. admin., defense Services Other

}

TOTAL

Area and population

area

population 2008 census

Provinces

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

Chagang-do Kangwón-do North Hamgyóng (Hamgyóng-pukdo) North Hwanghae (Hwanghae-pukdo) North P’yóngan (P’yóngan-pukdo) South Hamgyóng (Hamgyóng-namdo) South Hwanghae (Hwanghae-namdo) South P’yóngan (P’yóngan-namdo) Yanggang-do

Kanggye Wónsan Ch’óngjin Sariwón SinUiju HamhUng Haeju P’yóngsóng Hyesan

6,551 4,3063 6,7844 3,5765 4,707 7,324 3,090 4,761 5,528

16,968 11,1523 17,5704 9,2625 12,191 18,970 8,002 12,330 14,317

Special districts Kaesóng (industrial region) KUmgang-san (tourist region)

… …

5 3

5 3

5 3

Special cities P’yóngyang Rasón (Nasón)

— —

772

2,000

3,255,288

4

4

4

—

… 47,399

… 122,762

702,372 24,052,231

MILITARY CAMPS TOTAL

619

1,299,830 1,477,5823 2,327,3624 2,113,6725 2,728,662 3,066,013 2,310,485 4,051,696 719,269

Demography Population (2010): 24,249,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 511.6, persons per sq km 197.5. Urban-rural (2005): urban 61.6%; rural 38.4%. Sex distribution (2008): male 48.73%; female 51.27%. Age breakdown (2007): under 15, 22.1%; 15–29, 23.6%; 30–44, 25.6%; 45–59, 15.5%; 60–74, 11.0%; 75–84, 2.0%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 25,069,000; (2030) 25,573,000. Ethnic composition (1999): Korean 99.8%; Chinese 0.2%. Religious affiliation (2005): mostly nonreligious/atheist; autonomous religious activities almost nonexistent. Major cities (2008): P’yóngyang 2,581,076; HamhUng 703,610; Ch’óngjin 614,892; SinUiju 334,031; Wónsan 328,467; Namp’o 310,531.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 14.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.4 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.96. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (1987): 9.3/0.2. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 61.2 years; female 66.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): diseases of the circulatory system 288; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 90; diseases of the respiratory system 62; injuries, violence, and accidents 62.

National economy Budget (1999). Revenue: 19,801,000,000 [old] won (turnover tax and profits from state enterprises). Expenditures: 20,018,200,000 [old] won (1994; national economy 67.8%, social and cultural affairs 19.0%, defense 11.6%). Population economically active (2006)6: total 12,305,000; activity rate of total population 51.9% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 53.7%; female 44.0%; unemployed, n.a.). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): rice 2,862,000, potatoes 1,520,300, corn (maize) 1,411,400, cabbages 700,000, apples 635,000, soybeans 345,000, dry beans 300,000, sweet potatoes 280,000, wheat 175,000, pears 125,000, peaches and nectarines 120,000, green onions 98,000, garlic 95,000, pumpkins, squash, and gourds 80,000, cucumbers and gherkins 66,000, barley 65,000, tomatoes 65,000, tobacco leaves 63,000, rye 60,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,441,000 goats, 2,178,000 pigs, 576,000 cattle, 167,000 sheep; roundwood 7,410,900 cu m, of which fuelwood 80%; fisheries production 268,700 (from aquaculture 24%); aquatic plants production 444,300 (from aquaculture 100%). Mining and quarrying (2008): iron ore (metal content) 1,488,000; phosphate rock 300,000; magnesite 150,000; zinc (metal content) 70,000; sulfur 42,000; lead (metal content) 13,000; copper (metal content) 12,000; silver 20; gold 2,000 kg. Manufacturing (2007): cement 6,415,000; coke 2,000,000; crude steel 1,279,000; pig iron 900,000; fertilizers 479,000; synthetic fibres 30,000; textile fabrics (2004) 100,000,000 sq m; automobiles 4,700 vehicles. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 25,460,000,000 ([2006] 22,436,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 25,060,000 (20,267,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 7,000,000 (6,478,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (3,218,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 422,000 (838,000); natural gas, none (none).

% of total value

3,688

25.0

2,066

14.0

2,803 1,372

19.0 9.3

4,819

32.7

5 14,753

— 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

3,202,000

27.2

8,549,000

72.8

11,751,000

100.0

}

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 38; official development assistance (2007) 98. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 23.3%, in permanent crops 1.7%, in pasture 0.4%, forest area 49.3%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–837 35.0%

–817 28.6%

–1,380 34.0%

–1,102 36.8%

–1,104 37.5%

–1,512 26.8%

Imports (2008): U.S.$3,574,000,000 ([2002] food, beverages, and other agricultural products 19.3%, mineral fuels and lubricants 15.5%, machinery and apparatus 15.4%, textiles and clothing 10.4%7). Major import sources (2008): China c. 57%; South Korea c. 25%; Russia c. 3%; Singapore c. 3%. Exports (2008): U.S.$2,062,000,000 ([2002] live animals and agricultural products 39.3%, textiles and wearing apparel 16.7%, machinery and apparatus 11.6%, mineral fuels and lubricants 9.5%7). Major export destinations (2008): China c. 42%; South Korea c. 38%; India c. 5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007): route length 2,796 mi, 4,500 km8; passenger-km 3,400,000,0009; metric ton-km cargo 9,100,000,0009. Roads (2007): total length 16,033 mi, 25,802 km (paved [2006] 3%). Vehicles (1990): passenger cars 248,000. Air transport: passenger-km (2005) 42,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 2,000,000. Communications Medium Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2003

3,563

160

200911 2009

6912 1,180

2.912 49

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

… 4,50010 — —

units per 1,000 persons … 25210 — —

Education and health Educational attainment (1987–88). Percentage of population age 16 and over having attended or graduated from postsecondary-level school: 13.7%. Literacy (1997): 95%. Education (2000) Primary (age 6–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–15) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

… … …

1,609,865 2,181,524 …

… … …

… … … (age 16–20)

Health: physicians (2003) 74,597 (1 per 299 persons); hospital beds, n.a.; infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 51.3; undernourished population (2004–06) 7,500,000 (32% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,860 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 1,106,000 (army 85.9%, navy 4.2%, air force 9.9%); reserve 4,700,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GNP (2004): 8.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$80.

1Per constitutional revision of April 2009. 2Currency revalued on Dec. 1, 2009; as of this date, 100 ([old] North Korean) won = 1 ([new] North Korean) won. The approximate value of the [new] won on the black market at the beginning of February 2010 was about 1 U.S.$ = 530 [new] won; 1 £ = 807 [new] won. 3Kangwón-do includes KUmgang-san special district. 4North Hamgyóng includes Rasón. 5North Hwanghae includes Kaesóng special district. 6ILO estimates. 7Data for commodities (imports U.S.$1,525,400,000; exports U.S.$735,000,000) exclude trade with South Korea. 8Estimate figure excludes some narrow-gauge railways. 9At last report; year unknown. 10Circulation of daily newspapers. 11The ban on cellular phones, which began in 2004, was lifted in 2008, and service began in January 2009. 12Subscribers.

Internet resource for further information: • Ministry of Unification • http://eng.unikorea.go.kr/eng/default.jsp?pgname=ENGhome

620

Britannica World Data

Korea, South

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2007

Official name: Taehan Min’guk (Republic of Korea). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [299]). Head of state and government: President assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Seoul. Official language: Korean. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: (South Korean) won (W); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = W 1,185; 1 £ = W 1,831.

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

population

Provinces

sq km

2005 census1

Cheju2

1,849 16,613 10,132 8,055 7,432 19,026 12,095 8,600 10,522

531,887 1,464,559 10,415,399 1,784,013 1,460,453 2,607,641 1,819,819 1,889,495 3,056,356

Kangwón Kyónggi North Chólla North Ch’ungch’óng North Kyóngsang South Chólla South Ch’ungch’óng South Kyóngsang

area

population

Metropolitan cities

sq km

2005 census1

Inch’ón Kwangju Pusan Sóul (Seoul; special city) Taegu Taejón Ulsan

1,002 501 765

2,531,280 1,417,716 3,523,582

605 884 540 1,057 99,678

9,820,171 2,464,547 1,442,856 1,049,177 47,278,951

TOTAL

Demography Population (2010): 49,169,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 1,278, persons per sq km 493.3. Urban-rural (2009): urban 82.7%; rural 17.3%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.23%; female 49.77%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 18.6%; 15–29, 22.5%; 30–44, 26.0%; 45–59, 19.2%; 60–74, 10.7%; 75–84, 2.5%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2020) 50,166,000; (2030) 50,326,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Korean 97.7%; Japanese 2.0%; U.S. white 0.1%; Han Chinese 0.1%; other 0.1%. Religious affiliation (2005): Christian c. 43%, of which Protestant c. 17%, independent Christian c. 16%, Roman Catholic c. 9%; traditional beliefs c. 15%; Buddhist c. 14%; New Religionist c. 14%; Confucianist c. 10%; other c. 4%. Major cities (2009): Seoul 10,456,051; Pusan 3,574,340; Inch’ón 2,758,431; Taegu 2,509,187; Taejón 1,498,665.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.1 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.0 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.15. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 6.3/2.5. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 76.5 years; female 83.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 142.2; cerebrovascular diseases 52.7; diseases of the heart 45.5.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: W 178,649,200,000,000 (tax revenue 93.7%, of which income tax 42.3%, VAT 24.5%; nontax revenue 6.3%). Expenditures: W 170,762,900,000,000 (public services 25.1%; education 20.9%; defense 14.7%; health 0.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): hen’s eggs 10,292,000, rice 6,919,250, fresh vegetables 3,386,000, cabbages 2,901,939, cow’s milk 2,200,000, pig meat 1,056,000, onions 1,035,076, watermelons 856,755, tangerines, mandarins, satsumas 636,413, garlic 375,463, strawberries 203,227; livestock (number of live animals; 2008) 9,153,460 pigs, 2,893,518 cattle, 119,784,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 5,176,600 cu m, of which fuelwood 48%; fisheries production 2,417,664 (from aquaculture 20%); aquatic plants production 934,890 (from aquaculture 99%). Mining and quarrying (2008): feldspar 344,257; zinc (metal content) 3,6723; cadmium 3,0904; silver (metal content) 1,462 kg3. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): televisions, radios, telecommunications equipment, and electronic parts 70,085; transportation equipment 52,349, of which automobiles 20,987, automobile parts 16,175, ship and boat construction 12,771; machinery and apparatus 30,704; chemicals and chemical products 27,076; iron and steel 20,064; food and food products 19,928; fabricated metal products 19,172; textiles and wearing apparel 16,913; refined petroleum products 12,161. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008–09) 425,174,000,000 ([2008] 385,100,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2008–09) 2,604,000 ([2007] 88,558,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) none (3,486,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2006) 329,850 (868,150,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008) 102,023,000 (54,754,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 380,000,000 (37,150,000,000). Household income and expenditure (2008). Average household size 2.9; annual income per household W 39,618,000 (U.S.$31,477); sources of income: wages 64.5%, self-employment 22.4%, transfers 7.9%; expenditure: transportation and communications 19.4%, food and beverages 15.2%, hotels and restaurants 6.1%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 9,078; remittances (2009) 3,815; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 5,627. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 17,125; remittances (2008) 3,472; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 15,045. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$966,600,000,000 (U.S.$19,830 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$27,310 per capita).

% of total value

23,982 2,839 223,324 71,118 18,051 57,451 74,351 173,077 51,422 104,689 100,8855 901,189

TOTAL

Area and population area

2009

in value W ’000,000,000

2.7 0.3 24.8 7.9 2.0 } 6.4 8.2 19.2 5.7 } 11.6 11.25 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

1,788,000 23,000 3,761,000 1,681,000

7.3 0.1 15.3 6.9

2,741,000

11.2

5,495,000

22.4

8,131,000

33.1

905,0006 24,525,000

3.76 100.0

Public debt (June 2010): U.S.$255,287,000,000. Population economically active (2009): total 24,525,000; activity rate 50.7% (participation rates: ages 15 and older 61.1%; female 41.3%; unemployed [October 2009–September 2010] 3.7%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.9 84.5

97.3 92.5

100.0 100.0

102.2 105.7

104.8 114.5

109.7 115.5

112.8 114.4

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 16.1%, left fallow 0.4%, in permanent crops 1.9%, in pasture 0.6%, forest area 64.5%.

Foreign trade7 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+29,382 6.1%

+23,181 4.2%

+16,082 2.5%

+14,643 2.0%

–13,267 1.5%

+38,771 5.7%

Imports (2008): U.S.$435,274,737,000 (mineral fuels 32.7%, of which crude petroleum 24.1%, natural gas 5.7%; machinery and apparatus 23.5%, of which electrical machinery 11.2%; chemicals and chemical products 8.4%; iron and steel 7.7%). Major import sources: China 17.7%; Japan 14.0%; U.S. 8.8%; Saudi Arabia 7.8%; U.A.E. 4.4%. Exports (2008): U.S.$422,007,328,000 (machinery and apparatus 34.0%, of which telecommunications equipment 11.7%, electrical equipment 11.7%; transportation equipment 21.4%; chemicals and chemical products 10.1%; crude and refined petroleum 9.1%; professional and scientific equipment 6.0%). Major export destinations: China 21.7%; U.S. 11.0%; Japan 6.8%; Hong Kong 4.9%; Singapore 3.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): length 2,101 mi, 3,381 km; passenger-km 54,997,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 11,566,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 64,019 mi, 103,029 km (paved 78%); passenger-km (2006) 97,854,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2006) 12,545,000,000. Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 12,408,000; trucks and buses 4,260,000. Air transport (2008)8: passenger-km 79,575,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 12,235,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

22,915

477

2009 2009

47,94410 19,289

99210 399

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

27,736 12,8009 39,440 16,34910

units per 1,000 persons 578 2619 816 33810

Education and health Educational attainment (2008). Percentage of population ages 15 and older having: no formal schooling through lower secondary education 31.7%; upper secondary/higher vocational 39.2%; college 9.1%; university 20.0%. Literacy (2002): total population age 15 and over literate 97.9%; males 99.2%; females 96.6%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

152,891 219,288 208,262

3,679,629 3,958,781 3,204,310

24.1 18.1 15.4

99 95 98 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2008) 95,013 (1 per 507 persons); hospital beds (2006) 417,387 (1 per 114 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 3.2; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,900 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 692,000 (army 80.9%, navy 9.8%, air force 9.3%); reserve 4,500,000; 11. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 2.8%; per capita expenditure U.S.$507. 1Excludes usual residents who were abroad on census date. 2Specifically a special autonomous province. 3Excluding smelted metals. 4Smelted only. 5Taxes on products less subsidies. 6Unemployed. 7Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 8Korean Air and Asiana Airlines. 9Circulation of daily newspapers. 10Subscribers. 11U.S. troops (2009) 25,374.

Internet resource for further information: • Statistics Korea http://kostat.go.kr

621

Nations of the World

Population economically active (2007): total c. 633,00013; activity rate of total population c. 30% (participation rates: ages 15–64 c. 47%; female c. 28%13; unofficially unemployed [2009] 45.4%).

Kosovo Official name: Republika e Kosovës (Albanian); Republika Kosovo (Serbian) (Republic of Kosovo)1. Form of government/Political status: multiparty transitional republic2 with one legislative body (Assembly of Kosovo [1203]). International authority: UN Interim Administrator4. Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Pristina. Official languages: Albanian; Serbian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.5

Price index (December 2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.6

105.0

114.8

112.1

Balance of trade (current prices)

area

population

sq km

2008 estimate7

1,022 1,237 1,333 2,053

181,501 118,423 218,982 268,292

area

population

sq km

2008 estimate7

1,367 2,165 1,730 10,9088

287,883 676,723 401,335 2,153,139

Regions6 Pejë Prishtinë (Pristina) Prizren TOTAL

Population (2010): 1,815,0009. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 430.9, persons per sq km 166.4. Urban-rural (2006): urban 37%; rural 63%. Sex distribution (2009): male 50.50%; female 49.50%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 28.2%; 15–64, 64.0%; 65 and over, 7.8%. Population projection: (2020) 1,933,0009; (2030) 2,066,0009. Doubling time: 56 years. Ethnic composition (2008): Albanian 92.0%; Serb 5.3%; other 2.7%. Religious affiliation (2006): Muslim (including nominal population) c. 91%; Orthodox c. 5.5%; Roman Catholic c. 3%; Protestant c. 0.5%. Major cities (2010)10: Pristina 197,000; Prizren 131,000; Ferizaj 88,400; Gjakovë 81,000; Pejë 78,600; Mitrovicë (Mitrovica) 76,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 15.7 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 60.3%; outside of marriage 39.7%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 3.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.5 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2003): 3.0. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 9.3/0.7. Life expectancy at birth (2004)11: male 69.8 years; female 71.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2007): diseases of the circulatory system c. 143; malignant neoplasms (cancers) c. 32; perinatal conditions c. 14; accidents c. 8; unspecified c. 145.

>’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,006.8 89.9%

–1,101.2 90.7%

–1,195.1 83.7%

–1,411.1 81.0%

–1,732.0 81.6%

–1,736.1 84.2%

Imports (2008): >1,927,900,000 (food and live animals 24.6%, mineral fuels 20.1%, machinery and apparatus 12.2%, base metals 9.3%, chemical products 7.2%, transport equipment 6.7%). Major import sources: Macedonia 18.0%; Serbia 11.1%; Germany 10.2%; Turkey 6.6%; China 6.3%. Exports (2008): >195,900,000 (iron and steel [all forms] 63.3%17, food products 11.0%, mineral fuels 9.1%). Major export destinations: Belgium 14.3%; Italy 13.0%; India 12.0%; Albania 10.8%; Macedonia 9.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2009): route length18 207 mi, 333 km. Roads (2008): total length 1,196 mi, 1,924 km (paved 87%). Vehicles (2006): passenger cars 146,744; trucks and buses 20,850. Air transport (2007)19: passenger arrivals 483,330; passenger departures 506,962. Communications Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2005 2009 2009

number in ’000s … 1,22021 76

units per 1,000 persons … 67621 42

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2008 2009

… 3220 377 11521

… 1820 209 6421

Education and health Educational attainment (2003). Percentage of population ages 25–49 having: no formal schooling c. 3.5%; incomplete/complete primary c. 46.0%; incomplete/complete secondary c. 45.0%; higher c. 5.5%. Literacy (2004): total population age 15 and over literate 94.1%; males literate 97.3%; females literate 91.3%. Education (2006–07)

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: >1,146,700,000 (tax revenue 71.1%, of which border taxes [including customs duties and VAT] 55.3%, domestic taxes [mostly income and corporate taxes] 15.8%; nontax revenue 24.7%; other 4.2%). Expenditures: >1,232,400,000 (current expenditure 67.5%; capital expenditure 32.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2007): wheat 207,189, hay 174,298, potatoes 95,125, corn (maize) 74,451, peppers 35,959, cabbage 15,424, tomatoes 14,697, onions 10,936, plums 7,963, apples 6,307, grapes 6,283, beans 3,033; livestock (number of live animals) 321,624 cattle, 139,334 sheep, 2,059,000 chickens; roundwood 482,945 cu m, of which fuelwood 97%; fisheries production, n.a. Mining and quarrying (2009): lead 4,57012; zinc 3,69012; limestone 4,776,000 cu m. Manufacturing (2006): cement, bricks, and tiles for reconstruction of housing; food; beverages. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 5,349,000,000 (3,201,000,000); hard coal, none (none); lignite (metric tons; 2009) 7,871,000 (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products, none (n.a.); natural gas, none (none). Gross national income (at current market prices; 2008): U.S.$4,940,000,000 (U.S.$2,752 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 200613

2007 in value >’000,000

TOTAL

2005 100.0

Foreign trade16

Demography

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing } Public utilities Construction Trade, hotels Transp. and commun. Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2004 101.3

Household income and expenditure (2009). Average household size 5.9; sources of income: wages and salaries 52%, self-employment 14%, remittances 12%, pensions 10%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 35.7%, housing 35.5%, transportation 5.3%, clothing 5.2%, alcohol and tobacco 3.4%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 42; remittances (2009) 702; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 510. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 82; remittances (2006) 126; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 15. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 12.2%, left fallow 2.0%, in permanent crops 0.5%, in pasture 9.1%, forest area 41.3%.

Area and population Regions6 Ferizaj Gjakovë Gjilan Mitrovicë (Mitrovica)

2003 102.5

% of total value

413.6 25.2

12.0 0.7

384.8

11.2

342.4 349.2 122.7 574.9 454.3 182.3 584.214 3,433.6

10.0 10.2 3.6 16.7 13.2 5.3 17.014 100.08

labour force 81,100 5,700 27,700 13,600 30,700 72,800 14,000 13,300 24,600 91,300 305,20015 680,000

% of labour force 11.9 0.8 4.1 2.0 4.5 10.7 2.1 2.0 3.6 13.4 44.915 100.0

Primary (age 6–15)22 Secondary/Voc. (age 16–19)23 Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

16,433 4,857 1,059

322,281 88,974 27,274

19.6 18.3 25.8

… … … (age 20–24)

Health (2006): physicians 1,534 (1 per 1,368 persons); hospital beds (2005) 5,308 (1 per 387 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 8.4.

Military Total active duty personnel (February 2010): NATO-led Kosovo Force 9,923 troops24; local Albanian paramilitary (Kosovo Security Force; March 2010) 2,500.

1Alternate short-form names in Albanian include Kosova and Kosovë. 2Independence was declared Feb. 17, 2008, and the new constitution became effective on June 15, 2008. Serbia continued to claim Kosovo as an integral part despite a ruling by the International Court of Justice in July 2010 supporting Kosovo’s independence. 320 seats are reserved for minority communities. 4Assisted by the EU special envoy from February 2008. A 2,000-member EU mission to Kosovo (headed by the special envoy) is expected to eventually replace the UN as international administrative authority. 5Kosovo uses the euro as its official currency even though it is not a member of the EU. The Serb-populated area of Kosovo uses the Serbian dinar. 6Statistical/planning regions; actual local government is based on 30 municipalities. 7January 1; official estimate. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 9Estimate of U.S. Bureau of the Census International Database (December 2008 update). 10January 1; unofficial estimate. 11Albanian population only. 12Metal content. 13Ages 15–64 only. 14Taxes on products less very small statistical discrepancy. 15Unemployed. 16Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 17Nearly all scrap metal. 18Of which 40% functional in 2009. 19Pristina airport. 20Circulation. 21Subscribers. 22Includes lower secondary. 23Excludes lower secondary. 24Troops providing security and stability from 30 nations including 7 non-NATO nations.

Internet resources for further information: • Statistical Office of Kosovo http://esk.rks-gov.net/eng/ • Central Bank of the Republic of Kosovo http://www.bqk-kos.org/

622

Britannica World Data

Kuwait

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$7,719,000,000. Population economically active (2007): total 2,092,509, of which Kuwaiti 15.5%, non-Kuwaiti 84.5%; activity rate of total population 61.6% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2005] 70.8%11; female [2005] 25.2%11; unemployed [2006] 4.0%12).

Official name: Dawlat al-Kuwayt (State of Kuwait). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative body (National Assembly [501]). Head of state and government: Emir assisted by the Prime Minister. Capital: Kuwait (city). Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Kuwaiti dinar (KD); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 KD = U.S.$3.48 = £2.25. Area and population

Price index (2005 = 100)

area

2005 estimate

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

Al-Ahmadi Al-!AÆimah

1,977

5,120

494,715

Al-Farwaniyah Hawalli Al-Jahra) Mubarak al-Kabir

Al-Ahmadi Kuwait (city) (Al-Kuwayt) Al-Farwaniyah Hawalli Al-Jahra) …

77 73 31 4,336 39

200 190 80 11,230 100

458,548 764,601 607,027 349,611 185,922

Islands2

—

347 6,880

900 17,8184

6,4643 2,866,8885

KD ’000,000 % of total

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 21.9 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 2.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 19.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.81. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2007): 5.5/2.1. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 76.4 years; female 78.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): circulatory diseases 94.5; accidents and violence 36.4; neoplasms (cancers) 29.1; respiratory diseases 11.7; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 8.6.

National economy Budget (2006–07). Revenue: KD 15,509,300,000 (oil revenue 93.6%, assorted taxes 1.9%). Expenditures: KD 12,568,700,000 (social security and welfare 29.1%, general public administration 15.8%, oil/electricity 13.4%, defense 10.3%, education 10.1%, health 5.3%). Gross national income (2008): U.S.$174,780,000,000 (U.S.$59,874 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

TOTAL

71.9 47.4 23,608.1 2,222.48 589.7 325.6 2,179.2 1,377.1 5,972.1

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0

103.0

108.7

120.2

123.6

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population (2010): 3,524,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 512.2, persons per sq km 197.8. Urban-rural (2005): urban 98.3%; rural 1.7%. Sex distribution (2007): male 59.34%; female 40.66%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 24.3%; 15–29, 26.8%; 30–44, 34.2%; 45–59, 11.6%; 60–74, 2.7%; 75–84, 0.3%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 4,412,000; (2030) 5,523,000. Doubling time: 36 years. Ethnic composition (2005): Arab 57%, of which Kuwaiti 35%; Bedouin 4%; non-Arab (primarily Asian) 39%. Religious affiliation (2005)6: Muslim 74%, of which Sunni 59%, Shi(i 15%; Christian 13%, of which Roman Catholic 9%; Hindu 10%; Buddhist 3%. Major cities (2005)7: Qalib al-Shuyukh 179,264; Al-Salimiyah 145,328; Hawalli 106,992; Kuwait (city) 32,403 (urban agglomeration [2007] 2,063,000).

in value KD ’000,000

2005

96.0

Foreign trade14

Demography

Agriculture Mining Oil and natural gas Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense } Services Other

2004

94.9

Household income and expenditure. Average Kuwaiti household size (2004) 4.8; average non-Kuwaiti household size (2004) 5.0; sources of income, n.a.; expenditure (2000)13: housing and energy 26.8%, food 18.3%, transportation and communications 16.1%, household furnishings 14.7%, clothing and footwear 8.9%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 256; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 100. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 7,571; remittances (2008) 5,558; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 8,972. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 0.8%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 7.6%, forest area 0.3%.

population

Governorates

TOTAL

2003 Consumer price index

2007 % of total value 0.2 0.1 } 59.3 5.68 1.5 0.8 5.5 3.5 15.0

labour force

% of labour force

35,600

1.7

6,300

0.3

115,100 169,500 12,600 62,800 311,800 100,400

5.5 8.1 0.6 3.0 14.9 4.8

4,870.1

12.2

973,000

46.5

–1,476.29 39,787.4

–3.79 100.0

305,40010 2,092,500

14.610 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): tomatoes 55,500, cucumbers and gherkins 35,000, potatoes 23,500, hen’s eggs 22,000, eggplants 15,500, dates 14,500, chilies and peppers 8,000; livestock (number of live animals) 900,000 sheep, 160,000 goats, 28,000 cattle, 5,750 camels; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 4,733 (from aquaculture 8%). Mining and quarrying (2009): sulfur 830,000; lime 45,000. Manufacturing (value added in KD ’000,000; 2006): refined petroleum products 829; basic chemicals 230; bricks, cement, tiles 98; food products 57; structural metal products 51; wearing apparel 40. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 48,753,000,000 (48,753,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 979,300,000 ([2007] 346,800,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 38,667,000 (11,765,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 13,305,000,000 (13,305,000,000).

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+2,888 30.6%

+4,705 38.7%

+8,488 47.9%

+11,252 52.9%

+11,742 49.2%

+16,774 55.6%

Imports (2007): KD 6,069,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 26.6%, road vehicles 15.1%, food 11.5%, iron and steel 9.3%). Major import sources (2008): U.S. c. 12%; Japan c. 9%; Germany c. 8%; China c. 8%; Saudi Arabia c. 7%. Exports (2007): KD 17,811,000,000 (crude petroleum 61.6%, refined petroleum 29.8%, liquefied propane and butane 3.1%, polyethylene 1.7%). Major export destinations (2008): Japan c. 19%; South Korea c. 15%; India c. 11%; Taiwan c. 10%; U.S. c. 9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2008): total length 3,941 mi, 6,342 km (paved [2004] 85%). Vehicles (2009): passenger cars 1,098,251; trucks and buses 225,474. Air transport (2008)15: passenger-km 7,447,000,000; metric tonkm cargo 280,346,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

1,040

392

2008 2009

2,90717 554

85017 185

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

779 96116 1,100 4517

units per 1,000 persons 237 48516 369 1517

Education and health Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling: illiterate 6.2%, literate 37.9%; primary education 12.7%; lower secondary 20.8%; upper secondary 11.7%; some higher 4.1%; completed undergraduate 6.6%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 94.5%; males literate 95.2%; females literate 93.1%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary18

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

22,895 27,496 1,986

208,608 249,784 37,521

9.1 9.1 18.9

88 80 18 (age 18–22)

Health (2006): physicians 4,775 (1 per 646 persons); hospital beds 5,760 (1 per 535 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 9.2; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,950 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 15,500 (army 71.0%, navy/coast guard 12.9%, air force 16.1%); reserve 23,700; U.S. troops for Iraqi support (May 2009) c. 15,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 5.4%; per capita expenditure U.S.$1,932.

1Excludes 15 cabinet ministers not elected to National Assembly serving ex officio. 2Includes Bubiyan Island 333 sq mi (863 sq km) and Warbah Island 14 sq mi (37 sq km). 3Figure represents remainder (probably the combined populations of Bubiyan and Warbah islands). 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Of which

973,286 Kuwaitis and 1,893,602 non-Kuwaitis; more narrowly defined April 2005 census total excluding Kuwaitis residing abroad equals 2,213,403 (Kuwaitis equal 880,774, non-Kuwaitis 1,332,629). 6Includes noncitizens. 7Preliminary, unadjusted census figures. 8Manufacturing includes oil products. 9Import duties less imputed bank and insurance service charges. 10Unclassified. 112005 census data are based on only about one-half of the non-Kuwaiti population economically active. 12Kuwaiti nationals only. 13Weights of consumer price index components. 14Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 15Kuwait Airways. 16Circulation of daily newspapers. 17Subscribers. 182005–06.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Kuwait http://www.cbk.gov.kw • Central Statistical Office http://mopweb4.mop.gov.kw

Nations of the World

Kyrgyzstan

(1999): wages and salaries 29.2%, self-employment 25.6%, other 45.2%; expenditure (2005): food and nonalcoholic beverages 46.4%; transport 10.4%; alcohol, tobacco products, and narcotics 9.5%; clothing and footwear 9.0%; housing and energy 8.0%; household furnishings 3.4%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$4,613,000,000 (U.S.$870 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$2,200 per capita).

Official name: Kyrgyz Respublikasy (Kyrgyz); Respublika Kirgizstan (Russian) (Kyrgyz Republic). Form of government: interim regime1 with one legislative house (Jogorku Kenesh, or Supreme Council [120]). Head of state and government: President (interim)1. Capital: Bishkek. Official languages: Kyrgyz; Russian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Kyrgyzstan som (KGS); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = KGS 46.74; 1 £ = KGS 72.21.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

area

population

sq mi

sq km

2009 census

Batken Bishkek2 Jalal-Abad Naryn Osh Talas Ysyk-Köl

6,564 7,795 12,991 17,453 11,251 4,419 16,658

17,000 20,189 33,648 45,202 29,139 11,446 43,144

380,300 790,500 938,600 245,300 1,000,000 219,600 425,100

—

49 19 77,199

127 50 199,945

865,100 243,200 5,107,7003

Capitals

Batken Chüy Jalal-Abad Naryn Osh Talas Ysyk-Köl City Districts Bishkek2 Osh TOTAL

2008

in value KGS ’000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

43,372.8 1,232.7 24,577.0 3,334.0 11,235.3 17,931.0 34,900.2 9,573.9 12,322.3 16,083.9 21,860.07 196,423.1

22.1 0.6 12.5 1.7 5.7 9.1 17.8 4.9 6.3 8.2 11.17 100.0

743,000 13,300 178,000 37,800 221,900 133,800 385,600 61,900 101,700 307,400 195,6008 2,379,9009

31.2 0.6 7.5 1.6 9.3 5.6 16.2 2.6 4.3 12.9 8.28 100.0

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other

Area and population Provinces

623

TOTAL

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 514; remittances (2009) 882; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 178; official development assistance (2008) 360. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 304; remittances (2009) 178; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 1.0. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 6.7%, in permanent crops 0.4%, in pasture 48.9%, forest area 4.6%.

Foreign trade10 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 5,141,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 66.6, persons per sq km 25.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 34.6%; rural 65.4%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.34%; female 50.66%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 31.3%; 15–29, 29.3%; 30–44, 19.9%; 45–59, 12.2%; 60–74, 5.2%; 75–84, 1.9%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 5,414,000; (2030) 5,700,000. Doubling time: 41 years. Ethnic composition (20084): Kyrgyz 69.2%; Uzbek 14.5%; Russian 8.7%; Hui 1.2%; Uighur 1.0%; other 5.4%. Religious affiliation (2000): Muslim (mostly Sunni) 60.8%; Christian 10.4%, of which Russian Orthodox 7.7%; nonreligious 21.6%; atheist 6.3%; other 0.9%. Major cities (2009): Bishkek 865,100; Osh 243,200; Jalal-Abad 92,100; Karakol 63,700; Tokmok 53,100.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 24.1 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (1994) 83.2%; outside of marriage (1994) 16.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 7.1 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.80. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2008) 8.4/(2006) 1.3. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 64.6 years; female 72.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2007): diseases of the circulatory system 363.9; diseases of the respiratory system 70.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 58.4; diseases of the digestive system 54.5; accidents 49.7.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: KGS 45,479,000,000 (tax revenue 79.0%, of which VAT 36.4%, customs duties 10.2%, personal income tax 8.6%; nontax revenue 17.9%; grants 3.1%). Expenditures: KGS 36,944,000,000 (education 26.0%; general administration 18.3%; defense/public order 14.8%; social security 12.6%; health 11.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 20105): U.S.$2,245,100,000. Population economically active (2008): total 2,379,900; activity rate of total population 46.5% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2006] 70.4%; female 43.0%; unemployed 8.2%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Average earnings index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

92.0 74.3

95.8 85.8

100.0 100.0

105.6 119.0

116.3 155.0

144.8 211.3

154.8 243.5

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): potatoes 1,393,135, wheat 1,056,656, corn (maize) 486,636, barley 289,670, tomatoes 194,161, apples 146,000, sunflower seeds 57,510, garlic 32,024, tobacco leaves 12,005; livestock (number of live animals) 3,605,787 sheep, 1,224,600 cattle, 362,433 horses; roundwood 27,300 cu m, of which fuelwood 66%; fisheries production (2008) 100 (from aquaculture 92%). Mining and quarrying (2009): mercury 250; gold 18,400 kg. Manufacturing (value of production in KGS ’000,000; 2009): base metals and fabricated metal products 47,340; food, beverages, and tobacco products 13,933; cement, bricks, and ceramics 5,256; textiles and wearing apparel 4,498. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 9,983,000,0006 ([2007] 13,858,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2009) 54,0006 ([2007] 839,000); lignite (metric tons; 2009) 441,0006 ([2007] 468,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 458,7376 ([2007] 923,290); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 121,000 (624,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 13,710,4456 ([2008] 750,000,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 4.3; income per capita of household (2003) KGS 9,270 (U.S.$212); sources of income

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

–222.2 13.4%

–435.8 24.5%

–924.1 36.8%

2007 –1,282.8 36.1%

2008

2009

–2,454.9 43.1%

–1,597.9 35.7%

Imports (2007): U.S.$2,417,000,000 (refined petroleum 25.2%, machinery and apparatus 14.4%, food products 11.6%, chemicals and chemical products 10.6%, road vehicles/parts 4.8%). Major import sources (2009): Russia 37.2%; China 18.9%; Kazakhstan 10.9%; Uzbekistan 3.8%; U.S. 3.6%. Exports (2007): U.S.$1,134,200,000 (refined petroleum 20.8%, gold 19.8%, machinery and apparatus 6.2%, women’s/girls’ outerwear 5.5%, vegetables 4.2%, glass 3.5%, portland cement 3.5%). Major export destinations (2009): Switzerland 31.7%; Russia 13.4%; Uzbekistan 11.9%; Kazakhstan 9.7%; U.A.E. 7.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 292 mi, 470 km; passenger-km 90,200,000; metric ton-km cargo 945,500,000. Roads (2007): total length 21,127 mi, 34,000 km (paved, n.a.); passenger-km 6,468,000,000; metric tonkm cargo 902,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 229,735; trucks and buses, n.a. Air transport (2009–10): passenger-km 484,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,160,000. Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

955

2009 2009

4,48712 498

units per 1,000 persons 185 81912 91

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

99 6511 2,194 5.212

19 1311 400 1.012

Education and health Educational attainment (1999). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: primary education 6.3%; some secondary 18.3%; completed secondary 50.0%; some postsecondary 14.9%; higher 10.5%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate, virtually 100%. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 7–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

16,524 52,61413 17,810

students 399,833 696,833 296,267

student/ teacher ratio 24.2 13.613 16.6

enrollment rate (%) 84 80 52 (age 18–22)

Health (2007): physicians 12,395 (1 per 408 persons); hospital beds 26,345 (1 per 192 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 30.6; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,880 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 10,900 (army 78.0%, air force 22.0%)14. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$9. 1Interim

regime from April 7, 2010; new constitution approved June 27, 2010. 2Bishkek is the capital of Chüy province, even though it is not part of the province. 3De facto population; de jure population including residents temporarily abroad equals 5,362,800. 4January 1. 5July 1. 6Excludes November production. 7Taxes on products. 8Unemployed. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 10Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 11Circulation of daily newspapers. 12Subscribers. 132006–07. 14Russian troops (November 2009) c. 500.

Internet resource for further information: • National Bank of Kyrgyz Republic http://www.nbkr.kg

624

Britannica World Data

Laos

2006) 319,000 (96,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2006) none (133,000); natural gas, none (none). Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$5,550,000,000 (U.S.$880 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$2,210 per capita).

Official name: Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxôn Lao (Lao People’s Democratic Republic). Form of government: unitary single-party people’s republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [115]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Vientiane (Viangchan). Official language: Lao. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: kip (KN); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = KN 8,043; 1 £ = KN 12,425.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 % of total value

labour force7

14,511 3,289 4,833 2,265 1,281 2,310 9,664 3,114 3,472 817 2,0068 47,562

30.5 6.9 10.2 4.8 2.7 4.9 20.3 6.5 7.3 1.7 4.28 100.0

2,150,000

78.5

589,000

21.5

2,739,000

100.0

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population area

population

Provinces

sq km

20071 estimate

Attapu Bokèo Bolikhamxai Champasak Houaphan Khammouan Louangnamtha Louangphrabang Oudomxay Phôngsali Salavan

10,320 6,196 14,863 15,415 16,500 16,315 9,325 16,875 15,370 16,270 10,691

118,000 153,000 241,000 626,000 295,000 353,000 153,000 423,000 279,000 170,000 341,000

area

population

Provinces

sq km

20071 estimate

Savannakhét Viangchan Xaignabouli Xékong Xiangkhoang

21,774 18,526 16,389 7,665 20,386

859,000 442,000 353,000 90,000 252,000

3,920 236,800

726,000 5,873,0002

Municipality Vientiane (Viangchan) TOTAL

}

% of labour force7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2005) 5.9; average annual income per household (1995) KN 3,710 (U.S.$371); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2002–03)9: food and nonalcoholic beverages 37.0%, transportation and communications 16.5%, housing 12.1%, household furnishings 5.7%, energy 5.7%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 276; remittances (2009) 1.0; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 236; official development assistance (2008) 496. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism 16; remittances (2008) 1.0. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 5.1%, in permanent crops 0.4%, in pasture 3.8%, forest area 69.3%.

Foreign trade 10 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 6,258,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 68.4, persons per sq km 26.4. Urban-rural (2009): urban 32.0%; rural 68.0%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.90%; female 50.10%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 37.8%; 15–29, 29.3%; 30–44, 17.4%; 45–59, 10.0%; 60–74, 4.4%; 75–84, 1.0%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 7,440,000; (2030) 8,609,000. Doubling time: 30 years. Ethnic composition (2005): Lao 54.6%; Khmou 10.9%3; Hmong 8.0%; Tai 3.8%4; Phu Tai (Phouthay) 3.3%4; Lue 2.2%4; Katang 2.1%3; Makong 2.1%3; other 13.0%. Religious affiliation (2005): traditional beliefs c. 49%; Buddhist c. 43%; Christian c. 2%; nonreligious/other c. 6%. Major cities (2003): Vientiane 194,200 (urban agglomeration [2009] 799,000); Savannakhét 58,200; Pakxé 50,100; Xam Nua 40,700; Muang Khammouan 27,300; Louangphrabang 26,400.

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–314.2 25.0%

–520.4 32.7%

–573.6 29.2%

–456.7 16.8%

–835.4 24.0%

–1,177.5 26.4%

Imports (2008): U.S.$2,816,100,000 (capital goods 41.6%, petroleum 15.0%, materials for garment assembly 5.1%). Major import sources: Thailand 68.6%; China 11.3%; Vietnam 4.7%; South Korea 2.5%; Japan 2.5%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,638,600,000 (copper 37.9%, garments 11.6%, timber 8.0%, gold 7.3%, electricity 7.2%). Major export destinations: Thailand 34.7%; Vietnam 13.2%; China 8.6%; South Korea 4.5%; U.K. 3.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2009): total length 24,586 mi, 39,568 km (paved 14%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 12,822; trucks and buses 115,395. Air transport (2009): passenger-km 368,500,000; metric ton-km cargo 200,000. Communications

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 27.2 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 18.8 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 3.32. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 59.8 years; female 63.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): communicable diseases 673; cardiovascular diseases 210; injuries, accidents, and violence 112; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 73; chronic respiratory diseases 58.

National economy Budget (2008–09). Revenue: KN 8,065,000,000,000 (tax revenue 78.6%, of which excise tax 17.8%, turnover tax 16.7%, tax on mining sector 12.6%, import duties 10.3%; nontax revenue 12.1%; grants 9.3%). Expenditures: KN 9,783,000,000,000 (current expenditure 58.3%; capital expenditure 36.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$2,931,000,000. Population economically active (2008): total 3,000,0005; activity rate of total population 48.3% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 81.0%; female 50.5%; unofficially unemployed, n.a.). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

in value KN ’000,000,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

84.5

93.3

100.0

106.8

111.6

120.1

120.2

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): rice 3,144,800, corn (maize) 848,745, fresh vegetables 750,000, sugarcane 433,500, cassava 152,590, sweet potatoes 120,0006, tobacco 48,355, bananas 48,0006, coffee 46,035, pineapples 45,780, pig meat 40,000, potatoes 36,0006, peanuts (groundnuts) 32,6906, oranges 28,0006, natural rubber (hectares; 2006) 11,778; livestock (number of live animals) 2,947,000 pigs, 1,426,000 water buffalo, 1,337,000 (2007) cattle, 22,521,000 chickens; roundwood 6,138,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 97%; fisheries production6 104,925 (from aquaculture 74%). Mining and quarrying (2008): gypsum 775,000; limestone 750,000; copper (metal content) 100,000; tin (metal content) 700; gold 4,300 kg. Manufacturing (2009): nails 2,312,500; plastic products 7,750; plywood 1,009,000 sheets; bricks 269,000,000 units; cigarettes 136,600,000 packs; garments 51,375,000 pieces; beer 1,391,300 hectolitres. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 3,705,000,000 ([2006] 1,021,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2008) 392,000 ([2006] 305,000); lignite (metric tons;

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

321

59

2009 2009

3,23512 132

51212 21

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

110 1011 300 8.412

units per 1,000 persons 18 1.611 48 1.312

Education and health Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 32.8%; incomplete primary education 21.6%; complete primary 18.2%; lower secondary 11.4%; upper secondary 6.2%; higher 9.8%. Literacy (2005): total population age 15 and over literate 72.7%; males literate 82.5%; females literate 63.2%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–16) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

29,541 18,117 3,042

900,817 412,375 89,457

30.5 22.8 29.4

82 3613 13 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (2005) 5,000 (1 per 1,129 persons); hospital beds (2009) 6,42514 (1 per 956 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 62.9; undernourished population (2004–06) 1,100,000 (19% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,690 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 29,100 (army 88.0%, air force 12.0%); paramilitary 100,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$3. 1January 1. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3A principal ethnic group of the Lao-Theung (Mon-Khmer) peoples. 4A principal ethnic group of the Lao-Tai (tribal Tai) peoples. 5ILO estimate. 62008. 7Excludes registered unemployed. 8Taxes/import duties less imputed bank service charges. 9Per an expenditure and consumption survey of 8,100 households. 10Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 11Circulation of daily newspapers. 12Subscribers. 132006–07. 14Includes 2,076 beds in dispensaries.

Internet resources for further information: • National Statistics Centre http://www.nsc.gov.la • Bank of the Lao PDR http://www.bol.gov.la

625

Nations of the World

Latvia

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Official name: Latvijas Republika (Republic of Latvia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a single legislative body (Parliament, or Saeima [100]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Riga. Official language: Latvian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: lats (Ls; plural lati); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 Ls = U.S.$1.79 = £1.16.

Planning region Kurzeme Cities Liepaja Ventspils Amalgamated Municipalities (17) Latgale Cities Daugavpils Re–zekne Amalgamated Municipalities (19) Pieriga City Jurmala Amalgamated Municipalities (28)

area

population

sq km 13,601

2009 estimate 302,292

61 55

85,121 43,087

13,485 14,547

174,084 343,827

72 18

104,809 35,568

14,457 10,134

203,450 386,801

100

56,054

10,034

330,747

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

388.4 56.1 1,171.4 425.8 780.9 1,341.9 1,955.6 3,076.2 980.7 1,611.5 1,294.35 13,082.8

3.0 0.4 8.9 3.3 6.0 10.3 14.9 23.5 7.5 12.3 9.95 100.0

89,100 2,800 171,000 21,300 125,500 105,800 217,000 97,700 86,600 202,500 96,5006 1,215,800

7.3 0.2 14.1 1.8 10.3 8.7 17.9 8.0 7.1 16.7 7.96 100.0

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population1 Planning region Riga City Riga Vidzeme City Valmiera Amalgamated Municipalities (25) Zemgale Cities Je–kabpils Jelgava Amalgamated Municipalities (20) TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2009 estimate

307

715,606

307 15,258

715,606 235,863

18

27,440

15,240 10,742

208,423 282,528

26 60

26,573 65,597

10,656 64,589

190,358 2,266,917

Demography Population (2010): 2,238,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 89.7, persons per sq km 34.6. Urban-rural (20092): urban 67.7%; rural 32.3%. Sex distribution (20092): male 46.14%; female 53.86%. Age breakdown (20102): under 15, 13.7%; 15–29, 22.2%; 30–44, 20.8%; 45–59, 20.7%; 60–74, 15.2%; 75–84, 6.0%; 85 and over, 1.4%. Population projection: (2020) 2,143,000; (2030) 2,025,000. Ethnic composition (20102): Latvian 59.4%; Russian 27.6%; Belarusian 3.6%; Ukrainian 2.5%; Polish 2.3%; Lithuanian 1.3%; Jewish 0.4%; other 2.9%. Religious affiliation (2005): Orthodox c. 29%, of which Russian c. 16%; Roman Catholic c. 19%; Lutheran c. 14%; nonreligious c. 26%; atheist/other c. 12%. Major cities (20102): Riga 706,413; Daugavpils 103,922; Liepaja 84,074; Jelgava 64,898; Jurmala 55,858.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.6 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 56.9%; outside of marriage (2008) 43.1%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 13.3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.45. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 4.4/2.3. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 68.3 years; female 78.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): diseases of the circulatory system 713.0; neoplasms (cancers) 267.3; accidents 66.2; diseases of the digestive system 46.3.

2008

in value Ls ’000,000

Public debt (central government; June 2010): U.S.$9,729,000,000. Population economically active (2008): total 1,215,800; activity rate of total population 53.7% (participation rates: ages 15–74, 67.7%; female 48.9%; unemployed [May 2009–April 2010] 19.9%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

88.2 78.6

93.7 86.3

100.0 100.0

106.5 121.5

117.3 158.3

135.4 190.5

140.1 185.8

Consumer price index Annual earnings index

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 19.1%, left fallow 1.0%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 10.3%, forest area 47.6%.

Foreign trade 7 Balance of trade (current prices) Ls ’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,655 27.8%

–1,979 25.5%

–3,083 31.9%

–3,742 31.6%

–3,123 25.9%

–1,045 12.9%

Imports (2008): Ls 7,585,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 17.8%; mineral fuels 14.7%, of which refined petroleum 8.9%; food 9.4%; road vehicles 9.1%; iron and steel 5.3%; medicines and pharmaceuticals 3.9%). Major import sources: Lithuania 16.5%; Germany 13.0%; Russia 10.6%; Poland 7.2%; Estonia 7.1%. Exports (2008): Ls 4,462,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 12.0%; food 10.9%; rough/sawn wood 9.9%; iron and steel 9.4%; chemicals and chemical products 9.1%; road vehicles/parts 6.0%; veneers/plywood/joinery 5.9%). Major export destinations: Lithuania 16.7%; Estonia 14.0%; Russia 10.0%; Germany 8.1%; Sweden 6.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: length (20092) 1,406 mi, 2,263 km; (2008) passenger-km 951,000,000; (2008) metric ton-km cargo 19,581,000,000. Roads (20092): total length 31,876 mi, 51,300 km (paved 39%); (2006) passenger-km 18,800,000,0008; (2008) metric ton-km cargo 12,344,000,000. Vehicles (20092): passenger cars 932,800; trucks and buses 140,300. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 3,498,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 15,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

1,992

857

2009 2009

2,24310 644

99710 286

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

566 2209 1,503 25910

units per 1,000 persons 245 1929 668 11510

National economy

Education and health

Budget (2009)3. Revenue: Ls 4,589,000,000 (indirect taxes 29.7%, social security contributions 22.1%, personal income taxes 15.7%, nontax revenue 14.7%, EU grants 12.2%, other taxes 5.6%). Expenditures: Ls 6,279,000,000 (current expenditure 91.3%, capital expenditure 8.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat 1,036,000, cow’s milk 828,060, potatoes 525,400, barley 265,500, rapeseed 204,700, rye 162,200, cabbages 61,8564; livestock (number of live animals) 384,000 pigs, 380,000 cattle; roundwood 10,409,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 17%; fisheries production (2008) 158,500 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): peat 865,500; limestone 515,900; gypsum 349,100. Manufacturing (value added in Ls ’000,000; 2009): food products 276.4; wood products (excluding furniture) 222.3; printing and publishing 87.1; fabricated metal products 84.3; chemicals and chemical products 75.0; furniture 60.0. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008–09) 4,895,000,000 (7,276,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2008–09) none (137,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008–09) none (1,377,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008–09) none (1,573,000,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (20102) 2.5; annual disposable income per household (2007) Ls 7,164 (U.S.$14,917); sources of income (2007): wages and salaries 76.7%, pensions and transfers 17.9%, self-employment 3.7%; expenditure (2008): food, beverages, and tobacco 28.7%, transportation and communications 19.3%, housing and energy 11.9%, clothing and footwear 7.8%, household furnishings 6.2%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 803; remittances (2009) 599; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 1,218. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,142; remittances (2008) 58; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 196. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$27,936,000,000 (U.S.$12,390 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$16,510 per capita).

Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 15–74 having: none/unknown through complete primary education 26.1%; secondary 25.5%; vocational 30.1%; higher 18.3%. Literacy (2007): 99.8%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

10,541 18,575 7,348

117,129 182,805 127,760

11.1 9.8 17.4

… … 69 (age 19–23)

Health (20102): physicians 7,964 (1 per 282 persons); hospital beds 14,434 (1 per 156 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 7.8; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,930 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 5,745 (army 18.4%, navy 10.2%, air force 5.6%, joint staff 55.7%, national guard 10.1%); reserve 10,866; paramilitary11 10,483. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.2%; per capita expenditure U.S.$159. 1New

administrative scheme from July 2009. 2January 1. 3General government. 4Includes other brassicas. 5Indirect taxes less subsidies. 6Includes 91,600 unemployed. 7Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 8Passenger cars 16,000,000,000; buses 2,800,000,000. 9Circulation. 10Subscribers. 11Part-time national guard.

Internet resources for further information: • Bank of Latvia http://www.bank.lv/eng/main/all • Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia http://www.csb.gov.lv/en

626

Britannica World Data

Lebanon

ceuticals 94; wearing apparel 91. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 11,188,000,000 (11,142,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (200,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (3,382,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2007): total 1,228,800; activity rate of total population 32.7% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 47.6%; female 25.0%; unemployed 9.2%).

Official name: Al-Jumhuriyah al-Lubnaniyah (Lebanese Republic). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [128]1). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Beirut. Official language: Arabic2. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Lebanese pound (LBP); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = LBP 1,5073; 1 £ = LBP 2,328.

Price index (December 2005 = 100)

Area and population

area

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

(Akkar4 Baalbek-Hermel4 Beirut (Bayrut) Al-Biqa( (Bekaa) Mount Lebanon Al-Nabatiyah North Lebanon South Lebanon

Halba Baalbek Beirut (Bayrut) Zahlah B(abda Al-Nabatiyah Tripoli (Tarabulus) Sidon (S . ayda)

304 1,091 8 516 760 424 477 359 66 4,005

788 2,825 20 1,336 1,969 1,098 1,236 930 170 10,372

TOTAL

2007 estimate 5 6

361,366 489,8656 1,484,475 7

Population (2010): 4,125,0008. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 1,030, persons per sq km 397.7. Urban-rural (2005): urban 86.6%; rural 13.4%. Sex distribution (2008): male 48.97%; female 51.03%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 27.6%; 15–29, 27.1%; 30–44, 21.7%; 45–59, 13.6%; 60–74, 7.7%; 75–84, 2.0%; 85 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2020) 4,243,000; (2030) 4,335,000. Doubling time: 44 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Arab 84.5%, of which Lebanese 71.2%, Palestinian 12.1%; Armenian 6.8%; Kurd 6.1%; other 2.6%. Religious affiliation (c. 2005): Muslim c. 56%, of which Shi(i c. 28%, Sunni c. 28%; Maronite (Eastern-rite Roman Catholic) c. 22%; Greek Orthodox c. 8%; Druze c. 5%; Greek Catholic c. 4%; other c. 5%. Major cities (2003): Beirut 395,000 (urban agglomeration [2007] 1,846,000); Tripoli 212,900; Sidon 149,000; Tyre (ÍÜr) 117,100; Al-NabaÒlyah 89,400.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 21.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 16.1 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 2.21. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 9.6/1.4. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 69.9 years; female 74.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): cardiovascular diseases 305; injuries, accidents, and violence 87; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 67; communicable diseases 64; chronic respiratory diseases 33.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: LBP 8,390,000,000,000 (tax revenue 66.7%, of which taxes on goods and services 34.8%, customs duties 6.7%; nontax revenue 26.5%; grants 5.9%; social contributions 0.9%). Expenditures: LBP 12,599,000,000,000 (public debt 37.3%; fuel/electricity 11.2%; defense 9.2%; social protection 7.5%; education 6.9%; health 2.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; August 2010): U.S.$20,990,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$33,646,000,000 (U.S.$7,970 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$13,230 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Agriculture Mining } Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Services Pub. admin., defense Other TOTAL

2001

2,348

6.2

3,579

9.5

4,052 –507 3,118 10,092 7,349 6,856 3,553 –2,682 37,758

10.7 –1.3 8.3 26.7 19.5 18.2 9.4 –7.19 100.010

labour force

}

2007 115.4

2008 121.7

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–6,708 64.2%

–6,467 60.0%

–6,613 59.3%

–8,005 55.6%

–12,659 64.5%

–12,761 64.7%

2009 125.9

Imports (2008): U.S.$16,137,000,000 (mineral products [significantly petroleum] 26.5%, food and live animals 13.2%, transportation equipment 10.6%, electrical equipment 10.5%). Major import sources: U.S. 11.5%; China 8.6%; France 8.3%; Italy 6.9%; Germany 6.4%; Turkey 4.3%. Exports (2008): U.S.$3,478,000,000 (precious metal jewelry and stones [significantly gold and diamonds] 16.5%, electrical equipment 15.4%, base and fabricated metals [significantly scrap] 15.2%, chemicals and chemical products 12.5%). Major export destinations: U.A.E. 10.0%; Switzerland 9.5%; Iraq 7.7%; Syria 6.4%; Saudi Arabia 6.0%; Turkey 5.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: 14. Roads (2005): total length 4,330 mi, 6,970 km15 (paved, n.a.). Vehicles: n.a. Air transport (2008)16: passenger-km 2,748,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 38,524,000. Communications

Vital statistics

% of total value

2006 105.6

Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography

2007

2005 100.0

Foreign trade

763,7125 659,7187 — 3,759,136

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

in value LBP ’000,000,000

2004 102.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 4.3; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2007)13: food and nonalcoholic beverages 19.9%, housing 16.2%, transportation 12.3%, energy 9.5%, education 7.7%, health 6.8%, clothing 6.5%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 7,192; remittances (2009) 7,000; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 3,004; official development assistance (2008) 1,076. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 3,564; remittances (2008) 3,022; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 903. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 13.1%, in permanent crops 14.0%, in pasture 39.1%, forest area 13.6%.

population

Provinces

WATER AREA

2003 101.0

Consumer price index12

% of labour force

320,000

20.0

1,120,000

70.0

160,000

10.0

—

—

1,600,000

100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): potatoes 514,600, tomatoes 305,300, oranges 228,700, cucumbers and gherkins 142,600, apples 125,200, grapes 118,900, lemons and limes 114,000, olives 76,200, cherries 30,000, almonds 29,400; livestock (number of live animals) 495,000 goats, 330,000 sheep, 77,400 cattle, 37,000,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 86,650 cu m, of which fuelwood 92%; fisheries production 4,614 (from aquaculture 17%). Mining and quarrying (2008): 11. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 1998): food and food products 345; cement, bricks, and ceramics 212; wood and wood products 188; fabricated metal products 185; paints, soaps, and pharma-

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

1,269

320

2009 2009

1,52618 750

36118 178

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

433 25917 1,000 22218

104 8717 237 5318

Education and health Educational attainment (2004). Percentage of population age 4 and over having: no formal education or unknown 13.7%; incomplete primary education 3.2%; primary 54.2%; secondary/vocational 15.5%; upper vocational 1.7%; higher 11.7%. Literacy (2005): total population age 15 and over literate 88.3%; males literate 93.6%; females literate 83.4%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

33,302 42,492 24,302

464,442 391,087 199,656

13.9 9.2 8.2

90 75 53 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2008) 10,234 (1 per 405 persons); hospital beds (2006) 12,037 (1 per 343 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2005) 23.6; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 59,100 (army 96.4%, navy 1.9%, air force 1.7%); estimated strength of Hezbollah (November 2009) 2,000. UN peacekeeping troops (January 2010) 11,862. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 3.0%; per capita expenditure U.S.$216. 1By law one-half of the membership is Christian and one-half Muslim/Druze. 2A law determines French usage per article 11 of the constitution. In 2004 c. 20% of the population spoke French in their daily lives. 3Rounded pegged rate. 4Created in 2003; not officially implemented by parliamentary decree by February 2009. 5North Lebanon includes (Akkar. 6Al-Biqa( (Bekaa) includes Baalbek-Hermel. 7South Lebanon includes Al-Nabatiyah. 8Includes about 425,000 registered Palestinian refugees, of whom about 225,000 live in refugee camps. 9Taxes less imputed bank service charges. 10Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 11Lebanon has between 300 and 400 rock and sand quarries (many of which are unlicensed). 12As of December. 13Weights of consumer price index components. 14The 249 mi (401 km) network was unusable in 2010. 15Roads were severely damaged and nearly all bridges destroyed by the Israeli military offensive against Hezbollah militants in 2006. 16Middle East Airlines. 17Circulation of daily newspapers. 18Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Administration for Statistics http://www.cas.gov.lb • Central Bank of Lebanon http://www.bdl.gov.lb

Nations of the World

Lesotho

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Official name: Musa oa Lesotho (Sotho); Kingdom of Lesotho (English). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [33 nonelected seats]; National Assembly [120]). Head of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Maseru. Official languages: Sotho; English. Official religion: Christianity. Monetary unit: loti (plural maloti [M]); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = M 7.26; 1 £ = M 11.221. Area and population District Councils2 Berea Botha-Bothe Leribe Mafeteng Maseru Mohale’s Hoek Mokhotlong Qacha’s Nek Quthing Thaba-Tseka

1996

in value M ’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

area sq km

2006 census3, 4

Teyateyaneng Botha-Bothe Hlotse Mafeteng Maseru Mohale’s Hoek Mokhotlong Qacha’s Nek Quthing Thaba-Tseka

858 682 1,092 818 1,652 1,363 1,573 907 1,126 1,649 11,720

2,222 1,767 2,828 2,119 4,279 3,530 4,075 2,349 2,916 4,270 30,355

250,006 110,320 293,369 192,621 431,998 176,928 97,713 69,749 124,048 129,881 1,876,633

labour force

6.7 6.5 17.1 4.9 4.2 5.0 13.5 16.6 9.8 } 10.5 5.112 100.014

% of labour force

105,250 102,03711 21,087 19,202 2,486 14,690 14,891 3,829

18.4 17.811 3.7 3.4 0.4 2.6 2.6 0.7

130,684

22.8

158,90813 573,06415

27.713 100.014, 15

Public debt (external; January 2010): U.S.$581,000,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 34; remittances (2009) 491; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 67; official development assistance (2008) 143. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 14; remittances (2008) 13.

population

sq mi

% of total value

789 764 2,015 575 497 593 1,591 1,958 1,153 1,238 60512 11,778

TOTAL

Capitals

TOTAL

Foreign trade 16 Balance of trade (current prices) M ’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 1,920,0005. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 163.8, persons per sq km 63.3. Urban-rural (2006)4: urban 22.8%; rural 77.2%. Sex distribution (2006)4: male 48.64%; female 51.36%. Age breakdown (2006)4: under 15, 33.9%; 15–29, 32.5%; 30–44, 15.9%; 45–59, 10.0%; 60–74, 5.6%; 75–84, 1.5%; 85 and over, 0.6%. Population projection5: (2020) 1,969,000; (2030) 1,952,000. Doubling time: 67 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Sotho 80.3%; Zulu 14.4%; other 5.3%. Religious affiliation (2000): Christian 91.0%, of which Roman Catholic 37.5%, unaffiliated Christian 23.9%, Protestant (mostly Reformed and Anglican) 17.7%, independent Christian 11.8%; traditional beliefs 7.7%; other 1.3%. Major urban centres (2006): Maseru 197,907; Teyateyaneng 61,475; Mafeteng 32,148; Maputsoe 30,800; Mohale’s Hoek 28,310.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 27.5 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 17.1 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 3.07. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 1.4/0.1 Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 48.6 years; female 48.5 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 23.2%6 (world avg. 0.8%). Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): HIV/AIDS-related c. 1,624; cardiovascular diseases c. 205; lower respiratory infections c. 89; diarrheal diseases c. 84.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–3,917 35.5%

–3,727 28.7%

–4,176 33.5%

–4,519 32.3%

–5,629 33.2%

–5,981 29.2%

Imports (2008): M 13,237,230,000 ([2006] assorted manufactured goods c. 40%; food c. 24%; chemicals and chemical products c. 13%; machinery and transport equipment c. 13%). Major import sources (2007): other Southern African Customs Union (SACU) countries 85.4%; Taiwan 4.9%; Hong Kong 4.2%. Exports (2008): M 7,256,070,000 (textiles and wearing apparel 50.4%; diamonds 24.0%; machinery and transportation equipment 14.0%; food, beverages, and tobacco 6.6%). Major export destinations (2007): U.S. 59.7%; other SACU countries 19.0%; Belgium 17.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 1.6 mi, 2.6 km17. Roads (2007): total length 1,473 mi, 2,371 km (paved 38%); passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Vehicles (2002): passenger cars 4,800; trucks and buses 13,000. Air transport (2009): n.a.18 Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

80

41

2009 2009

66119 40

32019 19

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

1 0 77 0.419

Budget (2008–09). Revenue: M 8,818,100,000 (tax revenue 88.0%, of which customs receipts 55.6%, VAT 11.2%, income tax 9.6%; nontax revenue 9.5%; grants 2.5%). Expenditures: M 6,462,200,000 (wages and salaries 36.0%; grants 11.9%; social benefits 3.5%; transfers 3.2%; debt service 1.8%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): potatoes (2008) 96,500, corn (maize) 57,126, sorghum 10,151, wheat 7,420, dry beans 3,452; livestock (number of live animals) 1,401,427 sheep, 1,009,297 goats, 616,496 cattle, 83,705 pigs, 75,060 horses; roundwood 2,076,100 cu m, of which fuelwood 100%; fisheries production (2008) 141 (from aquaculture 65%). Mining and quarrying (2009): diamonds 450,000 carats. Manufacturing (value added in M ’000,000; 2008): textiles and clothing 393.7; food and beverages 64.8; leather and footwear 29.4. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 200,000,000 (223,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2003) none (100,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2008): total 788,541; activity rate of total population 38.5% (participation rates: ages 15 and older, 63.5%; female 55.3%; unemployed 22.7%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

92.1 …

96.7 96.6

100.0 100.0

106.0 103.6

114.6 112.2

126.8 120.7

135.9 …

Household income and expenditure (2002–03)8. Average household size (2004) 4.1; sources of income: wages and salaries 40.3%, agriculture 25.4%, remittances 10.7%; expenditure (20109)10: food 37.0%, clothing and footwear 17.5%, transportation and communications 10.4%, household furnishings 9.4%, energy 6.1%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 9.9%, in permanent crops 0.1%, in pasture 65.9%, forest area 0.3%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$2,115,000,000 (U.S.$1,020 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,870 per capita).

units per 1,000 persons 0.5 0 37 0.219

Education and health Educational attainment (2004)20. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal education/unknown 18%; incomplete primary education 44%; complete primary 15%; secondary 20%; vocational and higher 3%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 89.5%; males literate 82.6%; females literate 95.1%. Education (2007–08)

National economy

Consumer price index Monthly earnings index7

627

Primary (age 6–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–17) Tertiary22

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

11,285 4,102 638

395,089 98,580 8,500

35.0 24.0 13.3

7321 2521 4 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2007) 127 (1 per 15,093 persons); hospital beds (2006) 2,618 (1 per 769 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 57.8; undernourished population (2004–06) 290,000 (15% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,770 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 2,000 (army 100%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$18.

1The

loti is pegged to the South African rand at 1 to 1; the rand is accepted as legal tender within Lesotho. 2New effective local government system introduced in 2005. jure figure including usual residents abroad (significantly absentee miners working in South Africa). 5Estimate of the U.S. Bureau of the Census International Database (December 2009 update). 6Statistically derived midpoint of range. 7Minimum wage. 8Data for 2002–03 based on the Household Budget Survey comprising 5,992 households. 9March. 10Weights of consumer price index components. 11Includes 94,190 mine workers in South Africa; the avg. number of mine workers in South Africa in 2007 equaled 50,100. 12Indirect taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 13Includes 101,599 not adequately defined and military personnel and 57,309 unemployed, not previously employed. 14Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 15Includes 132,609 workers outside Lesotho (nearly all in South Africa). 16Imports are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 17Length of link to South African rail network. 18Lesotho has no domestic airline. 19Subscribers. 20Based on 2004 Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey of 32,747 people. 212006–07. 222005–06. 3Final. 4De

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Lesotho http://www.centralbank.org.ls • Lesotho Bureau of Statistics http://www.bos.gov.ls

628

Britannica World Data

Liberia

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$651,000,000 (U.S.$160 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$290 per capita).

Official name: Republic of Liberia. Form of government: multiparty republic with two legislative bodies (Liberian Senate [30]; House of Representatives [64]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Monrovia. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Liberian dollar (L$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = L$72.00; 1 £ = L$111.23.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

182.5 31.2 97.5 0.8 64.3 16.1 3.8 34.8 36.7 11.9 11.3 16.2 507.1

36.0 6.2 19.2 0.2 12.7 3.2 0.7 6.9 7.2 2.3 2.2 3.2 100.0

TOTAL

area

Capitals Tubmanburg Gbarnga Bopulu Buchanan Robertsport Zwedru Barclayville Voinjama Kakata Harper Bensonville Sanniquellie River Cess Fish Town Greenville

sq mi 746 3,380 3,843 3,017 1,846 4,191 1,504 3,854 1,039 887 726 4,460 2,183 1,974 3,770 37,420

TOTAL

population

sq km 1,932 8,754 9,953 7,814 4,781 10,854 3,895 9,982 2,691 2,297 1,880 11,551 5,654 5,113 9,764 96,9172

2008 census1 84,119 333,481 83,388 221,693 127,076 125,258 57,913 276,863 209,923 135,938 1,118,241 462,026 71,509 66,789 102,391 3,476,608

labour force6

}

% of labour force6

176,326

59.7

2,508 2,785 4,300 … 11,178 18,928 18,321 47,681 13,327 295,3547

0.8 0.9 1.5 … 3.8 6.4 6.2 16.2 4.5 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; June 2009): U.S.$1,782,000,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances (20098) 169; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 237; official development assistance (2008) 1,250. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances (20098) 123; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 370. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 4.0%, in permanent crops 2.2%, in pasture 20.8%, forest area 31.5%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) 2004 –233 52.9%

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 3,763,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 100.6, persons per sq km 38.8. Urban-rural (2009): urban 47.4%; rural 52.6%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.05%; female 49.95%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 41.9%; 15–29, 29.1%; 30–44, 16.7%; 45–59, 7.4%; 60–74, 3.4%; 75–84, 1.0%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2020) 4,828,000; (2030) 5,986,000. Doubling time: 32 years. Ethnic composition (2008): Kpelle 20.3%; Bassa 13.4%; Grebo 10.0%; Gio (Dan) 8.0%; Mano 7.9%; Kru 6.0%; Loma (Lorma) 5.1%; Kissi 4.8%; Gola 4.4%; Krahn 4.0%; Vai 4.0%; other 12.1%. Religious affiliation (2008): Christian 85.6%; Muslim 12.2%; traditional beliefs 0.6%; other religion 0.2%; no religion 1.4%. Major urban areas (2008): Monrovia 1,010,970; Ganta 41,106; Buchanan 34,270; Gbarnga 34,046; Kakata 33,945.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 38.7 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 11.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 27.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 5.30. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 54.3 years; female 57.3 years.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: L$10,222,400,000 (customs and excise duties 44.3%; direct taxes 32.1%; indirect taxes 12.6%; maritime revenue 7.6%; petroleum sales tax 2.4%; other 1.0%). Expenditures: L$9,498,000,000 (general administration 41.5%; social and community services 19.8%; economic services 6.9%; other 31.8%). Population economically active (2009): total 1,455,000; activity rate 37.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2006] 70.7%3; female 40.2%; unemployed [2007] c. 80%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

% of total value

Agriculture Rubber Forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance Pub. admin., defense Services

Area and population Counties Bomi Bong Gbarpolu Grand Bassa Grand Cape Mount Grand Gedeh Grand Kru Lofa Margibi Maryland Montserrado Nimba River Cess River Gee Sinoe

in value U.S.$’000,0005

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

81.8

90.3

93.5

100.0

107.2

119.4

140.3

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava 560,000, rice 295,150, sugarcane 265,000, oil palm fruit 183,000, bananas 120,000, natural rubber 81,000, fresh vegetables 67,500, plantains 43,000, taro 30,000, sweet potatoes 21,000, yams 20,500, peanuts (groundnuts) 5,400, cacao beans 3,000; livestock (number of live animals) 285,000 goats, 241,000 sheep, 199,500 pigs, 6,250,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 6,922,500 cu m, of which fuelwood 94%; fisheries production 7,890 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2008): diamonds 60,536 carats; gold 624 kg. Manufacturing (value of sales in L$’000; 2007): cement 1,308,767; beer 1,023,734; carbonated beverages 429,776; mattresses 200,391; paints and varnishes 41,313; candles 32,163. International maritime licensing (registration fees earned; 2007): more than U.S.$12,000,000. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 353,000,000 (353,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (194,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 5.1; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2005)4: food 45.2%, housing and energy 12.0%, clothing 7.8%, transportation 6.1%, household furnishings 5.3%, restaurants and hotels 4.6%.

2005 –179 40.5%

2006 –309 49.5%

2007 –301 42.9%

2008 –571 54.1%

20098 –417 58.5%

Imports (2009): U.S.$565,000,0008 (food 28.7%, of which rice 11.3%; machinery and transport equipment 23.0%; assorted manufactures 15.2%; petroleum products 13.1%). Major import sources (2008): South Korea c. 27%; Singapore c. 25%; Japan c. 12%; China c. 11%. Exports (2009): U.S.$148,000,0008 (rubber 62.4%; gold 6.5%; diamonds 5.0%; cocoa beans/coffee 2.4%; logs 1.5%; other [mostly scrap metals] 22.2%). Major export destinations (2008): India c. 21%; U.S. c. 19%; Poland c. 15%; Germany c. 11%; Belgium c. 7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none9. Roads (2007): total length, n.a. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 7,428; trucks and buses 3,326. Air transport: n.a.10 Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

69

25

2009 2009

84212 2.0

21312 0.5

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

… 5011 20 …

… 1411 5.1 …

Education and health Educational attainment (2008). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 55.3%; incomplete primary education 7.5%; complete primary 3.3%; incomplete secondary 16.2%; complete secondary 11.3%; vocational 1.2%; higher 5.2%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 54.0%; males literate 65.6%; females literate 42.6%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary14

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

22,610 12,794 443

539,887 158,242 6,120

23.9 12.4 13.8

7513 2013 1713 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2009) 122 (1 per 32,418 persons); hospital beds (2001) 2,751 (1 per 1,075 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 78.1; undernourished population (2004–06) 1,300,000 (38% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,730 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 2,400; UN peacekeeping troops (January 2010) 10,947. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP: n.a.

1Final results. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3ILO estimate. 4Weights of consumer price index components. 5At constant prices of 1992. 6Formal employment only. 7Excludes informal sector employment equaling 487,000 and an unknown number of unofficially unemployed. 8Excludes December. 9No railway lines were operational in early 2009. 10Liberia had no domestic airline in 2009. 11Circulation of daily newspapers. 12Subscribers. 131999–2000. 14University of Liberia, two Monrovia-based colleges, and a Kakata-based college only.

Internet resource for further information: • Central Bank of Liberia http://www.cbl.org.lr.

629

Nations of the World

Libya

Price index (2005 = 100)

Official name: Al-Jamahiriyah al-(Arabiyah al-Libiyah al-Sha(biyah al-Ishtirakiyah al-(Uzma (Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya). Form of government: authoritarian with one policy-making body (General People’s Congress [468]). Head of state (de facto)1: Revolutionary Leader Muammar al-Qaddafi. Head of government: Secretary of the General People’s Committee (prime minister). Capital: Tripoli2. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Libyan dinar (LD); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = LD 1.27; 1 £ = LD 1.96.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

99.6

97.4

100.0

101.5

107.8

119.0

121.9

Consumer price index

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$77,185,000,000 (U.S.$12,020 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$16,430 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

2007

in value LD ’000,000 Agriculture Petroleum and natural gas6 } Other mining Manufacturing7 Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, insurance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

% of total value

2,021

1.9

70,681

67.8

4,747 5,995 1,256 3,884 3,950

4.6 5.7 1.2 3.7 3.8

6,805 6,671 364 –2,0598 104,3139

TOTAL

6.5 6.4 0.3 –2.08 100.09

labour force

% of labour force

135,700 32,800 23,700 141,800 42,400 56,400 140,800 195,100

7.6 1.8 1.3 7.9 2.4 3.1 7.8 10.9

41,200 290,400 694,200 — 1,794,500

2.3 16.2 38.7 — 100.0

Area and population Municipalities Banghazi Al-Butnan Darnah Ghat Al-Jabal al-Akhdar Al-Jabal al-Gharbi Al-Jifarah Al-Jufrah Al-Kufrah Al-Marj Al-Marqab Marzuq

area

population

sq km

2006 census

11,372 84,996 31,511 68,482 11,429 76,717 2,666 139,038 433,611 13,515 6,796 356,308

670,797 159,536 163,351 23,518 203,156 304,159 453,198 … 50,104 185,848 432,202 78,621

Municipalities Misratah Nalut Al-Nuqat al-Khams Sabha Surt Tripoli (Tarabulus) Wadi al-Hayat Wadi al-Shati Al-Wahat Al-Zawiyah REMAINDER TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2006 census

29,172 67,191 6,089 17,066 86,399 835 31,485 90,244 108,523 2,753 100,862 1,777,060

550,938 93,224 287,662 212,694 193,720 1,065,405 76,858 … 177,047 290,993 — 5,673,0313

Demography Population (2010): 6,546,0004. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 9.5, persons per sq km 3.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 77.7%; rural 22.3%. Sex distribution (2009): male 51.21%; female 48.79%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 33.0%; 15–29, 28.6%; 30–44, 21.9%; 45–59, 10.1%; 60–74, 4.7%; 75–84, 1.4%; 85 and over, 0.3%. Population projection4: (2020) 7,699,000; (2030) 8,519,000. Doubling time: 33 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Arab 87.1%, of which Libyan 57.2%, Bedouin 13.8%, Egyptian 7.7%, Sudanese 3.5%, Tunisian 2.9%; Amazigh (Berber) 6.8%, of which Arabized 4.2%; other 6.1%. Religious affiliation (2000): Muslim (nearly all Sunni) 96.1%; Orthodox 1.9%; Roman Catholic 0.8%; other 1.2%. Major cities/urban agglomerations (2006/2007): Tripoli (Tarabulus) 1,065,405/ 2,189,000; Banghazi 670,797/(2005) 1,113,000; Misratah (2003) 121,669.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 25.1 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 3.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 21.7 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 3.08. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2002): 6.0/0.3. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 75.0 years; female 79.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): diseases of the circulatory system 185, of which ischemic heart disease 98; infectious and parasitic diseases 72; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 44; accidents, injuries, and violence 43; chronic respiratory diseases 16.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: LD 72,741,200,000 (oil revenues 88.6%, other 11.4%). Expenditures: LD 44,115,000,000 (development expenditures 65.5%, administrative expenditures 26.9%). Public debt (external outstanding; 2005): U.S.$3,900,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): potatoes (2008) 290,000, watermelons 220,000, tomatoes 200,000, dry onions 182,000, olives 180,000, dates 150,000, wheat (2008) 104,000, almonds (2008) 25,000; livestock (number of live animals) 6,500,000 sheep, 2,500,000 goats, 185,000 cattle, 50,000 camels, (2008) 27,000,000 chickens; roundwood 1,042,200 cu m, of which fuelwood 89%; fisheries production (2008) 47,885 (from aquaculture 1%). Mining and quarrying (2008): lime 250,000; gypsum 250,000; salt 40,000. Manufacturing (value of production in LD ’000,000; 1996): base metals 212; electrical equipment 208; petrochemicals 175; food products 79; cement and other building materials 68. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 25,694,000,000 (25,667,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (n.a.); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 643,800,000 ([2007] 114,806,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008) 15,860,000 (10,244,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 16,029,000,000 (6,307,000,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 1.0%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 7.7%, forest area 0.1%. Population economically active (2008): total 2,295,0005; activity rate of total population 36.5%5 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 54.3%5; female 21.9%5; unemployed [2004] 30.0%).

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 74; remittances (2009) 16; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 3,604; official development assistance (2008) 60. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,277; remittances (2008) 762. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 5.9; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2003)10: food and beverages 36.6%, housing 23.3%, transportation 11.2%, clothing and footwear 7.3%, education/culture/entertainment 6.4%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+7,447 34.1%

+11,642 39.9%

+20,175 47.4%

+26,125 50.0%

+27,122 43.8%

+40,292 48.2%

Imports (2007): U.S.$17,401,000,000 (petroleum sector 17.7%; remainder 82.3%). Major import sources (2008): Italy c. 22%; China c. 9%; Germany c. 9%; Turkey c. 6%; Tunisia c. 6%. Exports (2007): U.S.$44,523,000,000 (hydrocarbons [mostly crude petroleum] 97.5%; remainder 2.5%). Major export destinations (2008): Italy c. 38%; Germany c. 12%; Spain c. 7%; France c. 7%; U.S. c. 6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none.11 Roads (2000): total length 51,100 mi, 83,200 km (paved 57%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 1,338,165; trucks and buses 401,838. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 1,260,000,00012; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2000

717

2009 2009

5,00414 1,101

units per 1,000 persons 133 77914 172

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

130 10013 354 1014

units per 1,000 persons 21 2413 55 1.614

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2006): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 88.1%; males literate 93.0%; females literate 83.1%. Education (2002–03) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

… … 15,711

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

… … 23.8

… … 56 (age 19–23)

755,33815 732,61415 375,028

Health: physicians (2004) 7,405 (1 per 775 persons); hospital beds (2002) 21,400 (1 per 256 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 267; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 76,000 (army 65.8%, navy 10.5%, air force 23.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.2%; per capita expenditure U.S.$127. 1No

formal titled office exists. 2Tripoli was made the capital in the early 1970s. By 2005 most ministries had relocated to Surt (near Qaddafi’s place of birth) and other cities as part of a radical decentralization plan. The policy-making body (General People’s Congress) meets annually in Surt. 3Final census results include 349,040 foreigners. 4Per United Nations World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision. 5ILO estimate. 6Includes refined petroleum. 7Excludes refined petroleum. 8Taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 10Weights of consumer price index components. 11A Mediterranean coast rail line is to be built from the Egyptian border to the Tunisian border; the 554-km Surt to Banghazi section was under way in 2010. 12Afriqiyah Airways only. 13Circulation of daily newspapers. 14Subscribers. 152005–06.

Internet resource for further information: • Central Bank of Libya http://www.cbl.gov.ly/en

630

Britannica World Data

Liechtenstein

Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$4,307,000,000 (U.S.$121,509 per capita).

Official name: Fürstentum Liechtenstein (Principality of Liechtenstein). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (Diet [25]). Head of state: Prince1. Head of government: Head of the Government (Prime Minister). Capital: Vaduz. Official language: German. Official religion: 2. Monetary unit: Swiss franc (CHF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CHF 1.02; 1 £ = CHF 1.57.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value % of total U.S.$’000,000 value Agriculture, forestry Mining } Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transportation and communications Trade, public accommodation Finance, insurance, real estate Consulting, trust management Pub. admin., defense Services Other

}

TOTAL

Area and population

area

Regions Communes Oberland (Upland) Balzers Planken Schaan Triesen Triesenberg Vaduz Unterland (Lowland) Eschen Gamprin Mauren Ruggell Schellenberg TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

7.6 2.0 10.4 10.2 11.5 6.7

19.7 5.3 26.9 26.5 29.7 17.3

4.0 2.4 2.9 2.9 1.4 62.0

10.4 6.2 7.5 7.4 3.6 160.5

60

1.2

113

2.2

1,064 287

21.2 5.7

341 818

6.8 16.3

2,513

50.0

–168 5,028

–3.4 100.0

20073 % of labour force

labour force 398 45 207 10,813 2,504

1.3 0.1 0.7 34.8 8.0

1,123 3,216 5,177 2,390 1,479 3,722 — 31,0746

3.6 10.3 16.7 7.7 4.8 12.0 — 100.0

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, left fallow, or in permanent crops c. 25%; in pasture c. 13%; forest area c. 43%.

20103 estimate 23,254 4,517 422 5,791 4,807 2,509 5,208 12,650 4,196 1,584 3,887 1,965 1,018 35,904

Foreign trade7, 8 Balance of trade (current prices) CHF ’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 36,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 580.6, persons per sq km 224.3. Urban-rural (2009): urban 13.9%; rural 86.1%. Sex distribution (20093): male 49.43%; female 50.57%. Age breakdown (20093): under 15, 16.4%; 15–29, 18.5%; 30–44, 23.3%; 45–59, 22.8%; 60–74, 13.7%; 75–84, 3.9%; 85 and over, 1.4%. Population projection: (2020) 39,000; (2030) 42,000. Ethnic composition (20093): Liechtensteiner 66.9%; Swiss 10.0%; Austrian 5.7%; German 3.5%; Italian 3.3%; other 10.6%. Religious affiliation (2002): Christian 83.9%, of which Roman Catholic 76.0%, Protestant 7.0%, Orthodox 0.8%; Muslim 4.1%; nonreligious/other/unknown 12.0%. Major towns (20103): Schaan 5,791; Vaduz 5,208; Triesen 4,807; Balzers 4,517; Eschen 4,196.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 9.9 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 86.0%; outside of marriage 14.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 5.8 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 4.1 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.40. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 5.8/2.8. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 78.9 years; female 83.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system c. 183; malignant neoplasms (cancers) c. 158; diseases of the respiratory system c. 62; accidents, violence, and suicide c. 37.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: CHF 1,140,000,000 (current revenue 96.8%, of which taxes and duties 71.4%, revenues from assets 20.0%, fees 3.6%; capital revenue 3.2%). Expenditures: CHF 1,268,100,000 (current expenditure 91.3%; capital expenditure 8.7%). Public debt (2010): none. Tourism (2009): 54,389 tourist arrivals; receipts from visitors, n.a. Selected balance of payments data: n.a. Population economically active (20093): total 16,3874; activity rate of total population 45.8% (participation rates: age 15 and over, 55.1%; female [20043] 41.4%; unemployed [2008] 1.6%).

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+1,323 26.0%

+1,318 25.7%

+1,440 25.0%

+1,766 26.8%

+1,784 26.6%

+1,157 23.1%

Imports (2009): CHF 1,924,000,000 (machinery and electronic goods 36.6%, fabricated metals/iron and steel 23.5%, chemical and rubber products 8.8%, nonmetallic mineral products 6.7%). Major import sources: Germany 41.1%; Austria 35.0%; Italy 4.2%; U.S. 2.0%; Poland 1.8%. Exports (2009): CHF 3,081,000,000 (machinery and electronic goods 41.6%, fabricated metals/precision tools 18.7%, food and beverages 9.3%, transport equipment/parts 9.2%, glass and ceramic products [including lead crystal and specialized dental products] 6.5%). Major export destinations: Germany 23.6%; U.S. 11.3%; Austria 11.0%; France 10.1%; Italy 6.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2009): route length 5.6 mi, 9 km; passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo 328,000,000. Roads (2009): total length 235 mi, 380 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (2009): passenger cars 25,909; trucks and buses 8,1059. Air transport: the nearest scheduled airport service is through Zürich, Switzerland. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2002

17

510

2009 2009

3511 20

97511 546

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

… 2010 23 2711

… 55910 641 75211

Education and health Educational attainment (2000)12. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: incomplete compulsory education (schooling to age 16) 3.0%; complete compulsory 22.9%; lower vocational 44.5%; higher vocational, teacher training 13.8%; university 6.6%; unknown 9.2%. Literacy: virtually 100%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

332 326 …

2,158 3,213 800

6.5 9.9 …

90 83 37 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2008) 6213 (1 per 572 persons); hospital beds (1997) 108 (1 per 288 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2006) 5.5; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel: none; Liechtenstein has had no standing army since 1868; defense is the responsibility of Switzerland. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP: none.

Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index5

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

97.8

98.9

100.0

101.1

101.8

104.3

103.8

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2003) 2.5. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cow’s milk 11,500; grapes 200; significantly market gardening, other crops include potatoes, corn (maize), and apples; livestock (number of live animals; 2009) 6,078 cattle, 3,963 sheep, 1,811 pigs; roundwood (2009) 25,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 52%; fisheries production, n.a. Mining and quarrying: n.a. Manufacturing (2007): small-scale precision manufacturing includes optical lenses, electron microscopes, electronic equipment, dentures, and high-vacuum pumps; metal manufacturing, construction machinery, and ceramics are important; dairy products and wine are also produced. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 72,273,000 ([2009] 377,600,000); crude petroleum, none (none); coal (metric tons; 2008) none (n.a.); petroleum products (metric tons; 2004) none (50,000); natural gas, none (none).

1In August 2004 the prince turned over most official day-to-day responsibilities to his son but did not rescind the role of head of state. 2The designation of “state church” for Roman Catholicism per article 37 of the constitution was under review in 2010. 3January 1. 4Residents employed within Liechtenstein only (including 10,794 Liechtensteiners resident in Liechtenstein and 5,593 other nationalities resident in Liechtenstein); 17,028 inward commuters are excluded along with 1,371 outward commuters. 5Figures are derived from statistics for Switzerland. 6Residents employed within Liechtenstein only plus inward commuters. 7Excludes trade with Switzerland and transshipments through Switzerland. 8Liechtenstein has formed a customs union with Switzerland since 1923. 9Includes vans, motorcycles, and tractors. 10Circulation. 11Subscribers. 12Based on 14,211 Liechtensteiners and 8,855 foreigners. 13Practicing physicians only.

Internet resource for further information: • Liechtenstein Office of Economic Affairs http://www.llv.li

631

Nations of the World

Lithuania

868, of which dairy products 242; wood products 636, of which furniture 324; bricks, tiles, and ceramics 275; wearing apparel 215; plastics 196; refined petroleum 125. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 13,101,000,000 ([2007] 12,635,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (379,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 938,000 ([2007] 34,800,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 5,612,000 (3,304,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) none (3,447,000,000). Public debt (December 2009): U.S.$8,043,000,000. Population economically active (2009): total 1,641,000; activity rate of total population 49.1% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 69.8%; female 53.2%; registered unemployed 13.7%).

Official name: Lietuvos Respublika (Republic of Lithuania). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with single legislative body (Seimas, or Parliament [141]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Vilnius. Official language: Lithuanian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: litas (LTL); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = LTL 2.72; 1 £ = LTL 4.20.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

Area and population

area

Counties

Capitals

Alytus Kaunas Klaip0da Marijampol0 Panev0\ys Šiauliai Taurag0 Telßiai Utena Vilnius

Alytus Kaunas Klaip0da Marijampol0 Panev0\ys Šiauliai Taurag0 Telßiai Utena Vilnius

TOTAL

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

96.3 89.8

97.4 93.1

100.0 100.0

103.7 116.9

109.7 141.6

121.7 166.6

127.1 160.8

Consumer price index Annual earnings index population

sq mi

sq km

20101 estimate

2,095 3,123 2,011 1,723 3,043 3,297 1,703 1,680 2,780 3,757 25,212

5,425 8,089 5,209 4,463 7,881 8,540 4,411 4,350 7,201 9,731 65,300

173,426 666,309 376,549 178,365 278,426 341,687 124,755 171,132 168,066 850,324 3,329,039

Household income and expenditure (2008). Average household size 2.4; average annual per capita disposable household income LTL 11,748 (U.S.$4,984); sources of income: wages and salaries 61.6%, transfers 24.3%, self-employment 10.4%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 34.8%, housing and energy 12.6%, transportation 9.8%, clothing and footwear 8.5%, hotels and cafés 5.5%, household furnishings 5.0%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,338; remittances (2009) 1,101; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 1,395. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,497; remittances (2008) 615; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 383. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 29.3%, left fallow 1.7%, in permanent crops 0.5%, in pasture 13.2%, forest area 34.0%.

Foreign trade4 Demography

Balance of trade (current prices)

Population (2010): 3,297,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 130.8, persons per sq km 50.5. Urban-rural (20091): urban 66.9%; rural 33.1%. Sex distribution (20091): male 46.55%; female 53.45%. Age breakdown (20091): under 15, 15.1%; 15–29, 22.7%; 30–44, 21.1%; 45–59, 20.4%; 60–74, 13.8%; 75–84, 5.7%; 85 and over, 1.2%. Population projection: (2020) 3,097,000; (2030) 2,946,000. Ethnic composition (20091): Lithuanian 84.1%; Polish 6.1%; Russian 4.9%; Belarusian 1.1%; Ukrainian 0.6%; Jewish 0.1%; other/unknown 3.1%. Religious affiliation (2007): Roman Catholic 80.2%; Orthodox 4.9%, of which Old Believers 0.8%; Lutheran/Reformed 0.8%; other Christian c. 3%; Jewish 0.1%; Muslim 0.1%; nonreligious/other 10.9%. Major cities (20101): Vilnius 548,835; Kaunas 348,624; Klaip0da 182,752; Siauliai 125,453; Panev0\ys 111,959; Alytus 66,841.

Imports (2008): U.S.$31,295,000,000 (mineral fuels 27.7%, of which crude petroleum 21.4%; machinery and apparatus 14.6%; chemicals and chemical products 11.3%; road vehicles 9.9%). Major import sources: Russia 30.1%; Germany 11.8%; Poland 10.0%; Latvia 5.2%; Italy 3.5%. Exports (2008): U.S.$23,770,000,000 (refined petroleum 22.8%; food 13.3%; machinery and apparatus 10.5%; road vehicles/parts 6.7%; fertilizers 6.4%; furniture/parts 4.0%; apparel/clothing accessories 3.3%). Major export destinations: Russia 16.0%; Latvia 11.6%; Germany 7.2%; Poland 5.8%; Estonia 5.7%.

Vital statistics

Transport and communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.0 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 72.1%; outside of marriage 27.9%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.6 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): –1.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.55. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 6.2/2.8. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 67.5 years; female 78.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): diseases of the circulatory system 697.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 203.3; diseases of the digestive system 55.6; diseases of the respiratory system 39.1.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: LTL 30,067,000,000 (tax revenue 58.4%, of which tax on goods and services 36.8%, individual income tax 13.0%; social security contributions 30.4%; grants 5.8%; nontax revenue 5.4%). Expenditures: LTL 30,933,000,000 (social security and welfare 33.1%; general administration 23.7%; health 11.4%; economic affairs 11.1%; education 6.9%; defense 5.8%). Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$38,095,000,000 (U.S.$11,410 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$16,740 per capita). 2008

Agriculture, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

4,500 400 18,600 10,000 3,200 12,700 18,000 15,600 6,400 10,500 11,600 111,500

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–3,077 14.2%

–3,634 13.1%

–5,253 15.7%

–7,283 17.5%

–7,525 13.7%

–1,777 5.1%

Transport. Railroads (20091): route length 1,097 mi, 1,765 km5; passenger-km (2008) 397,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 14,747,000,000. Roads (20091): total length 50,350 mi, 81,030 km (paved 88%); passenger-km (2006) 42,700,000,0006; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 20,417,000,000. Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 1,671,065; trucks and buses 142,557. Air transport (2008)7: passenger-km 1,502,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,300,000. Communications

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

1,785

519

2009 2009

4,9629 747

1,5109 227

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

618 5748 1,964 6349

183 1728 598 1939

Education and health Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no schooling through complete primary education 14.7%; lower secondary 18.0%; higher secondary 28.2%; vocational/technical 19.3%; higher 19.8%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 99.7%. Education (2007–08)

Structure of gross national product and labour force in value LTL ’000,000

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

4.0 0.4 16.7 9.0 2.9 11.4 16.1 14.0 5.7 9.4 10.4 100.0

119,800 4,100 260,400 166,500 35,500 120,800 309,000 118,200 83,100 302,700 94,3002 1,614,3003

7.4 0.3 16.1 10.3 2.2 7.5 19.1 7.3 5.2 18.8 5.82 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat 2,100,200, cow’s milk 1,786,949, barley 858,200, sugar beets 682,000, potatoes 662,500, triticale 426,000, rapeseed 415,800, rye 207,900, oats 142,500, cabbages 121,124, carrots and turnips 63,716, apples 53,259, hen’s eggs 47,820; livestock (number of live animals) 897,100 pigs, 770,900 cattle; roundwood 5,459,531 cu m, of which fuelwood 33%; fisheries production (2008) 185,771 (from aquaculture 2%). Mining and quarrying (2007): sand and gravel 9,181,600; cement 1,105,365; clays 384,850; peat 306,500. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): food and beverages

Primary (age 7–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

10,441 41,142 14,934

135,719 376,683 204,767

13.0 9.2 13.7

92 92 77 (age 19–23)

Health (20091): physicians 13,403 (1 per 250 persons); hospital beds 27,362 (1 per 122 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 4.9; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,930 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 8,850 (army 83.4%, navy 5.3%, air force 11.3%); reserve 6,700; paramilitary 14,600. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.2%; per capita expenditure U.S.$150.

1January 4Imports

1. 2Unemployed. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 5Operated lines only. 6Passenger cars 39,000,000,000; buses 3,700,000,000. 7FlyLAL only (operations suspended January 2009). 8Circulation of daily newspapers. 9Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • Lithuanian Department of Statistics http://www.stat.gov.lt • Bank of Lithuania http://www.lb.lt/home/default.asp?lang=e

632

Britannica World Data

Luxembourg

ric tons; 2007) none (109,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (2,410,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) none (1,403,300,000). Population economically active (2008): total 218,10011; activity rate of total population 44.6% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 67.0%; female 43.5%; unemployed [September 2008–August 2009] 5.2%).

Official names1: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg (Luxembourgish); Grand-Duché de Luxembourg (French); Grossherzogtum Luxemburg (German) (Grand Duchy of Luxembourg). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative body (Chamber of Deputies [60])2. Head of state: Grand Duke. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Luxembourg. Official languages: 1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: > (euro); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

Area and population area Districts

Administrative centres

Diekirch Grevenmacher Luxembourg

Diekirch Grevenmacher Luxembourg

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

20103 estimate

447 203 349 999

1,157 525 904 2,586

77,319 60,242 364,505 502,066

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

97.6 97.0

100.0 100.0

102.7 103.9

105.0 108.8

108.6 114.1

109.0 …

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2005) 2.5; income per household (2002) >61,800 (U.S.$55,600); sources of income (1992): wages and salaries 67.1%, transfer payments 28.1%, self-employment 4.8%; expenditure (2007): housing and energy 22.3%, transportation and communications 21.0%, food, beverages, and tobacco 17.9%, entertainment and culture 7.5%, hotels and restaurants 7.3%, household goods and furniture 6.4%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 4,488; remittances (2009) 1,699; foreign direct disinvestment (2006–08 avg.) –66. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 3,842; remittances (2008) 10,922; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 12,161. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 23.6%, in permanent crops 0.8%, in pasture 26.3%, forest area 33.5%.

Balance of trade (current prices) >’000,000 % of total

Population (2010): 506,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 506.5, persons per sq km 195.7. Urban-rural (2008): urban 82.0%; rural 18.0%. Sex distribution (20093): male 49.61%; female 50.39%. Age breakdown (20093): under 15, 17.9%; 15–29, 18.7%; 30–44, 24.0%; 45–59, 20.6%; 60–74, 12.2%; 75–84, 5.2%; 85 and over, 1.4%. Population projection: (2020) 566,000; (2030) 633,000. Ethnic composition (nationality; 20093): Luxembourger 56.3%; Portuguese 16.2%; French 5.8%; Italian 3.9%; Belgian 3.4%; German 2.4%; other 12.0%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic (including non-practicing) c. 90%; Protestant c. 3%; Muslim c. 2%; Orthodox c. 1%; other c. 4%. Major communes/urban agglomerations (20103): Luxembourg 90,848/132,835; Esch-sur-Alzette 30,147/74,638; Pétange 15,582/22,897; Differdange 21,5304; Dudelange 18,507.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.3 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 69.8%; outside of marriage (2008) 30.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.59. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 3.5/2.1. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 77.6 years; female 82.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 234.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 160.8; accidents and violence 47.1; diseases of the respiratory system 40.7.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–3,923 16.7%

–3,868 15.8%

–4,337 16.1%

–4,482 16.0%

–5,296 18.0%

–4,174 18.6%

Imports (2008): >17,352,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 13.8%, road vehicles 11.8%, refined petroleum 11.0%, chemicals and chemical products 9.1%, iron and steel 7.0%, food 6.9%, ferrous waste and scrap 5.1%). Major import sources (2009): Belgium 36.0%; Germany 29.6%; France 11.8%; Neth. 6.9%; Italy 2.7%. Exports (2008): >12,056,000,000 (iron and steel 27.8%, machinery and apparatus 15.3%, plastics [all forms/articles] 6.8%, road vehicles 6.0%, food 4.8%, aluminum 3.7%, rubber tires 3.6%). Major export destinations (2009): Germany 27.7%; France 17.2%; Belgium 13.3%; Neth. 5.3%; Italy 4.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 275 km; passenger-km 316,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 294,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 1,798 mi, 2,894 km (paved 100%); passenger-km (2006) 7,800,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 10,267,000,000. Vehicles (20093): passenger cars 329,038; trucks and buses 30,116. Air transport (2008)13: passenger-km 1,368,000,000; metric tonkm cargo, negligible. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

70

156

2009 2009

71915 274

1,47915 563

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

290 11314 425 16015

units per 1,000 persons 634 28214 873 32915

Education and health

National economy Budget (2008)5. Revenue: >15,864,000,000 (indirect taxes 33.2%, direct taxes 29.7%, social contributions 27.0%). Expenditures: >14,920,300,000 (social benefits 47.7%, development expenditure 9.7%). Public debt (2007): negligible. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$37,056,000,000 (U.S.$74,430 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$57,640 per capita). 2008 in value >’000,000

% of total value

119.8 37.4 3,090.9 1,951.7 379.4 3,224.5 3,924.7 10,306.2 7,111.5 1,724.1 3,686.1 3,790.47 39,348.49

0.3 0.1 7.9 5.0 1.0 8.2 10.0 26.2 18.1 4.4 9.4 9.67 100.09

labour force 5,200 300 35,700 38,300 1,700 28,500 60,800 41,200 60,000 17,800 59,200 9,9008 358,60010

Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 25–64 having: no formal schooling through primary education 18%; lower secondary 9%; upper secondary/higher vocational 47%; higher 26%. Literacy (2008): virtually 100% literate. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary16

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

TOTAL

2004

95.4 94.8

Foreign trade12

Demography

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance6, insurance Real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2003 Consumer price index Annual earnings index

% of labour force 1.5 0.1 10.0 10.7 0.5 7.9 17.0 11.5 16.7 5.0 16.5 2.88 100.09

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat 90,903, barley 54,398, triticale 25,415, potatoes 20,044, rapeseed 18,132, grapes 16,900, apples 10,190, oats 7,197, rye 6,924; livestock (number of live animals) 196,470 cattle, 80,217 pigs; roundwood 352,818 cu m, of which fuelwood 6%; fisheries production, n.a. Mining and quarrying (2007): limited quantities of limestone and slate. Manufacturing (value added in >’000,000; 2008): base metals 1,031.9; rubber and plastic products 320.8; fabricated metal products 304.9; cement, bricks, and ceramics 259.5; agricultural and food products 253.0; nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 212.7; electrical machinery and electronics 189.2. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008–09) 3,508,000,000 ([2007] 7,962,000,000); coal (met-

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

2,992 3,859 …

35,630 39,349 2,692

11.9 13.8 …

96 84 10 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2008) 1,485 (1 per 325 persons); hospital beds (2007) 2,743 (1 per 175 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 2.5; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 900 (army 100%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.4%; per capita expenditure U.S.$475.

1Luxembourgish is the national language; German and French are both languages of administration. 2In addition, the 22-member Council of State (a 21-member body of unelected citizens appointed by the Grand Duke plus the hereditary Grand Duke) serves in an advisory capacity to the government. 3January 1. 4Within Esch-sur-Alzette urban agglomeration. 5General government (consolidated) budget figures. 6In early 2009 total banking assets (at 152 banks) exceeded U.S.$1,313,300,000,000. 7Taxes less subsidies. 8Unemployed. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 10In 2008 included c. 201,500 Luxembourgers, c. 11,000 resident foreigners, and c. 146,100 workers from neighbouring countries; excludes Luxembourgers working abroad. 11Luxembourgers and resident foreigners only, includes Luxembourgers working abroad. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Luxair only. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 162005–06.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Luxembourg http://www.bcl.lu/en • Le Portail des Statistiques du Luxembourg http://www.statistiques.public.lu/fr

Nations of the World

Macau

Public debt (2009): n.a. Population economically active (2009): total 329,2009; activity rate of total population 60.7% (participation rates: ages 20–64, 81.6%; female 48.0%; unemployed 3.6%).

Official name: Aomen Tebie Xingzhengqu (Chinese); Região Administrativa Especial de Macau (Portuguese) (Macau Special Administrative Region). Political status: special administrative region (China) with one legislative house (Legislative Assembly [291]). Head of state: President of China. Head of government: Chief Executive. Capital: Macau. Official languages: Chinese; Portuguese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: pataca (MOP)2; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = MOP 8.00; 1 £ = MOP 12.36.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0 100.0

105.2 116.2

111.0 135.3

120.6 …

122.0 …

sq mi 3.6 5.6 3.0 2.6 2.2 0.4 — 11.8

population sq km 9.3 14.4 7.6 6.8 5.8 1.1 — 30.6

Balance of trade (current prices)

20103 estimate 462,900 77,700 3,500 74,200 — — 1,600 542,200

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Population (2010): 542,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 45,932, persons per sq km 17,712. Urban-rural (2008): urban, virtually 100%. Sex distribution (20103): male 49.07%; female 50.93%. Age breakdown (20103): under 15, 12.8%; 15–29, 24.9%; 30–44, 24.6%; 45–59, 25.8%; 60–74, 8.1%; 75 and over, 3.8%. Population projection: (2020) 582,000; (2030) 605,000. Ethnic composition by place of birth (2006): mainland China 47.1%; Macau 42.5%; Hong Kong 3.7%; Philippines 2.0%; Portugal 0.3%; other 4.4%. Religious affiliation (2006): Buddhist c. 80%; Roman Catholic c. 4%; Protestant c. 1%; other/nonreligious c. 15%. Major city (2006): Macau 502,133.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.8 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2004) 82.7%; outside of marriage (2004) 17.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 3.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.7 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 0.90. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 5.6/1.4. Life expectancy at birth (2006–09): male 79.4 years; female 85.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): neoplasms (cancers) 101.3; diseases of the circulatory system 81.1; diseases of the respiratory system 41.5; accidents, poisoning, and violence 20.6; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 17.6.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: MOP 57,641,000,000 (revenue from gambling tax 76.9%, other 23.1%). Expenditures: MOP 33,825,000,000 (current expenditure 87.6%, capital expenditure 12.4%). Land use as % of total land area (2009): “green area” 26.1%. Gross national income (at current market prices; 2008): U.S.$23,230,000,000 (U.S.$42,099 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value MOP ’000,000

TOTAL

2005

95.9 89.5

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 16,758; remittances (2009) 488; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 2,535. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 554; remittances (2008) 838; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 50. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2009) 2.9; average annual income per household (2007–08) MOP 303,000 (U.S.$37,743); sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2008–09)10: food and nonalcoholic beverages 32.8%, housing (rent) 16.9%, transportation 7.9%, clothing and footwear 6.8%, energy 5.9%, recreation and culture 5.9%.

Demography

Agriculture, fishing Mining, quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transportation and communications Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public administration Services Gaming activities Other

2004

94.8 83.3

Foreign trade 11 area

TOTAL

2003 Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

Area and population Geographic areas Macau peninsula islands (formerly separate) Coloane Taipa CoTai4 reclamation area Hengqin island (part)5 marine

633

… … 2,525 16,112 1,397 3,993 15,528 29,176 6,921 9,491 47,554 –4,7986 127,899

2009 % of total value … } … 2.0 12.6 1.1 3.1 12.1 22.8 5.4 7.4 37.2 –3.76 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

1,100

0.3

17,000 32,700 1,000

5.2 9.9 0.3

16,700 85,200 33,100 20,300 47,800 62,700 11,7007 329,2008, 9

5.1 25.9 10.1 6.2 14.5 19.0 3.67 100.08

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): small production of chicken eggs, pig meat, and vegetables; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production (2008) 1,500 (from aquaculture, none). Quarrying: n.a. Manufacturing (value added in MOP ’000,000; 2008): wearing apparel 905; food and beverages 259; textiles 234; publishing and printing 186. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 1,466,000,000 ([2007] 3,203,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (505,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) none (93,000,000).

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–666 10.6%

–2,040 29.2%

–2,679 34.4%

–3,502 40.8%

–3,882 49.3%

–3,661 65.6%

Imports (2008): U.S.$5,880,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 18.6%; apparel and clothing accessories 14.8%; mineral fuels 12.1%; food 6.6%; beverages and tobacco 4.9%). Major import sources: China 35.9%; Hong Kong 9.3%; Japan 7.7%; United States 5.7%; France 4.8%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,998,000,000 (apparel and clothing accessories 52.7%, of which outerwear 32.2%; machinery and apparatus 10.5%; refined petroleum 9.6%; yarn and fabric 5.4%). Major export destinations: U.S. 39.9%; Hong Kong 19.7%; China 12.3%; Germany 4.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2009): total length 257 mi, 413 km (paved 100%). Vehicles: passenger cars (2009) 86,784; trucks and buses (2008) 5,649. Air transport (2008)12: passenger-km 2,586,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 98,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

130

292

2009 2009

1,03714 171

1,90714 315

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

160 19013 281 12614

units per 1,000 persons 338 34913 522 23414

Education and health Educational attainment (2006). Population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 6.2%; incomplete primary education 10.7%; completed primary 22.5%; incomplete secondary 24.9%; completed secondary 21.4%; higher technical 1.7%; university 12.6%. Literacy (2006): percentage of population age 15 and over literate 93.5%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary15

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

1,585 2,294 1,826

27,483 39,328 25,407

17.3 17.1 13.9

87 76 57 (age 18–22)

Health (2009): physicians 1,283 (1 per 424 persons); hospital beds 1,109 (1 per 491 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 2.1; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (2007): up to 500 Chinese troops within Macau; another 500 troops are stationed in nearby Zhuhai, China. Macau residents are prohibited from entering military service. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP: n.a.

1Includes

12 directly elected seats, 7 seats appointed by the chief executive, and 10 seats appointed by business and special-interest groups. 2Pegged to the Hong Kong dollar at a rate of 1 HK$ = MOP 1.03. 3January 1. 4Name of landfilled casino and tourism district linking Coloane and Taipa. 5A small part of eastern Hengqin island, China (adjacent to Macau), was ceded to Macau in June 2009 for construction of a new university campus. 6Statistical discrepancy less imputed bank service charges. 7Unemployed. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 9Nonresidents constituted c. 23% of the workforce in 2009. 10Weights of consumer price index components. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Air Macau only. 13Circulation. 14Subscribers. 152007–08.

Internet resources for further information: • Macau Statistics and Census Service http://www.dsec.gov.mo • Monetary Authority of Macao http://www.amcm.gov.mo

634

Britannica World Data

Macedonia

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2002) 3.6; income per household (2000) U.S.$3,798; sources of income (2000): wages and salaries 54.2%, transfers 22.6%, other 23.2%; expenditure (2008): food and nonalcoholic beverages 39.4%, transportation and communications 12.2%, housing and energy 10.4%, clothing and footwear 6.3%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$8,983,000,000 (U.S.$4,400 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$8,830 per capita).

Official name1: Republika Makedonija (Macedonian); Republika e Maqedonisë (Albanian) (Republic of Macedonia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with a unicameral legislature (Assembly [120]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Skopje. Official languages: Macedonian; Albanian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: denar (MKD); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = MKD 48.07; 1 £ = MKD 74.26.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population area Statistical regions3

Principal municipalities

East North-East Pelagonia Polog Skopje South-East South-West Vardar

Stip Kumanovo Bitola Tetovo 4

Strumica Ohrid Veles

“non-statistical areas” — TOTAL

population 20102 estimate

sq mi

sq km

1,617 890 1,822 957 702 1,058 1,266 1,292

4,188 2,306 4,719 2,479 1,818 2,741 3,280 3,346

179,846 174,876 234,320 314,194 601,057 172,693 221,899 153,837

323 9,9285

836 25,713

— 2,052,722

TOTAL

in value MKD ’000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

41,341 4,350 70,634 20,258 11,159 33,143 56,222 28,539 26,677 36,592 82,8127 411,7285

10.0 1.1 17.2 4.9 2.7 8.0 13.7 6.9 6.5 8.9 20.17 100.0

119,800 6,700 129,000 39,400 15,500 37,700 105,700 24,000 42,200 89,000 310,4008 919,400

13.0 0.7 14.0 4.3 1.7 4.1 11.5 2.6 4.6 9.7 33.88 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; March 2010): U.S.$1,059,950,000. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 16.9%, in permanent crops 1.4%, in pasture 23.9%, forest area 35.6%.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 2,051,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 206.6, persons per sq km 79.8. Urban-rural (2009): urban 59.2%; rural 40.8%. Sex distribution (20102): male 50.12%; female 49.88%. Age breakdown (20102): under 15, 17.7%; 15–29, 23.5%; 30–44, 22.0%; 45–59, 20.2%; 60–74, 12.3%; 75–84, 3.7%; 85 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (2020) 2,054,000; (2030) 2,024,000. Ethnic composition (2002): Macedonian 64.2%; Albanian 25.2%; Turkish 3.9%; Rom (Gypsy) 2.7%; Serbian 1.8%; Bosniac 0.8%; other 1.4%. Religious affiliation (2005): Orthodox c. 65%6; Sunni Muslim c. 32%6; Roman Catholic c. 1%; other (mostly Protestant) c. 2%. Major city/municipalities (20092): Skopje (city) 486,600; Bitola 73,300; Kumanovo 71,700; Prilep 66,000; Tetovo 54,500.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.6 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 87.8%; outside of marriage (2008) 12.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.50. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 7.3/0.6. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 71.1 years; female 75.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): diseases of the circulatory system 527.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 157.6; accidents, violence, and poisoning 35.4; endocrine, nutrition, and immunity disorders 34.2; illdefined conditions 65.6.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,230 26.9%

–1,187 22.5%

–1,362 22.1%

–1,871 21.8%

–2,923 27.2%

–2,341 30.3%

Imports (2008): U.S.$6,852,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 14.3%; crude petroleum 12.3%; iron and steel 11.1%; food 9.1%; road vehicles 6.5%; fabrics 5.9%; electricity 5.1%). Major import sources: Russia 13.6%; Germany 9.5%; Serbia 7.8%; Greece 7.5%; Italy 5.6%. Exports (2007): U.S.$3,356,000,000 (iron and steel 37.6%, of which ferronickel 15.8%, flat-rolled products 13.6%; clothing and accessories 18.9%, of which female outerwear 9.6%; food 7.4%; refined petroleum 4.7%; metal ore/metal scrap 3.8%). Major export destinations: Serbia 19.1%; Germany 14.4%; Greece 12.5%; Italy 10.3%; Bulgaria 7.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2009–10): route length (2009) 434 mi, 699 km; passenger-km 152,300,000; metric ton-km cargo 534,200,000. Roads (2009): length 8,535 mi, 13,736 km (paved [2000] 58%); passenger-km (2006) 6,300,000,00010; metric ton-km cargo (2009–10) 4,482,000,000. Vehicles (20092): passenger cars 263,112; trucks and buses 31,150. Air transport (2008)11: passenger-km 237,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, none. Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

507

2008 2009

2,50213 442

units per 1,000 persons 250 12313 217

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

756 16012 1,057 21613

370 7812 518 10613

National economy

Education and health

Budget (2009). Revenue: MKD 128,498,000,000 (tax revenue 85.5%, of which social contributions 30.2%, VAT 27.4%, excise taxes 11.3%, income and profit taxes 10.2%; nontax revenue 12.8%; other 1.7%). Expenditure: MKD 139,393,000,000 (current expenditure 90.4%, of which transfers 60.7%, wages and salaries 16.3%, interest 1.8%; capital expenditure 9.6%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat 271,117, grapes 253,456, potatoes 207,152, green chilies and peppers 154,771, apples 106,356, tobacco leaves 24,122; livestock (number of live animals) 455,356 sheep, 252,521 cattle; roundwood 709,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 73%; fisheries production (2008) 1,453 (from aquaculture 92%). Mining and quarrying (2008): gypsum 242,400; lead (metal content) 34,000; zinc (metal content) 28,000; copper (metal content) 6,400. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): base metals 333; textiles and wearing apparel 221; food and beverages 211; cement, bricks, and glass products 111; chemical products 84; refined petroleum 72; tobacco products 50. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009–10) 7,326,000,000 ([2009] 7,797,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) none (12,000); lignite (metric tons; 2009–10) 7,326,000 ([2007] 6,956,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) none (7,300,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008) 1,036,000 ([2007] 1,009,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) none (80,000,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 228; remittances (2009) 401; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 511; official development assistance (2008) 221. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 136; remittances (2008) 33. Population economically active (2008): total 919,400; activity rate 44.9% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 63.5%; female 38.9%; unemployed [April 2009–March 2010] 32.4%).

Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: less than full primary education 18.1%; primary 35.0%; secondary 36.9%; postsecondary and higher 10.0%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 97.0%; males literate 98.6%; females literate 95.4%.

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

98.9 93.9

99.8 97.5

100.0 100.0

103.3 107.3

107.0 115.8

114.7 127.7

114.4 158.4

Education (2007–08) 7–10)14

Primary (age Secondary/Voc. (age 11–18) Tertiary

teachers 5,519 15,577 3,506

students 100,911 203,853 65,504

student/ teacher ratio 18.3 13.1 18.7

enrollment rate (%) 87 8215 40 (age 19–23)

Health (2007): physicians 5,052 (1 per 405 persons); hospital beds 9,326 (1 per 219 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 11.7; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of the total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,950 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 8,000 (joint operational command 100%); paramilitary 7,600. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.8%; per capita expenditure U.S.$81. 1Member of the United Nations under the name The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM). 2January 1. 3Actual first-order administration is based on 84 municipalities. 4Includes the 10 municipalities forming (at least in part) the city of Skopje. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 6Includes nominal practitioners. 7Rent, VAT, and import duties less subsidies. 8Unemployed. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Passenger cars 5,000,000,000; buses 1,300,000,000. 11MAT– Macedonian Airlines. 12Circulation of daily newspapers. 13Subscribers. 142006–07. 152004–05.

Internet resources for further information: • National Bank of the Republic of Macedonia http://www.nbrm.gov.mk/default-en.asp • State Statistical Office http://www.stat.gov.mk/english/glavna_eng.asp

Nations of the World

Madagascar

635

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Official name: 1. Form of government: transitional regime2. Heads of state and government: President of High Authority of Transition assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Antananarivo. Official languages: Malagasy; French3; English3. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: ariary (MGA); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = MGA 2,001; 1 £ = MGA 3,091.

Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance Services Pub. admin., defense Other

% of total value

186.2 1.5 55.9 8.6 25.9 98.2 61.7 15.2 65.1 27.0 49.610 595.112

TOTAL

labour force

31.3 0.3 9.4 1.4 4.4 16.5 10.4 2.6 10.9 4.5 8.310 100.0

% of labour force

7,844,300 18,800 267,500 27,500 13,000 86,300 534,400 4,100 572,100 202,400 273,70011 9,844,100

79.7 0.2 2.7 0.3 0.1 0.9 5.4 — 5.8 2.1 2.811 100.0

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 5.1%, in permanent crops 1.0%, in pasture 64.1%, forest area 21.9%.

Population (2004 estimate) Regions4 population Alaotra Mangoro 877,700 Amoron’i Mania 693,200 Analamanga 2,811,500 Analanjirofo 860,800 Androy 476,600 Anosy 544,200 Atsimo-Andrefana 1,018,500 Atsimo-Atsinanana 621,200

2005

in value MGA ’000,000,0008

Regions4 Atsinanana Betsiboka Boeny Bongolava Diana Haute Matsiatra Ihorombe Itasy

population 1,117,100 236,500 543,200 326,600 485,800 1,128,900 189,200 643,000

Regions4 Melaky Menabe Sava Sofia Vakinankaratra Vatovavy Fitovinany TOTAL

population 175,500 390,800 805,300 940,800 1,589,800 1,097,700 17,573,900

Demography Area: 226,662 sq mi, 587,051 sq km. Population (2010): 20,146,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 88.9, persons per sq km 34.3. Urban-rural (2009): urban 29.8%; rural 70.2%. Sex distribution (2007): male 49.80%; female 50.20%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 44.1%; 15–29, 27.1%; 30–44, 15.7%; 45–59, 8.4%; 60–74, 3.7%; 75–84, 0.9%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 25,687,000; (2030) 31,528,000. Doubling time: 23 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Malagasy 95.9%, of which Merina 24.0%, Betsimisaraka 13.4%, Betsileo 11.3%, Tsimihety 7.0%, Sakalava 5.9%; Makua 1.1%; French 0.6%; Comorian 0.5%; Reunionese 0.4%; other 1.5%. Religious affiliation (2005): traditional beliefs c. 42%; Protestant (significantly Lutheran) c. 27%; Roman Catholic c. 20%; Sunni Muslim c. 2%; other c. 9%. Major cities (2001): Antananarivo 1,403,449; Toamasina 179,045; Antsirabe 160,356; Fianarantsoa 144,225; Mahajanga 135,660.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2006): 38.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2006): 8.7 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2006): 30.1 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008–09): 4.85. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 59.9 years; female 63.7 years.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: MGA 2,685,400,000,000 (tax revenue 77.7%, grants 20.4%, nontax revenue 1.9%). Expenditures: MGA 2,998,700,000,000 (current expenditure 58.5%, capital expenditure 41.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$1,722,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): paddy rice 3,000,000, sugarcane 2,600,000, cassava 2,400,000, sweet potatoes 890,000, corn (maize) 370,000, vegetables/melons 363,610, bananas 325,000, mangoes 220,0006, cattle meat 150,450, coffee 67,000, cloves (whole and stem) 10,000, vanilla 2,800; livestock (number of live animals) 9,700,000 cattle, 1,360,000 pigs; roundwood 12,187,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 98%; fisheries production 130,045 (from aquaculture 7%). Mining and quarrying (2008): chromite ore 73,000; tourmalines 68,000 kg7; sapphires 940 kg7; gold 72 kg (illegally smuggled, c. 1,500 kg). Manufacturing (value added in MGA ’000,000,0008; 2009): beverages 13.0; food products 12.3; fabricated/base metals 3.6; tobacco products 3.3. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 935,000,000 (935,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (10,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 14,000 ([2007] 5,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) negligible (682,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2005): total 9,844,100; activity rate of total population 52.8% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 88.1%; female 49.6%; unemployed 2.8%).

Foreign trade13 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–680.7 26.0%

–850.0 33.7%

–752.1 27.2%

–1,102.2 29.1%

–2,179.4 39.5%

–2,063.4 48.5%

Imports (2008): U.S.$3,845,900,000 (machinery and apparatus 23.0%, of which machinery specialized for particular industries 6.3%; fabrics/yarn 13.6%; refined petroleum 12.8%; food 7.8%; iron and steel 7.1%; road vehicles 6.0%). Major import sources: China 21.0%; France 8.9%; Bahrain 8.0%; South Africa 6.1%; U.S. 5.0%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,666,500,000 (apparel/clothing accessories 53.2%, of which pants/shorts 27.1%; food/spices 19.4%, of which shrimp 6.6%, vanilla 3.0%, fish 2.0%, cloves 1.8%; refined petroleum 5.4%; aircraft/parts 4.2%; chromium ore 2.0%; precious/semiprecious stones 0.5%7). Major export destinations: France 45.1%; U.S. 21.9%; Germany 6.5%; China 3.1%; Italy 2.4%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: route length (2008) 500 mi, 804 km; passenger-km (2007) 26,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 77,000,000. Roads (2000): total length 30,968 mi, 49,827 km (paved 12%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 146,273; trucks and buses 364,613. Air transport: passenger-km (2008) 1,042,000,00014; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 24,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2002

410

25

2009 2009

5,99716 181

30616 9.2

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

102 11515 320 4.216

units per 1,000 persons 5.5 5.915 16 0.216

Education and health Educational attainment (2003–04)17. Percentage of population age 25–59 (male) and 25–49 (female) having: no formal schooling 20.4%; incomplete primary education 33.6%; complete primary 13.2%; incomplete secondary 23.0%; complete secondary 6.4%; higher 3.4%. Literacy (2008–09)5: percentage of literate population ages 15–49, 76.0%; males 78.5%; females 74.7%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

85,257 35,343 3,527

4,020,322 945,245 62,069

47.2 26.7 17.6

9818 24 3 (age 18–22)

Health (2004): physicians 1,861 (1 per 9,998 persons); hospital beds 9,303 (1 per 2,000 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008–09) 485; undernourished population (2004–06) 6,600,000 (35% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,760 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 13,500 (army 92.6%, navy 3.7%, air force 3.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$5.

Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

74.1

84.4

100.0

110.8

122.2

133.5

145.4

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 351; remittances (2009) 11; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 833; official development assistance (2008) 841. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 143; remittances (2008) 21. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008–09) 4.75; expenditure (2000)9: food, beverages, and tobacco 50.1%, housing and energy 18.2%, transportation 8.0%, clothing 7.0%, household furnishings 4.6%. Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$7,766,000,000 (U.S.$410 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,040 per capita).

1Repoblikan’i Madagasikara (Malagasy); République de Madagascar (French); Republic of Madagascar (English). 2From March 2009; two transitional bodies were appointed by the president in October 2010—the Higher Transitional Council (90) and the Transitional Congress (256). 3Per decisions of High Constitutional Court. 4The 22 regions may become effective first-order subdivisions in 2010 or 2011. 5Based on a demographic and health survey of 17,857 households (17,375 females and 8,586 males). 6Includes mangosteens and guavas. 7A ban on all gemstone exports was in place between March 2008 and July 2009. 8At constant prices of 1984. 9Weights of consumer price index components. 10Indirect taxes less imputed bank charges. 11Unemployed. 12Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 13Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 14Air Madagascar only. 15Circulation. 16Subscribers. 17Based on demographic survey of 6,629 persons (5,029 females, 1,600 males). 182006–07.

Internet resource for further information: • Institut National de la Statistique http://www.instat.mg

636

Britannica World Data

Malawi

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 4.6; average annual household income MK 50,904 (U.S.$467)9; expenditure9: food 55.6%, housing and energy 20.6%, transportation and communications 6.6%, clothing and footwear 4.3%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$4,198,000,000 (U.S.$280 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$760 per capita).

Official name: Republic of Malawi1.2 Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [193]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Lilongwe3. Official language: 1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Malawian kwacha (MK); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = MK 147.63; 1 £ = MK 228.06.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 in value MK ’000,00010

Area and population Regions Districts/Cities

area sq km

population 2008 census4

Central Dedza Dowa Kasungu Lilongwe (rural) Lilongwe (city) Mchinji Nkhota kota Ntcheu Ntchisi Salima Northern Chitipa Karonga Likoma Mzimba Mzuzu (city) Nkhata Bay Rumphi

35,592 3,624 3,041 7,878 5,703 456 3,356 4,259 3,424 1,655 2,196 26,931 4,288 3,355 18 10,382 48 4,071 4,769

5,510,195 624,445 558,470 627,467 1,230,834 674,448 456,516 303,659 471,589 224,872 337,895 1,708,930 178,904 269,890 10,414 727,931 133,968 215,789 172,034

area Regions Districts/Cities Southern Balaka Blantyre (rural) Blantyre (city) Chikwawa Chiradzulu Machinga Mangochi Mulanje Mwanza Neno Nsanje Phalombe Thyolo Zomba (rural) Zomba (city) TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

sq km 31,753 2,193 1,792 220 4,755 767 3,771 6,273 2,056 826 1,469 1,942 1,394 1,715 2,541 39 94,276 24,208 118,484

population 2008 census4 5,858,035 317,324 340,728 661,256 434,648 288,546 490,579 797,061 521,391 92,947 107,317 238,103 313,129 587,053 579,639 88,314 13,077,160

Demography Population (2010): 15,448,0005. Density (2010)6: persons per sq mi 424.4, persons per sq km 163.9. Urban-rural (2008): urban 15.3%; rural 84.7%. Sex distribution (2008): male 48.63%; female 51.37%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 45.9%; 15–29, 27.7%; 30–44, 14.5%; 45–59, 6.7%; 60–74, 3.4%; 75–84, 1.2%; 85 and over, 0.6%. Population projection: (2020) 20,204,000; (2030) 25,639,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Tribal composition (2008): Chewa 32.6%; Lomwe 17.6%; Yao 13.5%; Ngoni 11.5%; Tumbuka 8.8%; Nyanja 5.8%; Sena 3.6%; other 6.6%. Religious affiliation (2005): Protestant/independent Christian c. 55%; Roman Catholic c. 20%; Muslim c. 20%; traditional beliefs c. 3%; other c. 2%. Major cities (2008): Lilongwe 674,448; Blantyre 661,256; Mzuzu 133,968; Zomba 88,314; Karonga 40,334.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 39.7 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.8 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 5.67. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 48.4 years; female 49.5 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 11.9%7 (world avg. 0.8%). Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): HIV/AIDS-related c. 729; lower respiratory infections c. 244; cardiovascular diseases c. 175; malaria c. 169; diarrheal diseases c. 164.

National economy

150,900 4,046 33,979 20,205 6,317 31,483 68,475 46,666 12,464 52,860 14,66111 442,056

TOTAL

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

77.8

86.6

100.0

114.0

123.0

133.8

145.0

labour force

34.1 0.9 7.7 4.6 1.4 7.1 15.5 10.6 2.8 12.0 3.311 100.0

% of labour force

3,765,827 2,499 118,483 73,402 7,319 32,623 257,389 13,957 101,433 85,996 50,362 4,509,290

83.6 0.1 2.6 1.6 0.2 0.7 5.7 0.3 2.2 1.9 1.1 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 27; remittances (2009) 1.0; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 41; official development assistance (2008) 913. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 73; remittances (2008) 1.0.

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices) MK ’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–24,400 22.4%

–33,889 23.7%

–58,850 32.8%

–69,734 32.1%

–42,151 15.9%

–65,981 22.0%

Imports (2008): MK 309,664,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 18.7%, of which tractors 7.9%; fertilizers 16.7%; refined petroleum 9.2%; road vehicles 8.2%; food 6.2%). Major import sources: South Africa 26.6%; Mozambique 20.3%; Tanzania 5.8%; Switzerland 5.3%; U.A.E. 5.0%. Exports (2008): MK 123,517,000,000 (unmanufactured tobacco 67.1%; raw sugar 5.8%; tea 4.2%; apparel/clothing accessories 2.9%; cotton 2.5%). Major export destinations: Belgium 13.0%; South Africa 10.1%; U.K. 8.9%; Neth. 5.9%; U.S. 5.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 495 mi, 797 km; passenger-km 54,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 51,000,000. Roads (2003): total length 9,600 mi, 15,451 km (paved 45%). Vehicles (2001): passenger cars 22,500; trucks and buses 57,600. Air transport (2007)13: passenger-km 165,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

65

5.2

2009 2009

2,40015 175

15715 12

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

28 2214 716 3.415

units per 1,000 persons 2.0 2.814 47 0.215

Education and health Educational attainment (2004)16. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal education/unknown 33.5%; incomplete primary education 24.2%; complete primary 27.9%; secondary and university 14.4%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 65.9%; males literate 78.1%; females literate 53.9%. Education (2006–07)

Budget (2008–09). Revenue: MK 187,402,000,000 (tax revenue 62.4%, of which VAT 21.0%, excises 9.7%, corporate tax 8.1%; grants 29.3%; nontax revenue 6.9%; remainder 1.4%). Expenditures: MK 223,502,000,000 (current expenditure 82.0%; capital expenditure 18.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding; March 2009): U.S.$664,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava 3,491,183, potatoes 2,993,818, corn (maize) 2,634,701, sugarcane 2,500,000, bananas 390,000, plantains 330,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 243,215, tobacco leaves 160,238, pigeon peas 149,873, dry beans 124,702, mangoes, mangosteens, and guavas 67,000, seed cotton 49,000, tea 48,140, sunflower seeds (2009) 6,000; livestock (number of live animals) 3,106,271 goats, 1,229,472 pigs, 947,498 cattle; roundwood (2009) 5,813,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 91%; fisheries production 71,719 (from aquaculture 2%). Mining and quarrying (2008): limestone 74,000; gemstones (including rubies and sapphires) 3,710 kg. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2001): food products 62; beverages 28; chemicals and chemical products 11; wearing apparel 7. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 1,637,000,000 (1,620,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 58,550 (61,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (257,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 31.9%, in permanent crops 1.3%, in pasture 19.7%, forest area 35.5%. Population economically active (2008): total 6,109,0008; activity rate 41.1%8 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 76.1%8; female 49.9%8; unemployed, n.a.).

Consumer price index

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public administration Services Other

1998 % of total value10

teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

students

… 2,943,248 11,36017 574,003 861 6,458

student/ teacher ratio … 45.617 7.5

enrollment rate (%)

18

87 24 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2008) 260 (1 per 56,246 persons); hospital beds (2007) 15,658 (1 per 909 persons); infant mortality rate (2008) 88.1; undernourished population (2004–06) 3,800,000 (29% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,720 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 5,300 (army 100%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$3. 1No official language is stated in the constitution. English is the official language of instruction. 2Dziko la Malawi in Chewa, the principal national language. 3Judiciary meets in Blantyre. 4Final de facto results. 5Per U.S. Bureau of the Census International Database (June 2009 update). 6Based on land area. 7Statistically derived midpoint of range. 8ILO estimate. 9Based on the Malawi Integrated Household Survey 2004–05, comprising 10,777 households. 10At constant prices of 2005. 11Taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 12Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 13Air Malawi only. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 16Based on the Malawi Demographic and Household Survey 2004, comprising 13,664 households. 172001–02. 18Less than 0.5.

Internet resources for further information: • National Statistical Office of Malawi http://www.nso.malawi.net • Reserve Bank of Malawi http://www.rbm.mw

Nations of the World

Malaysia

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$198,650,000,000 (U.S.$7,230 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$13,530 per capita).

Official name: Malaysia. Form of government: federal constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (Senate [701]; House of Representatives [222]). Head of state: Paramount Ruler. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kuala Lumpur2. Administrative centre: Putrajaya3. Official language: Malay. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: ringgit (RM); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = RM 3.15; 1 £ = RM 4.86.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 in value RM ’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

76,219 127,277 195,027 19,519 17,345 45,608 97,785 87,135 54,337 33,026 –12,55510 740,7216

TOTAL

Area and population Regions States East Malaysia Sabah Sarawak West Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia) Johor Kedah Kelantan Melaka Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Perlis Pulau Pinang Selangor Terengganu Federal Territories Kuala Lumpur Labuan5 Putrajaya

area

population

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

2008 estimate

Kota Kinabalu Kuching

28,426 48,050

73,622 124,450

3,131,600 2,452,800

Johor Bahru Alor Setar Kota Baharu Melaka Seremban Kuantan Ipoh Kangar George Town Shah Alam Kuala Terengganu

7,331 3,639 5,799 638 2,570 13,886 8,110 307 398 3,062 5,002

18,987 9,425 15,020 1,652 6,657 35,965 21,005 795 1,030 7,930 12,955

3,312,400 1,958,100 1,595,000 753,500 995,600 1,513,100 2,351,300 236,200 1,546,800 5,071,1004 1,094,300

94 35 19 127,366

243 91 49 329,876

— — —

TOTAL

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

10.3 17.2 26.3 2.6 2.3 6.2 13.2 11.8 7.3 4.5 –1.710 100.0

1,487,700 54,500 1,944,700 998,000 60,500 583,400 2,513,000 829,200 751,100 1,437,400 368,50011 11,028,1006

13.5 0.5 17.6 9.1 0.6 5.3 22.8 7.5 6.8 13.0 3.311 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$21,464,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 4.4; gross income per household (2004) RM 39,000 (U.S.$10,263); expenditure (2005)12: food and nonalcoholic beverages 31.4%, housing and energy 21.4%, transportation 15.9%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 15,293; remittances (2009) 1,900; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007– 09 avg.) 5,746. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 6,709; remittances (2008) 6,385; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 11,435. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 5.5%, in permanent crops 17.6%, in pasture 0.9%, forest area 62.7%.

Foreign trade 13 Balance of trade (current prices)

1,629,400 87,600

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

4

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+21,483 9.3%

+27,334 10.7%

+29,542 10.1%

+29,295 9.1%

+42,644 12.0%

+33,770 12.0%

27,728,7006

Demography Population (2010): 28,275,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 222.0, persons per sq km 85.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 71.3%; rural 28.7%. Sex distribution (2009): male 50.80%; female 49.20%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 30.2%; 15–29, 26.1%; 30–44, 21.7%; 45–59, 14.7%; 60–74, 5.8%; 75 and over, 1.5%. Population projection: (2020) 32,652,000; (2030) 36,619,000. Ethnic composition (2009): Malay 50.9%; other indigenous 11.1%; Chinese 22.7%; Indian 6.9%; other citizen 1.2%; noncitizen 7.2%. Religious affiliation (2000): Muslim 60.4%; Buddhist 19.2%; Christian 9.1%; Hindu 6.3%; Chinese folk religionist 2.6%; animist 0.8%; other 1.6%. Major cities (2009): Kuala Lumpur 1,493,000; Klang 1,071,000; Johor Bahru 958,000; Subang Jaya 954,3007, 8; Ipoh 692,2008; Putrajaya 55,0008.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 21.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.9 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.74. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 70.6 years; female 76.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): diseases of the circulatory system 149; infectious and parasitic diseases 101; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 83; accidents and violence 43; chronic respiratory diseases 40.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: RM 159,793,000,000 (tax revenue 70.7%, of which corporate taxes 23.6%, taxes on petroleum 15.1%, income tax 9.4%; nontax revenue 29.3%). Expenditures: RM 196,346,000,000 (current expenditure 78.2%, of which wages and salaries 20.9%; development expenditure 21.8%). Population economically active (2009): total 11,315,300; activity rate 40.7% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2008] 62.6%; female [2008] 35.8%; unemployed [April 2009–March 2010] 3.5%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

637

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.7

97.1

100.0

103.6

105.7

111.5

112.1

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008–09): oil palm fruit9 77,700,000, rice 2,389,000, natural rubber 894,600, sugarcane9 800,000, coconuts9 568,000, bananas9 530,000, cacao beans 24,427; livestock (number of live animals; 2008) 1,860,600 pigs, 790,000 cattle; roundwood (2009) 25,651,700 cu m, of which fuelwood 11%; fisheries production 1,639,023 (from aquaculture 15%); aquatic plants production 111,298 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2008–09): iron ore 1,023,434; tin (metal content) 2,646; gold 2,427 kg. Manufacturing (value added in RM ’000,000; 2008): petroleum products 122,000; food products 107,700; electrical machinery and electronics 84,200; chemical products 60,000; office, accounting, and computing machinery 49,900. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008–09) 103,734,200,000 (92,662,100,000); coal (metric tons; 2008–09) 1,433,341 ([2007] 12,289,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009–10) 240,034,400 ([2007] 198,200,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2008–09) 23,380,000 ([2007] 25,752,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008–09) 56,794,675,000 ([2007] 32,900,000,000).

Imports (2008): U.S.$156,202,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 37.5%, mineral fuels 10.9%, base and fabricated metals 9.8%, food 5.4%). Major import sources: China 12.8%; Japan 12.5%; Singapore 10.9%; U.S. 10.8%. Exports (2008): U.S.$198,846,000,000 (computers/office machines/parts 12.8%, petroleum 11.2%, electrical machinery/parts 10.0%, palm oil 6.4%, LNG 6.1%). Major export destinations: Singapore 14.7%; U.S. 12.5%; Japan 10.8%; China 9.5%; Thailand 4.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008–09): route length (2008) 1,149 mi, 1,849 km; passenger-km 1,466,892,000; metric ton-km cargo 1,267,935,000. Roads (2006): total length 56,002 mi, 90,127 km (paved 79%). Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 8,056,999; trucks and buses 973,293. Air transport (2008–09): passengerkm 32,297,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,142,483,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

5,480

222

2009 2009

30,37915 4,312

1,10615 157

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

6,106 2,59514 15,824 1,67215

units per 1,000 persons 234 9314 576 6115

Education and health Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of population age 25–64 having: no formal schooling/unknown 8.4%; primary education 28.7%; lower secondary 20.7%; upper secondary 31.1%; higher 11.1%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 92.1%; males 94.3%; females 89.8%. Education (2006–07) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

205,772 166,940 42,335

3,103,579 2,499,165 805,136

15.1 15.0 19.0

96 68 32 (age 19–23)

Health (2008): physicians 25,102 (1 per 1,076 persons); hospital beds (2007) 47,784 (1 per 556 persons); infant mortality rate 6.7; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,810 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 109,000 (army 73.4%, navy 12.8%, air force 13.8%); paramilitary 244,700. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$155. 1Includes 44 appointees of the ed. 2Location of the first royal

Paramount Ruler; the remaining 26 are indirectly electpalace and both houses of parliament. 3Location of the second royal palace, the prime minister’s office, and the supreme court. 4Selangor includes Putrajaya. 5Geographically within East Malaysia. 6Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Conurbation contiguous with Kuala Lumpur. 82006. 92007. 10Net of import duties less imputed bank service charges. 11Unemployed. 12Weights of consumer price index components. 13Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 14Circulation of daily newspapers. 15Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • Department of Statistics http://www.statistics.gov.my • Central Bank of Malaysia http://www.bnm.gov.my

638

Britannica World Data

Maldives

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Official name: Dhivehi Raajjeyge Jumhooriyyaa (Republic of Maldives). Form of government: multiparty republic1 with one legislative house (People’s Majlis [77]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Male2. Official language: Dhivehi (Maldivian). Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: rufiyaa (Rf); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Rf 12.80; 1 £ = Rf 19.77.

area3

population

Administrative seat

sq mi

sq km

2006 census

Upper North North North Central Central South Central Upper South South

… … … … … … …

15.29 8.50 3.92 2.15 6.88 4.06 5.26

39.61 22.01 10.16 5.56 17.83 10.52 13.61

41,672 43,539 31,202 13,442 20,483 19,275 25,662

0.76 46.82 68.24 115.06

1.97 121.27 176.73 298.00

103,693 298,9686 — 298,9686

SUBTOTAL REMAINDER7 TOTAL

Male2 — — —

labour force

% of labour force

728 53 733 485 530 2,009 391 2,580 1,164 2,041 160 –39714 10,477

6.9 0.5 7.0 4.6 5.1 19.2 3.7 24.6 11.1 19.5 1.5 –3.814 100.016

12,624 339 19,259 1,229 5,930 7,098 23,801 … 1,738 15,949 17,302 23,56715 128,836

9.8 0.3 14.9 1.0 4.6 5.5 18.5 … 1.3 12.4 13.4 18.315 100.0

TOTAL

Provinces4, 5

Capital island Male2

% of total value

Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade Tourism (resorts) Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

Demography Population (2010): 320,0007. Density (2010)8: persons per sq mi 6,835, persons per sq km 2,639. Urban-rural (2006): urban 34.7%; rural 65.3%. Sex distribution (2006): male 50.66%; female 49.34%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 31.1%; 15–29, 33.2%; 30–44, 18.3%; 45–59, 9.2%; 60–74, 5.2%; 75–84, 1.1%; 85 and over, 0.2%; unknown 1.7%. Population projection7: (2020) 375,000; (2030) 422,000. Doubling time: 37 years. Ethnic composition (2000)7: Maldivian 98.5%; Sinhalese 0.7%; other 0.8%. Religious affiliation: virtually 100% Sunni Muslim9. Major localities (2006): Male2 92,555; Hithadhoo 9,465; Fuvammulah 7,636; Kulhudhuffushi 6,998; Villingili 6,956.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 22 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2006): 2.1. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2006): 18.6/7.3. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 72.3 years; female 73.7 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): external causes 227.1; diseases of the circulatory system 19.9; diseases of the respiratory system 15.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 12.3.

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2009): U.S.$589,300,000. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow c. 13%, in permanent crops c. 27%, in pasture c. 3%, forest area c. 3%.

Foreign trade17, 18 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–460.8 56.0%

–583.3 64.3%

–701.3 60.9%

–868.3 65.6%

–1,056.4 61.5%

–804.1 71.1%

Imports (2009): U.S.$967,300,000 (food 21.3%; refined petroleum 20.6%, of which diesel fuel 15.9%; goods for construction 10.1%; transport equipment/parts 7.1%). Major import sources: Singapore 21.4%; U.A.E. 15.7%; India 12.1%; Malaysia 6.6%; Sri Lanka 6.5%. Exports (2009): U.S.$163,200,000 (reexports [mostly jet fuel] 53.2%; fish 44.9%, of which fresh yellowfin tuna 18.3%, fresh skipjack tuna 10.7%, dried fish 6.5%). Major export destinations19: Thailand 20.8%; Sri Lanka 17.9%; France 11.1%; U.K. 9.7%; Japan 3.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads: total length, n.a. Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 3,917; trucks and buses 2,314. Air transport (2007): passenger-km 27,000,00020; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

41

144

2009 2009

45822 49

1,47922 158

Budget (2008). Revenue: Rf 7,757,000,000 (nontax revenue 48.6%, of which resort lease rent 19.5%; tax revenue 43.7%, of which import duties 31.7%; grants 7.2%; other 0.5%). Expenditures: Rf 9,789,000,000 (general administration 21.8%; community programs 20.5%; education 15.6%; health 12.8%; police/security 9.1%; defense 5.6%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): vegetables 28,156, bananas 4,340, nuts 2,100, coconuts 271; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production (2008) 133,086, of which skipjack tuna 87,275, yellowfin tuna 21,630 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: coral for construction materials. Manufacturing: details, n.a.; however, major industries include boat building and repairing, coir yarn and mat weaving, coconut and fish processing, lacquerwork, garment manufacturing, and handicrafts. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 301,000,000 ([2007] 245,000,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (293,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 636; remittances (2009) 3; foreign direct investment (2005–07 avg.) 13; official development assistance (2008) 54. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 109; remittances (2008) 103. Population economically active (2006): total 128,836; activity rate of total population 43.1% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 65.8%; female 41.3%; unemployed 14.4%10). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

98.7

100.0

103.5

111.1

124.7

129.7

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 6.5; average annual income per household (2002–03)11 Rf 188,743 (U.S.$14,746); sources of income (2002–03)11: self-employment 34.5%, wages and salaries 31.5%, rent 13.4%; expenditure (2004)12: food, beverages, and tobacco 33.3%, housing and energy 19.5%, clothing and footwear 6.0%, communications 5.8%, health 5.4%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$1,197,000,000 (U.S.$3,870 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$5,230 per capita).

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

45 2121 88 1822

152 6821 284 5822

Education and health Educational attainment (2006). Population age 6 and over 267,283; percentage with bachelor’s degree 0.6%, master’s degree 0.3%. Literacy (2006): total population age 15 and over literate 93.5%; males literate 92.5%; females literate 94.5%. Education (2007–08) teachers

National economy

2006

in value Rf ’000,00013

Primary (age 6–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–17) Tertiary24

3,551 2,08823 138

students 47,082 30,815 6,898

student/ teacher ratio 13.3 13.723 50.0

enrollment rate (%) 96 69 … (age 18–22)

Health (2008): physicians 575 (1 per 539 persons); hospital beds 785 (1 per 395 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 11; undernourished population (2004–06) 24,000 (7% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,770 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (2006): 2,000-member paramilitary incorporates coast guard duties. Paramilitary expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 4.9%; per capita expenditure U.S.$139.

1New constitution ratified on Aug. 7, 2008; first multiparty election held in October 2008. 2Also spelled Maale or Male). 3Area data by province for inhabited islands only. 4Per administrative reorganization beginning in March 2009. 5Administratively ordered from uppermost north to lowermost south. 6Excludes (in 2009) c. 80,000 legal foreign workers and c. 20,000 undocumented workers. Most foreign workers are Indian or Bangladeshi. 7Includes areas of uninhabited islands, 88 resort islands, and 34 industrial islands. 8Based on areas of inhabited islets only. 9The only non-Sunni are Shi(i members of the Indian trading community and non-Muslim workers who serve alcohol on the resort islands. 10Includes workers not actively seeking employment. 11Data taken from the Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2002–03, comprising 834 households in both Male and outer atolls. 12Weights of consumer price index components. 13At constant prices of 1995. 14Less imputed bank service charges. 15Includes 18,605 unemployed. 16Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 17Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 18Exports include reexports unless otherwise footnoted. 19Domestic exports only. 20Trans Maldivian Airways; operates seaplanes to resort islands. 21Circulation. 22Subscribers. 232002. 242003; Maldives College of Higher Education.

Internet resources for further information: • Ministry of Planning and National Development http://www.planning.gov.mv • Maldives Monetary Authority http://www.mma.gov.mv

Nations of the World

Mali

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$8,862,000,000 (U.S.$680 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,190 per capita).

Official name: République du Mali (Republic of Mali). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [147]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Bamako. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008 % of total value

1,302,120 236,394 195,145 199,682 74,662 228,567 579,794 292,767 345,430 … 396,2776 3,850,838

33.8 6.1 5.1 5.2 1.9 5.9 15.1 7.6 9.0 … 10.36 100.0

TOTAL

area

population

Regions

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

2009 census1

Gao Kayes Kidal Koulikoro Mopti Ségou Sikasso Tombouctou

Gao Kayes Kidal Koulikoro Mopti Ségou Sikasso Tombouctou (Timbuktu)

65,858 46,233 58,467 37,007 30,509 25,028 27,135

170,572 119,743 151,430 95,848 79,017 64,821 70,280

544,120 1,996,812 67,638 2,418,305 2,037,330 2,336,255 2,625,919

191,743

496,611

681,691

97 482,077

252 1,248,574

1,809,106 14,517,176

Bamako

TOTAL

2004

in value CFAF ’000,000 Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

District Bamako

639

labour force4

% of labour force

984,600 11,400 272,500 102,100 5,100 55,300 675,700 8,400 39,900 214,000 229,2007 2,598,200

37.9 0.4 10.5 3.9 0.2 2.1 26.0 0.3 1.5 8.2 8.87 100.08

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 3.6%; left fallow, less than 0.01%; in permanent crops 0.01%; in pasture 28.7%; forest area 10.1%.

Foreign trade 9 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 15,022,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 31.2, persons per sq km 12.0. Urban-rural (2008): urban 32.4%; rural 67.6%. Sex distribution (2009)1: male 49.62%; female 50.38%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 47.7%; 15–29, 26.1%; 30–44, 13.7%; 45–59, 7.8%; 60–74, 3.9%; 75–84, 0.7%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 19,479,000; (2030) 24,705,000. Doubling time: 26 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Bambara 30.6%; Senufo 10.5%; Fula Macina (Niafunke) 9.6%; Soninke 7.4%; Tuareg 7.0%; Maninka 6.6%; Songhai 6.3%; Dogon 4.3%; Bobo 3.5%; other 14.2%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim (nearly all Sunni) c. 90%; Christian (mostly Roman Catholic) c. 5%; traditional beliefs/nonreligious c. 5%. Major cities (2009)1: Bamako 1,809,106; Sikasso 225,7532; Kalabancoro 166,7222, 3; Koutiala 137,9192; Ségou 130,6902; Kayes 127,3682.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–343.0 15.6%

–376.9 16.0%

–468.5 17.9%

–293.7 8.8%

–744.2 20.5%

–1,420.6 27.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$3,338,900,000 (refined petroleum 20.9%, machinery and apparatus 19.2%, food products 9.6%, road vehicles 6.6%, portland cement 4.7%, fertilizers 4.4%). Major import sources: Senegal 17.2%; France 13.9%; Côte d’Ivoire 10.4%; China 10.2%; U.S. 6.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,918,300,000 (gold 74.9%, raw cotton 10.6%, livestock 5.9%). Major export destinations: South Africa 72.5%; Senegal 6.8%; Côte d’Ivoire 2.6%; Switzerland 2.6%; China 1.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007): route length 368 mi, 593 km10; (2005) passengerkm, less than 500,000; (2005) metric ton-km cargo 334,000,000. Roads (2005): total length 11,751 mi, 18,912 km (paved 19%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 86,967; trucks and buses 26,759. Air transport: n.a. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

400

36

2009 2009

3,74212

28812

81

6.2

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

98 4011 250 9.012

units per 1,000 persons 8.0 2.711 19 0.712

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 42.3 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 15.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 26.9 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 5.40. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 49.9 years; female 53.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): infectious and parasitic diseases 1,487, of which HIV/AIDS 97; diseases of the circulatory system 135; accidents and injuries 120; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 54; chronic respiratory diseases 36.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: CFAF 896,500,000,000 (tax revenue 69.7%, grants 19.1%, nontax revenue 3.2%, other 8.0%). Expenditures: CFAF 1,018,600,000,000 (current expenditure 53.9%, capital expenditure 36.9%, other 9.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$2,150,000,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 221; remittances (2009) 339; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 118; official development assistance (2008) 964. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 137; remittances (2008) 83. Population economically active (2004): total 2,598,2004; activity rate of total population c. 23% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 51.1%; female 42.5%; officially unemployed 8.8%).

Education and health Educational attainment (2001)13. Population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling/unknown 82.1%; incomplete primary education 7.7%; complete primary 2.0%; secondary 6.5%; higher 1.7%. Literacy (2007): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 23.3%; males literate 31.4%; females literate 16.0%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

38,413 25,990 …

1,926,242 686,071 76,667

50.1 26.4 …

73 2914 5 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2004) 1,053 (1 per 10,566 persons); hospital beds (2001) 1,664 (1 per 6,203 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 118.1; undernourished population (2004–06) 1,200,000 (10% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,720 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 7,350 (army 100%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$12.

Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

97.0

94.0

100.0

101.5

103.0

112.4

114.9

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): rice 1,951,800, corn (maize) 1,477,000, sorghum 1,465,600, millet 1,390,400, peanuts (groundnuts) 334,700, seed cotton 236,000, karite nuts 190,000, cattle meat 129,142, sheep meat 41,562; livestock (number of live animals; 2008) 10,150,000 goats, 9,500,000 sheep, 8,278,000 cattle, 1,767,000 asses, 1,100,000 camels; roundwood 5,615,800 cu m, of which fuelwood 93%; fisheries production (2008) 100,821 (from aquaculture 1%). Mining and quarrying (2008): salt 6,000; gold 41,600 kg5. Manufacturing (2005): raw sugar 35,000; cigarettes 330,000,000 units; soft drinks 419,000 hectolitres; beer 149,000 hectolitres. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 495,000,000 (495,000,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (189,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2009) 6.1; average annual income per household: n.a.; expenditure: n.a.

1Preliminary. 2Population of commune. 3Adjacent to Bamako. 4Per 2004 Malian labour force survey; the 2004 population economically active estimate of the ILO Employment Trends Unit is 5,322,000. 5Excludes artisanal production (c. 4,500 kg annually). 6Net taxes on products less imputed bank service charges. 7Includes 227,500 unemployed. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 10Mali section of Transrail SA (Dakar, Senegal–Bamako railway). 11Circulation. 12Subscribers. 13Based on the Mali Demographic and Health Survey 2001, comprising 64,116 people in 12,331 households. 142007–08.

Internet resources for further information: • Institut National de la Statistique http://www.instat.gov.ml • La Banque de France: La Zone Franc http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm

640

Britannica World Data

Malta

Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$8,028,000,000 (U.S.$19,512 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$22,640).

Official name: Repubblika ta’ Malta (Maltese); Republic of Malta (English). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (Kamra tad-Deputati, or House of Representatives [691]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Valletta. Official languages: Maltese; English. Official religion: Roman Catholicism. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.2

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 in value >’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Manufacturing Mining and quarrying Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

area Largest localities

Comino Gozo Malta Northern District Northern Harbour South Eastern District Southern Harbour Western District

— Rabat Mosta Birkirkara Üejtun Üabbar. Üebbug

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

20103 estimate

1.1 25.9 94.96 28.5 9.3 19.4 10.1 28.0 121.9

2.8 67.1 245.76 73.7 24.0 50.2 26.2 72.5 315.6

31,295 381,675 59,369 121,450 61,212 81,800 57,844 412,970

% of labour force

1.7 11.7 0.3 2.9 1.6 7.5 13.1 20.8 6.1 20.7 13.69 100.0

2,545 24,467 669 11,705 3,554 13,608 38,330 18,163 14,499 34,316 12,04410 173,89411

1.5 14.1 0.4 6.7 2.1 7.8 22.0 10.5 8.3 19.7 6.910 100.0

5

Foreign trade 12 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 413,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 3,388, persons per sq km 1,309. Urban-rural (2009): urban 94.4%; rural 5.6%. Sex distribution (20103): male 49.74%; female 50.26%. Age breakdown (20103): under 15, 15.6%; 15–29, 21.5%; 30–44, 19.8%; 45–59, 21.1%; 60–74, 15.7%; 75–84, 4.9%; 85 and over, 1.4%. Population projection: (2020) 415,000; (2030) 409,000. Ethnic composition (2005): Maltese 97.0%; other European 2.3%, of which British 1.2%; other 0.7%. Religious affiliation (2004): Roman Catholic c. 95%, of which practicing c. 63%; other Christian c. 0.5%; Muslim c. 0.7%; nonreligious/atheist c. 2%; other c. 1.8%. Major localities (20103): Birkirkara 22,492; Mosta 19,155; Qormi 16,730; Üabbar 14,981; Valletta 6,221 (urban agglomeration 81,800).

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 10.0 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 72.6%; outside of marriage 27.4%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.8 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.40. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 5.7/7. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 77.7 years; female 82.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): diseases of the circulatory system 302.0; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 206.2; diseases of the respiratory system 73.3; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic diseases 39.7.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: >2,370,770,000 (income tax 31.2%; social security contributions 22.2%; VAT 19.2%; customs duties and excise taxes 7.4%; other 20.0%). Expenditures: >2,667,791,000 (recurrent expenditures 82.6%, of which social security 24.8%; capital expenditure 17.4%). Public debt (June 2010): U.S.$5,102,770,000. Production (metric tons except where noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): tomatoes 11,566, potatoes 10,069, wheat 9,500, onions 7,645, cauliflower and broccoli 5,425, grapes 4,821, garlic 659; livestock (number of live animals) 65,511 pigs, 17,777 cattle, 12,843 sheep; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production (2008) 2,971 (from aquaculture 57%). Mining and quarrying (2009): salt 6,000; limestone8 1,200,000 cu m. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2005): electronic products 153; food products 109; printing and publishing 99; textiles and wearing apparel 88; beverages 61. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 2,296,000,000 (2,296,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (887,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2009): total 173,894; activity rate of total population 42.1% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2006] 59.1%; female 33.6%; unemployed [April 2009–March 2010] 7.1%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

labour force

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2009) 914; remittances (2009) 47; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 953. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2009) 444; remittances (2008) 62; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 141.

Area and population Islands Statistical districts4

95.9 669.8 16.3 168.0 88.4 427.5 748.4 1,189.3 349.0 1,182.0 776.89 5,711.611

% of total value

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.4

97.1

100.0

102.8

104.1

108.5

110.8

Household income and expenditure (2008). Average household size 2.9; average annual disposable income per household >20,695 (U.S.$29,170); sources of income: wages and salaries 65.5%, interest and dividends 21.7%, selfemployment 5.1%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 22.4%, transportation 13.8%, household furnishings 8.9%, recreation and culture 8.5%, housing and energy 8.4%, clothing and footwear 7.1%, restaurants and hotels 7.1%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops c. 23%; left fallow c. 2%; in permanent crops c. 4%; in pasture, n.a.; forest area c. 1%.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,522 22.4%

–1,435 22.8%

–1,548 21.4%

–1,789 22.1%

–2,037 25.5%

–1,555 26.5%

Imports (2008): U.S.$5,017,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 28.7%, of which electronic integrated circuits and micro-assemblies 13.9%; refined petroleum 16.0%; food 12.1%; chemicals and chemical products 9.8%). Major import sources: Italy 26.4%; U.K. 12.7%; France 7.7%; Germany 7.6%; Singapore 5.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$2,980,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 55.6%, of which semiconductor devices 41.0%; medicines 8.3%; food 6.3%, of which fish 3.2%; printed matter 4.9%; children’s toys 3.2%; professional/scientific equipment 2.8%). Major export destinations: Singapore 13.6%; Germany 13.0%; France 11.6%; U.S. 9.0%; U.K. 8.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2004): total length 1,924 mi, 3,096 km (paved 88%); passenger-km (2006) 2,500,000,00013; metric ton-km cargo (2009) n.a. Vehicles (201014): passenger cars 237,517; trucks and buses 49,925. Air transport (2009)15, 16: passenger-km 2,204,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2009

13917

33617

2009 2009

42219

1,03319 618

253

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

67 10018 241 10019

units per 1,000 persons 166 24218 589 24419

Education and health Educational attainment (201020). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 1.1%; primary education 25.6%; secondary 45.7%; some postsecondary 16.9%; higher 10.7%. Literacy (2005): total population age 10 and over literate 92.8%; males literate 91.7%; females literate 93.9%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

3,203 4,373 968

26,771 37,780 9,472

student/ teacher ratio 8.4 8.6 9.8

enrollment rate (%) 9121 8221 33 (age 18–22)21

Health (2009): physicians 1,257 (1 per 329 persons); hospital beds 1,993 (1 per 207 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 5.3; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 1,954 (armed forces includes air and marine elements); Italian military (November 2009) 49 troops. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$122. 1Current number as of March 2008 elections; statutory number equals 65. 2The Maltese lira (Lm) was the former monetary unit; on Jan. 1, 2008, 1 Lm = >2.33. 3January 1. 4Actual local administration in 2009 was based on 68 local councils grouped into 3 regions. 5Apart from the occupants of one hotel, Comino is uninhabited. 6Detail does not add to total given because statistical district data are based on older survey. 7Divorce was illegal in mid-2010. 8Mostly golden limestone or globigerina limestone. 9Indirect taxes less subsidies. 10Unemployed. 11Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Passenger cars 2,000,000,000; buses 500,000,000. 14October 1. 15Air Malta only. 16Scheduled flights only. 17Cable television subscribers. 18Circulation of daily newspapers. 19Subscribers. 20July 1. 212006–07.

Internet resources for further information: • National Statistics Office http://www.nso.gov.mt • Central Bank of Malta http://www.centralbankmalta.org

Nations of the World

Marshall Islands

Gross national income (2009): U.S.$186,000,000 (U.S.$3,060 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Majol (Marshallese); (Republic of the Marshall Islands). Form of government: unitary republic with one legislative house1 (Nitijela, or Parliament [33]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Majuro2. Official language: Marshallese3. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar (U.S.$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = £0.65.

2008

Agriculture, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing } Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, insurance, real estate Public administration Services Other

}

TOTAL

Area and population area

population

Atolls/Islands4

sq km

1999 census

Ailinglaplap Ailuk Arno Aur Bikini Ebon Enewetak Jabat Jaluit Kili Kwajalein Lae Lib Likiep

14.69 5.36 12.95 5.62 6.01 5.75 5.85 0.57 11.34 0.93 16.39 1.45 0.93 10.26

1,959 514 2,069 537 13 902 853 95 1,669 774 10,903 322 147 527

Atolls/Islands4 Majuro Maloelap Mejit Mili Namorik Namu Rongelap Ujae Ujelang Utirik Wotho Wotje Other atolls TOTAL

area

population

sq km

1999 census

9.71 9.82 1.86 15.93 2.77 6.27 7.95 1.86 1.74 2.43 4.33 8.18 10.46 181.435, 6

23,682 856 416 1,032 772 903 19 440 0 433 145 866 0 50,848

Demography Population (2010): 54,400. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 776.6, persons per sq km 299.8. Urban-rural (2008): urban 68.0%; rural 32.0%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.99%; female 49.01%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 38.5%; 15–29, 29.6%; 30–44, 16.8%; 45–59, 10.5%; 60–74, 3.6%; 75–84, 0.8%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 59,000; (2030) 62,000. Ethnic composition (2006)7: Marshallese 92.1%; other Pacific Islanders 1.0%; East Asians 0.5%; U.S. white 0.3%; other 6.1%. Religious affiliation (1999): Protestant 85.0%, of which United Church of Christ 54.8%, Assemblies of God 25.8%; Roman Catholic 8.4%; Mormon 2.1%; nonreligious 1.5%; other/unknown 3.0%. Major towns (1999): Majuro2 (2004) 20,800; Ebeye (in Kwajalein Atoll) 9,345; Laura (in Majuro Atoll) 2,256; Ajeltake (in Majuro Atoll) 1,170; Enewetak 823.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 31.5 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 4.6 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 3.68. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 68.9 years; female 73.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2007–08; registered deaths only): sepsis/septicemia 83.7; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 41.3; pneumonia 26.3; myocardial infarction 24.2.

2007–08

in value U.S.$’000 16,056.2

% of total value 9.7

12,596.6

7.6

18,154.3 8,548.2 28,081.8

10.9 5.1 16.9

76,764.0

46.2

5,815.7 166,016.8

3.5 100.06

Budget (2007). Revenue: U.S.$98,900,000 (U.S. government grants 63.6%; tax revenue 25.0%, of which income tax 11.0%, import duties 8.9%; nontax revenue 11.4%). Expenditures: U.S.$99,900,000 (current expenditure 79.0%; capital expenditure 21.0%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2009): U.S.$89,900,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2002–03): coconuts (2008) 27,500, copra (2008) 6,515, breadfruit 4,536, bananas 161, pandanus 114, taro 108; livestock (number of live animals) 12,900 pigs, 86,000 chickens; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production (2008) 35,436, of which skipjack 27,150 (from aquaculture, none); black pearls harvested (2010) 1,300. Mining and quarrying: for local construction only. Manufacturing (2008): copra 6,515; coconut oil and processed (chilled or frozen) fish are important products; the manufacture of handicrafts and personal items (clothing, mats, boats, etc.) by individuals is also significant. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 108,000,000 (108,000,000); coal, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (32,000). Population economically active (2007): total 15,100; activity rate of total population 28.3% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 51.1%; female 34.1%; unemployed [2008] 30.9%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

93.6 88.3

95.7 93.1

100.0 100.0

104.3 101.8

107.6 100.9

126.5 …

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2007)9 7.2; average annual income per household (2005)7 U.S.$17,482; sources of income (2002)10: wages and salaries 89.3%, rent and investments 2.4%, social security 2.2%; expenditure (2006)11: food 46.7%, housing and energy 15.9%, transportation 12.3%, wearing apparel 6.1%, education and communication 4.4%.

labour force12 492 — 58 286 706 655 2,131

% of labour force12

430 3,485 791 1,084 10,1176

4.3 34.4 7.8 10.7 100.06

4.9 — 0.6 2.8 7.0 6.5 21.1

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 3.0; remittances (2005) 0.4; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 8; official development assistance (2008) 53. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 0.4; remittances, n.a.13; FDI (2005–07 avg.) 24. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow c. 11%; in permanent crops c. 44%; in pasture c. 22%; forest area, n.a.

Foreign trade14 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–59.9 67.8%

–68.5 64.2%

–74.6 79.4%

–73.8 73.1%

–74.9 70.1%

–71.0 71.7%

Imports (2000): U.S.$54,700,000 (mineral fuels and lubricants 37.3%, machinery and transport equipment 15.0%, beverages and tobacco 11.0%). Major import sources (2006): U.S. 45.8%; Australia 8.5%; Japan 8.1%; New Zealand 3.3%; Philippines 3.1%. Exports (2006): U.S.$20,283,000 (frozen fish 44.5%, reexports of diesel fuel 41.2%, crude coconut oil 9.9%, remainder 4.4%). Major export destinations (2009): mostly the U.S.

Transport and communications Transport. Roads (2007): 47 mi, 75 km15. Vehicles (2004): passenger cars 1,694; trucks and buses 602. Air transport (2007)16: passenger-km 26,600,000; metric ton-km cargo 300,000. Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2008

…

2009 2009

1.017 4.4

units per 1,000 persons … 1617 71

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2008 2009 2009

4.6 0 2.2 —

88 0 36 —

Education and health Educational attainment (2006)7. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 2.1%; elementary education 28.0%; secondary 55.8%; some higher 7.9%; undergraduate degree 5.1%; advanced degree 1.1%. Literacy (2007)9: total population age 15 and over literate 95.2%; males literate 95.0%; females literate 95.3%. Education (2002–03)

National economy

Consumer price index Annual earnings index8

641

teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

526 387 49

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

16.9 16.7 18.8

90 74 17 (age 18–22)

8,39318 5,90118 919

Health (2008): physicians 38 (1 per 1,401 persons); hospital beds (2004) 140 (1 per 411 persons); infant mortality rate 26.4; undernourished population, n.a.

Military The United States provides for the defense of the Republic of the Marshall Islands under the 1984 and 2003 compacts of free association; number of U.S. troops (September 2009) 18.19 1In

addition, the Council of Iroij (Council of Chiefs), a 12-member body of tribal chiefs, serves in an advisory capacity. 2Local name of town is DUD (an acronym for Delap [Woja], Uliga, and Djarrit [Rita]—three small islands now merged by landfill). 3Language of the Nitijela, or Parliament. 4Four districts centred at Majuro, Ebeye, Wotje, and Jaluit make up the local government structure. 5Land area only; excludes lagoon area of 11,673 sq km (4,507 sq mi). 6Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7Based on the Marshall Islands 2006 Community Survey, comprising 9,491 respondents in 1,205 households. 8Data are for fiscal year. 9Based on the 2007 Demographic and Health Survey comprising 1,106 households. 10Based on the 2002 Household Income and Expenditure Survey, comprising 5,074 respondents in 657 households. 11Weights of consumer price index components. 12Employed only. 13Labour income of Marshallese at Kwajalein (2003–04) U.S.$17,600,000. 14Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade; c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 15Length of paved roads on Majuro and Kwajalein; other roads are coral surfaced. 16Air Marshall Islands only. 17Subscribers. 182004–05. 19The U.S. Army’s premier ballistic missile test site is at Kwajalein.

Internet resources for further information: • Economic Policy-Planning and Statistics Office http://www.spc.int/prism/country/mh/stats • Republic of the Marshall Islands: Documents http://marshall.wetserver.net/index.jsp

642

Britannica World Data

Martinique

Gross domestic product (2007): U.S.$10,847,000,000 (U.S.$26,953 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

Official name: Département d’Outre-Mer de la Martinique (Overseas Department of Martinique).1 Political status: overseas department/ overseas region (France) with two legislative houses (General Council2 [45]; Regional Council3 [41]). Head of state: President of France. Heads of government: Prefect (for France); President of the General Council (for Martinique); President of the Regional Council (for Martinique). Capital: Fort-de-France. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

2004 in value >’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, real estate, insurance Pub. admin., defense } Services Other

Fort-de-France La Trinité Le Marin Saint-Pierre

Fort-de-France La Trinité Le Marin Saint-Pierre

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

20074 estimate

}

20054, 7 % of labour force

8,922

5.9

4,998

3.3

6,044 1,163 5,939

4.0 0.8 3.9

1,082

15.9

19,693

13.0

1,962

28.8

2,108

31.0

3398 6,800

5.08 100.0

8,003 22,390 36,247 38,0209 151,419

5.3 14.8 23.9 25.19 100.0

66 131 158 81 436

171 338 409 210 1,128

167,961 86,704 119,269 23,796 397,730

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) >’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 402,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 922.0, persons per sq km 356.4. Urban-rural (2009): urban 89.1%; rural 10.9%. Sex distribution (20054): male 47.01%; female 52.99%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 21.6%; 15–29, 18.4%; 30–44, 23.4%; 45–59, 18.9%; 60–74, 11.6%; 75–84, 4.3%; 85 and over, 1.8%. Population projection: (2020) 411,000; (2030) 414,000. Ethnic composition (2000): mixed race (black/white/Asian) 93.4%; French (metropolitan and Martinique white) 3.0%; East Indian 1.9%; other 1.7%. Religious affiliation (2000): Roman Catholic 86.0%; Protestant 5.6% (mostly Seventh-day Adventist); other Christian 5.4%; other 3.0%. Major communes (20074): Fort-de-France 89,794 (urban agglomeration 132,980); Le Lamentin 39,442; Le Robert 24,068; Schœlcher 21,510.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,705 72.6%

–1,923 71.8%

–2,016 67.3%

–2,191 76.5%

–2,399 76.6%

–1,756 76.7%

Imports (2008): >2,766,000,000 (mineral fuels 21.6%, food and agricultural products 14.2%, machinery and apparatus 12.0%, automobiles/parts 11.6%). Major import sources: metropolitan France 54.9%; U.K. 11.8%; U.S. 7.2%; Aruba 2.8%; Germany 2.6%. Exports (2008): >367,000,000 (refined petroleum 58.0%, agricultural products [significantly bananas] 11.7%, beverages [significantly rum] 11.7%). Major export destinations: Guadeloupe 57.2%; metropolitan France 24.5%; French Guiana 10.4%; U.S. 2.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2008): total length, more than 1,243 mi, 2,000 km (paved, n.a.). Vehicles (20084): passenger cars 204,917; trucks and buses 35,943. Air transport (2009): passengers 1,608,000; cargo 11,336 metric tons. Communications number in ’000s

Vital statistics

Medium

date

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.3 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 27.5%; outside of marriage (2008) 72.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.9 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.90. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2008) 3.9/(2007) 1.6. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 76.8 years; female 82.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2005): diseases of the circulatory system 181.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 167.9; accidents, poisoning, and violence 51.5; metabolic and nutritional disorders 42.2; diseases of the nervous system 36.4; diseases of the respiratory system 34.6.

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2001

66

2004 2009

29511 172

National economy Budget (2006)5. Revenue: >285,000,000 (tax revenue 46.5%, grants and subsidies from France 34.6%, loans 18.6%). Expenditures: >285,000,000 (current expenditure 46.7%, capital expenditure 53.3%). Public debt: n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): bananas 300,000, sugarcane 215,000, roots and tubers 20,000 (of which yams 7,500, sweet potatoes 1,000), plantains 18,000, pineapples 18,000, tomatoes 6,700, lettuce 5,000, cucumbers and gherkins 4,000; livestock (number of live animals) 25,000 cattle, 20,000 pigs, 15,000 sheep, 13,500 goats; roundwood 26,400 cu m, of which fuelwood 92%; fisheries production 6,200 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): salt 200,000, pumice 130,000. Manufacturing (2008): cement 263,700; gas-diesel oils 179,0006; motor gasoline 164,0006; kerosene 143,0006; sugar 4,700; rum 74,500 hectolitres; other products include clothing, fabricated metals, and yawls and sails. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 1,550,000,000 ([2007] 1,225,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (5,849,340); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 830,000 ([2009–10] 583,600); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2006) 2.6; average annual disposable income per household, n.a.; sources of income (2000): wages and salaries 54.7%, inheritance or endowment 14.0%, self-employment 12.7%, other 18.6%; expenditure (2006): food and beverages 18.1%, transportation and communications 17.8%, housing and energy 15.5%, household durable goods 10.1%, clothing and footwear 8.9%. Population economically active (2009): total 164,493; activity rate of total population 41.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 62.5%; female 52.2%; unemployed 22.0%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2.6 … 5.5 5.9 2.1 3.2

labour force

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) 299; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (FDI) n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a.; FDI, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops c. 8%, left fallow c. 2%, in permanent crops c. 7%, in pasture c. 9%, forest area c. 44%. area

Capitals

174 … 372 399 146 218

TOTAL

Area and population Arrondissements

% of total value

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

95.7

97.7

100.0

102.4

104.9

107.8

108.6

units per 1,000 persons 169 74811 425

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2004 2009 2009 2009

82 6510 170 6.011

units per 1,000 persons 208 16210 420 14.811

Education and health Educational attainment (2006). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: unknown, or no formal education through lower secondary education 57.8%; complete lower vocational 16.8%; complete secondary 11.7%; incomplete higher 6.7%; complete higher 7.0%. Literacy (2005): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 98.0%; males literate 97.6%; females literate 98.3%. Education (2008–09) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–18) Tertiary

3,018 4,390 …

students 29,929 40,264 8,98512

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

9.9 9.2 …

… … … (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2008) 1,035 (1 per 386 persons); hospital beds (20074) 1,505 (1 per 263 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 6.5; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): French troops in West Indies (Martinique and Guadeloupe) c. 1,825 (army c. 42%, navy c. 25%, air force, n.a., gendarmerie c. 33%).

1Martinique is simultaneously administered as an overseas region (région d’outre-mer). 2Assembly for overseas department. 3Assembly for overseas region. 4January 1. 5 Budget for region. 62006. 7Salaried employees only. 8Import duties less subsidies and less imputed financial service charges. 9Unemployed. 10Circulation of daily newspapers. 11Subscribers. 122007–08.

Internet resources for further information: • INSEE: Martinique http://www.insee.fr/fr/regions/martinique • IEDOM: Martinique http://www.iedom.fr/dom/martinique/publications.asp

Nations of the World

Mauritania

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 5.8; expenditure (2002–03)8: food and beverages 53.1%, housing and energy 13.7%, transportation and communications 12.1%, household furnishings 6.3%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$3,159,000,000 (U.S.$960 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,960 per capita).

Official name: Al-Jumhuriyah al-Islamiyah al-Muritaniyah (Arabic) (Islamic Republic of Mauritania). Form of government: republic1 with two legislative houses (Senate [562]; National Assembly [95]). Head of state and government: President assisted by the Prime Minister. Capital: Nouakchott. Official language: Arabic3. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: ouguiya (UM); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = UM 281.50; 1 £ = UM 434.86.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Area and population Regions El-)Açâba Adrar Brakna Dakhlet Nouadhibou Gorgol Guidimaka Hodh ech-Chargui Hodh el-Gharbi Inchiri Tagant Tiris Zemmour Trarza Capital District Nouakchott

area

Capitals Kiffa Atar Aleg Nouadhibou Kaédi Sélibaby Néma (Ayoûn el-)Atroûs Akjoujt Tidjikdja Zouérate Rosso Nouakchott

TOTAL

population

sq mi 14,100 83,100 13,000 8,600 5,300 4,000 70,600 20,600 18,100 36,800 97,600 25,800

sq km 36,600 215,300 33,800 22,300 13,600 10,300 182,700 53,400 46,800 95,200 252,900 66,800

2006 estimate4 281,645 80,846 287,157 92,441 282,164 206,593 327,374 246,642 13,369 89,075 47,805 311,819

400 398,000

1,000 1,030,700

648,930 2,915,860

2000

in value UM ’000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

146,990 187,159 57,219

17.2 21.9 6.7

29,615

3.5

42,180 36,309

4.9 4.2

85,293

10.0

314,306 5,769 … 30,156 2,837 15,562 17,916 108,532 2,011

48.2 0.9 … 4.6 0.4 2.4 2.8 16.7 0.3

98,720

15.1

55,95810 651,767

8.610 100.0

Agriculture, livestock, fishing Mining Crude petroleum Manufacturing } Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants } Finance Services Pub. admin., defense Other

82,535 111,969 75,5499 854,818

TOTAL

9.7 } 13.1 8.89 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2005) 11; remittances (2009) 2; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 146; official development assistance (2008) 311. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (1999) 55; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 0.4%, in permanent crops 0.01%, in pasture 38.1%, forest area 0.2%.

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 3,205,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 8.1, persons per sq km 3.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 41.2%; rural 58.8%. Sex distribution (2008): male 48.16%; female 51.84%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 41.2%; 15–29, 28.0%; 30–44, 16.4%; 45–59, 9.1%; 60–74, 4.3%; 75–84, 0.9%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 4,005,000; (2030) 4,851,000. Doubling time: 24 years. Ethnic composition (2003)5: black African-Arab-Berber (Black Moor) 40%; Arab-Berber (White Moor) 30%; black African (mostly Wolof, Tukulor, Soninke, and Fulani) 30%. Religious affiliation (2000): Sunni Muslim 99.1%; traditional beliefs 0.5%; Christian 0.3%; other 0.1%. Major cities: Nouakchott (2009) 709,000; Nouadhibou (2005) 94,700; Rosso (2000) 48,922; Boghé (2000) 37,531; Adel Bagrou (2000) 36,007.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 34.6 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 9.3 (world avg. 8.5). Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2005): n.a./n.a. Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 4.52. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 57.9 years; female 62.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): cardiovascular diseases 178; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 71; diseases of the respiratory system 44; diseases of the digestive system 26.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: UM 188,500,000,000 (tax revenue 56.6%, of which taxes on goods and services 28.5%, income taxes 18.4%, import taxes 7.5%; nontax revenue 40.2%, of which fishing royalties 21.8%; grants 3.2%). Expenditures: UM 242,900,000,000 (current expenditure 76.9%, of which goods and services 21.3%, wages and salaries 31.7%; capital expenditure 23.1%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$1,643,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): cow’s milk 126,000, goat’s milk 111,000, rice 99,300, sorghum 90,259, camel meat 22,000, dates 20,000, corn (maize) 12,497, peas (2008) 10,000, cowpeas (2008) 8,000; livestock (number of live animals) 8,850,000 (2008) sheep, 5,600,000 goats, 1,700,000 cattle, 1,495,000 camels; roundwood 1,750,100 cu m, of which fuelwood 99.8%; fisheries production (2008) 944,983, of which octopuses 18,306 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (gross weight; 2009–10): iron ore 11,365,000; gypsum 53,550; copper (2008) 33,073. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 1997): food, beverages, and tobacco products 5.2; machinery, transport equipment, and fabricated metals 3.8; bricks, tiles, and cement 1.6. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009–10) 492,000,000 ([2009] 347,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2004) none (7,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009–10)6 3,354,900 ([2004] 8,830,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2006–07) none (431,000). Population economically active (2008)7: total 1,353,000; activity rate of total population 44.3% (participation rates: over age 15, 69.9%; female 41.7%; unemployed [2005] 32.5%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

643

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

80.8

89.2

100.0

106.2

113.9

122.3

125.0

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

200912

–904.8 51.0%

–785.6 41.4%

… …

–76.7 2.8%

–10.5 0.3%

–59.7 2.1%

Imports (2008): U.S.$1,637,600,000 (refined petroleum 33.3%, machinery and apparatus 13.0%, road vehicles 6.6%, wheat 6.6%, milk/cream 4.6%, rice 4.5%). Major import sources: France 16.3%; Russia 11.2%; Neth. 7.7%; Belgium 6.1%; China 4.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,627,100,000 (iron ore 47.5%, crude petroleum 20.1%, fish 11.3%, copper ore 7.8%, gold 7.4%). Major export destinations: France 16.3%; Germany 8.2%; China 7.8%; Switz. 7.4%; Italy 7.3%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 452 mi, 728 km; passenger-km (2005) c. 10,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,565,000,000. Roads (2007): total length 6,876 mi, 11,066 km (paved 27%). Vehicles (2001): passenger cars 12,200; trucks and buses 18,200. Air transport: passenger-km (2005) 60,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) less than 500,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

123

44

2009 2009

2,18214 75

66314 23

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

42 913 75 9.014

units per 1,000 persons 14 2.913 23 2.714

Education and health Educational attainment (2000). Percentage of population age 6 and over having: no formal schooling 43.9%; no formal schooling but literate 2.5%; Islamic schooling 18.4%; primary education 23.2%; lower secondary 5.3%; upper secondary 4.6%; higher technical 0.4%; higher 1.7%. Literacy (2008): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 56.8%; males literate 64.1%; females literate 49.5%. Education (2005–06) Primary (age 6–11)15 Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

11,379 3,777 353

483,776 98,946 10,157

42.5 26.2 28.8

80 16 4 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2008) 458 (1 per 6,212 persons); hospital beds (2006) 1,826 (1 per 1,667 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 64.9; undernourished population (2004–06) 230,000 (8% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,790 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 15,870 (army 94.5%, navy 3.9%, air force 1.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 0.7%; per capita expenditure U.S.$7. 1In

actuality a military-backed regime with a democratically elected president. 2Three of which are appointed by the 53 elected senators. 3The 1991 constitution named Arabic as the official language and the following as national languages: Arabic, Fula, Soninke, and Wolof. 4Mid-year official projection based on 2000 census. 5Estimated figures. 6Offshore crude petroleum production began in February 2006. 7ILO estimates. 8Weights of consumer price index components. 9Indirect taxes. 10Not adequately defined. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Import data for 2009 are f.o.b. 13Circulation of daily newspapers. 14Subscribers. 152006–07.

Internet resources for further information: • Office National de Statistique http://www.ons.mr • Central Bank of Mauritania http://www.bcm.mr

644

Britannica World Data ’000,000; 2007)11: wearing apparel 10,618; food products 6,375; beverages and tobacco products 5,077; cement, bricks, and ceramics 2,529; textiles 1,965; chemicals and chemical products 1,413. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 2,686,000,000 ([2007] 2,465,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (573,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (770,000). Population economically active (2009): total 566,300; activity rate of total population 44.4% (participation rates: ages 16–64 [2008] 64.3%; female 36.8%; unemployed 7.2%).

Mauritius Official name: Republic of Mauritius. Form of government: republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [691]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Port Louis. Official language: English2. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Mauritian rupee (Mau Re; plural Mau Rs); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Mau Rs 29.70; 1 £ = Mau Rs 45.88.

Price index (2005 = 100)

Area and population

area

Island Non-administrative districts3 Mauritius Black River Flacq Grand Port Moka Pamplemousses Plaines Wilhems Port Louis Rivière du Rempart Savanne Mauritian dependencies Agalega5 Cargados Carajos Shoals (Saint Brandon)5 Rodrigues

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

91.0

95.3

100.0

108.9

118.5

130.1

133.4

Consumer price index

Principal centres

population

sq mi

sq km

2009 estimate

720 100 115 100 89 69

1,8654 259 298 260 231 179

1,237,283 74,572 139,064 114,889 80,958 136,664

78 17 57 95

203 43 148 245

27

70

2896

1 104 2,040

06 37,749 1,275,321

Tamarin Centre de Flacq Mahébourg Moka Pamplemousses Beau Bassin– Rose Hill Port Louis Poudre d’Or Souillac … — Port Mathurin

0.4 40 7884

TOTAL

382,996 129,449 108,363 70,328

Demography Population (2010): 1,282,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 1,627, persons per sq km 628.4. Urban-rural (2009): urban 41.8%; rural 58.2%. Sex distribution (20107): male 49.34%; female 50.66%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 22.2%; 15–29, 24.3%; 30–44, 23.2%; 45–59, 19.6%; 60–74, 8.0%; 75–84, 2.2%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2020) 1,366,000; (2030) 1,419,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Indo-Pakistani 67.0%; Creole (mixed Caucasian, Indo-Pakistani, and African) 27.4%; Chinese 3.0%; other 2.6%. Religious affiliation (2000)8: Hindu 49.6%; Christian 32.2%, of which Roman Catholic 23.6%; Muslim 16.6%; Buddhist 0.4%; other 1.2%. Major municipalities (20107): Port Louis 148,756; Beau Bassin–Rose Hill 110,459; Vacoas-Phoenix 107,899; Curepipe 84,337; Quatre Bornes 81,594.

Household income and expenditure (2006–07). Average household size 3.7; annual income per household Mau Rs 228,996 (U.S.$7,047); sources of income (2001–02): wages and salaries 69.8%, self-employment 17.6%, other 12.6%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 28.6%, transportation 14.7%, housing/energy 13.1%, alcohol/tobacco 9.2%, household furnishings 6.4%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,454; remittances (2009) 211; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 326; official development assistance (2008) 110. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 452; remittances (2008) 14; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 49. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow c. 44%, in permanent crops c. 2%, in pasture c. 3%, forest area c. 18%.

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–980 20.8%

–1,156 22.4%

–1,470 25.3%

–1,847 31.0%

–2,268 32.1%

–1,769 31.3%

Imports (2008): U.S.$4,670,000,000 (refined petroleum 18.1%; food 18.0%, of which fish 5.7%; machinery and apparatus 14.5%; base and fabricated metals 6.0%; road vehicles 4.7%; fabrics/yarn 4.2%). Major import sources: India 23.9%; China 11.5%; South Africa 8.1%; France 7.8%; Japan 4.1%. Exports (2008): U.S.$2,402,000,000 (apparel/clothing accessories 35.2%, of which T-shirts 15.2%, men’s/boys’ shirts 7.3%; food 27.1%, of which raw sugar 12.1%, tuna 8.9%; telecommunications equipment 3.4%). Major export destinations: U.K. 29.5%; France 14.7%; bunkers and ships’ stores 13.1%; U.S. 5.8%; Madagascar 5.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2008)13: total length 1,260 mi, 2,028 km (paved 98%). Vehicles (2009): passenger cars 161,594; trucks and buses 40,978. Air transport (2008)14: passenger-km 6,627,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 191,000,000.

Vital statistics

Communications

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.8 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.50. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 8.3/1.7. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 69.4 years; female 76.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009): diseases of the circulatory system 245.4; endocrine, nutritional, and metabolic disorders 170.1; neoplasms (cancers) 87.5; diseases of the respiratory system 59.0.

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2007

290

2009 2009

1,08716 379

National economy Budget (2008–09). Revenue: Mau Rs 62,216,000,000 (tax revenue 84.1%, of which taxes on goods and services 49.8%, corporate income tax 16.5%; nontax revenue 9.9%; grants 4.5%; social contributions 1.5%). Expenditures: Mau Rs 70,648,000,000 (general public services 28.3%; social security 19.8%; education 13.7%; health 8.2%; police/paramilitary 7.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$577,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$9,236,000,000 (U.S.$7,240 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$13,270 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

in value Mau Rs ’000,000

% of total value

10,239 101 46,888 16,216 4,893 26,057 48,888 52,296 14,618 18,352 26,6269 265,174

3.9 0.1 17.7 6.1 1.9 9.8 18.4 19.7 5.5 6.9 10.09 100.0

labour force 46,100 500 102,200 57,700 3,700 38,300 108,700 39,800 34,000 85,900 42,50010 559,400

% of labour force 8.2 0.1 18.3 10.3 0.7 6.8 19.4 7.1 6.1 15.4 7.610 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 4,669,000, chicken meat 44,200, potatoes 19,828, pumpkins/squash/ gourds 17,119, tomatoes 12,586, bananas 10,920, eggs 10,000, tea 1,481; livestock (number of live animals) 13,650,000 chickens; roundwood 15,100 cu m, of which fuelwood 44%; fisheries production (2008) 6,398 (from aquaculture 4%). Mining (2009): sand 87,506. Manufacturing (value added in Mau Rs

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons 230 84416 294

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

210 10515 290 9216

units per 1,000 persons 169 8215 225 7216

Education and health Educational attainment (2000). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal education 12.3%; primary 44.1%; lower secondary 23.2%; upper secondary/some higher 17.3%; complete higher 2.6%; unknown 0.5%. Literacy (2007): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 87.4%; males literate 90.2%; females literate 84.7%. Education (2008–09) teachers Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

5,454 8,186 …

students 117,922 131,319 25,57818

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

21.6 16.0 …

94 8017 2618 (age 18–22)

Health (2009): physicians 1,500 (1 per 850 persons); hospital beds 3,704 (1 per 344 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 13.4; undernourished population (2004–06) 70,000 (6% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,870 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): none; a 2,000-person paramilitary force includes a 500-person coast guard unit. Paramilitary expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$32. 1Includes 7 appointed members. 2French is not official but may be used to address the speaker of the National Assembly. 3The island of Mauritius is administratively divided between 5 municipalities and 4 district councils; detail is unavailable. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Administered directly from Port Louis. 6As of 2000 census. 7January 1. 8Includes Rodrigues; Rodrigues is 91% Roman Catholic. 9Taxes less subsidies and imputed bank service charges. 10Includes 2,100 not adequately defined and 40,400 unemployed. 11Establishments employing 10 or more persons only. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Island of Mauritius only. 14Air Mauritius only. 15Circulation. 16Subscribers. 172004–05. 182007–08.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Statistical Office http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/cso • Bank of Mauritius http://bom.intnet.mu

Nations of the World

Mayotte

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2007) 4.3; average annual income per household (2005) >9,337 (U.S.$11,612); sources of income (2005): wages and salaries c. 79%, transfers c. 9%, self-employment c. 9%; expenditure (2005)10: food and beverages 25.9%, transportation 14.9%, housing 9.5%, clothing and footwear 7.4%, energy 6.4%, recreation and culture 6.2%, household furnishings 6.2%. Gross national income (2002): U.S.$444,000,000 (U.S.$2,780 per capita).

Official name: Collectivité Départementale de Mayotte1 (Departmental Collectivity of Mayotte).2 Political status: overseas dependency of France3 with one legislative house (General Council [19]). Head of state: President of France. Head of government: Prefect (for France); President of the General Council (for Mayotte). Capital: Mamoudzou. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Structure of value added11 and labour force 2005

Area and population Islands Communes Grande Terre Acoua Bandraboua Bandrele Boueni Chiconi Chirongui Dembeni Kani-Keli Koungou Mamoudzou M’tsangamouji M’tzamboro Ouangani Sada Tsingoni Petite Terre Dzaoudzi Pamandzi

area Capitals Acoua Bandraboua Bandrele Boueni Chiconi Chirongui Dembeni Kani-Keli Koungou Mamoudzou M’tsangamouji M’tzamboro Ouangani Sada Tsingoni Dzaoudzi Pamandzi

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

2007 census

4.9 12.5 14.1 5.4 3.2 11.3 15.0 7.9 11.0 16.2 8.4 5.3 7.3 4.3 13.4

12.6 32.4 36.5 14.1 8.3 29.3 38.8 20.5 28.4 41.9 21.8 13.7 19.0 11.2 34.8

4,622 9,013 6,838 5,296 6,412 6,605 10,141 4,527 19,831 53,022 5,028 6,917 6,577 8,007 9,200

2.6 1.7 144.5

6.7 4.3 374.24

15,339 9,077 186,4525

Demography Population (2010): 201,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 1,391, persons per sq km 537.1. Urban-rural: n.a. Sex distribution (2007): male 49.04%; female 50.96%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 45.9%; 15–29, 24.6%; 30–44, 18.1%; 45–59, 8.4%; 60–74, 2.5%; 75–84, 0.4%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 253,000; (2030) 305,000. Doubling time: 21 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Comorian6 92.3%; Swahili 3.2%; white (French) 1.8%; Makua 1.0%; other 1.7%. Religious affiliation (2000): Sunni Muslim 96.5%; Christian, principally Roman Catholic, 2.2%; other 1.3%. Major villages/communes (2007): Mamoudzou 6,186/53,022; Koungou 6,710/19,831; village of Labattoir 15,067/commune of Dzaoudzi 15,339; Pamandzi 9,077/9,077.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2006): 41.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2006): 7.7 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2006): 33.3 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2006): 5.79. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 59.6; female 64.0.

National economy Budget (2005)7. Revenue: >269,400,000 (current revenue 81.0%, of which taxes including customs duties 44.8%; development revenue 19.0%). Expenditures: >252,000,000 (current expenditure 78.9%; development expenditure 21.1%). Public debt: n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): ylang-ylang 7,027 kg8, vanilla, negligible8, bananas, coconuts, and mangoes are also cultivated; livestock (number of live animals; 2003) 22,800 goats, 17,200 cattle; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 12,765 (from aquaculture 1% [88 metric tons8]). Mining and quarrying: negligible. Manufacturing: mostly processing of agricultural products, housing construction materials, printing and publishing, and textiles/clothing. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 190,000,000 ([2009–10] 230,262,000); petroleum products, none (n.a.). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 20; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (2005–06 avg.) 3; official development assistance (2007) 395. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a. Population economically active (2007): total 51,524; activity rate of total population 27.6% (participation rates: ages 15–60 [2002] 50.0%; female 41.6%; unemployed [2008] c. 26%). Price and earnings indexes (December 2006 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index9

645

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

… 78.8

… 84.8

… 90.8

100.0 100.0

103.3 127.6

108.5 143.3

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Mining Manufacturing } Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, insurance Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

2007

in value >’000

% of total value

labour force12

% of labour force12

1,000 …

0.4 …

38,000

16.7

37,000 19,000 62,000 18,000

16.3 8.4 27.3 7.9

3,204 … … … 3,024 5,04313 3,763 … 6,535 14,536 15,41914 51,524

6.2 … … … 5.9 9.813 7.3 … 12.7 28.2 29.914 100.0

61,000

26.9

–9,000 227,000

–4.0 100.04

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow c. 19%; in permanent crops c. 35%; in pasture, n.a.; forest area c. 14%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices)15, 16 >’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–199 96.2%

–214 95.5%

–247 95.4%

–330 96.0%

–371 97.3%

–350 96.9%

Imports (2008): >376,163,00016 (food products 23.5%; machinery and apparatus 22.1%; transport equipment 14.4%; base and fabricated metals 9.5%). Major import sources: metropolitan France 41.8%; China 7.7%; Germany 5.1%; Italy 4.1%. Exports (2008): >5,339,000 (reexports 77.6%; domestic exports 22.4%, of which ylang-ylang 11.4%, farm-grown fish 11.0%). Major export destinations: metropolitan France 45.5%; Comoros 16.4%; Réunion 10.0%; India 9.6%; Singapore 9.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2006): total length 144 mi, 232 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (2004): passenger cars 2,279; trucks and buses 1,453. Air transport (2008): passenger arrivals and departures 263,332; cargo unloaded and loaded 1,604 metric tons. Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2005

…

2004 2009

4817 10

units per 1,000 persons … 28317 52

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2007 2009 2009

… 0 … …

… 0 … …

Education and health Educational attainment (2002). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal education 37.6%; participating in formal education 17.8%; primary education 20.8%; lower secondary 13.4%; upper secondary 6.3%; higher 4.1%. Literacy: n.a. Education (2006–07) teachers Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–15) Tertiary

2,274 1,71818 —

students 31,333 24,733 —19

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

13.8 … —

… … — (age 16–20)

Health (2006): physicians 120 (1 per 1,587 persons); hospital beds 245 (1 per 780 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 61.2; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): c. 1,750 French troops in Mayotte and Réunion (army c. 57%; navy, n.a.; air force, n.a.; gendarmerie c. 43%). 1Mahoré

or Maore in Shimaoré, the local Swahili-based language. 2A local referendum in March 2009 approved the change of status to an overseas department of France in 3 2011. Mayotte has been claimed by Comoros since Comoros’s unilateral declaration of independence in 1975. Comoros represents Mayotte in the UN. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Including illegal residents (40.7% of total population; mostly Comorians from adjacent islands but also Malagasy and continental Africans). 6About 1/3 of all Comorians (a mixture of Bantu, Arab, and Malagasy peoples) are recent arrivals from other nearby Comorian islands. 7Mayotte is largely dependent on French aid. 8Export production only. 9Minimum wage. 10Based on a household budget survey. 11For 555 larger enterprises only. 1214 years and over. 13Includes real estate. 14Includes 13,614 unemployed. 15Based on rounded data. 16Excludes imports of mineral fuels (totaling >56,000,000 in 2008). 17Subscribers. 18Excludes vocational. 192,345 students study in metropolitan France or Réunion.

Internet resources for further information: • IEDOM: Agence de Mayotte http://www.iedom.fr/mayotte/publications-77 • INSEE: Mayotte http://www.insee.fr/fr/regions/mayotte/default.asp

646

Britannica World Data

Mexico

Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 13.1 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.10. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 5.5/0.8. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 74.0 years; female 78.8 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2007): diseases of the circulatory system 103.8; endocrine, metabolic, and nutritional disorders 80.9; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 65.0; accidents and violence 52.0; diseases of the digestive system 46.9; diseases of the respiratory system 41.3. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 0.3%7 (world avg. 0.8%).

Official name: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (United Mexican States). Form of government: federal republic with two legislative houses (Senate [128]; Chamber of Deputies [500]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Mexico City. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Mexican peso (Mex$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Mex$13.18; 1 £ = Mex$20.36.

Social indicators

Area and population area

population

States

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

2005 census

Aguascalientes Baja California Baja California Sur Campeche Chiapas Chihuahua Coahuila de Zaragoza Colima Durango Guanajuato Guerrero Hidalgo Jalisco México Michoacán de Ocampo Morelos Nayarit Nuevo León Oaxaca Puebla Querétaro de Arteaga Quintana Roo San Luis Potosí Sinaloa Sonora Tabasco Tamaulipas Tlaxcala Veracruz-Llave Yucatán Zacatecas

Aguascalientes Mexicali La Paz Campeche Tuxtla Gutiérrez Chihuahua Saltillo Colima Durango Guanajuato Chilpancingo Pachuca Guadalajara Toluca Morelia Cuernavaca Tepic Monterrey Oaxaca Puebla Querétaro Chetumal San Luis Potosí Culiacán Hermosillo Villahermosa Ciudad Victoria Tlaxcala Jalapa (Xalapa) Mérida Zacatecas

2,112 26,997 28,369 19,619 28,653 94,571 57,908 2,004 47,560 11,773 24,819 8,036 31,211 8,245 23,138 1,911 10,417 25,067 36,275 13,090 4,420 19,387 24,351 22,521 70,291 9,756 30,650 1,551 27,683 14,827 28,283

5,471 69,921 73,475 50,812 74,211 244,938 149,982 5,191 123,181 30,491 64,281 20,813 80,836 21,355 59,928 4,950 26,979 64,924 93,952 33,902 11,449 50,212 63,068 58,328 182,052 25,267 79,384 4,016 71,699 38,402 73,252

1,065,416 2,844,469 512,170 754,730 4,293,459 3,241,444 2,495,200 567,996 1,509,117 4,893,812 3,115,202 2,345,514 6,752,113 14,007,495 3,966,073 1,612,899 949,684 4,199,292 3,506,821 5,383,133 1,598,139 1,135,309 2,410,414 2,608,442 2,394,861 1,989,969 3,024,238 1,068,207 7,110,214 1,818,948 1,367,692

Federal District Distrito Federal

—

571 756,0661 736,950 19,116 1,980 758,4503

1,479 1,958,2011 1,908,690 49,511 5,127 1,964,3753

8,720,916

CONTINENTAL AREA LAND WATER INSULAR AREA2 TOTAL

Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 8.4%; incomplete primary education 14.3%; complete primary 17.6%; incomplete/complete secondary 25.2%; vocational/professional 31.3%; advanced university (masters or doctorate degree) 0.7%; other/unknown 2.5%. Access to services (2005). Proportion of dwellings having: electricity 96.6%; piped water supply 87.8%; piped sewage 84.8%. Distribution of income (2008) percentage of household income by decile 1 1.7

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

2.9

3.9

4.9

6.0

7.4

9.2

11.7

16.1

10 (highest) 36.2

Material well-being. Percentage of households possessing (2005): television 91.0%, refrigerator 79.0%, washing machine 62.7%, computer 19.6%. Quality of working life (2008). Average workweek 44.5 hours. Annual rate per 100,000 insured workers for: injury 3,569; death 10. Labour stoppages: 21, involving 13,242 workers. Social participation. Eligible voters participating in last national election (July 2009): 47.8%. Trade union membership in total workforce (2000): formal sector only, less than 20%; both formal and informal sectors, c. 17%. Practicing religious population (1995–97): percentage of adult population attending church services at least once per week 46%. Social deviance (2007). Formally registered offense rate per 100,000 population for: murder 6.2; property damage 14.5; rape 4.3; battery 30.2; robbery 69.3; illegal narcotics possession 16.0; fraud 4.4; squatting 3.3; breaking and entering 2.5. Incidence per 100,000 in general population of: alcoholism (2000) 7.6; suicide 4.2.

National economy Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$962,704,000,000 (U.S.$8,960 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$14,110 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

103,263,388

Demography Population (2010): 108,396,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 142.9, persons per sq km 55.2. Urban-rural (2008): urban 77.2%; rural 22.8%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.20%; female 50.80%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 29.6%; 15–29, 27.0%; 30–44, 21.6%; 45–59, 13.1%; 60–74, 6.4%; 75–89, 2.1%; 90 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 115,762,000; (2030) 120,928,000. Doubling time: 54 years. Ethnic composition (2000): mestizo 64.3%; Amerindian 18.0%, of which detribalized 10.5%; Mexican white 15.0%; Arab 1.0%; Mexican black 0.5%; Spaniard 0.3%; U.S. white 0.2%; other 0.7%. Religious affiliation (2000): Christian 96.3%, of which Roman Catholic 87.0%, Protestant 3.2%, independent Christian 2.7%, unaffiliated Christian 1.4%, other Christian (mostly Mormon and Jehovah’s Witness) 2.0%; Muslim 0.3%; nonreligious 3.1%; other 0.3%. Major cities/urban agglomerations (2005/2007): Mexico City 8,463,906 (19,028,000); Ecatepec 1,687,5494; Guadalajara 1,600,894 (4,198,000); Puebla 1,399,519 (2,195,000); Juárez 1,301,452 (1,343,000); Tijuana 1,286,187 (1,553,000); León 1,137,465 (1,488,000); Ciudad Netzahualcóyotl 1,136,3004; Monterrey 1,133,070 (3,712,000); Zapopan 1,026,4925; Naucalpan 792,2264; Chihuahua 748,518 (841,000); Mérida 734,153 (1,017,000); Guadelupe 691,4346; San Luis Potosí 685,934 (1,050,000); Tlalnepantla 674,4174; Aguascalientes 663,671 (927,000); Mexicali 653,046 (935,000); Hermosillo 641,791; Saltillo 633,667 (802,000); Acapulco 616,394; Morelia 608,049; Culiacán 605,304 (837,000); Querétaro 596,450 (1,032,000); other cities with an urban agglomeration of more than one million include: Torreon 548,723 (1,201,000) and Toluca 467,712 (1,584,000). Households (2008). Total households 26,714,362; distribution by size (2005): 1 person 7.3%, 2 persons 14.0%, 3 persons 18.2%, 4 persons 22.8%, 5 persons 17.4%, 6 persons 9.5%, 7 or more persons 10.8%. Migration. Legal Mexican immigrants entering the U.S. in 2004: 173,664; total number of illegal Mexican immigrants in U.S. (2006) 6,600,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 18.0 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (c. 2003) 62%; outside of marriage (c. 2003) 38%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.9 (world avg. 8.5).

2008

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense } Services Other TOTAL

in value Mex$’000,000

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

444,765 1,114,706 2,219,380 846,299 192,498 1,157,265 2,094,039 2,023,278

3.7 9.2 18.3 7.0 1.6 9.6 17.3 16.7

1,911,234

15.8

107,0918 12,110,555

0.98 100.010

5,758,500 183,200 7,228,100 3,641,200 206,200 2,034,400 12,811,100 2,595,000 2,172,000 6,903,800 1,926,5009 45,460,000

12.7 0.4 15.9 8.0 0.4 4.5 28.2 5.7 4.8 15.2 4.29 100.0

Budget (2008). Revenue: Mex$2,857,100,000,000 (nontax revenue 36.9%; tax revenue 34.8%, of which income tax 21.3%; other revenue, from PEMEX state oil company 12.6%, other state-owned organizations or companies 15.7%). Expenditures: Mex$2,865,300,000,000 (current expenditure 58.3%; extra-budgetary expenditure 23.2%; capital expenditure 18.5%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$113,955,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 51,106,900, corn (maize) 24,320,100, cow’s milk 10,765,827, sorghum 6,610,900, oranges 4,306,633, wheat 4,019,400, tomatoes 2,936,773, chicken meat 2,575,565, lemons and limes 2,224,382, bananas 2,159,280, chilies and green peppers 2,054,968, cattle meat 1,875,700, guavas and mangoes 1,855,382, potatoes 1,670,480, dry onions 1,252,441, avocados 1,149,774, dry beans 1,112,720, blue agave (2006) c. 778,000, pineapples 685,805, papayas 638,237, grapefruit and pomelos 394,865, coffee (green) 265,817, strawberries 207,485, nuts 168,688, vanilla 637; livestock (number of live animals) 32,565,200 cattle, 16,100,000 pigs, 8,831,000 goats, 7,825,000 sheep, 6,350,000 horses, 496,674,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 45,101,100 cu m, of which fuelwood 86%; fisheries production 1,739,922 (from aquaculture 9%); aquatic plants production 4,900 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2008): fluorspar 980,000 [world rank: 2]; bismuth 1,20011 [world rank: 2]; silver 3,000,000 kg11 [world rank: 2]; strontium 96,900 [world rank: 3]; lead 145,00011 [world rank: 5]; zinc 460,00011 [world rank: 6]; cadmium 1,62011 [world rank: 6]; gypsum 5,800,000 [world rank: 7]; iron ore 12,000,00011; sulfur 1,800,000; copper 270,00011; gold 41,000 kg11. Manufacturing (value added in Mex$’000,000; 2007): food and beverages 994,797; transportation equipment 146,839, of which motor vehicles 84,137, motor vehicle parts 58,470; mineral fuels 130,233, of which refined petroleum products 121,740; chemicals and chemical products 125,629, of which pharmaceutical products 58,561; basic metals 74,005; bricks, cement, and ceramics 66,932; electrical machinery and equipment 28,962; paper and paper products 28,773; fabricated metal products 26,355; rubber and plastic products 25,690; textiles and wearing

Nations of the World apparel 23,195; nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 21,529; electronics 6,442; printing and publishing 6,085; wood and wood products 5,780. Selected economic activities (2003)

Manufacturing Services Transportation, storage Mass media Finance, insurance Real estate, rental Professional, scientific, and technical Sanitation, waste management Education Health, social assistance Recreation Hotel, restaurant Trade Wholesale Retail Mining Electricity, gas, water Construction

no. of establishments

no. of employees

yearly wage as a % of avg. of all wages

value added (Mex$’000,000)

328,178

4,198,579

130.8

927,987

41,899 7,586 10,417 45,579

634,940 244,679 275,830 179,146

158.1 340.7 358.4 52.2

124,561 166,901 285,715 38,967

68,589

472,348

109.8

65,479

43,152 30,891 102,940 31,790 277,436

815,388 517,958 355,169 143,589 1,218,262

129.2 118.6 46.2 53.1 35.2

90,233 53,846 22,700 11,340 64,700

86,997 1,493,590 3,077 2,437 13,444

962,143 4,035,223 122,640 221,335 652,387

113.3 35.2 255.2 279.5 59.7

261,546 318,648 432,764 168,941 60,542

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

91.9 98.9

96.2 99.2

100.0 100.0

103.6 101.4

107.7 102.4

113.3 104.7

119.3 106.3

Financial aggregates 2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Exchange rate12, Mex$ per: U.S. dollar 11.24 11.26 10.78 10.88 10.87 13.54 13.06 £ 20.06 21.75 18.56 21.36 21.78 19.74 20.37 SDR 16.70 17.49 15.40 16.37 17.17 20.85 20.47 International reserves (U.S.$) Total (excl. gold; ’000,000) 58,956 64,141 74,054 76,271 87,109 95,126 99,589 SDRs (’000,000) 433 465 445 482 466 519 4,525 Reserve pos. in IMF (’000,000) 782 898 594 340 334 613 961 Foreign exchange (‘000,000) 57,740 62,778 73,015 75,448 86,309 93,994 94,103 Gold (’000,000 fine troy oz) 0.17 0.14 0.11 0.09 0.12 0.20 0.28 % world reserves 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 Interest and prices Treasury bill rate 6.23 6.82 9.20 7.19 7.19 7.68 5.43 Balance of payments (U.S.$’000,000) Balance of visible trade, –5,780 –8,811 –7,587 –6,133 –10,074 –17,261 –4,602 of which: Imports, f.o.b. –170,546 –196,810 –221,820 –256,059 –281,949 –308,603 –234,385 Exports, f.o.b. 164,766 187,999 214,233 249,925 271,875 291,343 229,783 Balance of invisibles –1,426 +3,627 +3,203 +1,744 +1,729 +1,522 –1,132 Balance of payments, current account –7,206 –5,184 –4,384 –4,389 –8,345 –15,739 –5,734

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2009) 11,275, of which border shoppers only 2,199; remittances (2009) 22,164; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 22,848; official development assistance (2008) 149. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2009) 7,132, of which border shoppers only 3,149; remittances, n.a.; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 4,900. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 12.6%, in permanent crops 1.2%, in pasture 41.1%, forest area 32.8%.

exports

U.S.$’000,000

00 Food and live animals 12,007 13 01 Beverages and tobacco 02 Crude materials, excluding fuels 7,418 03 Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials 14,471 04 Animal and vegetable 13 oils, fats, and waxes 05 Chemicals and related products, n.e.s. 27,525 06 Basic manufactures 40,532 07 Machinery and transport equipment 122,105 08 Miscellaneous manufactured articles 27,153 09 Goods not classified by kind 3,455 TOTAL 256,086

%

U.S.$’000,000

%

4.7

10,342 3,021

4.1 1.2

13

2.9

3,548

1.4

5.7

38,636

15.5

13

14

14

10.7 15.8

8,832 20,838

3.5 8.3

47.7

135,168

54.1

10.6

27,701

11.1

1.3 100.0

14

14

249,961

100.0

Direction of trade (2005) imports Western Hemisphere United States Latin America and the Caribbean Canada Europe EU Other Europe Asia Japan China Other Asia Africa Other TOTAL

2003

2003

Trade by commodity group (2006) imports

Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

Exports (2008): U.S.$291,265,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 37.4%, of which electrical machinery/apparatus/parts 10.4%, television receivers 7.7%, telecommunications equipment/parts 6.9%; crude petroleum 14.9%; road vehicles/parts 14.6%; base and fabricated metals 5.6%; food 4.3%). Major export destinations: U.S. 80.3%; Canada 2.4%; Germany 1.7%; Spain 1.5%; Brazil 1.2%; Colombia 1.0%; Neth. 0.9%; Venezuela 0.8%.

SITC group

Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 286,739,000,000 ([2007] 256,281,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2008–09) 10,679,000 ([2007] 2,513,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 10,456,000 (14,972,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008–09) 913,369,200 ([2007] 505,356,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 80,186,000 (94,352,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008–09) 74,360,122,000 ([2007] 53,139,915,000). Household income and expenditure (2008). Average household size 4.0; average annual income per household Mex$38,263 (U.S.$2,805); sources of income: wages and salaries 47.9%, nonmonetary income 19.1%, self-employment 14.7%, transfers 9.6%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 22.1%, transportation and communications 12.2%, housing/energy 6.6%, education 6.3%, household furnishings 4.0%, clothing and footwear 3.5%, health 2.1%. Population economically active (2008): total 45,460,000; activity rate of total population 42.6% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 63.6%; female 37.7%; unemployed [September 2010] 5.7%).

647

exports

U.S.$’000,000

%

U.S.$’000,000

%

137,680 118,262 13,255 6,163 28,371 25,963 2,408 53,426 13,023 17,631 22,772 570 1,222 221,27010

62.2 53.4 6.0 2.8 12.8 11.7 1.1 24.110 5.9 8.0 10.3 0.3 0.6 100.0

198,708 183,052 11,426 4,230 9,462 9,166 296 4,760 1,471 1,134 2,155 343 438 213,711

93.0 85.7 5.3 2.0 4.4 4.3 0.1 2.2 0.7 0.5 1.0 0.2 0.2 100.0

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 16,604 mi, 26,722 km; passenger-km 147,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 78,872,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 223,912 mi, 360,352 km (paved 35%); passenger-km (2007) 449,917,000,00015; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 222,391,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 17,533,245; trucks and buses 8,152,942. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 28,514,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 223,958,000. Communications

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

29,400

282

2009 2009

83,52817 19,425

76217 177

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

14,578 4,80016 28,439 9,92117

units per 1,000 persons 139 6116 260 9117

Education and health Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 92.9%; males literate 94.6%; females literate 91.5%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

524,517 635,518 285,958

14,699,146 11,444,055 2,623,367

28.0 18.3 9.2

98 72 27 (age 18–22)

Health (2008): physicians18 (2007) 171,193 (1 per 618 persons); hospital beds18 84,813 (1 per 1,258 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 14.7; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,850 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 267,506 (army 74.8%, navy 20.9%, air force 4.3%); paramilitary 36,500. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.5%19; per capita expenditure U.S.$4119.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–8,263 2.1%

–7,524 1.7%

–5,689 1.1%

–11,209 2.0%

–17,318 2.9%

–4,702 1.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$308,583,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 35.6%, of which electrical machinery/apparatus/parts 11.6%, telecommunications equipment/parts 7.3%, general industrial machinery 5.3%, road vehicles/parts 8.5%; base and fabricated metals 8.4%; refined petroleum 6.8%; food 5.3%; plastics [all forms/articles] 5.2%). Major import sources: U.S. 49.2%; China 11.2%; Japan 5.3%; South Korea 4.4%; Germany 4.1%; Canada 3.1%; Taiwan 2.2%; Brazil 1.7%; Italy 1.7%; Malaysia 1.5%.

1Continental area per more recent survey equals 756,470 sq mi (1,959,248 sq km). 2Uninhabited (nearly all Pacific) islands directly administered by federal government. 3Total area based on more recent survey figure for continental area. 4Within Mexico City urban agglomeration. 5Within Guadalajara urban agglomeration. 6Within Monterrey urban agglomeration. 7Statistically derived midpoint within range. 8Indirect taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 9Includes 1,593,300 unemployed. 10Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 11Metal content. 12End of year. 13Together categories 01 and 04 equal U.S.$1,420,000,000 and 0.6%. 14Together categories 04 and 09 equal U.S.$1,875,000,000 and 0.8%. 15Buses only. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 18Public health institutions only. 19Excludes paramilitary expenditures.

Internet resources for further information: • National Institute of Statistics, Geography, and Informatics http://www.inegi.org.mx/ • Banco de México http://www.banxico.org.mx/sitioIngles

648

Britannica World Data

Micronesia, Federated States of

6.9%; expenditure: food 39.4%, housing 17.4%, transportation and communications 9.3%, energy 5.1%, household furnishings 4.1%, clothing and footwear 3.7%, alcohol, tobacco, kava (sakau), and betel nut 3.5%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$246,000,000 (U.S.$2,220 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$2,810 per capita).

Official name: Federated States of Micronesia. Form of government: federal nonparty republic in free association with the United States with one legislative house (Congress [14]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Palikir, on Pohnpei. Official language: English1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: U.S. dollar (U.S.$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = £0.65.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

fishing7

Agriculture and Public utilities } Mining Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance Services } Public administration Other TOTAL

Area and population area

population

States Major Islands Chuuk (Truk) Chuuk Islands Kosrae Kosrae Island Pohnpei (Ponape) Pohnpei Island Yap Yap Islands2

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

2010 preliminary census

Weno

49.2 … 42.3 42.3 133.3 129.0 45.8 38.7 270.6

127.4 … 109.6 109.6 345.2 334.1 118.6 100.2 700.93

48,651 … 6,616 … 35,981 … 11,376 … 102,624

Lelu (Tofol) Kolonia Colonia

TOTAL

Demography Population (2010): 111,0004. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 409.9, persons per sq km 158.3. Urban-rural (2009): urban 22.5%; rural 77.5%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.90%; female 50.10%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 34.9%; 15–29, 29.4%; 30–44, 18.2%; 45–59, 12.6%; 60–74, 4.0%; 75 and over, 0.9%. Population projection: (2020) 117,000; (2030) 121,000. Doubling time: 38 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Chuukese/Mortlockese 33.6%; Pohnpeian 24.9%; Yapese 10.6%; Kosraean 5.2%; U.S. white 4.5%; Asian 1.3%; other 19.9%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic c. 50%; Protestant c. 47%; other c. 3%. Major towns (2010): Weno, in Chuuk state 13,700; Palikir, on Pohnpei 6,640; Kolonia, on Pohnpei 6,068; Colonia, on Yap 3,130; Lelu, on Kosrae 2,160.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 23.1 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2006) 83.2%; outside of marriage (2006) 16.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.5 (world avg. 8.5). Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): n.a./n.a. Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.89. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 69.1 years; female 72.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the endocrine system 49.9; diseases of the respiratory system 45.4; diseases of the circulatory system 40.8; infectious and parasitic diseases 27.2; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 13.6.

National economy Budget (2007–08; for consolidated general government). Revenue: U.S.$149,800,000 (external grants 63.0%; tax revenue 19.6%; nontax revenue 17.4%, of which fishing access revenue 11.3%). Expenditures: U.S.$154,200,000 (current expenditures 91.8%; capital expenditure 8.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; September 2007): U.S.$67,200,000. Population economically active (2000): total 37,414; activity rate of total population 35.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 60.7%; female 42.9%; unemployed 22.0%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100)

% of total value

42.8

18.0

3.3

1.4

3.2 2.3 10.5 53.8

1.3 1.0 4.4 22.6

108.2

45.5

13.78 237.8

5.88 100.0

}

labour force

% of labour force

15,216 360

40.7 1.0

1,164

3.1

781 806 2,540 726 1,445 6,137 8,2399 37,414

2.1 2.1 6.8 1.9 3.9 16.4 22.09 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 18; remittances (2005) 6.0; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 10; official development assistance (2008) 94. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 5.7; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow c. 4%, in permanent crops c. 26%, in pasture c. 4%, forest area c. 91%10.

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Consumer price index Earnings index5

2000

in value U.S.$’000,000

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

–89.8 75.7%

–99.7 73.3%

–118.7 80.9%

–117.2 82.0%

–129.1 87.9%

–126.5 79.7%

Imports (2007): U.S.$142,659,000 (food and beverages 29.8%, mineral fuels 22.1%, machinery and apparatus 14.4%, transport equipment 6.0%, chemicals and chemical products 5.4%). Major import sources (2007): U.S. 41.2%; Singapore 8.7%; Japan 8.5%; Hong Kong 6.3%; Australia 4.1%. Exports (2007): U.S.$16,190,000 (tuna 69.9%, betel nuts 13.7%, reef fish 5.2%, cooked food 4.9%, kava 2.6%). Major export destinations (2007): Guam 22.5%; U.S. (mainland only) 17.2%; Northern Marianas 4.3%; Japan 4.1%; unspecified 51.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2000): total length 149 mi, 240 km (paved 18%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 3,916; trucks and buses 3,849. Air transport (2009): n.a. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

2.8

2009 2009

3812 8.7

units per 1,000 persons 26 34312 79

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

6.0 0 17 —

55 0 154 —

Education and health Educational attainment (2000). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling/unknown 13.4%; primary education 37.0%; some secondary 18.3%; secondary 12.9%; some college 18.4%. Literacy (2000): total population age 10 and over literate 92.4%; males literate 92.9%; females literate 91.9%. Education (2006–07) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

1,113 829 103

18,512 14,742 5,883

16.6 17.8 57.1

… … 1413 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2005) 62 (1 per 1,774 persons); hospital beds (2006) 365 (1 per 301 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 26.1; undernourished population, n.a.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Military

94.4 99.0

96.0 98.2

100.0 100.0

104.3 102.0

108.2 102.4

115.5 105.7

124.1 …

External security is provided by the United States per Compact of Free Association amended in 2004.

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): coconuts 41,000, cassava 12,000, sweet potatoes 3,200, bananas 2,100, plantains 350, betel nuts (2005) 228, kava (sakau) n.a.; livestock (number of live animals) 33,000 pigs, 14,000 cattle, 4,100 goats; roundwood (2009) 2,400 cu m, of which fuelwood 100%; fisheries production 21,699, of which significantly skipjack tuna (from aquaculture, negligible)6. Mining and quarrying: quarrying of sand and aggregate for local construction only. Manufacturing: copra and coconut oil are traditionally important products; the manufacture of handicrafts and personal items (garments, mats, boats, etc.) is also important. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 67,289,000 (n.a.); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products, none (n.a.); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure (2005). Average household size 6.9; annual median income per household U.S.$12,390; sources of income: wages and salaries 47.2%, rent 10.3%, self-employment 9.1%, transfers and remittances

1English is the language of the Congress per article 9, section 19, of the constitution. 2Yap Islands is the collective name of Yap Island and its immediately adjacent islands linked by common coral reef. The population of Yap Island at the 2000 census was 4,916. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Not based on 2010 preliminary census results. 5Fiscal year. 6Foreign fishing in the Exclusive Economic Zone (200-mile limit; 2007): 111,512 metric tons, of which Taiwanese 53,767 metric tons, Japanese 32,431 metric tons. 7Includes subsistence farming and fishing. 8Indirect taxes. 9Unemployed. 10Forest area overlaps with other categories. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Subscribers. 131999–2000.

Internet resources for further information: • Division of Statistics http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats • Asian Development Bank: Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2010 http://www.adb.org/documents/books/key_indicators/2010

Nations of the World

Gross national income (GNI; 2009)8: U.S.$5,653,000,000 (U.S.$1,590 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$3,060 per capita).

Moldova Official name: Republica Moldova (Republic of Moldova). Form of government: unitary parliamentary republic with a single legislative body (Parliament [101]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Chi&in+u. Official language: 1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Moldovan leu (plural lei); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = 11.93 Moldovan lei; 1 £ = 18.43 Moldovan lei2.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 20098

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Districts Flore&ti Glodeni Hînce&ti Ialoveni Leova Nisporeni Ocni†a Orhei Rezina Rî&cani Sîngerei ,old+ne&ti Soroca ,tefan-Vod+

population 86,800 59,500 118,900 98,600 51,700 64,700 54,900 115,200 50,300 67,600 87,000 41,400 99,200 70,200

Districts Str+&eni Taraclia Telene&ti Ungheni

population 88,800 42,500 69,900 110,700

Municipalities B+l†i Chi&in+u

127,100 756,600

Autonomous Region G+g+uzia 155,800 Disputed Territory4 Transdniestria (Stînga Nistrului) 530,000 TOTAL 3,945,6005

Area: 13,067 sq mi, 33,843 sq km6. Population (2010): 3,941,0005, 7. Density (2010)5, 7: persons per sq mi 301.6, persons per sq km 116.5. Urban-rural (20103)8: urban 39.8%; rural 60.2%. Sex distribution (20103)8: male 48.22%; female 51.78%. Age breakdown (20093)8, 9: under 15, 17.1%; 15–29, 27.4%; 30–44, 20.5%; 45–59, 21.3%; 60–74, 9.8%; 75–84, 3.3%; 85 and over, 0.6%. Population projection5, 7: (2020) 3,722,000; (2030) 3,506,000. Ethnic composition (2004)8, 10: Moldovan 75.8%; Ukrainian 8.4%; Russian 5.9%; Gagauz 4.4%; Rom (Gypsy) 2.2%; Bulgarian 1.9%; other 1.4%. Religious affiliation (2005): Moldovan Orthodox 31.8%; Bessarabian Orthodox 16.1%; Russian Orthodox 15.4%; Sunni Muslim 5.5%; Protestant 1.7%; Jewish 0.6%; nonreligious 19.9%; other 9.0%. Major cities (20103): Chi&in+u 630,800; Tiraspol 155,00011; B+l†i 122,200; Bender (Tighina) 95,00011; Rybnitsa (Rîbni†a) 50,00011.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.4 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2008) 77.7%; outside of marriage (2008) 22.3%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.8 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.28. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 7.5/3.3. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 65.3 years; female 73.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2009)8: diseases of the circulatory system 663.2; neoplasms (cancers) 160.5; diseases of the digestive system 115.5; accidents, poisoning, and violence 97.0.

8.4 0.4 10.5 2.2 3.4 12.3 14.3 15.3 4.8 14.0 14.314 100.015

labour force

% of labour force

392,000 4,000 142,200 23,900 87,400 73,100 214,500 48,500 70,400 223,800 59,900 1,339,700

37.7 0.1 9.3 1.8 3.6 5.0 12.9 3.0 4.3 15.0 7.4 100.015

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 3.2; annual average income per household (2002) U.S.$1,200; sources of income (2008): wages and salaries 42.9%, remittances 19.1%, self-employment 18.0%, social benefits 14.9%; expenditure (2008): food and drink 42.1%, housing and energy 21.1%, clothing and footwear 12.7%, transportation and communications 9.8%, health 5.6%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 212; remittances (2009) 1,211; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 444; official development assistance (2008) 299. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 274; remittances (2008) 115.

Foreign trade16 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography

% of total value

5,063 216 6,305 1,296 2,058 7,396 8,609 9,213 2,897 8,401 8,58914 60,043

TOTAL

population 82,400 28,700 75,600 118,900 73,800 61,200 89,700 59,900 72,200 44,400 85,700 35,000 81,600 89,100

20088

in value ’000,000 Moldovan lei

Population (20103 estimate) Districts Anenii-Noi Basarabeasca Briceni Cahul C+l+ra&i Cantemir C+u&eni Cimi&lia Criuleni Dondu&eni Drochia Dub+sari (rural) Edine† F+le&ti

649

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–783 28.4%

–1,201 35.5%

–1,642 34.6%

–2,348 46.7%

–3,307 51.0%

–1,981 43.3%

Imports (2008): U.S.$4,899,000,000 (mineral fuels 22.5%; machinery and apparatus 14.9%; chemicals and chemical products 11.5%; food 8.8%; road vehicles 7.3%). Major import sources: Ukraine 17.1%; Russia 13.6%; Romania 12.1%; Germany 7.4%; China 6.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,592,000,000 (apparel/clothing accessories 16.8%, of which outerwear 12.3%; food 15.6%; wine 9.7%; oilseeds/vegetable oils 8.2%; insulated wire/cable 6.3%). Major export destinations: Romania 21.1%; Russia 19.7%; Italy 10.5%; Ukraine 9.0%; Belarus 5.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 719 mi, 1,157 km; passenger-km 486,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 2,878,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 5,805 mi, 9,343 km (paved 94%); passenger-km 2,688,000,00017; metric tonkm cargo 2,012,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 338,944; trucks and buses 115,962. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 638,000,000; metric tonkm cargo 1,200,000. Communications

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

1,300

327

2009 2009

2,78519 1,139

77319 316

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

348 40018 1,295 18719

83 11118 360 5219

Education and health National economy

Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 99.2%.

Budget (2008)12. Revenue: 25,517,000,000 Moldovan lei (tax revenue 84.5%, of which VAT 44.5%, social insurance 21.3%; nontax revenue 4.1%; unspecified 11.4%). Expenditures: 26,147,000,000 Moldovan lei (social assistance 30.2%; education 19.8%; health care 13.0%; public order/defense 7.8%). Public debt (external, outstanding; December 2009): U.S.$1,140,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): corn (maize) 1,140,000, wheat 735,000, grapes 682,000, cow’s milk 540,200, sugar beets 336,000, sunflower seeds 284,000, potatoes 261,000, apples 213,000, tobacco leaves 4,200; livestock (number of live animals) 766,000 sheep, 284,000 pigs, 218,000 cattle; roundwood 3,518,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 88%; fisheries production 6,107 (from aquaculture 77%). Mining and quarrying (2007): gypsum 846,400. Manufacturing (value of production in ’000,000 Moldovan lei; 2008)8: food products 8,703, of which meat products 1,468, dairy products 1,192, processed fruits/vegetables 1,148; beverages 3,078, of which wine 2,210; rubber and plastic products 1,034. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 1,103,000,000 (4,037,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (130,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) 58,600 (58,600); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (629,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) none (1,133,000,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 45.6%, left fallow 3.1%, in permanent crops 9.2%, in pasture 10.9%, forest area 10.0%. Population economically active (2008)8, 13: total 1,302,800; activity rate of total population c. 36% (participation rates: ages 15–64 c. 49%; female 49.4%; unemployed 3.8%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Earnings index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

79.4 67.6

89.3 83.7

100.0 100.0

112.8 128.7

126.7 156.6

142.9 191.8

142.8 …

Education (2008–09)8 Primary (age 7–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

9,231 29,186 7,698

145,369 326,608 135,147

15.7 11.2 17.6

88 80 38 (age 18–22)

Health (2009): physicians8 12,783 (1 per 279 persons); hospital beds8 21,938 (1 per 162 persons); infant mortality rate 12.1; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,930 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 5,998 (army 85.8%, air force 14.2%); reserve 66,000. Russian troops in Transdniestria (November 2009) c. 1,500. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.4%; per capita expenditure U.S.$6. 1Moldovan,

a form of Romanian, is the state (official) language per article 13 of the

constitution. 2The Transdniestrian ruble is the official currency of Transdniestria. 3January 1. 4Breakaway area from 1991 also known as Transnistria or Pridnestrovye. 5Excludes Moldovans abroad. 6Of which Transdniestria 1,607 sq mi, 4,163 sq km. 7Includes Transdniestria. 8Excludes Transdniestria. 9Includes Moldovans abroad. 10Transdniestria ethnic composition (2004): Moldovan 31.9%; Russian 30.4%; Ukrainian 28.8%; other 8.9%. 11Within Transdniestria. 12Consolidated (“national public”) budget. 13Excludes unemployed previously employed. 14Taxes less imputed bank service charges. 15Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 16Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 17Buses and taxis only. 18Circulation. 19Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • National Bureau of Statistics http://www.statistica.md • National Bank of Moldova http://www.bnm.org

650

Britannica World Data

Monaco

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2008) 2.1; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure: n.a. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) n.a., 2,623 hotel rooms, 943,509 overnight visitors; remittances (2007) n.a.; foreign direct investment, n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2007) n.a.; remittances (2007) n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2000): public gardens c. 20%.

Official name: Principauté de Monaco (Principality of Monaco). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative body (National Council [24]). Head of state: Prince. Head of government1: Minister of State assisted by the Council of Government. Capital: 2. Official language: French. Official religion: Roman Catholicism. Monetary unit: euro (>)3; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Foreign trade 10 Balance of trade (current prices) >’000,000 % of total

Area and population

area

Capitals2

sq mi

sq km

2008 census

Condamine Fontvieille Monaco-Ville Monte-Carlo

— — — —

0.24 0.13 0.07 0.34 0.78

0.62 0.33 0.19 0.88 2.02

11,946 3,602 975 14,586 31,1094

TOTAL

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–79 8.3%

+188 18.4%

+17 1.5%

–128 8.9%

–73 5.1%

–16 1.0%

+11 1.0%

Imports (2008): >548,753,494 (nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 40.2%; pharmaceuticals, perfumes, clothing, and publishing 19.2%; rubber and plastic products, glass, construction materials, organic chemicals, and paper products 15.7%; food products 7.4%; products of the automobile industry 7.0%). Major import sources: China 34.9%; Italy 18.6%; Japan 8.5%; U.K. 7.1%; Belgium 5.3%. Exports (2008): >560,147,354 (rubber and plastic products, glass, construction materials, organic chemicals, and paper products 39.9%; products of the automobile industry 12.7%; pharmaceuticals, perfumes, clothing, and publishing 12.2%; nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 12.1%; food products 9.6%). Major export destinations: Germany 10.7%; Italy 8.4%; Spain 7.9%; U.K. 6.6%; Lithuania 5.2%; unspecified 26.0%.

population

Quarters2

2002

Demography

Transport and communications

Population (2010): 35,200. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 45,128, persons per sq km 17,426. Urban-rural (2008): urban 100%. Sex distribution (2008): male 47.94%; female 52.06%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 12.8%; 15–29, 12.7%; 30–44, 19.2%; 45–59, 21.8%; 60–74, 19.1%; 75–84, 7.9%; 85 and over, 4.2%; unknown 2.3%. Population projection: (2020) 36,000; (2030) 37,000. Doubling time: 58 years. Ethnic composition (2008): French 28.4%; Monegasque 21.6%; Italian 18.7%; British 7.5%; Belgian 2.8%; Swiss 2.5%; German 2.5%; U.S. 1.0%; other 15.0% (including Asian countries c. 2.5%, African countries c. 2.2%). Religious affiliation (2000): Christian 93.2%, of which Roman Catholic 89.3%; Jewish 1.7%; nonreligious and other 5.1%.

Transport. Railroads (2007): length 1.1 mi, 1.7 km11; passenger-km 6,700,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Roads (2007): total length 48 mi, 77 km (paved 100%). Vehicles (1997): passenger cars 21,120; trucks and buses 2,770. Air transport: 12; passenger-km (2005) 5,000,000; metric ton-km cargo, n.a.

Vital statistics

Educational attainment (2000). Percentage of population age 17 and over having: primary/lower secondary education 24.7%; upper secondary 27.6%; vocational 12.7%; university 35.0%. Literacy: virtually 100%.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 27.4 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2005) 61.4%; outside of marriage (2005) 38.6%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 15.4 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 12.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 1.75. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2005): 4.8/2.1. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 76.0 years; female 83.9 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population: n.a.; however, principal causes are those of a developed country with an older population.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: >845,600,700 (taxes on commerce 47.4%5, property taxes 12.9%, state-run monopolies 10.0%, customs duties 3.1%). Expenditures: >843,119,681 (current expenditure 65.1%, capital expenditure 34.9%). Public debt: n.a. Production. Agriculture, forestry, fishing: some horticulture and greenhouse cultivation; no agriculture as such; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production (2008; metric tons) 1 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: none. Manufacturing (value of sales in >’000; 2007): chemicals, cosmetics, perfumery, and pharmaceuticals 364,077; plastic products 266,366; light electronics and precision instruments 86,113; textiles 41,982; paper and card manufactures 41,470. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2001) n.a. (475,000,000 [imported from France]); coal, none (n.a.); crude petroleum, none (n.a.); natural gas, none (n.a.). Gross national income (2008): U.S.$6,919,000,0006 (U.S.$195,717 per capita).

Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2004

25

758

2009 2009

2313 35

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

70113 1,079

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2005 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

… 0 23 1513

… 0 701 45713

Education and health

Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary15

13314 519 …

students 1,852 3,015 …

student/ teacher ratio 13.714 5.8 …

enrollment rate (%) … … … (age 18–22)

Health (2002): physicians 156 (1 per 207 persons); hospital beds 521 (1 per 62 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 5.2; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Defense responsibility lies with France according to the terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2006 in value >’000,0007 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Public utilities } Construction

2007 % of total value

… … 216.6

… … 6.5

236.7

7.1

Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public administration Services } Other

194.5 786.1 1,248.4 221.1

5.9 23.8 37.8 6.7

402.8

12.2

TOTAL

3,306.2

100.0

labour force

% of labour force

29 2 3,535 139 3,560 2,463 12,476 13,717 256 8,305 … 44,4828

— — 8.0 0.3 8.0 5.5 28.1 30.8 0.6 18.7 … 100.0

Population economically active (2005): total 40,289; activity rate of total population 58.4% (participation rates: ages 17–64 [2000] 61.1%; female 41.4%; unemployed [2000] 3.6%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index9

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

94.2

96.2

98.2

100.0

101.6

103.1

106.1

1Under the authority of the prince. 2The principality is a single administrative unit, and no separate area within it is distinguished as capital. 3Monaco uses the euro as its official currency, even though it is not a member of the EU. 4Unadjusted figure; adjusted census total equals 35,352. 5On hotels, banks, and the industrial sector. 6Per United Nations National Accounts Main Aggregates Database. 7At constant prices of 2000. 8Includes c. 30,000 French workers. 9The index is for France. 10Excludes trade with France; Monaco has participated in a customs union with France since 1963. 11Operated by the French state railway. 12Fixed-wing service is provided at Nice, France; helicopter service is available at Fontvieille. 13Subscribers. 142004–05. 15Most Monegasque students undertake higher education in France.

Internet resource for further information: • La Principauté de Monaco • http://www.gouv.mc

Nations of the World

Mongolia

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Official name: Mongol Uls (Mongolia). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (State Great Hural [76]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Ulaanbaatar (Ulan Bator). Official language: Khalkha Mongolian. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: tugrik (Tug); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = Tug 1,300; 1 £ = Tug 2,008.

Arhangay ¨ lgiy Bayan-O Bayanhongor Bulgan Darhan-Uul Dornod (Eastern) Dornogov1 (East Gobi) Dundgov1 (Central Gobi) Dzavhan Gov1-Altay Gov1-Sümber Hentiy

area1

population

sq km

20102 estimate

55,300 45,700 116,000 48,700 3,280 123,600

89,331 93,017 80,848 58,834 91,358 73,892

109,500

57,733

74,700 82,500 141,400 5,540 80,300

47,622 74,906 55,426 14,135 70,179

% of total value

labour force

% of labour force

1,284.8 1,338.0 254.3 49.4 144.2 644.6 398.2 722.8 270.1 513.7 435.77 6,055.8

21.2 22.1 4.2 0.8 2.4 10.6 6.6 11.9 4.5 8.5 7.27 100.0

377,600 46,500 47,500 66,800 30,100 46,300 204,200 31,800 50,900 140,000 29,8008 1,071,6009

35.2 4.3 4.4 6.2 2.8 4.3 19.1 3.0 4.8 13.1 2.88 100.0

TOTAL

area1

population

Provinces

sq km

20102 estimate

Hovd Hövsgöl ¨ mnögov1 O (South Gobi) Orhon ¨ vörhangay O Selenge Sühbaatar Töv (Central) Uvs

76,100 100,600

82,628 125,274

165,400 840 62,900 41,200 82,300 74,000 69,600

50,681 91,212 111,977 100,202 54,363 87,210 77,408

Autonomous municipality Ulaanbaatar 4,700 TOTAL 1,564,160

1,106,719 2,694,955

2008

in value Tug ’000,000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Public admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

Provinces

651

Public debt (external; 2009): U.S.$1,860,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (20052) 4.2; annual income per household (2005) Tug 1,629,600 (U.S.$1,350); sources of income (2005): wages 35.2%, self-employment 31.3%, transfer payments 10.6%, other 22.9%; expenditure (2005)10: food and nonalcoholic beverages 42.2%, housing and energy 10.5%, clothing and footwear 10.1%, transportation 9.5%, education 5.4%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 225; remittances (2009) 194; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 493; official development assistance (2008) 246. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 188; remittances (2008) 77; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 30. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 0.5%; left fallow 0.1%; in permanent crops, negligible; in pasture 74.1%; forest area 6.5%.

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 2,763,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 4.6, persons per sq km 1.8. Urban-rural (2009): urban 61.5%; rural 38.5%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.05%; female 50.95%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 25.6%; 15–29, 31.7%; 30–44, 23.4%; 45–59, 13.4%; 60–74, 4.6%; 75–84, 1.1%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 3,071,000; (2030) 3,310,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Khalkha Mongol 81.5%; Kazakh 4.3%; Dörbed Mongol 2.8%; Bayad 2.1%; Buryat Mongol 1.7%; Dariganga Mongol 1.3%; Zakhchin 1.3%; Tuvan (Uriankhai) 1.1%; other 3.9%. Religious affiliation (2005): traditional beliefs (shamanism) c. 32%; Buddhist (Lamaism) c. 23%; Muslim c. 5%; Christian c. 1%; nonreligious c. 30%; atheist/other c. 9%. Major cities (20082): Ulaanbaatar (Ulan Bator) 1,031,200; Erdenet 74,300; Darhan 72,400; Choybalsan (2000) 40,123; Mörön (2000) 28,903.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 25.1 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2001) 82.2%; outside of marriage (2001) 17.8%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.7 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.60. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2008) 12.43/(2007) 0.7. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 63.7 years; female 71.0 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 205.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 118.0; accidents and violence 93.3; diseases of the digestive system 52.7; diseases of the respiratory system 24.0.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: Tug 1,437,622,800,000 (tax revenue 65.1%, of which VAT 22.7%, corporate taxes 14.3%, excises 11.6%; nontax revenue 22.1%; grants and transfers 12.8%). Expenditures: Tug 1,730,659,000,000 (wages and salaries 30.4%; subsidies and transfers 27.1%; debt service 19.2%). Population economically active (2008): total 1,071,600; activity rate of total population 40.3% (participation rates: ages 16–59, 63.2%; female 51.0%; unemployed 2.8%4).

U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–165.1 8.8%

–118.2 5.3%

+56.7 1.9%

–230.4 5.8%

–1,076.5 17.5%

–228.7 5.7%

Imports (2007): U.S.$2,117,000,000 (refined petroleum 26.0%, machinery and apparatus 20.0%, food products 9.2%, road vehicles 8.9%). Major import sources: Russia 34.3%; China 31.1%; South Korea 5.6%; Japan 5.1%; Germany 3.3%. Exports (2007): U.S.$1,528,800,000 (copper ore/concentrate 43.0%, gold 12.5%, wool/fine animal hair 10.2%, zinc ore/concentrate 9.3%, coal 6.1%, crude petroleum 2.9%). Major export destinations: China 74.2%; Canada 9.5%; U.S. 3.4%; Russia 3.0%; Italy 3.0%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2009): route length 1,128 mi, 1,815 km; passenger-km 1,003,100,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,817,000,000. Roads (2009): total length 30,602 mi, 49,250 km (paved 4%); passenger-km 1,535,900,000; metric tonkm cargo 1,160,700,000. Vehicles (2009): passenger cars 153,906; trucks and buses 63,427. Air transport (2009): passenger-km 634,100,000; metric ton-km cargo 3,666,700. Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2008

454

2009 2009

2,24913 189

units per 1,000 persons 171 84213 71

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2008 2009 2009 2009

665 4912 350 2413

units per 1,000 persons 250 1812 131 9.113

Education and health Educational attainment (2000). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal education 11.6%; primary education 23.5%; secondary 46.1%; vocational secondary 11.2%; higher 7.6%. Literacy (2008): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 97.3%; males 96.7%; females 97.8%. Education (2008–09) teachers Primary (age 7–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

8,320 16,60514 8,554

students 252,604 305,791 162,217

student/ teacher ratio 30.4 19.814 19.0

enrollment rate (%) 90 82 53 (age 18–22)

Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

82.0

88.7

100.0

105.1

114.6

143.3

152.3

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): hay 893,353, wheat 388,122, potatoes 151,211, vegetables 77,976, carrots and turnips 41,858; livestock (number of live animals) 19,651,500 goats, 19,274,700 sheep, 2,599,300 cattle, 2,221,300 horses, 277,050 camels; roundwood 673,800 cu m, of which fuelwood 94%; fisheries production (2008) 88 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2009): iron ore 1,379,000; copper5 370,900; zinc5 141,500; fluorspar 115,300; molybdenum5 5,125; gold 9,803 kg6. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): base metals 40; beverages 31; food products 25; textiles and wearing apparel 24; bricks, cement, and ceramics 10. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 4,030,000,000 (3,439,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 1,506,000 (1,506,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 7,732,000 (4,464,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 1,861,500 (5,840,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (781,000); natural gas, none (none). Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$4,361,000,000 (U.S.$1,630 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$3,330 per capita).

Health (2008): physicians 7,584 (1 per 351 persons); hospital beds 16,069 (1 per 165 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 20.2; undernourished population (2004–06) 750,000 (29% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,840 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 10,000 (army 89.0%, air force 8.0%, other 3.0%); reserve 137,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$19. 1Rounded

figures. 2January 1. 3In 2006 the government implemented a “newly married couple” program to promote marriage. 4Registered figure. 5Metal content. gold contained in copper concentrate. 7Net taxes on products less imputed bank service charges. 8Unemployed. 9Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 10Weights of consumer price index components. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Circulation of daily newspapers. 13Subscribers. 142006–07. 6Excludes

Internet resources for further information: • National Statistical Office of Mongolia http://www.statis.mn/v3/index2.php • Bank of Mongolia http://www.mongolbank.mn

652

Britannica World Data

Montenegro

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Official name: Crna Gora (Montenegro). Form of government: multiparty republic with one legislative house (Parliament [81]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Podgorica; Cetinje is the old royal capital. Official language: Montenegrin1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>)2; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

in value >’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Municipalities Andrijevica Bar Berane Bijelo Polje Budva Cetinje Danilovgrad Herceg Novi Kolašin Kotor Mojkovac

area

population

sq km

2007 estimate

283 598 717 924 122 910 501 235 897 335 367

5,545 41,706 34,817 49,630 16,736 17,869 16,509 33,075 9,398 22,800 9,595

230.5 37.4 166.5 190.8 129.1 288.9 515.2 371.0 269.1 278.1 609.06 3,085.6

TOTAL

Area and population Municipalities Nikšiç Plav Pljevlja Plu\ine Podgorica Ro\aje Savnik Tivat Ulcinj |abljak TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2007 estimate

2,065 486 1,346 854 1,441 432 553 46 255 445 13,812

75,192 13,933 34,481 3,981 176,569 23,447 2,717 13,487 20,653 4,048 626,188

2007 % of total value

labour force

7.5 1.2 } 5.4 6.2 4.2 9.4 16.7 12.0 8.7 9.0 19.76 100.0

% of labour force

17,600

6.5

23,900

8.9

8,300 6,100 22,900 60,700 9,200 20,400 48,200 52,1007 269,5008

3.1 2.3 8.5 22.5 3.4 7.6 17.9 19.37 100.0

Public debt (external, outstanding; December 2008): U.S.$670,400,000. Household income and expenditure (2008)9. Average household size 3.4; average annual income per household >7,284 (U.S.$10,669); sources of income: wages and salaries 61.4%, pension benefits 22.7%, agriculture 5.4%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 35.2%, transportation 12.3%, housing and energy 12.0%, clothing and footwear 7.6%, communications 5.6%, household furnishings 5.6%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 755; remittances (2009) n.a.; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 1,049; official development assistance (2008) 106. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 43; remittances (2008) n.a.; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 104.

Foreign trade10 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 633,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 118.8, persons per sq km 45.8. Urban-rural (2009): urban 61.5%; rural 38.5%. Sex distribution (20093): male 49.27%; female 50.73%. Age breakdown (20093): under 15, 19.4%; 15–29, 22.9%; 30–44, 20.3%; 45–59, 20.2%; 60–74, 12.4%; 75–79, 2.6%; 80 and over, 2.2%. Population projection: (2020) 664,000; (2030) 703,000. Ethnic composition (2003): Montenegrin 43.2%; Serb 32.0%; Bosniac/Muslim 11.8%; Albanian 5.0%; undeclared 4.0%; other 4.0%. Religious affiliation (2003): Orthodox c. 70%; Muslim c. 21%; Roman Catholic c. 4%; other c. 5%. Major settlements (2003): Podgorica (2009) 144,000; Nikßiç 58,212; Pljevlja 21,377; Bijelo Polje 15,883; Cetinje 15,137; Bar 13,719.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 13.1 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 82.6%; outside of marriage 17.4%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 9.1 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 4.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 1.8. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 5.5/0.7. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 71.2 years; female 76.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 490.6; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 146.3; diseases of the respiratory system 39.6; injuries, accidents, and violence 36.7, of which suicide 20.0; ill-defined conditions 125.0.

National economy Budget (2006). Revenue: >582,258,287 (tax revenue 85.8%, of which VAT 44.5%, income tax 12.5%, excise tax 12.4%, taxes on international trade 9.7%; nontax revenue 14.2%). Expenditures: >579,780,129 (wages and salaries 27.4%; transfers 20.7%; debt service 20.0%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cow’s milk 168,600, potatoes 110,000, watermelons 39,672, grapes 35,400, cabbages 26,300, tomatoes 22,081, chilies and peppers 17,275, sheep’s milk 9,420, corn (maize) 6,937, plums 6,076, apples 5,374, oranges 5,239, cattle meat 4,991, figs 4,121, peaches 3,721, cherries 1,779, olives 1,211; livestock (number of live animals) 249,281 sheep, 114,922 cattle, 13,294 pigs; roundwood (2009) 457,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 58%; fisheries production 911 (from aquaculture 1%). Mining and quarrying (2009): bauxite 45,779; sea salt 17,000. Manufacturing (2008): base metals and fabricated metal products (mostly of aluminum) 697,563; food products 88,590; chemicals and chemical products 14,766; paper products, publishing, and printing 3,709; wood and wood products 68,989 cu m. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 2,828,000,000 (2,648,000,0004); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) none (none4); lignite (metric tons; 2009) 957,164 ([2008] 29,0004); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (n.a.); petroleum products, n.a. (n.a.); natural gas (cu m; 2008) none (n.a.). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 2.3%, left fallow 1.0%, in permanent crops 1.2%, in pasture 33.7%, forest area 46.5%. Population economically active (2008): total 266,700; activity rate 51.9% (participation rates: over age 15 [2007] 52.9%; female 43.4%; unemployed [September 2008–August 2009] 14.1%). Price index (December 2005 = 100) Consumer price index5

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

97.7

100.0

102.8

110.7

118.7

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$4,089,000,000 (U.S.$6,550 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$13,130 per capita).

>’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–416.4 31.5%

–513.7 38.5%

–855.2 40.5%

–1,535.4 56.2%

–2,094.0 70.7%

–1,356.0 72.8%

Imports (2007): >2,134,377,900 (mineral fuels 11.6%; automobiles 11.4%; nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 9.0%; electrical machinery and apparatus 8.8%; base and fabricated metals 7.1%). Major import sources (2008): Serbia 33.2%; Italy 7.6%; Greece 7.3%; Croatia 6.7%; Bos.-Her. 6.5%. Exports (2007): >599,020,700,000 (aluminum and aluminum products 47.0%; base metals 11.9%; beverages and tobacco 8.9%; mineral fuels 8.1%). Major export destinations (2008): Italy 30.1%; Serbia 24.9%; Greece 12.3%; Slovenia 8.6%; Bos.-Her. 5.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 155 mi, 250 km; passenger-km 125,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 184,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 4,600 mi, 7,404 km (paved 67%); passenger-km 124,000,00011; metric ton-km cargo 184,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 178,449; trucks and buses, n.a. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 348,000,00012; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2008

…

2009 2009

75214 367

units per 1,000 persons … 1,20514 587

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

… 6213 280 8814

units per 1,000 persons … 9813 449 14114

Education and health Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal education 3.2%; incomplete primary education 6.8%; complete primary 22.5%; secondary 55.0%; higher 12.5%. Literacy (2003): total population age 15 and over literate 97.6%; males literate 99.6%; females literate 95.7%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 6–14) Secondary/Voc. (age 15–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

5,039 2,243 1,405

74,130 31,274 20,490

14.7 13.9 14.6

… … … (age 19–23)

Health (2008): physicians 1,351 (1 per 465 persons); hospital beds 3,901 (1 per 161 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 7.5; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 3,127 (army 80.0%, navy 12.8%, air force 7.2%); paramilitary 10,100. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 2.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$113.

1Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian, and Croatian can also be used as official languages per article 13 of the constitution. 2Montenegro uses the euro as its official currency, even though it is not a member of the EU. 3January 1. 4Industrial consumption only. 5As of December. 6Taxes on products less imputed bank service charges and less subsidies. 7Unemployed. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 9Based on the 2008 Household Budget Survey. 10Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 11Buses only. 12Montenegro Airlines. 13Circulation of daily newspapers. 14Subscribers.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Montenegro http://www.cb-mn.org/eng • Statistical Office of the Republic of Montenegro http://www.monstat.org

Nations of the World

Gross national income (GNI; 2009)2: U.S.$90,685,000,000 (U.S.$2,790 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$4,450 per capita).

Morocco Official name: Al-Mamlakah al-Maghribiyah (Kingdom of Morocco). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses (House of Councillors [2701]; House of Representatives [325]). Head of state and government: King assisted by Prime Minister. Capital: Rabat. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Moroccan dirham (DH); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = DH 8.65; 1 £ = DH 13.36.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Public utilities Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Pub. admin., defense Finance, real estate } Services Other

% of total value

90,690 45,121 87,959 16,123 38,663 45,262 86,875 54,000

13.2 6.6 12.8 2.3 5.6 6.6 12.6 7.8

154,939 69,21113 688,843

TOTAL

labour force

% of labour force

4,303,300

39.1

1,224,700

11.1

789,600 394,700 1,402,600 508,900

7.2 3.6 12.8 4.6

22.5

1,292,800

11.8

10.013 100.0

1,073,40014 10,990,000

9.814 100.0

}

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 12.5%, left fallow 5.6%, in permanent crops 2.0%, in pasture 47.1%, forest area 9.8%.

area

population

sq km

2007 estimate

Chaouia-Ouardigha 16,845 Doukkala-Abda 13,285 Fès-Boulemane 20,008 Gharb-ChrardaBeni Hssen 8,936 Grand Casablanca 1,026 Guelmim-Es 130,500 Smara3 Laâyoune-Bojador76,300 Sakia El-Hamra4 Marrakech-TensiftAl Haouz 31,881

2006

in value DH ’000,000

Area and population2 Regions

653

1,685,000 2,020,000 1,637,000 1,912,000 3,718,000

491,000 284,000 3,187,000

area

population

Regions

sq km

2007 estimate

Meknès-Tafilalet Oriental Oued EddahabLagouira5 Rabat-SaléZemmour-Zaër Souss-Massa-Drâa Tadla-Azilal Tanger-Tétouan Taza-Al HoceimaTaounate

60,407 80,579

2,191,000 1,955,000

120,000

135,000

10,226 73,207 17,209 12,745

2,500,000 3,244,000 1,472,000 2,586,000

24,157 694,4206

1,830,000 30,847,0007

TOTAL

Demography Area2: 268,117 sq mi, 694,420 sq km. Population (2010)2: 32,119,0007. Density (2010)2: persons per sq mi 119.8, persons per sq km 46.3. Urban-rural (2009)8: urban 57.6%; rural 42.4%. Sex distribution (2008)8: male 49.28%; female 50.72%. Age breakdown (2008)8: under 15, 29.1%; 15–29, 28.6%; 30–44, 21.0%; 45–59, 13.1%; 60–74, 6.0%; 75–84, 1.8%; 85 and over, 0.4%. Population projection2: (2020) 35,608,000; (2030) 38,708,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Amazigh (Berber) c. 45%, of which Arabized c. 24%; Arab c. 44%; Moors originally from Mauritania c. 10%; other c. 1%. Religious affiliation (2004): Muslim more than 99% (including Sunni c. 97%; Shi(i c. 2%); other less than 1%. Major urban agglomerations (2009): Casablanca 3,245,000; Rabat (incl. Salé) 1,770,000; Fès 1,044,000; Marrakech 909,000; Tangier 768,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 19.2 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.7 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.2. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 71.6 years; female 74.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): diseases of the circulatory system 201, of which ischemic heart disease 100; infectious and parasitic diseases 120; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 41; accidents and injuries 40.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: DH 196,726,000,000 (indirect taxes 41.5%, direct taxes 37.6%, nontax revenue 7.5%, customs duties 6.0%, other 7.4%). Expenditures: DH 221,141,000,000 (current expenditure 75.0%, capital expenditure 17.3%, other 7.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; December 2009): U.S.$10,018,000,000. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 5.3; expenditure (2006)9: food and nonalcoholic beverages 39.3%, housing and energy 14.8%, transportation 11.4%, health 5.5%, education 3.9%. Population economically active (2008): total 11,458,500; activity rate 36.7% (participation rates: ages 15–59, 53.9%; female 27.2%; unemployed [July 2009–June 2010] 9.3%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): wheat (2008) 3,769,000, sugar beets (2008) 2,926,000, potatoes (2008) 1,537,000, tomatoes 1,300,000, oranges 780,000, olives 770,000, chicken meat 450,000, apples 400,000, grapes 300,000, string beans (2008) 182,180, strawberries 130,000; livestock (number of live animals) 17,475,000 sheep, 2,861,000 cattle; roundwood 1,040,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 41%; fisheries production (2008) 997,172 (from aquaculture, negligible)10. Mining and quarrying (2008): phosphate rock 25,000,000; barite 660,000; zinc 96,90011; fluorspar 80,000; lead 33,50011; cobalt 1,71111; silver 230,000 kg12. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): food products 1,512; bricks, cement, and ceramics 1,105; base chemicals 925; tobacco products 871; wearing apparel 774. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 20,195,000,000 ([2007] 26,313,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (6,027,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 250,000 ([2007] 46,800,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 5,213,000 (7,760,000); natural gas (cu m; 2008) 36,000,000 ([2007] 648,000,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 7,221; remittances (2009) 6,264; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 2,207; official development assistance (2008) 1,217. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,090; remittances (2008) 52; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 525.

Foreign trade15 Balance of trade (current prices) DH ’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

–70,025 28.5%

–85,115 30.0%

–98,575 31.5%

2007 –132,613 36.9%

2008

2009

–170,626 35.2%

–153,188 41.1%

Imports (2008): DH 327,995,000,000 (mineral fuels 22.3%, of which crude petroleum 9.4%; machinery and apparatus 19.9%; food 9.4%; road vehicles 6.9%). Major import sources: France 15.0%; Spain 11.2%; Italy 6.7%; Saudi Arabia 6.7%; China 5.7%. Exports (2008)16: DH 157,369,000,000 (fertilizers [all kinds] 18.4%; inorganic chemicals 14.8%; outerwear 11.7%; fish/shrimp/octopuses 7.9%; insulated wire/cable 7.3%; vegetables/fruit/nuts 7.2%; petroleum 4.2%). Major export destinations: France 20.2%; Spain 17.9%; India 6.8%; Brazil 4.8%; Italy 4.7%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007): route length 1,185 mi, 1,907 km; (2008) passenger-km 3,836,000,000; (2008) metric ton-km cargo 4,985,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 36,199 mi, 58,256 km (paved 68%); passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo 794,000,000. Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 1,644,523; trucks and buses 548,175. Air transport (2008)17: passenger-km 13,146,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 55,477,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2004

5,010

164

2009 2009

25,31119 3,51620

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

79119 11020

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

1,115 34018 10,300 47619

units per 1,000 persons 36 1118 322 1519

Education and health Educational attainment (2004). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal education through incomplete primary education 45.5%; complete primary 40.8%; secondary 8.7%; higher 5.0%. Literacy (2009): total population over age 15 literate c. 56%; males c. 69%; females c. 44%. Education (2008–09) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

students

student/ teacher ratio

144,722 3,850,994 100,36721 2,173,454 19,598 418,833

26.6 18.721 21.4

enrollment rate (%) 90 3522 13 (age 18–22)

Health (2009): physicians 19,703 (1 per 1,612 persons); hospital beds 35,888 (1 per 885 persons); infant mortality rate (2008) 17.0; undernourished population2 (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,820 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 195,800 (army 89.4%, navy 4.0%, air force 6.6%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 3.4%; per capita expenditure U.S.$101.

1All

seats indirectly elected. 2Includes Western Sahara, annexure of Morocco whose political status has been unresolved since 1991; Western Sahara area: 252,120 sq km, 97,344 sq mi; Western Sahara population (2010 est.) 492,000. 3About 50% of the land area of Guelmim-Es Smara is located within Western Sahara. 4About 83% of the land area of Laâyoune-Bojador-Sakia El-Hamra is located within Western Sahara. 5The entire area of Oued Eddahab-Lagouira is located within Western Sahara. 6Total includes gross rounding of Western Sahara areas. 7Estimates of U.S. Bureau of the Census International Database (June/December 2009 updates). 8Excludes Western Sahara. 9Weights of consumer price index components. 10Roughly 60% of Morocco’s fisheries production comes from Atlantic waters off of Western Sahara. 11Metal content. 12Including smelter bullion. 13Import taxes and duties less subsidies. 14Including 1,062,000 unemployed. 15Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 16Cannabis is an important illegal export; Morocco was the world’s number 2 producer in 2009. 17Royal Air Maroc and Atlas Blue airlines only. 18Circulation. 19Subscribers. 20Includes fixed wireless. 212003–04. 222002–03.

Internet resources for further information: • Haut-Commissariat au Plan http://www.hcp.ma • Bank al-Maghrib http://www.bkam.ma

654

Britannica World Data

Mozambique

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$9,962,000,000 (U.S.$440 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$880 per capita).

Official name: República de Moçambique (Republic of Mozambique). Form of government: multiparty republic with a single legislative house (Assembly of the Republic [250]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Maputo. Official language: Portuguese. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: (new) metical (MTn; plural meticais)1; valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = MTn 36.50; 1 £ = MTn 56.39.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Capitals

Cabo Delgado Gaza Inhambane Manica Maputo Nampula Niassa Sofala Tete Zambézia

Pemba Xai-Xai Inhambane Chimoio Maputo Nampula Lichinga Beira Tete Quelimane

City Maputo

—

TOTAL

labour force

67,231 3,350 30,906 6,633 11,322 22,237 22,852 37,085 8,518 16,219 13,4237 239,7758

28.0 1.4 12.9 2.8 4.7 9.3 9.5 15.5 3.6 6.8 5.67 100.08

7,837,000

80.8

1,859,000

19.2

… 9,696,000

… 100.0

TOTAL

area

Provinces

% of total value

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Finance, real estate Trade, hotels Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

sq km

2007 unadjusted final census

31,902 29,231 26,492 23,808 9,945 31,508 49,828 26,262 38,890 40,544

82,625 75,709 68,615 61,661 25,756 81,606 129,055 68,018 100,724 105,008

1,605,649 1,226,272 1,252,479 1,412,029 1,205,553 3,985,285 1,169,347 1,642,636 1,783,967 3,848,274

232 308,642

602 799,379

1,094,315 20,226,2962

}

% of labour force

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 190; remittances (2009) 124; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 389; official development assistance (2008) 1,994. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 208; remittances (2008) 52. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 5.7%, in permanent crops 0.4%, in pasture 56.0%, forest area 24.4%.

population

sq mi

2002

in value MTn ’000,000

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 22,426,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 72.7, persons per sq km 28.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 37.6%; rural 62.4%. Sex distribution (2007): male 47.67%; female 52.33%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 43.1%; 15–29, 26.8%; 30–44, 16.5%; 45–59, 9.0%; 60–74, 3.9%; 75 and over, 0.7%. Population projection: (2020) 27,166,000; (2030) 32,063,000. Doubling time: 31 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Makuana 15.3%; Makua 14.5%; Tsonga 8.6%; Sena 8.0%; Lomwe 7.1%; Tswa 5.7%; Chwabo 5.5%; other 35.3%. Religious affiliation (2005): traditional beliefs c. 46%; Christian c. 37%, of which Roman Catholic c. 19%, Protestant c. 11%; Muslim c. 9%; other c. 8%. Major cities (2007): Maputo 1,094,315 (urban agglomeration 1,766,823); Matola 672,508; Nampula 471,717; Beira 431,583; Chimoio 237,278; Quelimane 193,343.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

–604 22.4%

–346 10.3%

–497 12.5%

–268 5.3%

–399 7.6%

–805 13.2%

Imports (2008): U.S.$4,008,000,000 (refined petroleum 16.2%; machinery and apparatus 13.9%; food 10.7%, of which cereals 6.9%; road vehicles 9.9%; unspecified 16.8%). Major import sources: South Africa 29.1%; Netherlands 17.4%; Bahrain 6.7%; U.S. 4.0%; China 3.9%. Exports (2008): U.S.$2,653,000,000 (aluminum 54.7%; electricity 8.5%; unmanufactured tobacco 7.3%; food 5.6%). Major export destinations: Netherlands 55.6%; South Africa 10.0%; Zimbabwe 3.0%; China 1.9%; Spain 1.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 1,821 mi, 2,931 km; passenger-km (2006) 342,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2006) 775,000,000. Roads (2006): total length 11,063 mi, 17,805 km (paved 29%). Vehicles (2001): passenger cars 81,600; trucks and buses 76,000. Air transport (2008)10: passenger-km 502,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 6,700,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

391

20

2009 2009

5,97112 82

26112 3.6

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

283 1811 613 1312

units per 1,000 persons 14 1.511 27 0.512

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 38.3 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 15.7 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 22.6 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2006): 5.35. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 41.2 years; female 40.4 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 12.5%3 (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy

Educational attainment (1997). Percentage of population age 15 and over having: no formal schooling 78.4%; primary education 18.4%; secondary 2.0%; technical 0.4%; higher 0.2%; other/unknown 0.6%. Literacy (2008): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 54.0%; males literate 69.5%; females literate 40.1%. Education (2008–09)

Budget (2008). Revenue: MTn 69,107,000,000 (tax revenue 47.3%, grants 45.4%, nontax revenue 7.3%). Expenditures: MTn 83,220,000,000 (capital expenditures 48.6%, current expenditures 45.5%, net lending 5.9%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$2,788,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava 5,038,623, sugarcane 2,451,170, corn (maize) 1,284,930, sweet potatoes 890,000, coconuts 265,000, sorghum 187,265, rice 101,914, peanuts (groundnuts) 94,454, cashews 85,000, tobacco 64,342, castor oil seed 52,071; livestock (number of live animals) 4,324,761 goats, 1,240,340 cattle, 18,000,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 18,028,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 93%; fisheries production 120,337 (from aquaculture 1%). Mining and quarrying (2008): ilmenite concentrate 328,875; bauxite 5,443; tantalite 110,000 kg; garnet 8,900 kg; gold 298 kg4. Manufacturing (value added in MT ’000,000,000; 2003): aluminum 19,067; beverages 4,773; food products 2,577; tobacco 581; chemicals and chemical products 297. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 16,076,000,000 (12,532,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) 24,000 (9,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (599,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 2,730,000,000 (155,600,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 4.2; income per household: n.a.; sources of income (1992–93)5: wages and salaries 51.6%, self-employment 12.5%, barter 11.5%, private farming 7.7%; expenditure (1998)5: food, beverages, and tobacco 63.5%, firewood and furniture 17.0%, transportation and communications 4.6%, clothing and footwear 4.6%. Population economically active (2008): total 10,750,0006; activity rate 48.0%6 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 86.1%6; female 52.1%6; unemployed, n.a.). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

Education and health

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

82.8

93.3

100.0

113.2

122.5

135.1

139.5

Primary (age 6–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–17) Tertiary13

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

82,753 15,730 3,009

5,076,283 595,555 28,298

61.3 37.9 9.4

82 9 1 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2003) 635 (1 per 30,525 persons); hospital beds (2003) 16,493 (1 per 1,175 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2006) 112.1; undernourished population (2004–06) 7,500,000 (37% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,800 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 11,200 (army 89.3%, navy 1.8%, air force 8.9%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.8%; per capita expenditure U.S.$3.

1The (new) metical (MTn) replaced the (old) metical (MT) on July 1, 2006, at a rate of 1 MTn = MT 1,000. 2Reported total; the summed total equals 20,225,806. 3Statistically derived midpoint of range. 4Official figures; unofficial artisanal production is 360–480 kg per year. 5Weights of consumer price index components. 6Estimate of the ILO Employment Trends Unit. 7Taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 8Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 9Imports are f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. for commodities and trading partners. 10LAM (Linhas Aéreas de Moçambique) only. 11Circulation of daily newspapers. 12Subscribers. 132004–05.

Internet resources for further information: • Instituto Nacional de Estatística http://www.ine.gov.mz • Banco de Moçambique http://www.bancomoc.mz

655

Nations of the World

Myanmar (Burma)

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009–10

Official name: Pyidaungzu Myanma Naingngandaw (Union of Myanmar)1, 2. Form of government: military regime1. Head of state and government: Chairman3. Capital: Naypyidaw (Nay Pyi Taw). Official language: Burmese. Official religion: none4. Monetary unit: Myanmar kyat (K); valuation5 (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = K 6.30; 1 £ = K 9.73.

in value K ’000,000,000 Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade Finance Public administration Services, other TOTAL

Area and population Divisions

Capitals

Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) Bago (Pegu) Magway (Magwe) Mandalay Sagaing Tanintharyi (Tenasserim) Yangôn

Pathein (Bassein) Bago (Pegu) Magway (Magwe) Mandalay Sagaing Dawei (Tavoy) Yangon (Rangoon)

States Chin Kachin Kayah Kayin (Karen) Mon Rakhine (Arakan) Shan

Hakha Myitkyina Loi-kaw Hpa-an (Pa-an) Mawlamyine (Moulmein) Sittwe (Akyab) Taunggyi

TOTAL

12,889 328 6,135 1,518 251 4,568 6,890 23 549 610 33,761

area

population

sq mi

sq km

2002 estimate

13,567 15,214 17,305 14,295 36,535 16,735 3,927

35,138 39,404 44,820 37,024 94,625 43,343 10,171

7,184,000 5,327,000 4,873,000 7,246,000 5,655,000 1,455,000 6,056,000

13,907 34,379 4,530 11,731 4,748 14,200 60,155 261,228

36,019 89,041 11,733 30,383 12,297 36,778 155,801 676,577

495,000 1,364,000 293,000 1,575,000 2,672,000 2,915,000 5,061,000 52,171,000

Demography Population (2010): 53,414,0006. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 204.5, persons per sq km 78.9. Urban-rural (2008): urban 32.6%; rural 67.4%. Sex distribution (2008): male 49.49%; female 50.51%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 25.7%; 15–29, 28.6%; 30–44, 23.4%; 45–59, 14.3%; 60–74, 6.2%; 75–89, 1.7%; 90 and over, 0.1%. Population projection6: (2020) 59,126,000; (2030) 64,103,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Burman 55.9%; Karen 9.5%; Shan 6.5%; Han Chinese 2.5%; Mon 2.3%; Yangbye 2.2%; Kachin 1.5%; other 19.6%. Religious affiliation (2005): Buddhist c. 74%; Protestant c. 6%; Muslim c. 3%; Hindu c. 2%; traditional beliefs c. 11%; other c. 4%. Major urban agglomerations (2007): Yangon (Rangoon) 4,088,000; Mandalay 961,000; Naypyidaw (Nay Pyi Taw) 930,000; Mawlamyine (Moulmein) 405,8007; Pathein (Bassein) 215,6007; Bago (Pegu) 200,9007.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 19.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.3 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.32. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 61.9 years; female 66.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): infectious and parasitic diseases 477; cardiovascular diseases 258; injuries, accidents, and violence 92; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 74; chronic respiratory diseases 57. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 0.7% (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2005–06). Revenue: K 819,534,000,000 (tax revenue 58.2%, of which taxes on goods and services 30.7%, taxes on individual income 25.2%; nontax revenue 41.8%). Expenditures: K 1,008,785,000,000 (economic affairs 34.3%, of which transport 19.7%; defense 19.6%; education 6.8%; health 2.2%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$5,413,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): rice 30,500,000, sugarcane 7,000,000, dry beans 2,500,000, corn (maize) 1,114,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 1,000,000, onions 740,000, plantains 630,000, sesame seeds 620,000, pigeon peas 600,000, coconuts 370,000, sunflower seeds 350,000, garlic 147,000, dry chilies and peppers 71,000; livestock (number of live animals) 12,929,242 cattle, 7,676,712 pigs, 107,771,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 21,051,100 cu m, of which fuelwood 80%; fisheries production 3,168,526 (from aquaculture 21%). Mining and quarrying (2008–09): copper (2008; metal content) 6,900; jade 32,311,589 kg; rubies 1,751,355 carats; sapphires 1,313,723 carats; spinel 339,894 carats. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2003): nonelectrical machinery and apparatus 728; transportation equipment 483; fabricated metal products 254; food products, n.a.; cement (2008–09) 702,419 metric tons. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009–10) 5,850,000,000 (4,936,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007) 1,075,000 (163,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007) 414,000 (113,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008–09) 7,058,000 ([2007] 6,121,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 807,000 (1,671,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009–10) 11,579,000,000 ([2007] 3,653,100,000). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 46; remittances (2009) 148; foreign direct investment (2006–08 avg.) 323; official development assistance (2008) 534. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2006) 37; remittances (2008) 32. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 5.0; average annual income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (2001): food and nonalcoholic beverages 70.4%, fuel and lighting 6.6%, transportation 3.3%, clothing and footwear 2.4%. Gross national income (2008): U.S.$28,663,000,000 (U.S.$578 per capita).

1997–98 % of total value 38.2 1.0 18.2 4.5 0.7 13.5 20.4 0.1 1.6 } 1.8 100.0

labour force8

% of labour force8

12,093,000 121,000 1,666,000 400,000 26,000 495,000 1,781,000

65.9 0.7 9.1 2.2 0.1 2.7 9.7

1,485,000

8.1

270,000 18,337,000

1.5 100.0

Population economically active (2008; ILO estimates): total 28,361,000; activity rate of total population 57.6% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 79.3%; female 45.5%; official unemployed 4.9%). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

87.5

91.4

100.0

120.0

162.0

205.4

208.5

Consumer price index

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 15.7%, left fallow 0.5%, in permanent crops 1.7%, in pasture 0.5%, forest area 47.9%.

Foreign trade9 Balance of trade (current prices) 2004–05 K ’000,000 % of total

+5,359 19.1%

2005–06

2006–07

2007–08

2008–09

2009–10

+9,132 28.4%

+13,191 28.1%

+16,878 31.4%

+12,154 19.6%

+18,452 28.8%

Imports (2008–09): K 24,874,000,000 (nonelectrical machinery and transport equipment 29.1%; refined petroleum 12.8%; base and fabricated metals 7.3%; vegetable oils 6.5%). Major import sources: China 26.4%; Singapore 23.0%; Thailand 8.6%; Malaysia 7.9%; Indonesia 4.6%. Exports (2008–09): K 37,028,000,000 (natural gas 33.3%; pulses [mostly beans] 12.1%; hardwood 6.9%, of which teak 2.7%; garments 4.1%; rice 3.9%; unspecified [including gemstones] 33.3%). Major export destinations: Thailand 38.7%; Singapore 12.5%; India 11.9%; Hong Kong 9.8%; China 9.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008–09): route length (2009) 3,126 mi, 5,031 km; passenger-km 5,466,155,000; metric ton-km cargo 883,650,000. Roads (2005): total length 16,800 mi, 27,000 km (paved 12%). Vehicles (2009): passenger cars 249,048; trucks and buses 79,987. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 166,000,00010; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 3,000,000. Inland waterway (2008–09): passenger-km 2,475,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 974,000,000. Communications

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

373

8.1

2009 2009

44812 812

9.012 16

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

400 42011 110 1512

units per 1,000 persons 8.6 1211 2.2 0.312

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 89.2%; males literate 94.7%; females literate 91.9%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 5–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–15) Tertiary13

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

177,331 82,001 10,669

5,109,630 2,828,868 507,660

28.8 34.5 47.6

… 49 11 (age 16–20)

Health (2004–05): physicians 17,564 (1 per 2,660 persons); hospital beds 34,654 (1 per 1,350 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 52.3; undernourished population (2004–06) 8,300,000 (17% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,800 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 406,000 (army 92.4%, navy 3.9%, air force 3.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): n.a.

1The

military-backed constitution approved by referendum in May 2008 will not enter into force until the new 2-chamber union parliament convenes for the first time following Nov. 7, 2010, elections. 2Official long-form name of the country to be the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. 3Of State Peace and Development Council, assisted by Prime Minister. 4The government promotes Theravada Buddhism over other religions. 5The kyat is not freely traded internationally; the unofficial (but tolerated) black market rate in September 2010 was 1 U.S.$ = K 975. 6Estimate from U.S. Census Bureau International Database (December 2009 update). 7City population; 2004. 8Employed only. 9Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b.; for fiscal year April 1 through March 31. 10Myanmar Airways only. 11Circulation. 12Subscribers. 132006–07.

Internet resources for further information: • Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific http://www.adb.org/documents/books/key_indicators/2010 • Central Statistical Organization http://www.csostat.gov.mm

656

Britannica World Data

Namibia

Price index (2005 = 100)

Official name: Republic of Namibia. Form of government: republic with two legislative houses (National Council [26]; National Assembly [721]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Windhoek. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Namibian dollar (N$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = N$7.03; 1 £ = N$10.86.

Capitals

Caprivi Erongo Hardap Karas Kavango Khomas Kunene Ohangwena Omaheke Omusati Oshana Oshikoto Otjozondjupa

Katima Mulilo Swakopmund Mariental Keetmanshoop Rundu Windhoek Opuwo Eenhana/Oshikango Gobabis Outapi Oshakati Tsumeb Otjiwarongo/Grootfontein

TOTAL

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

93.9

97.8

100.0

105.1

112.1

123.7

134.6

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$9,364,000,000 (U.S.$4,310 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$6,410 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Area and population Regions

2003 Consumer price index

area

population

sq mi

sq km

2001 census

5,609 24,548 42,336 62,245 18,712 14,288 44,515 4,132 32,669 10,260 3,341 14,924 40,612 318,1932

14,528 63,579 109,651 161,215 48,463 37,007 115,293 10,703 84,612 26,573 8,653 38,653 105,185 824,1162

79,826 107,663 68,249 69,329 202,694 250,262 68,735 228,384 68,039 228,842 161,916 161,007 135,384 1,830,330

Demography Population (2010): 2,212,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 7.0, persons per sq km 2.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 37.4%; rural 62.6%. Sex distribution (2006): male 50.13%; female 49.87%. Age breakdown (2006): under 15, 38.0%; 15–29, 31.5%; 30–44, 15.7%; 45–59, 9.2%; 60–74, 4.5%; 75–84, 0.9%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 2,614,000; (2030) 2,993,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Ovambo 34.4%; mixed race (black/white) 14.5%; Kavango 9.1%; Afrikaner 8.1%; San (Bushmen) and Bergdama 7.0%; Herero 5.5%; Nama 4.4%; Kwambi 3.7%; German 2.8%; other 10.5%. Religious affiliation (2000): Protestant (mostly Lutheran) 49.3%; Roman Catholic 17.7%; unaffiliated Christian 14.1%; independent Christian 10.8%; traditional beliefs 6.0%; other 2.1%. Major urban localities (2009): Windhoek 306,100; Rundu 76,300; Walvis Bay 64,000; Oshakati 38,600; Swakopmund 32,400; Grootfontein 28,200.

% of total value

6,709 8,104 10,521 2,883 1,934 3,715 10,146 9,254 11,289 8,088 5,526 9 78,169

8.6 10.4 13.5 3.7 2.5 4.8 13.0 11.8 14.4 10.3 7.19 100.02

Agriculture, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Services Pub. admin., defense Other TOTAL

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 27.1 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.4 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2006): 3.06. Life expectancy at birth (2006): male 44.5 years; female 42.3 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 15.3%3 (world avg. 0.8%).

National economy Budget (2008–09). Revenue: N$23,447,000,000 (tax revenue 90.5%, of which customs duties and excises 36.3%, VAT 17.5%, companies’ income taxes 13.9%; nontax revenue 9.1%; grants 0.4%). Expenditures: N$21,946,000,000 (current expenditure 77.3%; capital expenditure 22.7%). Public debt (external, outstanding; June 2010): U.S.$572,000,0004. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): roots and tubers (2009) 330,000, cow’s milk 137,500, millet 60,000, corn (maize) 60,000, cattle meat 38,640, grapes 20,000, sheep meat 12,060; livestock (number of live animals) 2,700,000 sheep, 2,500,000 cattle, 2,100,000 goats; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production 372,850 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): salt 732,000; fluorspar 118,263; zinc (metal content) 38,319; lead (metal content) 14,062; copper (metal content) 7,471; uranium oxide 5,0745; silver 30,000 kg; gold 2,126 kg; diamonds 2,435,000 carats6. Manufacturing (value added in N$’000,000; 2009): food products and beverages 5,532 (of which fish processing 1,123, meat processing 227); other manufactures, which include fur products (from Karakul sheep), textiles, carved wood products, and refined metals 4,989. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 1,694,000,000 (3,699,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (77,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (916,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure (2003–04). Average household size7 4.9; average annual income per household7 N$43,520 (U.S.$6,554); sources of income7: wages and salaries 46.4%, farming 29.6%, transfer payments 10.2%, self-employment 7.1%; expenditure (2006): food and nonalcoholic beverages 44.0%, housing and energy 15.1%, clothing and footwear 4.4%, remainder 36.5%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 382; remittances (2009) 13; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 656; official development assistance (2008) 207. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 92; remittances (2008) 16. Population economically active (2008): total 760,0008; activity rate of total population 35.7%8 (participation rates: 15–64, 58.5%8; female 46.7%8; unofficially unemployed [September 2010] 35–51%).

labour force

% of labour force

134,259 3,868 22,922 21,788 4,193 14,308 46,579 44,251 112,172 24,419 223,72610 652,4832

20.6 0.6 3.5 3.3 0.7 2.2 7.1 6.8 17.2 3.7 34.310 100.0

Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 1.0%, in permanent crops, negligible, in pasture 46.2%, forest area 9.1%.

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+24.2 0.5%

–11.9 0.2%

+577.4 9.4%

+14.3 0.2%

+40.7 0.4%

Imports (2008): U.S.$4,688,600,000 (machinery and apparatus 17.5%; refined petroleum 12.8%; road vehicles 12.7%; food 10.8%; manufactures of metal 5.7%). Major import sources: South Africa 67.8%; U.K. 8.0%; India 3.5%; Neth. 3.4%; China 3.3%. Exports (2008): U.S.$4,729,300,000 (food 18.0%, of which fish 10.4%, meat 3.6%; metal ores 17.8%, of which uranium 15.7%; printed matter 17.1%; diamonds 16.5%; zinc metal 6.0%). Major export destinations: South Africa 31.8%; U.K. 15.0%; Angola 8.6%; Canada 7.1%; U.S. 5.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: route length (2007) 1,634 mi, 2,629 km; passenger-km (2003) c. 50,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2003–04) 1,247,400,000. Roads (2004): total length 26,245 mi, 42,237 km (paved 13%); passenger-km (2001) 73,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2001) 555,000,000. Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 107,825; trucks and buses 119,806. Air transport12: passenger-km (2007) 1,710,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2005) 60,429,000. Communications

Vital statistics

2000

in value N$’000,000

number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

509

2009 2009

1,21714 142

units per 1,000 persons 259 56014 65

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

504 5513 127 0.414

240 2513 59 0.214

Education and health Educational attainment (2000)15. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling/unknown 26.5%; incomplete primary education 25.5%; complete primary 8.0%; incomplete secondary 24.9%; complete secondary 11.4%; higher 3.7%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 and over literate 86.6%; males literate 86.5%; females literate 86.7%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 7–13)16 Secondary/Voc. (age 14–18) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

13,516 6,695 1,204

406,920 163,873 19,707

30.1 24.5 16.4

89 5417 9 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2004) 598 (1 per 3,201 persons); hospital beds (2006) 6,759 (1 per 303 persons); infant mortality rate (2006) 48.1; undernourished population (2004–06) 390,000 (19% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,790 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 9,200 (army 97.8%, navy 2.2%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 2.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$145. 1Excludes 6 nonvoting members appointed by the president. 2Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 3Statistically derived midpoint of range. 4Combined foreign debt of central government and parastatals. 5World rank no. 4. 6World rank no. 8 in the production of all (both gem and industrial) diamonds; world rank no. 2 in the production of gem diamonds only. 7Based on the National Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2003/04, comprising 10,920 households. 8ILO estimate. 9Taxes less imputed bank service charges and less subsidies. 10Includes 220,634 unemployed. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Air Namibia only. 13Circulation. 14Subscribers. 15Based on the Namibia Demographic and Health Survey 2000, comprising 6,392 households. 162008–09. 172006–07.

Internet resources for further information: • Bank of Namibia http://www.bon.com.na • National Planning Commission http://www.npc.gov.na

657

Nations of the World

Nauru

crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (47,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2002): 3,2808; activity rate of total population 32.6% (participation rates: over age 15, 76.7%; female 45.5%; unemployed [2006] 26.7%).

Official name: Naoero (Nauruan1) (Republic of Nauru). Form of government: republic with one legislative house (Parliament [18]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: 2. Official language: none1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Australian dollar ($A); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = $A 1.10; 1 £ = $A 1.70.

Price index (2005 = 100)

area

TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

2006 survey3

0.4 0.6 0.4 1.2 0.5 0.2 1.0 0.3 0.5 0.4 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.6 8.2

1.1 1.5 1.0 3.1 1.2 0.5 2.6 0.9 1.2 1.1 3.1 1.6 0.8 1.5 21.2

1,285 473 351 116 657 825 657 1,5774 723 347 1,509 671 143 635 9,9685

2005

2006

2007

2008

97.7

100.0

103.2

106.2

111.0

Balance of trade (current prices) $A ’000,000 % of total

2003–04

2004–05

2005–06

–26.2 74.4%

–26.5 94.3%

–30.8 91.1%

Imports (2005–06): $A 32,300,000 (unspecified [mostly personal material needs] 100.0%). Major import sources (2005): South Korea c. 48%; Australia c. 36%; U.S. c. 6%; Germany c. 5%. Exports (2005–06): $A 1,500,000 (phosphate, virtually 100%11, 12). Major export destinations (2005): South Korea c. 30%; Canada c. 24%; other c. 46%.

Population (2010): 9,300. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 1,134, persons per sq km 438.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 100%. Sex distribution (2010): male 50.79%; female 49.21%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 37.5%; 15–29, 29.5%; 30–44, 17.8%; 45–59, 11.8%; 60–74, 3.1%; 75 and over, 0.3%. Population projection: (2020) 10,000; (2030) 10,000. Doubling time: 33 years. Ethnic composition (2006): Nauruan 95.8%; Kiribertese (Gilbertese) 1.5%; Asian 1.4%; other Pacific Islanders 0.3%; other/unknown 1.0%. Religious affiliation (2005): Protestant c. 49%, of which Congregational c. 29%; Roman Catholic c. 24%; Chinese folk-religionist c. 10%; other c. 17%. Major cities: none; population of Yaren urban area (2007) 4,616.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 29.8 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 9.0 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 20.8 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 3.46. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 52.5 years; female 58.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): diseases of the circulatory system 391; endocrine nutritional and metabolic diseases 98; diseases of the respiratory system 65; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 43.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 3.2 mi13, 5.2 km13; passenger traffic, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo, n.a. Roads (2008): total length 10 mi14, 16 km14 (paved 100%). Vehicles: n.a. Air transport (2004): passenger-km 338,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 34,000,00015. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2002

0.8

77

2009 2009

… 1.9

… 186

Budget (2007). Revenue: $A 17,751,000 (grants 38.2%, property income 35.3%, sales of goods and services 13.1%, other taxes 13.4%). Expenditures: $A 21,769,000. Total public and private debt (July 2007): U.S.$854,000,000. Gross national income (at current market prices; 2008): U.S.$34,933,000 (U.S.$3,650 per capita). 2007

1997 % of total value 13.8 17.1 } –13.0 2.2 2.2

labour force7, 8, 9 …

0.3 8.0 0.7 8.1

1.1 29.7 2.6 30.1

3.8

14.1

26.9

100.010

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2005 2009 2009

… 0 … …

… 0 … …

Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 15–49 and over having: incomplete/complete primary education 4%; incomplete secondary 71%; complete secondary 17%; more than secondary 8%. Literacy (2007): total population age 15 to 49 literate c. 98%; males literate 96.1%; females literate 99.3%. Education (2007–08) teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

56 57 —

1,254 816 —

22.4 14.3 —

… … … (age 18–22)

Health (2008): physicians 10 (1 per 957 persons); hospital beds 51 (1 per 188 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2003–07) 37.96; undernourished population, n.a.

Military Total active duty personnel (2008): Nauru does not have any military establishment. The defense is assured by Australia, but no formal agreement exists.

Distribution of gross domestic product and labour force in value $A ’000,000 3.7 4.6 –3.5 0.6 0.6

Medium

Education and health

Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

National economy

TOTAL

2004

95.4

Foreign trade

Demography

Agriculture, fishing Mining (phosphate) Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transportation and communications Trade, hotels Finance Pub. admin. Services } Other

2003

92.5

Household income and expenditure (2006). Average household size 6.5; average annual income per household $A 9,550 (U.S.$7,199); sources of income: wages and salaries 68.7%, gifts 6.2%, imputed rent 5.4%, other 19.7%; expenditure: food and nonalcoholic beverages 52.1%, housing/energy/household furnishings 17.0%, gifts 8.8%, transportation 7.6%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a.; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 0.67; official development assistance (2008) 31. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, n.a.; in permanent crops, n.a.; in pasture, n.a.; forest area, n.a.

Area and population

Districts Aiwo Anabar Anetan Anibare Baitsi Boe Buada Denigomodu Ewa Ijuw Meneng Nibok Uaboe Yaren

2002 Consumer price index

% of labour force7, 8, 9 …

528

24.7

… …

… …

… 137 33 1,238 … 198 2,134

… 6.4 1.6 58.0 … 9.3 100.0

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): coconuts 1,800, vegetables 460, pig meat 72, tropical fruit, coffee, almonds, figs, and pandanus (screw pine) are also cultivated, but most foodstuffs and beverages (including water) are imported; livestock (number of live animals) 3,000 pigs, 5,000 chickens; roundwood none; fisheries production 39 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying (2007): phosphate rock (gross weight including basic slag and guano) 45,00011. Manufacturing: none; virtually all consumer manufactures are imported. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 35,000,000 (35,000,000); coal, none (none);

1Nauruan is the national ment. 2No official capital;

language; English is the language of business and governgovernment offices are located in Yaren district. 3Based on 2006 Nauru Household Income and Expenditure Survey. 4Includes housing complex for foreign workers. The majority of foreign mine workers were repatriated to Kiribati and Tuvalu in 2006. 5Reported total; summed total equals 9,969. 6Based on 2007 Republic of Nauru Demographic and Health Survey. 7Employed only. 8Nauruan only. 9Most non-Nauruans are phosphate industry contract workers. 10Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 11Phosphate extraction, the backbone of the Nauruan economy, halted in 2003 but resumed in 2006. Expect phosphate extraction for the next 5 years (on the surface) to 20 years (from the subsurface) using processing refurbishments. 12Coral gravel, a by-product of phosphate extraction, was exported in 2008. 13Serves the phosphate workings. 14Length of paved road circling Nauru. 15Includes weight of passengers and mail.

Internet resources for further information: • Nauru Bureau of Statistics http://www.spc.int/prism/country/nr/stats • Asian Development Bank Country Economic Report: Nauru http://www.adb.org/Documents/CERs/NAU/CER-NAU-2007.pdf

658

Britannica World Data Population economically active (2008): total 12,929,0006; activity rate of total population 44.9%6 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 73.7%6; female 45.4%6; unofficially unemployed [2004] c. 42%).

Nepal Official name: Sanghiya Loktantrik Ganatantra Nepal (Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal). Form of government: multiparty republic with interim legislature (Constituent Assembly [6011])2. Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Kathmandu. Official language: Nepali. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Nepalese rupee (NRs); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = NRs 74.01; 1 £ = NRs 114.33.

Price index (2005 = 100)

area Principal centres

Eastern Central Western Mid-western Far-western

Dhankuta Kathmandu Pokhara Birendranagar Dipayal

TOTAL

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

91.0

93.6

100.0

107.6

114.1

126.6

141.3

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$3,551,000,000. Household income and expenditure (2005–06)7. Average household size 5.4; income per household NRs 328,692 (U.S.$4,439); sources of income: selfemployment 29.5%, wages and salaries 28.1%, remittances 16.1%, real estate 10.2%; expenditure: food and beverages 38.9%, housing and energy 24.3%, recreation and culture 8.7%, education 7.6%, clothing and footwear 5.1%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 335; remittances (2009) 3,088; foreign direct investment (2007–08 avg.) 3.5; official development assistance (2008) 716. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 381; remittances (2008) 4. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 16.2%, left fallow 0.1%, in permanent crops 0.8%, in pasture 12.2%, forest area 24.6%.

Area and population Development regions

2003 Consumer price index

population

sq mi

sq km

2001 census

10,987 10,583 11,351 16,362 7,544 56,827

28,456 27,410 29,398 42,378 19,539 147,181

5,344,476 8,031,629 4,571,013 3,012,975 2,191,330 23,151,423

Foreign trade8 Balance of trade (current prices) NRs ’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 28,952,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 509.5, persons per sq km 196.7. Urban-rural (2006): urban 16.7%; rural 83.3%. Sex distribution (2007): male 50.10%; female 49.90%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 39.0%; 15–29, 27.9%; 30–44, 17.2%; 45–59, 10.2%; 60–74, 4.7%; 75–84, 0.9%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 34,209,000; (2030) 38,886,000. Doubling time: 33 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Nepalese 55.8%; Maithili 10.8%; Bhojpuri 7.9%; Tharu 4.4%; Tamang 3.6%; Newar 3.0%; Awadhi 2.7%; Magar 2.5%; Gurkha 1.7%; other 7.6%. Religious affiliation (2001): Hindu 80.6%; Buddhist 10.7%; Muslim 4.2%; Kirat (local traditional belief) 3.6%; Christian 0.5%; other 0.4%. Major cities (2001): Kathmandu 671,846; Biratnagar 166,674; Lalitpur 162,991; Pokhara 156,312; Birganj 112,484.

2003–04

2004–05

2005–06

2006–07

2007–08

2008–09

–82,366 43.3%

–90,768 43.6%

–113,546 48.5%

–135,311 53.3%

–162,671 57.8%

–217,324 61.8%

Imports (2008–09): NRs 284,571,000,000 (petroleum products 14.5%, machinery and apparatus 8.7%, transport equipment 7.6%, gold 5.8%, medicine 3.4%, unspecified 25.4%). Major import sources (2008): India c. 55%; China c. 13%; Singapore c. 2%. Exports (2008–09): NRs 67,247,000,000 (textiles/thread/yarn 12.2%, pulses 9.9%, ready-made garments 9.7%, woolen carpets 8.4%, zinc sheets 4.2%, pashmina 2.4%, unspecified 25.1%). Major export destinations (2008): India c. 55%; U.S. c. 10%; Bangladesh c. 9%; Germany c. 5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 33 mi, 53 km9; passenger-km (2006) 51,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2006) 700,000. Roads (2007): total length 11,049 mi, 17,782 km (paved 30%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 93,266; trucks and buses 64,959. Air transport: passenger-km (2005) 873,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 8,000,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Vital statistics

Medium

date

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 27.7 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 8.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 19.4 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 3.10. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 63.6 years; female 64.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): infectious and parasitic diseases 472; diseases of the circulatory system 203, of which ischemic heart disease 95; accidents and injuries 86; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 63.

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

249

9.6

2009 2009

7,61811 821

26011 28

National economy Budget (2007–08). Revenue: NRs 104,865,300,000 (tax revenue 81.1%, of which VAT 28.4%, customs duties 20.1%, corporate income tax 12.6%; nontax revenue 18.9%). Expenditures: NRs 151,969,500,000 (current expenditures 64.6%, of which education 16.8%, defense 6.7%, health 6.1%; capital expenditures 35.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): rice 4,523,693, potatoes 2,424,048, sugarcane 2,354,412, corn (maize) 1,930,669, wheat 1,343,862, buffalo milk 1,031,500, millet 292,683, ginger (2008) 176,602, tangerines 172,058, lentils 147,725, mustard seed 134,494, garlic 34,238, nutmeg (2008) 8,145; livestock (number of live animals) 8,473,082 goats, 7,175,198 cattle, 4,680,486 buffalo; roundwood 13,845,800 cu m, of which fuelwood 91%; fisheries production (2008) 48,750 (from aquaculture 56%). Mining and quarrying (2009): limestone 822,000; talc 9,000; marble 22,000 sq m. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2002): food products 83; textiles and wearing apparel 73; tobacco products 55; beverages 49; paints, soaps, and pharmaceuticals 42. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 2,853,000,000 (2,705,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) 9,000 (439,000); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (664,000); natural gas, none (none). Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$12,985,000,000 (U.S.$440 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,180 per capita).

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

132 70010 626 7511

units per 1,000 persons 4.9 3910 21 2.611

Education and health Educational attainment (2005–06)7. Percentage of population having: unknown through literate 15.4%; primary education 22.0%; secondary 44.0%; higher 18.6%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 57.9%; males literate 71.1%; females literate 45.4%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 5–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–16)13 Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

143,574 56,294 …

4,782,313 2,305,166 289,262

33.3 40.9 …

7612 … 614 (age 17–21)

Health (2006): physicians15 1,259 (1 per 21,737 persons); hospital beds 9,881 (1 per 2,801 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 48.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 4,200,000 (16% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,760 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 95,75316 (army 100%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 4.2%; per capita expenditure U.S.$7.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009–10

Agriculture Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

in value NRs ’000,000 372,560 5,782 69,349 73,684 16,597 108,394 173,710 136,842 22,053 131,333 72,3754 1,182,6805

% of total value 31.5 0.5 5.9 6.2 1.4 9.2 14.7 11.6 1.9 11.1 6.14 100.05

2008 labour force3 8,704,000 27,000 773,000 367,000 109,000 198,000 889,000 103,000 109,000 494,000 6,000 11,779,000

% of labour force3 73.9 0.2 6.6 3.1 0.9 1.7 7.5 0.9 0.9 4.2 0.1 100.0

1Includes 26 nonelected seats. 2An interim constitution was promulgated Jan. 15, 2007; in May 2010 the Constituent Assembly’s timetable to write a new permanent constitution was extended by one year. 3Employed only; excludes 2,100,000 workers ages 5–14. 4Indirect taxes less imputed bank service charges and less subsidies. 5Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 6Estimate of the ILO Employment Trends Unit. 7Based on the Household Budget Survey 2005–06. 8Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 920 mi (32 km) operational in 2008. 10Circulation of daily newspapers. 11Subscribers. 122006–07. 132007–08. 142003–04. 15Public health system only. 16Of which deployed as UN peacekeepers 3,326.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Nepal http://www.nrb.org.np • Central Bureau of Statistics http://www.cbs.gov.np

Nations of the World

Netherlands

659

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$815,769,000,000 (U.S.$49,350 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$40,510 per capita).

Official name: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (Kingdom of the Netherlands). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with a parliament (States General) comprising two chambers (Senate [75]; House of Representatives [150]). Head of state: Monarch. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Amsterdam. Seat of government: The Hague. Official language: Dutch1. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: euro (>); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = >0.78; 1 £ = >1.21.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population2 area

population

Provinces

sq km

20103 estimate

Drenthe Flevoland Friesland Gelderland Groningen Limburg Noord-Brabant

2,680 2,412 5,741 5,137 2,968 2,209 5,082

490,981 387,881 646,305 1,998,936 576,668 1,122,701 2,444,158

area

population

Provinces

sq km

20103 estimate

Noord-Holland Overijssel Utrecht Zeeland Zuid-Holland

4,092 3,421 1,449 2,934 3,403 41,5284

2,669,084 1,130,345 1,220,910 381,409 3,505,611 16,574,989

TOTAL

in value >’000,000

% of total value

labour force8

% of labour force8

9,414 21,579 71,767 30,570 10,779 35,007 75,857 149,658 58,675 65,692 66,8859 595,883

1.6 3.6 12.1 5.1 1.8 5.9 12.7 25.1 9.9 11.0 11.29 100.0

228,000 11,000 973,000 509,000 40,000 512,000 1,523,000 1,344,000 541,000 2,297,000 723,00010 8,701,000

2.6 0.1 11.2 5.9 0.5 5.9 17.5 15.4 6.2 26.4 8.310 100.0

Public debt (December 2008): U.S.$392,000,000,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2009) 13,346; remittances (2009) 3,712; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 44,898. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 21,825; remittances (2008) 8,820; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 22,082. Household income and expenditure (2005). Average household size (20093) 2.23; disposable income per household >34,321 (U.S.$42,683); sources of income (2003): wages 70.8%, transfers 25.3%, other 3.9%; expenditure: housing and energy 22.2%, transportation 11.4%, food and nonalcoholic beverages 10.6%, recreation/culture 10.1%, household furnishings 6.2%.

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices)

Demography Population (2010): 16,602,0002. Density (2010)5: persons per sq mi 1,273, persons per sq km 491.4. Urban-rural (2009): urban 82.4%; rural 17.6%. Sex distribution (20103): male 49.50%; female 50.50%. Age breakdown (20103): under 15, 17.6%; 15–29, 18.3%; 30–44, 21.0%; 45–59, 21.4%; 60–74, 14.8%; 75–84, 5.1%; 85 and over, 1.8%. Population projection: (2020) 17,081,000; (2030) 17,449,000. Ethnic composition (by place of origin6; 20103): Netherlander 79.7%; from EU countries 5.4%; Indonesian 2.3%; Turkish 2.3%; Surinamese 2.1%; Moroccan 2.1%; Netherlands Antillean/Aruban 0.8%; other 5.3%. Religious affiliation (2004): Roman Catholic c. 30%; Reformed/Lutheran tradition c. 20%; Muslim c. 6%; nonreligious/atheist c. 40%; other c. 4%. Major urban agglomerations (20103): Amsterdam 1,515,126; Rotterdam 1,161,234; The Hague 1,017,113; Utrecht 606,250; Haarlem 412,018.

>’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+27,413 5.7%

+31,455 5.9%

+32,724 5.4%

+40,495 6.2%

+34,761 4.9%

+33,904 5.8%

Imports (2008): >337,893,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 22.7%, of which office machines/computers/parts 7.7%; chemicals and chemical products 10.7%; crude petroleum 8.5%; food products 7.2%; refined petroleum 5.3%; road vehicles 5.0%). Major import sources: Germany 19.2%; Belgium 10.1%; U.S. 8.1%; China 7.4%; U.K. 6.3%. Exports (2008): >372,654,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 22.9%, of which office machines/computers/parts 7.2%; chemicals and chemical products 13.4%; food 10.1%; refined petroleum 9.7%; bulbs/plants/flowers 1.7%). Major export destinations: Germany 24.5%; Belgium 11.6%; U.K. 9.1%; France 8.7%; Italy 5.3%.

Transport and communications Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 11.2 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 56.8%; outside of marriage 43.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.1 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.8. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): 4.67/2.0. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 78.6 years; female 82.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 255.4; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 241.8; diseases of the respiratory system 84.1; diseases of the digestive system 33.2.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: >261,628,000,000 (social security contributions 31.3%; indirect taxes 28.3%; direct taxes 26.0%; nontax revenue 7.3%; sales tax 7.1%). Expenditures: >259,526,000,000 (current expenditure 92.3%, of which social security and welfare 45.3%; development expenditure 7.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): cow’s milk 11,468,570, potatoes 7,181,000, sugar beets 5,735,000, wheat 1,402,000, pig meat 1,274,980, onions (2008) 1,130,000, chicken meat 763,709, tomatoes (2008) 720,000, hen’s eggs (2008) 627,000, carrots (2008) 531,000, cucumbers (2008) 428,000, apples (2008) 375,000, mushrooms (2008) 240,000, flowering bulbs and tubers 239,750 acres (97,000 hectares), of which tulips 29,660 acres (12,000 hectares), cut flowers/plants under glass 7,415 acres (3,000 hectares); livestock (number of live animals) 12,108,000 pigs, 3,996,000 cattle, 1,099,000 sheep; roundwood 1,016,133 cu m, of which fuelwood 29%; fisheries production (2008) 463,370 (from aquaculture 10%). Mining: limestone, n.a. Manufacturing (value added in >’000,000; 2008): food, beverages, and tobacco 16,198; petroleum products 8,094; base chemicals and man-made fibres 7,975; machinery and equipment 7,084; fabricated metal products 6,129; printing and publishing 5,946. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; April 2009–March 2010) 113,972,000,000 ([2007] 120,815,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2008) none ([2007] 13,503,000); crude petroleum (barrels; June 2009–April 2010) 7,442,358 ([2007] 341,848,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 55,574,000 (23,517,000); natural gas (cu m; April 2009–March 2010) 79,944,000,000 ([2007] 48,978,000,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 31.4%, in permanent crops 1.0%, in pasture 24.3%, forest area 10.9%. Population economically active (2008): total 8,836,000; activity rate of total population 53.8% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 78.4%; female 45.7%; unemployed [July 2009–June 2010] 5.45%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Hourly earnings index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

97.1 97.6

98.3 99.1

100.0 100.0

101.1 101.8

102.8 103.4

105.3 107.3

106.6 110.3

Transport. Railroads (20083): route length 1,975 mi, 2,888 km; passenger-km (2007) 16,325,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 6,984,000,000. Roads (20083): total length 84,590 mi, 136,135 km (paved [2006] 90%); passenger-km (2006) 160,000,000,00012; metric ton-km cargo 78,159,000,000. Vehicles (20083): passenger cars 7,392,000; trucks and buses 948,000. Air transport (2008)13: passenger-km 88,774,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 4,646,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

10,514

2009 2009

21,18215 7,328

units per 1,000 persons 648 1,27715 441

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

14,934 3,53014 14,872 5,90215

units per 1,000 persons 912 21314 896 35615

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population ages 25–64 having: primary/lower secondary education 27%; upper secondary 39%; higher vocational 2%; university 29%; other 3%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

… 110,793 47,389

1,285,543 1,460,503 602,286

… 13.2 12.7

99 88 61 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2005) 60,519 (1 per 270 persons); hospital beds (2006) c. 48,000 (1 per 340 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 3.8.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 46,882 (army 46.5%, navy 20.1%, air force 20.4%, military constabulary 13.0%).16 Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.4%; per capita expenditure U.S.$724. 1Frisian

is officially recognized in Friesland but not legally codified by the national government. 2As of pre–October 2010 dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. 3January 4 1. Total area per more recent survey equals 16,040 sq mi (41,543 sq km), of which land area equals 13,044 sq mi (33,783 sq km), inland water equals 1,380 sq mi (3,574 sq km), and coastal water equals 1,616 sq mi (4,186 sq km). 5Based on land area. 6Including second generation. 7Includes same-sex marriages. 8Ages 15 and over; per Labour Force Survey. 9Taxes less imputed bank service charges and less subsidies. 10Includes 479,000 unclassified and 244,000 unemployed. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Passenger cars 148,000,000,000; buses 12,000,000,000. 13KLM and Transavia only. 14Circulation. 15Subscribers. 16U.S. troops (2009) 510.

Internet resources for further information: • Statistics Netherlands http://www.cbs.nl • Netherlands Bank http://www.dnb.nl/en/home/index.jsp

660

Britannica World Data

Netherlands Antilles1

Price index (2005 = 100)

Official name: Nederlandse Antillen (Dutch); Antianan Hulandes (Papiamentu); Netherlands Antilles (English). Political status: nonmetropolitan territory of the Netherlands with one legislative house (Staten, or Parliament [221]). Head of state: Dutch Monarch represented by Governor. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Willemstad. Official languages: Dutch; Papiamentu2; English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Netherlands Antillean guilder (NAf.); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = NAf. 1.79; 1 £ = NAf. 2.77.

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.9

96.5

100.0

102.9

105.7

112.4

114.3

Consumer price index

Gross national income (at current market prices; 2008): U.S.$3,818,538,000 (U.S.$19,557 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 in value NAf. ’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing } Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels, restaurants Finance, real estate, insurance Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population area Island councils Leeward Islands Bonaire Curaçao Windward Islands Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten (Dutch part only) TOTAL

population

sq mi

sq km

20103 estimate

111 171

288 444

13,389 142,180

The Bottom Oranjestad

5 8

13 21

1,737 2,886

Philipsburg

13 308

34 800

37,429 197,621

Capitals Kralendijk Willemstad

Demography Population (2010): 204,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 662.3, persons per sq km 255.0. Urban-rural (2009): urban 92.9%; rural 7.1%. Sex distribution (20103): male 46.72%; female 53.28%. Age breakdown (20103): under 15, 21.5%; 15–29, 18.6%; 30–44, 22.3%; 45–59, 22.4%; 60–74, 11.2%; 75–84, 3.1%; 85 and over, 0.9%. Population projection: (2020) 213,000; (2030) 212,000. Ethnic composition (2000): local black-other (Antillean Creole) 81.1%; Dutch 5.3%; Surinamese 2.9%; other (significantly West Indian black) 10.7%. Religious affiliation (2001): Roman Catholic 72.0%; Protestant 16.0%; Spiritist 0.9%; Buddhist 0.5%; Jewish 0.4%; Bah)#l 0.3%; Hindu 0.2%; Muslim 0.2%; other/unknown 9.5%. Major locales (2001): Willemstad 93,599; Kralendijk 3,179; Philipsburg 1,227; Oranjestad 1,003; The Bottom 462.

2008 % of total value

labour force8

% of labour force8

41.9

0.6

817

1.2

398.7 365.3 273.1 640.0 1,161.2

5.6 5.1 3.8 9.0 16.2

4,139 5,538 918 4,397 16,139

5.9 7.9 1.3 6.3 23.1

1,706.0 805.7 1,223.2 526.79 7,141.711

23.9 11.3 17.1 7.49 100.0

10,804 5,877 14,225 7,00710 69,86211

15.5 8.4 20.4 10.010 100.0

Public debt (external outstanding; March 2010): U.S.$435,440,000. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops, left fallow, or in permanent crops c. 10%; in pasture, n.a.; forest area c. 2%.

Foreign trade12, 13 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2005

2006

2007

2008

–794 82.5%

–886 79.2%

–1,025 83.3%

–1,268 89.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$1,396,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 21.7%; food 17.2%; chemical products 11.5%; road vehicles 9.0%). Major import sources: U.S. 40.6%; Neth. 23.8%; Panama 3.7%. Exports (2008): U.S.$128,000,000 (food 28.7%, of which cocoa powder 11.2%; machinery and apparatus 15.8%; aircraft parts 13.1%). Major export destinations: Neth. 38.9%; U.S. 26.2%; Aruba 11.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2004): total length 525 mi, 845 km (paved 31%). Vehicles (20093): passenger cars 103,424; trucks and buses 22,003. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

1999

71

390

2008 2009

20015 89

1,00715 449

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2009 2009 1999 2009

… 3014 2.0 …

units per 1,000 persons … 15014 11 …

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 13.1 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.6 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.06. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2008) 5.8/(2007) 2.7. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 72.9 years; female 79.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2000): diseases of the circulatory system 267.6, of which cerebrovascular diseases 83.3; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 203.6; accidents, poisoning, and violence 45.4; communicable diseases 39.3.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: NAf. 1,465,900,000 (tax revenue 53.8%, of which sales tax 28.5%, import duties 12.2%; grants 39.0%; nontax revenue 7.2%). Expenditures: NAf. 1,101,400,000 (current expenditures 96.6%, of which transfers 38.8%, wages and salaries 31.1%, interest payments 15.5%; capital expenditures 3.4%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): 4; livestock (number of live animals) 13,600 goats, 9,100 sheep, 2,600 pigs, 140,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 3,200 cu m, of which fuelwood 100%; fisheries production 16,698 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2007): salt 500,000, sulfur by-product 23,000. Manufacturing (2004): residual fuel oil 4,188,000; gas-diesel oils 2,202,000; asphalt 994,000; other manufactures include electronic parts, cigarettes, textiles, rum, and Curaçao liqueur. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 1,294,000,000 (1,294,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (80,688,600); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 9,600,000 (1,978,000); natural gas, none (none). Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008)5 1,162; remittances (2009) 32; foreign direct investment (2007–09 avg.) 206. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008)5 298; remittances (2008) 72; foreign direct disinvestment (2007–09 avg.) 8. Household income and expenditure. Average household size (20083) 2.6; income per household: n.a.; sources of income: n.a.; expenditure (1996)6, 7: housing 26.5%, transportation and communications 19.9%, food 14.7%, household furnishings 8.8%, recreation and education 8.2%, clothing and footwear 7.5%. Population economically active (2009): total 96,078; activity rate of total population 48.8% (participation rates: ages 15–64 [2001] 68.7%; female [2006] 49.0%; unemployed 10.0%).

Education and health Educational attainment (2001). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.8%; primary education 24.2%; lower secondary 42.8%; upper secondary 16.8%; higher 11.4%; unknown 4.0%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 96.3%; males literate 96.3%; females literate 96.3%. Education (2002–03) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary16

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

1,145 1,181 300

22,667 15,268 2,285

19.8 12.9 7.6

97 81 21 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2001) 333 (1 per 520 persons); hospital beds (2002) 1,264 (1 per 138 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 6.1; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,880 calories.

Military Total active duty personnel (2009): n.a.; Dutch and Antillean coast guard personnel are assisted by the U.S. coast guard.

1The dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles occurred on Oct. 10, 2010. As of this date, Curaçao and Sint Maarten became separate autonomous states of the Netherlands and Bonaire, Saba, and Sint Eustatius were directly integrated into the Netherlands. 2From 2007. 3January 1. 4Mostly tomatoes, beans, cucumbers, gherkins, melons, and lettuce grown on hydroponic farms; aloes grown for export, divi-divi pods, and sour orange fruit are nonhydroponic crops. 5Excludes Saba and Sint Eustatius. 6Curaçao only. 7Weights of consumer price index components. 8Curaçao and Bonaire only. 9Taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 10Includes 6,919 unemployed. 11Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Excludes petroleum imports and exports. 14Circulation of daily newspapers. 15Subscribers. 162001–02.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of the Curaçao and Sint Maarten http://www.centralbank.an • Central Bureau of Statistics http://www.cbs.an

Nations of the World

New Caledonia

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2004

Official name: Territoire des NouvelleCalédonie et Dépendances (Territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies)1. Political status2: unique collectivity (France) with one legislative house (Congress3 [54]). Head of state: President of France. Heads of government: High Commissioner (for France); President of the Government (for New Caledonia). Capital: Nouméa. Official language: none4. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFP franc (CFPF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFPF 93.14; 1 £ = CFPF 143.88. Area and population Provinces Island(s) Loyauté (Loyalty) Lifou Maré Ouvéa Nord (Northern) Bélep, Îles New Caledonia (part) Sud (Southern) New Caledonia (part) Pins, Île des

in value CFPF ’000,000 Agriculture, fishing Mining Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

sq mi

sq km

2009 preliminary census

Wé

765 466 248 51 3,305 27 3,278 3,102 3,043 59 7,172

1,981 1,207 642 132 8,561 70 8,491 8,033 7,881 152 18,575

17,436 8,627 5,417 3,392 45,137 895 44,242 183,007 181,038 1,969 245,580

Koné Nouméa

labour force9

% of labour force9

1.8 9.8 1.7 5.2 8.2 7.0 13.6 12.2 17.5 15.0 8.010 100.0

2,258 1,241 829 8,389 8,415 4,269 13,192 8,351 24,477 11,162 … 82,583

2.7 1.5 1.0 10.2 10.2 5.2 16.0 10.1 29.6 13.5 … 100.0

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 3.6; average annual income per household, n.a.; sources of income (2008): wages and salaries 67.1%, transfer payments 18.3%, self-employment 9.6%, other 5.0%; expenditure (2008): housing and energy 30.8%, food and beverages 19.5%, transportation 19.1%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 152; remittances (2009) 612; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 624. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 168; remittances (2008) 56; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 20.

population

Capitals

2009 % of total value

10,105 55,336 9,392 29,530 46,496 39,517 76,720 69,048 99,253 84,662 45,46910 565,528

TOTAL

area

TOTAL

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 249,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 34.7, persons per sq km 13.4. Urban-rural (2005): urban 63.7%; rural 36.3%. Sex distribution (20085): male 50.42%; female 49.58%. Age breakdown (20085): under 15, 26.7%; 15–29, 24.1%; 30–44, 22.8%; 45–59, 15.7%; 60–74, 8.2%; 75–84, 2.0%; 85 and over, 0.5%. Population projection: (2020) 286,000; (2030) 319,000. Doubling time: 60 years. Ethnic composition (1996): Melanesian 45.3%, of which local (Kanak) 44.1%, Vanuatuan 1.2%; European 34.1%; Wallisian or Futunan 9.0%; Indonesian 2.6%; Tahitian 2.6%; Vietnamese 1.4%; other 5.0%. Religious affiliation (2000): Roman Catholic 54.2%; Protestant 14.0%; unaffiliated/other Christian 18.8%; Muslim 2.7%; nonreligious 5.8%; other 4.5%. Major communes (2009): Nouméa 97,579 (urban agglomeration 163,723); Mont-Dore 25,6836; Dumbéa 24,1036; Païta 16,3586; Koné 5,199.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 16.7 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage (2007) 30.8%; outside of marriage (2007) 69.2%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 5.0 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2007): 2.20. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2009) 3.8/(2005) 1.5. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 71.8 years; female 80.3 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2007): malignant neoplasms (cancers) 132.0; diseases of the circulatory system 117.5; poisonings and violence 72.6; diseases of the respiratory system 49.1; accidents 25.6.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–627.0 23.7%

–659.7 22.8%

–862.3 27.5%

–779.5 19.1%

–1,636.5 33.4%

–673.2 26.0%

Imports (2008): U.S.$3,268,600,000 (mineral fuels 18.6%, of which refined petroleum 16.4%; machinery and apparatus 18.4%; road vehicles 12.7%; food 9.0%; chemicals and chemical products 7.0%). Major import sources: France 26.1%; Singapore 16.9%; Australia 10.0%; China 6.0%; Germany 4.7%. Exports (2008): U.S.$1,632,100,000 (ferronickel 49.4%; nickel matte 31.9%; nickel ore and concentrate 13.7%; shrimp 1.2%). Major export destinations: France 33.2%; Japan 17.0%; Taiwan 10.7%; Spain 7.1%; Australia 5.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2005): total length 3,061 mi, 4,926 km (paved 47%). Vehicles: passenger cars (2005) 105,159; trucks and buses, n.a. Air transport (2008)12: passenger-km 1,498,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 26,127,000. Communications

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

115

498

2009 2009

20814 66

83214 264

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

… 2613 85 3214

Price index (December 2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

96.6

97.5

100.0

101.5

103.3

107.1

107.3

Gross national income (2008): U.S.$9,280,000,000 (U.S.$37,630 per capita).

… 15613 340 12814

Educational attainment (2004). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling through some primary education 38.1%; primary 9.5%; lower secondary 6.4%; upper secondary 11.8%; vocational 19.8%; higher 14.4%. Literacy (2002): total population age 15 and over literate 91.0%; males literate 92.0%; females literate 90.0%. teachers

Budget (2008). Revenue: CFPF 163,834,000,000 (direct taxes 36.3%; indirect taxes 29.1%; subsidies 4.3%; other 30.3%). Expenditures: CFPF 184,661,000,000 (current expenditure 93.3%; development expenditure 6.7%). Public debt: n.a. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): coconuts 16,500, yams 12,500, vegetables 6,876, corn (maize) 4,203, sweet potatoes 3,200, cattle meat 3,130, cassava 2,900, squash 2,525, pig meat 2,376, potatoes 1,773; livestock (number of live animals) 90,000 cattle, 29,000 pigs, 600,000 chickens; roundwood (2009) 4,800 cu m, of which fuelwood, n.a.; fisheries production 5,827, of which tuna 2,396, shrimp 2,0367 (from aquaculture 36%). Mining and quarrying (2009): nickel ore 6,400,000, of which nickel content 92,500; cobalt 1,000 (recovered). Manufacturing (metric tons; 2008): cement (2007) 134,000; ferronickel (metal content) 38,548; nickel matte (metal content) 13,564; other manufactures include beer, copra cake, and soap. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 1,944,000,000 (1,820,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) none (244,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (697,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 0.5%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 13.1%, forest area 39.2%. Population economically active (2004): total 96,406; activity rate of total population 41.8% (participation rates: over age 14, 57.1%; female [1996] 39.7%; registered unemployed [July 2008–June 2009] 6.8%).

units per 1,000 persons

Education and health

Education (2009)

National economy

Consumer price index8

661

Primary (age 6–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

1,966 2,763 11115

students 36,502 32,463 3,735

student/ teacher ratio 18.6 11.7 26.415

enrollment rate (%) … … … (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2008) 550 (1 per 448 persons); hospital beds (2007) 696 (1 per 348 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2008) 6.1; undernourished population (2004–06) 20,000 (9% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,880 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): c. 2,050 French troops (army c. 46%, navy c. 25%, air force, n.a., gendarmerie c. 29%).

1Locally known as Kanaky. 2The Nouméa Accord granting New Caledonia limited autonomy was signed in May 1998; future referenda concerning possible independence are to be held between 2014 and 2018. 3Operates in association with 3 provincial assemblies. 4Kanak languages and French have special recognition per Nouméa Accord. 5January 1. 6Within Nouméa urban agglomeration. 7All from aquaculture. 8As of December. 9Employed only. 10Taxes and subsidies less imputed bank service charges. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Air Calédonie International only. 13Circulation of daily newspapers. 14Subscribers. 152005.

Internet resources for further information: • L’Institut d’Emission d’Outre-Mer http://www.ieom.fr • Institut de la statistique et des études économiques Nouvelle-Calédonie http://www.isee.nc

662

Britannica World Data

New Zealand

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2007) 2.8; average annual income per household (2008–09) NZ$78,876 (U.S.$47,245); sources of income (2008–09): wages and salaries 72.9%, transfers/pensions 11.3%, self-employment 5.7%; expenditure (2006–07): housing and energy 23.4%, food 16.3%, transportation 14.2%, recreation and culture 10.1%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009–10): U.S.$115,816,000,000 (U.S.$26,754 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI ([2008] U.S.$25,090 per capita).

Official name: New Zealand (English); Aotearoa (Maori). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (House of Representatives [1221]). Head of state: British Monarch, represented by Governor-General. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Wellington. Official languages: English; Maori. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: New Zealand dollar (NZ$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = NZ$1.43; 1 £ = NZ$2.21.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2008–09 in value NZ$’000,00010

Area and population Islands Regional Councils/ Unitary Council North Island2 Auckland5 Bay of Plenty Gisborne (district)6 Hawke’s Bay ManawatuWanganui Northland Taranaki Waikato Wellington

area

population

sq km

2010 estimate

116,219 6,059 12,277 8,355 14,111

3,328,700 1,459,700 275,000 46,600 154,800

22,206 13,789 7,257 24,025 8,140

231,500 157,300 109,100 411,500 483,200

Islands Regional Councils/ Unitary Council South Island2, 3 Canterbury Marlborough (district)6 Nelson (city)6 Otago Southland3 Tasman (district)6 West Coast offshore islands7 TOTAL

area

population

sq km

2010 estimate

152,2294 44,638

1,038,3004 565,800

10,781 444 31,241 32,079 9,771 23,276 2,244 270,692

45,300 45,500 207,400 94,200 47,300 32,700 700 4,367,700

Population (2010): 4,369,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 41.8, persons per sq km 16.1. Urban-rural (2007): urban 86.0%; rural 14.0%. Sex distribution (2009): male 49.06%; female 50.94%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 20.7%; 15–29, 21.0%; 30–44, 20.6%; 45–59, 19.8%; 60–74, 12.1%; 75–84, 4.3%; 85 and over, 1.5%. Population projection: (2020) 4,774,000; (2030) 5,111,000. Ethnic composition (2006): European 67.6%, of which NZ European 59.1%; Maori (local Polynesian) 14.6%; Asian 9.2%, of which Chinese 3.7%; other Pacific peoples (mostly other Polynesian) 6.9%; other 1.7%. Religious affiliation (2006): Christian 51.1%, of which Anglican 13.3%, Roman Catholic 12.2%, Presbyterian 9.2%, Maori Christian 1.6%; Hindu 1.6%; Buddhist 1.3%; Muslim 1.0%; nonreligious 31.1%; unknown/other 13.9%. Major urban areas (2010): Auckland 1,354,900; Christchurch 390,300; Wellington 389,700; Hamilton 203,400; Napier-Hastings 124,400.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 14.6 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 51.5%; outside of marriage 48.5%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 6.7 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.18. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population: (2009) 5.0/(2008) 2.3. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 78.2 years; female 82.2 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2006): diseases of the circulatory system 258.9, of which ischemic heart disease 141.2, cerebrovascular disease 63.8; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 191.0; diseases of the respiratory system 57.0.

National economy Budget (2007). Revenue: NZ$65,859,000,000 (tax revenue 85.3%, of which individual income taxes 41.3%; nontax revenue 14.5%; social contributions 0.2%). Expenditures: NZ$60,247,000,000 (social protection 33.9%; education 16.7%; health 16.7%; defense 3.2%). Public debt (June 2009): U.S.$25,500,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): cow’s milk 15,217,0008, cattle meat 637,030, potatoes 490,000, sheep meat 478,381, kiwifruit 365,0008, apples 355,0008, wool 217,9008, green onions 203,000, grapes 190,0008; livestock (number of live animals) 32,384,000 sheep, 9,961,000 cattle; roundwood 20,214,000 cu m, of which fuelwood, n.a.; fisheries production 563,4108 (from aquaculture 20%). Mining and quarrying (2008): iron sand 2,020,000; gold 16,274 kg9; silver 31,017 kg9. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): food products 5,053; structural metal products 1,359; publishing 1,131; general purpose machinery 1,106; sawn/planed wood 988. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kWhr; 2008) 42,280,000,000 (39,020,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2007–08) 2,178,000 ([2007] 185,000); lignite (metric tons; 2007–08) 2,855,000 ([2007] 2,897,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 20,400,000 ([2007] 33,600,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007–08) 5,187,000 ([2007] 6,086,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 4,304,000,000 ([2007] 3,991,000,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 3.2%, in permanent crops 0.2%, in pasture 42.4%, forest area 31.2%. Population economically active (2008): total 2,283,200; activity rate 53.5% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 77.5%; female 46.8%; unemployed [July 2009–June 2010] 6.6%). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

94.9

97.1

100.0

103.4

105.8

110.0

112.3

9,645

7.2

2,522 17,612 6,010 14,334 20,015 36,793 6,673 15,947 3,935 133,486

TOTAL

1.9 13.2 4.5 10.7 15.0 27.6 5.0 11.9 2.9 100.04

labour force

% of labour force

154,400 5,100 8,800 274,400 183,100 115,400 485,700 320,400 136,100 461,700 90,300 2,235,400

6.9 0.2 0.4 12.3 8.2 5.2 21.7 14.3 6.1 20.7 4.0 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 5,030; remittances (2009) 481; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 2,927. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 2,991; remittances (2008) 1,202; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 1,019.

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography

Consumer price index

Agriculture, forestry } Mining Public utilities Manufacturing Construction Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2007

% of total value

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–963 2.3%

–4,489 9.4%

–4,015 8.3%

–3,959 6.8%

–3,789 5.8%

–349 0.7%

Imports (2008): U.S.$34,367,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 21.3%; road vehicles 9.8%; crude petroleum 9.7%; food 7.5%; refined petroleum 7.3%). Major import sources: Australia 18.0%; China 13.3%; U.S. 9.5%; Japan 8.2%; Singapore 4.6%. Exports (2008): U.S.$30,578,000,000 (food 47.0%, of which meat 12.3%, milk/cream 11.3%, vegetables/fruits 4.9%, butter 4.0%; wood/paper [all forms] 7.8%; machinery and apparatus 6.9%; crude petroleum 6.5%). Major export destinations: Australia 23.3%; U.S. 10.2%; Japan 8.4%; China 5.9%; U.K. 3.9%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2008): route length 2,565 mi, 4,128 km; passenger-km, n.a.; metric ton-km cargo (2008–09) 3,962,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 58,288 mi, 93,805 km (paved 66%); passenger-km (2007) 40,000,000,00012; metric ton-km cargo (2008) 19,538,000,000. Vehicles (200913): passenger cars 2,789,676; trucks and buses 570,557. Air transport (2008)14: passenger-km 27,539,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 851,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

2,338

2009 2009

4,70016 1,870

units per 1,000 persons 576 1,10216 438

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

2,077 63215 3,600 98116

units per 1,000 persons 507 14615 844 23016

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population ages 15 and over having: no formal schooling/incomplete primary education 26.8%; primary 9.0%; vocational 29.8%; secondary 15.0%; higher 19.4%. Literacy (2006): 89%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 5–10) Secondary/Voc. (age 11–17) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

22,730 35,504 13,767

348,160 514,563 244,355

15.3 14.5 17.7

99 9117 78 (age 18–22)

Health: physicians (2007) 9,757 (1 per 433 persons); hospital beds (2002) 23,825 (1 per 165 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 4.6; undernourished population (2004–06) less than 5.0% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 9,702 (army 51.6%, navy 21.7%, air force 26.7%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$480. 1Statutory number is 120 seats, actual current number is 122 seats. 2Includes nearby islands, islets, or water areas that are within regional councils. 3Includes Stewart Island (Rakiura). Stewart Island’s area is 1,681 sq km. 4Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 5Functions under a new local government structure (as a unitary council) from Nov. 1, 2010. 6A unitary authority that is administered by a city council or district council with regional powers. 7Distant islands including Chatham Islands regional council (area: 963 sq km, pop. 700). 82008. 9Mine output, metal content. 10At constant prices of 1995/96. 11Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 12Passenger cars/vans/pickup trucks 37,000,000,000; buses/heavy trucks 3,000,000,000. 13January 1. 14Air New Zealand only. 15Circulation. 16Subscribers. 172001–02.

Internet resource for further information: • Statistics New Zealand/Tatauranga Aotearoa http://www.stats.govt.nz

Nations of the World

Nicaragua

Price index (2005 = 100)

Official name: República de Nicaragua (Republic of Nicaragua). Form of government: unitary multiparty republic with one legislative house (National Assembly [921]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Managua. Official language: Spanish. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: córdoba (C$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = C$21.13; 1 £ = C$32.64.

Capitals

Boaco Carazo Chinandega Chontales Estelí Granada Jinotega León Madriz Managua Masaya Matagalpa Nueva Segovia Río San Juan Rivas

Boaco Jinotepe Chinandega Juigalpa Estelí Granada Jinotega León Somoto Managua Masaya Matagalpa Ocotal San Carlos Rivas

Autonomous regions North Atlantic South Atlantic

Puerto Cabezas Bluefields

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

84.1

91.2

100.0

109.1

121.3

145.3

150.7

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$5,790,000,000 (U.S.$1,010 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$2,450 per capita). Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 in value C$’000,000

area2 Departments

2003 Consumer price index

Area and population

TOTAL LAND AREA INLAND WATER TOTAL

663

sq mi

population sq km

1,613 417 1,862 2,502 861 402 3,561 1,984 659 1,338 236 2,627 1,348 2,912 835

4,177 1,081 4,822 6,481 2,230 1,040 9,222 5,138 1,708 3,465 611 6,804 3,491 7,541 2,162

12,782 10,525 46,464 3,874 50,3373

33,106 27,260 120,3403 10,034 130,3733

2008 estimate 164,700 176,107 409,987 171,654 216,462 189,344 376,129 392,096 146,477 1,365,315 326,452 507,335 229,950 105,747 167,141 382,498 341,472 5,668,866

Demography Population (2010): 5,822,000. Density (2010)4: persons per sq mi 125.3, persons per sq km 48.4. Urban-rural (2005): urban 55.9%; rural 44.1%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.03%; female 49.97%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 34.6%; 15–29, 31.3%; 30–44, 19.3%; 45–59, 9.8%; 60–74, 3.1%; 75–84, 0.9%; 85 and over, 1.0%. Population projection: (2020) 6,682,000; (2030) 7,387,000. Doubling time: 36 years. Ethnic composition (2000): mestizo (Spanish/Indian) 63.1%; white 14.0%; black 8.0%; multiple ethnicities 5.0%; other 9.9%. Religious affiliation (2005): Roman Catholic 58.5%; Protestant/independent Christian 23.2%, of which Evangelical 21.6%, Moravian 1.6%; nonreligious 15.7%; other 2.6%. Major cities (2005)5: Managua 908,892; León 139,433; Chinandega 95,614; Masaya 92,598; Estelí 90,294.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 23.7 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 4.3 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 19.4 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 2.63. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2006): 4.2/1.1. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 69.1 years; female 73.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002)6: diseases of the circulatory system 131.0; accidents, injuries, and violence 69.3; malignant neoplasms 60.6; communicable diseases 49.0; diabetes mellitus 28.1.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: U.S.$1,209,700,000 (tax revenue 92.6%, of which taxes on goods and services 32.7%, taxes on international trade 30.0%, tax on income and profits 29.8%; nontax revenue 7.4%). Expenditures: U.S.$1,641,600,000 (education 20.7%; health 14.4%; economic services 14.4%; defense and public order 11.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$2,259,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): sugarcane 4,304,855, corn (maize) 423,881, rice 321,880, dry beans 176,655, peanuts (groundnuts) 139,266, cassava 115,000, oranges 85,000, sorghum 74,624, coffee 72,727, bananas 36,285; livestock (number of live animals) 3,600,000 cattle, 268,000 horses; roundwood (2009) 6,125,500 cu m, of which fuelwood 98%; fisheries production 45,888, of which lobster 4,337 (from aquaculture 35%). Mining and quarrying (2009): gold 1,337 kg. Manufacturing (value added in C$’000,000; 20037): food 1,917; textiles and wearing apparel 969; beverages 713; wood products (including furniture) 503. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2008) 3,313,400,000 (2,193,900,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2007) none (5,996,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 787,000 (1,417,000); natural gas, none (none). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2005) 4.9; expenditure (1999)8: food and beverages 41.8%, education 9.8%, housing 9.8%, transportation 8.5%. Population economically active (2009): total 2,282,700; activity rate of total population 39.7% (participation rates: ages 10 and over, 51.8%; female [2005] 35.2%; officially unemployed 8.2%).

Agriculture, forestry Mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

% of total value

21,003.5 1,433.9 22,085.9 5,893.6 3,257.5 6,835.2 17,713.3 15,713.2 15,750.5 8,263.2 7,118.89 125,068.6

TOTAL

16.8 1.1 17.7 4.7 2.6 5.5 14.2 12.6 12.6 } 6.6 5.79 3 100.0

labour force

% of labour force

600,807 5,723 274,617 99,411 10,948 86,644 486,012 82,653

26.3 0.3 12.0 4.4 0.5 3.8 21.3 3.6

449,662

19.7

186,22310 2,282,700

8.210 100.03

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 276; remittances (2009) 768; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 432; official development assistance (2008) 741. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 142; remittances, n.a.; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 15. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 6.3%, left fallow 10.0%, in permanent crops 2.0%, in pasture 25.1%, forest area 41.5%.

Foreign trade11 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–1,266 45.6%

–1,520 47.0%

–1,724 45.6%

–2,073 46.5%

–2,434 45.3%

–1,832 39.7%

Imports (2007): U.S.$3,538,000,000 (petroleum 21.6%, machinery and apparatus 14.9%, food 12.3%, road vehicles 6.9%, medicines 5.8%). Major import sources: U.S. 23.0%; Mexico 13.1%; Costa Rica 8.6%; China 7.9%; Guatemala 6.1%. Exports (2007): U.S.$1,195,000,000 (coffee 15.8%, bovine meat 15.0%, milk/cream/cheese 7.8%, raw sugar 6.1%, crustaceans 5.9%, gold 5.4%, vegetables 4.7%, peanuts [groundnuts] 4.7%). Major export destinations: U.S. 31.2%; El Salvador 14.1%; Honduras 9.3%; Costa Rica 7.3%; Canada 5.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: 12. Roads (2007): total length 12,634 mi, 20,333 km (paved 10%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 101,899; trucks and buses 187,526. Air transport: passenger-km (2000) 72,200,000; metric ton-km cargo (2007) 200,000. Communications number in ’000s

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

648

2009 2009

3,20414 255

units per 1,000 persons 123 55814 44

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

220 17013 200 4714

units per 1,000 persons 43 4413 35 8.214

Education and health Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling 20.1%; 1–3 years 16.6%; 4–6 years 27.0%; 7–9 years 16.1%; 10–12 years 10.5%; vocational 2.3%; incomplete university 2.6%; complete university 4.4%; unknown 0.4%. Literacy (2005): total population age 15 and over literate 78.0%; males literate 78.1%; females literate 77.9%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–16) Tertiary

teachers

students

32,349 16,164 …

944,341 462,198 103,57715

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

29.2 28.6 …

92 45 1815 (age 17–21)

Health (2008): physicians 3,776 (1 per 1,501 persons); hospital beds 4,971 (1 per 1,140 persons); infant mortality rate (2005) 26.4; undernourished population (2004–06) 1,200,000 (21% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,770 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 12,000 (army 83.3%, navy 6.7%, air force 10.0%). Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 0.6%; per capita expenditure U.S.$7. 1Includes the runner-up in the 2006 presidential election and the immediate past president. 2Lakes and lagoons are excluded from the areas of departments and autonomous regions. 3Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 4Based on land area. 5Populations of urban area of municipios. 6Estimates. 7At prices of 1994. 8Weights of consumer price index components. 9Taxes less imputed bank service charges. 10Unemployed. 11Imports f.o.b. in balance of trade and c.i.f. in commodities and trading partners. 12Public railroad service ended in 1994; private rail service ended in 2001. 13Circulation. 14Subscribers. 152002–03.

Internet resources for further information: • Central Bank of Nicaragua http://www.bcn.gob.ni • Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos http://www.inide.gob.ni

664

Britannica World Data

Niger

sheep, 9,261,600 cattle, 1,654,900 camels; roundwood 9,842,900 cu m, of which fuelwood 96%; fisheries production8 30,000 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2009): limestone 146,0008; uranium 3,241; salt 1,3008; gold (metal content) 2,067 kg. Manufacturing (value added in CFAF ’000,000; 2008): food and food products 6,797; paper products, printing, and publishing 2,604; soaps and other chemical products 1,625; wood products and furniture 1,557; textiles 412. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kWhr; 2009) 254,714,0009 ([2007] 593,000,000); hard coal (metric tons; 2009) 225,072 ([2007] 185,000); crude petroleum, none10 (none); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) none (161,000); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2006): total 6,139,000; activity rate of total population 42.6% (participation rates: over age 15, 83.5%; female 41.9%; registered unemployed, n.a.).

Official name: République du Niger (Republic of Niger). Form of government: military regime1. Head of state and government: President of Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy1, 2. Capital: Niamey. Official language: French. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: CFA franc (CFAF); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = CFAF 512.24; 1 £ = CFAF 791.31.

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

92.5

92.8

100.0

100.0

100.1

111.4

116.2

Consumer price index

Area and population

area

population

Regions

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

2010 estimate

Agadez Diffa Dosso Maradi Tahoua Tillabéri Zinder

Agadez Diffa Dosso Maradi Tahoua Tillabéri Zinder

242,117 56,763 12,255 15,143 41,080 35,336 56,437

627,080 147,017 31,740 39,219 106,397 91,521 146,170

487,313 473,563 2,016,690 3,021,169 2,658,099 2,500,454 2,824,468

City Niamey

Niamey

155 459,286

402 1,189,546

1,222,066 15,203,822

TOTAL

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2004) 6.2; income per household: n.a.; expenditure (2005)11: food, beverages, and tobacco products 53.7%, housing and rent 10.3%, transportation 9.9%, clothing and footwear 5.3%, health 4.6%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 11.6%, in permanent crops 0.01%, in pasture 22.7%, forest area 1.0%.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) CFAF ’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 15,878,0003. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 34.6, persons per sq km 13.3. Urban-rural (2009): urban 19.8%; rural 80.2%. Sex distribution (2008): male 50.02%; female 49.98%. Age breakdown (2008): under 15, 49.6%; 15–29, 25.6%; 30–44, 13.7%; 45–59, 7.2%; 60–74, 3.3%; 75 and over, 0.6%. Population projection3: (2020) 22,749,000; (2030) 31,946,000. Doubling time: 19 years. Ethnolinguistic composition (2001): Hausa 55.4%; Zarma-Songhai-Dendi 21.0%; Tuareg 9.3%; Fulani (Peul) 8.5%; Kanuri 4.7%; other 1.1%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim c. 90%, of which Sunni c. 85%, Shi(i c. 5%; traditional beliefs c. 9%; other c. 1%. Major cities (2001): Niamey 707,951 (urban agglomeration [2009] 1,004,000); Zinder 170,575; Maradi 148,017; Agadez 78,289; Tahoua 73,002.

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2008): 52.2 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2008): 15.2 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2008): 37.0 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2008): 7.83. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): n.a./n.a. Life expectancy at birth (2008): male 51.0 years; female 53.4 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): infectious and parasitic diseases (significantly malaria, meningitis, pneumonia, and diarrhea) 1,697; diseases of the circulatory system 121; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 50; diseases of the respiratory system 34.

National economy Budget (2009–10). Revenue: CFAF 485,500,000,000 (tax revenue 71.3%; external aid and grants 24.5%; nontax revenue 3.5%; other 0.7%). Expenditures: CFAF 567,700,000,000 (current expenditures 52.6%, of which wages and salaries 16.9%; capital expenditures 47.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; 2008): U.S.$795,000,000. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 45; remittances (2009) 79; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 478; official development assistance (2008) 605. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 49; remittances (2008) 29; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 14. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$5,197,000,000 (U.S.$340 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$660 per capita).

2006

2007

2008

2009

–273,612 48.7%

–201,909 32.0%

–185,193 22.6%

–454,749 47.6%

Imports (2008): CFAF 501,605,000,000 (food and food products 25.1%; petroleum products 15.5%; machinery and equipment 15.1%; chemicals and chemical products 14.9%; transportation equipment 6.8%). Major import sources: France 13.7%; China 13.3%; Netherlands 7.6%; U.S. 7.4%; Nigeria 4.9%. Exports (2008): CFAF 316,412,000,000 (uranium 62.6%; livestock 23.7%, of which cattle 9.5%; gold 5.6%; onions 4.2%). Major export destinations: France 36.8%; Nigeria 25.0%; U.S. 14.2%; Japan 10.4%; Switzerland 5.6%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2008): total length 11,774 mi, 18,949 km (paved 21%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 75,697; trucks and buses 20,978. Air transport (2007)12: passenger arrivals 64,904, passenger departures 60,297; cargo unloaded 1,394 metric tons, cargo loaded 149 metric tons.

2008 in value CFAF ’000,000 1,010,389 106,358 116,925 57,028 29,745 148,234 322,528 … 194,288 194,454 153,1496 2,333,098

% of total value 43.3 4.6 5.0 2.4 1.3 6.4 13.8 … 8.3 8.3 } 6.66 100.0

labour force4, 5 72,000 29,000 907,000 421,000 79,000 342,000 704,000 205,000 …

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2004

150

13

2009 2009

2,59914

17014

65

4.3

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

10 413 116 114

0.8 0.113 7.6 0.114

Education and health Educational attainment (2006)11, 15. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling/unknown 86.2%; incomplete primary education 6.9%; complete primary 1.0%; incomplete secondary 3.7%; complete secondary 0.4%; higher 0.9%. Literacy (2007–08): total population age 15 and over literate 29.0%; males literate 42.8%; females literate 17.1%. Education (2008–09) Primary (age 7–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–19) Tertiary

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

40,021 9,289 1,176

1,554,102 256,555 15,992

38.8 27.6 13.6

54 916 1 (age 20–24)

Health: physicians (2008) 42717 (1 per 34,548 persons); hospital beds (2007) 2,934 (1 per 4,845 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2009) 81; undernourished population (2004–06) 3,800,000 (28% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,720 calories).

Military

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force

TOTAL

2005 –196,552 37.4%

Communications

Vital statistics

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2004 –202,411 44.2%

% of labour force4, 5 2.0 0.8 25.7 11.9 2.2 9.7 19.9 5.8 …

775,000

21.9

3,535,0007

100.07

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): millet 2,677,855, cowpeas 786,763, sorghum 738,660, cow’s milk 437,0008, dry onions 373,6008, peanuts (groundnuts) 308,0008, sugarcane 187,8008, cabbages 171,4008, tomatoes 130,0008, cassava 110,3008, squash 106,0008, camel’s milk 42,0008; livestock (number of live animals) 13,147,200 goats, 10,548,100

Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 5,300 (army 98.1%, air force 1.9%); paramilitary 5,400. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$4.

1Per military coup of Feb. 18, 2010; constitution transitioning Niger toward civilian rule approved by referendum on Oct. 31, 2010. 2Assisted by Prime Minister. 3Estimate of the U.S. Bureau of the Census International Database (December 2008 update). 4Excluding nomadic population. 5January 1. 6Import taxes and duties. 7Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 82008. 9SONICHAR and Nigelec electricity companies only. 10Crude petroleum production was expected to begin in 2010. 11Niamey only. 12Niamey airport. 13Circulation of Le Sahel Quotidien only. 14Subscribers. 15Based on a 2006 demographic and health survey of 14,945 persons age 25 and over. 162006–07. 17Public health institutions only.

Internet resources for further information: • Institut National de la Statistique http://www.stat-niger.org • La Banque de France: La Zone Franc http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm

665

Nations of the World

Nigeria

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009

Official name: Federal Republic of Nigeria. Form of government: federal republic with two legislatures (Senate [109]; House of Representatives [360]). Head of state and government: President. Capital: Abuja. Official language: English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: Nigerian naira (N); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = N150.42; 1 £ = N232.37.

area States Abia Adamawa Akwa Ibom Anambra Bauchi Bayelsa Benue Borno Cross River Delta Ebonyi Edo Ekiti Enugu Gombe Imo Jigawa Kaduna Kano Katsina

sq km

population 2006 census

6,320 36,917 7,081 4,844 45,837 10,773 34,059 70,898 20,1561 17,698 5,670 17,802 6,353 7,161 18,768 5,530 23,154 46,053 20,131 24,192

2,845,380 3,178,950 3,902,051 4,177,828 4,653,066 1,704,515 4,253,641 4,171,104 2,892,9881 4,112,445 2,176,947 3,233,366 2,398,957 3,267,837 2,365,040 3,927,563 4,361,002 6,113,503 9,401,288 5,801,584

States

sq km

population 2006 census

Kebbi Kogi Kwara Lagos Nassarawa Niger Ogun Ondo Osun Oyo Plateau Rivers Sokoto Taraba Yobe Zamfara

36,800 29,833 36,825 3,345 27,117 76,363 16,762 14,606 9,251 28,454 30,913 11,077 25,973 54,473 45,502 39,762

3,256,541 3,314,043 2,365,353 9,113,605 1,869,377 3,954,772 3,751,140 3,460,877 3,416,959 5,580,894 3,206,531 5,198,716 3,702,676 2,294,800 2,321,339 3,278,873

TOTAL

labour force

% of labour force

9,194 7,362 559 348 116 764 4,182 1,587 407 197 1,1485 25,864

35.5 28.5 2.2 1.3 0.4 3.0 16.2 6.1 1.6 0.8 4.45 100.0

37,487,000 89,000 1,173,000 353,000 551,000 537,000 259,000 441,000 6,547,000 16,496,000 — 63,932,0006

58.6 0.1 1.8 0.6 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.7 10.3 25.8 — 100.0

TOTAL

area

Federal Capital Territory Abuja

% of total value

Agriculture, fishing Crude petroleum/mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population

7,315 923,7681

1,406,239 140,431,790

Demography Population (2010): 158,259,000. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 443.7, persons per sq km 171.3. Urban-rural (2009): urban 49.1%; rural 50.9%. Sex distribution (2006): male 50.80%; female 49.20%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 43.1%; 15–29, 28.2%; 30–44, 15.3%; 45–59, 8.6%; 60–74, 4.0%; 75–84, 0.7%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection: (2020) 193,252,000; (2030) 226,651,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Yoruba 17.5%; Hausa 17.2%; Igbo (Ibo) 13.3%; Fulani 10.7%; Ibibio 4.1%; Kanuri 3.6%; Egba 2.9%; Tiv 2.6%; Igbira 1.1%; Nupe 1.0%; Edo 1.0%; Ijo 0.8%; detribalized 0.9%; other 23.3%. Religious affiliation (2003): Muslim (predominantly Sunni) 50.5%; Christian 48.2%, of which Protestant 15.0%, Roman Catholic 13.7%, other (mostly independent Christian) 19.5%; other 1.3%. Major urban agglomerations (2007): Lagos 9,466,000; Kano 3,140,000; Ibadan 2,628,000; Abuja 1,576,000; Kaduna 1,442,000; Benin City 1,190,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 39.3 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 16.2 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 5.20. Life expectancy at birth (2007): male 46.4 years; female 47.3 years. Adult population (ages 15–49) living with HIV (2007): 3.1%2 (world avg. 0.8%). Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): HIV/AIDS c. 258; respiratory infections c. 182; malaria c. 181; cardiovascular diseases c. 167.

National economy Budget (2008)3. Revenue: N2,411,000,000,000 (petroleum revenue 83.3%, of which tax on profits and royalties 39.8%; nonpetroleum revenue 16.7%, of which companies’ income tax 6.3%). Expenditures: N2,451,000,000,000 (current expenditure 65.3%; capital expenditure 34.7%). Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): cassava 44,582,000, yams 35,017,000, sorghum 9,318,000, millet 9,064,000, oil palm fruit 8,500,000, corn (maize) 7,525,000, taro 5,387,000, rice 4,179,000, peanuts (groundnuts) 3,900,000, sweet potatoes 3,318,000, cowpeas 2,916,000, plantains 2,727,000, okra 1,039,000, cashews 660,000, cocoa beans 500,000, melon seeds 493,000, karite nuts (shea nuts) 425,000, ginger 140,000; livestock 53,800,400 goats, 33,874,300 sheep, 16,293,200 cattle; roundwood (2009) 71,806,600 cu m, of which fuelwood 87%; fisheries production 684,575 (from aquaculture 21%). Mining and quarrying (2008): limestone 3,960,000; marble 200,000. Manufacturing (value added in N’000,000; 2008): refined petroleum 44,297; cement 18,036; other unspecified (particularly food, beverages, and textiles) 543,259. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2007) 22,978,000,000 (22,978,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2007) 530,000 (8,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2008) 767,700,000 ([2007] 19,200,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 2,319,000 (9,234,000); natural gas (cu m; 2007) 46,046,000,000 (10,677,000,000). Household income and expenditure. Avg. household size (2005) 4.7; expenditures (2003)4: food 63.8%, housing/energy 18.1%, transportation 4.2%. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 40.1%, in permanent crops 3.3%, in pasture 42.8%, forest area 11.3%. Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$175,774,000,000 (U.S.$1,140 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$1,980 per capita).

2005

in value N’000,000,000

Public debt (external, outstanding; 2009): U.S.$4,938,000,000. Population economically active (2008): total 48,613,0007; activity rate 32.1%7 (participation rates: ages 15–64, 57.1%7; female 34.9%7; unofficially unemployed [2007] c. 60%). Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

73.8

84.8

100.0

108.2

114.1

127.3

142.0

Consumer price index

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 221; remittances (2009) 9,585; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 15,563; official development assistance (2008) 1,290. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 3,621; remittances (2008) 103; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 332.

Foreign trade Balance of trade (current prices) N’000,000 % of total

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

+583 16.2%

+1,439 30.5%

+3,474 31.5%

+3,077 26.6%

+3,771 30.2%

+4,504 31.1%

Imports (2008): N4,991,000,000,000 (basic manufactures 33.0%, chemicals and chemical products 25.0%, machinery and transport equipment 22.0%, food and live animals 6.0%). Major import sources8: U.S. 14.4%; China 10.5%; France 9.4%; U.K. 7.9%; Netherlands 7.4%. Exports (2008): N9,495,000,000,000 (crude petroleum 92.2%, other petroleum sector 6.8%, cocoa beans 0.3%). Major export destinations9: U.S. 23.0%; Spain 9.3%; China 6.0%; Brazil 5.0%; Italy 4.1%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2005): length (2007) 3,505 km; passenger-km 75,170,000; metric ton-km cargo 18,027,000. Roads (2004): total length 120,000 mi, 193,200 km (paved 15%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 4,560,000. Air transport (2008): passenger-km 2,136,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 7,368,000. Communications number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Medium

date

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

8,393

64

2009 2009

73,09911 1,419

47211 9.2

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

1,182 48010 43,982 8211

units per 1,000 persons 8.0 5.510 284 0.511

Education and health Educational attainment (2003)12. Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling/unknown 50.4%; primary education 20.4%; secondary 20.1%; higher 9.1%. Literacy (2008): total population age 15 and over literate 60.1%; males literate 71.5%; females literate 48.8%. Education (2006–07) teachers Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary

students

466,784 21,632,070 213,366 6,068,160 37,03113 1,391,52714

student/ teacher ratio 46.3 28.4 34.813

enrollment rate (%) 61 26 1014 (age 18–22)

Health (2007): physicians 55,376 (1 per 2,602 persons); hospital beds (2005) 85,523 (1 per 1,609 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births (2007) 109.0; undernourished population (2004–06) 11,300,000 (8% of total population based on the consumption of a minimum daily requirement of 1,750 calories).

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 80,000 (army 77.5%, navy 10.0%, air force 12.5%); paramilitary 82,000. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 1.1%; per capita expenditure U.S.$10. 1Includes the area of Bakassi Peninsula, which was formally ceded by Nigeria to Cameroon in August 2006 and officially handed over in August 2008. 2Statistically derived midpoint of range. 3Federal budget only. 4Weights of consumer price index components. 5Indirect taxes less subsidies. 6Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 7ILO estimate. 8Nonpetroleum imports only (81.6% of all imports). 9Crude petroleum exports only. 10Circulation of daily newspapers. 11Subscribers. 12Based on the 2003 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey of 35,173 people, about two-thirds of whom live in rural areas. 132003–04. 142004–05.

Internet resources for further information: • National Bureau of Statistics http://www.nigerianstat.gov.ng/ • Central Bank of Nigeria http://www.cenbank.org

666

Britannica World Data

Northern Mariana Islands

Price index (2005 = 100)

Official name: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Political status: self-governing commonwealth in association with the United States, having two legislative houses (Senate [9]; House of Representatives [20])1. Head of state: President of the United States. Head of government: Governor. Seat of government: on Saipan2. Official languages: Chamorro, Carolinian, and English. Official religion: none. Monetary unit: dollar (U.S.$); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = £0.65. population

Municipal councils

Major villages

sq mi

sq km

2005 estimate

Northern Islands3 Rota (island) Saipan (island) Tinian4

… Songsong San Antonio San Jose

55.3 32.8 46.5 41.9 176.55

143.2 85.0 120.4 108.5 457.15

2,490 60,608 2,829 65,927

3

Demography Population (2010): 48,3006. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 273.7, persons per sq km 105.7. Urban-rural (2009): urban 90.8%; rural 9.2%. Sex distribution (2009): male 48.05%; female 51.95%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 26.0%; 15–29, 25.6%; 30–44, 23.0%; 45–59, 19.6%; 60–74, 5.0%; 75–84, 0.7%; 85 and over, 0.1%. Population projection6: (2020) 49,000; (2030) 56,000. Doubling time: 36 years. Ethnic composition (2005)7: Asian 52.4%, of which Filipino 30.6%, Chinese 15.4%, Korean 2.3%; Pacific Islanders 37.2%, of which Chamorro 22.9%, Micronesian/Palauan 13.6%; white 1.7%; multiethnic 8.3%; other 0.4%. Religious affiliation (2000): Christian 88.9%, of which Roman Catholic 72.7%, independent Christian 7.0%, Protestant 6.8%; Buddhist 5.3%; other 5.8%. Major village groups (2005)8: Garapan 11,196; San Antonio 6,104; Susupe–Chalan Kanoa 5,911.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 22.0 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 3.1 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.24. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 74.1 years; female 79.5 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (1998): heart diseases 51; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 40; cerebrovascular disease 22; perinatal conditions 20; accidents 18.

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: U.S.$154,690,000 (tax revenue 73.9%, of which corporate taxes 39.0%, income tax 15.8%, excise tax 11.6%; nontax revenue 26.1%). Expenditures: U.S.$168,120,000 (2001; health 20.4%, education 20.1%, general government 15.0%, social services 12.0%, public safety 9.3%). Gross domestic product (2007): U.S.$962,000,000 (U.S.$16,408 per capita). 2005

TOTAL

249 173 10,217 771 1,640 27 885 7,602 821 3,153 8,083 4,9129 38,53310

2006

2007

2008

2009

100.0

97.6

110.8

116.1

120.4

Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

2005

2006

2007

2008

–331.5 93.7%

–291.7 91.9%

–156.8 86.1%

–113.1 80.9%

Imports (2008): U.S.$126,400,000 (mineral fuels 44.7%; fabric 9.4%; articles of leather/travel goods 8.5%; food 7.7%; vehicles 5.5%). Major import sources: n.a. Exports (2008): U.S.$13,300,000 (apparel and clothing accessories 53.7%; iron and steel 16.3%; fish, crustaceans, and mollusks 11.8%). Major export destinations: mostly to the United States.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (2008): total length 333 mi, 536 km (paved, nearly 100%). Vehicles (2002): passenger cars 11,983; trucks and buses 4,858. Air transport (1999)14: aircraft landings 23,853; boarding passengers 562,364. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

1999

4.1

2004 2009

2016 25

units per 1,000 persons 59 26616 289

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2009 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

… 615 … …

… 11715 … …

Education and health Educational attainment (2005). Percentage of population age 25 and over having: no formal schooling 0.4%; incomplete/complete primary education 8.1%; some secondary 10.9%; completed secondary 43.4%; some postsecondary 21.3%; completed undergraduate 13.4%; advanced degree 2.5%. Literacy (2000): c. 100%. Education (2002–03) Primary (age 6–11) } Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary17

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

717

12,880

18.0

…

504

2,383

4.7

… (age 18–22)

Health (2009): physicians 3818 (1 per 1,355 persons); hospital beds 8618 (1 per 599 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 6.0; undernourished population, n.a.

Military The United States is responsible for military defense; in 2010 the Northern Island of Farallon de Medinilla continued to be used as a target range by the U.S. military.

Structure of labour force

Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Mining and quarrying Manufacturing (garments) Manufacturing (other) Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, insurance, and real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

2005

98.3

Foreign trade area

labour force

2004

97.4

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2005) 4.1; average income per household (2004) U.S.$25,172; sources of income (2004): wages and salaries 85.7%, transfer payments 9.3%, self-employment 2.4%, other 2.6%; expenditure (2003)13: transportation 33.5%, housing and energy 27.7%, food 19.0%, education and communications 5.7%, recreation 2.4%, medical care 2.4%. Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2002) 225; remittances (2009) 64.7; foreign direct investment, n.a. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism, n.a.; remittances, n.a. Public debt (external, outstanding): n.a. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow c. 2%, in permanent crops c. 2%, in pasture c. 2%, forest area c. 72%.

Area and population

TOTAL

2003 Consumer price index

% of labour force 0.6 0.4 26.5 2.0 4.3 0.1 2.3 19.7 2.1 8.2 21.0 12.7 100.011

Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2007)12: sweet potatoes 352,300, taro 221,600, bananas 146,900, cucumbers 93,800, betel nuts 88,300, yams 67,700, papayas 50,700, eggplants 47,300, coconuts 42,900; livestock (number of live animals) 1,483 pigs, 1,395 cattle, 276 goats; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production (2008) 292 (from aquaculture, none). Mining and quarrying: negligible amount of quarrying for building material. Manufacturing (value of sales in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): garments 160; bricks, tiles, and cement 9; printing and related activities 5; food products 4. Energy production (consumption): electricity, n.a. (n.a.); coal, none (none); crude petroleum, none (none); petroleum products, n.a. (n.a.); natural gas, none (none). Population economically active (2005): total 38,533; activity rate of total population 58.4% (participation rates: ages 16 and over, 79.2%; female 54.0%; unemployed [2007] 4.6%).

1In November 2008 residents elected their first nonvoting delegate to the U.S. Congress. 2Executive and legislative branches meet at Capital Hill; the judiciary meets at Susupe. 3Comprises the islands of Agrihan, Pagan, and Alamagan, as well as seven other unin-

habited islands; the Northern Islands are administered as part of Saipan municipal council because of the forced removal of the population owing to volcanic activity. 4Comprises Tinian island and Aguijan island. 5Area measured at high tide; at low tide, total dry land area is 184.0 square mi (476.6 square km). 6Estimate of U.S. Bureau of the Census International Database (June 2009 update). 7Includes aliens. 8All villages are unincorporated census-designated places. 9Includes 1,744 not adequately defined and 1,869 unemployed. 10Of which ethnic Chamorro 16.6%, other (significantly Filipino and Chinese) 83.4%. 11Detail does not add to total given because of rounding. 12Crop data are harvested for sale only; in pounds. 13Weights of consumer price index components. 14Saipan International Airport only. 15Circulation of daily newspapers. 16Subscribers. 17Northern Marianas College; 2000–01. 18Saipan Commonwealth Health Center only.

Internet resource for further information: • CNMI: Central Statistics Division http://www.commerce.gov.mp/divisions/central-statistics

Nations of the World

Norway

667

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$417,260,000,000 (U.S.$86,440 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$56,050 per capita).

Official name: Kongeriket Norge (Kingdom of Norway). Form of government: constitutional monarchy with one legislative house (Storting, or Parliament [169]). Head of state: King. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Oslo. Official languages: Norwegian; Sami1. Official religion: Evangelical Lutheran. Monetary unit: Norwegian krone (pl. kroner; NOK); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = NOK 6.19; 1 £ = NOK 9.56.

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009 % of total value

22,298 4,219

0.9 0.2

505,182 206,470 109,805 53,578 134,078 209,756 331,741 106,066 463,393 254,086 2,400,672

21.1 8.6 4.6 2.2 5.6 8.7 13.8 4.4 19.3 10.6 100.0

Agriculture, fishing Mining Crude petroleum and natural gas Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other

Area and population area

population

Mainland counties

sq km

20102 estimate

Mainland counties

Akershus Aust-Agder Buskerud Finnmark Hedmark Hordaland MØre og Romsdal Nord-TrØndelag Nordland Oppland Oslo Østfold Rogaland Sogn og Fjordane

4,918 9,158 14,911 48,616 27,400 15,440 15,114 22,415 38,460 25,190 454 4,182 9,376 18,623

536,499 108,499 257,673 72,856 190,709 477,175 251,262 131,555 236,271 185,216 586,860 271,662 427,947 107,080

SØr-TrØndelag Telemark Troms Vest-Agder Vestfold SUBTOTAL

area

population

sq km

20102 estimate

18,856 15,299 25,870 7,276 2,224 323,7823

290,547 168,231 156,494 170,377 231,286 4,858,199

TOTAL

labour force

% of labour force

58,000 4,400

2.2 0.2

42,400 280,000 180,100 19,000 204,500 447,900 370,400 162,900 827,800 94,70011 2,692,100

1.6 10.4 6.7 0.7 7.6 16.6 13.8 6.0 30.7 3.511 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 4,633; remittances (2009) 666; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2006–08 avg.) 3,584. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 15,932; remittances (2008) 4,776; FDI (2006–08 avg.) 21,673. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops 1.2%, left fallow 0.01%, in permanent crops 0.02%, in pasture 2.2%, forest area 31.0%.

Foreign trade12 Overseas Arctic territories Jan Mayen Svalbard SUBTOTAL TOTAL

5 3774 5 61,0203, 4 61,397 — 385,179 4,858,199

Demography Population (2010): 4,888,000. Density (2010)6: persons per sq mi 38.4, persons per sq km 14.8. Urban-rural (2009): urban 78.8%; rural 21.2%. Sex distribution (20102): male 49.95%; female 50.05%. Age breakdown (20102): under 15, 18.9%; 15–29, 19.2%; 30–44, 21.5%; 45–59, 19.5%; 60–74, 13.6%; 75–84, 5.0%; 85 and over, 2.3%. Population projection: (2020) 5,358,000; (2030) 5,824,000. Ethnic composition (20102): Norwegian (nonimmigrant) 83.0%; other 17.0%7, of which from Europe 5.3%, Asia 4.1%, Africa 1.4%. Religious affiliation (20042): Evangelical Lutheran 85.7%; other Christian 4.5%; Muslim 1.8%; other/nonreligious 8.0%. Major cities (20102)8: Oslo 586,860 (urban agglomeration [2008] 856,915); Bergen 256,600; Trondheim 170,936; Stavanger 123,850; Bærum 108,484.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 12.8 (world avg. 20.3); within marriage 45.0%; outside of marriage 55.0%. Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 8.6 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 4.2 (world avg. 11.8). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 1.98. Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2009): 5.19/2.1. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 78.6 years; female 83.1 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2008): circulatory diseases 296.5; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 228.3; respiratory diseases 86.4.

National economy Budget (2008). Revenue: NOK 1,157,580,000,000 (tax revenue 61.7%, nontax revenue 20.2%, social security 18.0%). Expenditures: NOK 1,162,040,000,000 (general public services 46.9%, social protection 27.1%, health 10.6%, education 3.4%, defense 3.4%, transportation 2.5%). Public debt (June 2009): U.S.$101,447,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2008): barley 530,000, wheat 460,000, potatoes 400,400, oats 310,000; livestock (number of live animals) 2,250,000 sheep, 891,000 cattle, 826,000 pigs; roundwood 10,324,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 22%; fisheries production 3,274,570 (from aquaculture 26%). Mining and quarrying (2008): olivine sand 2,554,000; iron ore 2,046,00010; ilmenite concentrate 915,000. Manufacturing (value added in NOK ’000,000; 2008): machinery and equipment 55,474; food products, beverages, and tobacco 34,589; ships and oil platforms 26,139; base metals 18,798; printing/publishing 17,010. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 138,348,000,000 ([2007] 114,453,000,000); coal (metric tons; 2009) 3,207,000 (1,270,000); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009) 735,938,000 ([2008] 80,362,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 22,414,000 (11,406,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 102,700,000,000 ([2007] 6,512,000,000). Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2002) 2.2; average annual net income per household (2004) NOK 359,300 (U.S.$53,302); sources of income (2004): wages and salaries 63.3%, transfers 22.1%, selfemployment 6.0%; expenditure (2007–09): housing 31.2%, transportation 16.3%, recreation and culture 12.5%, food 10.6%. Population economically active (2008): total 2,591,000; activity rate of total population 53.2% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 78.2%; female 47.0%; unemployed [2009] 3.1%). Price and earnings indexes (2005 = 100) Consumer price index Monthly earnings index

in value NOK ’000,000

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

98.0 92.5

98.5 96.3

100.0 100.0

102.3 104.1

103.1 110.7

107.0 116.9

109.3 122.0

Balance of trade (current prices) NOK ’000,000 % of total

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+226,591 26.0%

+311,103 30.3%

+371,188 31.1%

+326,448 25.8%

+444,487 30.7%

+327,455 27.7%

Imports (2008): NOK 501,972,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 25.2%, of which nonelectrical machinery and equipment 12.7%; base and fabricated metals 10.3%; road vehicles 9.0%; chemicals and chemical products 8.9%; food 5.4%). Major import sources: Sweden 14.3%; Germany 13.4%; Denmark 6.9%; China 6.5%; U.K. 6.0%. Exports (2008): NOK 946,459,000,000 (crude petroleum 39.4%; natural gas 20.4%; machinery and apparatus 7.1%; refined petroleum 4.6%; aluminum 3.5%; fish 3.3%). Major export destinations: U.K. 26.9%; Germany 12.8%; Netherlands 10.3%; France 9.4%; Sweden 6.5%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (20092): route length 4,114 km; passenger-km 3,040,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 3,359,000,000. Roads (2007): total length 92,920 km (paved 80%); passenger-km 60,316,000,00013; metric ton-km cargo 20,595,000,000. Vehicles: passenger cars (20092) 2,197,193; trucks and buses (2007) 538,225. Air transport (2008)14: passenger-km 7,835,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 8,000,000. Communications Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

7,110

1,557

2009 2009

5,33616 1,900

1,10916 395

Medium

date

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2007 2009 2009 2009

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

2,959 2,06115 4,43117 1,79516

629 42715 92117 37316

Education and health Educational attainment (2007). Percentage of population age 16 and over having: primary and lower secondary education 29.6%; higher secondary 41.3%; higher 24.8%; unknown 4.3%. Literacy (2000): virtually 100% literate. Education (2007–08) teachers Primary (age 6–12) Secondary/Voc. (age 13–18) Tertiary

41,16118 45,50518 20,268

students 429,585 423,598 212,672

student/ teacher ratio 10.518 8.818 10.5

enrollment rate (%) 99 96 73 (age 19–23)

Health: physicians (2006) 17,523 (1 per 266 persons); hospital beds (2007) 22,882 (1 per 206 persons); infant mortality rate (2009) 3.1; undernourished population (2002–04) less than 2.5% of total population.

Military Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 24,025 (army 32.9%, navy 14.8%, air force 10.4%, central support 39.9%, other 2.0%); reserve 45,250. Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2008): 1.3%; per capita expenditure U.S.$1,172. 1Official locally. 2January 1. 3Includes area ciers. 5Persons on Jan Mayen and Svalbard

of freshwater lakes. 4Includes area of glaare normally registered as residents on the mainland. The population of Jan Mayen on July 1, 2009, was 24; the population of Svalbard on March 1, 2010, was 2,495, including Norwegian settlements 2,066, the Russian settlement 420, and the Polish settlement 9. 6Population density calculated with reference to 329,847 sq km area free of mainland freshwater lakes (18,312 sq km), Svalbard freshwater lakes (395 sq km), Svalbard glaciers (36,500 sq km), and Jan Mayen glaciers (125 sq km). 7Including 2nd generation immigrants. 8Population of municipalities. 9Includes same-sex marriages. 10Metal content. 11Includes 87,000 unemployed. 12Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 13Passenger cars 55,956,000,000; buses 4,360,000,000. 14SAS (Norwegian part) and Widerøe only. 15Circulation of daily newspapers. 16Subscribers. 17As reported in surveys. 182003–04.

Internet resource for further information: • Statistics Norway http://www.ssb.no/english

668

Britannica World Data

Oman

(2008) 313,600 cattle, 124,000 camels; roundwood, n.a.; fisheries production (2008) 145,751 (from aquaculture, negligible). Mining and quarrying (2008): limestone 2,391,500; chromite (gross weight) 784,082; marble 457,146. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2007): petroleum products 1,686; cement, bricks, and ceramics 429; base chemicals 339; food products 213; structural metal products 91; iron and steel 87. Energy production (consumption): electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 18,405,000,000 ([2007] 14,443,000,000); coal, none (none); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009–10) 308,100,000 ([2008] 29,565,000); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 3,538,000 (3,603,000); natural gas (cu m; 2009) 31,082,000,000 ([2008] 13,460,000,000). Population economically active (2007): total 968,782; activity rate of total population 35.5% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 55.2%; female 19.6%; unemployed [2004] 15%).

Official name: Saltanat (Uman (Sultanate of Oman). Form of government: monarchy with two advisory bodies (State Council [721]; Consultative Council [84]). Head of state and government: Sultan. Capital: Muscat2. Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: rial Omani (RO); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 RO = U.S.$2.60 = £1.68.

Price index (2005 = 100) 2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

97.4

98.2

100.0

103.2

109.4

122.6

127.4

Consumer price index

Area and population

area3

population

Capitals

sq mi

sq km

Al-Batinah Al-Dakhiliyah Al-Sharqiyah Al-Wusta Al-Zahirah Governorates Al-Buraymi Masqat Musandam Zufar (Dhofar)

Al-Rustaq; “uhar Nizwa Ibra; “ur Hayma’; “ayy (Ibri

4,825 12,325 14,200 30,775 14,100

12,500 31,900 36,800 79,700 36,500

818,650 332,772 402,425 32,757 169,350

Al-Buraymi Muscat (Masqat) Khasab Salalah

2,900 1,350 700 38,350 119,5004

7,500 3,500 1,800 99,300 309,500

119,975 949,694 40,460 307,834 3,173,9175

TOTAL

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2009) 700; remittances (2009) 38; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 2,634. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2009) 869; remittances (2009) 5,313; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 318. Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 0.2%, in permanent crops 0.1%, in pasture 5.5%, forest area 0.01%.

2009 estimate

Regions

Foreign trade13 Balance of trade (current prices) RO ’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 2,968,0006. Density (2010): persons per sq mi 24.8, persons per sq km 9.6. Urban-rural (2009): urban 72.8%; rural 27.2%. Sex distribution (2009): male 55.28%; female 44.72%. Age breakdown (2009): under 15, 32.1%; 15–29, 32.2%; 30–44, 22.0%; 45–59, 9.1%; 60–74, 3.6%; 75–84, 0.8%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection: (2020) 3,635,000; (2030) 4,305,000. Doubling time: 35 years. Ethnic composition (2000): Omani Arab 48.1%; Indo-Pakistani 31.7%, of which Balochi 15.0%, Bengali 4.4%, Tamil 2.5%; other Arab 7.2%; Persian 2.8%; Zanzibari (blacks originally from Zanzibar) 2.5%; other 7.7%. Religious affiliation (2005): Muslim c. 89%, of which Ibadiyah c. 75%, Sunni c. 8%, Shi(i c. 6%; Hindu c. 5%; Christian c. 5%; other c. 1%. Major cities (2008)7: Al-Sib 282,396; Matrah 219,4068; Bawshar 207,8698; Salalah 195,640; “uhar 124,643; Muscat 30,251 (urban agglomeration [2009] 634,000).

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

+1,721 20.2%

+3,793 35.8%

+4,103 33.1%

+3,137 20.3%

+5,689 24.4%

+3,917 22.2%

Imports (2008): RO 8,814,500,000 (motor vehicles and parts 25.1%, of which cars 16.6%; machinery and apparatus 22.4%; food and live animals 9.3%; iron and steel 9.2%). Major import sources: U.A.E. 27.2%; Japan 15.6%; U.S. 5.7%; China 4.6%; India 4.5%. Exports (2008): RO 14,503,000,000 (crude petroleum 58.0%; LNG 11.0%; refined petroleum 7.1%; chemicals and chemical products 3.4%). Major export destinations: China 29.3%; U.A.E. 10.9%; Japan 10.6%; South Korea 9.6%; Thailand 6.8%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads: none. Roads (201014): total length 35,021 mi, 56,361 km (paved 46%). Vehicles (2007): passenger cars 453,362; trucks and buses 139,728. Air transport (2008)15: passenger-km 3,551,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 20,000,000. Communications

Vital statistics

Medium

date

number in ’000s

Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 23.5 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 3.5 (world avg. 8.5). Natural increase rate per 1,000 population (2009): 20.0 (world avg. 11.8). Marriage/divorce rates per 1,000 population (2008): n.a./n.a. Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 2.86. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 71.9 years; female 75.6 years. Major causes of death per 100,000 population (2002): diseases of the circulatory system 126, of which ischemic heart disease 63; infectious and parasitic diseases 39; malignant neoplasms (cancers) 37; accidents and injuries 35; diabetes mellitus 17.

Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

2003

1,557

2009 2009

3,97117 300

National economy Budget (2009). Revenue: RO 6,748,400,000 (oil revenue 66.5%; natural gas revenue 10.8%; nontax revenue 10.8%; other tax revenue 9.3%; other 2.6%). Expenditures: RO 7,428,700,000 (current expenditure 56.8%, of which defense 23.2%, education 11.1%, health 3.9%; capital expenditure 36.2%, of which oil-, gas-related 15.5%; other 7.0%). Public debt (2009): U.S.$2,613,000,000. Gross national income (GNI; 2008): U.S.$49,812,200,000 (U.S.$17,884 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI, n.a. Structure of gross national product and labour force 2009

Agriculture, forestry, fishing Oil and natural gas Other mining Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, restaurants, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

in value RO ’000,000 244.5 7,261.510 61.8 1,816.910 1,206.3 208.3 1,086.0 1,814.4 1,759.9 1,291.3 1,380.6 –400.411 17,731.1

2003 % of total value 1.4 41.010 } 0.3 10.310 6.8 1.2 6.1 10.2 9.9 7.3 7.8 –2.311 100.0

units per 1,000 persons 633 1,39517 106

Medium

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2006 2009 2009 2009

180 27416 1,237 4117

67 9416 435 1417

Education and health Educational attainment (2003). Percentage of population age 10 and over having: no formal schooling (illiterate) 15.9%; no formal schooling (literate) 22.3%; primary 35.3%; secondary 17.0%; higher technical 3.3%; higher undergraduate 5.2%; higher graduate 0.7%; other 0.3%. Literacy (2008): percentage of total population age 15 and over literate 86.7%; males literate 90.0%; females literate 80.9%. Education (2007–08) Primary (age 6–11) Secondary/Voc. (age 12–17) Tertiary18

teachers

students

student/ teacher ratio

enrollment rate (%)

22,869 21,370 5,027

271,407 307,094 83,958

11.9 14.4 16.7

68 78 29 (age 18–22)

Health (2009): physicians 5,563 (1 per 523 persons); hospital beds 5,619 (1 per 518 persons); infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births 16.6; undernourished population, n.a.

Military

labour force9 58,114

% of labour force9

20,115

2.7

59,492 118,257 4,045 27,674 109,157 25,200 162,742 137,420 14,408 736,624

8.1 16.0 0.5 3.8 14.8 3.4 22.1 18.7 2.0 100.0

7.9

Household income and expenditure. Average household size (2003) 6.8; expenditure (2000)12: food and nonalcoholic beverages 29.9%, transportation/communications 22.2%, housing 15.3%, clothing/footwear 7.2%, energy 6.0%. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): dates (2008) 255,871, vegetables (2008) 181,130 (of which tomatoes 41,426), goat’s milk 84,700, cow’s milk 35,700, goat meat 24,000, camel meat 6,720; livestock (number of live animals) (2008) 1,620,000 goats, 380,000 sheep,

Total active duty personnel (November 2009): 42,600 (army 58.7%, navy 9.9%, air force 11.7%, foreign forces serving within Omani military command 15.0%, royal household 4.7%).19 Military expenditure as percentage of GDP (2009): 7.5%; per capita expenditure U.S.$1,427.

1All appointed by sultan; extent of authority is unclear in 2010. 2Many ministries are located in adjacent Bawshar. 3Approximate; no comprehensive survey of surface area has ever been carried out in Oman. 4Summed total equals 119,525 sq mi. 5Official estimate published June 2010 includes 1,156,358 expatriates. 6Estimate of U.S. Bureau of the Census (December 2009 update). 7Populations of districts (2nd-order administrative subdivisions). 8Within Muscat urban agglomeration. 9Employed only; includes 424,178 expatriate workers and 312,446 Omani workers. 10Oil and natural gas excludes petroleum products; Manufacturing includes petroleum products. 11Taxes less subsidies and less imputed bank service charges. 12Weights of consumer price index components. 13Imports c.i.f.; exports f.o.b. 14January 1. 15Oman Air only. 16Circulation. 17Subscribers. 182008–09. 19Foreign troops (2009): U.K. 80.

Internet resources for further information: • Ministry of National Economy http://www.mone.gov.om • Central Bank of Oman http://www.cbo-oman.org

Nations of the World

Pakistan

Structure of gross domestic product and labour force 2009–10

Official name: Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Form of government: federal republic with two legislative houses (Senate [100]; National Assembly [342]). Head of state: President. Head of government: Prime Minister. Capital: Islamabad. Official language: 1. Official religion: Islam. Monetary unit: Pakistani rupee (PKR); valuation (Sept. 1, 2010) 1 U.S.$ = PKR 84.88; 1 £ = PKR 131.12.

in value PKR ’000,000 Agriculture, forestry, fishing Mining, quarrying Manufacturing Construction Public utilities Transp. and commun. Trade, hotels Finance, real estate Pub. admin., defense Services Other TOTAL

Area and population Provinces Balochistan Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa Punjab Sindh (Sind) Federally Administered Tribal Areas Federal Capital Area Islamabad

669

area2 Capitals Quetta Peshawar Lahore Karachi admin. centre is Peshawar —

TOTAL

sq km 347,190 74,521 205,345 140,914

2009 estimate3 8,713,000 23,383,000 93,568,000 40,028,000

10,509

27,220

4,093,000

350 307,374

906 796,096

1,049,000 170,834,000

3,016,565 346,256 2,369,029 308,425 246,086 1,894,188 2,391,058 1,013,309 794,439 1,464,134 824,93910 14,668,428

20.6 2.4 16.1 2.1 1.7 12.9 16.3 6.9 5.4 } 10.0 5.610 100.0

labour force9

% of labour force9

21,919,000 57,000 6,377,000 3,088,000 343,000 2,681,000 7,178,000 692,000

42.3 0.1 12.3 6.0 0.7 5.2 13.9 1.3

6,706,000

12.9

2,743,00011 51,784,000

5.311 100.0

Selected balance of payments data. Receipts from (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 1,408; remittances (2009) 8,720; foreign direct investment (FDI; 2007–09 avg.) 4,472; official development assistance (2008) 1,539. Disbursements for (U.S.$’000,000): tourism (2008) 366; remittances (2008) 2.0; FDI (2007–09 avg.) 44. Household income and expenditure (2007–08). Average household size 6.6; income per household PKR 173,472 (U.S.$2,817); sources of income: wages and salaries 39.6%, self-employment 29.1%, real estate 13.6%; expenditure: food and beverages 44.2%, housing and energy 22.7%, transportation and communications 6.2%, clothing and footwear 5.5%.

population

sq mi 134,051 28,773 79,284 54,407

2008

% of total value

Foreign trade12 Balance of trade (current prices) U.S.$’000,000 % of total

Demography Population (2010): 184,405,0004. Density (2010)5: persons per sq mi 541.6, persons per sq km 209.1. Urban-rural (2009): urban 35.6%; rural 64.4%. Sex distribution (2009): male 51.65%; female 48.35%. Age breakdown (2005): under 15, 37.2%; 15–29, 29.9%; 30–44, 16.8%; 45–59, 10.2%; 60–74, 4.7%; 75–84, 1.0%; 85 and over, 0.2%. Population projection4: (2020) 213,719,000; (2030) 242,862,000. Ethnic composition (2000): Punjabi 52.6%; Pashtun 13.2%; Sindhi 11.7%; Urdu-speaking muhajirs 7.5%; Balochi 4.3%; other 10.7%. Religious affiliation (2000): Muslim 96.1%6; Christian 2.5%; Hindu 1.2%; others (including Ahmadiyah) 0.2%. Major urban agglomerations (20107): Karachi 13,125,000; Lahore 7,132,000; Faisalabad 2,849,000; Rawalpindi 2,026,000; Multan 1,659,000; Gujranwala 1,652,000; Hyderabad 1,590,000; Peshawar 1,422,000; Islamabad 856,000.

Vital statistics Birth rate per 1,000 population (2009): 28.4 (world avg. 20.3). Death rate per 1,000 population (2009): 7.6 (world avg. 8.5). Total fertility rate (avg. births per childbearing woman; 2009): 3.90. Life expectancy at birth (2009): male 66.5 years; female 67.2 years. Major cause of death per 100,000 population (2003): childhood diseases 126.7; infectious and parasitic diseases 104.0; diseases of the circulatory system 96.4; diseases of the respiratory system 67.0; accidents and violence 42.6.

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

–3,396 11.3%

–6,341 17.0%

–9,647 22.1%

–10,587 22.5%

–16,769 28.2%

–10,440 22.6%

Imports (2008): U.S.$42,327,000,000 (machinery and apparatus 18.2%; refined petroleum 16.9%; chemicals and chemical products 14.0%; crude petroleum 13.9%; food 6.5%). Major import sources (2009): China 14.3%; Saudi Arabia 12.2%; U.A.E. 11.3%; Kuwait 5.5%; U.S. 4.8%. Exports (2008): U.S.$20,279,000,000 (apparel and accessories 19.3%, of which men’s/boys’ outerwear 8.6%; rice 12.0%; woven cotton fabrics 10.9%; bed linen 9.0%; refined petroleum 5.7%). Major export destinations (2009): U.S. 16.1%; U.A.E. 11.7%; Afghanistan 8.6%; U.K. 4.5%; China 4.2%.

Transport and communications Transport. Railroads (2007–08): route length (2008) 4,829 mi, 7,771 km; passenger-km 24,731,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 6,187,000,000. Roads (2008): total length 160,958 mi, 259,038 km (paved 68%); passenger-km (2005) 263,788,000,000; metric ton-km cargo (2005) 149,249,000,000. Vehicles (2008): passenger cars 1,583,883; trucks and buses 393,650. Air transport (2009)13: passenger-km 13,891,000,000; metric ton-km cargo 270,000,000. Communications Medium Televisions Telephones Cellular Landline

date

number in ’000s

units per 1,000 persons

20087

9,940

56

2009 2009

102,98015 4,058

57015 22

Medium

date

number in ’000s

PCs Dailies Internet users Broadband

2005 2009 2009 2009

803 6,10014 20,350 62615

units per 1,000 persons 5.2 3414 113 3.515

National economy Budget (2008–09). Revenue: PKR 1,679,239,000,000 (tax revenue 74.5%, of which income/corporate profits 28.4%, sales tax 28.1%, customs 6.7%; nontax revenue 25.5%). Expenditures: PKR 1,974,461,000,000 (current expenditure 75.6%, of which general public service 47.1%, defense 15.0%, economic affairs 10.2%; capital expenditure 24.4%). Public debt (external, outstanding; June 2010): U.S.$42,115,000,000. Production (metric tons except as noted). Agriculture, forestry, fishing (2009): sugarcane 50,045,000, wheat 24,033,000, rice 10,324,500, seed cotton 6,171,000, corn (maize) 3,487,000, potatoes 2,941,300, onions 2,015,2008, mangoes 1,753,6868, oranges 1,721,0008, chickpeas 741,000, dates 680,1078, sunflower seeds 598,000, apples 582,5128; livestock (number of live animals) 58,300,000 goats, 33,000,000 cattle, 29,900,000 buffalo, 27,400,000 sheep, 1,000,000 camels; roundwood 32,650,000 cu m, of which fuelwood 91%; fisheries production (2008) 586,512 (from aquaculture 23%). Mining and quarrying (2009–10): limestone 37,104,000; rock salt 1,944,000; gypsum 854,000; kaolin 23,000. Manufacturing (value added in U.S.$’000,000; 2006): textiles and wearing apparel 4,241; food and food products 2,527; chemicals and chemical products 2,124; cement, bricks, and ceramics 1,154; transportation equipment 955; refined petroleum and coke 859. Energy production (consumption) in ’000: electricity (kW-hr; 2009) 91,843,000 (70,371,000); coal (metric tons; 2009–10) 3,493 ([2009] 8,390); crude petroleum (barrels; 2009–10) 24,000 ([2009] 134,332); petroleum products (metric tons; 2007) 10,363 (18,406); natural gas (cu m; 2009–10) 41,993,900 ([2009] 35,765,000). Land use as % of total land area (2007): in temporary crops or left fallow 27.9%, in permanent crops 1.0%, in pasture 6.5%, forest area 2.4%. Population economically active (2008): total 51,784,0009; activity rate of total population 29.0% (participation rates: ages 15–64, 53.6%; female 21.2%; officially unemployed [2009–10] 5.5%). Price index (2005 = 100) Consumer price index

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

85.3

91.7

100.0

107.9

116.1

139.7

158.7

Gross national income (GNI; 2009): U.S.$172,855,000,000 (U.S.$1,020 per capita); purchasing power parity GNI (U.S.$2,710 per capita).

Education and health Educational attainment: n.a. Literacy (2009–10): total population age 10 and over literate 60%; males literate 73%; females literate 46%. Education (2008–09) teachers Primary (age 5–9) Secondary/Voc. (age 10–16) Tertiary

students

465,334 18,468,096 197,08217 9,432,977 63,421 1,226,004

student/ teacher ratio 39.7 41.917 19.3

enrollment rate (%) 7416 33 6 (age 17–21)

Health: physicians (201018) 139,555 (1 per 1,300 persons); hospital beds (200918