Britannica Book of the Year 1979 0852293623

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Contents
Feature Articles
QUESTION MARK OVER AFRICA
TOWARD A SUN-POWERED WORLD
THE ROOTS OF INFLATION
ANOTHER DAY, A DIFFERENT DOLLAR
TERRORISM -- WEAPON OF THE WEAK
AS SOCIETIES AGE
Chronology of Events, 1978
Unusual But Noteworthy Events of 1978
Disasters of 1978
People of the Year
BIOGRAPHIES
NOBEL PRIZES
OBITUARIES
Articles From the 1979 Printing of the Britannica
Soviet Union
Food Supply of the World
Special Reports
Architecture: The Unlikely Treasures of Columbus, Indiana
Australia: New Australians—The New Standards
Canada: Petrodollars on the Prairie
China: China After Mao
Defense: Detente, Entente, or Cold War?
Environment: The Indestructible Garbage
Football: Violence in the Stands
Industrial Review: The Computer Comes Home
Law: Test-Tube Babies—The Legal Implications
Migration, International: The Invisible Migrants
Motion Pictures: Oscar Turns 50
Publishing: The Vanishing Daily
Religion: The Business of Religion
Social and Welfare Service: How Secure Is Social Security?
Theatre: Ibsen's Influence on Modern Drama
Transportation: Menace on the Rails
United States: Rebellion Down on the Farm
BOOK OF THE YEAR, 1978
AERIAL SPORTS
ANTHROPOLOGY
ART EXHIBITIONS
BASKETBALL
CANADA
COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS
DANCE
DEMOGRAPHY
ECONOMY, WORLD
EDUCATION
ENVIRONMENT
FIELD HOCKEY AND LACROSSE
GARDENING
HISTORIC PRESERVATION
INDUSTRIAL REVIEW
ISRAEL
LAW
LIFE SCIENCES
MALAYSIA
MOTION PICTURES
NICARAGUA
POLITICAL PARTIES
RELIGION
SOCIAL AND WELFARE SERVICES
STOCK EXCHANGES
TENNIS
TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO
UNITED STATES
UNITED STATES
ZOOS AND BOTANICAL GARDENS
Contributors
INDEX
A
B
C
D-E
F
G
H
I
J-K-L
M
N
O
P
Q-R
S
T
U
V
W-X-Y-Z

Citation preview

1979

BRITANNICA

BOOK OF THE YEAR

1979 BRITANNICA

BOOK OF THE YEAR

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC. CHICAGO, TORONTO, LONDON, GENEVA, SYDNEY, TOKYO, MANILA, SEOUL

©1979 BY ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.

All Rights

Copyright Under International Copyright Union Reserved Under Pan American and Universal Copyright Conventions by Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number; 38-12082 International Standard Book Number: 0-85229-362-3 1156 International Standard Serial Number: 0068

—

No

work may be reproduced or

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, part of this

without permission

utilized in

in writing

from the publisher.

BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR

m THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO The Brilannica Book of the Year

is

published with the editorial advice

of the faculties of the University of Chicago.

Editor-in-Chief, Yearbooks

Editors

Daphne Daume, Chicago Davis, London

J.E.

Editorial Start

David Calhoun, Charles Cegielski, R.M. Goodwin, Karen Jacobs Justin, Arthur Latham Richard H.Kessler,M.D., Michael D. Kilian, Martin

Correspondents

E.

Marty

ioan Harris, Toronto

H.W. DeWeese, Sydney Shigeki Hijino, Tokyo Sergio A. Sarmiento, Mexico ). Amaral, Rio de Janeiro Art Director Picture Editors

Layout Artist Cartographers

City

Cynthia Peterson Jeannine Deubel, senior picture editor; Roberta J. Homan, Kathy Nakamura; Barbara Hilborne, London Richard Batchelor Cerzilla Leszczynski, supervisor:

Wlliam W. Karpa Kathryn Creech, John

L.

Draves,

Paul Rios

Geography Editor Geography Research

Geography Correspondent Production Manager Production Supervisor Production Coordinators Production Staff

Editorial

William A. Cleveland Sujata Banerjee, supervisor: Maura Edelman, David W. Foster, Kenneth Leivers, Clayton Press, Jr., Margaret E. Stout Pamela G. Crumbley J.

Thomas

Beatty

Ruth Passin Barbara Whitney Cleary, Marilyn Klein Patricia Bauer, Mary Peterson Berry, Elizabeth A. Blowers, Jim Carnes, Maria Dolores del Valle, Helen Doepel, Terry Geesken, Lawrence Kowalski, Paul Mendelson, Juanita L. Murphy, Julian Ronning, Harry Sharp, Melinda Shepherd, Joshua S. Singer, Carol Smith, James G. Stewart, Joyce R Walker, Sylvia Wallace

Copy Contn

Mary

C. Srodon, supervisor:

Mayme Cussen Index Manager Index Supervisor Index Staff

Frances E. Latham Rosa E. Casas Judith Anderson, senior indexer;

Mansur Gh Patricia

Editorial Typesetting

Manager

Typesetting Staff

L.

a-is Abdullah, Bradford Lyau, Roberts

Robert H. Dehmer Ronald Laugeman, Marie Lawrence, Arnell Reed, Melvin Stagner,

Gilberto Valle, Wilbur Wolfe, Elaine Yost Librarian

Assistant Librarian Library Aide

Administrative Secretary

Terry Miller

Shantha Channabasappa Naomi Gralnek Ines Baptist

Editorial Administration

Managing

Encyclopaedia Britannica, Margaret Sutton

Editor,

Inc.

Budgets and Control Verne Pore

Di rector of

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Robert P Gwinn Charles E. Swanson President Charles Van Doren President, Editorial

Chairman of the Board Vice

CONTENTS 8

Feature article: Question Mark over Africa Noted African scholar Ali A. Mazrui sorts out the many forces and pressures which are behind the turbulent events on this troubled continent.

16

Feature article: Toward a Sun-Powered World The surprising ways in which the Sun can contribute toward the world's energy supply are discussed by a leading authority on the subject, Paul Rappaport, Director of the Solar Energy Research Institute.

24

Chronology of Events A month-by-month summary of the

52

Unusual but Noteworthy Events Peculiar and unusual happenings

56

Disasters A catalog of the most destructive events of 1978, including

60

Feature article:

65

significant events of 1978.

that

were reported around

the world

Feature article:

A.

natural disasters.

Samuelson.

Another Day, a Different Dollar

fluctuations of currency values on the world's

money market

are explained by economist hiamish

McRae.

People of the Year Individuals around the world whose names figured prominently

70

1978.

man-made and

The Roots of Inflation The causes of an inflation which is afflicting most of the world's industrial societies are described clearly by Nobel laureate Paul

The puzzling

in

in

the

news during 1978:

SPECIAL REPORTS The Unlikely Treasures of Columbus, Indiana This smallish mill town in southern Indiana has become a centre of architectural treasures respected throughout the world. The story of how this came to be and of the wonders to

Architecture:

be found there

is

told hy Joseph B. Cill.

New Australians — The New Standards

Australia:

Far-reaching changes in Australia's immigration policies are expected to bring immigrants, but of a more selective kind, as reported by A. R. C. Crifliths.

in

more

Petrodollars on the Prairie once a land of grain farms, is undergoing significant changes as a result of oil and gas strikes in the province. How the provincial government is handling this flood of money is described by Canadian journalist Peter Ward.

Canada: Alberta,

China After Mao The enormous changes that are taking place

China: rise of

new

in

China following the death

of

Mao and

the

leadership are described by Richard Harris.

Detente, Entente, or Cold War? Defense: Has detente between the United States and the Soviet Union changed into a war? Robin Ranger discusses the latest turn in Soviet-U.S. relations.

new

cold

Environment: The Indestructible Garbage Nuclear energy, besides posing the potential threat of reactor failure, produces wastes which remain dangerous for thousands of years. What to do with these wastes is discussed in this article by /on Tinker. Violence in the Stands all of the violence in sports takes place on the field; much of it takes place in or outside the stands. The psychology of fan violence and how to combat it are discussed

Football:

Not

this article

by

Desmond

in

Morris.

The Computer Comes Home

Review: Recent developments in microcircuitry and silicon chips have made possible extremely powerful but small and inexpensive computers which are suitable for home use. These developments are reported on by Richard Casement.

Industrial

—

The Legal Implications Test-Tube Babies The birth of Louise Joy Brown, the world's first "test-tube" baby, has focused attention on a host of legal implications involved in in vitro conception, as described by Michael Zander. Law:

The Invisible Migrants Migration, International: The extensive and unguarded northern and southern borders of the U.S. are an invitation to aliens wishing to cross into the country The magnitude of the problem and the efforts to contain it are discussed in this article by Roberto Suro.

Oscar Turns 50 report Daniel Taradash, an Oscar winner and a former president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, reports on the organization and on some of the events which have added to its glamour and lustre over the years.

Motion Pictures: In this

The Vanishing Daily Despite large circulations that would seem to indicate prosperity, once flourishing daily newspapers are vanishing from the public scene. The reasons why are explained by Rex Winsbury.

Publishing:

Religion:

The Business of Religion

Organized religion is a very big business indeed, and many religious groups have never given an account to their members or adherents on what happens to the large sums which are contributed. In this report Martin E. Marty takes a look at some of these institutions.

How Secure Is Social Security? Social and Welfare Service: Fears that the social security system will go broke before many people who are now paying into it have a chance to collect are dispelled in this report by/. W. Van Corkom. Theatre:

The debt in this

on Modern Drama modern dramatists owe to the pioneering work of Henrik

Ibsen's Influence that

Ibsen

is

explained

report by Michael Meyer.

Menace on

the Rails The public affairsdirector of the Federal Railroad Administration, David I. Umansky, explains the causes of a rash of rail disasters involving hazardous materials and tells what steps have been and are being taken to reduce the number of such accidents. Transportation:

United States: Rebellion Down on the Farm During 1978 there were strikes and demonstrations by some farmers who were demanding higher prices for their crops while other farmers were enjoying comparative prosperity. The factors behind this seeming disparity are discussed in detail by yames C. Thomson.

«i

SIMON/KATHERINE YOUNG

QUESTION MARK OVER AFRICA by Ali A. Mazrui A

symbols hangs over the African contiits new power born of petroleum, the cross with the prestige of Western technology, the hammer and sickle with its promise of revolutionary redemption, and the baobab tree with its own indigenous inscrutability. But more ominous than all these is that ultimate symbol of bewilderment and uncertainty: the question mark. cluster of

nent—the crescent with

Africa this

is

and nowhere

a continent in transition,

more apparent than

of the world

in its relations

with the

— with the industrialized West, with the

so-called second world of socialist countries,

with the

is

rest

less

developed

third world.

Its

ties

and

with the

West are of long standing, though they have undergone important changes during the 1970s. Its con-

the Arabs.

A more

recent question has been whether

Israel need continue in the wake Anwar as-Sadat's peace initiative toward Israel. To understand Afro-Arab relations, one must distinguish between a political alliance and an economic partnership. When African states broke

with

Africa's break

of

relations with Israel, they

minimum,

were consolidating

their

with the Arab world. At the very

political alliance

a political alliance involves "sharing ene-

mies," and black Africans, by treating

mon enemy

for

Israel as a

com-

the time being, were asserting

solidarity with the Arabs. But in so

doing they were

not extending political credit to the Arabs. On the contrary, they were paying back an earlier political

relations with the rest of the third world, dramatic

debt that had been incurred when most of the Arab states broke relations with the white governments of South Africa and Rhodesia. Some Arab countries, like Algeria, Egypt, and Libya, were supporting black

have occurred as a result of two recent develrise of Arab economic power, based

before black Africa recognized the Palestinians as a

tacts

with the socialist countries are comparatively

recent, but they have

shifts

been expanding. As

for Africa's

opments—the

on petroleum, and the emergence of Cuba

as a fac-

tor in African wars.

The October 1973 war in the Middle East had both military and diplomatic significance, but it was the economic war waged by the Arabs that fired the imagination of Africa and the Rise of Arab Power.

the third world — the utilization of

oil

as a political

movements

liberation

in

southern

Africa

people with a grievance.

When Africans ask for cheaper oil and development aid from the Arabs, they are trying to move beyond a political alliance to an economic partnership. They are saying: "Let us not merely share enemies; let us also share energy. To some extent, let us merge economies." The case for such a proposal on

with

weapon, with all its implications for relations between the affluent industrial world and the primary

does not

producers of the Southern Hemisphere. A strange paradox has been apparent on the world scene since that time: economic disparities among third world

consolidated by an economic partnership.

countries have increased rise in oil

Afro-Arab strated

— largely

prices— but so has

when

solidarity

because of the

political solidarity.

Israel in

1973. Immediately the

question arose as to whether this action should be

rewarded by special economic concessions from

Crossed

rifles

(NATO on

rest

Africa's break

Israel.

It

rests

on

the proposition that a political alliance can best be

and Western Europe have been engaged The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was intended as a military and political alliance, and France, especially, has maintained that

The

in

U.S.

a similar debate.

was dramatically demon-

the African states almost unanimously

broke relations with

years

left,

Soviet on right) symbolize part of the struesle of Africa.

professor of political science and direcAfroamerican and African Studies at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; during 197778 he was visiting professor in modern Commonwealth history at the University of Leeds, England. His books include Political Values and the Educated Class in Africa (1978), Africa's International Relations (1977), and Towards a Pax Africana (1967).

Ali A.

Mazrui

is

tor of the Center lor

questions of security should not be mixed with questions of trade and monetary stability. The U.S.,

on the other hand, has often taken a position on the side of greater economic cooperation. When he was U.S. secretary of state, Henry Kissinger urged the Europeans to bear in mind the health of the U.S. economy when they formulated trade and fiscal policies. An alliance based merely on common enemies, he argued, could be very unstable. Similarly, Africans are asking the Arabs to strengthen the AfroArab political alliance by exploring the possibilities of an interregional economic partnership. Should the Arab world agree under the threat that, if they do not, more Africans will resume ties with Israel? It is to be hoped that both Africans and Arabs will seek alternative grounds for agreement. Patience is called for. Economic disagreements among the NATO partners did not break up the alliance. On the contrary, 20 years of patience are just now beginning to bear economic fruit.

The

less

developed countries generally have

a

Rejecting imperialism from any source, many Africans are acquiring a sense of cohesive identity for their continent. The sign is lettered in Arabic, English, and French.

B-AFRICA

IS

FOR AFRICANS

good case against the oil producers. A strong argument can be made that the Arabs and the other oil producers should agree on a two-tier pricing system for oil, with one price for the developed world and a lower one for the less developed countries. But in that case, the privileges should be open not just to Africa but to other third world countries, such as

often forgotten that India supported the the Middle East for 20 years before most black African states were converted. India.

It

Arabs

in

is

some effort is made to share the wealth. The priorities of the Arab members of the Organization of Petroleum ExIn

fairness to the oil producers,

being

porting Countries (OPEC) tend to be Arabs; second, Muslims;

and

countries provided they

third,

first,

fellow

other third world

show some evidence

of

sympathy toward the Arab cause. The names of the various aid funds are themselves indicative of culsolidarity— the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic

tural

Development, the Saudi Development Fund, the for Arab Economic Development, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Develop-

Abu Dhabi Fund

ment, the Islamic Development Bank. In recent some of these funds have broadened their base of operations, and in 1975 the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, with lending resources estimated at $1 billion, was established as "the only Arab Fund that concentrates entirely on Africa." The oapec Special Account, subscribed by the Arab members of OPEC, operates on the principle of third world solidarity, although special considerayears

is given to opec's need for third world support during periods of possible confrontation with West-

tion

LAFRIOH 2r

J^f'lCAiNs

„, f^TPOURJB

M

consumers. recent question for Africans is how to respond to the peace process initiated by Egypt's ern

oil

A more

president in November 1977. If the largest of the Arab countries establishes a rapprochement with Israel, why should Zambia or Guinea abstain? The

dilemma

is

especially acute for those black African

countries that sacrificed

Israeli

technical assistance

for the sake of Afro-Arab solidarity.

The

situation

is

aggravated by the fact that, of the four front-line Arab states in the confrontation with Israel (Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and Egypt), only Egypt

the African continent and a

member

is

within

of the Organi-

zation of African Unity (oau). In a

fundamental sense, Egypt's withdrawal from

the anti-Israeli coalition could constitute a substantial

deafricanization of the Arab-Israeli conflict as a

whole. Yet dilemmas remain. Algeria, probably the most pan-Africanist of the North African states, opposes the Sadat initiative. So does Libya, the most is thus torn between opposing Arab camps, and the political economy of Afro-Arab relations reflects this painful dialectic.

pan-Islamist. Black Africa

A

10

CAMPBELL— SVGMA

Cuban Warriors

in

African Wars. While the

rise

of Arab power has profoundly influenced African

of the third world has probably been crucial. Until

the

Cuban

revolution, Afro-Asian radicals found

it

the most dramatic example of an external

hard to identify with Latin America, but this changed

force affecting African politics in the 1970s has been Cuba's military intervention in Angola and Ethiopia. This is not the first time Cubans have appeared on

with the Cuban assertion of independence from

affairs,

the African scene.

In

November 1964 word began

to

spread that there were "Spanish-speaking foreign-

ers"— presumably Castro's adversaries in exileserving as mercenaries for Moise Tshombe's regime in the Congo (now Zaire). Cuban influences— this time of the left— may also have been present in the Zanzibar revolution of January 1964. The widely publicized report that Cubans were among the Zanzibari revolutionaries probably

stemmed from the presence of several many of whom had adopted

U.S.

hegemony.

Castro's later drift into military en-

tanglement with the Soviet Union disillusioned some of his nonaligned friends. But his defiance of the U.S. and the social transformation he implemented at home continued to give him an important place among third world leaders. In a vital sense, Castro helped provide the credentials for Latin America's admission into the fellowship of the third world.

Later on, Cubans were hired as a kind of Swiss Guard by African regimes ranging from Sierra Leone to the

Congo

(Brazzaville).

To some

extent, this ap-

trade union leaders,

pears to be their current role

the Cuban style of dress. However, Zanzibari militia-

major Cuban intervention came in 1976 during the final stages of the Angolan civil war. There seems little doubt that Cuban support for the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (mpla) was decisive in tilting the balance against the rival Na-

men may

have been trained

in

Cuba, and the direcregime could well

tion taken by the revolutionary

have been inspired by the Cuban example. In fact, the effect of Cuba on the whole concept

Angolans waved Cuban

when

SIPA

flags

and

Castro visited their country.

PRESS/BLACK STAR

carried a large picture of

Cuban leader

Fidel Castro in a

in

Ethiopia. But the

demonstration of support

first

PATRICK FRILET— SIPA PRESS/BLACK STAR

and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNiTA), though other factors were also involved. The UNiTA guerrillas are still being kept at bay by Cuban troops. Some questions about the Cuban intervention remain. It has been suggested in some circles that it is tional Front for the Liberation of

Angola

pan-African venture.

actually a

40%

After

(fnla)

all,

Cuba's

one sense or another. Castro himself has emphasized the African population

is

blood flowing ly

at least

in

black

the veins of

in

many Cubans.

Certain-

there are positive aspects of Castro's claims on the

issue of race.

Under

his revolution,

nessed remarkable changes relations. But

if

Cuba has

wit-

for the better in race

the U.S. were to send an army con-

sisting entirely of black

Americans to participate

in

would not necessarily be a case of pan-Africanism. Before making that judgment, one would have to investigate the race of those who sent the troops, the structure within which the decision was made, and whether or not the motives for the intervention were inspired by solidarity based on shared African ancestry. It has also been argued that Cuba intervened in a conflict in Zaire,

Angola

in

it

response to a

call

from the legitimate govthat surely begs the

ernment of the country, but

question. At the time of the intervention,

none

The wares

of a bookseller in Addis

munist influence

among

flict

mate government of the the MPLA was the best qualified of the three movements to rule a newly liberated country in southern Africa, but is this the kind of issue that should have been decided by outside forces? Was the Cuban tail wagging the African dog? It remains to be seen whether Cuban troops will be used to assist Zimbabwe (Rhodesia) or Namibia

favourites.

(South West Africa) in their struggle for independence from white-dominated regimes. Significantly, no Cubans appeared in Angola while the Portuguese were in occupation, although the mpla had fought the colonial regime for two decades. Only after the Portuguese had left— and the war had become primarily one among Africans— did Cuban troops and Soviet materiel suddenly become available. The inevitable conclusion is that neither Cuba nor the U.S.S.R. was willing to fight the Portuguese and risk as yet

liberators are

no evidence

prepared to

that Soviet

risk direct

and Cuban

confrontation

with South Africa by moving into Namibia on the side of the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO). There is somewhat more likelihood of Soviet-Cuban support for the Patriotic Front against Ian Smith's regime in Rhodesia, but on balance there seems little doubt that the Soviets and Cubans would prefer to wait until the war becomes a con-

12

the

Com-

has

blacks before giving material aid to their

Without denying the difference Cuba

made to

prospects

in

southern Africa, the timing

Cuban intervention raises questions about the extent of Castro's commitment to African liberation. of

in

Spheres of Influence. But is Cuba's involvement Africa merely an extension of Soviet foreign poli-

cy?

To

say this

is

a gross oversimplification.

Cuba

major revolutionary force in its own right. In the 1960s it attempted unsuccessfully to export revolution in Latin America, and its African ventures in the 1970s are, in part, a compensation for its earlier failures.

under Castro has aspired to be

Moscow

a

also involved in the politics of comBeginning with Sadat's expulsion of Soviet "advisers" from Egypt in 1972, the balance in the Middle East has tilted toward the West. Soviet strategists saw southern Africa as a more promising is

pensation.

arena of competition with the West, and the colin 1974 and 1975 and Cuban penetration in the area. The Soviets arrived on the African scene with certain advantages. The Soviet Union has usually been at least a decade ahead of the West in identifying major political and social forces in the third world. It recognized the legitimacy of nonalignment as a strategy for newly independent countries when John Foster Dulles was still denouncing it as a kind of diplomatic sin, and the Soviets identified the

lapse of the Portuguese empire

confrontation with nato. is

illustrate

of

deemed the legiticountry. It may well be that

the competing factions could be

There

Ababa

in Ethiopia.

facilitated Soviet

West was shocked complacency by the October war and the oil embargo. Moscow also has been able to deracialize imperialism and thus make its interventions more acceptaPalestinian issue long before the

ing shared ideology rather than shared race as the

out of

true basis of solidarity.

ble

in

its

relative

Afro-Asian

eyes.

because of Russia's role of imperialism.

It

is

in

could do this partly new theory

It

propagating a

not always remembered that

Marx himself was sympathetic zation of India.

He regarded

progressive

tially

regenerative trends

nomic

force in

to the British coloni-

imperialism as a potenthat

would

produce

the Indian social and eco-

structure. In this respect,

he was part of the

"We

are

Thus the Soviets could say: We may be white,

to help Africa.

but, in the ultimate analysis, this

is

a class war, not

Your friends are those who share certain values with you." The Soviets have backed up their claims by providing concrete material support to liberation movements fighting white racism. The use of combat troops from Cuba, itself a racial mosaic, has been part of the pattern. A major consequence of Soviet penetration has been the appearance of what we will call competi-

a race war.

tive imperialism, as contrasted

imperialism" that exists

ethnocentric tradition characteristic of 19th-century

listic

Europe, which viewed European culture as a vehicle

system

and imperimechanism. Lenin, on the other

coming

is

exclusively

in

with the "monopowhen one imperial

control.

Competitive im-

for the transformation of other societies

perialism can be useful to the potential victim. Thus

alism as a civilizing

the problems of southern Africa were by and large

hand, saw imperialism as a device to prevent revolution

the

in

home

country.

In

Imperialism: The

Highest Stage of Capitalism, he quotes with

relish

ignored by the West

until the threat of Soviet comWashington and other Western pressuring the white governments to-

petition mobilized capitals into

argument that empire building was necessary to avoid civil war in England. The theory was persuasive and influential among African intellectuals, and to the extent that Lenin was a Russian,

ward a solution. Another illustration is Mozambique. Mozambique is to a large degree under the influence of Moscow because of the support that the Front for the Libera-

the Soviets benefited.

tion of

Cecil Rhodes's

by on class rather than race and by emphasiz-

Similarly, the Soviets deracialized

basing

it

Soviet physician examines a to the country.

young patient

in

liberation

Mozambique

pendent government the

Soviets.

Mozambique. The Soviet Union

is

At

the

supplying

(Frelimo) and, later, the inde-

Maputo have received from same time, Mozambique's

in

much

technical assistance

13

economy

is

still

substantially tied to that of

South

Thousands of workers from Mozambique still South Africa to work, and South Africa subsi-

Africa.

go

to

dizes the

Mozambique economy

to the tune of

$100 million a year. Mozambique derives benefits from both connections. In another area where competing imperialisms meet, the Horn of Africa, the issue is not liberation

some

U.S.

but maintaining the territorial integrity of an African country. It is an irony of history that the West drew the African boundaries in all their artificiality and the Soviets are now helping to defend them. The three

most populous black countries in Africa, Nigeria, Ethiopia, and Zaire, have all been threatened with secession: Zaire, beginning in 1960 when Katanga Province (now Shaba) first attempted to secede; Nigeria in the Biafran civil war of 1967-70; and, most recently, Ethiopia, where both the Somalis of the Ogaden, aided by Somalia, and the Eritreans have attempted to free themselves from the control of Addis Ababa. In each case, the Soviet Union has been on the side of maintaining the territorial integrity of the country concerned. Soviet participation in Ethiopia— abetted by the Cuban presence— has been much more extensive than

either the

in

Congo

Soviets defended their role

or Nigeria. in

the

Cubans and

Ogaden war

partly

on the grounds that an external power, Somalia, was change the boundary. It is not yet clear how much support they will give Addis Ababa in its bid

trying to

But all aid— whether from the socialist world or from the West— has both costs and benefits. One major dilemma concerns national development as

opposed to decolonization. The pursuit of development by third world countries may reduce the pace of decolonization. Aid often brings dependency.

Another dilemma concerns the urban bias in development generally. If the pace of westernization in the countryside is arrested because development is

concentrated

the urban centres, the survival of

may be prolonged, for better or for worse. The rural culture may be one of poverty and indigence, but it is also the repository of much that is

authentic and distinctive

opment

in

the society.

If

devel-

of the countryside can be delayed for a

generation or two, the society as a whole

may be

better able to find a path to "modernization" that

is

not based almost exclusively on "westernization."

A

dilemma involves

third

capital-intensive versus

labour-intensive forms of aid and investment generally.

Capital-intensiveness tends to require high lev-

promote technocracy on the other hand, bring more people into the modern sector of production. To the extent that modernity is conand thus helps

els of skill

and

to

elitism. Labour-intensive projects,

ceived as being Western-derived,

it

is

possible to

argue that labour-intensive aid projects tend to spread the process of westernization throughout the society, whereas capital-intensive projects affect

mainly the

A

to keep Eritrea.

The Politics of Foreign Aid. Moscow is readier with armaments than with bread, with military assistance than with economic assistance. The Soviet Union's economic contribution to the third world and certainly to Africa is far more modest than that of the West. Like Western aid, socialist aid includes a strong component of self-interest, but unlike Western aid it involves little straight charity. This is

in

the local culture

fourth

broadly

elite.

dilemma concerns

defined.

In

Africa,

changed the concept of fined

in

terms of

stratification

Western

class; instead of

who owns

what, class

more

education

being de-

came

to

be

based on who knows what. Western-educated Africans attained levels of influence and power all out

numbers and, in some cases, The first generation of independence— men like Kwame

of proportion to their

to their value for the society. political leaders at

Nkrumah,

Nnamdi Azikiwe, Leopold

because of an ideological distrust of charity as an answer to maldistribution. A related consideration is the socialist fear that charity can result in

Sedar Senghor— got where they did partly because of the verbal and literary skills acquired from their

co-optation and deradicalization. Foreign economic

foreign masters. Western education also helped to

must not be allowed to become an obstacle to the emergence of revolutionary consciousness

bureaucrats and academics. Foreign aid that main-

among

tains or further consolidates this situation inevitably

partly

aid

the workers.

But while socialist aid scores low ty,

it

scores high

Whenever

in

in

terms of chari-

terms of ideological solidarity.

designed to help promote "progressive change." Of course, there have been exceptions. Moscow poured aid into Egypt in the 1960s, despite the late Pres. Carnal Abdel Nasser's repression of the indigenous Communists. But on balance it is clear that the promotion of "progressive forces" in the third world countries is one of the major motivations behind socialist assistance. possible, aid

Julius Nyerere,

produce the secondary

levels

of the

elite— the

has significant consequences for class formation

and

class defense.

On

is

the other hand,

developed

in

a technologically under-

society, ultimate

power

is

more

likely to

who control the means of destructhose who possess the means of pro-

reside with those tion than with

The introduction of modern armaments pre-modern societies has given rise new power structures as soldiers have taken over one military coup after another. Many of these

duction.

into otherwise to in

represents only a small part of the world's capital

economy would have been far more traumatic. From an African point of view, the most important capitals in the 1970s are Washington and Paris— not London and Paris, as was once the case. British gov-

flow. Even the richest countries are reluctant to

ernments

make more than

ing influences rather than initiative-takers, except in

were inadequately trained by Western stanand large parts of Africa have fallen under this

soldiers

dards,

"lumpen

militariat."

But despite

effects

its

on

a tiny

third

proportion of their gross

domestic product available Africa, as for

much

much

discussed

world societies, aid

for

purposes of

aid. For

of the rest of the third world, the

New

International

Economic Order

has yet to arrive.

Promise and Uncertainty. The centuries of Western imperialism have left enduring cultural and economic legacies in Africa, but the colonial impact did not merely make Africa dependent on the West, it also deepened the West's need for Africa. Africa has 96% of the non-Communist world's diamonds,

60%

of

its

gold, nearly

45%

of

its

cobalt,

35%

of

its

35% of its uranium, and some 80% chrome. Approximately half the U.S. supply of manganese comes from Africa. And had Nigeria decided in 1973 to join the Arabs in the oil embargo,

bauxite, nearly

of

its

A member

of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) practices with a Soviet-made rifle.

the effect on the U.S.

in

the 1970s have chosen to be moderat-

Rhodesia where

Britain retains a legalistic interest.

And even

London

there,

responsibilities

is all

too eager to share its Washington's

Washington.

with

concerns in Africa are mainly strategic and economic, while those of Paris are strategic, economic, and cultural — probably in that order. African interaction with the second and third worlds has been more limited than with the West. That is why the roles of the Soviet Union and Cuba

The U.S.S.R. is the most powerful country within the second world, while Cuba repre-

are so significant.

sents both the second and the third. The alliance between them and their cooperative ventures in Africa thus serve to expand contacts with both those

world groupings. If the third world is basically tricontinental— encompassing Africa, Asia, and Latin America— Africa is the middle continent. This is true for a number of reasons. Through the Arab-speaking countries of North Africa, it is linked to the Middle East. There are more Arab people in North Africa than there are in Asia, although Asia contains a greater number of Arab states. A second link with Asia is Islam, which is primarily an Afro-Asian religion. And if North Africa provides a

bond between the

nent and Asia,

possible to argue that sub-Saharan

Africa

is

it is

African conti-

an important link between Africa and Latin

America. Millions of people of African ancestry in Latin

America. Portuguese

is

live

the language of large

and of Brazil, the largest South American country. The two regions have each had a dependency relationship— Latin America with the U.S., Africa with Western Europe. Both are political-

areas of black Africa

ly

fragmented. Both are rich

in

mineral resources

might provide an opportunity to influence the world economy through producer cartels. Both are highly dependent on agricultural exports. Thus Africa stands on the brink of new relationships. With the West, it is groping for new rules to govern an old game. With the socialist countries— that

especially the U.S.S.R.

contacts are acquiring

— what new

were once

tentative

implications and

new

dimensions. Increasing Arab and Cuban influence in Africa— sometimes in competition — is having broad repercussions

among

the less developed countries

whole docnonalignment as a guiding principle of third world diplomacy. A new if ambiguous historical era awaits. Whither Africa? generally, especially in relation to the

trine of

KATHEBINE VOUNG

15

16

A TOWARD SUN-POWERED WORLD by Paul Rappaport Nobody can embargo

sunlight; no cartel can control the energy will not run out; it will not pollute the air; it is free from stench and it will not poison our waters; smog. The Sun's power needs only to be collected, stored,

Sun.

Its

and used.

On May

3,

1978, U.S. Pres.

Jimmy

Carter voiced this

strong support of solar energy during a

visit to

fledgling Solar Energy Research Institute

(SERi)

the in

Golden, Colo. The day of his speech was a special one called Sun Day, the result of a U.S. -based effort headed by environmental advocate Denis Hayes and observed throughout the world with conferences, rallies, demonstrations, and celebrations to promote solar radiation as a clean, renewable, and economically competitive energy source. On Sun Day President Carter ordered a domestic policy review by all departments in the federal gov-

ernment

investigate

to

how

solar

energy could

become a part of everyday life in the U.S. Finalized in December 1978, the review promised to accelerate appreciably the introduction of several solar en-

ergy technologies. The president also earmarked an

and development during fiscal year 1979. His presence during Sun Day on the 300-ac site atop South Table Mountain in Colorado marked the future perma-

additional $100 million for solar energy research

nent

home

The

of

interest in solar

energy

is

certainly under-

The Sun keeps the Earth warm, allows vegetation to grow, and nurtures all life. Significantit

is

now

also recognized that the Sun's radiation

much — perhaps all— of man's energy needs. Conventional sources of energycoal, oil, gas, and uranium ore— are becoming serican be harnessed for

ously limited

supply. Continued burning of fossil

in

fuels also raises the

the next 4,000,000,000 years or so.

at least for

temperature of the atmosphere,

causing concern for the future. To date this increase

foreign

oil

cost the U.S. four times

years earlier. Other countries have

even more

99%

of

factor in

dependence on oil is a major and economics and perhaps

This

world

politics

even future wars. Although coal is abundant in the U.S., the cost of mining it and minimizing the polluting effects of its combustion products continues to rise. Moreover, scientists are concerned about buildup in the atmosphere of one such product, carbon dioxide, and its possible influence on the Earth's surface temperature.

Presently, nuclear power seems an unwise bet as major energy source for the future. Unanswered questions remain regarding reactor safety and nuclear waste disposal. In addition, many other public concerns have not been properly addressed, creating antagonism toward new reactor power plants. It does not appear likely that nuclear energy will provide more than 5% of the total U.S. energy output for years to In light

come.

of such difficulties the case for solar ener-

gy appears strong. It is socially acceptable, environmentally benign compared with other sources, and all

countries of the world.

countries that lack well-developed

the opportunity for powering Institute,

is

what it did five been affected

seriously; Japan, for instance, imports

its oil.

available to

Paul Rappaport

It

produces no net increase in the Earth's temperature and can be converted into electricity, mechanical and chemical energy, and other useful forms. Continuing to use conventional sources of energy causes other problems as well. In the case of oil, the obvious drawback is skyrocketing prices. In 1978

a

SERi.

standable.

ly

has been small, but escalating demands for energy throughout the world could alter climate and perhaps even precipitate such catastrophic effects of atmospheric heating as the melting of the polar caps and consequent flooding of the world's coastal cities. By contrast, solar energy is unlimited in supply,

director of the Solar Energy Research

Golden, Colorado.

Many

foreign

utility grids

rural villages

with

see lo-

energy systems. Utility companies in the U.S. are planning to retrofit conventional plants with

cal solar

17

solar-powered factories. Cost-conscious people throughout the world have installed solar hot-water

show that sycamore trees, for example, can be harvested at five-year intervals, yielding 10-16 tons of biomass per acre per year— three times the yield of

heaters as a solution to increasing

traditional long-rotation silviculture.

solar capabilities,

and

industries are looking to large

utility bills.

energy is so good, it is reasonable to ask why it is not being exploited to its full potential. In most cases, the technology of solar energy devices If

solar

is well understood; what remains is to make them more efficient, reliable, and economical, although in some cases basic research is still a prerequisite. Most importantly, for solar energy to compete with exist-

ing energy forms that are already subsidized — to the tune of about $130 billion in the U.S. since World War II — manufacturers and consumers alike need

The

incentives.

transition will not

be easy or inex-

pensive. For example, for solar energy to supply

10-20%

of U.S. energy needs by the year 2000 will

probably require a public and private expenditure of

about $100

billion.

Americans of

a

century

past

obtained three-

fourths of their energy needs from burning

and

in

much

of the world

wood

is

still

wood,

a primary

source of heat. Yet, direct burning of wood is simply one aspect of biomass application. Several U.S.

companies have begun production of "densified biomass fuel," or what could be called "instant clean coal." Nature has been making coal for several hundred million years by compressing the biomass of swamps and bogs. So densified, coal has a high energy content but unfortunately often contains sulfur, which becomes a pollutant when the coal is burned. Densified biomass fuels can be made from sawdust, bark, corncobs, pea pods, or coffee grounds by drying these materials to a moisture con-

of energy they convert from sunlight: electrical,

10% and compressing them into pelresemble dry dog food. In this form the biomass has an energy content higher than many

thermal, mechanical, or chemical

coals,

The various solar technologies can be classified in numerous ways. One is to group them by the kind

Another way

(e.g., fuel)

energy.

group them according to levels of technological sophistication and centralization. Perhaps the simplest way, however, is to arrange them into natural collection systems and technological is

to

collection systems. In the

first

category one finds the

charge— be it green plants, the atmosphere, an ocean, or an existing building. The total biosphere participates in "collector" to be provided free of

natural collection of solar radiation

free collector surfaces. logical collection

economic

On

and provides

the other hand, techno-

systems are subject to a further

constraint before collection can even be

considered.

Man-made

collectors

must be

fabricat-

ed, presenting additional construction costs to the

energy conversion process.

one

In this

finds thermal, photovoltaic,

satellite

second category and solar power

technologies.

Biomass. For

many advocates

of solar energy the is

the use

of biomass for energy. Biomass is a catchall term for any form of matter that is living or was once part of a living organism; for example, leaves, wood, corncobs, pea pods, algae, bacteria, kelp, and manure. Although the efficiency of conversion of solar energy by growing plants is only 0.1 to 2%, the U.S. has 900 million ac of land under cultivation for lumber, paper, and food. Through either direct burning or conversion to specialty fuels like ethanol and methanol, the residues associated with forestry and agricultural operations alone could provide as

10%

much

of U.S. energy needs.

Creation of "energy plantations" could also pro-

duce enormous amounts of biomass. Experiments 18

lets that

is

free of sulfur,

Although solid

and

is

easy to ship and store.

fuels are satisfactory for large boil-

and heating plants, in recent decades homeownand other small-scale consumers have become accustomed to more convenient forms of fuel that are automatically dispensed. Such a fuel is wood gas. In 1978 several companies were making gasifiers that convert mill waste and wood chips into a fuel suitable for use in existing oil- and gas-burning equipment. A more sophisticated type of gasifier that uses oxygen instead of air produces a concentrated gas that can be converted to alcohol for auers ers

tomotive

fuel or to

ammonia

for fertilizer.

Whereas these processes are suitable for such dry biomass as wood and straw, about 10% of biomass occurs in wet form; for example, manures and sewage.

These materials can be converted by digestion

to a gas very similar to natural gas or by fermentation

simplest solution to the energy problem

as

tent of about

automowere running on gasohol, a mixture of biomass ethanol and gasoline. Wind Power. Uneven heating of the Earth by the Sun gives rise to wind, which is therefore considered a solar energy resource. Even though man has used wind energy for centuries, the maximum energy that can be tapped from the winds is difficult to determine. Careful and exhaustive collection of wind energy data is needed to measure the scope of the wind resource. Windmills have long been a highly visible sign of man's effort to use air currents for energy, and their presence in Europe and the Middle East since the Middle Ages is well known. During the late 1800s Denmark alone had some 3,000 industrial windmills to alcohol. In the late 1970s, thousands of biles

SANDIA LABORATORIES

and another 30,000 household and farm windmills in operation. About six million small windmills have been used in the U.S. since the 1850s, mostly for pumping water and generating electricity. Although the availability of cheap electricity and other relatively inexpensive energy sources ended extensive reliance on windmills, an estimated 150,000 units still

spin throughout the country.

Renewed

today

interest

in

both large and small

windmills for production of electrical and mechanical energy could mark the beginning of another power. Private and important era of wind

government-funded research and development is under way for various types of wind turbines. Many of these devices have horizontal propellers, or rotors, with two or more blades. Vertical-axis devices, also called Darrieus or eggbeater turbines, and other innovative machines are also being tested. Large windmills being developed by the U.S. Department of Energy (doe) are intended for possible integration into the distribution grids of electric utilities.

much

Ma-

200 kw were tested in New Mexico, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, and Hawaii in 1978, and plans for building machines ten times as large, with rotors as much as 90 m (300 ft) in diameter, were also going forward. A two-megawatt (two-million-watt) turbine, under construction in 1978 on a mountaintop near Boone, N.C., should meet the needs of about 500 homes. Despite the revival of interest and centuries of experience using wind energy, the wind is a difficult resource to harness, and reliable wind power is not easily achieved. Fluctuations in wind speed occur as chines producing as

as

frequently as several times a second.

In

The

largest vertical-axis windmill in the U.S., located at

Sandia Laboratories, ing

60 kilowatts of

New

Mexico,

electric

power

is

capable of generat32-mph wind.

in a

addition,

characteristics can vary greatly

Unlike most other solar technologies, OTEC has

over short distances. Changing weather patterns and shifts in climate also mean changes in the availability and intensity of the winds. And, as is the case with other solar technologies, the storage of energy

the potential of supplying energy around the clock,

wind speed and wind

from wind power is necessary for it to be practical. Power from the Ocean. Ocean energy resources include tides, waves, currents, salinity gradients, and thermal gradients. The thermal gradients— temperature differences

between warm surface waters and

not just

when

the Sun

ture differences of

is

shining. But the tempera-

20°-22°

C

(36°-40°

F)

that are

power these systems efficiently exist mainly in the tropical and subtropical oceans, which are far from many of the densely populated areas of the Earth. Whereas otec concepts can be economical, they are centralized and large in scope and require a great deal of capital. Moreover, a wide range needed

to

cold deeper waters— are caused by the natural stor-

of technical, environmental, and

age of solar energy

must be addressed and resolved before otec systems become a viable energy option. The earliest commercial use of otec units is projected for the 1990s, with widespread deployment unlikely until

in

the surface layers of the ocean.

A number

of technologies to tap the energy contemperature gradients are being developed under the rubric of ocean thermal energy conversion (otec). In general, otec systems use heat

tained

in

from warm surface waters to vaporize a fluid like ammonia, which as it expands is passed through a turbine for the production of electricity. Then the vapour is chilled with water taken from the colder regions of the ocean and thereby converted back to a fluid to begin the cycle again.

political

issues

the early 21st century. Solar simplest,

Heating and Cooling. The best known,

and most

technology

is

practical application of solar

the use of heat from the Sun to

buildings and produce hot water. sive"

warm

Numerous "pas-

and "active" methods

tasks are being

to accomplish these used throughout the world.

19

LOCKHEED MISSILES & SPACE CO.

INC

ous experimental low-cost passive homes have been built in the western and southwestern U.S. as prototypes for low-income housing. In general, passive design represents the most cost-effective meth-

od of

utilizing solar energy.

the U.S. both state and federal governments

In

have responded to the recent interest

in

passive

systems. Several states have sponsored residential solar design competitions, built passive test build-

passed tax credits and property-tax exemption

ings,

laws that specifically include passive systems, and

sponsored workshops and conferences.

In

addition,

the federal government has undertaken a national

program to foster passive technology development and utilization and has sponsored a design competition and building demonstration. With certain exceptions, few passive solar systems lend themselves to economical retrofitting of conventional buildings. Many existing structures, however, can be fitted easily with active systems.

The active system

consists of six

main

parts: a collec-

capture the solar radiation; a transport system to move the heat from the collector to storage; a tor to

storage unit to retain the heat for use at night or on

cloudy days; a distribution system to move the heat from storage to living spaces; an auxiliary system, or conventional heating unit, to provide heat that cannot be supplied by the solar system alone; and a

system of controls to regulate the

The simplest kind of active

total

system.

collector, called a flat-

plate collector, is typically a shallow rectangular box coated inside with a black, heat-absorbing material and faced with glass to retain the heat. It is usually

conception of an ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) system. This device would utilize the temperature gradient in the ocean depths to generate 160 megawatts of power. Artist's

mounted on

the roof but can be placed at any loca-

tion that receives proper southern exposure. Flat-

plate collectors use either air or liquid as a circulat-

Passive solar buildings are designed to collect, store,

and

distribute the Sun's heat. This

plished through

is

accom-

numerous techniques of building

design and proper

site orientation. Ideally,

the de-

signer begins by positioning the building so that the

and roof receive maximum

walls

solar radiation in

window or heat-absorbing and few or no window openings

winter. Large expanses of wall

on the south

on the north serve to maximize solar heat gain in winter, when the Sun is low in the sky. Roof overhangs and movable shutters minimize effects of excess solar radiation in the summer. Properly designed into a building, passive systems typically provide

40-80%

needs

and cooling. They often add 5-

15%

for heating

of a building's energy

to the cost of conventional construction,

main-

because such passive components as movable mass produced. Many passive buildings, especially owner-built ones, have

ing

medium

to absorb

larger heat storage units

than liquid systems. Also,

liquid systems are often

more

energy vide

to

be used

20

solar

50-90%

of a building's heating requirement.

Studies conducted by doe have found that active solar heating

makes good economic sense in most if it can be financed as part of a new

parts of the U.S.

home

mortgage,

if

tance heating, and

the alternative if

is

electric resis-

the solar unit can be installed

not higher than about $20 per square

foot of collector area.

and numer-

when

for

at a total cost

costs,

practical

domestic hot water. Most active heating systems are designed to prois

insulation are not presently

added construction

heat. Air

liquid collectors

ly

incurred no

and transport the

each have their own advantages and disadvantages. Air systems might be simpler in design, be generally easier and cheaper to install, and present fewer freezing and corrosion problems, but they use more electricity and need

and

Solar heating systems for residences should al-

ways be combined with domestic hot-water systems

in

order to achieve

maximum

utilization of the col-

throughout the year. Recent U.S. studies suggest that active hot-water systems currently are a sound financial investment whenever the alternative is electric hot-water heating and can even compete economically with gas hot-water heating in many parts of the country. Most such units are expected to last at least 20 years; typically they will pay for themselves in savings in four to seven years. Presently solar cooling technology is much less advanced than that for heating equipment. The only lectors

cost-effective

methods of so cooling

private resi-

dences are passive methods. Although various types of solar air conditioners are under development, some of which have already found commercial application, they are still too expensive and unreliable for homeowners. Simple techniques can be used to help cool buildings; for example, ceiling vents to expel hot air and draw cool air from a basement or earth-air heat exchanger; porches, eaves, and roof overhangs to ward off the summer Sun; and shutters, transoms, and fans to aid in air flow. Other,

more

elaborate passive techniques include

mal chimneys, which suck the

air

tall

ther-

up and out of the

house, and large, roof-mounted bladders of water called roof ponds,

cooling

in

which can be used

nonhumid

for heating or

Solar Energy for Industry and Agriculture. About

energy production is consumed in such industrial processes as steam heating, air drying, and heating clean-up water. Solar energy shows potenas an alternate energy source for

processes that electricity. Hit

now

natural gas, farmers are also eyeing solar energy

pumping, crop drying, water heating, and livestock shelter heating. Many such industrial and agricultural tasks can be met with low-temperature systems, i.e., below 175°

as an option for irrigation

C

(350°

F), by using flat-plate collectors, shallow ponds, and even some passive techniques. Other requirements fall into the intermediate-temperature range, between 175° and 315° C (350°600° F), which calls for more sophisticated equip-

solar

ment.

And

mand

is

fully 60% of industrial-process heat dethe high-temperature range, above 315°

in

C, for steelmaking,

oil

refining,

cement and

many

of these

require costly natural gas,

oil,

or

hard by the rising cost of propane

glass

manufacture, and chemical production. High-temperature steam can be generated with solar energy

using Sun-tracking parabolic collectors and other

advanced systems of high cost and

still

unproven

reliability. In

addition to the use of sunlight for heat, conver-

of high-temperature heat into electricity is primarily another concept being developed, through design and testing of large-scale, central sion

receiver systems

The

and distributed collector systems.

central receiver system uses a

tall

"power tow-

er" surrounded by a field of tracking mirrors, called heliostats, that concentrate the

Sun onto

located at the tower's top. Steam

climates.

25% of U.S.

tial

and

is

a boiler

generated to

drive a turbine for the production of electricity. In

1978 progress was made on

a

ten-megawatt

central

receiver pilot plant under construction near Bar-

stow, Calif.

A

five-megawatt

test facility

operational at Albuquerque, N.M., and

is

is

already

providing

valuable experience for the larger plant. Distributed collector systems use a

number

of comparatively

Rear view (from the west) of a passive solar home located in Pagosa Springs, Colorado. For a front view (from the south-southwest) of same home see page 16.

LAWRENCE C ATKINSON

21

and pocket calculators powering remote radio transmitters. In some situations solar arrays are connected to batteries for

small high-temperature heat collectors and channel the energy into central power generating equipment. Some utility companies and the U.S. govern-

batteries in radios, watches,

ment

delivery of electric

looking

are

into

the

likelihood

of

"repowering" existing natural-gas-fired electrical generating plants in the desert southwest with solar thermal power systems. If the economics of such systems appear favourable, use of solar energy in future plants will appear more attractive. Solar Cells. Photovoltaic cells are very simple semiconductor devices that convert sunlight which strikes

them

promise to help man tap the

power in large or small quantities. To date most solar cells have been made with

electric

in

diameter

10%

will

efficiency

cells are in flat

'72

million

villages

(3 in)

Europe and the U.S. agree that the U.S. goal of 50

bright sunlight. Generally such

cents per peak watt for flat-panel or concentrator

in

connected

in parallel

or series arrangements

maintenance-free. Panels of this kind are being used

many

three

generate one-half watt at more than

panels of various sizes that are durable and

daily for

than

centralized electrical energy. Photovoltaic experts in

cles in space, solar cells

Sun's unlimited energy and produce pollution-free

cell 7

More

medicines.

material.

satellites

second most abundant

at night.

cm

Used for more and manned vehi-

directly into electricity.

Atypical single-crystal silicon solar

power

1978 DOE funded a solar-cell electric power system for the Papago Indian village of Schuchuli, Ariz. The village formerly relied on kerosene lamps for lighting and muscle power for laundry and had no refrigeration facilities for perishable foods and In

throughout the world presently have no electric power, and it is anticipated that solar cells will help improve living conditions for millions of people in less developed countries. Although solar cells have found useful decentralized applications, their present cost of about $10,000 per peak kilowatt must be greatly reduced before they can be competitive with other forms of

than 20 years to power

silicon, the Earth's

to

different applications, from charging

is achievable by 1986, given a major governmental grant program. In 1978 the U.S. government established photovoltaic development as a priority

arrays

item with the passing of a

bill

to create a ten-year,

$1.5 billion photovoltaic energy research, developConcentrated sunlight from 1,775 mirror facets steel target on a 200-foot-high "power tower" Laboratories. This mirror array generates

melt

stril. U.K. 5%); U.S. 7%; Saudi Arabia 6%. Export destinations: EEC 49%, (West Germany 17%, Italy 10%, Belgium-Luxembourg 10%, U.K. 6%,, The Netherlands 5%); U.S. 5%. Main exports: machinery 21%; motor vehicles 12%: food 11%o; chemicals 11%; iron and steel 7%,-

Tourism (1976):

visitors 17,385,000: gross receipts

U.S. $3,613,000,000.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 795,777 km (including 3,894 km expressways; excluding c. 690,000 km rural roads). Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 16,230,000; commercial 2,145,000. Railways: (1976) 34,299 km; traffic (1977) passenger-km, freight 66,225,51,670,000,000 000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1977): 27,284,000,000 passenger-km; freight 1,669,300,000 net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways in regular use (1976) 6,931 km; freight traffic 12,156,000,000 ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 1,327; gross tonnage 11,613,859. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 15,554,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) 18,197,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1975) 14,197,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): wheat 17,450; barley 10,290; oats 1,928; rye 376; corn 8,614; potatoes c. 6,470; sorghum 356; sugar, raw value c. 4,020; rapeseed c. 400; tomatoes c. 670; cauliflowers (1976) c. 480; carrots (1976) c. 518;

c. 584; apples c. 2,190; peaches (1976) 587; wine c. 5,240; tobacco 53; milk c. 30,100; butter 545; cheese c 1,(X)4; beef and veal 1,652; pork c. 1,605: fish catch (1976) 806. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1976): cattle 23,898; sheep 10,915; pigs 11,291;

green peas (1976)

horses (1976) 402; poultry c 207,543. 100; 1977) Industry. Index of production (1975 113. Fuel and power (in 000; 1977): coal (metric tons) 21,293; electricity (kw-hr) 210,345,000; natural gas (cu m)- 7,700,000; manufactured gas (cu m; 1976) 6,100,000, Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977) bauxite 2,027; iron ore (30% metal content) 36,634, pig iron 18,309; crude steel 22,093; aluminum 558, lead 146; zinc 246; cement 28,956; cotton yarn 229, cotton fabrics 176; wool yarn 141: wool fabrics 86, man-made fibres 332; sulfuric acid 4,501; petroleum products (1976) 113,084;. fertilizers (nutrient con-

=

1976-77) nitrogenous 1,462, phosphate 1,490, potash 1,567; passenger cars (units) 3,558; commerMerchant shipping (units) 454. vehicles launched (100 gross tons and over; 1977) 1,148,000 tent;

cial

gross tons.

396

posts:

nano

Rene Monory (udf, economy), Michel d'Or(udf,

environment).

Christian Beullac (presidential majority, education), Robert Boulin (rpr, labour and participation), Jacques Barrot (udf, trade and crafts), and Jean-Frangois Deniau (udf, foreign trade). Five new ministers and one secretary of state v/ere appointed: Maurice Papon (rpr, budget), Andre Giraud (nonparliamentary minister, industry), Joel le Theule (rpr, transport), Jean-Pierre Soisson (udf, youth, sport, and leisure), Jean-Philippe Lecat (presidential majority, culture and communications), and Maurice Plantier (rpr, secretary of state for veterans). In

France

September Monique

Pelletier (see

Biographies)

was appointed minister for the status of women. At the end of November Jean Frangois-Poncet, secretary-general

of

the

presidency,

succeeded

Guiringaud as foreign minister. In the meantime Giscard, not troubled by divisions within the majority parties, strove to emphasize the country's long-term policies. In October, in reply to a question on television about France's place in the world, he recalled that in the year 2000

France would represent only 1% of the world's population, but that it could remain among the vanguard nations in three respects: through its influence in the world its economic strength and its standard of living. "France can win through by means of continual adaptation," he declared. Earlier, in a letter to Raymond Barre, he expressed his continued confidence in the premier and made it clear that economic recovery remained the first priority. Giscard stressed that the rate of inflation ,

,

needed to be brought down significantly and that only international competitiveness could create But price rises, at about 10% annually, and rising unemployment, which had reached 1,284,600 by October, did nothing to increase the government's popularity. Barre's tenacious pursuit of policies of economic austerity met with considerable hostility in the country. At the same time, the French economy had entered a new era. Industrial prices were freed after more than 30 years of price

and bread prices were also freed after being regulated for two centuries. The government controls,

was hoping

to restore the taste for industrial

petition, but at the

French-Canadian

Lit-

erature:

French Guiana: see Dependent States French Literature: see Literature

same time

it

had

to

com-

continue

its

struggle to combat social inequalities. During the year serious industrial unrest involved the Renault automotive and Moulinex manufacturing concerns and the naval dockyards (where 60,000 workers went on strike), as well as the railways, electricity, post office, and air traffic

On

October 20 several thousand workers from the shipyards demonstrated in Paris to demand employment protection. In May and June a

control.

series of price rises affected railways, electricity,

mail delivery and telecommunications, tobacco and cigarettes, stamps, and gasoline and fuel oil. Following this a new wave of increases in

Friends, Religious Society of: see Religion

coal,

Fuel and Power:

see Industrial Review

the public sector on July 1 affected transport in Paris and rents. To help people cope with the inflation there were rises in pensions, family allowances, minimum allowances to old people, and the

Furs:

minimum

see Energy Furniture Industry:

see Industrial Review

security guard

were

also killed.

A

jobs.

see Literature

ing Boussac textile empire for Fr 700 million and the state took financial control of the near-bankrupt steel industry, the automobile industry — one of the strong sectors of the economy — recorded a success. Peugeot-Citroen took over the three European subsidiaries of the U.S. Chrysler group (Chrysler-France, formerly Simca; Chrysler-U.K.; and Chrysler-Spain). This takeover reduced the number of manufacturers in France to two (the other being Renault) and made Peugeot-Citroen easily the leading European producer in the automotive field, with an annual output above 2.3 million vehicles and slightly more than 260,000 employees. The French concern thus rivaled the major U.S. and Japanese manufacturers. Another encouraging sign was the fact that the balance of trade seemed likely to be well in surplus over the year. In December it was reported that China placed a $600 million order for two nuclear power plants with France, as part of a $3.5 billion trade agreement. During 1978 France had its share of incidents of kidnapping and terrorism. At the end of January the industrialist Baron Edouard-Jean Empain was seized near his Paris home. He was released in March after the police had prevented his family from paying a U.S. $8.6 million ransom. Breton and Corsican separatists were responsible for a number of bomb explosions, the most notorious of which was that which wrecked rooms in a wing of the Palace of Versailles in June. On July 31 a Palestinian shot and wounded an Iraqi diplomat, and in an exchange of fire after the terrorist had surrendered, a French police inspector and an Iraqi

industrial wage.

While the Agache-Willot group bought the

fail-

major environmental disaster was the discharge of more than 1.6 million bbl of oil from the tanker "Amoco Cadiz" after it had run aground near Portsall, northwest Brittany, in March and had broken up. (See Environment.) At the end of October the public realization, through an interview in the magazine L'Express, that the wartime Vichy government's commissioner for Jewish affairs, 80-year-old Louis Darquier de Pellepoix, was living comfortably in Spain as an unrepentant fascist, though now a sick man, produced an outcry and calls that his extradition should be sought. Darquier had deported over 75,000 French Jews to Germany. He had fled to Spain at the Liberation and been condemned to death in absentia. Foreign Affairs. In dealing with other nations, traditionally the preserve of the president since the

regime of Charles de Gaulle, Giscard concentrated mainly on three areas: disarmament, Africa, and Europe. In May he put forward at the United Nations the French plan for disarmament, which aimed to break the U.S. -Soviet dominance; following this, France was to take part in the

work

UN

meeting in

Committee on Disarmament,

of the

Geneva. In Chad France cooperated with the government against the Chad National Liberation Front (Frolinat). In May, when rebels seized Kolwezi in Zaire's Shaba Province, France and Belgium, at the request of Pres. Mobutu Sese Seko, sent parachutists to defend the 2,500 Europeans there. At a

Franco-African conference in Paris, attended by representatives of 21 African states, France proposed the formation of a Pan-African intervention force. Substantial numbers of French troops were involved in black Africa, an outside force second only to that of Cuba. Giscard also undertook visits to the Ivory Coast,

GABON Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 128,552, teachers 2,664; secondary, pupils 19,721, teachers 863; vocational, pupils 2,450, teachers 148; teacher training, students 371, teachers 36; higher, students 1,146.

Finance. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Sept. 18, 1978) CFA Fr 50 to the French franc (free rate of CFA 218.81 = U.S. $1; CFA Fr 428.75 = £1 sterling). Budget (1977 est.) balanced at CFA Fr 255,792,000,000. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports c. CFA Fr 163 billion; exports CFA Fr 249,620,000,000. Import sources (1976):

a parity of Fr

Andorra, and in December to Guinea, with Pres. Sekou Toure {see Biographies) promised to transform the long-existing coolness between France and Guinea into reconciliation and cooperation. In Paris he received Didier Ratsiraka, Madagascar's head of state, and King Khalid of Saudi Arabia. But the president's efforts were mainly devoted to achieving greater unity for the European Economic Community (eec). This desire emerged first in the visit Brazil,

where

his discussions

to Paris of U.S. Pres.

Jimmy

Carter,

France 69%; U.S. 6%. Export destinations (1976): France

47%; U.S. 19%; The Bahamas 11%; U.K. 11%; Italy 5%; West Germany 5%. Main export: crude oil 85%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 6,878 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger c. 10,100; commercial (including buses) c. 7,300. Construction of a Trans-Gabon railway was begun in 1974, with planned completion of 670 km by 1980. Air traffic (1976): 190 million passenger-km; freight 14.4 million net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1973) 11,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975)

who expressed

92,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1975) 8,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): sweet potatoes c. 3; cassava c. 180; corn c. 2; peanuts c. 2; bananas c. 10; plantains c. 80; palm oil c. 3; coffee c. 1; cocoa c. 4; timber (cu m) c. 2,563. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c. 5; pigs c.'5; sheep c. 59; goats c. 64. Industry. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1977): crude oil 11,268; manganese ore (metal content) 1,045; uranium c. 0.6; petroleum products (1976) c. 910; electricity (kw-hr; 1976) c. 230,000.

an economically and politically united Europe. There followed the traditional meetings with British Prime Minister James Callaghan and West German Chancellor his enthusiastic support for

Helmut Schmidt. The president's official Madrid and Lisbon, as well as the two

visits to visits to

Paris of Greek Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis, were directed to the purpose of preparing for the entry of Spain, Portugal, and Greece into the EEC and restoring the geographic balance of the Community by extending it to the whole Mediter-

ranean region. From the time of the Copenhagen summit in April, at which the eec member nations decided that the European Parliament would be elected between June 7 and 10, 1979, a common economic and monetary strategy toward the dollar was agreed upon. The European Council at Bremen in July examined the plan to revive monetary cooperation among the members drawn up by Schmidt

and Giscard in June at Hamburg. The new European Monetary System was to have been introduced at the turn of the year, but in December its inception was indefinitely deferred because of objections by France on points of detail. (jean knecht) See also Dependent

removal from Gabon the Beninese were sometimes brutally herded together and often subtheir

jected to reprisals

Gabon A republic of western equatorial Africa, Gabon is bounded by Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, the Congo, and the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 267,667 sq est.):

1,300,200.

Cap. and largest city: Libreville (pop., 1978 est., 225,200). Language: French and Bantu dialects. Christian beliefs; traditional tribal minority. President in 1978, Omar Bongo; premier, Leon Mebiame. In July 1978 Pres. Omar Bongo decided to expel from Gabon the citizens of Benin who were living in the country. This move, affecting more than 10,000 people, was a direct result of the deterioration in relations with Benin after accusations at the Organization of African Unity summit in Khartoum, Sudan, that the Gabon government had taken part in organizing the January 1977 mercenary attack against Benin's Cotonou airport. During Religion:

A

con-

Gambia, The

States.

(103,347 sq mi). Pop. (1978

local population.

Despite criticism of his government's attitude in the dispute with Benin, President Bongo played an important role as a mediator in two of the most serious armed conflicts in Africa, the war in Western Sahara and the civil war in Chad. He made several visits to France in this connection to confer with Pres. Valery Giscard d'Estaing, and in April, when he met the Chad foreign minister there, he denounced Libya's interference in the Chad war. (PHILIPPE DECRAENE)

A

km

by the

siderable number of them were wounded, and official reports admitted that one had been killed.

small republic and

member

of the

Common-

wealth of Nations, The Gambia extends from the Atlantic Ocean along the lower Gambia River in West Africa and is surrounded by Senegal. Area: 10,403 sq km (4,016 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 568,including (1973) Malinke 37.7%; Fulani 16.2%; Wolof 14%; Dyola 8.5%; Soninke 7.8%; others 15.8%. Cap. and largest city: Banjul (pop., 1977 est., 51,700). Language: English (official). Religion: predominantly Muslim. President in 600,

1978, Sir

Dawda

The Gambia's in

June 1978,

Jawara.

political stability

when

was emphasized

a multiparty by-election, rare

was held at Bakau. The opposition NaConvention Party held the seat against the ruling People's Progressive Party of Sir Dawda in Africa, tional

Jawara

{see

Biographies).

In his capacity as chairman of the Sahel Interstate Committee Against Drought, Sir Dawda successfully toured Europe and the U.S. in May to raise

development funds. The Gambia

itself

was

398

45% of them on slot machines. Projections the 12-month period were that the casino would gross more than $200 million in bets, more

about

GAMBIA

Gambling

for

Education. (1977-78) Primary, pupils 27,523, teachers 948; secondary, pupils 6,980, teachers 354; vocational, pupils 402, teachers 24; teacher training, students 193, teachers 15.

Finance. Monetary

unit: dalasi,

with (Sept. 18, 1978) a

free rate of 2.04 dalasis to U.S. $1 (par value of 4 dalasis

£1

=

Budget (total; 1976-77 actual): revenue 64,570,000 dalasis; expenditure 84,860,000 dalasis. Foreign Trade. (1977) imports 177,710,000 dalasis; exports 110,170,000 dalasis. Import sources (1976): U.K. 25%; China 13%; The Netherlands 6%; lapan 6%; France sterling).

5%; Burma 5%; West Germany 5%. Export destinations (1976): U.K. 30%,; The Netherlands 22%; France 10%; Italy 7%; Switzerland 6%; Portugal 5%. Main export: peanut products 89%.

suffering from a two-year drought.

Its

only export

crop, peanuts (groundnuts), fell to the lowest level in 14 years, and a food emergency was declared.

The European Economic Community provided immediate aid; the U.S. set up a $2 million soil and water management unit; and Britain provided $3 million as aid to small business and farm units. Ten years' economic cooperation with Senegal was celebrated in June with an agreement on a $60 million, four-year irrigation development. Earlier, Dawda exchanged visits with Nigeria's head of

Sir

than double the existing record yearly

total for a

single casino in the U.S.

Focusing on New York City, federally financed studies indicated that illegal gambling, contrary to

widespread belief, did not provide the largest source of revenue for organized crime. These studies revealed that the numbers game and sports bookmaking made relatively small profits and were under the control of competing independent

The research included analyses of police records since 1965 and discussions with policemen and informants. By 1978 some form of wagering was legal in 44 states of the U.S. Twenty-one allowed pari-mutuel betting at racetracks for Thoroughbred and harness horses, 13 had dog races, 14 offered lotteries, 4 had jai alai frontons, 2 provided off track betting parlours, and 2 allowed casinos. Offtrack betting, legal only in New York and Connecticut, took in 20% more money in 1977 than in 1976, whereas pari-mutuel betting at tracks increased only 0.5%. Lottery receipts rose 24% while those for dog racing went up 12.3% for jai alai 22% and for casino

operators.

,

,

,

government, Lieut. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, aimed at promoting economic cooperation within the Economic Community of West African States (ecowas). Although tourist arrivals had leaped from 300 to 20,000 in a decade, the government remained cautious and aware of tourism's "nega-

gambling 20%. The most significant development during 1978

Gambian way of life. (molly Mortimer)

a total of 304 recommendations. the most significant were that a national lottery to benefit good causes should be established, that some casinos should pay more taxes, and that bettors should be given more information about the true odds involved in the various forms

tive implications" for the

Gambling The first

legal gambling casino in the United States outside of Nevada opened its doors for business in Atlantic City, N.J., on May 26. During the month of June the casino, in the Resorts International Hotel (formerly the Chalfonte-Haddon Hall), reported that it had taken in $16,038,805 in bets.

their

Patrons lined up for hours to put money on the tables when New first licensed gambling casino

Jersey's

opened

in

May.

was the publication in July of the report of the Royal Commission on Gambling under the chairmanship of Lord Rothschild. Examining the whole field of wagering in Great Britain, the in the U.K.

report

made

Among

of

gambling.

Gambling continued during 1978 to be one of the major leisure activities in the U.K. More than £7,000 million was bet, principally on horse and dog racing, football pools, bingo, lotteries, and in casinos. The most popular form of gambling in

a

terms of the number of participants was football (soccer) pool betting; approximately 15 million people staked some £230 million on them. Casino gambling, largely attracting the wealthy, continued at about the same level of popularity and accounted for more than half of the total amount of money bet during the year. The biggest expansion in 1978 in the U.K. was in

By the end of the year some 350 local were registered to operate them. One new feature was the importation from the U.S. of the instant lottery game, in which the purchaser removes a covering to reveal a winning (or losing) number and thus knows at once whether he has (david r. calhoun; gbgb) won a prize. lotteries.

authorities

See also Equestrian Sports. [452.C.2]

Games and Toys Video and other games based on microelectronics made further advances in 1978, supported by a Christmastime trend in toy buying away from the lower-price "stocking fillers" toward more expensive items that could be enjoyed by the whole family. Among the sophisticated electronic games available were chess, embodying a microcomputer that could be programmed for varying degrees of skill; a similar backgammon game; and Master

Mind, among the most successful games of the decade, in an electronic form that could be played solo or in competition with other players. Big sellers during the Christmas season included a multicoloured disk named Simon, a robot named 2-XL that could talk, and Merlin, a computer that played ticktacktoe, blackjack, numbers games, and 48 musical notes. Merchandising of characters associated with popular films and television programs continued to be an expanding sector of the toy trade. Star Wars provided a whole range of spin-offs, including the main characters in four-inch articulateddoll form, C3PO playsuits, battery-operated R2D2s, Force beams, construction kits, and board games. A similar line was based on the new television series "Battlestar Galactica." With Mickey Mouse celebrating his 50th anni-

versary during the year (see Biographies), he and other Walt Disney characters were much in evidence. However, demand was reported to be disappointing — possibly Mickey had a greater appeal for his contemporaries than for the younger generation. Cuddly rabbits proliferated with the release of an animated film version of Richard Adams's best-seller Watership Down. Among the various articulated "people" toys, Dunbee-Combex-Marx Ltd.'s (dcm's) Playpeople remained popular. Others, besides the Star Wars and "Battlestar Galactica" figures, were Micronauts (space-age men, robots, and vehicles) and the Good Eggs (jolly ovoid farmers, policemen, nurses, etc., with various accessories). The larger Action

Man and

Sindy continued as bestboys and girls, respecof clothes and equipment

selling dress-up figures for tively,

with

new

available; Action

lines

Man

acquired a

girl friend,

and

Sindy even ventured into matrimony. A new doll was Baby Wet & Care, which broke out in simulated diaper rash. Mattel's Barbie doll turned 20 in 1978 but continued to register healthy sales. Additions to dcm's Hornby model railways in-

399

Games and Toys

cluded a l/16th scale, butane-fueled replica of George Stephenson's "Rocket." New model car racing circuits included dcm's Aurora Electronic 90 and Ideal's Total Control Racing, both of which enabled cars to change lanes while racing. Also popular were General Mills' slotless Power Passers and Lesney Products' (Matchbox) Speedtrack. Among construction toys Lego retained a position of leadership, with Meccano and Fischertechnic appealing to the more mechanically minded youngsters. In a class by itself was the aptly named Slime, a modeling material, available with or without a mixture of "worms." Parker Brothers voluntarily recalled almost one million Riviton construction sets after the deaths of two children who swallowed the rubber "rivets." A newcomer among board games was Skirrid ("The Shapes Game"), which its inventors saw as a potential challenger to the two perennial bestsellers in the field. Monopoly and Scrabble. In Britain, the previous year's skateboarding boom faded rapidly. Commercial skate parks proved unprofitable, and only a few local authorities provided the facilities needed to maintain interest. Manufacturers who had invested heavily in boards and accessories were faced with a dramatic fall in demand. It seemed likely, however, that skateboarding would continue as a specialist sport among enthusiasts using the more expensive equipment, and it remained popular in the U.S. A number of toy companies changed hands during the year. Britain's dcm group acquired Aurora, a market leader in the U.S. in the field of slot car racing circuits. Aurora was not a particularly Twenty-one-year-old

Bob Speca, |r., of Philadelphia set a new world record when 97,500

dominoes were toppled l/ya minutes after he had spent nine days— of 95 hours — arranging them on the floor of the ballroom of the Manhattan Center in New York. Speca did not reach his goal of 100,000 dominoes because a in

total

press card

fell

out of a

cameraman's pocket and knocked down 2,500 prematurely.

400

healthy company financially, but dcm had a reputation for buying up companies running at a loss and making them profitable as it had done with Louis Marx Inc. However, after an optimistic forecast in July, it was announced in October that dcm had incurred a £3 million loss in the first half of

Gardening

1978. This revelation shook the toy industry to its foundations. In order to restore the industry's shaken confidence and dcm's fortunes, the company would have to be successful in the U.S. In another acquisition cbs bought Gabriel Industries, (julia hobday) the maker of Tinkertoy.

Gardening Most

of the trees and shrubs that provide beautiful displays of autumn colour in the northern U.S. have a chill requirement. After becoming dormant in the fall, they cannot resume growth until they have experienced hundreds of hours of temperatures below 7° C (45° F). Using seeds from 42 parent trees on Taiwan, Robert C. Hare of the Southern Forest Experiment Station, Gulf port.

Miss., developed varieties of Formosan sweet gum that can produce brilliant fall foliage in the deep

South. The colours range from a deep red-purple through bright yellows. The best of the new varieties would be available to the nursery trade in

about five years. Following the loss of so many elms to Dutch elm disease, a National Tree Week was being organized in England to publicize the need for tree planting. Its director, John Yeoman, stated that a massive, 25-year tree-planting program would be required to overcome the losses caused by the 1976 drought, vandalism, neglect, and disease. Meanwhile, there was growing concern over the loss of sycamores from sooty bark disease and of beeches from attacks of the beech scale. An All-America Rose lection for

Se-

1979 was the

Paradise, a hybrid tea

The rose is ruby red with tones of pink rose.

and lavender.

Three roses were 1979 All-America award winpink hybrid tea a strong, sweet fragrance, hybridized by Robert V. Lindquist, Sr., of Hemet, Calif.; Paradise, a ruby red, lavender, and pink hybrid tea, said by the judges to be one of the most distinctive and beautiful roses ever produced, hybridized by Ollie Weeks of Ontario, Calif.; and Sundowner, a large-flowered, gleaming orange, very fragrant grandiflora, hybridized by Sam McGredy IV of ners: Friendship, a clear, bright

with

New

Zealand. English gardeners, hardy herbaceous perennials and ferns were coming back into fashion, possibly because they are easy to grow and not particular as to soil. There was also a growing awareness of bamboos and ornamental grasses, the latter finding favour with flower arrangers and gardeners with difficult sites in dry shade. The New Zealand flax {Phormium) introduced into England 200 years ago, was attracting attention because of the introduction of new hybrids. Commercial production of daffodils in England was increasing, and exports had already overtaken those of The Netherlands. Virus-free strains of 30 cultivars had been obtained from the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute and were being built up into commercial quantities. Similar work with

Among

,

tulips

was

at

an early

stage.

The North

of

England

Tulip Society established a tulip bulb bank based at Chatsworth, the seat of its president, the duke of Devonshire. Sweet corn has long been among the most preferred garden vegetables, but it loses quality quickly after being picked. A new kind of sweet corn, developed by Douglas Garwood and Roy Creech of Pennsylvania State University, was reported to be capable of staying fresh for several

days. In a field evaluation, 90% of the 370 participants rated it superior in sweetness, flavour, tenderness, and texture. Liberty, a new apple developed by the agricultural experiment station at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., is resistant to apple scab and shows a high degree of resistance or tolerance to cedar apple rust, fire blight, and mildew. Extensive testing indicated that in most years it could be grown without using fungicidal sprays. Whiteflies have become one of the worst insect pests in greenhouses and a serious problem in

many

gardens. Robert G. Helgesen and Maurice of Cornell University found that whitefly

Tauber Garment

Industry:

see Fashion and Dress

Gas Industry: see Energy

Gemstones: see Industrial Review Genetics: see Life Sciences

Geochemistry: see Earth Sciences

Geology: see Earth Sciences Geophysics: see Earth Sciences

numbers could be reduced to an acceptable level in commercial houses by introducing Encarsis formosa, a parasitic wasp. The wasp was being used in England, Canada, and The Netherlands with considerable success. Preliminary reports from the 1978 trapping survey pinpointed a gypsy moth infestation in SeatWash., according to U.S. Department of tle, Agriculture (usda) officials. Twenty-two male moths were trapped within a three-block area. The gypsy moth also was found for the first time in Muskingum, Stark, and Trumbull counties of eastern Ohio, and large numbers were trapped in Washington, D.C., suburbs. The gypsy moth is a serious pest of forest

The neem

tree,

and

fruit trees.

found in India, provided scien-

tists

with the

first

effective natural deterrent to

another plant pest, the Japanese beetle. During tests, extracts from neem seeds kept adult beetles from eating sassafras and soybean leaves. T. L. Ladd of the usda's Beetle Research Laboratory, Wooster, Ohio, said some beetles starved to death rather than consume the treated foliage. Lovell peach was once widely used as a rootstock for peach in California, but its susceptibility to root-knot nematodes led to its replacement in most areas. A recent survey showed that several old orchards on Lovell rootstock in the San Joaquin Valley had unexpectedly low root-knot nematode populations. An investigation revealed that the nematode eggs had been parasitized by a fungus that often destroyed whole clumps of eggs and occasionally grew into the females, causing egg production to cease prematurely. G.

(j.

SCOTT MARSHALL;

TOM STEVENSON)

See also Agriculture and Food Supplies; Environment; [355.C.2-3; 731.B.1]

German Democratic Republic A

country of central Europe,

World War

II

Germany was

into the Federal

parti-

Repub-

Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland; West Germany) and the German Democratic of

lic

German

politicians and observers considered, on the other hand, that it represented the tip of an iceberg of dissatisfaction. The authors of the manifesto introduced them-

selves as democratic and humanistic socialists and appealed to like-minded comrades in West Germany and West Berlin to join them. Their program was not confined to East Germany alone but rather aimed at bringing about the reunification of Germany, a nation in which Social Democrats, Socialists, and Democratic Communists would outnumber "conservative forces." They would have NATO forces withdrawn from Western Europe. West Germany would leave nato. East

German Democratic Republic

leave the Warsaw Pact, and a reGermany, its neutrality guaranteed by the UN, would be totally disarmed. Rudolf Bahro, a former Communist Party official turned dissident, was sentenced to eight years' imprisonment in June on charges of spying for the West. He was the author of the book The Alternative, which was published in the West in 1977. It strongly criticized the regime and was thought to

Germany would unified

Life Sciences.

tioned after

the East German Socialist Unity (Communist) Party. The party leadership dismissed the document as a bad joke, gotten up by West German intelligence with the connivance of West German correspondents in East Berlin. Some West

officials of

Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik; East a special provisional regime for Berlin. East Germany is bordered by the Baltic Sea, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and West Germany.

Germany), with

Area: 108,328 sq km (41,826 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 16,757,900. Cap. and largest city: East Berlin (pop., 1978 est., 1,118,100). Language: German. Religion: (1969 est.): Protestant 80%; Roman Catholic 10%. General secretary of the Socialist Unity (Communist) Party and chairman of the Council of State in 1978, Erich Honecker; president of the Council of Ministers (premier), Willi Stoph. Possibly encouraged by U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter's stand on human rights and by developments in other Soviet bloc countries. East German dissidents increasingly showed their disaffection toward the regime in 1978. On Dec. 31, 1977, the West German magazine Der Spiegel began publishing a manifesto ostensibly written by dissident

be the to

real reason for Bahro's arrest. In a letter sent

West Germany

his secret trial he

in October, he said that during had made no admission of guilt.

He reiterated that he still believed that East Germany should remain noncapitalist, and that he was not hostile to the Soviet Union. What he wanted was a new structure, built on the existing foundations.

There were strong denials in East Berlin of

re-

by West German intelligence sources that a small number of East German specialists collaborated with Cubans and the Soviets in planning ports

the May invasion of Shaba Province in Zaire. Evidence was building of an increasing East German involvement in this African trouble spot. According to unconfirmed reports, at least 1,000 East Ger-

man army specialists were serving as instructors or advisers in Africa, and considerable quantities of East German equipment, arms, and ammunition were being supplied to African countries. Quite apart from evidence gathered by the intelligence services, the cat was let at least partially out of the bag during a well-publicized tour of

GERMAN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC Education. (1976-77) Primary and secondary, pupils 2,599,596, teacliers 161,477; vocational, pupils 446,209, teachers 29,975; higher, students 287,614, teaching staff (1974-75) 33,570. Finance. Monetary unit; Mark of Deutsche Demokratische Republik, with (Sept, 18, 1978) a rate of 1.98 to U.S. $1 (M 3.87 = £1 sterling). Budget

M

M

(1976 est.): revenue 117,588,000,000; expenditure 117,128,000,000. Net material product (at 1967 prices; 1976) 147.5 billion. Foreign Trade. (1976) Imports 45,921,000,000; exports 39,536,000,000. Import sources (1974): U.S.S.R. 30%; West Germany 9%; Czechoslovakia 7%; Poland 7%; Hungary 5%. Export destinations (1974): U.S.S.R. 33%; Czechoslovakia 10%; West Germany 10%; Poland 9%; Hungary 6%. Main ex-

M

M

M

M

ports (1975): machinery 37%; transport 12%; chemicals; textiles.

equipment

Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 118,925 km (including 1,585 km autobahns). Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 2,052,200; commercial 248,600. Railways: (1976) 14,306 km (including km electrified); traffic (1977) 1,508 passenger-km, freight 52,142,22,704,000,000 000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 1,448,000,000 passenger-km; freight 50,460,000 net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways in regular use (1976) 2,538 km; freight traffic 1,947,000,000 ton-km. Shipping (1976): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 447; gross tonnage 1,486,838. Telephones (Ian. 1977) 2,750,600. Radio licenses (Dec. 1975) c. 6,160,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1975) 5,177,000.

Agriculture. 1977):

wheat

c.

Production

(in

3,100; barley

c.

000;

metric

3,400; rye

c.

tons;

1,500;

650; potatoes c. 7,000; sugar, raw value c. 780; cabbages (1976) c. 306; rapeseed c. 315; apples c. 330; pork c. 1,090; beef and veal c. 400; fish catch (1976) 279. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle 5,471; sheep 1,870; pigs 11,291; goats 42; poultry 48,445. 100; 1977) Industry. Index of produaion (1975 111. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): lignite 253,699; coal 348; electricity (kw-hr) 91,996,000; iron ore (39% metal content) 72; pig iron 2,626; crude steel 6,849; cement 12,103; sulfuric acid 931 petroleum products c. 18,910; fertilizers (nutrient content; 1976-77) nitrogenous 776, phosphate 383, potash 3,161; synthetic rubber 147; passenger cars (units) 167; commercial vehicles (units) 37. oats

c.

=

402

Germany, Federal Republic of

by the East German defense minister. Gen. Heinz Hoffmann. In Ethiopia, Col. Mengistu Haile Africa

Mariam thanked

the East Germans for their support. "Progressive comrades from the Soviet Union, Cuba, South Yemen, and East Germany," he said, "are fighting at our side." It was well known that the East Germans had been reorganizing the police in Yemen (Aden) and were helping to improve internal security in Ethiopia. The

Rhodesians claimed they had found crates of ammunition stamped with the East German flag. Although East German politicians constantly emphasized the fraternal relationship between East Germany and the U.S.S.R., it was reUably reported that there were considerable differences between the two countries. The policies on the economy and relations with the West advocated by the East German Communist leader, Erich Honecker, were not completely trusted in Moscow. Honecker wanted the closest possible economic relationship with West Germany in order to expand the East German economy. The Soviet Union felt he was paying too much attention to the West and had not always met delivery dates when supplying Soviet customers with capital goods. Honecker believed the Soviet Union must give the East Ger-

mans more

latitude in conducting their affairs with West Germany. After all, the Soviets tolerdegree of economic liberalization in ated a fair Hungary, permitted the Romanians to pursue a largely independent foreign policy, and did not seem unduly upset by the influence of the Roman

Catholic Church in Poland. East Germany was finding it more and more difficult to finance urgently needed Western imports. Normally these were financed by so-called compensation deals — goods for goods. But East Germany had a large trade deficit with its fellows in the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) and was desperately trying to close the gap by increasing its exports to them. This was stretching its productive capacity beyond the limit, and as a result East Germany had to pay cash for many imports from the West. Honecker's position was not thought to be all that secure in the long term. He was faced not only

with economic problems but also with outspoken dissidents and growing unrest among East Ger-

man citizens who wanted better living conditions. He had opponents in the Communist Party leadership, notably the premier, Willi Stoph.

Honecker was thought

However,

be reasonably safe as long as Leonid Brezhnev, generally regarded as Honecker's patron, remained in power in Moscow. to

(norman crossland)

Germany, Federal A

bordered by Denmark,

popularity

of

the

federal

chancellor,

Helmut

Schmidt, was undiminished, although the coalition parties suffered shocks in two Lander (state) elections.

Domestic

Affairs.

An

economic growth

rate of

almost 3% was achieved in the first half of the year. Confidence rose with sustained improvement in the business climate for industry — and this despite the drastic fall in the dollar

exchange

and a spate of industrial disputes in the spring. By October inflation had fallen to a mere 2.2%, and unemployment was well below the

rate

900,000 mark. For nearly three weeks in March and April, IG Metall, the metalworkers' union, called out some 85,000 of its members in southwest Germany in a strike for higher pay, eventually settled with an increase of 5%. The employers retaliated by locking out 145,000 workers in the affected plants. At about the same time the printing workers' union, IG Druck und Papier, called a strike of 2,200 workers after talks had broken down over the introduction of new technology. The employers' answer was to lock out 32,000 workers in 500 printing firms. Subsequently, both unions started litigation in the labour courts to have the lockouts declared illegal.

In the Lander elections in Hamburg and Lower Saxony in June, the Free Democratic Party (fdp)

5% hurdle, the proportion of votes necessary to secure parliamentary seats. It polled 4.8% in Hamburg, where it was in coalition with the Social Democratic Party (spd), and 4.2% in Lower Saxony, where for the previous 18 months it had been in a government led by the Christian Democratic Union (cdu). Much more than the two larger parties, the Free Democrats suffered from the intervention of groups of environmentalists, standing for the first time in a state election. These groups, supported by many young people, polled 3.9% in Lower Saxony (18% in the constituency where a nuclear fuel reprocessing failed to clear the

was planned) and 4.5%

in

Hamburg.

however, the Free Democrats rallied. In the Lander elections in Hesse and Bavaria in OctoII

into the Federal

Repub-

of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland; West Germany) and the German Democratic

lic

Federal Republic of Germany

is

Later,

country of central Europe, Germany was parti-

World War

West Germany

The government's efforts to expand the economy while maintaining stability met with success in 1978. By autumn West Germany's economic indicators appeared to be switched to green. The

plant

Republic of tioned after

Berlin.

The Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, and the North Sea. Area: 248,629 sq km (95,996 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 61,352,700. Provisional cap.: Bonn (pop., 1978 est., 284,000). Largest city: Hamburg (pop., 1978 est., 1,680,300). (West Berlin, which is an enclave within East Germany, had a population of 1,926,800 in 1978.) Language: German. Religion (1970): Protestant 49%; Roman Catholic 44.6%; Jewish 0.05%. President in 1978, Walter Scheel; chancellor, Helmut Schmidt.

Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik; East Germany), with a special provisional regime for

managed to comfortably retain their parliamentary representation, polling 6.6 and 5.9%, respectively. This was a tense time for the federal government, formed by a coalition of the spd and FDP. A change of power in Hesse, ending 33 years of Social Democrat rule, would have increased the ber, they

opposition's majority in the Bundesrat (the upper house of the federal Parliament, in which the Lander are represented) to two-thirds. Since this

would be

by the would have placed all the mercy of the cdu.

sufficient to block bills passed

Bundestag (lower house),

it

had betrayed secret information of "unprecedented value" to East Germany. Shortly afterward the Federal Constitutional Court set aside the decision, for which Leber bore the political responsibility, to stop questioning the sincerity of

government legislation at The Free Democrats' survival indicated that the federal government was likely to stay the course

conscientious objectors,

until the next federal election in 1980.

his orders in 1977 after

The Hesse

about the long-term strategy of the Christian Democrats. The CDU had emerged once again as the strongest single party in the Hesse state parliament, and once again it was deprived of office by a coalition of Social Democrats and Free Democrats. As in Hesse, so in Bonn. As long as the Free Democrats remained allied to the Social Democrats, there seemed little likelihood of a change of power at the result revived discussion

federal level.

The alternative,

it

was argued, would be to form

a fourth party, or rather to extend the operations of the CDu's sister party, the Christian Social

Union (csu)

led

by

Franz-Josef Strauss, beyond native Bavaria. The theorists cal-

the borders of its culated that the cdu, fighting its own battle and therefore less susceptible to conservative csu influence, would attract Free Democrats and centrist Social Democrats. Strauss's party, fielding candidates federally, would offer a political home for anyone to the right of the cdu. Then, assuming they had an absolute majority, the two parties would form a coalition. Strauss and the cdu chairman, Helmut Kohl, agreed to defer discussion of this and other plans until the spring of 1979. Meanwhile, Strauss was settling down in his new role as premier of Bavaria. After five and a half years as minister of defense. Social Democrat Georg Leber resigned in February following the disclosure of illegal electronic surveillance by the Military Counterintelligence Service. Under Leber's supervision, the defensive capability of the Bundeswehr and its reputation at

which had made CO five young service by

an anti-Semitic incident were subsequently reinstated by a Munich court. Leber was replaced as defense minister by Hans Apel, former minister of finance. In late November the chief of staff. Gen. Harald Wust, resigned, claiming that Apel had not consulted him sufficiently about proposed changes in the organization of the Bundeswehr. There was also a change at the Interior Ministry. Werner Maihofer resigned as minister in June over a major bungle by the security authorities in the hunt for terrorists. A tip-off about the possible whereabouts of Hanns-Martin Schleyer, the in-

who was kidnapped (and later murdered) by terrorists in 1977, had been lost by the federal criminal investigation department. The new minister, Gerhard Baum, formerly Maihofer's deputy, said in September that terrorist groups, far from being subdued by massive police operations and a hunt in which the whole country had been urged to take part, were attracting new recruits. Germany had been spared major terrorist attacks since the Schleyer kidnapping, but in September police came across evidence that something big was being planned. The operation had probably been postponed, if not abandoned, after one of the most wanted terrorists, Willy Peter Stoll, was shot by police in a Diisseldorf restaurant on September 6 and two apartments used as terrorists' headquarters were discovered. Stoll's death reduced to 14 the number of known and most want-

dustrialist

months preceding his resignation it had seemed that he no longer had his large and bewilderingly complex department in hand. In December 1977 a Frankfurt newspaper had published a report that three alleged spies in the department

Uwe

to

grow, but in

the

Republic of

much easier to obtain. Moreover, officers who were dismissed from the status

ed terrorists who were still free. Four others, arrested in Yugoslavia in May, were released in November after Yugoslav authorities turned down Germany's request for extradition. These figures were no guide to the true numerical strength of the terrorist groups, however. The Bundestag, called from summer recess in August, lifted immunity from one of its members,

home and abroad had continued

403

Germany, Federal

Holtz, the Social Democrat chairman of the Protesters carrying signs saying "Nazis

Raus" ("Nazis

Co Away") demon-

am Main when an neo-Nazi party) meeting was scheduled to be held there. strated in Franl>•

was a mere 4%, however, and West Germany's was 2''2 % both low by historical standards. Thus, ,

contrary to the so-called locomotive theory, these economies failed to provide the expected stimulus needed to pull the rest of the world into a path of faster growth. Growth also lagged behind official targets elsewhere, despite the promises and exhortations of politicians.

The Western European manufacturing industry was particularly depressed; its output only grew by about 2% as compared with about 69c in North America and Asia. In 1978 it appeared that the European performance had improved, while that of Japan did not change much. The U.S. growth

was expected to be reduced, partly because of the severe cold and the coal strike in the winter, causing loss of production that was not compensatrate

ed

for later.

Among

the manufacturing industries the most heavily hit by these trends was that of base metals, the output of which actually fell in 1977 in the developed countries. Within this category steel output fell much more. The growth in production of building materials and of some intermediate products such as basic heavy chemicals, wood products, and paper also slowed down appreciably. Generally weak demand affected the consumer goods industries as well, especially textiles clothing.

and

In the advanced countries the recovery was best sustained in the U.S., where residential invest-

ment was definitely booming and consumer spending was high. Business investment also rose more than elsewhere as a response to improving utilization of industrial capacity, and continued building of inventories also contributed to rising demand. This boom did not spill over to Canada, where private consumption was restrained by the

on real incomes of inflation and investment remained sluggish. Industrial growth in Japan in 1977 was 4% very low for that nation. Sluggish domestic demand re-

effect

,

sulted in sharp declines in industrial profits and a high level of bankruptcies. Except for exports and

public investment,

all

areas were far weaker than

Industrial

unemployment

in Italy

was

high. (Left) Unemployed youth stage protest demonstrations in Milan.

in 1976. Residential building actually fell,

growth of consumption and business ment was almost halved. the

while invest-

Industrial activity in France hardly changed. Construction was declining, affecting many supplying industries, and demand in most other areas was poor. The manufacturing industry in West Germany progressed only slightly faster than that of the French. For almost a year there was practically stagnation, though output started to increase

toward the end of 1977 as private consumption and housing began to emerge from their depressed conditions. Other investment was weak, and the export industries felt the dual effect of weak markets and the appreciation in value of the mark. In the United Kingdom the nation's incomes policy kept wages lagging behind inflation, resulting in declining real incomes. Consequently, expenditure in general and all types of investment fell with the sole exception of private manufactur-

was reflected in the Very similar was the

ing and the general stagnation ,

lack of industrial advance.

development of the Italian industry, while among the other European countries the results varied from relatively rapid growth in Ireland, Spain, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia to decline in Belgium, Finland, and Sweden. Depressed general conditions caused manufacturing in Australia and South Africa to fall as well. Productivity in the major industrialized coun(with the exception of the United Kingat a much slower rate than in 1976. Industrial (and other) unemployment remained high and became a major preoccupation for the tries rose

dom) but

governments

of most industrial nations. Both the less developed countries and the centrally planned economies achieved a growth rate of 7% in 1977, almost twice as high as in the developed nations. Noteworthy among the first group of

countries was the relatively rapid progress of industry in India. The centrally planned economies continued their industrial growth, in the Soviet rate as in 1976. This growth was lower in 1978 because of those nations' somewhat reduced plans. (g. f. ray)

Union

at the

probably a

same

little

Review

434 this area.

Industrial

ADVERTISING practices of the U.S. broadcasting industry faced tough criticism from private organizations and federal government agencies in 1978. A study initiated by Action for Children's Television found that children saw approximately 25,000 commercials a year on television. .An estimated S600 million wras spent annually on children's television advertising by consumer

goods companies. The Federal Trade Commission (ftc) continued to study a number of proposals concerning the advertising of children's products, such as toys, and products that affect children's eating habits. Public hear-

ings were held in Washington, D.C., on whether to curtail all advertising aimed at children under eight years of age. A recommendation was considered to balance advertisements for products containing sugar with dental and nutritional messages. Meanwhile, a House of Representatives subcommittee attempted to prohibit the ftc from considering regulations that affect the advertising of foods and other products considered safe by the Food and Drug Administration. The debate on children's advertising seemed certain to continue. In May the ftc lifted restrictions on price advertising for eyeglasses, contact lenses, and eye examinations in order to encourage competition. In 1978 more than 40 states had restrictions on price advertising of optical products and services. The commission found that the average cost of eyeglasses in states where there were restrictions was 25% higher than in other states. Prices for the same product varied as much as 300%

eral

Advertising in the U.S. in 1978 rose 13% over 1977, to $43 billion. This was the third year in which the advertising growth rate had exceeded the growth rate of the economy. Total expenditures by national advertisers in outdoor, newspapers, magazines,

and spot and network television had tripled since 1965, making these the five most used media. Advertisers bought more television time than ever before in 1978, and TV acfor 54% of all national advertising dollar expenditures. Each of the three major television networks, .^^BC, cbs, and nbc,

counted

reached SI billion in sales. The intense competition for the advertiser's dollar led each network to reshuffle its schedules several times during the year. For those advertisers who could not afford TV, magazines and newspapers became the major channels for reaching customers. In some areas — notably York City — this led to problems because of

New

long-running newspaper strikes. There was a major shift in 1978 to the use of celebrities to promote products and services, with actors and athletes being especially prominent. Several consumer groups brought legal actions to require advertisers to show that the celebrities actually used the products and services they endorsed and that the claims they were making were correct. A new industry developed that matched celebrities with advertisers, and during the year one firm billed 400 deals worth S12

magazines aimed

at

government spending more money on

advertising each year for military recruiting, it was believed that a favourable re-

sponse might be forthcoming in 1979. A once popular advertising medium returned in 1978. A number of large motion picture theatre chains contracted for screen advertising to increase their revenue. This

medium, common outside

the U.S., had

been used with success in the U.S. in the 1950s but declined in importance with the

One

of advertising's most popular spokesmen, 9 Lives Cat Food's Morris, died in Chicago in July at the age of 17.

rise of television. With more people attending movie theatres, particularly the young and senior age groups, a number of national advertisers of consumer products put their messages on the screen. Research

studies indicated that patrons did not Statistics

published by Advertising Age in

August indicated

in a single city.

of

large increases in advertis-

ing revenue in 1978. In May the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear a petition from the National Citizens Committee for Broadcasting requesting, in effect, that broadcasters provide free air time for critics of commercial messages. In the late 1960s the Federal Communications Commission fpcc) had mandated free time for such countercommercials, mainly against cigarette ads, but that policy had been reversed as part of a revision of the so-called fairness doctrine in 1974. In refusing the committee's petition that the fcc return to its original poUcy, the court upheld the fcc ruling that ordinary commercials are not "controversial" messages that require a reply. Stars and Stripes, the armed forces newspaper, found itself in economic trouble again in 1978 and requested permission from Congress to sell advertising space. In past years this request had been turned down by Congress. However, with the fed-

The advertising

million.

A number

women showed

Review

that the 100 largest national advertisers in the U.S. increased their

advertising and

promotion expenditures

14% in 1977, to S8.8 billion. Procter and Gamble maintained its position as the largest national advertiser by spending $460 million. Others in the top five

Motors,

General Foods,

were General Roebuck,

Sears

and K mart. This was the first time that K mart had appeared on the top five list. Sears Roebuck raised its national advertising expenditures by $45 million, the largest increase among advertisers.

the

ten

leading

national

Pharmaceutical firms accounted for three of the top five advertising positions on network radio in 1977. Consumer goods firms such as McDonald's and PepsiCo were

among

the five largest users of spot television time. The three major network television advertisers were Procter and Gamble, General Foods, and Bristol-Myers. The two leaders among the top five magazine, newspaper, and outdoor advertisers were R. J. Reynolds and Philip Morris. More than half of the money spent in 1977 on advertising on network and spot radio, network and spot television, outdoor, newspapers and

magazines, and farm publications came from the 100 leading national advertisers. With women now comprising 49% of the labour force and holding 41 % of professiona number of firms changed their advertising messages to take this into account. Airline, insurance, oil, and automoal jobs,

bile

companies were among the leaders in

mind

an advertising message at the beginning of a film, (edw.^rd mark mazze)

AEROSPACE Not since the massive tide of technological change in the mid-1950s swept away the piston-engined airliner fleets and replaced them with sleek jets 200 mph faster had aviation seen such significant reequipment activity as in 1978. For a decade the airlines and the aircraft manufacturers had been looking to the time ation of mediumports should come

when

the present gener-

and short-range transup for replacement. The

fuel crisis of 1973-74 injected a sense of ur-

gency, the airlines being badly hit, first by the large overnight increase in operating costs and second by the slump in traffic.

The best solution to the problem was determined to be more efficient airframes and engines. For the first time in air transport history new aircraft were to be sold on the basis of economics rather than speed. Estimates showed that to replace the fleets of Boeing 707s, 727s, and 737s, Douglas DC-8s andDC-9s, HS Tridents, BAG One-Elevens, Caravelles, and others, no fewer than 3,000 new airplanes worth $60 billion would have to be built between 1980 and 1992. In late 1977 Swissair kicked off this mam-

moth reequipment program by ordering a derivative airliner, a growth version of the DC-9 with a refanned development of the Pratt & Whitney JT8D, the world's most widely used transport engine. This newwine-in-old-bottles approach only partly exploited the technology that was available

435 Industrial

Review

manufacturer on a new airliner. It was wooed by Boeing and McDonnell Douglas but spurned them to reenter Airbus Industrie, from which it had resigned some years

owing to lack of confidence in the European wide-body airliner. France held out for tough terms, however, and at the year's end one of the main conditions for a reentry — an order for A300s by British Airways—had not been negotiated. earlier

On jets

14 United Airlines announced that it had placed a $1.2 billion order for 30 new 767 passenger with the Boeing Co. The plane was the first new airliner developed by Boeing since 1968.

July

new designs, and so the characteristics of the plane were not markedly improved. On the other hand there was less risk and fewer introductory problems. for completely

economy

Douglas and Boeing also proposed reengined versions of their DC-8s and 707s, but with completely new power plants some 25% more economical than their existing engines and much less noisy. Boeing was fitting the Franco-U.S. CFM56 engines to a 707 for trials and to assess the market, but many experts thought the

McDonnell

DC -8s a better bet. people, even five years earlier, could have predicted that the supersonic transport (sst) would make so little impact, and in fact 1978 was as notable for its reverses as for its progress. Load factors on the British and French Concordes continued high, indicating sustained popularity despite premium fares, but the annual utilization remained low owing to the lack of approved routes. In August 1978 British Airways announced that it would have to renegotiate long-range

Few

In 1978 Europe finally offered a serious challenge to the U.S. in the airliner market. The decision by Eastern Airlines in April to acquire 23 A300 Airbuses, following a suc-

six-month trial, was a momentous breach of a virtual domestic monopoly held by Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, and Lockheed. Not since the days of the Viscount had there been such a threat to U.S. domination. Almost simultaneously. Pan announced an order for a dozen long-range Lockheed L-1011 TriStars, with an option cessful

Am

on an additional

14, to replace the last of its

once-huge fleet of Boeing 707s. The choice of Lockheed broke Pan Am's traditional liaison with Boeing, and what swung the deal was the British government's guarantee to underwrite the purchase as a means of get-

lost

ting a new version of the TriStar established, using Rolls-Royce RB.211 engines. The U.S. industry and government, which until recently had virtually written off European aviation as a lame duck, complained bitterly about "unfair" competition despite the fact that both aircraft contained substantial contributions from U.S. indus-

million during 1977-78. Toward the end of the year crews from the U.S. airline Braniff began training in preparation for an interchange scheme whereby Braniff would take over British Airways and Air France Concordes at New York City and fly them on to Dallas, Texas. Braniff was also planning to extend its service to South

Europe also took the next major step. On July 7 Airbus Industrie launched the smaller 200-seat A300B10 on the basis of 60 orders and options from European operators. At that time three other 200-seaters were also being offered: Boeing's 767-200 (once known as the 7X7); the L-1011-400 TriStar

terms

for its five

Concordes, having

£17

America.

The

Soviet Union's sst, the Tupolev

TU-

began scheduled passenger service in late 1977 on just one route. But persistent rumours about its unsatisfactory performance proved well-founded when service became increasingly sporadic and finally ceased in June 1978. There were no signs that operations would be reinstated. Meanwhile, U.S. engineers, concentrating only on the technical challenge and ignor144, finally

ing the more important political aspects such as overflying and landing rights, concluded that even the decision to launch a second-generation sst could not be made before about 1983-84. On this basis, an actual aircraft could hardly appear before 1990.

try.

from Lockheed; and a McDonnell Douglas contender, the DC-X-200. With so much dangerous competition, particularly from Europe, Boeing acted quickly; only seven days after the A300B10 announcement it launched the 767-200 for its front-line customer. United Airlines. It was the first new Boeing transport in 12 years. Faced with these developments, McDonnell Douglas shortly afterward shelved the DC-X-200, saying that it would in the future concentrate

on improving

its

DC-9s and DC-lOs.

Throughout the year the new U.K. nationalized airframe company, British Aerospace Corp. (an amalgam of British Aircraft Corp., Hawker Siddeley Aviation, Hawker Siddeley Dynamics, and Scottish Aviation), sought to collaborate with another

The British government in July gave its assent for British Aerospace to begin fullscale development of the HS.146, shelved in October 1974 because of a lack of market prospects. Also in July British Airways ordered 19 Boeing 737s to replace its Trident Is and 2s, and, together with Eastern Airlines, became in September a customer for the second Boeing transport to be launched in 1978 -the 174-seat 757. Laker Airways, which launched its second Skytrain service, from London to Los Angeles, on September 26, announced a

massive reequipment program. This included five long-range DC-lOs and ten medium-range A300s.

(MICHAEL WILSON)

ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES Beer. World beer production in 1977 totaled a record 815 million hectolitres (hi)

compared with the previous year's 800 million, itself a record, even though sales were somewhat depressed in both the U.S. and Europe by bad weather during the summer. Production in the U.S.,

at

200,134,000

hi,

remained higher than in any other country and was more than twice that of West Ger-

many (94,336,000 hi), the second largest producer. The U.K. was third with 65,237,000 hi (1 hi = about 26.5 U.S. gal). West Germany again recorded the highest per capita consumption of beer, with Czechoslovakia, Australia, and Belgium in second, third, and fourth places, respectively. (See Table V.) For the first time in some years both the U.S. and European countries reported plentiful barley crops in 1978. The generally low nitrogen content of the crop provided an improved yield of beer from a given quantity of barley. Achievement of low-nitrogen barley for malting resulted from close liaison between experimental stations producing new varieties and farmers on the one hand and maltsters and brewers on the other. In Britain the Malting Barley Committee of the Institute of Brewing had for many years been monitoring experiments in barley varieties, arranging for trials and for malting at both the pilot and production stages and finally arranging brewing trials in various breweries around the country. At annual conferences agricultural and brewing interests met to hear the results to learn which were the recommended varieties for future plantings. The project had already resulted in such excellent new

and

varieties as

Ark Royal and had shown how

grain might be used economically, allowing high yields of beer from given tonnages. The bumper harvest did not bring about an undue slump in prices because the grain came onto the market gradually in most

436 Industrial

Review

countries, a circumstance caused by late rains in various parts of Europe. A continu-

ing strong demand for malting-quality grain was expected, in part because of the marked rise in beer consumption in Eastern Europe. Brewers were watching trends of beer sales in the U.K. with interest. The country was practically the last bastion of ale (as opposed to lager beer) drinking, but lager had increased its market share from 2 to 24.8% in the decade up to 1977. It was estimated, however, that lager's market share would not go much higher before the mid-1980s. ( Arthur t. e. binsted) Spirits. The general trend toward "light er" spirits such as vodka at the expense ol "darker," "heavier" varieties like whiskey, continued, especially in the important North American market. White spiritsvodka, gin, rum, tequila — increased their sales in the U.S. in 1977 by 4.2% to 165 million gal at the expense of whiskeys, which fell 1.7% to 219 million gal. White rum was popular as a substitute for vodka

and gin, with sales up 20%, and some industry observers considered that it had the best sales prospects of any of the 13 major spirit types sold in the U.S. In Britain vodka's share of the total spirits market moved up two points to 13% and it was expected to be the number-two spirit by 1981. Smirnoff, the world's largest selling spirits brand, continued to increase its market share in most countries. Anti-drink lobbies were vocal in several countries, and in the U.S. a "Responsible Drinking" campaign using $2.5 million of free advertising space from the media was sponsored by the Distilled Spirits Council. The plan was for the industry to inform and educate the public rather than be faced by ,

more

controls through

government

legisla-

tion.

Table V. Estimated Consumption of Beer in

Selected Countries In litres

Coontiy

Germony, West

'

per capita

1975

1976

1977

European production at 235 million remained below the average for the past decade. European Economic Community Italy,

hi

(eec) countries contributed 145 million hi, more than 48% of the world total. Production in South America declined by about 5 million hi to about 35 million hi, Argentina's harvest in particular being reduced by frost and hail. In the U.S. production rose to some 16 million hi. The French harvest of 58.5 million hi, though higher than that of the previous year, was nevertheless 20% below that of 1976. The most satisfactory levels were reached in the Cotes du Rhone and Beaujolais regions. The quality of the wines was on the whole excellent, with satisfactory alcoholic content and balance of acidity. Italy produced nearly 67 million hi, close to the average except in Piedmont, EmiliaRomagna, and, especially, Apulia, where

production was down. Quality was generwith a production of 28.5 million hi, had an excellent harvest both

ally good. Spain,

quantitatively and qualitatively, well above the average for the previous five years. Portuguese production, at 7.5 million hi, was again below average, but the quality of the wines, particularly in the Douro region, was good. In Algeria production fell to 2.3 million hi, in marked contrast to an annual average of 6 million hi earlier in the 1970s and 12 million hi in the 1960s. Among other important winegrowing countries the U.S.S.R. produced 31 million hi, Romania 10 miUion hi, and West Germany 8 million hi.

World Wine Fair was held in England, in July. Although Britain was importing wine from 29 countries and had about 70 commercial vineyards of its own, consumption remained at a low level.

The

first

Bristol,

Detroit's executive lineup

and American Motors sold 9,256,808 new cars in the 1978 model year extending from

DMC-12

Oct.

GM

sports/safety car in

Northern

Ire-

of all probably was the firing of Lee lacocca as president of Ford Motor Co. and his later

hiring as president and chief operating officer of Chrysler Corp. He was replaced by Philip Caldwell (see Biographies). lacocca was ousted by Henry Ford II, chairman of the firm, reportedly to keep him from gaining control of the company after

Ford retired in 1980.

Meanwhile, Richard Terrell, the vicechairman of GM, decided to take early retirement from General Motors. He cited ill health as one of the chief reasons for his leaving. It was a surprise move because by doing so Terrell took himself out of the running to succeed Thomas Murphy, due to retire as chairman in 1980. At American Motors Corp., Roy Chapin, Jr., chairman since 1967, announced that he would step down from an active role with the smallest of the domestic automakers. Gerald Meyers, president, took over as chairman. Paul Tippett, Jr., who had been an executive vice-president with Singer Co. and president of its Singer sewing machine operations,

was named president

to suc-

ceed Meyers. At Chrysler, Robert McCurvice-president

ry,

of

marketing

and

recognized as one of those behind Chrysler's offer of cash rebates to sell cars after the

underwent more

subcompact 1971-76 Pintos and 1975-76 Bobcats because of allegations that the fuel tanks could rupture and explode in the event of rear-end collisions. Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. was faced with the largest recall in history, some 10 million of the 500 series steel-belted radial tires.

As if the year was not hectic enough, it was also in 1978 that Volkswagen became the first import manufacturer to build cars in the U.S.; amc and Renault of France announced plans to affiliate; and Chrysler sold off its European operations to Peugeot-

It

was the

73.

age of 55. It was a whirlwind year for executives and for car sales, too. GM, Ford, Chrysler,

greatest number of new models in history and to register sales for the 1978 model year second only to the phenomenal totals of 1973. But it was also a year of major recalls. Ford was forced to recall 1.5 million of its

1977, to Sept. 30, 1978.

wing sports car was to have been introduced in 1979, but the switch in assembly sites postponed the date to 1980. In a year filled with surprises the biggest

oil

embargo, made good on his prom-

ise to retire at the

dent to vice-chairman. In the meantime its marketing vice-president retired early at the age of 55. In between all the executive shuffling Detroit managed to bring out perhaps the

1,

Review

second highest model-year total in history, trailing only the 10.1 million sold in 1972-

Arab

changes in 1978 than its automobiles. Ford Motor Co. fired its president, who later gained the same office at Chrysler Corp.; the vice-chairman of General Motors Corp. resigned; American Motors Corp. (amc) took on a new president and financial officer, and its chairman decided to take early retirement; and, while bringing in a new president, Chrysler moved its former presi-

Industrial

land after previously saying that it would be built in Puerto Rico. The two-seat, gull-

(PAUL mauron)

AUTOMOBILES

437

Citroen of France, making the latter the largest automaker in Europe. So much was going on in the U.S. that it was almost overlooked when John Z. DeLorean, former executive, announced that he would build his long-promoted

The

New

first

American-made Volkswagens

Stanton, Pennsylvania, plant

GM

set an individual sales record of 5.289,313 units, up from 5,131,971 in the 1977 model year and ahead of the previous record of 5,239,695 sold in 1973. Ford Motor Co. sales also rose, up 8.7% but they did not reach a record. Ford sold 2,630,837 cars in the 1978 model year and ,

watched as

its

set a

sales record for a car in its first year on the market. The total of more than 420,000 units topped the previous record of 418,000 set by the 1965 Ford Mustang. Chrysler sales declined to 1.1 million units from 1.2 million in the 1977 model year. One reason cited for the decline was unfavourable publicity generated over the all-new subcompact Dodge Omni and Plymouth Horizon after Consumer Reports magazine charged the two with unsafe steering. The charges were refuted by both U.S. and Canadian safety agencies, but for a brief period sales fell. Also contributing to the decline in sales was the fact that Chrysler discontinued the full-size Dodge Royal Monaco and Plymouth Gran Fury in 1978 as a move to boost its overall fuel-economy average. Thus, it was without a market entry in a size segment that proved to be a

good seller in 1978. American Motors scored a sales success with its new compact replacement for the Hornet, the Concord. But the Gremlin, Pacer, and Matador fell flat so that the smallest of the big four sold only 180,099 cars in the

1978 model year. This was down 11.8% from 1977, which itself registered a decline % from 1976. Matador was dropped for

of 21

1979.

started rolling off the line at the

in April.

new compact Fairmont

new

438

Review

Industrial

All four U.S. automakers unveiled a variety of new model offerings in the fall designed to attract more sales in the 1979 model year. The emphasis was on smaller cars. Ford brought out smaller and lighter versions of the standard-size Ford ltd and Mercury Marquis and restyled models of the subcompact Mustang and Mercury Ca-

GM

introduced downsized and lighter versions of the Buick Riviera, Oldsmobile Toronado, and Cadillac Eldorado. Chrysler presented smaller and lighter Chrysler New Yorkers and Newports in the standard size segment and a new Dodge St. Regis in the same category, along with two-door versions of the subcompact Dodge Omni and Plymouth Horizon. Chrysler also brought out new frontwheel-drive models built by Mitsubishi in Japan for distribution in the U.S. They were the Plymouth Champ and Dodge Colt. And for the first time Chrysler brought out subpri.

compact trucks, the Dodge D-50 and the Plymouth Arrow. Both of these were also imports from Mitsubishi. American Motors offered sedan and liftback replacements for the subcompact Gremlin, renamed the Spirit.

GM

luxury models sported 114-in wheelbases and overall lengths of about 206 in. All offered front- wheel drive as well, a first for the Riviera. The Riviera also had a 231cu-in turbocharged V-6 engine as standard in its S model and optional in its luxury version. It became the fourth car to offer turbocharging, a method that uses normally wasted exhaust gases to boost engine horsepower so that a normal economy engine can also have the characteristics of a

GM

high-performance power plant.

While the new Riviera had the turbo, new Toronado and Eldorado offered an

the op-

GM's 350-cu-in V-8. The high-mileage diesel was also in the tional diesel engine,

88, 98, and Cutlass; the Cadiland the Chevrolet and light-duty pickup trucks. Before the end of the 1979 model year all Cadillac models also were to have the diesel as an option. The diesel in the Cutlass was a new, smaller 260-cu-in model, which came with a fivespeed manual transmission. At Ford the new ltd and Marquis were reduced to 114-in wheelbases from 121 in, and overall lengths came down to 209-212 in from 224-229 in the previous year. The weight reduction ranged from 600 to 800 lb. Because the cars were smaller and lighter Ford made its 302-cu-in V-8 engine standard in both and its 351-cu-in V-8 an option. It stopped offering the 400- and 460-cu-in V-8s. The 460 was also dropped as an option in the luxury Lincoln in favour of the 400 only.

Oldsmobile

CMC

lac Seville,

did, however, come out with a special "Collector's Series" edition of the Lincoln

model

and Mark V to commemorate their last year on the market at their large dimensions before they, too, would be downsized in 1980. The Ford Thunderbird, which also would be downsized to become a compact in 1980, offered a Heritage model to signal the end of the line at its present intermedi-

and then one

ate dimensions.

The changes

Chrysler were extensive.

at

New Yorker and Newport,

which had been

luxury models, were reduced in size and weight and reclassified as standards. And an ultraluxury version, reminiscent of the former Imperial, was introduced. It was called the New Yorker full-size

Avenue Edition. At Dodge the old Royal Monaco became the St. Regis. Since Chrysler's standard-size cars had become Fifth

approximately intermediate in size, the mid-size Fury, Monaco, and Charger were in 1979. Two-door sporty versions Dodge Omni and Plymouth Horizon were added for '79 to complement the four-

dropped of the

door offerings that

first

appeared in January

1978.

At AMC, while the Spirit name was new, the sedan replacement for the former subcompact Gremlin almost looked like a mirror image save for slight changes in the form of a larger rear quarter window. The liftback Spirit, however, was a new body style.

AMC

was counting on Renault to provide it with more models in the future. As soon as the two automakers signed said that

it

to affiliate, amc dealers were to distribute Renault's mini front-wheeldrive Le Car in the U.S. and Renault was to offer AMc's Jeeps in its worldwide markets. Later, perhaps for the 1980 model year, AMC would begin assembling a new Renault called the R-18, a luxury compact, at its Kenosha, Wis., assembly plant. It was believed that amc's announced intention to affiliate with a foreign automaker led to the decision by Chrysler to sell its European operations to Peugeot-Citroen of France. Under terms of the deal Peugeot would pay Chrysler $230 million in cash and give it a 15% equity interest in what now would become Europe's largest auto concern with about 18% of the market.

an agreement

Without having

to

pour money into new

a notchback version. Four-cylinder engines

products for the European market, Chrysler said it would channel its funds to the U.S. market to develop more fuel-efficient cars in order to meet federal fuel economy standards for the 1980s. The federal fuel economy laws took effect in the 1978 model year and required each of the four domestic manufacturers to obtain an average of 18 miles per gallon (mpg) from their fleets of cars or face a fine of $5 for every one-tenth mpg they fell below the standard for every car sold during the year. In 1979 the requirement would move up to 19 mpg and in 1980 it would be 20 mpg. The climax to the fuel economy standards and the reason the industry was downsizing its models was that U.S. manufacturers must obtain a 27.5-mpg average from their fleets

were standard

of cars

The new Mustang and Capri (which for first time was now built in the U.S. rathWest Germany) were offered in fastback models, and the Mustang also got the

er than in

and sixes and V-8s an optional turbocharged 2.3-litre, four-cylinder engine in the Mustang Cobra and Capri Turbo R/S. The rest of the Ford and Mercury models were little changed for 1979. The automaker optional

as

in both,

well

as

by

1985.

Meanwhile, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, which ranked the fuel economy for both U.S. and imported cars for inclusion on new car window stickers, changed its methods in the fall for the 1979

year. In the past the

epa

listed a city

mileage figure, a highway mileage figure, for city

and highway com-

bined. Reacting to public outcry that the averages, especially the city/highway combined, were unrealistically high, the epa for 1979 changed to one "estimated mileage" figure for the cars. It corresponded to the city-only figure for previous years. Once again the epa's fuel economy ratings were dominated by imports from carmakers outside the U.S. First on the list was

diesel-powered Volkswagen Rabbit with an estimated rating of 41 mpg. Among the top individual models in the ep.\ listings, a

in addition to the Rabbit, were diesel-powered Volkswagen Dasher, Datsun 210,

Dodge

Plymouth Champ, Toyota Mazda glc, Chevrolet Chevette,

Colt,

Corolla,

and a three-way tie among the Honda Civic, Plymouth Arrow, and Ford Fiesta. In addition to dominating the epa list, the non-U. S. automakers were busy bringing new cars to market. From Japan, Toyota,

the top importer in the U.S., unveiled a a six-cylinder Celica. Dat-

new Corona and

sun presented a new 280-ZX sports car, a two-door 810 luxury sedan, and a restyled B-210 under the name 210. Honda came out with a four-door model in the Accord line that previously was limited and announced that it would have a sports model in the spring tentatively called the Prelude. Maz-

da unveiled its sporty two-seat RX-7 rotaryengine sports model and a glc wagon. From Europe Volkswagen brought out the longawaited diesel Dasher, and Mercedes introduced its 300TD diesel-powered station wagon. Fiat put the finishing touches on a high-mileage subcompact hatchback tentatively code named the X 1-38. The year in some respects was one of contrasts. Ford may have fired its president and had to recall several cars, but it also celebrated its 75th year in the business. Chev-

commemorated the 25th year on the market for the Corvette, which was chosen as the pace car for the Indianapolis 500-mi race. Only about 6,000 of those special edition cars were built, and speculators quickly drove the $13,000 starting price up to $30,000 and more. After the race prices eased back. also caused a minor stir when it said that it would abandon its traditional oncea-year price increase each fall in favour of a small increase in the fall and others during the year as the need arose. The competition said it would follow suit. Price increases for the 1979 models averaged from 4.1 to 4.6% or from $235 to $302, depending on the rolet also

GM

,

manufacturer.

(james

l.

mateja)

BUILDING

AND CONSTRUCTION In July 1978 the value of new construction put in place in the U.S. stood at a seasonally adjusted annual rate of $206.9 billion. The level of construction expenditures had exceeded expectations, moving up steadily during the first six months of the year. Despite some of the highest interest rates on record, housing starts during the first nine months remained above a seasonally ad-

justed annual rate of two million units. It appeared that the strong housing market was due in large part to the desire of many Americans to invest money in homes to beat inflation. The housing industry was

439 Industrial

Review

the dollar against other major currencies dropped dramatically. In theory that should have helped the U.S. trade balance for chemicals (and other products) by effectively reducing the price of U.S. exports and increasing the price of imports into the country. No such effect was apparent, however, in the chemical trade figures for the first half of 1978, perhaps because of the

time lag between a change in currency value and its effect on trade. In any case U.S. chemical exports did grow in the first six months of 1978 to $5,797,900,000, 7.1%

above the figure for the first half of 1977. Imports, however, soared 29.4% in the same period to $3,238,500,000. Net exports of chemicals, asaresult, dropped 12% from the

helped significantly in 1978 by $40 billion in loans made available to savings and loan associations by the Federal Home Loan Bank Board. New six-month lending certificates with flexible interest yields were also a key factor in keeping money available for

commercial property. Residential building in Japan was down after having risen 7% in 1977, and it appeared that investment in business plant and equipment would re-

housing.

main stagnant.

The U.S. government reported that new home prices had increased 16% during 1977 and 1978 to an average of approximately $63,000. The median price of a new home had been around $47,900 in 1977 and $27,600 in 1972. It was also reported that in 1977 the six million U.S. families that bought new and used houses stretched their income beyond traditionally safe standards. According to a report by the United States League of Savings Associations, the average home buyer spent $273 each month on the mortgage (exclusive of the down payment), $60 for utility bills, $54 for real estate taxes, and $13 for insurance, for a total of $400.

On a current dollar basis,

it

was expected

that construction expenditures for the year

would be

in excess of $190 billion,

com-

pared with the previous record outlay of $172.5 billion in 1977. In the private sector, construction expenditures moved to successively higher levels of activity in each month of the year, while public sector activity remained strong. When the dollar outlays for the years 1972 through 1978 were adjusted to the 1972 price level, however the level of activity in 1 978 fell considerably below that of 1973. ,

Investment demand in Canada was weak in 1978, and the value of permits granted for housing construction declined sharply. In Western Europe a rather slow improve-

ment in construction was predicted for 1978 and 1979, despite measures of fiscal stimulation

undertaken

in

several

countries.

Construction in the U.K., which had risen steadily in 1977, experienced a decline in the first quarter of 1978, attributable mainly to a 23% drop in starts in the public

housing starts through the first six months of 1978 were 30% above the corresponding period in 1977; private houssector. Private

ing orders remained high, and there was a noticeable increase in the construction of

(carter

C.

OSTERBrND)

CHEMICALS The

U.S. chemical industry scored substangains in 1977 and in the first half of 1978. But in other industrialized countries the long-awaited chemical recovery was slow in developing. In 1977, according to the U.S. Department of Commerce, shipments of chemicals and allied products amounted to $113, 891,000,000, 9.4% higher than they were in 1976. In the first half of 1978 they rose to $65,433,000,000, 12.9% above the corresponding period of 1977, Most of the increase was caused by greater physical volume rather than by higher prices. In 1977 the Federal Reserve Board's index of industrial production for chemicals and allied products averaged 180.7 (1967 = 100), 6.7% higher than the average for 1976. In the same period chemical prices rose only 3%. The U.S. Department of Labor's index of producer prices for chemicals and allied products went from 187.2 (1967 = 100) in 1976 to 192.8 in 1977. Although the growth in physical output slowed somewhat in the first half of 1978, the same general trend continued. According to preliminary figures the index of chemical production averaged 186.2 for the first six months, 3% higher than that for the full year of 1977. The price index averaged 196.2 for the first half of 1978, 2% above the average for the whole of 1977. tial

The

U.S.

Department

of

Commerce

re-

ported that in 1977 chemical exports grew 8.6% to $10,812,000,000, while imports rose only 4.1% to $4,970,400,000. The favourable balance of trade for the U.S. chemical industry, therefore, increased 12.6% in 1977 to $5,841,900,000. During the first three quarters of 1978 the value of

first six

months

of 1977.

Capital investment in the U.S. chemical industry continued at a high level. In the fall 1978 survey taken by the McGraw-Hill Department of Economics, chemical companies estimated that their expenditures for the full year 1978 would amount to $7,480,000,000. They also reported that they intended to boost that by 9% in 1979 to $8,120,000,000. At the same time they said that they expected costs for plant and equipment would be 7% higher than in 1977.

Chemical industries in Western Europe, while continuing to grow in 1977 and the early part of 1978, were experiencing difficulties because of overcapacity in many areas. Commodity chemicals, including plastics, were problem spots. But manmade fibres were probably the most worrisome. Early in 1978 the EEC and producers of

Commission of the

man-made

fibres

reached a preliminary agreement under which existing capacities would be cut back by 20%. The plan allowed for special treatment for producers in Italy, where manmade fibre losses had been particularly heavy and where plant utilization was only 50-60%. The overall objective of the plan was to permit fibre producers to break even in 1979. In

West Germany man-made

fibre pro-

duction in 1977 dropped 7% to 707,000 metric tons. The industry was operating at approximately 70% of capacity, lower than it

was

in 1976. Prices for

man-made

fibres at

the plant were 30% lower than in 1970. Overcapacity in large-volume plastics was also adversely affecting the health of the West German industry. In 1977 chemical sales in the country increased only 1.9%, and in the first quarter of 1978 they declined

2%. But the outlook was not entirely bleak for West Germany. Experience had showed that chemical business picked up in the fall, and it was expected that the full year of 1978 register a sales increase of 2-3%. As part of a long-range strategy the industry

would

was turning more and more toward the manufacture of higher value chemical speand to more and more investment

cialties

outside

Chemical

West

Germany.

Industry

The

nation's

Association reported was transferred out of the country for chemical projects in 1977. It was estimated that another $500 million-$750 million was invested by forthat $500 million in capital

440 Industrial

Review

eign subsidiaries of West German companies. Though the eec had the biggest share of West German chemical investment, starting in 1974 the U.S. had become the principal single target. Investments in Brazil and in Japan had been increasing as vifell. United Kingdom chemical companies vi^ere expecting a sales growth of 2.5-3% in 1978 after a year of no growth in 1977. Their expectations in late 1978 were for a 4-5% growth in 1979. Britain had expected North Sea discoveries of natural gas to revitalize its industry, but projects based on the gas were slow in materializing. In 1976 a government-union-industry working party had established as one goal the construction of four ethylene plants by 1985. In 1978, however, only one plant — in Mossmorran, Scotland — was in the planning stage. A March 1978 study served to dampen hopes further.

It

concluded that a planned mul-

timillion-dollar gas gathering system

was

The system would have brought ashore liquids associated with North Sea natural gas and would have provided raw material for a large-scale ethylene plant. Study of a more modest system began, but there was no great optimism that even that would be built. Japanese chemical companies were grappling with problems of overcapacity and sluggish demand. Major chemical companies posted sales and earnings gains during fiscal 1976 (which ended March 31, 1977). not

feasible.

They were

not able to do so well in 1977, however. Among the 20 largest chemical companies 12 reported lower sales and 6 showed losses. After a two-year study, the Chemical Industry Association Japan

recommended consolidation among

pro-

ducers of chlorine and caustic soda polyvinyl chloride, low-density polyethylene, and polypropylene. A six-month produc,

which was due to expire at the September 1978, improved the situation for makers of nylon, polyester, and

RCA

kind.

(million watts) of electric

scope for them in high-technology products (turbine generators, high-voltage switchgear, etc.) and in mass-produced products (motors, control systems, etc.). One increasingly important complication in assessing overall market strategy was the effect of inflation on trade between the industrialized countries. The strength of the West German mark

and

domestic wages were

inflated

man

fall

of the

same year

makers were planning cutbacks of 20% in ammonia and 407c in urea. Despite these problems Japan's favourable balance of trade in the chemical industrv increased

4%

in 1977 to $2,006,500,000^ The continued strength of the yen, however, made it questionable whether or not the industry could repeat its performance in 1978.

(DONALD

ELECTRICAL A relationship,

p.

burke)

long suspected, between growth in demand for electricity and the market for electrical products was by 1978 believed to be fully established. Recent trends consistently showed annual growth in demand for electricity in the industrialized countries below 7% and electrical machinery markets in the same nations declining, whereas less developed countries had demand growths of up to 30% per annum and also had rapidly growing markets for electrical products. The opportunities in less developed countries attracted manufacturers from the industrialized nations, and although they were beginning to lose ground in some product areas to indigenous industry, there was increasing

among

West Gerequipment manufacturers to growing proportion of their

the factors that persuaded major

fertilizer

power

during nuclear fusion experiments.

tion cartel,

acrylic fibres. In the

A 20-member team designed

the water-cooled devices for Princeton University's Plasma Physics Laboratory, where each would be used to control 25 megawatts

end

of

engineer examines component

of a 145-kg (320-lb) vacuum switch tube, one of the 12 believed to be the world's most powerful of their

electrical

transfer

a

budgets into overseas operations. Investment abroad by the industry increased by 10.6% in 1976 and rose bv an additional 13.6% in 1977. By 1978 the industry had DM 5.6 billion invested overseas, with the U.S.

and

Brazil the favourite countries for for example, joined

expansion. Siemens, forces

up

a

with Allis Chalmers in the U.S. to set to manufacture power engi-

company

neering products.

With the West Germans scanning distant horizons, the flow of investment by foreign electrical

was

DM

companies into West Germany

tailing off. In 1977 the figure rose by 332 million to reach a total of 4.4

DM

The most interest was shown by which by 1978 owned 6% investment in the West German electrical industry. West German wages overtook those in the U.S., and West

billion.

U.S. companies, of all foreign

German companies were being underbid by up to 25% on many projects. The same was

true of the Swiss electrical Exports increased in 1977 by about 10%, but imports rose by 20%, with switchgear up by 25% Brown Boveri, the largest Swiss electrical equipment manufacturer, was actively increasing its overseas investment, a recent acquisition

industry.

.

being Turbodyne's Gas Turbine Division in Minnesota. Although the balance between exports and imports of electrical equipment in West Germany was not as bad as in Switzerland,

DED

(the

West German organization

for in-

vestment and project coordination in less developed countries) in 1978 had 700 million for equity investments and/or loans with equity features available to companies in less developed countries, ded had already initiated production units for cables in Africa and the Far East and for motors,

DM

transformers, and batteries in Central and

South America.

Toward the end of 1978, following the announcement U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter's export stimulus package on October 3, there were signs of a trade quarrel brewing between the U.S. and Europe concerning higher U.S. import duties on products subsidized by European governments. In 1977 the U.S. electrical equipment industry increased its sales by 10% to $43 billion and was expected to continue to advance in 1978 at a somewhat lower rate. The French electrical industry recorded an increase in exports of 37% in 1977, with imports down by 14% During the previous four years French exports to the Far East multiplied by nine and to the Middle East

but

.

by

five. In Britain

er plant

rose

powmachinery months of 1978

exports of electrical

and industrial

36%

electrical

in the first six

compared with the same period in 1977, while imports increased by 20%. Britain was one of the few industrialized countries not accused by the UN Conference on Trade and Development in 1978 of having impeded the local electrical equipment industries in Brazil, aeg (Allgemeine Elektrizitats-Gesellschaft) and Siemens of

.

West Germany, Brown Boveri of Switzerland, .\SEA (AUmanna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget) of Sweden, acec (Ateliers de Constructions Electriques de Charleroi) of Belgium, Hitachi of Japan, and General Electric of the U.S. were alleged to have divided up the Brazilian market to the detriment of the locally owned industry. As a result of the investigation, there was a marked tightening of import laws to encourage increased production in Brazil. (t. c.

j.

cogle)

FURNITURE U.S. home furnishings industry continued to profit from the housing boom. Furniture manufacturers' shipments during the first half of 1978 showed a 14% increase in wholesale sales; corrected for inflation, the real growth rate averaged 7% Wood furniture and upholstery shipments were both 15% above 1977 figures, and tables, principally occasional tables, enjoyed a growth rate of 30%. For the first time in five years, summer and casual furniture

The

sales leveled off, at a

6% annual growth

Total retail furniture sales were estimated at $18.8 billion, including bedding, estimated at $176.4 million. Two significant styling trends gained in importance during the year. "Lifestyle," a merchandising trend featuring casual, easy-to-assemble furniture, spawned hundreds of specialty stores catering to the morate.

and young. The second notable trend was "the great room," an all-purpose family room that was actually a throwback to

bile

the old family kitchen. In upholstered furniture, the use of modular units that could be fitted together in many configurations continued to be popular. In the trade, this was referred to as "the pit look." More upholstery manufacturers were offering sleep as well as conventional sofas. Smaller living units

441

contributed to the popularity of these dualpurpose units, as well as to a significant growth in wall units for books and general storage.

Water beds continued

to

grow

Industrial

Review

in

popularity, with sales in 1978 estimated at $275 million. A new type, called a hybrid, combined a water bed with a conventional

Prices of furs and fur products in 1978 were about 15% higher than in 1977, re-

sleep unit. U.S. government regulations continued to present problems for the furniture industry. A court decision removed the imminent possibility of a rigid cotton-dust standard in cotton mills, proposed by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (osha). The imposition of wooddust safety standards, also proposed by

These increases were most noticeable in the U.S. and Canada, because their dollars de-

OSHA, could cause considerable adjustment

wood furniture-making procedures. An attempt by the Consumer Product Safety Commission to make upholstered furniture in

cigarette burn-proof

still

had not been

re-

solved.

Wholesale furniture prices rose 12.5% in 1978, reflecting an estimated 30% increase in the cost of labour and materials, particularly hardwoods. The U.S. Department of reported a 27% increase in U.S. furniture imports, with 1977 volume reaching $464 million. Imports from Taiwan rose 51 % to $75 million. In contrast, U.S. exports totaled only $136 million, 57% of which

Commerce

went

to

Canada.

(ROBERT

A.

SPELMAN)

FURS Additional countries joined the list of those banning the use of such species as spotted cats, populations of which were considered to be endangered. The U.S. now required exporters of otters, lynx cats, and lynx to obtain permits as a means of regulating commerce in those animals. Nations belonging to the Convention on Trade in En-

dangered Species would meet in March 1979 in Costa Rica for a periodic review.

The president of the environmental group Greenpeace, Patrick Moore (right), was arrested when he tried to protect a seal pup from slaughter during the annual seal hunt off the coast of Labrador.

flecting

the

general

inflationary

trend.

clined sharply in value relative to other major currencies. Buyers operating with such strong currencies as the Japanese yen. West German mark, and Swiss franc were actually able to buy pelts more cheaply than in the previous year.

Production continued to be a worldwide problem. Despite the recent attractiveness industry from the standpoint of profit potential, the attrition of the past decade still had not been offset. This, together with increased demand, resulted in delivery problems for stores. Nevertheless, the current boom prompted the U.S. industry to sponsor its first international fur fair, to be held in New York City in 1979. The international fur industry again reported excellent business. In many countries 1978 was the fifth or sixth consecutive of the

boom

year. Retail fur sales set

in the U.S., final

figures

new

records

Canada, and Japan. Although were not available at year's

end, U.S. projections indicated that volume would reach $750 million, about 15% above the previous year. Although fashion was considered the main force behind the excellent demand, comfort and economics were not far behind. Severe winters and energy problems were important factors, especially in northern climates. On the economic side, rampant

many areas of the world led to put their rapidly depreciating into such luxuries as furs, jewelry, and travel. In some countries where widespread affluence was relatively new, the prestige appeal of furs was a major motivation; in Japan, retail fur sales rose more than 30% above the previous year's record of almost $500 million. inflation in

consumers

money

(sandy Parker)

GEMSTONES Uncertainty about prices, which continued to trend strongly upward, and frantic activity described the condition of the gemstone industry in 1978. Drastic price changes for diamonds at the source — the Central Selling Organisation in London — were the direct cause of the uncertainty. For the most part these price manipulations were executed in reaction to changing eco-

nomic and

political conditions.

Imposition of a 17% surcharge on rough diamond prices in December 1977 shocked the diamond industry. This surcharge was grossly increased to 40% in March 1978, lowered to 25% by May, to 15% by June,

and eventually, in August, dropped completely. Meanwhile, the base price of diamond rough had risen 30% over the December 1977 level. Also, by the end of 1977 a moratorium had been declared on supplying U.S. dealers with rough material weighing over five carats, forcing the dealers to turn to the more expensive secondary market in Europe and elsewhere.

Between September 1977 and September 1978, the steady upward price trend, including surcharges, translated into retail

442 Industrial

sapphires rose by 40 to 50%. It was hoped that the good sapphires that entered the

Review

price rises of 65 to

121%

for finished cut

diamonds. Larger sized diamonds of high quality suffered even greater price inflation, toward the end of 1978 a one-carat, D-Flawless diamond commanded a retail price of $44 000 representing a rise of some 180%. Diamond prices leveled off between June and August, probably because of normally slow gem sales in the summer, but soon began to rise again. There was no evidence of massive consumer resistance, however. Even the prices for older, estate jewelry at the important auctions were much higher than anticipated. Some of the most severe pressure on diamond prices came from heavy investment buying. With the increase in mining costs and the sharp decline in the relative value of the U.S. dollar, diamonds suddenly seemed an attractive investment. Some re,

,

mail-order houses, investment brokers, and other companies jumped into the diamond investment business. Such a surge encouraged fraudulent and illegal enterprise, although industry selfpublicity, and court actions policing, helped to weed out some of the more nefarious enterprises. The fluctuating surcharges applied to diamond rough at the source were meant to dampen investment enthusiasm by deliberately creating price untail

jewelers,

certainty.

With few exceptions, coloured gemstones participated in the active market. Demand remained strong for mediumpriced gems such as tourmaline, aquamarine, and irradiated blue topaz, as well as for higher priced gems such as "imperial" topaz, fancy coloured sapphires, tsavorite, and tanzanite. Tsavorites of over three carats became very scarce. Major producing areas for sapphire and ruby on Thailand's

Cambodian border were plagued by guerrilla activity,

and prices

of

Thai rubies and

A 353.9 carat diamond was found near would be worth about $11 million.

Pretoria,

South

market from Yogo Gulch in Montana would help the situation, although these stones tended to be small. Milky-looking Sri Lanka sapphires turned a strong, deep blue by heat and irradiation also came on the market. Because of increased supply, prices of coloured stones in general remained fairly (PAUL E. desautels) stable.

GLASS Worldwide sluggishness in trade continued Europe the tonnage of glass melted in 1977 was 2.5% below the peak year of 1974. Much of the industry was engaged in modernization and consolidation in preparation for an expected upsurge in demand. The Belgian companies Verlica-Momignies and Bouteilleries Beiges Reunies combined their activities under the name Verlipack and now supplied a complete range of glassware for to affect the glass industry. In

packaging. Pilkington Brothers Ltd. of the U.K. purchased a 50% stake in the Finnish flat glass company Lahden Lasitehdas Oy, thus further consolidating its interests in Scandinavia. Through its holding company, Scan-Gobain Glas, Saint-Gobain Pont-a-Mousson of Prance also consolidated its Scandinavian interests by merging Emmaboda Glasverk with Scan Glas Svenska and Soderberg and Cleve. Another French company. La Verrerie Cristallerie d'Arques, joined Sasaki Glass of Japan to set up a company to supply specially designed tableware for the Japanese market. Owens-Corning Fiberglas of the U.S.

and Bayer

of

West Germany

jointly

planned

to build a $47 million glass-fibre insulation plant at Vise in Belgium. Glass fibre continued to make news, with the bulk of production going to insulation. Owens-Corning Fiberglas planned to set up a plant to produce glass-fibre mats for specialty purposes, such as the replacement of rag felt in roofing. In Japan, Asahi Glass and Mitsubishi Chemical Industries signed Africa.

It

was estimated

that

when

cut, the

gem

Giant machine fabricates glass-fibre-reinforced

foam insulation

for liquefied-natural-gas tankers.

an agreement with Allied Chemical of the U.S. to manufacture, under license, a composite glass-fibre thermoplastic resin material for the Japanese automobile industry. It was said to have the same strength as steel at half the weight. RCA Electro-optics and Devices introduced its first fibre-optics data link for use in communications. This enabled light waves to be transmitted from one point to another through flexible cables consisting of ultrathin strands of glass fibre.

market

in

fibre-optics

The

U.S.

communications,

currently around $10 million per year, was expected to grow to $500 million by 1983. It was also predicted that fibre optics would begin to replace telephone cables in the U.S. and Japan by 1979 and in Western Europe two years later. The bbc, in conjunction with Standard Telephones and Cables, was testing colour transmission over opticalfibre cables.

Corning Glass Works developed

a

range

reproduced colours in thin layers or in depth. While these had not yet reached the commercial stage, possible applications included the storage of archive material, projection slides, and photographs. The versatility of these new glasses would enable a single glass to take the place of different glasses in such products as of glasses that

stained glass, architectural glass, and tableware. Research laboratories in West Ger-

many developed

a

fire-resistant glass for

building purposes that withstood temperatures of 1,000° C.

The trend

in

packaging was toward

light-

er weight glass containers, thus reducing the cost of raw materials, energy, and transport. This led to the development of special coatings to protect the strength of the container during filling and use. Pressure to reuse discarded containers continued to grow; the U.K. announced a policy of setting up collection centres, thus following a practice already in use in West Germany, Switzerland, and, to some extent, the U.S. and Australia.

(CYRIL

weeden)

443 tic insurers in the U.K.; storms caused claims of £15 million in mid-January

alone,

and

a strike

by

were written by these three countries. Great Britain, France, Canada, The Netherlands, and Australia. In the U.K. sales growth as of early 1978

was not keeping pace with

more

Private insurance sales grew steadily in 1978, approaching $300 billion. Japan and

West Germany each accounted for more than 10?o of the global market, while the U.S. share was less than 50%. Approximately 90% of total insurance premiums

inflation, de-

spite a rise of 7% in general insurance and 12% in life insurance annual premium volume. Lloyd's membership increased by

a record 3,800 individual members to a new high of 14,000. Four existing associations of

registered U.K. brokers

new

merged

into the

Insurance Brokers' Association, and brokers were now registered under the Insurance Brokers' Registration Act British

of 1977. After five years of deliberation, the Royal Commission on Civil Liability recommended changes in the motor vehicle law relating to bodily injuries, including introduction of no-fault compensation with the right to sue for additional damages. Strict liability was proposed in the U.K. and Europe for injuries caused by defective products.

The winter of 1977-78 was bad

for

domes-

,

comparison information on insurance contracts. Several companies troduced new variable and adjustable cost

These

re-

occurred despite 24 catastrophes (involving losses of more than $1 million each) totaling a near-record $482 million in sults

claims.

The trend toward shorter and more readable types of property-liability insurance contracts grew with the introduction of the personal auto policy in most states. Similar personalized wording expanded the use of homeowners' contracts (including new forms for owners of condominiums and oldhomes) and the business owners' policy. Arson problems plagued the fire insurance business; more than one-fourth of all losses er

in-

tors

life

territory, age, sex,

insurance market. U.S. property and liability insurers reported an estimated 12% increase in sales, with premiums amounting to more than $70 billion annually. Statutory underwriting profits, which turned around in 1977 after almost a decade of losses, reached insurance agents

billion to $30 billion at midyear.

were attributed to that cause. Automobile rating systems were challenged in many states, with new rating fac-

eight years earlier, and vision care insurance was very popular. The number of health maintenance organizations (prepaid health plans established under a recent federal law) increased to several hundred, giving insureds a new option in the health

how

more than $700 million in the first six months of 1978. Including investment profits, policyholders' surplus rose by $2.5

life

insurance policies, which included or permitted added protection to meet inflation. Group dental insurance now covered nearly 50 million persons, up from 13 million

for 18 years (masked) told a U.S. House committee of pressure old people into buying unnecessary health insurance.

An insurance salesman

Review

fire-protection per-

sonnel led to higher fire losses. Road casualties rose by 3% to 348,000 in 1977. A record liability award of £254,000 to an injured woman was confirmed in the appeals court. By 1978 U.S. life insurers had more than $3.1 trillion of life insurance in force, and assets exceeded $350 billion. Projected sales growth for the year was close to 10% in life insurance and more than 12% in health insurance. Premium receipts amounted to almost $80 billion: half for life insurance, one-third for health insurance, and onefifth for annuities. Two out of three persons in the U.S. had life insurance policies, and the average amount of life insurance owned by insured families rose to $37,000. Private insured pension plans, which grew at an annual rate of nearly 15% now covered 20 million persons. An increasing number of states were requiring that agents provide prospects with

INSURANCE

Industrial

advocated

to replace the traditional and marital status criTort liability reform continued; more than 20 states had no-fault laws, although there was a slowdown in the adoption of teria.

such laws in 1978. Group legal expense insurance was the most rapidly growing type of

employee benefit coverage. Flood risks in the U.S. were

under a new

federal

now

insured

government program

using agents of private insurers for sales and services. Nuclear risks were insured in 1978 with a newly reorganized pool of private insurers called the American Nuclear

(david

Insurers.

IRON

AND

l.

bickelhaupt)

STEEL

The depression in the steel industry that had begun in late 1974 continued in 1978, with no definite upturn in sight. World crude steel output in 1977 was 5 million metric tons less than in 1976, which was 30 million tons below the last good year, 1974. There was some upward movein 1978, and some authorities believed that world output of steel for the year might be slightly above the 1977 figure of 672.2 million tons. Such improvement as there was in 1978 varied in its extent in different countries. The output of the Communist countries continued to increase, and a number of the less developed countries moved strongly ahead. Among the established Western producers Canada and the U.S. both operated at quite high levels during the year, while many European countries also produced more than in 1977 (though in most cases still only working at about 60% of capacity). The Japanese and British industries were likely to produce less for the second successive year. The continuance of the depression in the steel industry evoked a reappraisal of policies and the introduction of crisis programs in several of the major producing countries. These last included market protection measures in the U.S., Canada, and the EEC. In itself

ment

practice,

however, they were

fairly

moder-

ate.

In the U.S. 1978 was a year of definite recovery, with demand from the construction and machinery and equipment industries and from steel service centres more

444 Industrial

Review

than offsetting some decline in demand from the automotive sector. The steel industry had been operating at about 85% of capacity, and the financial results of many of the major corporations improved significantly over 1977. However, revenue, al-

though improved, was judged inadequate to finance the high cost of the new and replacement equipment that would be required to maintain a competitive U.S. industry over the long term and also to meet the increased cost of equipment for strengthened antipollution standards. In these circumstances attention was focused of imports, which amounted to 19.3 million metric tons in 1977 (when

on the problem

number of antidumping suits were introduced against European and Japanese suppliers) and seemed likely to rise to over 20 a

million tons in 1978. In the fall of 1977 the U.S. government set a task force to study and make recommendations on the import issue in relation to the steel industry. The report advised the introduction of a so-called trigger price system. Brought into operation from mid-February 1978 and taking effect in April, this

up

was an arrangement whereby customs were furnished with reference, or trigger, prices for each product based on a calculation by the administration of the officers

delivered cost of the most efficient overseas supplier, Japan. Imports at lower prices were liable to receive a punitive tariff imposed by the government. Although U.S. producers were dissatisfied with the results of the system in terms of lowered import tonnage levels, especially from Europe, the administration appeared to anticipate that

the rise in the average price per ton of imports as a result of the system (about 15% by mid-1978) would have a delayed effect and would reduce imports by perhaps some

European Commission-determined mandatory minimum prices and rises in the Commission's

recommended minimum

prices

products already covered but also, for time, the buttressing of the internal market support measures by protection for

3.5 million metric tons in 1979.

the

In the EEC the crisis measures introduced progressively from 1975 were extended and strengthened at the end of 1977 within the framework of the so-called Davignon Plan. The changes then introduced included not only extension to new steel products of the

against cheap foreign steel imports. With regard to the latter, the Commission published minimum import reference prices for a wide range of products (in practice some 6% below prevailing EEC internal price lev-

first

els); imports arriving at lower prices were likely to be punished with extra duties. The arrangement thus resembled in many re-

spects the U.S. trigger-price system. This

system, however, was progressively replaced during the year by individual agreements between the Community and the governments of the main foreign supplying countries. Agreements on import levels between the EEC and 15 Western and Eastern countries were reached during 1978, the import reference price arrangements continuing to apply to imports from countries with which no agreement had been made. The Davignon Plan achieved a measure of success.

The pressure

of imports

was

re-

duced to some extent so far as the Community as a whole was concerned, and prices

for

eec

products rose internally.

However, as a result of renewed price weakness around midyear associated with overproduction in the first half, internal prices increased less than the amount announced as a target at the beginning of the year.

Japanese steel consumption was likely to time in five years. reasonably strong from the public works, construction equipment, heavy electrical, and passenger-car industries, but the private building and shipbuilding industries were poorer markets. With regard to exports, higher priority than in the past was given to revenue as against volume. In consequence, export tonnages and total output were expected to be somewhat down over the year, but there was some strengthening of prices on the rise in 1978 for the first

Demand was

world market generally, reinforced by the effect of the major appreciation of the yen. (TREVOR J. MACDONALD)

MACHINERY AND MACHINE TOOLS The statistics

for sales

and shipments

of

ma-

chine tools in the U.S. apparently indicated new records in 1978, but because of the recent high rates of inflation the data must be analyzed closely to determine the true picture. The estimated total sales of machine tools for 1978 amounted to $4,225,860,000

and

shipments

totaled

approximately

$2,915,640,000. However, in terms of constant dollars (based on 1977= 100), sales amounted to only $3,604,900,000, a figure exceeded many times in the past. Likewise, the 1978 estimated shipments, based on 1977 dollars, were $2, 486, 108, 000 -less than any one year during the period from 1964 to 1970 and also less than in 1974 and 1975. The backlog of unfilled orders increased steadily through 1978 and approached $3.9 billion by the end of the year. A sharp improvement in sales occurred in October 1978 as a direct result of the International Machine Tool Show held in September at McCormick Place in Chicago. Conventional machines and accessories were on display as well as the newest, most sophisticated equipment, which included many forms of computer-controlled cutting, forming, and measuring machines. Sponsored by the National Machine Tool Builders' Association, the show attracted more than 97,000 visitors, some 6,000 of whom were from outside the U.S. More than 1,000 exhibitors occupied 640,000 sq ft of space, making this the largest industrial exhibition ever held in the U.S. Of the

Part of the in

Chicago

crowd of 97,000 in

visitors

who

attended the International Machine Tool

exhibit area, 37% was occupied by manufacturers of machine tools and accessories from 29 nations outside the U.S. The increasing importation of machinery from other countries continued to be a serious problem for the U.S. machine tool industry. Revised data showed that about 18% of the U.S. consumption of this equipment came from sources in other nations, compared with less than 10% in 1969. Although the dollar value of U.S. machine exports increased during 1978, for the first time the industry showed an unfavourable balance of trade, amounting to $116.3 million for the first nine months of the year. Efforts to improve the export sales of the U.S. machine tool industry continued during 1978. At the invitation of the industry, from Romania, high-level delegations Hungary, and China toured the U.S., visiting machine tool builder and user plants. The U.S. industry was represented at shows and trade fairs in South Africa, Mexico, Chile, Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Japan,

and Great

Show

held

September.

Britain.

Conversion to the metric system of measurement proceeded slowly in the U.S. metalworking industry. With the exception

some of the large multinational corporations the industry did not seem to be exerting any great effort to accomplish the

of

conversion. There was little incentive for the machine tool builders to change their machines because they had long supplied the overseas market, which, in most instances, had been metric for a long time. For those exports the measurement-sensitive elements on the machines (lead screws, dials, nameplates) had always been changed to metric units by the builder when an order from outside the U.S. was received, but the basic machine remained unchanged. However, there was a growing tendency for these orders to specify the use

of metric fasteners (nuts, bolts, etc.). This

was because they could be obtained

locally

replacement purposes whereas, in most cases, machine elements must be obtained from the original equipment manufacturer. (EDWARD J. LOEFFLEr) for

NUCLEAR INDUSTRY A

major victory

clear

when

for the

opponents

power took place on Nov.

5,

of

nu-

1978,

the Austrians voted against opening

their only nuclear

power

station.

The plant,

Zwentendorf, had been completed for more than a year, but opposition to it forced a referendum on its operation. Austria's chancellor, Bruno Kreisky, made the issue into a political one and thus prevented the vote from being a straight yes-or-no decision about nuclear energy. Most political at

analysts believed that the result was primarily a modest antigovernment vote as opposed to a true antinuclear vote. But this left the utility with the problem of what to do with a $250 million station. While Austria's government nearly fell for being pro-nuclear, Sweden's prime minister, Thorbjorn Falldin, was forced to resign because of his antinuclear stand. Falldin led his party out of the government coalition because his partners judged the nuclear operators had satisfied the demands of Sweden's stiff nuclear "Stipulation Law" pushed through the legislature a year before by Falldin in an effort to stop nuclear plants from operating. This law required the operators to demonstrate that nuclear waste could be adequately dealt with to assure virtually absolute safety. The two issues that dominated the nuclear power controversy were waste disposal and nuclear weapons proliferation. These are connected in that used (or "spent") fuel contains plutonium (which can be used for bombs), unburned uranium, and radioac-

446

Review

Industrial

live waste products.

If

this spent fuel is not

reprocessed, tfie unburned uranium is lost for further use, the plutonium is not available for fast breeder reactors (an advanced type of reactor that "burns" plutonium and also produces it in two different, but simultaneous, reactions), and there is still the problem of waste. An international study into these issues was instigated by U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter at the end of 1977. The International Nuclear Fuel Cycle Evaluation (infce), entered into by more than 40 countries, was an attempt to reevaluate the decisions that had been made in the development of nuclear energy technology with the aim of finding ways to lessen the risks of proliferation. In an effort to limit the amount of plutonium. President Carter tried to persuade the advanced countries to stop developing reprocessing and the fast breeder reactor until after the infce program,

scheduled to end in late 1979. Although these countries would not fully accept this demand, he was able to convince France that

it

should stop

its

planned construction

of a reprocessing plant for Pakistan.

Another important related event was the issuing of the report of the inquiry into the Windscale facility in Britain, to reprocess spent fuel from other countries, notably Japan, as well as Britain. The inquiry accepted almost in full the plans of British Nuclear Fuels

proposed

which would be used

Ltd.

(a

government-owned company)

to

build the plant, and this was later accepted by government and Parliament. Almost immediately a major contract with Japan was signed. Other major events concerning reprocessing included the start-up of new facilities in France and a small prototype plant in Japan that President Carter tried to stop but finally allowed on a limited basis. (The U.S. has a veto power over the use of all fuel it supplies, which includes most of that used in Japan.)

The fast breeder reactor prototypes in Britain and France (Dounreay and Phenix, respectively) continued to operate well,

would be built and that the state-run utility would plan a light-water reactor project — something the utility had wanted to do for

and France was building a commercial-size breeder. Super Phenix, at Creys-Malville. The major fast breeder effort in the U.S., known as the Clinch River plant, was the centre of a controversy between President Carter and Congress. Carter wanted the project abandoned, but Congress wanted it to be continued. No final decision had been made by the end of the year. While most countries announced general

several years. Coinciding with this announcement, however, was a major accident at one of the two operating agr stations (the Hunterston B plant in Scotland). It had no radioactive consequences but would take a year to repair. With the slowdown in reprocessing and fast breeder reactor development, more natural uranium was required. The countries with the largest reserves outside the U.S. were Canada and Australia, both of which supported President Carter's nonproliferation policies and required customer countries to sign safeguards agreements before selling them uranium. The increase in uranium demand meant that previously uneconomic reserves were again interesting. In particular. South Africa discovered that it had become profitable to extract uranium from the ore slimes from its gold

cutbacks or delays in their nuclear programs (there had not been a domestic order in West Germany since 1975 or an order in the U.S. during 1978), South Korea announced plans to double its nuclear-power capacity through the year 2000 from 20,000 to 40,000 Mw. The only Western country maintaining an expansionist policy was France. The national utility, Electricite de France, was given government approval to order another 10,000 of capacity for 1980-81 in addition to the 10,000 to be ordered in 1978-79. The utility's first four large light- water reactors (the system it adopted after abandoning its own gascooled line in the late 1960s) were operating. The extent of French commitment to nuclear power was demonstrated by the appointment of Andre Giraud, chairman of the Commissariat a I'Energie Atomique, as minister of industry. In mid-1978, according to the U.S. Atomic Industrial Forum, there were more than 70 operating reactors in the U.S. (over 50,000 Mw), representing about 13% of the total electricity supply, and more than 150 reactors outside the U.S. (approximately 56,000 Mw). In 1978 a total of 29 reactor orders were expected, all outside the U.S.

Mw

By the end

of 1978 the Soviet

Mw

Union was

expected to have increased its nuclear capacity by 50% to nearly 12,000 Mw. The only two countries not to develop light-water reactor systems were Britain and Canada. During 1977 Britain finally rejected the steam generating heavy-water reactor and instead announced that four more advanced gas-cooled reactors (agrs)

fields.

Nuclear fusion experienced some exciting events. After two years of dissension the EEC decided to locate its major fusion project, called JET (Joint European Torus), at Culham in England. In the U.S. the largest working fusion machine of the Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor project, the Princeton Large Torus, achieved results which indicated that plans for fusion to make a contribution to world energy supplies by the year 2025 might be possible.

(RICHARD W. KOVAN)

PAINTS

AND VARNISHES

After the recovery of the previous year, the paint industry in most countries ex-

perienced little growth during 1978. The U.K., The Netherlands, and Belgium produced some of the best results, with output showing gains of 2-3%. France reported a small decline in volume, while U.S. paintmakers tried to stem a contraction of some

9%

experienced early in the year. Produc-

tion in Japan appeared to be on a plateau, with gains in some sectors roughly balanc-

ing losses in others. The industry's profitability fluctuated as inflation. Determined efforts in the U.S. and U.K. raised the pretax operating profit calculated on net

companies grappled with A $250

million nuclear

after Austrians

power

station at

voted against putting

it

Zwentendorf, Austria, stands

into operation.

idle

sales to

8-9%

,

although this was

still

be-

hind South Africa's 11-13%. At the other end of the scale, the largest paint manufacturers in Norway and Finland were barely breaking even. The Middle East and Persian Gulf areas continued to provide good export markets for

many Western European

facturers.

some 40%

paint manuThe Netherlands again exported of production,

ports continued the

gan

in 1974.

Many

while U.K. ex-

upward trend

less

that be-

developed countries

would soon have substantial local capacity, however, since paint factories were second only to cement works in these countries' progress toward industrialization. Iran, for example, now had at least 16 large or medium paint factories, unreliably reported to be producing between 250,000 and 2 million gal a year.

The worldwide recession in the shipping industry affected manufacturers of marine coatings. Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd., the U.K.'s largest paintmaker overall, announced its withdrawal from the ma-

,

rine market and the closing of its small specialized factory. In contrast, the world leader, International Paint Co. Ltd., claimed

outstanding success for its self-polishing coating for ships' bottoms. There was considerable interest in powder coatings; two new plants opened in the U.K., adding to that country's existing overcapacity. In Sicily Fiat opened the world's first production line for automatic powder coating of car bodies. Honda and

Datsun in Japan were applying powders as priming and top coats on cars and trucks, and Ford in the U.S. was evaluating several thousand experimental vehicles top coated with powders that could be spot refinished with liquid paints. Forecasts indicated, however, that several years would pass before powders gained 10% of the total in-

447 clear-cut lines of responsibility within each

company.

The regulations had been proposed two years earlier, and the first reaction from industry and consumers was companies generwould have no trouble complying, although companies might find that the formal controls and detailed staff training mandated by the new procedures were enough of a financial burden to force up

closed it,

prices.

Toward the end of moved to close a gap in

the year the fda the practice where-

by high-prestige companies put their name on drugs that were actually made under

ger labels would be required was still incomplete, and the industry faced a period of expense and uncertainty. (LIONEL BILEFIELD)

PHARMACEUTICALS

PLASTICS

Legislative and regulatory matters occupied the U.S. pharmaceutical industry during most of 1978. The prime focus was on the Carter administration's drug reform bill, proposed as a solution to the increasingly time-consuming process of securing Food

There were clear signs in 1978 that the plastics materials manufacturing industry — or at any rate the more farsighted part of it —

worry

for

many European companies was

the effect of the eec directive on the classification and labeling of paints and varnishes, published in Brussels in November 1977.

The annex

setting limits

above which dan-

and Drug Administration (fda) approval of new drug applications. The industry contended that drug safety/efficacy verification had become exorbitantly expensive and that lifesaving drugs were often introduced in Western Europe two to five years before they could be sold in the U.S. The administration bill aimed at speeding up the process, at least for "significant" therapeutic advances. However, the industry feared that it might encourage poaching by generic drug manufacturers and undermine what so-called research-oriented drug developers regard as proprietary trade secrets. Senate and House subcommittees wrestled with these difficult issues during the summer and into the fall, but no action was taken before Congress adjourned in October. Also a worry for industry lawyers was what they regarded as encouragement of generic drug manufacturers by the fda, especially the acceleration of the "maximum allowable cost" system for procurement of drugs in government hospitals and health plans. Even more alarming to the industry was the fda's role in assisting New York State to compile a price-comparison compendium for physicians and its en-

couragement

of state legislation facilitating

substitution by pharmacists of the least expensive drug in filling prescriptions. In late September the fda finally issued its Current Good Manufacturing Practices regulations, scheduled to go into effect on

March 28, 1979. These would considerably tighten up quality control, expiration dating of most drugs, and apportionment of

contract

The

was

in

new,

at last facing

up

to the longer-term im-

plications of the continuing

slowdown

in

the rate of growth. Firms were no longer prepared to continue profitless operations in the hope of a return to the expansion of the pre-oil-crisis years, when annual growth of at least 15-20% was automatic. In 1978 expansion of plastics production

worldwide was, at best, half of that. It was, in fact, an average year, with the U.S. more happily placed than Western Europe and Japan still struggling toward recovery. The most dramatic expression of the new mood was the decision of two of the largest U.S. -based chemical multinationals. Union Carbide and Monsanto, to sell their entire EEC businesses in, respectively, low polyethylene and polystyrene to British Petroleum. Both the U.S. corporations were closely associated with these product lines (although, of course, these represented only a fraction of their total chemical activities). Each company gave a similar reason for its abandonment of European markets carefully built up over many years: lack of integration in the area into supplies of oilderived raw materials as feedstocks for its local plants. Each also emphasized its intention to retain its strength in these same products in other markets, especially the U.S. It seemed unlikely that the lesson would be lost on other "commodity" thermoplastics manufacturers whose position in Western Europe seemed manifestly more precarious. In this situation of gross surplus, prices were naturally depressed. Some manufacturers showed their determination to maintain

at

least

making price the end of the (and

a minimal profitability by increases, especially toward year.

A

petrochemical)

few

plastics materials

plants

in

Europe

Review

down — temporarily, on the face of though some of the older and smaller units would probably be scrapped in the not too far distant future. Some expansion plans were also delayed, but not to the extent needed to counterbalance new capacity that was still coming on stream. It appeared that overproduction would become an even more acute problem, at least into the 1980s. The position in Western Europe was exacerbated by low-priced imports from Eastern Europe (including material supplied in lieu of cash in repayment for the provision of technology and plant) and from the U.S. whose shipments became increasingly attractive to hard-currency customers as the dollar weakened. In contrast to commodity plastics (which constitute by far the greater proportion of total output), the position with regard to higher-priced engineering and specialty

largely favourable. Large

ally

other manufacturing plants. so-called "man-in-the-plant" regulations specified certain operations and checks that must be supervised directly by personnel of the company claiming to be the manufacturer. In terms of statistics, 1977 was another good year for U.S. pharmaceutical manufacturers. Census Bureau figures indicated that the total value of all drug shipments at the manufacturers' level was $9,150,000,000, up 4% from 58,770,000,000 in 1976. Overthe-counter drug sales rose 3.5% (to $2,230,000,000 from $2,160,000,000 in 1976). The prognosis for future growth was excellent, based on the trend toward an older population and the growth of third-party health plans. (donald a. davis)

dustrial coatings market. Pollution and legislation to protect the environment were the themes of the European paint manufacturers' triennial economic congress, held in Italy. A source of

Industrial

polymers continued to be encouraging. The products ranged from those produced in substantial tonnages, such as nylon and abs, to small volume, ultrahigh-performance materials like polyimides and aramids. Indeed, Monsanto, when withdrawing from the eec polystyrene market, emphasized

its

intention to step

up

its

activity in

Europe with respect to the related styrene copolymer material abs. The thermosetting plastics, long regarded as much less glamorous than the thermoplastics, also did well. There was some resurgence of interest in the older thermosets, notably phenolics, with their stable properties, capability of being injection- as well as compressionmolded, and, especially, their nonflammable characteristics, ly in

which were increasing-

demand.

Another, newer thermosetting class that

made

progress in 1978, despite environproblems connected with the isocyanate constituent, was the polyurewhich profited from the intense inthanes, terest in foam insulation for energy saving and the introduction of modified processing techniques such as reaction injection molding. The composites field, using both higher reinforcements such as carbon fibre and improved resin systems, notably epoxies, saw further penetration into important areas of structural use such as aerospace. The scope for general-purpose polyester/ glass-reinforced plastics expanded with the improvement of industrialized fabrication techniques, such as those using sheet molding compounds.

mental

The problems with commodity thermoplastics,

while severe, differed from those rubber and man-made fibres,

of synthetic

where substitution

of the natural material

appeared to have neared the saturation point. The replacement of other substances by plastics, mostly of the large-volume types — pvc, polyolefins, and polystyrene — was generally regarded as still being at an early stage. Sectors such as the building and automotive industries, especially the latter with its constant search for lightness and strength, gave undiminished cause for optimism. Growth potential and scope for innovation remained, although the rate of growth would certainly be less than in (robin c. penfold) previous years,

448 Industrial

Review

PRINTING The year saw

significant

changes in pro-

duction economics and in the economics of the rival printing processes. Dainippon Screen in Japan introduced a desk-top electronic colour scanner unit costing less than $35,000. Other firms offering low-cost scanners included Crosfield Electronics of the U.K. and Dr.-lng. Rudolf Hell of West Germany. Japan became the world's major scanner market, with Dainippon Screen and Crosfield Electronics sharing the largest

market

slice.

Electronic previewing

and monitoring

of

colour scanning, pioneered by Toppan Printing in Japan, also became an important feature of units from Hell and from Sci-Tex in Israel. The Toppan and Sci-Tex units were compatible with any make of scanner. Others in this market included Dainippon Screen and Hazeltine in the U.S. Fully automatic, electronic, computerized "no hands" reproduction, page makeand platemaking or cylinder up, production (for gravure) became a reality. In May 1978, at a meeting of the European Rotogravure Association, Hell demonstrated a linked-up system that covered every process from phototypesetting to colour scanning and integrated these jobs with platemaking or cylinder production. In

September Crosfield Electronics demonstrated a computerized combination of makeup and scanning, as well as laser engraving of gravure cylinders coated with an epoxy resin. Meanwhile, the U.S. Optronics system for integrated working was in practical use at Helprint in Finland. One of the world's largest offset plate manufactur-

Kalleof West Germany, a subsidiary of Hoechst, became a sister company to the Eocom laser platemaking system through

ers,

the acquisition of the U.S.

company by

Hoechst America. Gravure increasingly challenged web offset. In Switzerland, Conzett & Huber, in a further development of the Japanese Toppan gravure system, offered simple moirefree conversion from photolitho reproductions to gravure. Some major European and U.S. catalogs were produced by this system. European printers were being sought by U.S. and Japanese printers as partners in bringing quality medium-run rotogravure to their countries. The initial investment in each case amounted to about $20 million. In Italy, Cerutti experimented with laser cutting or slitting of webs in folders to reduce dust and noise.

The miniwebs — more aptly called eighta considerable impact on the market. Harris of the U.S., Albert of West Germany, Solna of Sweden, and the East German Polygraph group sold dozens of machines within a year of their introduction. Most were used to expand or replace sheet-fed offset capacity. Book printers also turned to web offset. Harris designed an ingenious system by which plating for one section of a book could be carried out on the press while the preceding section was being printed, thus ensuring continuous production. In West Germany Albert announced another system that achieved similar results by "flying plate change." page webs — made

Taiwan and South Korea became new contenders in the printing export market, shipping primarily to the U.S. but also to West Germany and Australia. Colour separations from a handful of companies in Taiwan were being sent to the U.S. at the rate of several

thousand a month. (W. PINCUS jaspert)

RUBBER Production of manufactured rubber goods leveled off after the shortages created by the strike of 1976 had been filled. Profitability for the major manufacturers varied, but in general it lagged behind rates needed to justify investment. The continued high production and sale of automobiles resulted in strong demand for original equipment tires.

The replacement

tire

market also remained

strong, even though one tire company executive stated that tire life had increased by a factor of two in the past six years. The

adoption of steel-belted radial tires was primarily responsible, although the reduction in the US. speed limit to 55 mph may have been an added factor.

A

steel-track rubber tire for use on heavy by the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.

i

lining

The use rubber

of solvents in the

manufacture of

particularly tires, continued to be scrutinized by U.S. government agencies, osha proposed strict limits articles,

on concentrations of benzene vapour, a known leukemogen, as well as reducing skin contact with solvents containing benzene. The gasoline used to make rubber cements and to freshen rubber surfaces during fabrication contains small amounts of benzene, although benzene as such had not been used for this purpose for many

The osha proposal was rejected by the courts as too restrictive, and a new proposal would probably be drafted. The Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. voluntarily agreed to recall 10 million steel-belted 500 tires which, according to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, were defective. This was the largest tire recall to date. Firestone also agreed to replace the 500s with an improved steel-belted radial. Cost of the recall could exceed $200 years.

million.

Prices of raw materials used in rubber manufacture rose markedly during the

equipment was developed

Table X. Natural Rubber Production In

Maioysio

000

metric tons

450 Industrial

Review

up as the market showed signs of approaching overcapacity. The type of ship that offered the greatest hope for many builders was the multipurpose dry cargo liner, for which about 50 standard designs were currently available. This vessel combined the advantages of a self-trimming bulk carrier with the flexibility of a break-bulk cargo ship. The design usually provided for the carriage of 500 to 1,000 containers. Some designs incorporated a large stern ramp that extended the ship's function into the roll-on/roll-off and heavy lift sectors of the market. In the U.S. the backlog of shipbuilding orders shrank to the vanishing point, and sels also dried

some yards only managed to survive with orders for offshore drilling units. It was estimated that after 1978 the industry would need 45,000 fewer persons, most of them production workers. At mid-1978 U.S. merchant shipbuilding yards had 59 vessels of over 1,000 grt on order, totaling 6 million grt, but the bulk of the order book was provided by 34 tankers totaling 5.4 million tons dw. Failure to encourage the expansion of the U.S. -owned merchant fleet accelerated the approaching storm that threatened the U.S. shipbuilding and allied industries. The absence of a coordinated national shipbuilding policy in the U.S. covering both naval and commercial building could lead to an irretrievable loss of building capability for

all

vessel types.

With stricter control of world fishing, there was a growing demand for special pa-

trol and protection vessels. Building these provided work for commercial yards without exacerbating the worldwide cargo-carrying overcapacity. The same could not be said for the building of large cargo ships for stock or state ownership. (w. D. ewart)

TELECOMMUNICATIONS In 1978 telecommunications technology developed fastest in the area of fibre optics, the technique of transmitting messages in the form of light waves through long glass fibres. Fibre-optic cable appeared in everything from closed-circuit television to telephone networks. At the same time, however, digital communication techniques and semiconductor circuits were being used in new ways. In fact, innovations were appearing so rapidly that the U.S. Congress began reviewing the way in which the U.S. regulates the communications industry. Fibre and Integrated Optics. No area of electronic technology seemed likely to escape the influence of fibre optics. Military

was high because fibre-optic communications are hard to tap or jam, and interest

and

fibre-optic cables

also

beginning

cess controls, planes.

optical circuitry

The outstanding advantage fibre, in

were

appear in industrial procomputers, ships, and

to

comparison with

of

optical

electricity flow-

ing through copper wire, is its minimal resistance to energy flow. In dramatic proof of this, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corp. of Japan succeeded in building a

practical

which

communications

a fibre-optic cable linked

system

in

two points

The current trend was toward

and ultimate reconversion

to its original format. An associated and even bigger development was the proposal by AT&T of an Advanced Communications Service that would link the "offices of the future." Spe-

telephone connections would enable all the information-gathering equipment in various offices to "talk" to each other. But doubts as to whether AT&T as a regulated monopoly should be allowed to expand into this new business were immediately raised. To complicate matters further another entrant in the office communications market was Xerox Corp. The communications network it proposed would not use telecial

phones or just satellites alone. Instead, messages would be relayed from a rooftop microwave antenna and beamed by microwave radio to a multisubscriber collection antenna. Only then would the information be sent to a

satellite for distri-

bution. Satellites. Designers of both commercial and military communications satellites were enthusiastic about the new modulating and coding techniques that emerged during the year. The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (nasa), for one, began to study "smart"

those capable of deciding how to handle and route messages instead of passatellites,

sively

handing them on from one ground

station to another.

Business Systems, the joint venture of IBM Corp., Comsat General Corp., and the Aetna Life & Casualty Co., planned to use satellites to provide large companies with internal communications. Expected to get under way in 1980, this system could compete with both AT&T's and Xerox's in a battle for the office communications marSatellite

(harvey

ket,

j.

hindin)

TEXTILES Hopes that renewal of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade multifibres agreement 1,

1978,

for a four-year period

from

Jan.

would bring greater stability to were largely unfulfilled dur-

textile trading

ing the year. Recession continued to affect the industry, and demand remained weak in most parts of the world. A meeting of the International Federation of Cotton and Allied Textile Industries in London in the fall highlighted the conflicting interests of manufacturers in the developed countries of the West and low-cost suppliers in the less developed countries and southern Europe. The former complained about excessive import penetration and the latter about protectionism. Many of the industry's problems stemmed from its highly cyclical nature, with fashion trends influencing demand for different types of fabric. For the past few years the knitting industry had been suffering from an oversupply of machine-building capacity and a dwindling market following the collapse of a boom in dress fabrics of textured-filament polyester yarn knitted on double-jersey machines. More recently the trend had been toward 100% cotton denim, creating a demand for mills using shuttleless looms. This, in turn, pro-

that could be

man-made

451 pile fabrics

fibre velvets or

100% cotton corduroy-type cloths. Because these fabrics, like denims, were woven, overcapacity was not as serious for the loom meikers as it had been for the double-jersey machine builders. Meanwhile, there was continued growth in "nonwoven textiles" — neither knitted nor woven — whose high production speed and low conversion cost enabled them to penetrate markets previously held by knitted and woven fabrics. (peter lennox-kerr) Wool. For most countries that buy wool, currency fluctuations during 1977-78 had

much effect on prices as the levels supply and demand for the fibre itself. Softening of the U.S. dollar in particular at least as

of

caused wool to be approximately 25% more expensive or cheaper during the course of 12 months, according to the currency used

by the buyer. In market terms crossbred

qualities continued to show relatively greater strength than merinos, especially finer Australian merinos. The Australian Wool Corp. bought a large proportion of the offerings under its reserve price scheme at the height of the 1977-78 season, but improved demand and seasonally lower supplies allowed these purchases to be more than balanced by later stockpile sales. There was sufficient confidence at the end of the season in June 1978 to permit raising of the overall floor price

by 5%.

The wool-consuming industry established only a very tentative recovery trend during the year. Fashion inclined toward woolens rather than worsteds, but nowhere did confidence in wool itself extend to the point of persuading commercial users to rebuild inventories. However, wool showed no sign of losing ground to manmade alternatives. (h. m. f. m.\llett) Cotton. Persistently keen competition from man-made fibres resulted in world usage of raw cotton being reduced to 60.6 million bales in 1977-78, compared with the record level of 62.2 million bales in 1975-76. Most of the curtailment was in Western Europe and the Far East. Global stocks in August 1978 at 23.5 million bales were some 3 million bales more than the abnormally low point reached a year earlier. Production in 1977-78, at about 64 milwas some 6 million bales above the previous season and more than 9 million bales higher than in 1975-76. Major gains were made in the U.S., where the crop totaled 14.5 million bales against 10.7 million bales in 1976-77. The U.S.S.R. was estimated to have produced 12,750,000 million bales and China 9.6 million bales. Production prospects were severely affected by adverse weather at planting time for the 1978-79 crop. Damage occurred in several countries. Lack of moisture, insect infestation, and intense heat created problems in the U.S., while excessive rains in Pakistan and extensive flooding in the lion bales,

Sudan caused

difficulties

for

farmers in

weaving and dyeing

(arthur tatters.all) The dominant feature of the raw silk market was once again the stability of Chinese prices. China expected a worldwide expansion of silk consumption and be-

overcapacity at a time when demand for indigo-dyed denim was leveling off in almost all markets.

lieved that this could be achieved not only by the provision of funds for promotion in the Western world but also by the mainte-

duced

a situation of

those areas. Silk.

Industrial

Review

cost. While 3A 20/22 denier was held at 44.50 yuan per kilo during 1977-78, in October 1977 a considerable discount was offered for the lower grades in

nance of a stable

an

effort to

ential

was

compete with later

Brazil. This differconsiderably reduced, and

Brazilian prices themselves rose as a result of a partial withdrawal of the government export subsidy. Japan remained isolated behind its import restrictions and still had its own particular problem to solve — how to ensure a rewarding price for its cocoon farmers and at the same time arrest the decline in domestic consumption. In terms of quantity

Japanese consumption of silk had always been much greater than that of the Western countries on account of the traditional silk kimono. Statistics showed that a Japanese used about 15 times as much silk as a European. A grave problem faced not only China but also South Korea when Japan fell away as a foremost customer, and the latter saw no alternative but to reduce production.

In Europe silk enjoyed a good market throughout 1977, but the spring and summer of 1978 brought something of an overall reaction. (peter w. gaddum) Man-Made Fibres. Continuing over-

capacity in the man-made fibres industry led the main European producers to sign a pact in June 1978 with a view to achieving greater balance between supply and demand. Under the pact, capacity within EEC

member

states would be reduced by about 15% during the next three years. Howevwas declared illegal by the eec Commission under the Community's anti-

er, the cartel

trust rules. It was increasingly obvious that the polyesters, used as both filament yarns and

A all

wrinkle-free synthetic fabric that stretches in directions allows the wearer to create her

own

style.

,

452

Review

Industrial

staple fibres,

were taking the predominant

among

conventional textile fibres and could well supersede cotton as the basic world textile raw material. The progress of man-made fibres was largely based on their modification to offer specific properties. Nylon, for example, was being made in a number of versions which could be dyed to different depths or intensity. This enabled a designer to plan fabrics or carpets which when dyed, produced a range of effects but with only one fibre. Also important for carposition

,

pet manufacture

was

the development of

inherently and permanently antistatic nylon fibre. Research work with acrylic fibres directed toward making them more moisture-absorbent so that when worn in apparel they would behave more "naturally" and absorb perspiration which would then be transmitted away from the body. If this could be achieved, a new all-manmade blend based on polyester and acrylic fibres might emerge to challenge the successful polyester-cotton blend.

was

(peter lennox-kerr)

TOBACCO After four disturbed years 1978 was more serene in three major areas of the tobacco business: prices resumed a gentle upward progression after the disruptive leap and collapse of 1974-77; output, at 12,010,000,000 lb, was broadly in line with world de-

mand; and world consumption

of cigarettes

(increasingly the most favoured form of tobacco consumption) rose 2%. World tobacco stocks, equivalent to consumption needs for about 16 months, were moderate but unbalanced. The 13,770,000,000-lb total included far too much of the oriental type, now deteriorating in Greek, Turkish, and Balkan stockpiles. Excessive 1978 output in those countries, stimulated by political rather than commercial pressures, worsened the problem of unsalable surpluses.

Despite great advances in research on tobacco plant genetics, disease- and pest-control,

and knowledge

of

how

to

minimize

the hazards of tropical agriculture, world average yields per acre had improved only 20% since 1958. Those in major exporting countries of the less developed world, like India, were only about one-third of the 2,400 lb per ac regularly attained in highefficiency Japan. The less developed countries, where most of the world's tobacco was produced, could therefore only grow more by planting large acreages, fueling the controversy over the use for tobacco of land with food-crop potential. Cigarette consumption in 1978 rose almost everywhere except within the EEC, where vigorous antitobacco campaigning coincided with changes in taxation systems to cause a moderate recession. The swing to mild (low tar and nicotine) smoking continued. But in West Germany, which pioneered this trend, sales of mild cigarettes peaked out, suggesting a limit to public acceptance of products low in flavour and aroma. World consumption of cigars and pipe tobaccos continued its long-term decline.

World trade

strong, much aided by the weakness of the currencies of major exporters (the U.S., Brazil, India, Turkey) compared with those of the top importing countries of the eec and Japan. Increasingly significant was the world trade boom in manufactured tobacco — 95 % of it in the form of cigarettes — which was rising at more than 10% per annum; earnings per pound were about 2'/2 times those to be made from selling leaf tobacco. This trade was predominantly in the hands of a few Western countries, although Bulgaria was also a major exporter, shipping some 63 billion cigarettes a year, mainly to the U.S.S.R. The continued swing to filter types by smokers of the world's annual production of 4.2 trillion cigarettes and the advance of techniques enabling more cigarettes to be made from each pound of tobacco together were allowing gradually increasing cigarette consumption to be satisfied by static or declining production of leaf tobacco. In 1978 additional installations permitted more manufacturers to cut tobacco use (and lower tar and nicotine ratings) by processes that utilized shredded tobacco for cigarettes. This technique and the greater use of factory processes that make robust tobaccos milder while reinforcing the taste elements in the smoke were now preferred to the use of man-made smoking materials in making mild cigarettes. Survivors of the 12 man-

made-blend cigarette brands launched amid great excitement in Britain in 1977 now had less than 1% of the market there, and the concept was in eclipse. (MICHAEL F. BARFORD)

TOURISM International tourism continued to

headway

in 1978.

Worldwide

make

receipts ap-

while arrivals headed for the 260 million mark, both well above the totals for 1977. Despite the continuing decline in the value of the U.S. dollar against other major currencies — particularly in Europe — the number of U.S. tourists

proached $62

billion,

for Europe increased by 7% in the first half of 1978. Business travel remained buoyant under the influence of steady growth in world trade, though excess capacity in certain industries and the effects of increased protectionism combined to keep growth to single figures. Pleasure travel was stimulated by tax cuts in West Germany, rising real wages in the U.K., and the low personal savings rate in the U.S. Relaxation of exchange controls in Italy, Japan, and the U.K. that began in the autumn of 1977 may also have been a factor. Great publicity surrounded the attempts of the world's scheduled airlines to agree on

bound

new

fare structures. In an increasingly "open-rate" situation price-cutting became widespread, and the extensive introduction

promotional fares led scheduled carriers market shares at the expense of charA study by the European Travel Commission concluded that one in five passengers using new promotional air fares (Budget, Super Apex, Standby, or Laker Skytrain) would not have taken the trip without the new fares. The International Air Transport Association (iata) reported of

to gain

ter services.

traffic up by 12% in the first half of the year. Intra-European flights were reported growing by 10% while U.S. carri-

North Atlantic

,

in leaf tobacco

continued

ers expected to fly 222,000,000,000

revenue

passenger-miles in 1978, compared with 193,000,000,000 in 1977. Greece and Spain welcomed 15% more visitors in 1978. With visitors numbering close to 40 million, Spain's tourist count ex-

ceeded the resident population. Austria, Italy, and Yugoslavia reported tourism growing at about 10% per annum, the negative trend experienced in Yugoslav tourism in 1977 being reversed. Japan and Portugal also made good headway, and the Philippines expected that it would reach the one-million tourist mark. Thailand witnessed a growth rate of more than 20% over 1977. Mexico expected 2,250,000 arrivals, while in the Caribbean The Bahamas and Jamaica enjoyed a good winter season with

40%

arrivals

up by

Africa,

Kenya's tourist receipts were ex-

20 and

,

respectively. In

pected to exceed $100 million. Tours to China, which began to be sold quietly in 1977, were reported to be gaining rapidly in popularity. China expected 50,000 overseas visitors in 1978. Canada reported a decline in arrivals for the second straight year, while tourism in the U.K., after the success of the Silver Jubilee year, slackened off in the first half of 1978. The problems of the "hard currency" tourist countries in marketing their tourist product were epitomized by Switzerland. That country reported a 20% decline in nights spent there by U.S. travelers but a 12% increase in visitors

from West Germany.

Reduced

transatlantic air fares resulted in

jammed

terminals at international airports.

The increasing importance of tourism to European countries led to calls to promote and defend the industry. The Brit-

certain

ish Tourist Authority in the U.K. reported that in 1977, for the first time, the number of overseas visitors to Britain (11.5 million) exceeded the number of Britons traveling

abroad

(11.1 million).

Tourism had become

the third largest contributor to Britain's invisible exports and contributed no less than 5.8% to total trade. One and a half million people in Britain found their employment in tourism, while visitors to the U.K. were estimated to spend $500 million on shopping for clothes and footwear. In Switzerland, where the dollar reached a historic low of less than SFr 1.5 to $1, the Swiss Tourism Federation and the Swiss Hoteliers' Association urged the federal government to help them "guarantee" tour prices in foreign currency in 1979 so as to give their industry a chance to compete in world markets. The problems of the peak season were felt acutely in Europe in the summer of 1978, partly because a cool, rainy spell in early June delayed the start of the holiday season. A decision by 2,500 French air traffic controllers to work strictly by the rules, handling only a specified quota of traffic, delayed or stranded thousands at European airports. Their numbers were swelled by many passengers waiting for standby seats at newly introduced discount fares. Meanwhile, news media were expressing concern at the rising level of Mediterranean pollution and its significance for tourism. Ecologists claimed that there were many places on Europe's Mediterranean coast where bathing ought by rights to be prohibited because of coastal pollution. Anger swelled in southwest France as thousands of plastic bottles and other household de-

from neighbouring Spanish were washed ashore. tritus

cities

If air travel captured the limelight in 1978, rail travel continued to reinforce its "serious" image in an era of higher-cost energy. The family was the railways' prime marketing target. At least eight European countries offered special discounts to families traveling by train, while several undertook to convey cars by train free provided three or more passengers bought train tick-

Table

XIII.

Major Tourism

SPECIAL REPORT

bold Group of consultants has compared the modern microcomputer, using integrated circuits, with

computer, the Electronic Numerical and Calculator (eniac) invented by J. Presper Eckert, Jr., and John W. Mauchly. eniac cost from $5 million to $10 million; an average microcomputer costs $500. ENIAC required one ten-thousandth of a second to carry out an instruction; a microcomputer needs two-millionths of a second, eniac weighed 30 tons; the microcomputer less than 2 lb. The closer the circuits can be packed together on the silicon chip the cheaper they become, the faster they operate, and the less power they consume. The cost per circuit, $1 in 1960, fell to one cent in 1970 and is expected to be three-tenths of one cent by 1980. During 1978 the standard device packed 16,000 circuits on a 4-mm-square chip. But in Septemthe

THE COMPUTER

COMES HOME by Richard Casement It

was becoming increasingly apparent during 1978 second industrial revolution was under way.

that a

This revolution, so

prophets

its

say, will bring

down

the cost of

many products and enable new goods

be sold on

a scale far

new technology numbers

in

to

beyond present-day expecta-

tions. But there are also

widespread

will lead rapidly to

fears that the

unemployment

that might test the resilience of existing

political institutions.

Integrated Circuits.

The key

to the revolution

is

a device called an integrated circuit. Until recently it

first digital

Integrator

was an obscure piece of technology

that

few peo-

ple outside the electronics industry had heard

of.

It

ber Texas Instruments Inc. unveiled a

the influence of integrated

in this

a

circuits.

Integrated circuits are a kind of semiconductor.

Semiconductors can amplify, switch,

store,

and con-

They are made of such materiand germanium, which, with regard to electrical conductivity, are halfway between metals and insulators. As such, they can be made to control electrical signals.

als as silicon

block it. On an integratthousands of such semiconductor circuits are imprinted on a tiny silicon chip measuring four millimetres square. These circuits can be used to

duct

ed

electrical current or to

circuit,

store or process information.

How? Human

language uses an alphabet. The Enlanguage uses 26 letters, but there is nothing magic about that number. The genetic code employs an alphabet of just four letters, and every in-

glish

struction for every feature of every living being

coded

in

those four.

A computer

is

uses a two-letter

and 1,and every number and every word can be represented by a combination of the two. On the computer's integrated circuit, the number one is represented by the presence of an electrical pulse; alphabet,

zero

is

represented by the absence of such a pulse.

Computers were the first applications of integrated circuits, and their development illustrates how these circuits may affect other products. The DieRichard Casement

is a science correspondent for The Economist, London, and the author of Urban Traffic: Policies in Congestion.

454

in

the

mid-1980s. Such a chip could store the entire contents of a 50,000-word book. of

what makes

standard,

expected, followed by one million circuits

computer tick. It made possible the pocket calculator and the digital watch. During 1978 it became clear that few products would be beyond is

new

with 64,000 circuits on a chip of the same size. In two or three years, 256,000 circuits on a chip are

Microelectronics in the Home. To get an inkling how such technology might change life-styles, imagine how one might read such a book. One step public

direction trials

was taken during 1978: the

first

of a British Post Office invention that

is

from electronics companies. Called Viewdata, it links an ordinary television set with a central computer via a telephone line. Using a keyboard similar to that on a pocket calculator, the user can call up from the computer such data as railroad timetables, cooking recipes, economic information, and legal advice. Take this invention a few years ahead and one can imagine the computerized book. The Library of Congress could be stored on a small central computer in, say, Chicago or Tokyo. A user in London or Paris wants to read Curtain by Agatha Christie. He presses the code number for the book; a satellite terminal on the roof of the Chicago library will take about one second of transatlantic telephone time to relay the entire book to the nearest European satellite terminalmore slowly this terminal then relays the book to the user's home, where the information is stored by his personal computer, from which he can call the pages up on his television screen at his leisure. attracting

worldwide

interest

Farfetched? Not a bit. In the U.S. there are already hundreds of retail computer shops selling personal computers, which by the mid-1980s will be as common as pocket calculators. One 14-year-old schoolboy in California does all his homework on his computer. If it does not have the information he needs, he can ring up the computer of a friend who has it on his.

High-technology microminiaturization is evident in photo enlargement of an integrated circuit, or chip (small rectangle near top centre), shown mounted within a larger, mazelike resistor network. Three such packages cover only a fraction of the area of an ordinary contact lens (lower left).

Another invention using integrated circuits that is about to see the light of day is the portable pocket telephone, developed in the U.S. by Motorola Inc. and Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. Public testing is scheduled to start in 1979 in Chicago and Washington, D.C. Meanwhile, the Japanese are working on flat-screen television sets that would eliminate the need for troublesome television tubes; pulse-code modulation for reproducing sound almost perfectly; and facsimile machines to be attached to television sets so that mail can be sent instantly by telephone or radio waves. just

Social Implications. A report to the French president on the social implications of new electronic technology was so controversial that its publication was delayed until after the 1978 elections. The re-

port said that microelectronics

with the employment forecasts year development plan.

in

would

play havoc

the country's five-

In Britain,

the bbc's "Hori-

zon" program fired the public's alarm with a special report on the same subject; that, too, predicted widespread unemployment. The British prime minister announced a top-level investigation into the social implications.

Advocates of microelectronics responded that

new technology

has always led to fears of unemployment. They maintained that any employment slack created by such technology in one part of the economy is quickly taken up because resources are

ity

gains are

enormous

so

that

they wondered

whether the slack could be taken up at all. As an example, an electronic telephone exchange would need possibly only one-third the number of workers that are required for an electromechanical one.

One the other hand, it was pointed out that, in a competitive world, no country's industry could abstain from the microelectronic revolution. If it failed update its products and production technology, workers would be in danger of losing their jobs anyway. If people want their central heating thermostats computer-controlled in order to save 25% on their fuel bills, they will only buy from the manufacturers who make such thermostats. Latest Developments. Meanwhile, discoveries and innovations continue, with the two largest electronics companies, AT&T and IBM, spending a total of $6 million a day on research and development. Companies started marketing new, very dense computer memories called magnetic bubbles just as ibm announced that it had discovered the possibility of to

its

using bubbles of light for the same purpose. Experi-

ments were also being done on the use of lasers to on computers that could recognize people's voices; and on using subatomic particles to transmit telecommunications signals that could not be jammed. store information;

In

California, Stanford University engineers an-

nounced

a

new technique

using laser annealing to

freed to expand other sectors; this was what the

make the

whole process of rising living standards was about. Opponents argued that the speed of the integrated circuit revolution is so fast that the slack cannot be taken up rapidly enough; indeed, the productiv-

claimed, could enable ten times as

silicon

chips

themselves.

This,

many

they

circuits to

be packed on the same chip, with the circuits placed only half a micron apart (one-hundredth the thickness of a

human

hair).

455

IRAN

Iran

Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 4,775,431, teachers 144,438; secondary, pupils 2,109,381, teachers 84,092;

A constitutional monarchy of western Asia,

Iran is bounded by the U.S.S.R., Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iraq, and Turkey and the Caspian Sea, the Arabian Sea, and the Persian Gulf. Area: 1,648,000 sq km (636,000 sq mi). Pop. (1977 est.): 35,686,000. Cap. and largest city: Teheran (pop., 1976 census, 4,496,000). Language: Farsi Persian. Religion (1976): Muslim 99%; Christian, Jewish, and Zoroastrian minorities. Shah-in-shah,

Mohammad

Reza Pahlavi Aryamehr; prime ministers in 1978, Jamshid Amouzegar, Jaafar Sharif-Emami from August 27, and Gen. Gholam Reza Azhari from

November

6.

Shah Mohammad Reza Biographies) faced its most dangerous crisis since the shah was restored to the throne after the downfall of Mohammad In 1978 the regime of

Pahlavi

Aryamehr

Mosaddeq

in 1953.

{see

Long considered

a pillar of sta-

regime was rocked by intensifying political turbulence that brought down three governments. Its future was a matter bility in the

Middle

East, the

of conjecture at year's end.

The death

of a

number

of religious dissenters

when police opened fire on them in the city of Qom in January was followed by a severe clash between the civil authorities and rioters in the northwest city of Tabriz in February, with widespread damage. Rioting took place in many small towns, and

Teheran was shaken by major riots in May. Universities there were temporarily closed, and the Teheran bazaar experienced frequent protest strikes and shutdowns. During August, when the Muslim fast of Ramadan was in effect, widespread unrest culminated in further attacks on banks. Troops with bayonets and gas masks took to the streets of Teheran to control demonstrators after martial law was proclaimed in Iran by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi in September.

vocational, pupils 201,472, teachers 10,041; teacher training, students 3,356; higher, students 178,389, teaching

sUff 7,285.

Finance. Monetary unit: rial, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free £1 sterling). Gold, SDR's, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $10,902,000,000. Budget (1977-78 actual): revenue 2,097,000,000,000 rials; expenditure 2,511,000,000,000 rials. Cross national product (1977-78) 5,347,600,000,000 rials. Money supply (May 1978) 934.5 billion rials. Cost of living (1975 = 100; )une 1978) 159.5. Foreign Trade. (1977) imports 971 billion rials; exports 1,712,100,000,000 rials. Import sources (1976): West Germany 18%; U.S. 17%: Japan 16%; U.K. 8%, luly 5%; France 5%. Export destinations (1976): lapan 22%; West Germany 10%; U.K. 9%; The Netherlands 8%; U.S. 8%; France 7%; Italy 6%; U.S. Virgin Islands 6%; Spain 5%,Main exports: crude oil and products 97%. Tourism (1976): visitors 628,000; gross receipts U.S. $142 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1975) c 52,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 1,892,000; commercial 105,000, Railways: (state; 1976) 4,525 km; traffic (1974) 2,126,000,000 passenger-km, freight 4,917,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 3,059,000,000 passenger-km; freight 74.8 million net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 193; gross tonnage 1,002,061. Telephones (|an. 1977) 782,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1974) 8 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1975) 1.7 million. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): wheat c. 6,200; barley c. 1,600; rice c. 1,650; potatoes c. 580; sugar, raw value c. 754; onions c. 333; tomatoes c. 256; watermelons (1976) c 870; melons (1976) c. 420; dates c 300; grapes c. 917; soybeans c. 103: tea c. 24; tobacco c. 19; cotton, lint c. 180. Livestock (in 000; Oct. 1976): cattle c. 6,650; sheep c. 35,440; goats c. 14,375; horses (1975) c. 350; asses (1975) c. 1,800; chickens c. rate of 69.92 rials to U.S. $1 (137 rials

=

63,400. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976-77): cement 6,100: crude oil (1977) 283,230: natural gas (cu m; 1977) 22,850,000; petroleum products (1976) c. 32,500; coal c. 900; lead concentrates (metal content) 48; chromium ore (oxide content) 75; electricity (kw-hr) 17,311,000.

government property, and centres of entertainment. A fire in a movie theatre in Abadan on August 19, believed to have been set by Muslim extremists, caused the deaths of an estimated 430 persons. By the last week in August the tide of rioting and disorder had effectively brought the country

to a standstill.

Political dissent took on an increasingly religiously inspired form during 1978 as the Muslim establishment openly criticized the government and called for a return to Islamic principles and the abandonment of such Western reforms as were contrary to their beliefs. The exiled Ayatullah

Ruhollah Khomeini, who moved to Paris during the year after being expelled from Iraq, emerged as a symbol of opposition to the shah. Throughout the crisis he urged his followers to avoid any compromise with the regime. Efforts by the prime minister, Jamshid Amouzegar, to negotiate with religious leaders were unsuccessful. Equally, promises by the shah of continuing and far-reaching liberalization, including free elections in 1979, were ineffective. In Parliament control of affairs by the single party, Rastakhiz, was undermined by splits within it and by the emergence of the traditional parties after a hibernation of more than 18 years. Amouzegar resigned in August.

Appointment

of Jaafar

Sharif-Emami as prime

minister on August 27 was made as a concession to the religious classes. The new Cabinet was met with a further surge of rioting, but, after the shooting down of 100 to 200 unarmed demonstrators on September 8, martial law was enforced in Teheran and 11 other major cities with remarkably little bloodshed. Nevertheless, strikes continued. Rioting broke out afresh early in October, with increasingly bloody clashes between soldiers and demonstrators. The shah's gesture in freeing nearly 1,500 political prisoners failed to conciliate the opposition, and various Cabinet changes proved equally futile. By early November strikers had brought the oil industry to a halt. For the first time, the demonstrations took on an overtly anti-

American

cast,

and on November

6,

during one of

the worst riots in Teheran, an attack on the U.S. embassy was repulsed only with the aid of armed troops.

Sharif-Emami resigned November 5 and was replaced the next day by a military government, headed by the armed forces chief of staff. Gen. Gholam Reza Azhari. A number of prominent persons were placed under arrest, including former prime minister Amir Abbas Hoveida and the former head of Savak, the secret police. A crisis was widely expected on Ashura, the Shi'ite day of

mourning (December 11), when thousands threatened to defy a ban on religious processions to march in what amounted to a massive antishah protest. At the last minute the marches were permitted, and the day passed relatively peacefully in Teheran, although there was some violence in other centres, notably Isfahan.

Although

a

showdown was avoided on Ashura,

the situation continued to deteriorate. Oil production, which had picked up somewhat after the military government came to power, was again halted by strikes; exports were cut off, and by the

457

end of December production was insufficient to meet domestic needs. There were also signs that the Army's hitherto unquestioned loyalty to the shah might be weakening, at least among the lower ranks. With the economy in shambles, moves were begun to form a civilian government of prominent members of the opposition, and on December 29 Shahpur Bakhtiar agreed to attempt to form a Cabinet. The position of the shah remained unclear. Palace spokesmen denied persistent rumours that he would abdicate or turn over power to a regency council. Ayatullah Khomeini continued to call for an end to the shah's regime. On September 16 an earthquake destroyed the city of Tabas in eastern Iran and 40 surrounding villages, killing an estimated 25,000 people. (keith

s.

Iraq

mclachlan)

Iraq A republic of southwestern Asia, Iraq is bounded by Turkey, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Syria, and the Persian Gulf. Area: 437,522 sq km (168,928 sq mi). Pop. (1977 census): 12,171,500, including Arabs, Kurds, Turks, Aramaic-speakers, Iranians, and others. Cap. and largest city: Baghdad (pop., 1977, 3,205,600). Language: AraReligion: mainly Muslim, some Christian. President in 1978, Gen. Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr. In 1978 Iraq maintained its strong opposition to the peace initiative of Egyptian Pres. Anwar asSadat and to any kind of political settlement with Israel, but it also remained outside the December 1977 Tripoli alliance of Arab states opposing Egypt and refused to attend the Algiers summit of the Tripoli alliance states on February 2-4, despite strong urging from Algerian Pres. Houari Boumedienne. Iraq predictably condemned the Camp David Egyptian-Israeli agreement as a treacherous conspiracy against the Arabs, but it did not attend the Damascus summit of hard-line Arab states in bic.

September. The Arab summit in

November

Baghdad in on the

failed to take definitive action

issue.

Because Iraq refused to attend the Algiers summit, Syria on January 29 broke off bilateral talks arranged by Algeria to settle Iraqi-Syrian differences. Because of Syria's continued closure since November 1977 of the Iraq-Turkey rail link through Syrian territory, Iraq was obliged to establish a road bridge bypassing Syria.

on October

26, following talks held in

However, Baghdad,

the presidents of both countries signed a charter of mutual cooperation that appeared to end their long ideological dispute and, in particular, provided for economic and military cooperation through a joint political committee that would meet every three

months. Following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in March, Iraq sent arms and several hundred volunteers to support the Palestinians and Lebanese leftists;

the

men were withdrawn

after the Israelis left

Lebanon. Iraq's relations with the main body of Palestinians, represented in the Palestine Libera-

worsened considerably during 1978. The plo blamed the Baghdad-based tion Organization (plo),

Information Science and Technology: see Computers Insurance: see Industrial Review International

Bank

for Reconstruction

and Development: see Economy, World International Law:

see Law International

Mone-

tary Fund: see Economy, World

Investment: see Economy, World; Stock Exchanges

458 Ireland

extremist

Abu

Nidal group for the assassination of

London {see Obituaries: Hammami, Said) and Kuwait representatives, regarded as moderates. A its

running warfare then developed with a series of attacks on Iraqi diplomats in London, Paris, and other capitals, widely believed to have been ordered by PLC chairman Yasir Arafat, and reprisals against plo representatives. The murder in Lon-

don on July 9 of a former Iraqi premier living in exile, Abdul Razzak an-Naif also led to a deterio,

ration in relations with Great Britain. On July 26 Britain expelled 11 Iraqi diplomats and officials, charging that they were intelligence agents. Iraq responded by expelling eight British diplomats

and two

British

November

the shah's longtime opponent, the AyaKhomeini, was pressured into leaving Iraq, where he had spent many years in exile. Relations with Kuwait continued to improve following the settlement of the border dispute in 1977. In May the two countries agreed to build a railway joining Basra and Kuwait and to link their tullah Ruhollah

electric grids.

A record budget for 1978 forecast expenditures of 17% increase over the 1977 figure. was announced that Iraq had given $2.2 billion in aid in 1977, 80% of which went to non-oil-

$25.7 billion, a It

producing countries.

(peter Mansfield)

Airways employees.

The Iraqi Communist Party suffered a severe blow when 21 Communists were executed in May on charges of forming secret groups within the Army. Relations with the U.S.S.R. were also affected. The Iraqi government deplored Soviet support for the Marxist regime in Ethiopia, against which Iraq was aiding Somali and Eritrean nationalists, and — before its rapprochement with Syria — Soviet favouritism toward the rival Baathist regime there. There were some indications of renewed Kurdish nationalist activity during the year but no general recurrence of the revolt. The government announced that it was tripling its investments in the Kurdish Autonomous Region during 1978. The entente with Iran that had defeated the Kurdish revolt was maintained, and the Iraqi regime showed little sympathy for the antishah protests in Iran. In

Ireland Separated from Great Britain by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel, the Republic of Ireland shares its island with Northern Ireland to the northeast. Area: 70,283 sq km (27,136 sq mi), or 84% of the island. Pop. (1977 est.): 3,199,000. Cap. and largest city: Dublin (pop., 1971, 567,900). Language (1971): mostly English; 28% speak English and Irish or Irish only. Religion: 94% Roman Catholic. President in 1978, Patrick J. Hillery; prime minister, John Lynch. The main issues of 1978 were economic and monetary, with Ireland negotiating from April to join the proposed European Monetary System (ems). The budget introduced at the beginning of February was designed to relieve taxation and

IRAQ Education. (1977-78) Primary, pupils 2,048,566, teachers 78,060, secondary, pupils 664,297, teachers 21,256; vocational, pupils 35,188, teachers 2,333; teacher training, students 27,281, teachers 1,193; higher, students 73,257,

teaching staff 3,536. Finance. Monetary unit: Iraqi dinar, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a par value of 0.296 dinar to U.S. $1 (free rate of 0.578 dinar = £1 sterling). Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange (Dec. 1977) U.S. $6,962,000,000. Budget (1976 est.) balanced at 5,045,000,000 dinars. Gross national product (1975) 3,907,400,000 dinars. Money supply (Sept. 1977) 807.8 million dinars. Cost of living (Baghdad; 1975 = 100; Ian. 1978) 119.5. Foreign Trade. Imports (1976) 1,024,700,000 dinars; exports (1977) 2,853,800,000 dinars. Import sources (1976): West Germany 21%; Japan 14%; France 6%: U.S. 5%; Italy 5%. Export destinations (1975): France c. 16%,; Italy c. 13%; Brazil c. 12%; Turkey c. 6%; Japan c. 6%; U.S.S.R. c. 5%; U.K. c. 5%. Main export: crude oil 98%. Tourism: visitors (1976) 630,000; gross receipts (1975) U.S.

$78 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1975) 11,859 km. Motor vehicles in use (1975): passenger 98,600; com-

Ireland, Northern: see United Kingdom

Iron and Steel Industry:

see Industrial Review Islam:

see Religion

mercial (including buses) 61,800. Railways: (1975) 1,990 km; traffic (1975-76) 704 million passenger-km, freight 2,252,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1977): 1,221,000,000 passenger-km; freight 32.5 million net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 110; gross tonnage 1,135,245. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 319,600. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) 1,252,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1973) 520,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): wheat 696; barley 458; rice 199; cucumbers (1976) c. 102; watermelons (1976) c. 393; melons (1976) c. 102; tomatoes c. 290; dates c. 375; tobacco c. 10; cotton, lint (1976) c. 16. Livestock (in 000; 1977): cattle c. 2,550; buffalo c. 218; sheep c. 11,4(X); goats c. 3,600; camels (1976) c. 330; asses (1976) c. 607. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): cement 2,385; crude oil (1977) 111,220; petroleum products c. 5,400; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr) 4,645,000.

IRELAND Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 557,548, teachers 18,222; secondary, pupils 276,710, teachers 15,915; vocastudents 35,048, teaching staff 3,054. Finance. Monetary unit: Irish pound, at par with the pound sterling, with a free rate (Sept. 18, 1978) of U.S. £1. Gold, SDR's, and foreign exchange (June $1.96 tional, pupils 4,411, teachers 198; higher,

=

1978) U.S. $1,908,000,000. Budget (1977 actual): revenue £1,779 million; expenditure £2,335 million. Cross national product (1977) £5,352 million. Money supply (June 1978) £1,120.9 million. Cost of living (1975 = 100; May 1978) 142.2. Foreign Trade. (1977) imports £3,081 million; exports £2,514.2 million. Import sources: EEC 68% (U.K. 48%, West Germany 7%, France 5%); U.S. 9%. Export destinations: EEC 76% (U.K. 47%, West Germany 9%, France 7%, The Netherlands 6%); U.S. 6%. Main exports: machinery 13%; beef and veal 12%; chemicals 10%; dairy products

5%. Tourism $253 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1975) 89,006 km. Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 551,100; comtextile yarns and fabrics 6%; cattle (1976): visitors 1,690,000; gross receipts U.S.

6%;

mercial 53,530. Railways: (1976) 2,010 km; traffic (1977)

794 million passenger-km, freight 534 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 1,528,000,000 passenger-km; freight 77.7 million net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 98; gross tonnage 211,872. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 480,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1974) 866,000.

Television licenses (Dec. 1976) 590,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): barley c. 1,359; wheat c 239; oats c. 127; potatoes c. 1,200; sugar, raw value c. 185; cabbages (1976) c. 138; cow's milk c. 4,600; butter 102; cheese c. 56; beef and veal c. 318; pork c 127; fish catch (1976) 94. Livestock (in 000; June 1977):

sheep 3,526; pigs 947; horses (1976) c. 98; chickens c. 10,500. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): coal 49; cement 1,569; petroleum products 1,886; electricity (kw-hr; 1977) 9,308,000; manufaaured gas (cu m) 270,000; beer (hi; 1973-74) 4,492; wool fabrics (sq m) 3,000; rayon, cattle 7,155;

etc., fabrics (sq

m) 16,700.

achieve a wage settlement with the trade unions that would satisfy them but would not feed inflation.

The budget package, delivered by Finance MinGeorge Colley but to a large extent the brainof Martin O'Donoghue, minister for child economic planning and development and a new man among the leaders of the Fianna Fail party, seemed to work. Inflation, which had been as high as 20% at the beginning of 1977, came down steadily, reaching 6.2% by mid-June 1978. Agreement was also reached on a nationwide wage package. In June the government published its detailed action program for the economy, a Green Paper which set out proposals on job creation, as well as proposed cuts in public spending. It was controversially thorough and provoked a heated pubister

debate, but the general reaction was positive. As early as April, the government decided to commit the country to joining the ems, irrespective of Britain's intent. The proposed system would link all nine members of the European Economic Community. The issue dominated ministerial and summit meetings in Europe, but by year's end, because of objections raised by France in connection with the Community's common agricultural policy, no definite date had been set lic

for the system's inception.

This exercising of Irish political muscle in Europe was backed up by more practical work at the European Parliament. In the late summer Irish delegates took a strong and independent line on specific agricultural issues, including the creation

European policy for mutton and lamb. Then, beginning of October, all three Irish political parties inaugurated their direct election campaigns for the European Parliament, aimed at returning 15 delegates in June 1979 to represent the Republic of Ireland. Most of the political events of the year had a European flavour. Security remained a serious Irish problem, however. In January the government dismissed the head of the police force, Edmund Garvey, without giving reasons. The reasons, in fact, were numerous and complex, involving a loss of confidence in the force, too much priority given to the arrest and detention of subversives, and too little emphasis on crime prevention and detection, particularly in urban areas. But if urban crime was identified by the government as the main security problem, a very different view was adopted by the British secretary of state for Northern Ireland, Roy Mason. Visiting Dublin in May, he called for more pressure against subversives, while treating other matters of North-South cooperation in a fairly dismissive manner. Previously, in March, Mason had alleged that Provisional Irish Republican Army (ira) terrorists were operating from bases inside of a

at the

the republic. In June Seamus Twomey, a former chief of staff of the Provisional ira, was sentenced. Twomey had escaped from Mount joy Prison, Dublin, in a hijacked helicopter in October 1973 and had been recaptured in December 1977. He received a fiveyear jail sentence for his exploit, with a three-year concurrent sentence for ira membership. In January the government issued a statement

welcoming the European Court of Human Rights ruling on interrogation techniques used by British security forces in Northern Ireland. The court held while they did not constitute torture, they to "inhuman and degrading treatment" that contravened the European Convention on that,

amounted

Human Rights. An important lin

aroused

archaeological discovery in Dubcontroversy during the second

much

half of 1978. Substantial remains of the old Viking city were unearthed during the course of sinking

foundations for civic offices on the banks of the River Liffey. They included the foundations of houses, roadways, docking facilities beside the river, much human detritus of one sort or another, and even the remains of a Viking skeleton. The courts declared the site "a national monument," thus halting construction. Marches of protest were organized, one of which attracted an estimated 20,000 people. Among the protesters were Dubliners dressed in Viking costume who declared they would fight once again for the dear old city. In the event, the government compromised by granting a period of six weeks for further excavations and later making this an unlimited period, until such time as the archaeologists responsible were satisfied. Strong pressure continued on the government to abandon the civic offices altogether and turn the Wood Quay site into a Viking park. In midNovember Prime Minister John Lynch indicated, in connection with the controversy, the need for governments to take note of public opinion, and defenders of Wood Quay anticipated an eventual decision in their favour. A serious restraint was placed on conversation throughout the country by a prolonged strike of telephone engineers and operators. It ran from February to early May. However, it never quite brought the system to a stop, and partial communication, of an intermittent kind, remained available. As a compensation of sorts, the state radio and television network inaugurated a new television channel in June, following this with a second radio channel in the autumn. It had the look of a plan to stop people from talking and have them look and listen instead. There was plenty of opportunity; from May to October the weather was cold and miserably wet. On March 21 the former president of Ireland, Cearbhall Dalaigh {see Obituaries), died following a heart attack. He was the only president of Ireland to resign, and did so in circumstances that provoked considerable controversy.

O

(bruce Arnold) See also United Kingdom.

Israel A republic of the Middle East, Israel is bounded by Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Egypt, and the Mediterranean Sea. Area (not including territory occupied in the June 1967 war): 20,700 sq km (7,992 sq mi). Pop, (1978 est.): 3,695,600. Cap. and largest city: Jerusalem (pop., 1978 est., 376,000). Language: Hebrew and Arabic. Religion: predominantly Jewish (1977 est., 84.5%) with Muslim, Christian, and

^^

460 Israel

Israeli troops physically removed squatters from an illegal settlement in occupied Jordan. The

squatters

were protesting

the Camp David peace agreements.

Other minorities. Presidents in 1978, Ephraim Katzir and, from May 29, Yitzhak Navon; prime minister, Menahem Begin. For Israel the year 1978 was essentially one of testing the nation's leaders. Prime Minister Menahem Begin (see Nobel Prizes) and his ministerial colleagues of the Likud Party. They had come to power in the wake of their surprising electoral victory in May 1977 when the Labour Party was displaced for the first time after 30 years in office. It was also a test for the new and younger leaders of the Labour Party. They had to reconstruct their party, regain public confidence, and demonstrate their authority in opposition to the government. Alone, almost apart, without a party label or a party following, stood the foreign minister, Moshe Dayan. His influence in the country and abroad

was greatly enhanced by year's end but was still challenged by the majority in the Cabinet that was taking a hard line with regard to concessions to Egypt and the Palestinians. Twice he had approved the text of a peace treaty with Egypt, only to be overruled by the Cabinet. Both times he had withheld his resignation, presumably because he could not see how Israel's best interests would be served if he and Defense Minister Ezer Weizman (see Biographies) were to abandon the negotiating field to the hard-line "hawks." As 1978 began, six weeks after the euphoria of the "peace initiative" visit of Egyptian Pres. Anwar as-Sadat (see Nobel Prizes) to Jerusalem, the mood in Israel had become more sober. The SadatBegin meeting at Ismailia in Egypt late in 1977 had concluded without the expected "joint declaration" of peace. The Knesset (parliament) had voted on December 28 for Begin's peace plan, which Sadat had categorically rejected. Within weeks Begin abandoned the plan's more untenable positions: the retention of Jewish settlements in Sinai to be administered by Israel and protected by Israeli troops and the retention of Israeli troops in central Sinai to monitor the free passage of ships through the Strait of Tiran.

As

it

turned out both Sadat and Begin had

lost

the initiative at Ismailia. On January 4 Sadat met briefly with U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter at Aswan, Egypt. With this encounter the initiative passed to the United States. It became a partner in the peace process, as Sadat had desired and as Begin had to prevent. However, the formula on the Palestinian question agreed upon at Aswan was

sought

accepted by the Israeli government. It stipulated that "the resolution of the Palestine problem must recognize the legitimate rights of the Palestinian people and enable the Palestinians to participate in the determination of their own future." But the Israelis took comfort from President Carter's statement of Dec. 15, 1977, in which he said that because of its intransigence the Palestine Liberation Organization (plo) had removed itself "from any immediate prospect of participation in a peace discussion." Negotiations continued when Egyptian Foreign Minister Muhammad Ibrahim Kamal went to Jerusalem to meet with Foreign Minister Dayan and U.S. Secretary of State Cyrus Vance. An early cloud was cast over the proceedings by an uncompromisingly hard-line statement that Kamal made on his arrival January 17. The cloud turned into a storm warning when that same evening Begin re-

sponded with somewhat heavy-handed humour

On the next day, after the Israelis and the Egyptians had made their formal opening statements, Egyptian radio announced that Sadat had ordered Kamal and his negotiating team to return to Cairo. The political talks were at an end. Meanwhile, Sadat flew to Washington and stayed with President Carter at Camp David, Md. A week after Sadat's arrival. Secretary Vance informed the Israeli government that it was the U.S. position that the Jewish settlements in the Sinai were there "contrary to international law." U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Alfred Atherton continued to negotiate in Jerusalem and Cairo between February 21 and March 6, but to no avail. Begin was to follow Sadat to Washington in an attempt to restore the traditional U.S. support for Israel and to counter the Egyptian leader's undoubted public relations success in the U.S. On the eve of his departure on March 12, 11 terrorists attacked a bus and several other vehicles on the Haifa-Tel Aviv highway. About 30 Israeli passenthat greatly offended the Egyptians.

gers

and one Nine

injured.

and many were were killed in the

U.S. citizen died, of the terrorists

ensuing gunfight. The plo claimed responsibility. Begin postponed his journey to Washington. On March 14 Israeli troops crossed into southern Lebanon to occupy "a security belt" that Israel hoped would prevent further terrorist raids across the border. Although the Israeli force was much smaller than was generally claimed, numbering only 6,500 men rather than 25,000, it appeared to have gone into action without any clear objective, causing much damage and many casualties among the normally friendly southern Lebanese. The plo forces escaped to the north.

Weizman ordered a unilateral cease-fire in southern Lebanon on March 21. On that day Prime Minister Begin arrived in the U.S. for the post-

I ISRAEL Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 578,658, teachers 31,835: secondary, pupils 77,943, teachers 5,732; vocational, pupils 74,441, teachers 7,652; higher, students 74,371, teaching staff (1973-74) 13,981. Finance. Monetary unit: Israeli pound, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of l£18.45 to U.S. $1 (l£36.15 = £1 Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $1,749,600,000. Budget (1977-78 est.) balanced at l£122,500 million. Cross national product (1977) l£138,921 million. Money supply (Sept. 1977) l£17,633 million. Cost of living (1975 = 100; June 1978) 258.5. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports l£60,535 million (including l£9,852 million military goods); exports 1£32,249 million. Import sources: U.S. 20%, U.K. 10%; West Germany 9%; Switzerland 9%,: The Netherlands 9%. Export destisterling).

nations: U.S. 19%; West Cermany 9%; U.K. 7%; Hong Kong 6%; The Netherlands 6%; France 5%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5%,- Main exports: diamonds 36%,; chemicals 11%; metal manufactures 8%; citrus fruit 6%; machinery 6%,. Tourism (1976): visitors 733,000; gross receipts U.S. $292 million.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1974) 10,657 km. Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 297,300; commercial 98,100. Railways: (1977) 902 km; traffic (1976) 280 million passenger-km, freight 449 million net ton-km. Air (1977): passenger-km; 4,697,000,000 freight 179,008,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1976): merchant ves100 gross tons and over 58; gross tonnage 404,651. Telephones (Ian. 1977) 869,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1972) 680,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1974) 652,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): wheat 230; barley (1976) 20; potatoes 212; peanuts 25; watermelons (1976) c. 110; tomatoes c 250; onions c. 60; oranges 897; grapefruit 499; grapes 73; apples 100; olives 9; bananas 54; cotton, lint 63; cheese c. 50; fish catch traffic

sels

(1976) 26. Livestock (in 000; 1976). cattle 323; sheep 202; goats 140; pigs c. 86; camels 11; chickens c. 11,500. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): ce-

ment

1,852; petroleum products (1976)

c. 6,800; sulfuric content; 1976-77) nitrogenous 48, potash 645; electricity (kw-hr) 11,164,000. New dwelling units completed (1977) 43,010.

acid 198;

salt 87;

fertilizers (nutrient

poned meeting with President Carter. This was said to be "serious and candid." Carter left Begin in little doubt that the U.S. found certain positions adopted by the Cabinet majority, be they with Begin's blessing or not, unacceptable. The U.S. stressed Lebanon's territorial integrity and also urged

Israel to accept

UN

Resolution 242 as the

basis for negotiations with Egypt. (This resolution called for Israeli withdrawal from territory occu-

pied in the 1967 war.) The Israeli Cabinet rejected this in February. However on April 16, a month after the Washington talks, the Cabinet affirmed its support for the UN resolution. At this time and especially during the first weeks of May, Israel again became entangled with U.S. policy. This time the issue was the proposed sale by the U.S. of 60 F-15 fighter planes to Saudi Arabia over a four- or five-year period. Begin ordered an all-out campaign against this proposed sale on the grounds that it would change the balance of power on Israel's eastern front. Carter countered by stipulating a package deal that made the sale of 90 F-16 and F-15 aircraft to Israel contingent on Senate approval of the Saudi sale. Israel urged its friends in the U.S. to oppose this and to urge the U.S. Senate not to vote for the package deal. On May 5 Begin took the unprece-

dented step for an to

Israeli leader of

urging U.S. Jews

mute their public expressions of dissent from his doing they "weaken those

policies because in so

who

negotiate for Israel."

On May

15, despite Be-

gin's appeal and the urgings of Israel's friends, tne Senate approved Carter's proposed package arms deal with Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt. On April 19 Yitzhak Navon (see Biographies) was elected president of Israel without opposition. It was a popular choice. Navon, a tenth-generation Israeli,

charmed

his audience with

an inaugural

speech delivered with impressive articulation in Hebrew and Arabic. He appealed to Begin and Sadat not to abandon their effort for peace. At the end of June the Israeli Cabinet began to confront its other major problem, the future sovereignty of the West Bank and Gaza. This issue was of great political importance for Begin and his colleagues. Carter and, especially, the U.S. Department of State did not make matters any easier for Dayan and Weizman. Their objective was to compel Begin to climb down from positions that had

been a mainstay

Dayan was

for

him and

his party.

with the seemingly impossible task of bridging the gap between an angry Begin, who resented U.S. pressure, and an angry Carter, who was annoyed by Israeli "legalisms and double-talk." What Dayan wanted was to keep the negotiations going on Carter's terms. But at the same time he wanted to push ahead with Israel's left

plans for the West Bank so that in five years, when on its autonomy was due, there would be a new relationship established between it and Israel that would be acceptable to all parties. a decision

The year's most significant achievement consisted of two agreements signed by Begin and Sadat at the end of a conference with Carter at Camp David in September. In return for the establishment of normal relations between Israel and Egypt, Israel agreed to return all of Sinai to Egypt and remove its settlements from that region. Israel also agreed to a freeze on new settlements in the West Bank. The rights of Palestinians were to be recognized. Loose ends in the agreements were dealt with by

Ihe charred wreckage of bus stands along a highway leading into Tel Aviv. The bus had been a

full

of tourists returning after sight-seeing

home in

March when

tacked by

PLO

it

was

at-

terrorists.

gun battle, 37 Israelis and 9 Palestinians were killed; 82 Israelis were wounded. After a

462 Italy

Dayan and Weizman along with representatives from Egypt and the U.S., and by the end of October a formula had been negotiated that satisfied all three parties.

The formula was rejected by the Israeli Cabinet November. Meanwhile, in Baghdad, Iraq, a conference of the opponents of the Camp David agreements had met and denounced them with the in early

support of the Saudi Arabian delegation. Sadat's position in the Arab world was thus becoming more difficult, and he stepped up his demands on Israel. Therefore, the formula agreed on by the negotiators was no longer practical on November 21 when the Israeli Cabinet, at Dayan's urging, belatedly endorsed the Dayan-Weizman formula but without a crucial addition to which the two negotiators had agreed. This had set a target date, with adequate qualifications, for elections to be held in the West Bank. Again it seemed as if all was lost. But again Dayan and the Egyptians, assisted by Cyrus Vance, found yet another opening. A meeting between Dayan, Vance, and Egyptian Prime Minister Mustafa Khalil was arranged for December 24 in Brussels. Before Dayan left for Brussels, Begin announced that Dayan had been authorized to discuss only procedural questions. On his return to Jerusalem, before a special Cabinet meeting to hear his report and after he had briefed Begin, Dayan said that he had discussed the outstanding issues "in great depth" with Khalil and Vance. Accordingly, he recommended that the talks be resumed, with both Israel and Egypt making concessions. This was not what Begin had intended, but evidently Dayan believed that the day of decision had come. The Cabinet talked for four hours but made no decision. Thus, the euphoria of December 1977 had all but evaporated a year later. Begin's command over his party and his colleagues in the Cabinet had weakened. His economic policy of liberating the country

from

controls

and

restrictions

was

in

a

shambles. There had been crippling strikes among dockworkers, postal employees, and teachers. Inflation was out of control, running at 40% for most of the year and climbing in the last quarter to an

annual rate of 80%.

On December 8, Golda Meir, a former Labour prime minister and one of the last of Israel's founding giants, died at the age of 80 (see Obituaries). Begin and Sadat on December 10 received the Nobel Peace Prize at a ceremony in Oslo, Norway. Begin attended in person, while Sadat sent a proxy. (jON kimche)

Pertini wjs greeted by a well-wisher on meeting of Rome's Chamber of Deputies on July 8.

Ale^sandro

elected president of

from July

9,

Italy at that

his

way

Pertini

to a

was

session.

Alessandro Pertini; premier, Giulio

Andreotti.

The kidnapping and murder by Red Brigades terrorists of Aldo Moro (see Obituaries), former premier and one of the nation's most influential political leaders, was the most dramatic event of a year during which political developments were overshadowed by a serious increase in terrorist violence. The biggest manhunt ever organized in peacetime in Italy failed to track

down

Moro's

kill-

Although a small group of alleged Red Brigades members were arrested and sentenced to long prison terms on charges of illegal possession of arms, the crime remained unsolved and continued to weigh heavily on an unstable political situation in which Roman Catholics and Communists formally shared power for the first time in ers.

over 30 years.

Domestic Affairs. The year began with a sudden spate of extremist political violence in Rome and the major cities of northern Italy, leaving four dead. Disagreements on economic and social policies

among

the

members

of the six-party political

had supported Premier Giulio Anminority Christian Democrat government for 17 months culminated in the withdrawal of the Communists from the pact. Lacking this support, Andreotti resigned on January 16. The Communists, supported by the Socialists, demanded direct Cabinet participation in an all-party emergency government. Four days before Andreotti resigned and after a hastily arranged visit alliance that

Italy A

republic of southern Europe, Italy occupies the Sicily, Sardinia, and a number of smaller islands. On the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria, and Yugoslavia. Area: 301,262 sq km (116,318 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est): 56,600,400. Cap. and largest city; Rome (pop., 1978 est., 2,897,500). Language: Italian. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. Presidents in 1978, Giovanni Leone until June 15 and.

Apennine Peninsula,

dreotti's

to

Washington, D.C., by the U.S. ambassador Richard Gardner, the U.S. Department

Italy,

to

of

State spelled out its strong opposition to participa-

tion in the

government by the

Italian

Communist

government crisis in Italian postwar history. Almost eight weeks elapsed before Andreotti was able to succeed himParty. There followed the longest

self

with

a

new minority

administration.

Commu-

demands for greater power sharing were satisfied by a new compromise arrangement, a parliamentary majority in which the Italian Communist Party was formally associated with govnist

ernment for the first time in over 30 years. The new Cabinet, without Communist members and virtually unchanged from that of the previous administration, met for the first time on March 15. At the meeting Andreotti outlined his program to be presented to Parliament the following day. But shortly after nine o'clock on the morning of March 16 a group of terrorists ambushed the car carrying Aldo Moro, president of the ruling Christian Democrat Party and architect of the new political agreement between Catholics and Communists, on his way to Parliament. Moro's driver and his four police bodyguards were murdered, and the terrorists escaped with their hostage. The government organized a massive search for the kidnapped leader, mobilizing all the nation's police forces and bringing in the Army to help as well. The Red Brigades terrorists announced in a series of "communiques" that they were subjecting the former premier to a "people's

trial."

Two

photographs of Moro in captivity were published, and during March and April the terrorists released a series of more than 20 personal letters written by Moro to his family, friends, and political leaders pleading that the government agree to exchange him for imprisoned Red Brigades members. Finally the Red Brigades announced that they had sentenced their hostage to death and that he would be executed. Hundreds of police were dispatched to a frozen lake high up in the Abruzzi Mountains of central Italy after a fictitious report was circulated that the statesman's body had been dumped there. Pope Paul VI made a vain personal appeal for the life of his friend, while the Italian government stood firm and refused any deal with the terrorists.

However, there were indications that a one-forone prisoner exchange was being considered at a high level when confirmation came that Moro had been murdered. His body was found on May 9 in the back of a stolen car abandoned symbolically in a narrow street in central Rome halfway between the headquarters of the Communist and Christian Democrat parties. He had been shot. The Moro affair dominated the political scene in

463 Italy

Rome for most of the year. Police arrested various minor accomplices in June in Rome, and in September in Milan they arrested Corrado Alunni, a known Red Brigades leader wanted on previous terrorism charges. Alunni was sentenced to 12 years of imprisonment on two counts relating to past terrorist acts and illegal possession of arms and ammunition. Judicial inquiries into the Moro murder continued without significant result. In spite of attempts to intimidate judges, lawand jurymen, the much-delayed trial of

yers,

Renato Curcio

(see Biographies), founder of the a group of 28 of his accomplices person or absentia) was successfully concluded. The accused were found guilty and sentenced to up to 15 years in prison on charges relating to

Red Brigades, and (in

political violence in the early 1970s.

On May 18 a controversial bill allowing free abortion on demand for women over the age of 18 was passed by a narrow majority in the upper house of Parliament, the Senate, and became law in June. The implementation of the law caused serious difficulties in Italy's overcrowded hospitals clinics. Many Roman Catholic physicians took advantage of a clause in the new law allowing

and

them

to

withdraw from the

on grounds

state abortion

scheme

of conscience.

were held in May involving 10% of the total electorate. The results showed a significant swing toward the ruling Christian Democrats and away from the Communists, rePartial local elections

versing the trend set in the 1976 general election. Giovanni Leone, president of Italy, and his family were accused by the press during the early part of the year of tax evasion, questionable realSurrounded by iron bars and armed guards, members of the Red Brigades went on trial in Turin in March. Twenty-nine Brigades members were

given long prison sentences, some and 16 were acquitted.

in

absentia,

Italian Literature:

see Literature

464 Italy

and improper use of his high office. president, a former Christian Democrat premier, resigned on June 15 after the Communist Party gave its support to calls for his removal. Alessandro Pertini (see Biographies), an 82estate deals,

The

year-old wartime resistance leader and former Sospeaker of the lower house of Parliament, was elected seventh president of Italy after a difficult ten-day series of ballots by the electoral college, a joint session of both houses of Parliament. In December the Senate approved the draft of a revision of the concordat on church-state relations signed by Benito Mussolini in 1929, and early acceptance seemed likely. Under the proposal, worked out over ten years of intermittent negotiations, Roman Catholicism would cease to be the state religion of Italy. The future of church-run educational and welfare institutions would be decided at a later date. The influence of the Vatican cialist

domestic politics was considered likely to dwindle under the new Polish pope, John Paul II (see Biographies). On November 8 Fedele Calvosa, public prosecutor of Frosinone, a town between Rome and Naples, was shot dead by terrorists together with his driver and bodyguard. This new triple assassina-

on

Italian

Negotiations were at an advanced stage between the Fiat organization and the Chinese government for the sale of a tractor plant worth $600 million. During a visit to Peking Italy's Foreign Trade Minister Rinaldo Ossola offered the Chinese a line of credit worth $1 billion for the purchase of Italian products. A formal trade agreement was due to be signed early in 1979. The Economy. At the end of August Treasury Minister Filippo Maria Pandolfi produced a longawaited three-year economic stabilization plan for 1979-81. This was an attempt to define a strategy

European Comand political orientation carry us toward Europe, but economic reality tends to push us toward the sidelines," the document said. The aims were radical surgery in public spending (budget deficits in the 1970s to halt Italy's slide

munity

away from

its

partners. "Popular feeling

reached heights rarely exceeded in other industrialized countries) and a cut in labour and social costs. In

December,

after initial hesitation, Italy

political violence

opted to join the proposed new European Monetary System, to be inaugurated in 1979. On paper Italy had a healthy balance sheet with record currency reserves of $10.7 billion and a balance of payments surplus for practically every month in the year, thanks to buoyant exports and generous spending by millions of foreign tourists.

trial

The

tion raised speculation that the centre of extremist

might be shifting from the indusnorth to central Italy and that the campaign

would become more indiscriminate. Foreign Affairs. The succession of domestic

of terror

prevented Italy from engaging in much acin international affairs, but Andreotti to fit in a visit to the United States from May 28 to June 2 during which he met U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter and made a speech at the United Nations Special Session on Disarmament. During his visit Andreotti briefed U.S. officials on the new political arrangement with the Communists. crises tivity

managed

The most significant official foreign visitor to was the Chinese foreign minister, Huang Hua, who spent five days from October 5 to 10 talking to government leaders and touring industrial areas in both the north and south. In Turin the Chinese minister met Giovanni Agnelli, the chairman of Fiat and Italy's leading industrialist. Italy

result

was

that large Italian

companies were

again in the market for international loans. But Andreotti's plan to dampen inflation and to cut the public-sector deficit was not achieved. The series of political crises — the change in government, the Moro murder, and the change of presidents—all combined to leave the country rudderless at times when vital economic decisions had to be made. Inflation remained at about 11%, an improvement over the 1977 figure of more than 14% but still high enough to cause continuing pressure by the labour unions for higher wages. Imbalances in wages and salaries between workers in the public sector and those in private industry caused a series of damaging strikes by hospital workers and other government employees.

(dAVID DOUGLAS WILLEy)

ITALY Education. (1977-78) Primary, pupils 4,665,526, teachers 255,267: secondary, pupils 2,945,930, teachers 249,777; vocational, pupils 1,421,515, teachers 126,851; teacher training, students 205,695, teachers 18,899; higher, students 748,425, teaching staff (1975-76) 43,129. Finance. Monetary unit: lira, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of 832 lire to U.S. $1 (1,631 lire = £1 sterling). Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange (June 1978) U.S. $12,961,000,000. Budget (1977 actual): revenue lire; expenditure 43,022,000,000,000 54,899,000,000,000 lire. Cross national product (1977) 172,397,000,000,000 lire. Money supply (Feb. 1978) 96,236,000,000,000 lire. Cost of living (1975 = 100; )une 1978) 152.6. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports 41,960,0(X),000,000 lire: exports 39,736,000,000,000 lire. Import sources: EEC 43% (West Cermany 17%, France 14%); U.S. 7%; Saudi Arabia 6%. Export destinations: EEC 47% (West Germany 19%, France 14%, U.K. 5%); U.S. 7%. Main exports: machinery 23%; motor vehicles 9%; chemicals 7%; food 5%; cloth-

6%; textile yarns and fabrics 5%; petroleum products 5%; iron and steel 5%. Tourism (1976): ing

visitors 13,930,000; gross receipts U.S. $2,526,000,-

000.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1975) 291,081

km

(including 5,431

km

expressways).

Mo-

in use (1976): passenger 16,221,300; commercial 1,059,980. Railways: (1976) 19,923 km; traffic (1977) 38,780,000,000 passenger-km, freight

tor vehicles

16,080,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 10,780,000,000 passenger-km; freight 468,240,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 1,690: gross tonnage 11,111,182. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 15,241,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1976) 13,024,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1976) 12,377,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): wheat 6,329; corn 6,456; barley 677; oats 355; rice 721; potatoes 3,310; sugar, raw value 1,230; cabbages (1976) 628; cauliflowers (1976) 570; onions 490; tomatoes 3,120; grapes 10,900; wine 6,363; olives 2,550; oranges 1,650; mandarin oranges and

tangerines 375; lemons 871; apples 1,810; pears (1976) 1,480; peaches (1976) 1,419; tobacco c. 110; cheese c. 525; beef and veal c. 1,047; pork 902. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1976): cattle 8,737; sheep 8,445; pigs 9,097; goats 948; poultry c 117,550. Industry. Index of production (1975 = 100; 1977) 113.6. Unemployment (1977) 7.1%. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1977): lignite 1,112; crude oil 1,083; natural gas (cu m) 13,700,000; manufactured gas (cu m) 3,380,000; electricity (kw-hr; 1976) 163,550,000. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): iron ore (44% metal content) 480; pig iron 11,666; crude steel 23,299; aluminum 262; lead 46; zinc 180; cement 38,206; cotton yarn 149; man-made fibres 432; fertilizers (nutrient content; 1976-77) nitrogenous 985, phosphate 383, potash 141; sulfuric acid 2,952; petroleum products (1976) 101,958; passenger cars (units) 1,440; commercial vehicles (units) 144. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1977) 688,(M0 gross tons. New dwelling units completed (1977) 149,200.

V

jaf-in.cM-s

-

-

>-•

-

^.-c-^

'

Ivory Coast

Jamaica

A

republic on the Gulf of Guinea, the Ivory Coast is bounded by Liberia, Guinea, Mali, Upper Volta, and Ghana. Area: 322,463 sq km (124,504 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 7,205,000. Cap. and largest city: Abidjan (pop., 1975, 685,800). Language:

French

(official)

and

local dialects

(Akan 41% Kru ,

Voltaic 16% Malinke 15% Southern Mande ). Religion: animist 65%; Muslim 23%; Christian 12%. President and premier in 1978, Felix

17% 10%

,

,

,

Houphouet-Boigny. In internal politics 1978 was a relatively uneventful year for the Ivory Coast. A minor government reshuffle in February, with the appointment of Amadou Thiam to the post of information minister, was essentially a technical adjustment. In foreign affairs, however, important developments included a rapprochement with Guinea and the strengthening of links with France.

Houphouet-Boigny visited Cameroon 23, and on March 17 a summit meetMonrovia, Liberia, brought together the

Pres. Felix

on February

ing at presidents of Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Togo, and The Gambia and officially confirmed the reconciliation between Guinea and the Ivory Coast. This was translated into concrete terms on April 14, with the establishment of normal diplomatic relations and the signing of a treaty of friendship between the two countries. Pres. Valery Giscard d'Estaing of France visited the Ivory Coast on January 11-16, taking the opportunity to revive proposals for an Afro-European solidarity pact. This concept, brought up again at the Franco-African conference in Paris together with that of a joint African intervention force, was supported by President HouphouetBoigny. On the whole, Giscard's visit was seen as marking a renewed attempt by France to extend its influence in Africa and was attacked on those grounds by Algeria, Libya, and the Soviet Union. (PHILIPPE DECRAENE)

A

parliamentary state within the

Commonwealth

an island in the Caribbean Sea about 90 mi S of Cuba. Area: 10,991 sq km sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 2, 115,000, predomi(4,244 nantly African and Afro-European, but including European, Chinese, Afro-Chinese, East Indian, Afro-East Indian, and others. Cap. and largest city: Kingston (pop., 1974 est., 169,800). Language: English. Religion: Christian, with Anglicans and Baptists in the majority. Queen, Elizabeth II; governor-general in 1978, Florizel Glasspole; prime minister, Michael Manley. Throughout 1978 Michael Manley 's People's National Party (pnp) government tried to maintain political stability against a background of massive economic problems. At the end of 1977 the island's visible trade deficit stood at Jam$106.3 million and its reserves at minus Jam$201 million. Early in 1978 the island defaulted on one of the terms of a U.S. $74.6 million International Monetary Fund assistance package agreed upon in July 1977. A tough agreement was reached in May 1978 whereby, of Nations, Jamaica is

Ivory Coast

in return for U.S. $240 million in balance of pay-

ments support over three years, the Jamaican government would raise additional revenues of Jam$180.3 million; restrict wage increases to 15%; and devalue the Jamaican dollar progressively to achieve a fall of 43.6% by May 1979. The terms resulted in domestic unrest and left the govern-

ment

room

little

for

maneuver.

Cabinet changes included the resignation of the minister of finance, David Coore; P. J. Patterson became deputy prime minister, reconfirming the PNp's move away from radical socialism. Edward Seaga was returned unopposed as head of the opposition Jamaica Labour Party. Relations with Cuba remained warm while relations with the (david a. jessop) U.S. improved.

JAMAICA Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 367,525, teachers 10,002; secondary, pupils 213,621, teachers 8,377; voca-

IVORY COAST Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 740,375, teachers 15,358; secondary, pupils 113,366, teachers (1974-75) 3,959; vocational, pupils 9,165, teachers (1974-75) 620; higher, students 8,701, teaching staff (1973-74) 368.

Finance. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Sept. 18, 1978) CFA Fr 50 to the French franc (free rate of CFA 218.81 = U.S. $1: CFA Fr 428.75 = £1 sterling). Gold, SDR's, and foreign exchange (May 1978) U.S. $466.3 million. Budget (1976 rev. est.) balanced at CFA Fr 151.2 billion. Money supply (Feb. 1978) CFA Fr 412,970,000,000. Cost of living (Abidjan; 1975 = 100; June 1978) 166.2. Foreign Trade. (1977) imports CFA Fr 429.6 billion; exports CFA Fr 529.2 billion. Import sources: France 39%; a parity of Fr

U.S. 8%; West Germany 7%; Japan 5%. 26%; The Netherlands 15%; 9%; Spain 6%,; West Germany 5%. Main 38%; cocoa 26%; timber 16%. tions: France

Agriculture. Production

(in

Export destinaU.S. 12%; Italy exports: coffee

000; metric tons; 1977): rice

440; corn (1976) c 120; millet c. 46; yams (1976) c. 1,700; cassava (1976) c 680; peanuts c. 47; bananas c. 178; plantains (1976) c. 750; pineapples c. 245; palm kernels c. 38; palm oil c. 185; coffee c. 318; cocoa c. 235; cotton, lint c.

20; timber (cu m; 1976) 10,450; fish catch (1976) 77. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c 600; sheep c. 1,000; goats c. 1,000; pigs c. 210; poultry c. 8,000.

c.

28; rubber

c.

tional, pupils 5,321, teachers 355; teacher training, stu-

dents 6,017, teachers 291; higher, students 10,305, teaching staff (1973-74) 638. Finance. Monetary unit: Jamaican dollar, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of Jam$1.60 to U.S. $1 (Jam$3.13 = £1 sterling). Gold, SDR's, and foreign exchange (June 1978) U.S. $108 million. Budget (1977 actual): revenue )am$733.3 million; expenditure Jam$1, 103,500,000. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports Jam$784.2 million; exImport sources: U.S. 36%; ports Jam$678 million. Venezuela 16%; Netherlands Antilles 11%; U.K. 10%; Canada 6%. Export destinations: U.S. 44%; U.K. 20%; Norway 11%; Canada 9%. Main exports: alumina 49%; bauxite 21%; sugar 10%. Tourism (1976): visitors 471,000; gross receipts U.S.

$106

million.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons: 1977): sugraw value c 306; bananas c 146; oranges c. 42; grapefruit c 30; sweet potatoes (1976) c. 16; yams (1976) c. 130: cassava (1976) c. 19; corn (1976) c. 13; copra c. 6. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c. 280; goats c. 330; pigs c. 235;

ar,

poultry

c.

3,770.

Industry. Produaion (in 000; metric tons; 1976): ce365; bauxite (1977) 11,420; alumina 1,481; gypsum 249: petroleum products c. 1,360; electricity (kw-hr) c. 2,378,000.

ment

)ai Alai:

see Court

Games

nificant

party.

Japan A

Japan

In

an attempt to prevent

the opening of the Tokyo International

New Air-

port at Narita, thousands of demonstrators invad-

ed the

airfield.

Some

managed

to get into the control tower which

they thoroughly wrecked, delaying opening of the airport by several weeks.

constitutional

monarchy

in the

northwestern

Pacific Ocean, Japan is an archipelago composed of four major islands (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku), the Ryukyus (including Okinawa), and minor adjacent islands. Area: 377,619 sq km (145,799 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 114,689,500. Cap, and largest city: Tokyo (pop., 1978 est., 8,514,100), Language: Japanese. Religion: primarily Shinto and Buddhist; Christian 0.8%. Emperor, Hirohito; prime ministers in 1978, Takeo Fukuda and, from December 7, Masayoshi Ohira. Domestic Affairs. As a result of a general election held on Dec. 5, 1976, the Liberal-Democratic Party (ldp) had won a paper-thin majority in the (lower) House of Representatives (249 of 511 seats plus the support of independents). The election of July 1977 had given the party an equally narrow margin in the (upper) House of Councillors ( 124 of 252 seats plus independent support). Although there were no national elections held during 1978, the ldp's status was affected by sig-

judicial

On

action

September

and reform within the Tokyo High Court

11 the

declared the Dec. 5, 1976, election unconstitutional on the grounds that Diet seats had not been evenly allotted according to the populations of the electoral districts. For years the ldp had relied on its support in overrepresented rural districts. The court refused to set aside the outcome of the election, however. Within the ldp, members and associates participated for the first time on November 27 in the selection of the two top candidates for the presidency. When Masayoshi Ohira (see Biographies), ldp secretary-general, defeated Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda in this primary election, the latter withdrew from the final election scheduled for December 1. As the new president, Ohira was elected prime minister by the Diet

on December 7. Meanwhile, the ldp could take heart in the results of two local elections. On April 9 Yukio Hayashida, supported by the ldp, won the gubernatorial election in Kyoto and thus brought to an end leftist administration. One week later in Yokohama, Michikazu Saigo, formerly a home affairs vice-minister, was elected mayor to succeed Ichio Asukata, who had resigned to become chair-

28 years of

man

of the

Japan Socialist Party

(jsp).

As usual. Prime Minister Fukuda's government was absorbed during 1978 in complex economic problems. Among these were a domestic recession alongside a towering balance of payments surplus, with

concomitant

value of the yen. of Japan's immade exports expensive. A slight gain in the economy's output during the last quarter of 1977 brought Japan's gross national product (gnp) to an inflation-adjusted growth rate for the year of 5.1%, compared with a 6% gain in 1976. During the first quarter of 1978 the GNP scored its best gain in five years, running at an adjusted annual rate of 106,490,000,000,000 yen (U.S. $448 billion). The rate of growth in fiscal 1977-78 (ended March 31) thus reached 5.4%. During the second quarter of 1978, however, the rate of growth fell off again, to 4.5% annually. By the end of April, despite some signs of recov-

The

a

recession

rise in the

made maintenance

ports difficult, while the yen value

ery, Japan's unemployment rate had climbed to the highest level in 19 years. The jobless totaled 1,230,000, or 2.2% of the labour force. On the oth-

hand, the consumer price index in Tokyo continued to show a steadying trend. In March the index in the city areas was up only 0.8% over the previous month, with the annual increase at only 4.8%. Late in December 1977 the government completed its fiscal 1978 budget. Calling for a total exyen ($145 penditure of 34,295,000,000,000 billion), it was designed to revitalize the national economy. The budget passed the Diet in midMarch. On September 2 the government announced a six-point stimulus plan that included the expenditure of an additional 2.5 trillion yen on public works. Prime Minister Fukuda stated to the Diet on September 30 that he would stake his prestige on fulfilling Japan's commitment (made by him at the economic summit meeting in Bonn, er

West Germany, of

7%

in July) to achieve a

growth

467

target

in fiscal 1978.

Japan

Throughout August the government found itself caught up in debates over alleged defects in Japan's Self-Defense Forces (sdf) Law. Even with the fa-

mous

article 9 of the constitution

restricted

(which severely

armed components

of the military), Japroposed a defense expendi-

pan's defense agency ture of more than two trillion yen for fiscal 1979. Such an outlay would make Japan the seventh largest defense spender in the world. Nonetheless,

government found it necessary on July 25 to Hiroomi Kurisu (see Biographies) from duty as chairman of the sdf Joint Staff Council. He had stated that in the face of an external threat the sdf might well have to act without prior authorization from the civilian Cabinet. On September 25 the defense agency made public a docuthe

relieve Gen.

ment stating clearly that the sdf would not resort to arms unless the prime minister had issued an order to mobilize forces under present law and within the framework of the constitution. Japan's government did face an emergency of another sort, the interruption of the formal opening of the New Tokyo International Airport at Narita, 65 km (40 mi) from downtown Tokyo. After seven years of delay, officials on March 23 finally held ceremonies marking completion of the first phase of the airport complex. Operations were scheduled to begin on April 2, but on March 26 some 20,000 demonstrators — a coalition of farmers whose property had been seized and their mostly student supporters — confronted 13,000 riot policemen mobilized to protect the airport. Early in the afternoon, following a diversionary assault on one of the gates, a handful of red-helmeted protesters were able to gain access to the control tower, where they proceeded to destroy equipment and instruments. In some embarrassment the Cabinet announced on April 6 that a ceremonial opening would be postponed to May 20. On May 12 the Diet passed a law empowering the Transport Ministry to apply stringent measures for security in the airport vicinity. Following a heavily guarded ceremony on May 20 and some arrivals of airplanes on May 21, the airport began full-scale operation on

A major earthquake opened great fissures d

persons were reported killed in the quake, 14

were injured, and 15 were missing.

May 22. Sporadic demonstrations continued, including the destruction on June 23 of radio relay equipment (for international flights) atop Mt. Tsukuba in Ibaraki Prefecture. After three months of operations it was announced on September 1 that even amid insecurity and inconvenience Narita was handling an average of 160 international flights per day involving some 22,000 passengers.

The

older

and more

familiar

Haneda

airport.

JAPAN Education. (1977) Primary, pupils 10,819,656, teachers 473,814; secondary and vocational, pupils 9,156,883, teachers 473,814; higher (including 42 main national universities), students 2,093,935, teaching staff 115,146. Finance. Monetary unit: yen, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of 191 yen to U.S. $1 (374 yen = £1 sterling). Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $26.4 billion. Budget (1978-79 est.) balanced at 34,295,000,000,000 yen. Gross national product (1977) 183,600,000,000,000 yen. Money supply dune 1978) 61,462,000,000,000 yen. Cost of living (1975 = 100; June 1978) 122.5. Foreign Trade. (1977) imports 19,128,000,000,000 yen; exports 21,660,000,000,000 yen. Import sources: U.S. 18%; Saudi Arabia 12%; Australia 8%; Indonesia 7%; Iran 6%; Bahrain 5%. Export destinations: U.S. 25%; South Korea 5%. Main exports: machinery 25% (telecommunications apparatus 6%); motor vehicles 19%; iron and steel 15%; ships 10%; instruments 7%; chemicals 6%; textile yarns

and

fabrics

6%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) (including 1,915 km expressways). Mouse (1976): passenger 18,475,600; commercial 11,387,200. Railways (1977): 26,849 km;

1,078,357

km

tor vehicles

in

passenger-km, freight 311,860,000,000 41,585,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1977): 22,813,000,000 passenger-km; freight 1,126,600,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 9,642; gross tonnage 40,035,853. Telephones (March 1977) 48,431,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) 51,630,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1975) 26,030,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): rice 17,000; wheat 236; barley 206; potatoes c 3,200; sweet potatoes (1976) 1,279; sugar, raw value (1976) c 540; onions c. 1,100; shallots (1975) c. 610; tomatoes c 1,243; cabbages (1976) c 3,885; cucumbers (1976) c. 1,055; aubergines (1976) c. 675; watermelons (1976) c. 1,255; apples c 904; pears (1976) 507; oranges c. 406; mandarin oranges and tangerines c 4,080; grapes c. 314; tea c. 105; tobacco c. 169; milk 5,713; eggs c. 1,878; pork 1,165; timber traffic

in

highway near Higashi-

Izu in January. Eleven

(cu m; 1976) c. 38,134; fish catch (1976) 10,620; whales (number; 1974-75) 9.4. Livestock (in 000; Feb. 1977): cattle 3,875; sheep c. 10; pigs c. 7,900; goats c. 94; chickens c. 255,261. Industry. Index of production (1975 = 100; 1977) 115.6. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1977): coal 18,248; crude oil 592; natural gas (cu m) 2,804,000; manufactured gas (cu m) 6,600,000; elertricity (kw-hr; 1976-77) 511,780,000. Production (in 000;

metric tons; 1977): iron ore (54% metal content) 660; pig iron 87,693; crude steel 102,405; petroleum products (1976) 210,014; cement 73,136; cotton yarn 442; woven cotton fabrics (sq m) 2,266,000; manmade fibres 1,735; sulfuric acid 6,337; fertilizers (nutrient content; 1976-77) nitrogenous 1,149, phos-

phate 625; cameras (35 mm; units) 6,827; wristwatches (units) 44,738; radio receivers (units) 17,310; 14,342; passenger cars (units) 5,429; commercial vehicles (units) 3,077; motorcycles (units) 5,577. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1977) 9,838,000 gross tons. television receivers (units)

New

dwelling units started (1977) 1,702,400.

468

Japan

closer to the city,

which two-way trade would grow

after the

on April 15 the chief Cabinet secretary, Shintaro Abe, announced

handled only domestic flights opening of Narita. The Japanese had their share of natural disasters during the year. A powerful earthquake rocked the northern regions of Honshu on June 12, killing 22 and injuring 340 others. Centred in the Pacific Ocean off Miyagi Prefecture, the quake registered an intensity of 7.5 on the Richter scale in the city of Sendai.

The

so-called

Lockheed scandal continued

to

On

April 3 Hiroshi Itoh, forplague the country. mer executive of the Marubeni Co. (which had represented Lockheed in Japan), admitted in court that he had passed yen payments to former prime minister Kakuei Tanaka. Again, on July 5, Kenji

Osano, a wealthy businessman, testified on influence brought to bear in order to sell Lockheed Tristar aircraft in Japan.

Foreign Affairs. In

a policy

speech before the

85th extraordinary Diet session on September 25, Prime Minister Fukuda reviewed his government's efforts to meet the world's expectations of Japan. Contributions to the peace and stability of Asia included the signing of a Sino-Japanese peace treaty in August and Fukuda's visit to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (asean) meeting in 1977. Fukuda referred to his visit to the Middle East in September, the first ever made by a Japanese prime minister to that area. He called for the fulfillment of Japan's economic pledges made at the July summit meeting of industrial nations and looked forward to the next such meeting, to be held in Tokyo in 1979. On October 23, some six years after Japan and China had normalized relations, Fukuda and VicePremier Teng Hsiao-p'ing of China attended

China's Vice-Premier Teng Hsiao-p'ing and Prime Minister Talseo

Fukuda pledged friendly relations between the two countries when Teng visited |apan in

October.

ceremonies in Tokyo to exchange ratifications of the peace treaty. This significant step brought to a climax a long and difficult negotiation, which had virtually been halted in 1975. At issue was Chinese insistence on an "antihegemony" clause, a thinly veiled denunciation of Soviet activities in Asia. On February 16 in Peking, China and Japan had signed an eight-year private agreement under

to

about $20

billion over three-four years. But

Japan's decision to shelve negotiations for the peace treaty until Tokyo received a formal explanation of a Chinese fishing fleet encroachment into Japanese waters off the Senkaku Islands. The next day China responded indirectly to a visiting Japa-

nese delegation to the effect that the fleet's action had not been planned but was an "accident," and on June 30 Foreign Minister Sunao Sonoda an-

nounced that Japan would resume talks. Sonoda and Chinese Foreign Minister Huang Hua signed the five-article treaty of peace and friendship on August 12 in Peking. Japan publicly announced that the antihegemony clause was not aimed at any specific third party. China in turn indicated in oblique fashion that the 1950 SinoSoviet treaty of alliance, which defined Japan as a common potential enemy, would be nullified. Sonoda disclosed on August 13 that Premier Hua Kuo-feng of China planned to visit Tokyo in 1979 to further promote Sino-Japanese ties. During his visit to Tokyo in October Teng declared that he understood Japan's close ties with the U.S., but he criticized U.S. efforts toward detente with the U.S.S.R. Earlier, on February 24, Japan had spurned a Soviet proposal for a Soviet-Japanese treaty of cooperation. Japan's unchanged basic policy was that despite normalization of relations with the U.S.S.R. in 1956, a peace treaty would have to await settlement of the "northern territories" dispute. The latter involved Soviet occupation of the Kuril Islands, off Hokkaido. On June 10 Japan revealed that Etorofu, northernmost of the islets, was being used by the U.S.S.R. as a site for seaborne and air-supported landing maneuvers. It was widely reported in Tokyo that these were Soviet tactics to interrupt Sino-Japanese negotiations. On June 19 in Tokyo, Soviet ambassador Dmitri S. Polyansky delivered his nation's formal protest against Japan's plan to conclude a treaty

with China. After his visit to Peking, U.S. security adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski stopped off in Tokyo on May 23-24 to brief Prime Minister Fukuda and Foreign Ministry officials. The actual timing of the December 15 announcement that the U.S. and China would resume diplomatic relations at the beginning of 1979 apparently came as a surprise to Japanese officials. According to Foreign Minister Sonoda, Prime Minister Ohira was notified via the "hot line" between Washington and Tokyo only a few hours before U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter an-

nounced the move on U.S. television. However, the Japanese government appeared generally pleased with the development, and Sonoda told newsmen that Japanese consultations with both countries had contributed to Sino-U.S. normalization. Otherwise, relations with the U.S. were dominated throughout the year by Japan's huge trade surplus, an increasing current account surplus, and the concomitant fall in dollar values against the yen. On January 13 in Tokyo, Robert Strauss, U.S. special trade representative, and Nobuhiko Ushiba, external

economic

affairs minister,

concluded a truce in

the trade dispute. Strauss warned, however, that the agreement would probably not stem the drive in the U.S. toward protectionism. Ushiba in turn promised that Japan would try to cut its current account surplus for fiscal 1978. Nevertheless, in February it was announced that Japan's current account surplus in 1977 was nearly three times that of 1976 and that foreign currency reserves had reached a record $22.8 billion. On March 1 reserves were pegged at an all-time high of almost $24.2 billion. Much of February's gain was attributed to the Bank of Japan, which was purchasing U.S. dollars to guard against a further decline in the U.S. currency against the yen.

At a bilateral summit meeting in Washington, D.C., on May 3, President Carter assured Fukuda that the U.S. would maintain its presence, in alliance with Japan, in the Asian region. Fukuda promised Carter in return that Japan would do its best in fiscal 1978 to achieve a 7% growth rate and to reestablish trade equilibrium. At the seven-na-

summit meeting of industrial democracies in Bonn, Fukuda was again under pressure because tion

of the trade surplus.

He

set as a target the cutting

of Japan's current account surplus to a level of $6 billion (from $14 billion in fiscal 1977)

and prom-

ised to take strong action to guarantee a

7% growth

rate.

Meanwhile, steadily rising export prices due to the rise in value of the yen were beginning to reestablish equilibrium; on September 23 the Finance Ministry announced that in August Japan's balance of payments surplus had declined for the third straight month. In early December the U.S. and Japan reached agreement on measures to increase Japanese imports of U.S. citrus fruits and beef products. Prime Minister Fukuda returned to Tokyo on September 14 from a ten-day official tour to Iran, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Saudi Arabia. The unprecedented attention to the Middle East dramatized Japan's almost total dependence on external sources of energy, particularly oil. Fukuda reported that he sought understanding among the leaders of those nations of the need to prevent the vicious cycle of a fall in the dollar's value and a rise in oil prices. Japan's newfound status as an economic power broker was illustrated by several official visits to Tokyo. Pres. Walter Scheel of West Germany was a state guest April 16-22, accompanied by Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher. Genscher urged Japan to expand its imports from Western Europe rather than curb exports. Fukuda and visiting Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Eraser agreed that their two nations should cooperate in multilateral trade and in assistance to less developed countries. Eraser arrived in Tokyo on April 19, reportedly to ask Fukuda to explain Australia's position to the U.S. when the latter met with Carter on May 3. In mid-August Foreign Minister Sonoda met with his Indian counterpart. Minister of External Affairs Atal Bihari Vajpayee, in Tokyo. They agreed that Japan and India should strengthen mutual cooperation. A second ministerial meeting was scheduled to be held in New Delhi in 1979.

(ardath w. burks)

Jordan A constitutional monarchy in southwest Asia, Jordan

is

Israel.

bounded by

Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and territory occupied by Israel

Area (including

in the June 1967 war): 95,396 sq

Pop. (1978

Amman

est.):

(pop.,

1976

est.,

Arabic. Religion (1961);

6%

km

2,971,000. Cap.

(36,833 sq mi).

and

691,100).

largest city:

Language:

Muslim 94%; Christian

King, Hussein I; prime minister in 1978, Mudar Badran. In 1978 Jordan pursued a careful balancing act between Egypt's Pres. Anwar as-Sadat and the Arab states opposed to him. King Hussein expressed only cautious and qualified approval of the Sadat peace initiative. He refused to attend the Camp David, Md., summit in September, despite U.S. urging, although he was gratified by Egyptian proposals that the West Bank be returned to Jordanian administration as a step toward a peace settlement. Throughout the year Hussein called for the restoration of Arab unity, and he deplored Arab failure to react against the Israeli invasion of .

Lebanon in March. He proposed a reconciliation Arab summit and remained in constant touch with Arab capitals. Hussein's refusal to denounce President Sadat's policies caused some coolness in relations with Syria. Although there was no rupture, enthusiasm for moves toward Syrian-Jordanian federation diminished. An improvement in relations with the Palestine Liberation Organization (plo) was encouraged by Algeria and Syria as a means of keep-

lORDAN Education. (1977-78) Primary, pupils 414,490, teachers 12,757; secondary, pupils 200,916, teachers 9,188; vocational, pupils 8,826, teachers 540; higher, students 17,219,

teaching

staff 960. Finance. Monetary unit: Jordanian dinar, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of 0.30 dinar to U.S. $1 (0.58 dinar = £1 sterling). Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $805 million. Budget (1977 actual): revenue 273 million dinars (including foreign aid and loans of 128 million dinars); expenditure 306 million dinars. Gross national product (1977) 613.9 million dinars. Money supply (June 1978) 348.9 million dinars. Cost of living (Amman; 1975 = 100; Dec. 1977) 153.7. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports 454,430,000 dinars; exports 82,060,000 dinars. Import sources (1976); West Germany 17%; U.S. 9%; U.K. 8%; Japan 7%; Italy 6%. Export destinations (1976): Saudi Arabia 1l7o; Syria 9%; Iran 9%; Kuwait 5%. Main exports (1976): phosphates 28%; oranges 11%; vegetables 7%; machinery (reexports) 7%; chemicals 6%. Tourism (1975): visitors 707,600; gross re-

ceipts U.S. $101 million.

Transport and Communications. Roads (excludes West Bank; 1976) 4,152 km. Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 39,500; commercial 14,100. Railways (1975) 371 km. Air traffic (1977): 1,131,800,000 passenger-km; freight 40.6 million net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 43,700. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) 529,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1974) 85,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): wheat c. 53; barley (1976) 13; tomatoes c. 88; aubergines

watermelons (1976) c. 44; olives c. 23; oranges c. 5; lemons c. 9; grapes c. 14; tobacco c. 2. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c. 35; goats c. 474; sheep c. 818; camels c. 18; asses c. 38; chickens c. 2,960. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): phosphate rock 1,768; petroleum products 1,040; cement 533; (1976)

c.

40;

electricity (kw-hr) 501,000.

Japanese Literature: see Literature Jazz:

see Music Jehovah's Witnesses: see Religion

Jewish Literature: see Literature

470

Kenya

Elizabeth Halaby, daughter of former

Pan American World Airways president Najeeb Halaby, was married in June to King Hussein of Jordan. After the wedding, Halaby took the Arabic

name

of

Noor al-Hussein

("Light

of Hussein").

ing Jordan out of the Egyptian camp. In March several dozen Palestinian prisoners were released. At the same time the Jordan government remained in constant touch with West Bank mayors, several

whom visited Amman,

and continued to subsiWest Bank religious and educational instituA visit by the prime minister to Libya in April led to an improvement in relations and a

of

dize

tions.

Kenya

Libyan loan for Jordanian fertilizer projects. Hussein clearly expressed his disappointment over the Camp David agreements in September because they did not provide for Israeli withdrawal from all occupied territories or the restoration of Arab sovereignty over the West Bank and Gaza. He said Jordan was not committed to an agreement in which it took no part and expressed concern that it

would

lead to a separate Israeli-Egyptian agree-

ment. Nevertheless, the king refused to join the

Journalism: see Publishing

Judaism: see Israel; Religion Judo:

see Combat Sports Karate:

see Combat Sports Kashmir: see India; Pakistan

Kendo: see Combat Sports

hard-line states in outright rejection and indicated that he would modify his attitude if changes were made in the terms of the agreements. In April the king called upon the prime minister to form a National Consultative Council to perform a function similar to that of Parliament, which had been suspended in 1974 and briefly reconvened in 1976. The 60-member council, which was to serve for two years, represented all regions of Jordan but not the occupants of the West Bank. The proportion of PLO representatives was significantly lower than in the suspended Parliament. Amman continued to enlarge its role as an Arab commercial centre, partially replacing Beirut. In January a stock exchange was opened, and in April the first merchant bank in the country was established. The government claimed that the rate of inflation had been cut by half from the 1977 level of 14.7%. The 1978 budget, introduced in February, showed expenditure equivalent to U.S. $1,192,000,000-3 9.6% increase over 1977-anda deficit of $48 million. Defense expenditure ac-

counted

about one-quarter of the total. Foreign was estimated at $330 million. In August, following meetings in Amman of the joint higher committee chaired by the Syrian and Jordanian prime ministers, Jordan and Syria set aside their differences enough to agree on effective and rapid steps toward economic integration. Plans were drawn up for cooperation in agriculture and guaranteed provision of foodstuffs. On June 15 King Hussein concluded his fourth marriage, to U.S. -born Elizabeth Halaby, daughter of a former Pan American World Airways president of Arab origin. She became a MusUm with the name of Noor al-Hussein {see Biographies) and was proclaimed queen. The king also for

aid in 1978

announced that his third son, two-year-old Prince Ali, would become crown prince when the king's brother. throne.

Crown

Prince Hassan, succeeded to the (peter Mansfield)

See alio Middle Eastern

Affairs.

Kenya An African republic and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Kenya is bordered on the north by Sudan and Ethiopia, east by Somalia, south by Tanzania, and west by Uganda. Area: 580 367 sq km 224 08 1 sq mi including 1 1 230 sq ,

km

(

,

)

,

,

of inland water. Pop. (1977 est.): 14,337,000,

including (1969) African 98.1%; Asian 1.5%. Cap. and largest city: Nairobi (pop., 1978 est., 820,000). Language: Swahili (official) and English. Religion: Protestant 36% Roman Catholic 22% Muslim 6%; others, mostly indigenous, 36%). Presidents in 1978, Jomo Kenyatta and, from August 22, Daniel Arap Moi. The death of Pres. Jomo Kenyatta {see Obituaries) on Aug. 22, 1978, left the country facing a constitutional problem. The vice-president, Daniel ;

;

KENYA Education. (1976) Primary, pupils 2,894,617, teachers 89,074; secondary and vocational, pupils 280,388, teachers 11,438; teacher training, students 8,668, teachers 639; higher, students 5,753. Finance. Monetary unit: Kenyan shilling, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of KShs 7.58 to U.S. $1 (KShs 14.86 = £1 Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $446.9 million. Budget (1976-77 actual): revenue KShs 5,863,000,000; expenditure KShs 6,883,000,000. Cross national product (1977) KShs 35,240,000,000. Cost of living (Nairobi; 1975 = 100; March 1978) 134.7. Foreign Trade. (1977) imports KShs 10,673,000,000; exports KShs 11,273,000,000. Import sources: U.K. 18%; Japan 12%; West Cermany 11%; Iran 9%; Saudi Arabia 7%; U.S. 6%; France 5%. Export destinations: West Cermany 17%; U.K. 13%,; Tanzania 10%; Uganda 10%; The Netherlands 10%; U.S. 5%. Mam exports: coffee 41%o^ petroleum products 17%,; tea 14%; fruit and vegetables 5%. Tourism (1975): visitors 407,400; gross receipts U.S. $98 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 50,091 km. Motor vehicles in use (1975): passenger 83,700; commercial 79,200. Railways: (1975) 2,729 km; freight traffic (1976) 3,650,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1975): 879 million passenger-km; freight 19.7 million ton-km. Telephones (Ian. 1977) 131,800. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) 511,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1975) 38,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): corn c. 1,700; wheat c. 180; millet c 140; potatoes c. 252; sweet potatoes (1976) c. 555; cassava (1976) c 677; sugar, raw value (1976) c. 173; bananas c. 190; coffee c. 87; tea c. 90; sisal c 34; cotton, lint c. 7; fish catch (1976) 41. Livestock (in 000; May 1977): cattle c. 7,350; sheep (1975) c. 3,611; pigs c 70: goats (1976) c. 4,100; camels (1976) c. 564; chickens (1976) c 15,428. industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): cement 983; soda ash 102; petroleum products c. 2,490; electricity (kw-hr) c. 1,119,000. sterling).

Arap Moi

(see

Biographies),

at

once became

act-

ing president, but the constitution required that an official successor to Kenyatta be elected within 90 days. On October 10 Moi as sole candidate, was formally elected president. He was to hold office until November 1979, when the term would expire and a new election would take place. Moi appointed Mwai Kibaki, minister of finance, as vice-president. He also abolished the powerful position of minister of state and named its former incumbent, Mbiyu Koinange, to the post of minister of natural ,

resources.

The year had begun with the news that James Ngugi wa Thiong'o, the country's leading novelist and a prominent critic of the government's failure to realize the promises it had made at the time of independence, had been arrested. There was also concern over the possible repercussions of the Somali-Ethiopian war, emphasized by the forcing of an Egyptian plane carrying arms to Somalia. The Egyptians responded by impounding two Kenyan planes, and for a time rela-

down by Kenya

were strained. Normal diplomatic relations with Uganda were resumed after discussions early in the year. This was followed by a request from Pres. Idi Amin that a large number of refugees who had found sanctuary in Kenya and whom he thought to be a danger tions

own country should be returned to Uganda. Hopes of improving economic relations between the two countries received a setback when oil companies in Kenya refused to supply oil to Uganda because of a debt owed to them for oil supplied earlier in the year. There were hopes that the fronto his

tier

with Tanzania, closed since February 1977,

471

might be reopened, and Kenya, anxious to restore the lost export trade with its neighbour, made every effort at reconciliation. The collapse of the East African Community in 1977 meant that the Kenyan corporations that replaced it had had to invest large sums of money, and as a result there had been government overspending. In an attempt to control the resulting

Kenya

was imposed in July. The was not improved by the government's

inflation a credit squeeze

situation

advantage of the benefits it received from coffee sales in 1977, proceeds of which had been used for consumption and not for investment. It was necessary, too, to protect Kenya's major textile industry by banning the importation of all textiles that might compete with locally produced failure to take

articles.

Work began on the first phase of a project to develop a semidesert area in the northeast of the country into irrigated farmland capable of supporting 30,000 people. The government received financial assistance from Britain, The Netherlands, the World Bank, and the development fund of the European Economic Community. The Bank of America and the U.S. Export-Import Bank also promised a loan of $16 million to help the government in financing a polyester-fibre manufacturing project in

Nanyuki.

In January Kenya Airways inaugurated its jumjet service from Nairobi to London, and on March 14 Nairobi's $65 million airport, capable of handling six million passengers a year, was opened. In April a new dry dock, able to deal with almost all the country's naval and merchant shipping, was opened in Mombasa.

bo

The reserves of corn in the country were good, and an excellent harvest was expected in 1978. The government decided to ban the export of corn in

The body of Kenya's president, ta,

in

lomo Kenyat-

lies in state in

August.

Nairobi

472

the hope of ensuring that everyone in the country

Korea

would have enough to eat. One less satisfactory feature of the year was the continuing increase in crime, particularly robbery, forgery, and fraud. (KENNETH INGHAm)

Korea A

country of eastern Asia, Korea is bounded by China, the Sea of Japan, the Korea Strait, and the Yellow Sea. It is divided into two parts roughly at

Korean businessman and party giver Park Tong Sun, accompanied by attorney William Hundley, testified before a U.S.

House

Ethics

Committee

hearing about

gifts to

congressmen and others.

the 38th parallel. Relations between the two Koreas followed the familiar pattern of propaganda, denunciation, and occasional violence in 1978. South Korea tried a new approach in June when it proposed to the North the creation of a "consultative body for the promotion of south-north economic cooperation" with a view to promoting mutual trade and technical cooperation. South Korean Pres. Park Chung Hee said "we are ready to hold a pertinent ministerial conference with the North if necessary." He repeated the suggestion in August in an address commemorating the 33rd anniversary of national liberation. At the same time, he made it clear that he was making the proposal from a position of strength as South Korea had "overcome all hardships [and] South Koreans were no longer the people who depended on other countries for their national defense." North Korea, however, saw it all differently. The ruling Workers' Party's official organ, Rodong Shinmun, said in July that the North would not discuss reunification with the South as long as Park Chung Hee remained in power. Park's reelection in July was described as a "shameless and intolerable insult to the Korean people." An unexpected development of the year was direct diplomatic contact between the United States and North Korea. U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for East Asia Richard Holbrooke was quoted as saying that officials from the two countries had met secretly five times. Furthermore, the presidents of Yugoslavia and Romania were said to have acted as peacemakers. North Korea had

previously insisted on direct talks with the U.S., and in an anniversary report in September Pres. Kim II Sung reiterated his readiness to "start talks and settle all necessary problems." South Korea for its part was not amused. After receiving reports that President Tito of Yugoslavia had discussed the Korean problem with the U.S., it expressed displeasure at "meddling" by third parties; Foreign Minister Park Tong Jin said the Korean problem was not a political football that anyone could kick around at will. Whether on account of the South Korean protest or not, nothing tangible seemed to emerge from the U.S. -North

Korea contacts. Republic of Korea (South Korea). Area: 98,859 sq

km

(38,169 sq mi). Pop. (1978

est.):

37,018,900.

Cap. and largest city: Seoul (pop., 1975 census, 6,879,500). Language; Korean. Religion: Buddhist; Christian; Confucian; Tonghak (Chondokyo). President in 1978, Gen. Park Chung Hee; prime minister, Choi Kyu Hah. With a presidential election due at least 30 days before the expiration of Pres. Park Chung Hee's current term on Dec. 26, 1978, some political heat

was expected during the year. But on July 6 Park consummated his reelection in a move barely noticed by the nation. He was the only candidate in an election in which voting rights were confined to 2,583-member National Conference for Unificaup under the 1972 constitution. In less than two hours the proceedings were over, and Park was in for a sixth consecutive term (counting the 1975 referendum), to begin on December 27. This

a

tion set

time

it

was

for six years.

problems with the U.S. had vexed the Park administration. Earlier in the year continuing political

Embarrassment was created by reports that in the 1960s and 1970s U.S. intelligence agents had bugged the Blue House, the official presidential residence in Seoul. The U.S. embassy expressed regret, and the Korean government said that it would consider the matter closed. The so-called Koreagate influence-buying scandal also stayed in the headlines as businessman Park Tong Sun testified before congressional investigators in Washington, D.C. Emotions were aroused in Seoul when the chairman of the U.S. House Subcommittee on International Organizations charged that President Park had personally presided over secret strategy sessions in 1970 to plan covert lobbying operations in Washington. The government denied the allegation. However, in what South Korea considered substantive matters the news was good. In April U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter announced that he planned to withdraw only 800 U.S. soldiers from the nation by the end of the year instead of the 2,400 originally planned. In July the U.S. Senate approved an amended military aid law which said that further withdrawal of ground troops "may seriously risk upsetting the military balance" in the Korean region and stipulated that any new administration initiative must have "full advance consultation with Congress." The Park government felt so confident that Defense Minister Ro Jae Hyun said he saw no "major difficulties" on account of the troop withdrawal question.

But South Korea was also clearly intent on strengthening its independent military muscle. According to Park, the North could start a reckless war in order to divert attention from its worsening economic situation and a power struggle over Kim II Sung's successor. The only way to avoid another fratricidal war, he said in January, was "to build

up military power enough to overpower North Korea, and the time will come early in the 1980s." Park added that, while the South was already 10 to 15 years ahead of the North economically, the two sides were just about equal in military strength. Therefore, South Korea would launch a crash program to boost defense industries. These words were backed by action. In September the first Korean-made ground-to-ground missile was successfully test-fired. The tactical missile, with a range of 150 km (90 mi), was to be massproduced, marking what officials called a new milestone in the country's defense production. On October 1, Armed Forces Day, the missile was put on public parade along with other new weapons, including a medium-range surface missile; a truckmounted, multiple-tube rocket launcher; battle tanks; artillery; and electronic cannons. While Park talked convincingly about stability and power, critics continued to agitate for civil liberties. The opportunities to do so were limited because of tight surveillance and preemptive arrests. On August 8 leading dissident Kim Dae Jung staged a one-day hunger strike to mark the fifth anniversary of his kidnapping from Tokyo. Earlier, in June, some 1,000 students of Seoul National University had organized a daring street demonstration in an apparent bid to attract attention to Park's Democratic the dissident movement. Republican Party (drp) suffered a setback in the December 12 elections to the National Assembly, receiving only 31.7% of the votes against the opposition New Democratic Party's 32.8%. However, the DRp's ascendancy remained basically unaffected, since Park nominated one-third of the 231member Assembly. On December 27 some 4,000

Kim Dae Jung, were freed under an amnesty coinciding with Park's inauguprisoners, including ration to his

new

term.

A bizarre incident occurred on April 20 when a Korean Air Lines passenger jet on a scheduled flight from Paris to Seoul strayed into Karelia in

Finance. Monetary unit: won, with (Sept. 18, 1978) an official rate of 485 won to U.S. $1 (free rate of 949 won = £ 1 sterling). Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $4,185,000,000. Budget (1977 actual): revenue 3,360,800,000,000 won; expenditure 3,298,300,000,000 won. Gross national product (1977) 15,240,400,000,000 won. Money supply dune 1978) 2,282,100,000,000 won. Cost of living (1970 = 100; June 1978) 145.5. Foreign Trade. (1977) imports 5,232,500,000,000 won: exports 4,862,700,000,000 won. Import sources: lapan 36%; U.S. 23%; Saudi Arabia 10%; Kuwait 5%. Export destinations: U.S. 31%; japan 21%; Saudi Arabia 7%; West Germany 5%. Main exports (1976): clothing 24%; textile yarns and fab-

machinery and equipment 10%; footwear 5%; iron and steel 5%. Tourism (1976): visitors 834,000; gross receipts U.S. $275 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 45,514 km (including 1,142 km expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1976); passenger 96,099; commercial 87,528. Railways: (1976) 5,653 km; traffic (1977) c. rics

12%;

electrical

The incident, which resulted in two planes.

the Soviet Union. A Soviet supersonic fighter fired at the airliner and killed two passengers before the Korean pilot landed. The remaining passengers were released three days later. Rising inflation and consumer prices caused some worries on the economic front, but the real growth for the year was expected to be between 13 and 15% as against the government forecast of 10 to 11%. Growth in 1977 had been 10.3%. Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea). Area: 121,200 sq km (46,800 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 17,078,000. Cap.: Pyongyang (metro, pop., 1976 est., 1.5 million). Language: Korean. Religion: Buddhist; Confucian; Tonghak (Chondokyo). General secretary of the Central

passengers being occurred in April.

Khmer

killed,

Republic:

see Cambodia

KOREA: People's Democratic Republic

KOREA: Republic Education. (1977) Primary, pupils 5,514,417, teachers 112,997; secondary, pupils 3,546,370, teachers 91,113; vocational (1976), students 533,695, teachers 17,624; higher, students 362,686, teaching staff 15,313.

Passengers depart from a relief plane in Seoul afthe plane In which they were previously riding strayed into Soviet airspace and was shot down by Soviet fighter ter

freight 10,276,passenger-km, 16,900,000,000 000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 4,519,000,000 passenger-km; freight 355.1 million net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 1,042; gross tonnage 2,494,724. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 1,681,000. Radio receivers (Dec.

1976) c. 11 million. Television receivers (Sept. 1977) 3,522,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): rice 8,340; barley c 814; potatoes c. 650; sweet potatoes (1976) c. 1,950; soyljeans c 340; cabbages (1976) c. 900; watermelons (1976) c. 170; onions c. 140; apples c. 327; tobacco c. 138; fish catch (1976) 2,407. Livestock (in 000; 1976); cattle 1,641; pigs 1,247; goats 250; chickens 20,939. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): coal 17,320: iron ore (56% metal content) 657; crude steel 2,738; cement 14,202; tungsten concentrates (oxide content; 1976) 3.5; zinc ore (1976) 112; gold (troy oz; 1976) 17; silver (troy oz; 1976) 1,838; sulfuric acid 988; petroleum products (1976) 18,204; manmade fibres 379; electricity (excluding most industrial production; kw-hr) 26,586,000; radio receivers (units; 1976) 6,578; television receivers (units; 1976) 2,291. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons

and

over; 1977) 463,000.

Education. (1973-74 est.) Primary, pupils c 1.5 secondary and vocational, pupils c. 1.2 milprimary, secondary, and vocational, teachers c.

million; lion;

100,000; higher, students

c.

300,000.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: won, with nominal exchange rate of 0.88 won to U.S. $1 (1.72 won = £1 sterling). Budget (1976 est.) balanced at 12,513,000,000 won. Foreign trade (Sept. 18, 1978) a

(approximate; 1976): imports

c.

750 million

won

(c

from U.S.S.R., c. 27% from China, c. 13% from Japan); exports c. 800 million won (c. 40% to China, c. 20% to U.S.S.R., c. 9%, to lapan). Main exports (1972): zinc and ore c. 30%; lead and ore c. 15%;

32%

c. 15%; iron and 12%; cement c. 8%.

magnesite

steel

c.

15%;

iron ore

c.

Production (in 000; metric tons; rice c 4,610; corn c. 1,820; barley c. 340; c. 418; potatoes c. 1,300; sweet potatoes c. 330: soybeans c 310; apples c. 165; tobacco fish catch (1976) c 800. Livestock (in 000;

Agriculture. 1977): millet

(1976) c.

41;

1976): cattle c 816; pigs c. 1,573; sheep c. 268; goats 199; chickens c. 17,316. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): coal c. 40,000; iron ore (metal content) c. 3,800; pig iron c. 3,000; steel c 3,000; lead c. 78; zinc c. 138; magnesite c. 1,700; silver (troy oz) c. 1,600; electricity (kw-hr; 1965) 13,300,000.

c.

474

Kuwait

Chinese Vice-Premier Teng Hsiao(left) waved to friendly crowds his arrival in North Korea in September. With him was North Korean

p'ing

j^

on

President Kim

II

Sung.

Committee of the Workers' (Communist) Party of Korea and president in 1978, Marshal Kim II Sung; chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier), Li Jong Ok. Infighting over the succession to Pres. Kim II (said to be suffering from some form of neck cancer) appeared to have cooled down during 1978, but only because his son and presumed heir, Kim Chong II, was reported grievously ill. Sources close to North Korea said that Kim Chong II had been pronounced unable to recover from a coma following an assassination attempt during the previous September. Consequently, the succession question was put off for five years, until Kim Pyong II, the president's son by his second wife, Kim Song Ae, would turn 30. There was no independent corroboration of these reports. In April President Kim opened the second session of the national legislature, the sixth Supreme People's Assembly. The first session, held in December 1977, had adopted the second sevenyear economic development program (1978-84), which called for a 12.1% annual growth in industrial production. The second session discussed the budget for fiscal 1978 and adopted a new labour law aimed at improving production. This followed official claims that 75% of the targeted increase in industrial production during the second development program had been achieved. The biggest event of the year was the 30th anniversary of the founding of North Korea, on September 9. Delegations from 46 countries were reported to have arrived in Pyongyang to participate in the celebrations. By far the most important of these was the Chinese delegation headed by First Vice-Premier Teng Hsiao-p'ing. His highprofile presence when the Soviet Union was represented by a much lower-ranking personage who was allotted a position 77 places down the line signaled what diplomats considered Pyongyang's swing toward China in the Sino-Soviet dispute.

Sung

The

effects such a shift could have on the naeconomy, heavily dependent on Soviet supplies, were unclear. Debt repayment problems arising from $370 million owed to Japan had not eased, but the food supply had moved into surplus. The gross national product for 1977 was believed to be about $9 billion (as against the South's $31.5 billion). (t. j. s. george)

tion's

Kuwait An

independent constitutional monarchy (emirKuwait is on the northwestern coast of the Persian Gulf between Iraq and Saudi Arabia.

ate),

Area: 16,918 sq

km

(6,532 sq mi). Pop. (1978

est.):

King Khalid of Saudi Arabia (left) greets Sheikh Jabir al-Ahmad al-labir as-Sabah of Kuwait upon arriving there in early January to offer his condolences. Sheikh Jabir succeeded Sheikh Sabah as-Salim as-Sabah who died Dec. 31, 1977.

1,198,500. Cap.: Kuwait (pop., 1975 census, 78,100). Largest city: Hawalli (pop., 1975 prelim., 130,300). Language: Arabic. Religion (1975): Muslim 94.9%; Christian 4.5%. Emir, Sheikh Jabir alAhmad al-Jabir as-Sabah; prime minister from Feb. 8, 1978, Crown Prince Sheikh Saad al-Abdullah as-Salim as-Sabah. In January 1978 former interior and defense minister Sheikh Saad al-Abdullah as-Salim asSabah was appointed crown prince by the emir. Sheikh Jabir al-Ahmad al-Jabir as-Sabah {see Bi-

ographies), and on February 16 Sheikh Saad formed a new 19-member Cabinet. In March Sheikh Nawaf as-Sabah became the eighth member of the ruling family in the Cabinet when he joined as information minister. Kuwait's Arab policy was cautious and mediatory. It tried to help heal the rift caused by Egyptian Pres. Anwar as-Sadat's peace initiative with Israel and to mediate in the Oman-United Arab Emirates border dispute. In July Kuwait refused to break all relations with South Yemen as recommended by an Arab League meeting. Relations with Iraq improved, and in May the two countries agreed to build a railway connecting Basra and Kuwait and

power grids. was some unrest among students, and several newspapers were suspended to link their electric

Internally there

during the year In

for violating the publications law.

May a special committee was set up to revise the

and the prime minister promised that the National Assembly would be revived. In January Kuwait announced the reduction of its oil prices by 10 U.S. cents a barrel, reflecting concern at overpricing of its heavy crude oils and the slackening of world demand. Throughout the year, however, Kuwait expressed concern over its loss of revenues due to the decline of the U.S. dollar, and it agreed to the 14.5% price rise mandated by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Coun(peter mansfield) tries in December. constitution,

Laos A

landlocked people's republic of Southeast Asia, Laos is bounded by China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Burma. Area: 236,800 sq km (91,400 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 3,546,000. Cap. and largest city: Vientiane (pop., 1973, 176,600). Language:

Lao

(official);

dhist;

tribal.

ff.

French and English. Religion: BudPresident

in

1978,

Prince

Sou-

phanouvong; premier, Kaysone Phomvihan. In 1978 Laos identified itself clearly with Viet-

nam against China.

May, in a "back to the land" with one started in Vietnam, the several thousand resident Chinese left in the country were asked to give up shopkeeping and "devote themselves to collective productions," such as farming. In a typical case, merchants in the southern town of Pakse were given 25 ha of virgin land to reclaim. Western sources reported that China was assisting ethnic minorities in northern Laos to oppose the Vientiane government, and Laotian Radio reported in July that enemies had been trying to "exploit racial antagonisms in order to destroy the socialist revolution in Laos." French reports suggested that the government faced a measure of resistance from the H'mong minority in the north, as well as from elements of the Pathet Lao garrison at Phong Saly, close to China's Yunnan Province. The southeast Asian tour of Hanoi's vice-foreign minister, Phan Hien, in July provided an occasion for Vientiane to reaffirm its ties with Vietnam. In the same month reports circulated in Bangkok, campaign

In

identical

Thailand, that the largest airport in Southeast Asia was being built in the Plaine des Jarres in central Laos by Vietnamese troops and Soviet technicians. At least one high-ranking Soviet military leader visited Laos during the year, and a delegation of

LAOS Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 274,067, teachers

KUWAIT Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 125,120, teachers 7,269; secondary, pupils 130,405, teachers 10,868; vocational, pupils 5,501, teachers 1,018; teacher training, pupils 875, teachers 186; higher, students 7,528, teaching staff 553. Finance. Monetary unit: Kuwaiti dinar, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of 0.27 dinar to U.S. $1 (0.53 dinar = £1 sterling). Gold, SDR's, and foreign exchange (June 1978) U.S. $2,453,200,000. Budget (1977-78 est.): revenue 2,273,000,000 dinars: expenditure 1,988,000,000 dinars. Cross national product (1976-77) 3,672,000,000 dinars. Money supply (June 1978) 596 million dinars. Cost of living (1975 = 100; March 1978) 118.9. Foreign Trade. Imports (1976) 972 million dinars; exports (1977) 2,806,900,000 dinars. Import sources (1976): Japan 21%; U.S. -[S%: West Cermany 11%; U.K. 8%,; France 5%; Italy 5%. Export destinations (1976): Japan 22%; The Netherlands 10%,; U.K. 8%; Brazil 6%,. Main exports: crude oil 74%; petroleum products 16%. Transport. Roads (1974) c. 1,920 km. Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 237,100; commercial (including buses) 83,700. Air traffic (1976): 1,135 million passengerkm; freight 27.1 million net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 226; gross tonnage 1,831,194. Shipping traffic (1975): goods loaded 107,233,000 metric tons, unloaded 2,532,000 metric tons. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): crude oil c. 99,600; natural gas (cu m) c. 5,8OO,0(K); petroleum products (1976) c. 17,160.

7,340; secondary, pupils 14,633, teachers 607; vocational, pupils 2,273, teachers 270; teacher training, students 3,913, teachers 227; higher (1974-75), students 828, teaching staff 152.

Finance. Monetary unit: kip, with (Sept. 18, 1978) an exchange rate of 400 kip to U.S. $1 (free rate of 783.8 kip = £1 sterling). Budget (1974-75 est.): revenue (excluding foreign aid) 980 million kip; expenditure 1,852,000,000 kip (including defense expenditure of 650 million official

kip).

Foreign Trade. (1974) Imports 1,950,000,000 new kip; exports 330 million new kip. Import sources: Thailand 49%,; Japan 19%; France 7%; West Germany 7%o; U.S. 5%. Export destinations: Thailand 73%,: Malaysia 11%; Hong Kong 10%. Main exports: timber 81%; tin 11%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1974) 7,395 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 14,100; commercial (including buses) 2,500. Air traffic (1976): 22 million passenger-km; freight 500,000 net ton-km. Inland waterways (Mekong River; 1974) c. 715 km. Telephones (Dec. 1973) 5,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1974) 125,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): rice c. 700; corn c. 30; onions c. 30; melons c. 21; oranges c. 18; pineapples c. 28; coffee c. 2; tobacco c. 4; cotton, lint c. 2; timber (cu m) c. 3,154. Livestock (in 000; 1977): cattle c. 518; buffalo c. 1,234; pigs c. 1,512; chickens (1975) c. 15,800.

Industry. Production (1976): tin concentrates (metal content) 576 metric tons; electricity (excluding most in250 million kw-hr.

dustrial production) c.

Labour Unions: see Industrial Relations

Lacrosse: see Field Hockey and Lacrosse

476

the Lao Supreme People's Soviet Union in August. Association with France

Latin-American

Assembly went

to the

was ended in August, announced the closure of its embassy in Paris. Earlier, it had accused France of hostile activities and expelled two French diplomats from Vientiane. Relations with Laos' South-

Affairs

when

Laos

Asian neighbours improved, however. A was signed with Thailand in June to sell coffee beans and timber products in return for Thai sugar, textiles, machinery, tobacco, soft drinks, and liquid oxygen There was also a toning down of Laos' earlier harsh line against the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. An unexpected development was the decision of the U.S. State Department, reported in June, to give Laos 10,000 tons of rice valued at about $5 million. The program was classified as humanitarian, but officials indicated that they expected it to help improve political relations. While that might depend on a simultaneous improvement of U.S.Vietnam relations, there was little doubt that Laos needed all the food aid it could get. The UN had estimated the year's grain shortage at about 113,000 tons, or approximately one-third of national consumption. Other countries had pledged only about 80,000 tons, and the addition of the U.S. quota still left a gap to fill. By October it appeared that, even with substantial new aid, Laos would find it hard to avoid famine conditions. The floodeast

trade agreement

nearly

explosion of

60 tons of dyna-

mite signaled the

start

of

construction of the world's largest hydro-

dam, to be built on the Parana River on the frontier between Brazil and Paraguay. Conelectric

struction of the ItaipO

Dam started in October and was expected to cost $8.7 billion.

Relations. Latin America's relations with the outside world improved in 1978, as South American military dictatorships responded to U.S. and Western European diplomatic pressure by lift-

External

UN

ing states of siege, agreeing to invite the Commission on Human Rights, and generally confirming a return to free elections in the 1980s. However, in regard to economic affairs disagreement sharpened, with the Latin Americans uniting to apply pressure for opening U.S. and European markets to their exports, making the International Monetary Fund (imp) more flexible in respect to trade deficit financing, and discouraging malpractices of multinational companies. U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter visited Brazil and Venezuela in March; and Patricia Derian, U.S. State Department coordinator on human rights, then went to Argentina, mainly to raise the ques-

ing of the Mekong, officially described as a nationdisaster, devastated 90% of the agricultural fields in the north and half the arable land in the central region. Loss of life in the southern region

human rights and persuade Brazil and Argentina to ratify the Non-proliferation of Nuclear Weapons Treaty of 1968. Argentina announced that it would ratify the treaty but failed to respond convincingly on the human rights issue, leading the U.S. government in July to place a ban on a $270 million Export-Import Bank loan sought by Argentina to help finance the purchase of U.S. hydroelectric equipment; the ban was later lifted. Brazil refused to ratify the weapons treaty and Pres. Ernesto Geisel visited West Germany in March to help secure a controversial nuclear deal

was termed

made with West Germany in

al

A mighty

Latin-American Affairs

officially

"serious."

(t.

j.

s.

George)

tion of

1975. Chile's reaction

to outside pressure

was

on alleged violations

of

477

human

hold a vaguely worded referendum subject to strict controls; on Jan. 5, 1978, the govrights

to

Latin-American Affairs

ernment announced it had won with 75% support. At the "Tokyo Round" of talks under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (gatt) during 1978, the Latin Americans sought a common position on the opening of U.S. and European Economic

Community

markets; this was reiterated at the

UN Conference on Trade and Development minismeeting in March. At the annual meeting of IMF-World Bank in September, the Latin American representatives attempted to gain help in financing their balance of payments deficits. Economics. The Latin-American nations (excluding oil-exporting Venezuela and Ecuador) were faced with severe balance of payments probterial

the

lems in 1978. Consequently, the debt-servicing

burden on these countries rose sharply, and unless they could increase their foreign earnings by boosting exports, they might be forced to default on their foreign borrowings. These problems did not affect Venezuela, Ecuador, and Bolivia; the first two, the region's main petroleum-exporting countries, enjoyed economic growth rates well above the Latin-American average of 4.5% during 1977. On Sept. 1, 1978, Pres. Jose Lopez Portillo of Mexico said in his annual

Under a huge portrait of Venezuelan liberator Simon Bolivar, U.S. Pres. limmy Carter and Venezuelan Pres. Carlos Perez talked

reserves had been upgraded significantly. As a result, the improvements registered in the Mexican economy in 1978, based on increasing oil exports,

were expected to continue. Regional Integration. The ninth conference foreign ministers of the

member

of

countries of the

River Plate Basin Group (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay), held in Asuncion, Paraguay, between Dec. 5 and 8, 1977, was perhaps the most important in the short history of this regional group. The members reached agreement on backing three major projects: the 201-km (125mi) Trans-Chaco Highway connecting the northern part of Argentina's road network with that of Paraguay; a railroad program for Bolivia to provide a connection with Brazil that would help to give

(they had developed the region for rice growing); such flooding was inevitable if full capacity for Corpus at its planned height of 120 was to be realized. In place of Corpus, Argentina told the Paraguayans that it would develop a project in the middle Parana region on its own. Then on May 30 Brazil announced it had called off the talks with Argentina and Paraguay that were scheduled for June 7, indicating that a deadlock had been reached. In October, however, news came of a compromise between Argentina and Brazil on the scale of the Corpus project. The agreed-upon height of the dam was reported to be between 103

m

and 108 m. Another similar regional group, the as yet limited Amazon Pact, was inaugurated on July 3. Mem-

the Brazilians an outlet to the Pacific (at the Chilean port of Arica); and a natural-gas pipeline linking Uruguay to Bolivia's suppHes by way of Argentina's pipeline network. During the second half of 1977 problems raised

bers included Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela. The Latin American Free Trade Association (lafta) reduced tariff barriers within the area; in late 1977 Mexico and Argentina signed three new

by the construction of three joint hydroelectric dams on the Parana River (the Brazilian-Paraguayan 12,600-Mw Itaipu Dam due in 1983-85, the Argentine-Paraguayan 3,200-Mw Yacyreta-Apipe Dam due in 1985, and the Argentine-Paraguayan 3,500 — 5,500-Mw Corpus Dam, completion unscheduled) threatened to sour relations between

complementary agreements, to which another was added on May 22, 1978, relating to tariffs governing particular goods. These bilateral accords were designed to prepare the way for more trade among Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico, as well as, though to a lesser extent, Chile and Uruguay.

the three participating countries, particularly Brazil and Argentina. Brazil announced that Paraguay had decided not to change the frequency of its electricity system to suit Brazil's 60 cycles a minute (Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay all used 50 cycles a minute). In 1978 attention focused on the ensuing trilateral talks. The shelving of the Corpus project was threatened because the Brazilians were not prepared to allow any of their territory to be flooded

when

ed Caracas

address to the nation that his country's petroleum

The Andean Group members (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela) took a step toward integration when the Sectorial Program for the Motor Vehicle Industry was approved in September 1977, after considerable negotiation. The program consisted of special advantages in this industry conceded to Bolivia by the other members. Success spurred on negotiations for expanding the machine-tools sectorial program. Border Disputes. During 1978 relations between Chile and Argentina deteriorated rapidly.

Carter visit-

in

March.

478

Law

On

January 25 the Argentine government announced that it considered null and void the judgment made in May 1977 by a special tribunal appointed from the International Court of Justice to settle the territorial dispute on the southern tip of the continent, the so-called Beagle Channel dispute. The tribunal awarded to Chile three small islands across the Beagle Channel from Tierra del Fuego. The issue gained importance during the second half of 1977 with the discovery of a major petroleum deposit by the Chileans nearby in the Magellan Straits and the awarding of exceptionally

hands of the military, making it difficult to negotiate a compromise. The situation became increasingly tense in November, with armed forces of both sides placed on alert. In December, how-

favourable offshore prospecting contracts to U.S.based multinational companies.

Court Decisions. This article reviews the important judicial decisions handed down by the various courts throughout the world. During 1978 the most

The Argentine announcement was immediately

bilateral

a symbolic march with units to the Chilean border. During much of the second half of 1978, negotiations between Chile and Argentina remained deadlocked, prompting the chief Argentine negotiator. Gen. Osiris Villegas, to issue a statement saying that war "may be the only alternative left." Admiral Massera set out on a Latin- American tour, stopping over in Bolivia and Peru, to seek support for the Argentine position. Rumours of a military alliance spread when, in October, the commander of the Argentine Air Force met his Peruvian and Bolivian counterparts in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, ostensibly to celebrate Bolivia's Air Force

Latter-day Saints:

articles

on the various

political units.

Law

of the year. Regents of the University of California v.

negotiations to resolve the worsened as the year progressed and the negotiations came to an impasse. In April Argentina placed a ban on the export to Chile of "strategic items," loosely defined so as to include trucks, buses, motor- vehicle parts, and other such products. Trade between Chile and Brazil was affected as truck drivers crossing Argentina were purposefully harassed with petty regulations and capricious border and tunnel closings. By midyear air-raid drills and blackouts were ordered in Argentine cities on the Andean foothills, and army reserves were put on alert in both countries. Meanwhile, Bolivia on March 17 broke off diplomatic relations with Chile over the question of Bolivia's access to the Pacific Ocean. The Bolivian

see Religion

See also

Argentina was a patriotic outcry; Adm. Eduardo Massera, commander of the Argentine Navy and a member of the ruling three-man junta, instructed the Argentine fleet to sail south to the area in question. Troop maneuvers on either side of the border followed. Despite two meetings held on January 19 and February 20 between the two military heads of state, Pres. Jorge Videla of Argentina and Pres. Augusto Pinochet of Chile, and an agreement to circles in

differences, the tense atmosphere

ature:

(PAUL dowbor)

tion.

significant decisions involved human relations, business enterprises, freedom of speech, and fami-

commence

Latin-American Liter-

some initial disagreement, both sides indicated their willingness to accept papal media-

ever, after

followed by declarations from Chilean military leaders that "the territorial integrity of the Fatherland" had to be protected at all costs and that the decision made by the tribunal was final. The re-

sponse in military

see Literature

in the

ly matters.

Human

Relations. In the most publicized case

Bakke, the United States Supreme Court ordered the University of California at Davis to end its practice of "reverse racial discrimination."

admitted because of their minority status. Bakke sued to compel the university to admit him. The university responded by defending its special admissions program on the grounds of four aims: (1) to partially redress the historic deficit of traditionally disfavoured minorities in medical schools and the medical profession; (2) to counter the effects of societal discrimination; (3) to increase the number of physicians who will practice in communities currently underserved; and (4) to obtain the educational benefits that flow from an ethnically diverse student body. The Supreme Court found that the special admissions pro-

government organized

of California

army

gram discriminated on

Day. Opposition to war, however, was taking shape. In September bishops of Argentina and Chile called for peace; in October, 16 intellectuals from the two countries published a manifesto calling for understanding. But the pacifists were voicing their discontent at a time when their governments were

The

university had been reserving 16% of the places in its entering medical school class for minority applicants. To qualify for admission within this special group, one had to be "black, Chicano, Asian or American Indian." Allan Bakke {see Biographies) was not a member of any of these minority groups, and his application for admission to medical school was denied even though his overall grade-point average, science grade-point average, and Medical College Admissions Test score were superior to those of some individuals who were

the basis of race and thereAmendment to the

fore violated the Fourteenth

U.S. Constitution. The U.S. Supreme Court affirmed this judgment and ordered the university to admit Bakke. In a narrow sense the court based its decision on the fact that the university had discriminated unfairly against Bakke because it could not demon-

he would not have been admitted had he been able to compete for the "minority" as well as the "regular" places in the class. Because a majority of the court could not agree upon the precise reason for its order, however, the case impressed most legal scholars as being of doubtful value as a precedent. It was even difficult for most scholars to make any generalized statement as to the inclination of the Supreme Court on the important matter of "reverse discrimination" because the opinions of the justices tended to overlap one another and not fall strate that

479

into discrete categories. Most, however, tended to attach principal significance to the opinion of Justice Lewis Powell. In two 5-4 decisions, the court outlawed the special admissions program of the university, but also maintained that race could be

Law

used as a factor in admission to institutions of higher education; only Justice Powell voted for both of these positions. In Powell's opinion the case had to be decided under the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth

Amendment. Although this clause was first introduced into the Constitution to ensure the emancipation of blacks from their former condition of slavery, it does more than ensure equality between blacks and whites. It is meant to guarantee all persons and to protect all groups from racial discrimination. It prevents the ranking of groups according to the amount of injury they have suffered at the hands of society. There is, according to Powell, no basis in principle for deciding which group at any moment should merit heightened judicial solicitude, and to hitch the

equality of

meaning

forces.

Justice Powell then turned his attention to the

four purposes alleged

by the university to justify The first two pur-

special admissions program.

poses, redressing the historic deficit of traditionally disfavoured minorities in medical schools

and

countering the effects of societal discrimination, were dismissed as invalid for the reasons stated earlier in his opinion and outlined above. The third purpose, increasing the number of physicians who will practice in communities currently underserviced, was not, in Powell's view, served by the special admissions program, because that program was based on the race of the applicant and not on his or her interest in providing health care to the poor or minority population. The fourth purpose, obtaining the educational benefits that flow from an ethnically diverse student body, was considered by Justice Powell to be a valid one, but one reached by the special admissions program of the university through improper means. He maintained that rigid quotas based solely on race are not a constitutionally permissible means for achieving diversity in a student body. In what was perhaps the most important part of the opinion. Justice Powell then outlined the special considerations that may be taken into account in setting up an educational program aimed at obtaining an ethnically diverse student body. In doing so, he quoted from an amicus curiae brief filed

by Harvard University. Under lege plan, explicitly approved

the Harvard ColJustice Powell,

by

whose com-

plaint of reverse discrimination was carried to the U.S. Supreme Court, attended his first class at the University of

California medical

school in September after the court ruled that he must be admitted.

of the equal protection clause to these

transitory considerations would mean that classifications touching on racial and ethnic considerations might vary with the ebb and flow of political

its

Allan Bakke,

vard College depends in part on these differences in the background and outlook that students bring with them." Moreover, in order to provide a truly heterogeneous environment, some attention must be paid to numbers. In the words of the Harvard brief, "It would not make sense, for example, to have 10 or 20 students out of 1,100 whose homes are wee- of the Mississippi. Comparably, 10 or 20 black students could not begin to bring to their classmates and to each other the variety of points of view, backgrounds and experiences of blacks in the United States." In conclusion Justice Powell held that race, geographic origin, and special interests and talents may all be considered as factors in order to obtain a diverse student body. Some factors, even race, may be weighed more heavily than others. As long as race

is

not the factor that precludes a candidate

from consideration for all admission places, it is a factor that may be weighed. Under this test the special admissions program of the University of California was deficient because it denied Bakke his right to individual consideration without regard to race. The European Court of Human Rights also decided two important civil rights matters in 1978, both involving Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which prohibits member states from inflicting "inhuman and degrading" treatment. In Ireland v. U.K., the first interstate case to be brought before the court, it ruled that the treatment of detainees by the U.K. security forces in Northern Ireland amounted to inhuman and degrading treatment but not "torture" under

race may be taken into account as a factor in admissions, just as a life spent on a farm, residence in a Western state, or a special talent for mathematics, music, or athletics may be taken into account. "A

Article 3 of the Convention. The court refused to order the U.K. to initiate prosecutions against

farm boy from Idaho can bring something to Harvard College that a Bostonian cannot offer. Similarly a black student can usually bring something that a white person cannot offer. The quality of the educational experience of all the students in Har-

that the actions

members

of its security forces for their actions.

Presumably In Tyrer

v.

it

would have done so had amounted to "torture."

it

found

U.K. the court reviewed the practice

lent offenders

punishment on young, viounder the law of the Isle of Man.

Specifically,

considered the practice of "birch-

of inflicting corporal

it

480

Law

ing" (beating with a birch rod) such offenders. The U.K. defended the action by contending that birching is merely a form of punishment but not inherently degrading in nature. The court agreed that to be "degrading" the punishment must attain a particular level of debasement higher than the usual element of humiliation involved in punishment in general. It found, however, that such a level had been reached and that the birching law

Man infringed Article 3 of the Convention. Authorities in the Isle of Man indicated that they would not honour the decision. This raised constitutional difficulties for the U.K. because it conventionally does not legislate for the Isle of Man (though it has the right to do so) and of the Isle of

the latter has complete judicial autonomy. Business Affairs. During the year several significant cases were handed down in the area of business. In Flagg Brothers, Inc. v. Brooks, the U.S. Supreme Court held that section 7-210 of the New York Uniform Commercial Code does not violate the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Section 7-210 allows a warehouse to sell stored goods to enforce its lien for

unpaid storage charges.

The Federal Supreme Court

of

Germany

re-

former rule that a shipowner is strictly liable for mishaps that occur during the loading and unloading of cargo. The court held that such a rule does not make sense under modern circumversed

its

stances, in

which

it is

common

for the charterer or

consignee to commission special enterprises to do the work of handling cargo. Under the new rule announced by the court it must be decided in each case Demonstrators from many U.S. cities paraded in Washington, D.C., on

March 18 demanding freedom for the "Wilmington Ten," a group of

workers had been imprisin North Carolina.

civil rights

who oned

who was actually

responsible for the accident.

The European Court of Justice handed down a stricter definition of "market dominance" under Article 86 of the Convention. Under that article an enterprise having market dominance cannot charge prices as high as the market will bear but is limited to prices having a reasonable relationship to the economic value of the product, usually measured by the cost of producing it. The court held that a company is market-dominant for purposes of this rule when it is able to keep a large share of the market, though selling at higher

new and

its competitors, if it has obtained this station by means of a "flexible overall strategy against new competition." The case involved the pricing practices of United Brands Co. with respect to bananas. Although the court held

prices than those of

Brands was market-dominant, it also had not been established that its prices were unreasonable (unrelated to cost) under that United

found that

it

Article 86.

Family Rights. In Zablocki v. Redhail, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down a Wisconsin statute that required a noncustodial parent to obtain court permission before marrying if that parent was under a court order to support his child. The statute had specified that court permission to remarry cannot be granted unless the marriage license applicant submits proof of compliance with the child support obligation and, additionally, demonstrates that the children covered by the support order are not then, and are not likely to become, public charges. A marriage entered into in violation of the statute was made void thereunder, and the violator was made subject to criminal penalties.

Redhail, a Wisconsin resident, admitted paternity of an illegitimate child in a 1972 lawsuit and was ordered to pay $109 per month for support of the child. He was unemployed and indigent and did not make any support payments. In 1974 he

applied for a license to marry a woman who was bearing his child. The license was denied because he had not obtained court permission to marry as required by the statute. By an 8-1 margin, the Supreme Court struck

down

the Wisconsin statute as unconstitutional. It held that the classification of people according to whether or not they are under a child-support order, subjecting only those under such an order to court review of their marriage license application, denies to such persons the equal protection of the laws, in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The court held that the

freedom to marry is a fundamental liberty protected by the Fourteenth Amendment. The West German Federal Constitutional Court held that the Basic Law was violated by a decision which did not adequately protect the rights of an unborn child. The case involved a situation in

which the unborn child was injured when its mother was accidentally hurt at work. Under the statutory social insurance the mother was entitled to protection for her injuries, but the unborn child was not similarly protected. The court held that this discrimination against the unborn child was unconstitutional and that it was entitled to the same protection as its mother. (WILLIAM D. HAWKLAND) International Law. The year 1978 did not produce any major developments in the field of international law, although there were indications of more dramatic events in coming years. In one sense the theme for the year could be stated as international lawlessness, exemplified by a report of the Swedish Committee on South Africa that brushed aside international law rules that stood in the way of its proposals for Swedish interference in South Africa's domestic business affairs. The action of Lebanon giving house room to guerrilla forces that were fighting on neighbouring territory also illustrated a loosening of the proper rules of

conduct between states at peace with each other. Law broke down completely in the Eritrea-Ethi-

war between the Polisario and Morocco-Mauritania in the former

opia conflict and the guerrillas

Spanish Sahara.

wave

On

the other hand, the earlier

of aircraft hijacking for political purposes

to have died down. The other theme for the year could be the third world, with its main manifestation a further stage in the organizing of political consciousness on the part of the less developed countries. The NorthSouth dialogue continued without producing anything important, but more significant was the UN Conference on Trade and Development (unctad) meeting on transfer of technology. Although the conference failed to attain its goal of agreement on the text of a code governing such transfers, the occasion marked the culmination of many years of work on the subject and the start of a period of more open political debate that was likely to result

seemed

in a

new

settlement of the economic relations be-

tween the industrialized and the

less

developed

Related to this theme was the continuing saga of commercial bribery and the not unrelated one of the place of multinational corporations. The great business bribery scandals of recent years led to a certain amount of new law, particularly the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of December 1977 and a report of the International Chamber of Commerce on bribery in the preceding month. Finally, to complete this survey of general economic law, there was significant organizational

Law Commission comon the most-favourednation clause and submitted them to the UN for

activity.

pleted

481

Law

nations.

The

its

International

draft articles

consideration at a full diplomatic conference still to be arranged. A coordinating council for associations producing raw materials was agreed upon by 40 less developed countries in Geneva in April, and in the same month 17 African nations agreed to establish a preferential trade area for eastern and

southern Africa. The Economic Community of West African States set up the Trade, Customs, Immigration, Monetary and Payment Commission in Lagos to identify policy options and possible trade liberalization under the Treaty of Lagos.

Territory and Sovereignty. The most

dis-

cussed territorial event of the year was undoubtedly the final approval of the Panama Canal treaties by the U.S. Senate and their subsequent ratification in June after much political uncertainty in both the U.S. and Panama. New nations that came into being included the Solomon Islands, previously an Anglo-French condominium; Dominica, a former British Caribbean colony; and Tuvalu (in the Pacific north of Fiji, with only 8,000 inhabitants and 26 sq km of land area). In the China Sea, on the other hand, the status of various island groups continued to be the subject of dispute, with Chinese fishing vessels behaving as if the Japanese-claimed Senkaku Islands were Chinese; farther to the south, the Spratly Islands were still being claimed by the Philippines, Vietnam, China, and Taiwan. In both cases the sharpened interest was believed to be related to the possibility of oil deposits in the surrounding waters. On the other hand agreement was reached between India and Bangladesh on the sharing of the waters of the Ganges River after 25 years of dispute; it provided for the sharing of the available waters but did not tackle the problem of regulating the flow of the river to take account of monsoon floods and winter droughts. The Amazon Basin agreement went much further. That treaty, signed in July by Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela, provided for the joint development and preservation of the entire Amazon basin and forest and aimed to promote the global integration of the area.

International Adjudication. The InternaCourt of Justice was no nearer winning general acceptance of its function, its latest snub being the refusal of Turkey to accept its jurisdiction in tional

the dispute with Greece over the continental shelf in the Aegean Sea. As with the earlier French boycott of the court's hearing of complaints about French nuclear tests by Australia and New Zea-

during 1978). In particular, the

UN Conference on

the Law of the Sea held spring and summer sessions in Geneva and New York without reaching any conclusion. New meetings were fixed for 1979,

and

it

was hoped

that a final text

would be ready

for signature in 1980.

Many maritime boundary treaties were signed during the year (U.S. -Cuba; Mexico- Venezuela; The Netherlands- Venezuela; Colombia-Venezuela; Costa Rica-Dominican Republic; Ecuador-HaitiPanama; India-Indonesia-Thailand; Papua New Guinea-Australia; Finland-Sweden). The dispute in the Barents Sea between Norway and the U.S.S.R., on the other hand, sharpened quite con-

A sea boundary disagreement of an unusual nature arose between the U.K. and Norway with regard to the Statfjord oil field, which extends under the boundary between the continental shelves of the two nations. The U.K. claimed that it should have more than the 11.12% siderably.

it was currently taking, initiated under the bilateral continental shelf treaty. Marine pollution was a particularly prominent matter during the year, especially because of three major oil tanker disasters near the British Isles. The first, the "Amoco Cadiz," which broke up close to the French coast of Brittany, led not only to recriminations and an extremely thorough French report but also to immediate changes in the traffic separation schemes in those waters and to renewed European pressure against flags of convenience. This disaster was followed by the wrecking of the "Eleni V" and the "Christos Bitas," which caused less damage but emphasized the need for strong continuing control measures. In February, before "Amoco Cadiz," the Conference on Tanker Safety and Pollution Prevention adopted protocols to 1973 and 1974 conventions, which required large tankers to have duplicated steering gear, two radars, and special ballast tanks. In October the coastal states on the Baltic Sea signed an agreement relating to the detection of vessels leaking oil at sea, and the eight Persian Gulf states adopted a framework convention on oil pollution and on an action plan for protection of the marine environment.

of the total extraction that

and negotiations were

Mario lascalevich, whose

demand

for reporter Myron Farber's notes led to the celebrated "Farber

case," flashes a victorysign after a jury in Hack-

ensack,

N.J.,

acquitted

him on three counts of murder.

land, the court nevertheless heard arguments as to jurisdiction in the absence of Turkey. The court

its

also adopted a new set of rules of court aimed at simplifying the procedure, reducing the expense

and facilitating recourse to chambers and the use of advisory procedures. Other forms of judicial settlement were more popular. The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (part of the World Bank group) delivered in August 1977 its first award under the Convention for the Settlement of Investment Disputes. It later settled two more cases, received three new requests for arbitration, and resumed proceedings in a fourth. The number of states that had ratified the convention rose to 71. Arbitration rules were also adopted by the UN Economic Commission for Europe to apply to disfor litigants,

of the court

putes relating to certain categories of perishable products. In August the member states of the Andean Pact agreed to establish a Supreme Court of the Andes states to oversee the process of economic integration. Two 1977 arbitrations, however, were disputed. The Beagle Channel award to Chile was first rejected by Argentina, and there were suggestions of referring it to the International Court of Justice. Later in the year, however, Argentina agreed to papal mediation. The award in the Franco-British dispute over continental shelf demarcation in the English Channel and Western Approaches was disputed by the U.K. on the basis of faulty line drawing by the surveyor chosen to implement the award geographically. The arbitral tribunal did not, however, upset the award or, for the most agricultural

part, alter the lines

drawn.

Maritime Affairs. As with international law generally the law of the sea marked time after the spate of bilateral fishing agreements in 1977 (which did, however, continue fairly strongly

Europe. The European Court

of Justice deliv-

ered a major constitutional judgment that emphasized the precedence of European Economic Community law over national law and its direct enforceability by lower courts. Of equal significance was its judgment that the tax imposed by an EEC regulation on isoglucose production (aimed at protecting sugar producers) was discriminatory and so void; this confirmed the newly robust attitude noted in an earlier case relating to a virtual tax on animal feed compounders who did not use skimmed milk powder. The court also held that the no-trawl areas set up within 50 mi of the Irish coast were discriminatory against other eec fishermen and so unlawful. But in that, as in the two trademark cases of Hoffmann-La Roche v. Centrafarm and American Home Products v. Centrafarm, the court left most of its, and the parties', options

open.

(NEVILLE

march HUNNINGS)

5ee also Crime and Law Enforcement; Prisons and Penology; United Nations.

SPECIAL REPORT

decisions have gone so

far

insemination by donor

adultery, but this

is

as to hold that artificial

no longer in com-

represents the typical approach of courts

mon-law

TEST-TUBE BABIES-

countries. There are

places that have

by aid with the husband's consent (they include Arkansas, California, Kansas, and New York), and in other areas the courts have achieved the same result without legis-

THE LEGAL IMPLICATIONS

lation.

But

uncertain whether these statutory

it is still

provisions and judicial decisions will cover the

by Michael Zander

new

situation of in vitro fertilization. In practice the

July 25, 1978, the world's first "test-tube

baby"

was born in Oldiiam, England, to Mrs. Lesley Brown. Mrs. Brown and her husband had been trying to have a child for some nine years. The baby Mrs. Brown eventually had was conceived in a laboratory

may never come

il-

There is a strong legal presumption that a child born to a married couple is legitimate. The presumption is rebuttable, but normally only the couple and the doctors would know the true position, and their interest would be to hide the facts. Both aid and in vitro fertilization would normally be undertaken only for married couples, and the child would usually be registered as legitimacy

On

some

statutes legitimizing children born

to light.

culture dish under the supervision of gynecologist

their child. In the case of aid this usually constitutes

and research physiologist Robert Edwards. Steptoe and Edwards had been working for over a decade to perfect a technique for fertilizing

a criminal offense,

human eggs outside the human body. The method used was to take a ripe egg from

It could emerge, however, in a variety of ways. For example, during divorce proceedings, the husband

Patrick Steptoe

wife's ovary

and place

it

in a

the

culture dish together

false entry.

But

if

since the register then

shows

a

the marriage survives, the true

position will probably never emerge.

might deny that the child

is

and thereby seek

his

to

with sperm taken from the husband. The embryo

avoid financial responsibility for

was allowed

Cursky v. Gursky, a New York court held that a child conceived through aid was illegitimate but that the husband, because he consented to the aid, was responsible for its financial support. (In 1973 another New York court ruled that Gursky v. Gursky should not be followed, and that an aid child born to consenting parents was legitimate. Thus the husband was the father for the purpose of an adoption law

to

two and a the uterus, where

develop

before being placed

in

for

half

days

became

it

any other fetus. The birth, by cesarian section, took place 38 weeks and 5 days after Mrs. Brown's last menstrual period. The baby was reported by the doctors to be absolutely normal. (See Biographies: Brown, Louise joy.) This development has important medical and soimplanted and grew

cial

like

implications, but attention

the legal issues involved.

same

In

is

given here only to

most ways these are the

or very similar to those that arise from

where through placing sperm insemination,

in

semination the sperm

band

(aih) or

from

a

may be

donor

place

the vagina rather than

through ordinary sexual intercourse.

In artificial in-

taken from the hus-

(aid).

This

is

also the case

vitro— but this method also perbe provided by a donor. Is the Child Legitimate? Where the sperm and ovum are from a man and woman who are married to each other, the resulting child is unquestionably legitimate. But where either sperm or ovum is taken from a donor not part of the marriage, in most jurisdictions the child is illegitimate— even when the with fertilization mits the

ovum

in

to

other partner to marriage consents.

his child

artificial

takes

fertilization

that required a father's

Some

of the

In

consent

In

it.

for the

1963,

in

adoption of

by the mother's second husband.)

People

v.

Sorensen

in

1968, a California court

ruled that the mother's husband, having consented to aid,

was "the

lawful father"

support the child.

In that

and

as such liable to

case the child was also said

be legitimate, but the trend of the decisions sughusband who consented to the method of conception would be held to support the child even if it was deemed illegitimate. The fact of illegitimacy might also be revealed in the context of some dispute over inheritance. The child might seek to inherit from the husband-nonfather. The law in some jurisdictions permits an ilto

gests that a

legitimate child to inherit only

provision tives

in a will.

might

On

death

where there

is

a

intestate, other rela-

try to establish that

the apparent father

The some

of the child could not have conceived him.

Michael Zander is professor of law at the London School of Economics and Political Science and author of several works on law and society.

child might then find itself disinherited. In

countries, including Britain,

it

is

legally possible for

an illegitimate child to inherit from

its

actual father.

483

the doctor and the hospital. In 1973 gynecologist Raymond Vande Wiele of the Columbia Presbyteri-

an Medical Center

in

New

York City destroyed the

specimen culture the day after fertilization. An action was brought for $1,550,000 damages for emotional stress by the would-be parents, Doris and John Del Zio.

On

Aug. 18, 1978, a

New

York jury

awarded Mrs. Del Zio $24,000 against the hospital and $25,000 against Vande Wiele. The doctor testihe had intervened because he thought the procedure might prove fatal to Mrs. Del Zio.

fied that

If, in a particular neighbourhood, one doused to father numerous children, there is the possibility that his offspring might unwittingly come to marry. Such a marriage would be within the prohibited degrees of relationship, but no criminal offense would be committed since the parties to the marriage would lack the requisite knowledge.

Incest.

nor

is

New

Needed. The number of

Legislation

through

artificial

insemination

is

considerable.

births It

has

been estimated that 7,000 to 10,000 babies are born each year in the U.S. alone through this means. Fertilization in vitro

problems of

familiar as aih tially

Mrs. Doris Del Zio of New York City, accompanied by her attorney, sued a New York hospital and a doctor for over $1.5 million, charging that her laboratory-fertilized embryo was deliberately destroyed in 1973 just before it was to have been implanted in her womb. The jury granted her $49,000.

a

is

technique

and

infertility,

and

it

for solving certain

may come

aid. Existing laws deal

to

be as

only par-

and not always aptly with the problems inis an urgent need for regulation. particular, laws are needed to prescribe medical

volved, and there In

qualifications for those

who

handle these proce-

dures and to deal with the nature of the consents

must be obtained, the screening of donors, and whether unmarried persons may benefit. There must also be rules on what records are to be kept and in what circumstances any of the relevant parties may have access to confidential records. The information to be stated on birth certificates should be specified, and there should be rules on the legitimacy and inheritance rights of children born through the assistance of donor sperm or ova. A further range of even more complex problems is raised by the possibility that an embryo fertilized in the laboratory may be planted in the uterus of a third party, who agrees to hand over the child on birth to the couple for whom the arrangement is made and who may have supplied the sperm or the that

tion,

one born through in vitro fertilizahowever, the attempt to do so would most

likely

be frustrated through ignorance of the circum-

For an aid child or

stances of the birth and inability to find out the identity of the biological father.

the Physician. There are various ways doctor might become legally liable for his

Liability of in

which

a

actions arising out of

in vitro fertilization.

The

child

might be born with genetic defects, or there might be complaints that it was defective in some way— perhaps of a distinctly lower intelligence quotient than the couple themselves. A doctor would not be liable to pay damages if he could show that he had taken reasonable care

in all

negligence, for instance

the circumstances, but

muddling batches of seof a claim. In practice, most

men, could be the basis doctors would probably

in

try to

exclude

liability

by

ovum

or both.

Does the

woman who

or to the

child belong to the couple bore the child? Who are the

parents for the purpose of the birth certificate?

getting the couple to sign waivers.

happens

is destroyed in the by the doctor, he risks criminal penalties for carrying out an illegal abortion unless local law permits an abortion on such grounds. Conversely, the

cides to keep the child?

If

a potentially defective fetus

womb

unjustified destruction of the fetus might

the "hostess" changes her

How

What

mind and de-

can the anonymity of

those concerned be preserved? Must a proposed abortion on health grounds have the consent of the

couple whose child

be the

ess"

basis of an action by

would-be parents. In the first damages were awarded against

that

action of this kind,

try

484

if

is

being gestated

in

the "host-

womb? The new technology poses problems must now be faced by legislatures in any coun-

where

it

is

used.

Lebanon, using tanks air cover. Although the immediate reason for the invasion was retaliation for a Palestinian guerrilla attack near Tel Aviv on March 11, the Israeli objective was to destroy the Palestinian guerrilla bases in southern Lebanon. Israeli troops immediscale invasion of southern

and

Lebanon A republic of the Middle East, by

Syria, Israel,

Lebanon is bounded and the Mediterranean Sea. Area:

10,230 sq

km (3,950 sq mi).

000. Cap.

and

Pop. (1978

est.):

3,152,-

ately occupied a

12-km-deep

strip of territory

from

est.,

1,172,000). Language: Arabic. Religion: recently released 1965 census figures, of question-

Hermon foothills, and from March 19 they advanced to occupy all southern Lebanon up to the Litani River except for an en-

able reliability, show Christians: 54.5%; Muslims 45.5%. President in 1978, Elias Sarkis; prime minister, Selim al-Hoss. Lebanon's slow recovery from the civil war of 1975-76 was jeopardized in 1978 by an Israeli invasion of the south of the country in March and

clave around Tyre. By then troops of the Interim Force in Lebanon (unifil) had begun to arrive in accordance with Security Council Resolution 425 of March 19. Red Cross estimates said about 1,000 had been killed in the fighting and 80% of the villages in the

heavy fighting between the Syrian-dominated Arab Deterrent Force (adf) and Lebanese rightists in September-October. In January there were signs that a political entente might be developing among the various Lebanese factions, although security remained disturbed and there were frequent bomb attacks against individual political figures and

south had been damaged. Some 200,000 Lebanese and 65,000 Palestinians fled northward, creating a serious refugee problem in Sidon and Beirut. As the UNIFIL forces were deployed, the Israeli troops withdrew by stages until they finally left Lebanese territory by mid-June. However, they remained in

newspapers. The relative quiet in southern Lebanon was broken by clashes among Palestinians,

Lebanon-Israel border, where right-wing Christian militia continued to defy both the unifil forces and those of the reconstituted Lebanese Army, which took up positions in the south at the

largest city: Beirut (metro, pop., 1975

leading to a general strike in Sidon. The situation deteriorated sharply in February with a serious clash between Syrian forces of the

ADF and right-wing Lebanese militia, mainly of Chamoun's National Liberal Party. Chamoun emerged as the chief opponent of

ex-president Camille

the Syrian presence in Lebanon, while the Falangists and supporters of ex-president Suleiman Franjieh were more moderate toward the Syrians. There were also renewed clashes in the south,

with

Israeli forces

providing backing for Lebanese

rightists fighting Palestinians

On

the night of

March

and

14, Israel

UN

UN

close support of the Christian enclaves along the

end

of July.

On April 19 Prime Minister Selim al-Hoss resigned to enable his Cabinet of technocrats to make way for one of parliamentarians and other political leaders. Failure of the various political factions to agree led to his reappointment on April 28, and on May 15 the same government resumed office. However, Lebanese politicians agreed sufficiently "an end to all and non-Palestinian armed action inLebanon." The declaration was attacked by

to issue a joint declaration calling for

Palestinian

leftists.

launched a

the coast to the Mt.

full-

side

Heavy Syrian bombardment turned downtown Beirut, Lebanon, into smoking, charred rubble during fighting in October.

Law Enforcement: see Crime and Law Enforcement

486

Lesotho

the Lebanese left and by the Syrians but was only moderately criticized by the Palestine Liberation Organization, which insisted on its noninterference in Lebanese affairs. In May and June the Lebanese Christians were weakened by a deep split between Falangists, concentrated mainly around Mt. Lebanon, and supporters of ex-president Franjieh in the north. Following a reconciliation between Franjieh and the Tripoli Muslim leader, Rashid Karami, there were increasingly frequent incidents between Fa-

and Franjieh supporters, culminating in the deaths on June 13 of Franjieh's son Tony and his family under Falangist shellfire. Although Falangist leaders denied they had ordered the attack, Franjieh vowed revenge and more murders took place, including the massacre of 22 Falangist supporters in Bekaa villages on June 28. The Syrians were close to Franjieh, and these events contributed to a further deterioration in relations between the ADF and the Lebanese rightists. In the first week of July, Syrian forces bombarded Christian East Beirut. Pres. Elias Sarkis threatened to resign on July 6 but withdrew his threat on July 15 under strong pressure both at home and abroad. On August 5 the Syrian forces resumed the shelling in the heaviest bombardment since the civil war. A cease-fire ordered by Syria's Pres. Hafez al-Assad on August 9 restored relative calm for three weeks, although firing by Christian militia prevented the reopening of Beirut port. Tension increased as the U.S. -Israeli-Egyptian langists

summit

at

Camp

David, Md., approached. A expected in view of Syria's

showdown was widely

determination to sabotage any Egyptian-Israeli agreement. The Lebanese Christian leaders' open claims of active Israeli support and the regular overflying of Beirut by Israeli warplanes as a warning to Syria further antagonized the Syrians. The shelling was resumed with increased intensity at the end of September. East Beirut was surrounded by Syrian forces, and on October 6 and 7 Syria

committed more troops. President Sarkis visited Saudi Arabia to appeal for other Arab troops to replace the Syrian forces. On October 13 some 500 Lebanese troops moved into the perimeter of the fighting but could not restore calm.

As the situation worsened, Arab foreign minismet urgently at Beit Eddine, south of Beirut. On October 17 they announced a peace plan inters

volving the withdrawal of Syrian troops a few hundred yards from the perimeter of East Beirut and their replacement by non-Syrian Arab forces. This was carried out, enabling Lebanese Christian

Arab plan

Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 497,723; secondary, pupils 167,578; primary and secondary, teachers 32,901; vocational, pupils 3,898, teachers (1970-71) 508; teacher training, students 3,235, teachers (1971-72) 551; higher, students 50,803, teaching staff 2,313.

Finance. Monetary

unit: Lebanese pound, with (Sept. L£2.96 to U.S. $1 (L£5.81 = £1 Cold and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $2,207,300,000. Budget (1978 est) revenue L£1,403 million; expenditure L£2,083 million. Foreign Trade. (1977) imports c. L£4,634 million; exports c. L£1,939 million. Import sources (1976): Romania c 10%; Turkey c. 7%: Saudi Arabia c. 7%; Iraq c. 7%; France c. 7%; U.S. c. 7%, Export destinations (1976): Saudi Arabia c. 25%; Libya c 19%; Egypt c. 9%; Syria 5%; Iraq 5%,; Kuwait 5%. Main exports (1973); machinery 14%; fruit and vegetables 12%; chemicals 8%; aircraft 6%; clothing 6%; textile yarns and fabrics 5%; motor vehicles 5%. Tou

18, 1978) a free rate of

sterling).

rism: visitors (1975) 1,555,00C1; gross receipts (1974) U.S

$415 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) c. 7, 100 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 214,000; commercial (including buses) 24,100. Railways: (1976) c. 425 km; traffic (1974) 2 million passenger-km, freight 42 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 1,800,000,000 pas senger-km; freight 525.2 million net ton-km. Shipping (1977): vessels 100 gross tons and over 163; gross tonnage 227,009. Telephones (Jan. 1973) 227,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) 1,321,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1975) 410,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): potatoes c 90; wheat (1976) c. 30; tomatoes (1976) c 65; grapes c. 100; olives c. 25; bananas (1976) c. 42; oranges c, 188; lemons c 81; apples c. 177; tobacco c. 4. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c. 84; goats c. 330; sheep c. 234; chickens c. 7,398, Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): petroleum products c 820; cement c, 1,700; electricity (kwhr) c. 1,250,000.

also provided for unauthorized

persons to leave the streets or suffer arrest; end of October this had been fairly effective, although sporadic outbreaks of fighting continued to occur. Chamoun continued to insist that the Syrians should leave, while the Syrians were determined to enforce internal security in Lebanon. (peter Mansfield)

Lesotho A a

LEBANON

The armed by the

civilians in Beirut to leave for the countryside.

constitutional

member

of the

monarchy

of southern Africa

Commonwealth

and

of Nations, Leso-

tho forms an enclave within the republic of South Africa. Area: 30,355 sq km (11,720 sq mi). Pop. (1976 prelim.): 1,230,000. Cap. and largest city; Maseru (pop., 1976 prelim., 14,700). Language: English and Sesotho (official). Religion: Roman Catholic 38.7%; Lesotho Evangelical Church 24.3%; Anglican 10.4%; other Christian 8.4%; non-Christian 18.2%. Chief of state in 1978, King Moshoeshoe II; prime minister. Chief Leabua Jonathan. In February 1978 Transkei introduced restricon border crossings from Lesotho, thus cut-

tions

ting off

many

Basuto migrant workers from South

Africa and preventing Basuto traders from bringing food in from South Africa. Reportedly, Transkei hoped to force Lesotho to recognize its independent status. Lesotho reported the dis-

LESOTHO Education. (1976) Primary, pupils 222,017, teachers 4,235; secondary, pupils 16,726, teachers 621; vocational, pupils 836, teachers 109; teacher training, students 393, teachers 401; higher, students 601, teaching staff 95.

Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: maloti, at par with the South African rand, with (Sept. 18, 1978) an official rate of .87 malotis to US, $1 (free rate of 1,70 malotis = £1 sterling). Budget (1976-77 est.) balanced at R 29.3 million. Foreign trade (1975); imports R 117,8 million; exports R 11.4 million. Main exports (1974): wool 35%; mohair 16%; livestock 16%; diamonds 9%. Most trade is with South Africa.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): corn c. 130; wheat c. 50; sorghum c. 70; dry peas c. 8: wool 2. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c. 580; goats c. 915;

c.

sheep

c.

1,640.

criminatory measures to the European Economic

Community and

the

UN.

LIBERIA

Great Britain increased its three-year capital aid of £11.5 million by £2 million, and Abu Dhabi lent R 637,000 for an airport feasibility study. Nevertheless, Lesotho remained to all intents an economic dependency of South Africa. The 1978-79 budget showed an increase of 53% in expenditure (total expenditure, R 123,140,000). A new currency, the maloti, equivalent to the rand, was introduced and would circulate alongside the rand. Lesotho's latter-day hostility toward South Africa,

tempered by awareness of economic realities, was epitomized by the reception of a five-man Cuban delegation in June. After South Africa protested, the Lesotho government agreed that, though diplomatic relations with Cuba would be established, there would be no Cuban military mission on its soil.

(molly Mortimer)

Liberia A

republic on the west coast of Africa, Liberia is bordered by Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Ivory Coast. Area: 97,790 sq km (37,757 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 1,716,900. Cap. and largest city: Monrovia (pop., 1978 est., 229,300). Language: English (official) and tribal dialects. Religion: mainly animist. President in 1978, William R. Tolbert, Jr. In his annual address to the nation Pres. William Tolbert called for 1978 to be the year of

Education. (1975) Primary, pupils 157,821, teachers 3,832; secondary, pupils 32,978, teachers (1974) 1,331; vocational, pupils 851, teachers (1970) 66; teacher training, students 322, teachers 53; higher, students 2,404, teaching 190.

staff c.

Finance. Monetary

unit: Liberian dollar, at par

with the

U.S. dollar, with a free rate (Sept. 18, 1978) of LSI. 96 to

£1

Budget (1977-78 est.) balanced at L$148 million. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports L$463.5 million; exports L$447, 420,000. Import sources (1976): U.S. 30'^o; Saudi

sterling.

Arabia

13%; West Germany 12%; U.K. 8%; lapan 7%; The

Netherlands 6%. Export destinations (1976); West Germany 28%; U.S. 19%; Italy 14%; France 8%; Belgium-Luxembourg 8%; The Netherlands 6%; Spain 5%. Main exports: iron ore 61%; rubber 13%; timber c. 8%,; diamonds 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (state; 1975) 7,282 km. Motor vehicles in use 11974): passenger 12,100; commercial (including buses) 10,000. Railways (1975) 493 km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 2,617 (mostly owned by U.S. and other foreign interests); gross tonnage 79,982,968. Telephones (Dec. 1974) 7,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) 264,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1975) 8,800. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): rice c. 230; cassava (1976) c. 310; bananas (1976) c. 64; palm kernels c. 13; palm oil c. 27; rubber c. 80; cocoa c 3; coffee

c

5. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c. 35; sheep c. 176; goats c. 175; pigs c. 93. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): iron ore (metal content) 14,010; petroleum products c. 520; diamonds (exports; metric carats) c. 400; electricity (kw-hr) c.

887,000.

"economy, accountability, and self-sufficiency." The 1976-80 development plan was well under way, despite a 50% increase in expenditure through inflation. The 1977 growth rate was good During

a

Liberia

on

from

stopover his

in

way home

talks in Nigeria,

US. Pres. Iimmy Carter was greeted by Liberian Pres.

William Tolbert.

was the

It

first official visit

of a U.S. president to Liberia,

ed

which was found-

largely

by former

slaves from the U.S.

Libraries

despite increasing labour disputes, with a balance of payments surplus and 49% of the L$412.8 million external debt repaid. During 1976-77 foreign investment rose 52% to L$75.8 million. Firestone extended its rubber cultivation by 22,500 ac; West

UAP, and the uap program called upon everv country to collect all its own publications and to for

make them

universally available.

Germany increased its timber interests; and Britain invested £3,850,000 in small landholding pro-

September 1977 an international congress on national bibliographies had been held at the headquarters of UNESCO in Paris. Its first recommendation had been to draft a model for the legal deposit

up an

of publications in national libraries in order to

jects.

The government continued

to

set

industrial free zone in Monrovia.

was

established following the visit to Monrovia in of Nigeria's chief of state, Lieut. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo. Tolbert in March was host to summit" in Monrovia attended by the a "unity presidents of The Gambia, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Senegal, and Togo, for the purpose of patching up past quarrels. In June Tolbert visited Guinea to consolidate relationships. Also in June he went to

February

China, where he asked for economic help, "not misleading ideologies." In April U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter visited Monrovia during his African tour and had talks with Tolbert. (molly mortimer)

Libraries availability of publications (uap) of the 1978

annual general council

of the International Federation of Library Associa-

tions

and Institutions (ifla), held

Pleso, Czech.

The meteoric

at

Strbske

rise of the British Li-

brary Lending Division as a major international source of loans and photocopies provided a model Interior

view of the

Illinois

Regional

Library for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, which opened in |une. Consulting architect was Stanley Ti-

german & Associates in association with the Bureau of Architecture, City of Chicago. Stanley Tigerman was architect in charge of design, lerome and Robert E. Fugman, associate in charge.

R. Butler, city architect;

This was part of UNESCO's National Technical Information Systems program. The advisory committee and the first plenary session of unesco's General Information Program met in Paris in October and November 1977, facilitate national bibliographies.

A joint Liberian-Nigerian economic commission

The universal was the theme

In

respectively,

and recommended greater interna-

tional coordination of information resources, as

well as the training of professional librarians, to satisfy the information needs of all countries. Simultaneously, the unhsco Committee on Data for Science and Technology established a World Data Referral Centre in Paris to facilitate the finding of sources of scientific information: it was to collaborate with other international information

organizations such as the International Nuclear Information System and the Agricultural Information System. A regional branch of the latter reported good progress in spreading agricultural information in nine Asian countries. Such international developments necessitated the growth of national networks of libraries in each country, exemplified by the networking activities of the U.S. Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. There in 1977 the Network Advisory

Committee formed

a task force of technical staff

489

academic libraries were joined to European and U.S. networks and to the French pascal network of the Centre National de la Recherche Scien-

Libya

tifique.

The training of librarians continued to be an urgent need for less developed countries. The School of Librarianship in Kampala, Uganda, celebrated ten years of intense activity in training East African librarians, and similar efforts were reported in training French-speaking West African librarians, notably at the school in Dakar, Senegal, and at the Ecole Nationale Superieure des Bibliothecaires near Lyon, France. In India a library science education seminar at Chandigarh stressed the need for research and for the improvement of library training; only five Indian universities were offering training in library science.

A portion in

of the private library of Sigmund Freud was opened to scfiolars at the Columbia Health Sciences Library in York City. It had previously been housed at the nearby York State Psychiatric Institute library.

May

New New

known

as the

Network Technical Architecture

Group, which linked computerized bibliographical organizations to the Library of Congress to form a national network for identifying and locating publications of

all

kinds, in print, microfilm,

and machine-readable forms. A feature of 1978 was the development of public library service to minority populations and to the disadvantaged. In the U.S. this was exemplified by

The completion of several large library buildings in the U.S.S.R. was reported. These included the National Library of the Turkmen S.S.R. at Ashkhabad, with space for three million volumes and quiet central patios for readers; the new building of the Fundamental Library of the Social Sciences in Moscow, with room for seven million volumes and a large, light, and spacious upper floor for readers; and the new State Public Scientific and Technical Library in Moscow, with ten million volumes and 1,200 seats for readers. A highlight of public library development was the first year of operation of the library in the Centre National d'Art et de Culture Georges Pompidou in Paris, better known as the Centre Beaubourg. This three-story library, with its entrance on the middle floor, held about 300,000 books, the same

number

of slides,

(ANTHONY Thompson)

Libya

Centro Hispanico de Informacion with a bilingual staff at the Brooklyn, N.Y., Public Library, and the exchanges of staff between Tucson

A

(Ariz.) Public Library and libraries across the border in Mexico. In the U.K. there was the publication of The Libraries Choice (Her Majesty's Stationary Office) and A Public Library Service for Ethnic Minorities in Great Britain (the Library Association). The National Library of Canada developed a multilingual biblioservice, and Denmark provided library service for immigrant workers. The domination of the printed word was once more threatened by trials of an information system for the general public using an adapted television set in combination with the telephone. An exam-

was Viewdata, a service offered by the British Post Office. International computer links continued to develop; in France nine medical libraries were equipped with terminals linked to the medlars network in the U.S., and a dozen French

ple

collections of films,

[441.C.2.d; 613.D.l.a; 735.H]

the publication of guidelines for service to the 11 million Spanish-speaking population, the activities of El

and large

microfilms, microfiches, phonograph records, and maps, all with free and open access. Of the 1,300 seats for readers, 250 were equipped with audiovisual apparatus. By February 1978, the end of the first year, the library was able to report an average daily attendance of more than 12,000 persons.

socialist republic on the north coast of Africa, Libya is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, Egypt, the Sudan, Tunisia, Algeria, Niger, and Chad. Area: 1,749,000 sq km (675,000 sq mi). Pop. (1977 est.): 3,014,100. Cap. and largest city: Tripoli (pop., 1973 census, municipality, 551,000). Language: Arabic. Religion: predominantly Muslim. Secretary-general of the General People's Congress

in 1978, Col.

Muammar

al-Qaddafi.

The moves of Egypt's Pres. Anwar as-Sadat toward reconciliation with Israel in 1978 were vehemently opposed by Libyan leader Col. Muammar al-Qaddafi. To express his disfavour Qaddafi joined the meeting of high-level Arab "rejection front" leaders in Damascus, Syria, in September, where he urged action on the part of Arab countries on behalf of the Palestinians. In June and July Qaddafi enjoyed a successful tour of the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc countries. The Libyan leader was greeted by huge

Libya

490 Libya

Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi, King Hussein of Jordan, and PLO leader Yasir Arafat (left to right) met in

Damascus,

Syria, in

September

to

discuss the Egyptian-Israeli peace negotiations.

crowds

in

all

the countries he visited, and oppor-

him. On his Qaddafi stopped in Malta to confirm his

tunities to speak

way home

were extended

to

support for that nation's precarious economy. Far-reaching changes were set in motion

home by

at

measures that implemented the message in volume two of Qaddafi's

the

egalitarian

published in early 1978. The first volume had discussed government and political representation. The second, The Solution of the Economic Problem, was concerned with the organization of production and the distribution of its benefits; it was preoccupied with the idea that "whoever possesses your needs controls or exploits you" and concluded that in the "final stage profit will automatically disappear and there will be no need for money." The most severe restrictions that resulted from the book were applied to housing. Since only one house per family was to be allowed, all privately owned rental properties were taken over by the government. A limit of 10,000 dinars was placed on personal bank deposits; meanwhile, the movement overseas of funds that would naturally follow such moves was restricted. Gold disappeared from the market, and there were signs of conspicuous consumption of such items as automobiles. Almost all the country's production and commerce were handled by government agencies. Because traditional Islamic law unambiguously

of

groundwater, and summer crop acreages were

main source of revenue, and Libya maintained its share of world production while complaining loudly of the decline in the value of its oil exports because of inflation and the depreciation of the U.S. dollar. The economy declining. Oil remained the

Green Book,

upholds the right of an individual to own property, Qaddafi found himself in conflict with the religious leadership at home and throughout the Islamic world. He responded by imprisoning some local religious leaders opposed to the guidance of the Green Book. The people, meanwhile, received constant reminders of the Green Book's message, recited in Koranic style on radio and TV. Libya had a good year for winter crops with a record level of grain production. Summer crops to be severely affected by the shortage

continued

LIBYA Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 568,781, teachers 26,385; secondary, pupils 172,250, teachers 12,025; vocational, pupils 4,990, teachers 403; teacher training, students 21,719, teachers 2,006; higher, students 12,459, teaching staff 350. Finance. Monetary unit: Libyan dinar, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a par value of 0.296 dinar to U.S. $1 (free rate of 0.580 dinar = £1 sterling). Gold, SDR's, and foreign exchange Oune 1978) U.S. $4,478,000,000. Budget (1975 actual): revenue 1,997,575,000 dinars (including petroleum revenue of 1,283,995,000 dinars); expenditure 2,323,530,000 dinars. Cross national product (1977) 5,182,000,000 dinars. Money supply (Dec. 1977) 1,276,000,000 dinars. Cost of living (Tripoli; 1975 = 100; March 1978) 140.8. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports (fob) c 1,415,000,000 dinars; exports 2,955,500,000 dinars. Import sources: Italy c. 26%; West Cermany c. 14%; France c. 9%; U.S. c. 7%; U.K. 6%; Japan c. 6%; Belgium-Luxembourg c. 5%. Export destinations: U.S. c. 36%; West Cermany c 19%; Italy c. 14%,; Spain c. 5%. Main export: crude oil 100%. Transport and Communications. Roads (including tracks; 1976) c. 20,000 km (including 8,700 km surfaced). Motor vehicles in use (1975): passenger 263,100; commercial (including buses) 131,300. Air traffic (1976): 700 million passenger-km; freight 6.9 million net ton-km. Shipping (1977): vessels 100 gross tons and over 53; gross tonnage 673,969. Shipping traffic: goods loaded (1977) 92,720,000 metric tons, unloaded (1975) 9,619,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1974) 102,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1975) 106,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1975) 10,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): barley c. 200; wheat c. 70; potatoes (1976) c 66; watermelons c. 100; tomatoes c. 204; onions c. 44; oranges c. 24; olives c. 100; dates c, 70. Livestock (in 000; 1976): sheep c. 3,360; goats c. 1,125; cattle c 123; camels c. 120; asses c. 73. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): petroleum products c. 2,540; crude oil (1977) 100,144; electricity (Tripolitania; excluding most industrial production; kw-hr) 1,490,000.

and its further development were sorely affected by labour shiortages, an aftermath of the return of many Egyptian labourers to Egypt in 1977. By June the employment of labour was being controlled at the Cabinet level. (j. a. allan)

Liechtenstein A constitutional monarchy between Switzerland and Austria, Liechtenstein is united with Switzerland by a customs and monetary union. Area: 160 sq km (62 sq mi). Pop. (1977 est.): 24,730. Cap. and largest city: Vaduz (pop., 1976 est., 4,620). Language: German. Religion (1976): Roman Catholic 84%. Sovereign prince, Francis Joseph II; chiefs of government in 1978, Walter Kieber and, from April 26, Hans Brunhart. In the elections of Feb. 2,

1978, the Patriotic

Union Party (pup) defeated the Progressive Citizens' Party (pop). A crisis of more than two months followed when the vice-president and former chief of government, Walter Kieber (pcp), refused to relinquish the foreign affairs portfolio. After intervention by Prince Francis Joseph II, the post was abolished; its diplomatic functions were taken over by the new chief of government, Hans Brunhart (pup), and its juridical and economic functions by Kieber. The profusion of "letter box" companies registered in Liechtenstein was of concern to fiscal and monetary authorities in Switzerland. The Swiss National Bank endeavoured to reach an understanding that would regularize the principality's adherence to Swiss exchange controls. Fritz Leutwiler, president of the Liechtenstein Central Bank, desired a formal agreement to ensure that Swiss currency measures applied equally in both countries. In September, Liechtenstein

became the 22nd

member of the Council of Europe, gaining recognition of full statehood.

(k.m.

smogorzewski)

LIECHTENSTEIN Education. (1977-78) Primary and secondary, pupils 3,807, teachers 176. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Swiss franc, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of SFr 1.58 to U.S. $1 (SFr 3.09 = £1 sterling). Budget (1977 rev. est.): revenue SFr 189,670,000; expenditure SFr 189,320,000. Exports (1976) SFr 597.8 million. Export destinations: Switzerland 40%; EEC 30%; EFTA (other than Switzerland) 8%. Mam exports: metal manufactures, furniture, chemicals, pottery. Tourism (1976) 74,462 visitors.

organism with functional genes that had been synthesized or derived from another, sometimes very different species, and thereby to endow the recipient organism with the ability to make, or express, protein products foreign to its nature. These methods had been foreseen early by geneticists as powerful tools to create biological factories for manufacturing important human hormones and enzymes from cultures of

of

either chemically

rapidly multiplying bacteria. A significant milestone came late in 1977 when Herbert Boyer of the University of California, San Francisco, and co-workers succeeded in introducing a working synthetic gene for a form of mammalian somatostatin into the bacterium Escherichia coli and then extracting the hormone from bacterial cultures. Then in June 1978 a team led by Walter Gilbert of Harvard University announced that a for a form of rat insulin, derived from messenger RNA, had been successfully introduced and made to function in £. coli. Finally, in September a ten-member team from the City of Hope National Medical Center and Genentech, Inc., both in California, reported that chemically synthesized genes for the two amino-acid chains which together compose the human insulin molecule had been separately inserted and made to function in E. coli. To make an intact insulin molecule the two chains subsequently were extracted and purified from separate bacterial cultures and then joined chemically. Whereas complications of the process presented difficulties in adapting it for efficient large-scale production, its existence demonstrated that human insulin indeed could be derived from

gene

bacterial sources. of Stanford University

tober the

first

successful transplant, using

In a year when confirmation of the existence of "genes in pieces" rocked the life sciences by overturning long-standing assumptions about the structure and function of genes in higher organisms (see Molecular Biology, below), it seemed easy to overlook progress along other important lines of genetic research. Refinement of recombinant dna technology and gene-synthesis techniques in recent years had made it possible to provide one kind

dna

recombinant techniques, of a functional gene between mammalian species — specifically, a gene that codes for a part of the rabbit hemoglobin molecule into cells of the African green monkey. Their achievement represented perhaps one of the initial steps toward a future science of genetic therapeutics, whereby defective or absent genes in humans would be routinely replaced by correctly function(charles m. cegielski) ing counterparts. [339.C]

ZOOLOGY Several interesting cases of mimicry came to light during 1978. Theodore W. Pietsch and David B. Grobecker of California State University reported on a Philippine anglerfish that utilizes a lure resembling a small fish. Anglers are sedentary marine fish that attract prey

Life Sciences

and coannounced in Oc-

In closely related research Paul Berg

workers

by means

of a fleshy lure

attached to a modified spine on the head. The device conserves energy and is thus of high adaptive value to the fish. In the case of a species of Antennarius, the lure was found to be a nearly exact replica of a small fish found in the same region. The lure has stripes and "eyespots," is laterally compressed, and even has "fins." It is whipped about to fool prey into mistaking it for a real fish. This discovery appeared to be the first such of an angler lure resembling a living fish and was considered an example of highly aggressive mimicry.

Life Insurance: see Industrial Review

the bolas spider holds a sticky ball suspended from its legs by a thread (left). The spider apparently exudes a male moths within range of its weapon, whicfi it whips through the air to snare them (right).

attractant to lure

Another interesting example involved

a "wolf-

in-sheep's-clothing" type of behaviour.

Thomas

Eisner and co-workers at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., reported that an insect larva (Chrysopa slossonae) disguises itself as its aphid prey by plucking a waxy wool-like secretion from the aphids and carrying the material around on its own back. This disguise was found to protect it from assault by ants that ordinarily guard the aphids. When the investigators stripped larvae of their woolly disguise, the guardian ants promptly removed the exposed impostors from the aphid colonies. Although other insects were known to carry "trash" as a defense against predators, the present situation was the first known wherein such behaviour results in mimicry of the prey by the predator. A third case involved chemical mimicry. William G. Eberhard of the Universidad del Valle in Colombia obtained evidence that mature female bolas spiders (Mastophora species) apparently mimic the female sex-attractant pheromone of their moth prey {Spodoptera frugiperda). A sex pheromone is a specific chemical emitted by a female to attract males of its own species. The bolas spider has an inefficient trapping method that involves the use of a sticky ball of thread instead of the usual web. Its production of sex attractant

mimic, chances

however,

presumably

improves

for successful capture of its prey,

were seen at times

make

the

which

repeated "passes" at the spider! It was concluded that the spider produces the pheromone only when hunting, because prey approach the spider only during this time. Definitive proof would have to await chemical determination of the pheromone. Many reports during the year touched on aspects of animal reproduction. One finding into

volved the hormonal control of mating behaviour in the leopard frog, Rana pipiens. Carol Diakow of Adelphi University, Garden City, N.Y., found that a pituitary

hormone, arginine-8-vasotocin,

inhibits the production of the release call in sexual-

These frogs mate by a process amplexus (clasping), wherein the male clasps the female from behind and sheds sperm into the water at the same time that she sheds eggs. Unreceptive females emit a release call, which signals the male to cease clasping, but receptive ly receptive females.

known

as

females lack this

call.

hormone number of un-

Injection of the

brought about a reduction

in the

receptive females emitting the release

call; injec-

tions of an inactive control substance had no effect. The hormone acts by bringing about an accumulation of salt and water in the frog's body, the inthrough some creased pressure acting physiological mechanism to inhibit production of the call. This was shown by placing unreceptive females in a salt solution (Ringer solution), which by itself produced a decrease in the frequency of release calls. Unreceptive control frogs in tap or de-ionized water were unaffected. Another interesting reproductive study concerned the egg pigments of ground-nesting birds. G. S. Bakken of Indiana State University and coworkers found that the usual vertebrate protective pigment, melanin, is replaced in these eggshells by other pigments that are much less absorptive in near-infrared (near-IR) light. An eggshell must be protectively coloured yet prevented from absorbing too much heat, which would kill the embryo. Although melanin is excellent for protective coloration, it has a high capacity to absorb near-IR. The pigments that replace melanin are protopor-

phyrins (heme pigments) and bilins (bile pigments). Unpigmented eggshell has a near-IR

reflectance greater than

90% The addition .

of these

nonmelanin pigments did not significantly decrease this reflectance but presumably conferred protective coloration. Melanins were found to be replaced by the other pigments in 25 species of birds from nine families, indicating the widespread nature of the phenomenon and providing a striking example of the use of a specific substance to solve one problem without creating another. One recent study concerned biochemical differences between skeletal muscle enzymes of two closely related species of

North

Somero

found at and George N. of Oceanogra-

Pacific fish

different depths. Joseph Siebenaller of the Scripps Institution

phy, La Jolla, Calif., studied the lactate dehydrogenases (ldh) of Sebastolobus alascanus and S. altivelus- which live at depths of 180^40 m (5901,440 ft) and 550-1,300 m (1,800^,260 ft), respectively—to learn if biochemical differences might be related to the different depth distributions. The enzyme ldh catalyzes the important reaction that reduces pyruvic acid to lactic acid. The investigators found that there are indeed pressure sensitivity differences in the ldh's of the

two

species.

When LDH

from the shallower species was placed normally encountered only by the deeper species, its ability to bind its substrate, pyruvic acid, decreased. Thus, its ability to catalyze its reaction decreased, because substrate bindat the pressure

ing

the essential first step in the reaction. In addition, the ability of ldh from the shallower species to bind its cofactor (nadh) also decreased when it was placed at the higher pressure. This would also decrease its ability to catalyze its reaction, because the cofactor must be intimately bound to the enzyme for the reaction to take place. Both results show that if the shallower species were suddenly moved to deeper water, its ldh would function less efficiently. Presumably these biochemical differences were important in establishing the existing differences in depth distribution between the two species. Previous studies had shown that pressure effects indeed were useful in explaining such differences. However, this study also involved closely related species with similar life histories found at nearly identical temperatures, thereby minimizing the possible influence of factors other than water pressure on the results obtained. Recently, the pineal gland, which functions as is

a light receptor or "third eye" in some lower vertebrates, was implicated in the control of swimming

behaviour in frog tadpoles by A. Roberts of the University of Bristol in the U.K. He found that if tadpoles of the South African clawed frog {Xenopus

were shadowed some of them started to swim. This shadow response depends upon the presence of the pineal eye on the top of the head, although the lateral eyes are not required. At this stage of frog development the pineal eye has laevis)

photoreceptors, which are connected to the brain by nerves. This connection via the pineal stalk was found to be necessary for the observed response. The pineal had been implicated previously in the regulation of a variety of functions in amphibians, including control of pigmentation, circadian (24hour) activity patterns, phototaxis (movement in

response to light), compass orientation, and the perception of linearly polarized light. These results indicate that the pineal eye could have mediated similar shadow responses in primitive vertebrates before paired, image-forming, lateral eyes evolved. Finally, a team of British researchers described the case of a dominance hierarchy (pecking order) in sea anemones. R. C. Brace and J. Pavey of the University of Nottingham observed that when

two anemones of the same species {Actinia equina) were brought together, aggressive behaviour developed between them such that one "won" and the other "lost." The winner remained open and whereas the loser tended to retract its tentaand sometimes detached from the substrate. Using many such encounters they constructed two hierarchies, based on "aggress first" (initial aggressor) and "win." The initial aggressor almost always won the encounter, and larger anemones tended to be winners. This was regarded as being the first description of a dominance hierarchy in a lower invertebrate. (ronald r. novales) active, cles

[312.C.3.b; 313.J.3.e.vii; 342.A.6.e; 342.C]

Entomology. By 1978 a serious upsurge of mabecame evident in various parts of the world. During the 1960s massive use of ddt against malarial mosquitos had all but wiped out the dislaria

many countries.

ease in

Fearing pollution, govern-

ments then discontinued use of the insecticide, and populations of mosquitos had been building up since. Even where ddt spraying resumed, the years of insecticidal treatment had often selected resistant strains of mosquitos, some having a new pattern of behaviour;

e.g., females that fly into a dwelling for a meal and then fly straight out to rest on exterior walls not treated with insecticide. V. T. H. Gunaratne, director of the World Health Organization's New Delhi office in India, warned of an additional danger: kala-azar, which is spread by phlebotomid sand flies and had been

rare in the

ddt

was increasing alarmingly. is caused by protozoal liver and spleen, and causes fe-

era,

Like malaria the disease parasites, affects ver; untreated

it is

usually fatal within three years.

Gunaratne urged health authorities to use ddt again but pointed out that the flies, which formerly hovered within a few feet of the ground, were flying

up

to ceilings, requiring

more spraying.

William S. Bowers of the State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N.Y., and Rafael Martinez-Pardo of the Instituto de Agroquimica y Tecnologia de Alimentos, Valencia, Spain, invesfurther the natural insecticides called precocenes that Bowers's group had previously discovered in plants. Precocene II prevented development or caused regression of the corpora allata of insects, the endocrine glands that produce juvetigated

nile

hormone. Immature stages became premature and lack of the hormone in adult females

adults,

prevented or reversed development of the ovaries. Another new kind of insecticide, Dimilin (diflubenzuron), discovered by the Dutch firm of Philips-Duphar B.V. and tested in the U.S. by Thompson-Hay ward Chemical Co., was found to inhibit synthesis of chitin, a principal constituent of the exoskeleton that invests insects and related

493 Life

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494 Life

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invertebrates. Concentrations of 15-60 ml (0.5-2 were toxic to larvae, which died when

tified as labile

but not to other animals. Neither were fungi affected despite their chitin content. Insects were not all equally susceptible, and Dimilin promised to be the first effective insecticide more toxic to the boll weevil than to natural enemies of cotton pests. The chemical was very stable, however, giving rise to fears that its per-

way

oz) per acre

attempting

to molt,

sistence in the

ous

effects;

environment might have

but

its

deleteri-

discovery could well lead to

other, safer inhibitors of chitin synthesis. One reason for the high cost of silk is the need for

mulberry leaves

in the diet of the

silkworm,

and much attention has been given to finding substitutes, especially at Kyoto University, Japan. Within the past year Yasuyuki Yamada and Asao Okamoto reported that the 10-40% leaves needed to make "artificial" diets palatable could be replaced by tissue cultures of mulberry cells, but only if grown in light to develop their chlorophyll content. Keizo Hayashiya, noting that caterpillars reared on diets with extracts of leaves were more susceptible to viral disease than those fed fresh

leaves,

found

that

a

red-fluorescent

protein,

derived partly from chlorophyll and partly from a protein produced in the silkworm's gut, had antiviral properties. Fortunately, chloroplasts from any source, e.g., spinach, could provide the necessary chlorophyll. Meanwhile, Masaru Kato idenLarge larva of Toxorhynchites rutilus rutilus, a nonbiling mosquito, preys on smaller larvae of Aedes aegypti,

the carrier of yellow fever virus. The predatory mosquito was under study as a biological control agent against several disease-carrying mosquitoes.

phenolic compounds the mulberry

flavour essential to at last

seemed

make

the larvae eat, and the

clear to

produce

artificial diets

entirely without mulberry.

Molting all

is

a critical process for

an insect,

when

cuticular structures, including delicate linings

breathing tubes and parts of mouthparts and external sense organs, must be detached of internal

and replaced. In West Germany Werner Gnatzy of the Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universitat, Frankfurt am Main, and Jiirgen Tautz of the Universitat Konstanz investigated how mechanoreceptive hairs of a species of caterpillar fared during the

changeover. Loosening of the old cuticle from the developing new one occurred some 40 hours before the fourth stage finally shed its skin to reveal the fifth,

to 30

yet sensitivity of the hairs persisted even up minutes before the molt. They found that as

the old cuticle separated, the dendrite innervating each hair elongated to span the gap. A new hair was laid down under the old cuticle with the elongated dendrite emerging from the new hair's base, and at this point the dendritic extension was pinched off at the moment of shedding the old, the remainder serving the new hair. (peter w. miles) [313. H. 5.0; 321.B.9.c.i; 321.E.2.a; 724.C.8.f]

Ornithology. Birds in urban areas formed the topic of an entire

symposium

tional Ornithological

at

the 17th Interna-

Congress in

Berlin.

Anthony

Erskine of the Canadian Wildlife Service considered urban birds in the context of the Canadian climate and of human settlement in Canada. The harsh winter climate in most of Canada greatly reduces the possibilities of year-round residence by birds and also shortens the growing season, slowing revegetation of disturbed areas. Most Canadian cities and towns are less than 100 years old, and nearly all expanded their boundaries in recent decades with use of private cars for transport. Areas of new construction are populated largely by birds of introduced species previously adapted to urban habitats in Eurasia. Native birds appear gradually as height and density of vegetation increases, but they seldom if ever approach the densities attained by the introduced species. In summer, except in largely unvegetated areas, urban bird densities are often as high as in the better natural communities nearby, although usually with fewer species than in natural habitats. In winter, however, far more birds inhabit urban centres than the surrounding country. Correlations of urban birds and their habitats must consider such man-influenced factors as age and density of buildings, age and density of vegetation, and income level of owners, as well as the climatic regime; e.g., length of growing season and depth and duration of snow cover. Veteran British city ornithologist Stanley Cramp spoke on changes in the breeding birds of inner London since 1900. A mainly built-up area of 16 sq km (6.2 sq mi), with large parks, squares, private gardens, several ornamental waters, and a stretch of river had been delimited for the purpose of this long-term study. Cramp reported a steady increase in the diversity of breeding species, with 24 breeding regularly in 1900, 30 in 1950, and 40 in 1957, J.

with any

lost species

more than

offset

by new

colo-

A

further 17 species nested irregularly, a few quite frequently. In recent years regular cennizers.

mainly in the large parks, showed increases numbers of many breeding species, including several which are entirely or largely insectivorous. The main reasons appeared to be a much more favourable attitude to birds among the genersuses,

in the

al

public, better legal protection, active conserva-

tion (including the provision of sanctuaries and habitat improvements), and probably the effects of cleaner air.

Brian Bertram of the University of Cambridge discussed cooperative breeding in ostriches. In East Africa ostriches nest communally. A male establishes a territory, and several females lay eggs in a nest within it. Only one of the females, the "major" hen, takes turns with the male in all the work of guarding the nest and subsequently in incubating the eggs. In many nests more eggs are laid than can be covered by an incubating bird. Therefore, before incubation starts a number of eggs are pushed to an outer ring that is not incubated. There are some indications that the major hen's own eggs are unlikely to be among these doomed outer eggs. A pair of ostriches that has hatched chicks apparently competes with other

Neal Griffith Smith of the Canal Zone Biological Area studied aspects of the nesting association of certain tropical birds and tyrant flycatchers in Central and South America with colonies of aggressive social insects. Although it is the birds that choose to nest close to the wasps or bees, and not vice versa, advantages accrue to both partners. For the birds the association provides varying degrees of protection against predators; for the

hymenop-

tera the proximity of the birds provides protection

against certain birds and mammals that specialize in eating their larvae. At least in South America,

those species of bird that habitually associate with bees and wasps have a peculiar odour, whereas their close relatives, which are not vespiphiles, lack this smell.

A great rarity during the year was the publicabook on birds from China. Cheng Tsohsin, the distinguished Chinese ornithologist, listtion of a

ed 1,166 species in a book of 571 pages, with 828 distribution maps, giving names in Latin, English, and Russian as well as Chinese. (jEFFERY BOSW.'VLl) [313.J.6; 342.A.6.e.iii: 352.B.2.c]

MARINE BIOLOGY Although ecologists tend to define food webs in terms of biomass, organic matter, or energy, recent work in the U.K. at the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland emphasized the importance of species composition and age structure. Relative size structure of herbivorous copepods, which make up a subclass of generally minute crustaceans, and their phytoplankton food was found to be more important than biomass of each trophic level (all the organisms in a step of a food chain) in determining energy transfer along the food chain. Surveys from 1970-74 in the southern North Sea showed several phytoplankton species of Ceratium appearing earlier and for longer in the year than in the 1960s. The changes relate to increased salinity from increased flow of English Channel water into the North Sea, induced by increased westerly winds associated with changed atmospheric pressure distribution over the Atlantic.

Studies of meiofauna, very small animals living

between sand grains, had been hampered by problems of handling large numbers of samples. These were overcome by embedding samples in resin, using a technique developed for transmission electron microscopy, to provide man-made "fossil" samples of both soft- and hard-bodied forms and of the small protozoans, algae, and fungi attached to the sand grains. Ghost crabs (species of Ocypode) occur commonly on tropical and subtropical beaches, yet knowledge of their ecology is largely anecdotal. In North Carolina O. quadrata was found not to be mainly a scavenger as was commonly thought but the top carnivore feeding on filter-feeding mole crabs (Emerita) and clams (Donax). It appeared to have no competitor or predator in what is a simple food chain.

A new mechanism

buoyancy

in deep-water

similarly successful pairs for guardianship of all the young; thus, very large mixed broods may be

fish

was demonstrated

formed.

fish

has a relatively massive head which, except

of

in Acanthonus armatus.

The

495 Life

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496 Life

Sciences

Kryptophanaron

alfredi, a

flashlight fish not

species of

seen since its disits reappearsix captured

1907, made ance in January with

covery

in

specimens. The fish's common name derives from the presence beneath each eye of a light organ filled with luminescent bacteria.

with dilute, low-density permitting an approach to neutral buoyanintriguing example of "adoption" behavwas described in mysid crustaceans. iour Commonly called opossum shrimp, these small animals normally incubate their young in an external brood pouch into which populations in the Adriatic Sea were shown to introduce larvae from other females. The ability to identify and adopt other young of the same species serves to protect accidentally released young from predation by the for a small brain, is filled

BOTANY

fluid,

cy.

An

adults.

Studies on migration of eels (juveniles) of the

American

showed

that elvers

eel are able to orient to

weak direct-current electric fields. Elver migration could conceivably be influenced by electric fields generated in the major ocean current systems. Crabs in tropical waters are generally more agile and powerful than their temperate-water counterparts. Work on tropical Pacific crabs showed that some families are able to crush mollusks by intense, sustained pressure and that an increase in shell thickness of gastropod mollusks in these regions parallels the increased crushing power of the crabs. British Antarctic Survey work showed interesting differences in chick development in blackbrowed and grey-headed albatrosses. The former raises chicks on krill and fish 30 days quicker than the latter, which feed on squid and fish. Interchanging chicks between parents showed that this is due to a dietary effect, probably relatlow calorific value and calcium content of

difference

ed

to the

squid.

New techniques to produce all-female stocks of salmonid fish for aquaculture included administering the sex hormone 17/3-estradiol, which induces male-to-female sex reversal. Unlike males, females reach marketable size before undergoing sexual maturation, so the technique avoids loss of food conversion efficiency, deterioration of flesh quality, and increased susceptibility to infection, all of which occur at maturation. The farming of singlesex stocks of fish also safeguards against accidental establishment of nonindigenous species imported for aquaculture. (ERNEST NAYLOR) [354. B.2

and

4]

Attempts

to explain

how members

of a class of

hormones called auxins interact with plant cells to promote lengthwise growth of the plant continued be reported in 1978. In order to identify the possible receptor sites in the cell where auxins might exercise their primary effect, the binding of to

radioactively labeled auxins to different particucomponents of coleoptile cells was followed. (The coleoptile is the first leaf of an emerging seedling of grass or other monocotyledon.) Most binding was to the internal system of membranes called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), as measured by late

the correspondence between the distribution of raand that of one of the ER-localized enzymes. A second binding site was recognized and was suggested to be the tonoplast; i.e., the membrane enclosing the cell's central vacuole. Because the cell-wall extension that results from auxin treatment was believed to be a consequence of H" (hydrogen ion) secretion, it was suggested that auxins bound to the ER might stimulate H* dioactivity

transport into the lumen (internal space) of the ER, from which the ions could be carried to the outside of the cell via the Golgi apparatus, a structure that is known to be involved with the transport of materials across the cell membrane. It was also shown, however, that activity of the enzyme ATP-ase, thought to be necessary for H* transport, is not associated with the receptor sites. Support for the contention that these most recently reported binding sites are physiologically significant was that the degree of binding of many different auxins and auxin analogs paralleled their effect on coleoptile elongation. The three major pathways utilized by plants to fix, or incorporate, carbon from atmospheric CO2 had been recognized for several years, but the functional significance of the C3, Cj, and cam (crassulacean acid metabolism) pathways was not always clear. In an investigation of the geographical distribution of species of dicotyledons in North America using the C^ pathway in relation to many different climatic parameters, strong correlations were found between the frequency of C4 species and two parameters that strongly affect plant water balance. These correlations indicated

dicotyledonous plants the C4 pathway as a genetic adaptation to arid conditions, better enabling the plants to cope with water stress. An interesting observation was that the C, species within C^ families also correlated with limited water supply, suggesting that for these families, C^ photosynthesis is one of several adaptive properties that favour their presence in arid regions. This distribution of C^ dicotyledons that

in

might have evolved

was different from that of the C4 grasses, however, which had earlier been shown to correlate with temperature; thus the C, pathway was thought to confer different ecological attributes to different plant taxa. Other work showed that succulents grown under water stress could switch from the C3 pathway to the cam pathway, indicating that changes in COj-fixation routes could result as physiological adaptation to dry conditions as well as genetic adaptations. The marine alga Prochloron, a procaryote (a nonnucleated primitive cell) and a possible "missing link" in the evolution of eucaryotic plants (higher plants, formed of cells with well-defined nuclei), was further investigated in 1978. In an analysis of the pigments and pigment/protein complexes of this recently discovered organism it was confirmed that the phycobilin pigments characteristic of the procaryotic blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) is absent, whereas chlorophyll b, hitherto found only in photosynthetic eucaryotes, is present. The P700/chlorophyll-a/protein complex common to both the procaryotic and eucaryotic photosynthesizers was identified, the proportion of total chlorophyll contributing to this complex being intermediate between the corresponding values for procaryotes and eucaryotes. Also intermediate in value between the two types are the chlorophyll/P-700 ratio and the chlorophyll-a/b ratio. Furthermore, a chlorophyll-a/b-protein complex, identical to that characteristic of eucaryotic plants, was shown to be present, and it was thought likely that this second complex had replaced the phy-

cobilin proteins as light-harvesting

the photosynthetic unit.

The

components

pigment complement, along with the previously noted stacking of the photosynthetic membranes, lent strong support to the suggestion that Prochloron might represent a transition form between the cyanobacteria and the chlorophyta, and might even be a descendant of the postulated progenitor of the chloroplast. (peter L. WEBSTER) overall

[311.B.4.a; 312.A.3; 321.B.9.d.i; 322.A.7]

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY Brain Opiates. Specific naturally occurring compounds have long been known to affect mood and perception dramatically. Opium from the poppy and cocaine from coca leaves, for example, give surcease from pain and anxiety, whereas psilocin from a kind of mushroom and mescaline from a desert succulent (peyote) induce hallucinations. Psychoactive compounds have been synthesized and studied, and the successes of psychiatry now

depend

largely

upon

497

of

characteristics of the

their judicious use.

Consider morphine, the major active component of raw opium. Why should it decrease perception of pain, and why upon prolonged ingestion should it induce both tolerance and addiction? The hope of synthesizing nonaddictive analgesics has led to a thorough examination of the chemistry and pharmacology of the opiates. Experiments have

made it clear that

physiological action is a sensitive function of chemical structure. Minor changes in the structure of the morphine molecule give compounds, called agonists, that mimic the effects of natural morphine and others, called antagonists, that inhibit its effects if administered at the same time. The only way to explain this acute dependence upon chemical structure is to suppose the existence of specific binding sites on neurons (nerve cells) in the brain. Occupancy of such sites by morphine agonists modifies responsiveness of the neuron, whereas occupancy by antagonists Scientists at the University of Michi-

gan announced success in isolating and photographing single human genes. Runs of DNA that normally pair up to form a double-stranded thread were deliberately mismatched at the site of the gene under study, creating a telltale loop easily located under the electron microscope.

Life

Sciences

498 Life

Sciences

blocks access by morphine or its agonists without modifying responsiveness of the neuron. Receptor sites, specific for binding opiates, have been shown to exist through techniques making

use of radioactively labeled agonists. Such methods also have shown that opiate receptors are plentiful in vertebrate nervous tissue, but not in such other tissues as liver or muscle. Invertebrates, which are not affected by opiates, do not possess these receptors. The abilities of a variety of compounds to bind to opiate receptors match their abilities to act as opiate agonists or antagonists. The anatomic distribution of opiate receptors within the brain is in accord with the known susceptibilities of the different regions of the brain to the physiological actions of opiates. But why should the vertebrate brain possess receptors for responding to alkaloids derived from plants? To scientists it seemed most likely that these receptors were actually evolved to respond to compounds normally present in the brain. A

search was launched for such substances within the brain and recently two were found and isolated. Called enkephalins, they are pentapeptides (a chain of five amino acids) that when injected into the brains of rats exhibit all of the effects of opiates. The amino-acid sequence of one of these enkephalins was found to be identical to that of a portion of /3-lipotropin, a chemical known to function as a pituitary hormone. Another segment of ^-lipotropin is homologous to the melanocyte-stimulating It may be that )3-lipotropin serves, by fragmentation, as a precursor of other active hormones and neuroregulators. The enkephalins are the first known representatives of a new class of neurotransmitters. Acerecognized as a tylcholine has long been neurotransmitter, which is released by nerve terminals and which excites adjacent nerves. In the past few years scientists have begun to appreciate the fact that many different kinds of neurotransmitters are required to mediate and regulate the flow of signals in the central nervous system. It is, of course, essential to perceive pain, but it is also essential to be able to modify the perception of pain so that under stressful circumstances the pain does not incapacitate the organism and prevent necessary action. The enkephalins are neurotransmitters that allow modification and control of the perception of pain. Other compounds in the brain that modify and control other aspects of brain function were expected to be found. As of late 1978 the known properties of the opiate receptors and of the enkephalins had not yet provided the key to overcoming tolerance and addiction. Induction of tolerance and addiction by prolonged administration of opiates does not change the quantity or the binding properties of the opiate receptors. Indeed, the enkephalins themselves were shown to be addictive if administered repeatedly in large doses. The explanation for tolerance and addiction seemed to involve the enzyme adenyl cyclase, which is bound to the inner surface of cell membranes and which mediates the

hormone.

actions of many hormones and transmitters. In general terms, a substance that binds to a specific receptor on the cell membrane can activate or in-

hibit adenyl cyclase. This raises or lowers the in-

which, in turn, modifies the action of still other enzymes. The net effect of this cascade of events is a great amplification of the initial signal, such that the binding of a few molecules of the hormone to the tracellular level of cyclic adenylic acid,

cell

surface can modify the metabolism of the en-

tire cell.

In the case of brain cells, binding of opiates results in an inhibition of adenyl cyclase. This inhibition is reversible if the opiate is promptly removed. If the opiate is present for many hours, however, there is a compensatory increase in the amount of adenyl cyclase. This counters the in-

bound

opiate and thus gives the inhibitory opiate is then removed, as during narcotic withdrawal, the increased amount of adenyl cyclase gives rise to an abnormally high level of cyclic adenylic acid in the neuron. This generates the distressful symptoms and the craving that is seen as addiction. Genes in Pieces. Present understanding of the molecular details of gene structure and function has been derived almost exclusively from study of the intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli and of the viruses that infect this organism. This bacterium is a typical representative of the simple cell class referred to as procaryotes, which lack a true nucleus. Recent technological advances, notably the development of recombinant dx.\ methodology, has made possible the chemical analysis of gene structure in the far more complex, nucleated eucaryotic cell, which is present in all higher organisms including man. During the past two years analysis of a number of eucaryotic genes led to the surprising conclusion that a fundamental difference may exist between gene structure in procaryotic and eucar-

hibitory effect of the rise to tolerance.

When

yotic cell types.

Consider first the nature of gene structure and function in procaryotic cells. In structural terms a gene is a segment of double-stranded dn.jl. Each strand of the dna molecule is comprised of a linear array of four basic constituents called deoxyribonucleotides, which can be abbreviated dA, dG, dC, and dT. The two strands of dn.a. are said to be complementary because dA on one strand is always opposite dT on the other, whereas dG is always opposite dC. Thus, the sequence of deoxyribonucleotides on one strand is sufficient to specify the nucleotide sequence of the other. It is within the nucleotide sequence of dn.\ that genetic information is spelled out using this four-component alphabet. {See Figure 1.) The information encoded within the dn.-\ sequence is used to direct the synthesis of proteins, which form cellular structural elements or which act as enzymes. However, dna does not participate directly in the process of protein synthesis. Rather, genetic information is made available for use within the cell via the synthesis of a working RN.A. copy of one strand of the gene. This so-called messenger rna (mRNAJ copy is single stranded and complementary and is composed of the four ribonucleotides rA, rG, rC, and rU. Three of the ribonucleotides of rna are chemically very similar to the deoxyribonucleotides of dna, and just as dA, dG, or dC occurs in the appropriate strand of

499 Figure

-gene-

1

III III III III III

"I I" I"

mill

III III III

»

"'

I

III III III III III 111 ill III I '

"I

ii'V

RNA

T nucleotide

III/ (

III

ill III III III I" III

III II I ill I II

m

I"

Life ill III III III III III III III III ill III III

nMA DNA

synthesis

stop

triplet

t III III III III

III III III

12

III

3 4 5

III III III

rnRNA copy

n

protein synthesis

I

aa,

((III

— aa2— 333 — aa,— aa5-5^aa„

protein

-gene-

Figure 2

RNA

1

noncoding region-

synthesis

C

B

•

primary

RNA copy

excision of intervening sequences

A

I

B

I

C

I

tunctiQn3l cytoplasmic

mRNA

protein synthesis protein

the gene, rA, rG, or rC appears in the itirna copy. Whereas dT occurs in the gene, rT does not appear in the copy; instead, the ribonucleotide rU replaces it. Messenger rna serves to carry the genetic information from the gene to the protein-synthesis machinery where the nucleotide sequence information is used to direct the assembly of a protein from a set of basic components. These are the 20 amino acids that in a protein are linked together in various combinations in a linear fashion. The translation of mRNA information to yield the amino-acid sequence of a protein works in the following way. Each amino acid is specified by a triplet of nucleotides (called a codon) in the message. Because there are 64 triplets of unique sequence and only 20 different amino acids, almost all the amino acids are specified by more than one codon. Moreover, five of the codons can function in a specialized way. The beginning of the protein chain is signaled by one of two codons (AUG or GUG). Subsequent triplets in the mRNA are then read in a nonoverlapping fashion to direct the addition of amino acids to the growing protein chain. However, three of the 64 codons (UAG, UGA, UAA) do not specify an amino acid. When such a triplet is encountered in the mRNA, synthesis of the protein chain terminates, fience, these three "stop" codons act as would a period in a prose sentence. This picture of gene expression has been derived primarily from studies of the procaryote £. coli. Fundamental to this view has been the idea of colinearity of nucleotide sequence of the gene with the amino-acid sequence of the protein for which it codes; e.g., if the third triplet in the gene specifies the third amino acid in the protein, then triplet 57 will code for

amino

however, that

acid 57.

It

has become clear,

this concept of strict colinearity is

not generally true in eucaryotic cells. Such evidence was first reported in 1977 by Louise Chow, Richard Gelinas, Thomas Broker, and Richard Roberts of Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, New York, and by Phillip Sharp and his colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. They found that runs of a human viral nucleotide sequence which were contiguous on certain cytoplasmic mRNA's were not contiguous on the dna from which the rna was presumably copied. This implied the existence of intervening sequences at the

DNA

level.

Subsequently the interruption of coding regions in a gene at the dna level by noncoding sequences

was rigorously

established for several eucaryotic genes. These include antibody and /3-globin genes of mouse (/3-globin forms part of hemoglobin) and the gene for chicken ovalbumin (a major protein of egg white). Genes containing intervening sequences have been referred to as "genes in pieces"

because

they

clearly

violate

the

principle

of

colinearity.

The discovery of intervening sequences raised several questions concerning gene expression in eucaryotic cells. First, how is a functional message derived from a dna segment containing noncoding regions? This point was answered by Philip Leder's laboratory at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Md. Analysis of the mRNA for /3-globin showed it to be derived from a larger rna molecule. Moreover, they demonstrated that the RNA precursor contained not only the coding regions but the intervening sequences as well. Thus, functional mRNA is generated from a direct transcript of the DNA by excision of the intervening sequences and splicing together of the appropriate coding regions. This process has been termed rna splicing. (See Figure 2.)

Sciences

500 Life

Sciences

"Glove-box" sealed environment comprises part of the precautions taken at the National Institutes of Health's so-called P-4 laboratory at Fort Detrick, Maryland, the facility certified for

netic research. In

first

U.S.

maximum-risk geMarch government

some of the faciliexperiments, which would

scientists detailed ty's initial

assess the risks connected with recombinant research.

DNA

Second, are intervening sequences present in all eucaryotic genes? As of late 1978 the answer to this question appeared to be no. M. L. Birnstiel and his colleagues at the University of Ziirich in Switzerland directly sequenced dna segments corresponding to the genes for the sea urchin histone proteins. Comparison of these sequences with the known amino-acid sequences of this set of proteins demonstrated that the histone genes of this organism do not contain intervening sequences. The last and most important question concerns the function of intervening sequences within the eucaryotic organism. Although there was considerable speculation, by late 1978 this point had not yet been resolved. It had been well established that gene expression is governed by a variety of regulatory mechanisms, and it is possible that the phenomenon of RNA splicing represents one such mechanism. An alternative, but perhaps related, possibility suggested by Sharp is that splicing provides a mechanism for generating a set of related proteins.

Consider, for example, the primary rna copy in Figure 2. Suppose the intervening sequence between segments B and C contains a "stop" codon. Further, suppose this particular intervening sequence is not always spliced out. Reading of such an RNA by the protein-synthesis apparatus will occur normally through regions A and B, but the "stop" Condon will prevent reading of segment C. Hence, the protein product will be of the form a-b. However, when the intervening sequence between B and C is spliced out, the terminator will be removed, and the protein product will be of the form a-b-c. Sharp's laboratory in fact obtained evidence suggesting that splicing may be responsible for such a phenomenon in certain virally infected

Liquors, Alcoholic:

see Industrial Review

coding sequences at the dna level. Such an opportunity could be advantageous for a variety of reasons. For example, it was known that evolutionary development of a species occurs by selection of hardier individuals that arise as a consequence of mutational events at the dna level. The simplest and by far most frequent type of mutational event results from a single deoxyribonucleotide change in DNA. When such an event occurs in a coding region, it usually causes a change of only a single amino acid in the corresponding protein. Nevertheless, even such a minor change usually destroys the biological activity of the protein. This renders most mutational events unfavourable, and individuals carrying such lesions will be eliminated from the population. Because significant steps in evolutionary development are presumed to reflect the appearance of new proteins which differ in their amino-acid sequence in major ways from existing molecules, evolution by such a mechanism would be an extremely slow and unfavouraprocess. The existence of intervening ble sequences, however, suggests that rapid evolution of eucaryotic organisms could occur by a mechanism involving single nucleotide changes. A simmutational event occurring within an ple intervening noncoding sequence would leave adjacent coding sequences unaltered. Nevertheless, such an event could reduce the efficiency of splicing at the RNA level such that the intervening sequence is excised only part of the time. When the new mRNA containing the intervening sequence is translated by the protein-synthesis machinery, a radically new protein would result. Because normal splicing of the altered rna would occur some of the time,

however, the original

also be available to the cell, as

As Gilbert

cells.

product.

A more general statement of the possible significance of intervening sequences was made by Walter Gilbert of Harvard University, who pointed out that existence of intervening segments affords an organism the opportunity to combine various

would permit evolution

stated,

mRNA would

would

its

protein

such a mechanism

to "seek

new

solutions

without destroying the old." (iRWIN FRIDOVICH; PAUL LAWRENCE MODRICH) [321. B.5; 321.C.4.C.V; 323.C.4; 339.C]

See also

Earth Sciences; Environment.

501

Literature

Literature The 1978 Nobel laureate for literature, Isaac Bashevis Singer, was surely one of the more popular choices of the decade. An emigrant from Warsaw to New York who kept faith with the Polish-Yiddish culture into which he was born, he seemed, in his life and career, peculiarly representative of all the generations and millions who made the traumatic journey to the New World. In the comparatively short time during which his work had been widely translated, readers everywhere had found themselves involved in a curiously intimate way with Singer's art and the world of his novels and stories, a world in which, as the Nobel cita-

"The Middle Ages rise up and permeeveryday life is interwoven with wonders, reality is spun from dreams." (See Nobel tion said,

.

.

.

ate the present,

Prizes; see also Yiddish, below.) The appointment in 1976 as president of International PEN of the Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa {see Biographies) had proved to be more controversial, not least because of his sympathy for the idea of allowing the creation of a pen centre in the Soviet Union. There was something symbolic, too, about a Peruvian at the head of the international writers' organization, at a time when readers and writers elsewhere were turning to the fresh energy and fantasy of novelists like Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Carlos Fuentes, and other LatinAmerican writers rather as, 30 vears earlier, warIsaac Bashevis Singer, ture.

'Inner of the

1978 Nobel Prize

for Litera-

John

Irving,

author of

The World According to Carp.

weary Europeans had looked hopefully to the literature of the United States. Some of this energy was born of freedom from the weight of a cultural heritage so rich it could make a writer feel there was nothing left to say. Moreover, these Latin Americans had the stimulus of a peculiarly expectant and responsive native audience for whom, as the Argentine novelist Julio Cortazar told the pen congress, "literature is a part of life and not of leisure, part of politics and history." In Britain an intense debate went on for half the year in the correspondence columns of the Times Literary Supplement about whether or how writers should organize at a time when publishing was becoming increasingly concentrated and industrialized. There were some genteel cries of horror at the thought that the Royal Society of Literature might turn into anything like a trade union. Nevertheless, and perhaps noting the effectiveness of the West German and Swedish writers' unions, 44% of voting members opted for unionization when the society took their opinion; 20% were opposed and 35% were "don't knows." The growing influence of the women's movement showed in the spread of feminist publishing houses in Europe and the U.S. and in a number of novels preoccupied with the changes in consciousness that the movement had brought about — some of them, following the example of Giinter Grass in Der Butt {The Flounder), by men. John Irving's The World According to Carp was an interesting case in point.

The workings and aspirations of another international cultural organization which had an embattled year were described with rare candour but no malice by Richard Hoggart,

a

former assistant

502 Literature

book An Idea and more universally admired, and envied, servant of literature and scholarship,

whole new fiction list (from the rejuvenated firm Duckworth) had been constructed successfully

director general of unesco, in his

a

Its Servants.

of

Finally, a

the Oxford University Press, celebrated its 500th anniversary with 19,000 titles in stock and printing at the rate of ten million books a year.

ENGLISH United Kingdom. Cultural pessimists, observing the continuing decline in literacy and the growing vacuity and moral equivocation in the print media, might have considered as the emblematic event of the year the death of F. R. Leavis {see Obituaries), the most influential English critic and teacher of literature since Matthew Arnold

and an even more pugnacious upholder

of stan-

dards of high seriousness. Pessimists who think, on the other hand, that the English disease is overvaluing the past at the expense of the future might have been dismayed at the attention given to a positive plethora of institutional anniversaries.

These ranged, in publishing, from the quincentenary of the mighty Oxford University Press to the 50th anniversary of the once radical, now respectable, firm founded by Victor Gollancz, and, among magazines, from the 150th anniversary of the weekly The Spectator to the 25th of the monthly Encounter — "One of the few good investments the CIA ever made," a Spectator columnist observed, benignly recalling the not quite killing scandal of Encounter's subsidy by the Central Intelligence Agency, revealed in the mid-1960s. Signs of present liveliness were to be found in another subsidized (by the Arts Council of Great Britain) magazine. The New Review, which in its summer issue polled 50 novelists and a handful of critics for their views on the recent performance and likely future of the novel. Not surprisingly, no simple consensus emerged. Fiction. The fiction that actually appeared during the year confirmed several drifts or trends noted in The New Review's symposium and in a book

out of short, elegantly pessimistic novels, barely more than novellas, of a kind most vividly written, in the late 1960s and 1970s, by that list's bright star. Beryl Bainbridge. Something of Williams's generalization did hold with many current novels of this kind, but hardly with those of Bainbridge, whose gifts included the ability to establish character, presence, and place with an almost Dickensian prodigality and energy of registration but with an extraordinary economy of length. Certainly the rich glooms of her Liverpool streets and interiors and her constellation of warty exiles provided a dense enough context for the central figures of her latest novel. Young Adolf, though even her formidable imaginative juices were not quite able to digest so historically and lately monstrous a figure as Hitler — not even this young Adolf, dodging the draft on a sorrowful visit to his half-brother, the Liverpool waiter, in 1912. What was hard to find was the novel that dealt directly with

contemporary reality with any disone excepts a few such things as Graham Greene's rather tired though no doubt well-grounded account of the world of spies and treason in The Human Factor. This indicated a difficulty that more and more authors attempted to tinction,

resolve

if

by joining the

flight into historical fiction.

At the middle-brow level this produced, for example, a whole swashbuckling shelf of novels about the Victorian Navy. The detective novel, too, seemed to be going backward (Julian Symons's The Blackheath Poisonings, with its elaborate late- Victorian furnishings, was one of the happiest flights). And there were more substantial narratives, like M. M. Kaye's huge romantic novel of the British Raj in India, The Far Pavilions, or J. G. Farrell's more sophisticated handling of an imperial theme. The Singapore Grip, about the last years before the Japanese invasion. History of a kind was a favourite field for the

by J. A. Sutherland, Fiction and the Fiction Industry, which usefully analyzed in more detail the history and economy of the form. There was plenty of evi-

fantasists, too. In Gloriana, or, the Unfulfill'd Queen,

dence

setting a great

of the diversification of the "serious" novel — partly as a response to commercial pressures, partly for more complicated cultural reasons — into

what

are called the genres: science fiction, the morand the ill-defined but increas-

al-political thriller,

ingly fashionable category of fantasy. Another observation amply borne out by current production was made by Raymond Williams, who noted that the "commercial" length of the English novel had shrunk to barely one-sixth of the average 19th-century novel. He suggested that this was largely responsible for what he called "a fiction of diminishing personal relationships," presenting characteristically only "the relationships of two or three who live, in effect, as if they were human beings alone in the world, though there are noises off from the rest of humanity." In fact this austere critical realist demonstrated part of his case himself, producing an awkwardly short moral thriller. The Vohmteers, dealing with the breaking point between radical politics and terrorism. But one could note, too, that practically

Michael Moorcock created a rich parallel universe to Elizabethan myths of Albion and its mistress,

Gormenghastly palace

in a

midden

gaudy as Shakespeare's London. Robert Nye's Merlin — Malory annotated and updated by a very clever (and very dirty-minded) schoolboy — was a less successful sequel to his uproarious Falstaff. A richly romantic Elizabethan Devon was the matter of Moon's Ottery by that good Devonian poet Patricia Beer. Brigid Brophy's Palace Without of a city as

was historical in the sense that it was truly "a baroque novel," raising up with hallucinatory

Chairs

parks and vistas and all the frozen extravagance of some Bohemian capital surviving archaically in the divided middle of Mitteleuropa. Margaret Forster's affectionate imaginary autobiography of William Makepeace Thackeray was more modest historical invention, and Len Deighton's SS-GB a more recent one, ingeniously using period detail from the 1940s to suggest how it might have happened in Britain if the Nazis had come after all, but selling out an imaginative start to the exigencies of a thriller plot. Anthony Burgess, sui generis as usual, explained how it would clarity the

,

TOM 8LAU-CAMERA PRESS

happen ing

in the fictional second half of 1985,

how Orwell

got the future

wrong

503

show-

in Nineteen

Literature

Eighty-four.

Novelists who did treat with contemporary realmostly used the comic or ironic standoff, like Allan Massie in his elaborate picaresque comedy Change and Decay in All Around I See, or the Amises father and son. Kingsley Amis dealt roughly with current follies of grandeur about sex in Jake's Thing, putting his jaded eponymous don through all the bent hoops of sexology and presenting his jaundiced view of affairs in general and affairs with women in particular. One of the pair of contrasted apartment-mates in Martin Amis's novel ("a man ity

of parts,

predominantly private," wrote Norman

Shrapnel) seemed to end up with Jake's thing too, but the reality was otherwise, and Success turned out to be a clever fugue of modern fantasies. There was not too much realism or reality, of course, in Iris Murdoch's seaside entertainment. The Sea. The Sea, which won her the 1978 Booker It retired a famous stage director with an infamous diary style to a coastal retreat and entertained him and us with a sea monster and some remarkable coincidences, not excluding the usual lobster quadrille of relationships. Francis King managed conventional naturalism with admired

Prize.

and freshness in The Action, a psychological novel focused on the relationship of a neurotic brother and sister, and so did Jane Gardam with her child's-eye view of the emotional shock waves loosed in a family by a new birth in Cod on the skill

Rocks.

was notably

a good year for short stories, with from William Trevor (Lovers of Their Time) and his Irish compatriots John McGahern (Getting Through) and Benedict Kiely (A Cow in the House); also from Frank Tuohy (Live Bait), Leslie It

collections

Norris (Sliding), and Jennifer Dawson (Hospital Wedding). Letters, Lives, History. It continued to be a good time for the writing of history and a thin time for literary criticism, rare exceptions to the latter case being John Bayley's subtle An Essay on Hardy and Peter Conrad's Shandyism, which with considerable learning and brilliance proposed Sterne's novel as a central masterpiece linking Shakespeare's minglings of tragedy and comedy with the consciousness of Romanticism. E. H. Carr completed his massive History of Soviet Russia, and one of the masterful new generation of historians, Simon Schama, added to his reputation with Two Rothschilds and the Land of Israel, which clarified much about the origins of the Jewish settlements in Palestine. In Protest and Punishmoit George Rude told the

grim

stories of the social

and

political dissi-

dents who were transported to Australia between 1788 and 1868, while Gwyn Williams produced a vivid and reliable account of The Merthyr Rising of 1831, a bloodier event than Peterloo, which did much to establish the traditionally hard militancy

Welsh working class. The cottage industry devoted to Virginia Woolf and her circle continued to pay dividends. Another volume each of the Letters and Diaries appeared, interspersed with commentaries and new bioof the

graphical studies, as well as a second volume, Po-

Murdoch's The Sea, The Sea won for this Booker

Iris

novelist the 1978 Prize.

lycrates' Ring, of P.

N. Furbank's

The second volume

life

of E.

M. For-

Anthony

Powell's memoirs. Messengers of Day, recalled the fashionable literary world of the 1920s. Edward Blishen's Sorry, Dad marvelously recovered the pain and particularity of growing up clever and absurd amid the dour gentility of a lower middle-class familv in a South London suburb between World ster.

of

Wars' I and II. Poetry. The most substantial British

political

poet of the age, Hugh MacDiarmid (see Obituaries), died at the age of 86, passionately committed to the end to his own version of Communism and Scottish nationalism and just missing publication of the definitive two- volume edition of his Collected Poems. Jeffrey Wainwright was the find of the year, a young poet with a fine moral intelligence and sense of history. Martin Dodsworth thought his Heart's Desire "the best first collection to have been published in the last ten years," with one long poem on Thomas Miintzer, the Protestant reformer and leader of the people's army in the Peasants' Revolt of 1525, already "a masterpiece." The Great Cloak by the Ulster poet John Montague was a set of strong, unsentimental poems on the breakdown of a marriage and the discovery of new love, and there were fine late love poems in Geoffrey Grigson's The Fiesta and Other Poems. Two sonnet sequences, "Lachrimae" and "An Apology for the Revival of Christian Architecture in England," in Geoffrey Hill's Tenebrae confirmed him as one of the best half-dozen living English poets. (w. L. webb) United States. Fiction. The Jewish novel showed no signs of decline in 1978 but rather of development. This was highlighted by the awarding to Isaac Bashevis Singer of the Nobel Prize for Literature. No claim can be made that Jewish novelists in the U.S. historically make up a cohesive school or have achieved an artistic or moral syn-

504 Literature

John Updike, fictional

The Coup, wrote a account of an African in

dictator.

human dichotomies. Yet they have shared a willingness to accept the world on its own terms — disorderly, incoherent, absurd. Singer's work (translated from the Yiddish), which began in the 1930s and continues to the present, has revealed through its ambivalence a perfect balance of faith and skepticism, uniting (through ironic detachment) the sexual and the sacred, the naturalistic and the fantastic, the psychological insight and the parapsychological mystification. As in the novels of Nathaniel thesis of the

Hawthorne the

irrational expresses itself typically

in the context of

sympathy come

"normalcy," where soup and

acquire magical properties. "No doubt," asserts Gimpel (one of Singer's Holy Fools), "the world is entirely an imaginary world." In 1978 Singer produced Shosha, a novel about Jewish Warsaw in the 1930s, where the threat of Nazi occupation throws a fence around everyone, locking them into patterns of ultimately fatal foolishness: "so long as Hitler didn't attack, so long as no revolution or pogrom erupted, each day was a to

from God." (See Yiddish Literature, below; Nobel Prizes.) U.S. novelists continued to search for shock-resistant lives and a model of how life can cohere, homing in on twin modes of the art; the integrated, wide-angled, obsessively managed novel and the anarchic novel where mindlessness is virtue. Picture Palace by Paul Theroux unpeeled the autobiography of pioneer photographer Maude Pratt — famous for her uncompromising portraits of blacks, louts, and celebrities. The unearthing of gift

old prints triggers

my

memories ("the picture palace of

mind"): public triumphs and private torments

— "It's

the wounded who take to art." Son of the Morning provided the focus for another of Joyce Carol Oates's glutinous and hysterical explorations of the fevered mind: "seeing visions and getting whispered personal endorsements from Jesus." Religious irreverence was also the nexus of Max Apple's Zip, whose goal is to turn Jesus, renamed "Crab Goldstein," into a middleweight

boxing champion.

John Updike's long interest in African literature eventually was bound to produce something like The Coup, a tale about Ellellou, dictator of Kush, a sub-Saharan dust bowl ruled by dint of government-by-mythology. Wandering not quite so far was The World According to Carp by John Irving, a superb and affecting novel about Vienna, wrestling, boys' schools, and feminism. Richard Stern's brilliant Natural Shocks exhibited voyeur Fred Wursup, one of the most appealing fictional men of letters since Saul Bellow's Charlie Citrine. Important family chronicles were David Plante's Julia

Markus's Uncle was Fellowship Awar^

Literary

r

of the

Houghton

Mifflin

a

The Family, a dark, commandingly superb depiclife of a French-Canadian family in Providence, R.I., during the 1950s, and Time in Its Flight by Susan Fromberg Schaeffer, in which the grit of 19th-century doctors' families shakes from the book like iridescent powder. In addition, one remarkable first novel appeared, Julia Markus's Uncle (winner of the Houghton Mifflin Literary Fellowship Award), offering totems of young womanhood and completely fouled men. Feminist fiction continued to explore the taboos tion of the

and

society.

aside from male

Coming from

heroines had insults or ness.

women

strictures that cast

all

little

diverse backgrounds, the been wounded by either gross

cruelties connected to their female-

They came from

stultifying domestic pris-

deals. In America in Vietnam

Guenter Lewy was

the "big war" strategy, arguing that the U.S. never really understood the nature of insurgent warfare. Another Vietnam study was the blockbuster Decent Interval by Frank Snepp (see

highly

critical of

Biographies), a former cia analyst; this was an

immense sketch

of duplicity and delusion offering not only the local colour of terror, assassination,

and shoddy leadership but policy and policymakers.

also

broad views of

Deception was the subject of three other major works. Watergate and the Constitution by legal scholar Philip Kurland argued that a sitting president is legal action — a reminder that, although Watergate is past, the problems it epitomized remain; Allen Weinstein's Perjury: The

immune from

ons, disapproved of, humiliated, but ready for battle. The credo of Zane, the heroine of Alix Kates Shulman's Burning Questions, is lesbianism, dialectics, and political activism. For the group of women in E. M. Broner's A Weave of Women, the answer, after windy consciousness-raising sessions, is a religious "government-in-exile." Careerism is the mode in Violet Clay by Gail Godwin: thirty ish Violet broods over Life and Art as she sketches gothic

Hiss-Chambers Case obliterated Alger Hiss's "defense by reputation" and minimized Whittaker Chambers's unstable personality, which had been used as prima facie "evidence" of a frame-up; and an extraordinary work by Harvard University professor of ethics Sissela Bok, called Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life, examined situations in which last-resort or habitual lying is often jus-

two hundred women running

Three important but partisan primers on the "dismal science" of economics also appeared: Two Cheers for Capitalism, by neoconservative theoreti-

book

jackets — "over

away from houses." Finally, popular successes were scored by Fools Die by Mario Puzo, a big, messy novel about money, sex, and writing by the author of The Godfather, who probably writes about money more than anyone since Balzac; Howard Fast's Second

Generation (a sequel to The Immigrants), about a San

Francisco family (an ethnic minestrone) in which

good men rise from humble toil, bad men are bankers, and women are lovely and loaded; Chesapeake by James Michener, another massive but arfragmented community history — bitrarily Maryland island, 1583-1978; War and Remembrance

by Herman Wouk, undigested

military history

from Pearl Harbor to Hiroshima with Wouk; and Whistle by James Jones, conceived as the capstone of his World War II trilogy about manhood tested in combat begun with From Here to Eternity (1951) — published posthumously. In the genre of short story The Stories of John Cheever appeared, a mammoth grouping of polished pleasures with those legendary seductive opening lines — e.^., "The first time I robbed Tiffany's

it

was

raining." Barry

Hannah

offered a re-

with Faulknerian gothic motifs. Also notable: Susan Sontag's /, Etcetera, eight wiry stories, too smart for their own good; and Penelope Gilliatt's Splendid Lives, am-

markable

collection.

Airships,

bivalent observations of wise.

life,

splendid and other-

History, Biography, and Belles Lettres. The prizewinning academic histories in 1978 were David McCuUough's objective The Path Between the Seas: The Creation of the Panama Canal, 1870-1914 and Page Smith's The Constitution, gathering the intellectual strands lying behind the Founding Fathers' belief that a voluntary compact could restrain man's sinful tendency to abuse power. More contemporary. The Illusion of Peace by Tad Szulc described how Nixonian foreign policy operated on two levels: public pronouncements and private

tified.

cian Irving Kristol, constituting a paean to God and to Horatio Alger; William Simon's A Time for Truth, a powerful case against government encroachment upon business; and Pulitzer Prizewinning Alfred Chandler's The Visible Hand, a monumental research effort summarizing much of what is known about the rise of the managerial class in the U.S. Underscoring the trenchancy of ideology in U.S. several important documents were ofMost controversial was On Human Nature, by Harvard University zoologist Edward O. Wilsociety, fered.

son, guaranteed to inflame feminists, science-forthe-people groups, and others opposed to genetic determinism. He argued that human societies are naturally (i.e., biologically) characterized by male dominance, male aggression, incest taboo, pair bonding, division of labour, etc., and that sociobi-

ology, the discipline he called into being to describe these phenomena, will absorb the social sciences and put them on a firm scientific basis. Vivian Gornick's Essays in Feminism illustrated

an insistent abhorrence of

all

dogmas

(like sociobi-

ology) that circumscribe the revolutionary expansion of feminist consciousness; and The Remembered Gate: Origins of American Feminism by historian Barbara Berg challenged the usual view that feminism in the U.S. was an outgrowth of the abolition crusade. Crime was "as American as Jesse James" in Charles Silberman's important new book Criminal Violence, Criminal justice, in which he made an uncomfortable assertion: until nonwhites and the poor enter society's mainstream, there is not much courts and cops can do to reduce crime. Noteworthy efforts in the "New Journalism" were: Steven Brill's The Teamsters, lamenting what might have been: why couldn't the Teamsters have become a force for good?; Tom Wicker's On Press, a study of U.S. journalism since the era of cold

505 Literature

a massive attack on the RFK conun(shy/aggressive, compassionate/ruthless) — the major biography of the year. There is sufficient material in the book to occupy a battery of historians, some of it revisionist (such as a broad defense of John Kennedy's handling of the Cuban missile crisis), some of it startling (Robert Kennedy broke with Lyndon Johnson after the latter spoke of John

mounted

drum

Kennedy's death as "divine retribution" for the assassination of Rafael Trujillo and Ngo Dinh Diem). And in American Caesar: Douglas Mac Arthur 1880-1964. William Manchester proffered a life so grandiose as to satisfy even the giant ego of its subject: "the best of men and the worst of men." In the domain of literary biography W. J. Bate won both the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award for his study Samuel Johnson, disclosing how his subject rose above poverty and erratic personality to achieve literary triumphs. A. Scott Berg's

Max

Perkins detailed the glory days of Scribner's powerful editor who loomed, prospectively, nearest to God, functioning as censor, confessor, and Walter lackson Bate won the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award for his biography Samuel lohnson.

qualms of those the media have "gone too far" as kingmakers and whistle-blowers; and Susan Sontag's Illness As Metaphor, a liberating book that could become the cancer patients' Common Sense, studying how cancer has been viewed increasingly as a "form of self-expression" or as "self-caused." Briefly noted entries in popular nonfiction in-

war

certainties, addressing the

who

feel

Bowl of Cherries - What Am I Doing (see Biographies), a return to the heartland of Fotomats and carryout chicken from the woman who claims that gym clothes are the No. 1 cause of pollution; and Metropolitan Life by urbane literary grump Fran Lebowitz, drolly expanding on city living in general and on phenomena specific to New York such as SoHo conceptual artists and the First Women's Bank. In the elegiac spirit of A Thousand Days, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.'s Robert Kennedy and His Times clude

// life Is a

in the Pits?

by Erma Bombeck

moneybags to his "literary sons." The most belligerent memoir of the year was RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon: "I intended to play the role of the President right down to the hilt and right to the end." Thus Nixon, whose words read less like memos here than they did in the newspaper excerpts and more like the last will and testament of a fighter who never willingly rebelled, offers a journal of how the mightiest fell. It may not be worth 1,000 pages, but it does carry

weight. In Search of History

by Theodore H. White

iden-

White's own dissatisfactions with the fate of his country; Charles A. Lindbergh's Autobiography of Values was a final communion with the cosmos; tified

and

Isaac Bashevis Singer's

A

Young

Man

in

Search

Singer as a young man in 1930s Warsaw, tormented by philosophical doubts, involved with a much older mistress, and deciding

of Love revealed

that

human

culture seems "one

huge and complex

fig leaf."

Poet

Howard Nemerov

won

a Pulitzer Prize

National

and Book Award for

his Collected Poems, work spanning three

decades.

a

Poetry. Cited for a body of work spanning three decades, capsulated in his Collected Poems, Howard Nemerov was awarded both a Pulitzer Prize and a National Book Award. Other impressive volumes: The Dream of a Common Language, Adrienne Rich's eighth volume, aspired to "a whole new poetry beginning here"; Stories That Could Be True by William Stafford, a work of quiet simplicity and Aristotelian golden meanness; James Wright's To a Blossoming Pear Tree, with sentimental Wright in Italy, mostly; Robert Creeley's Hello, another collection of masterfully reductionist and stenographic poems in the manner of Louis Zukofsky; and two angry, audacious dithyrambs by feminist black poets Nikki Giovanni {Cotton Candy on a Rainy

Day) and Maya Angelou {And Still I Rise). (FREDERICK S. PLOTKIN) Canada. Works by major Canadian writers and poets highlighted the 1978 publishing scene. Marian Engel (see Biographies), honoured with a Governor General's

Award

for

her

last

novel, the

unusual Bear, demonstrated the continuing devel-

opment

of her versatile talents in her

The Glassy

Sea. In

it

she

tells

new

the story of a

novel.

woman

in retreat from the world (she belongs to an ob-

scure order of Anglican nuns) who, on being forced to enter the world, finally learns to deal with it to the extent of being able to open a (temporary) retreat for other women. Thirty years after the publication of her underground classic By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept, Elizabeth Smart returned with her second novel. The Assumption of the Rogues and Rascals, a chronicle of survival. R.

was

Murray

Schafer, best

known

as a musician,

an accomplished writer, as his novel Ariadne proved in language that was both labyrinth and clue. In No Man's Meat and the Enchanted Pimp, Morley Callaghan explored what happens to ordinary people in exceptional circumstances. Who Do You Think You Are?, the stories of two women whose lives echo and reflect each other, marked a darker tone and a deeper level in Alice Munro's development as a writer. Other important novels were the first English translation of Marie-Claire Blais's The Fugitive; the third in Jean-Guy Carrier's series of novels depicting life in rural Quebec, A Cage of Bones; Andre Bruneau's Moving Out, which microcosms the French-English conflict within one family; and two books reflecting the experiences of immigrants to Canada, The Italians by Frank Paci and Immigrant by Stephen Gill. also

Among were the

the

many

collections of short stories

Selected Stories of Ernest

introducing a

Thompson

Seton,

new

generation to Seton's meticulously detailed world of the wild animals of the western plains and mountains; Margaret Gibson's Considering Her Condition, in which the world of madness, of shifting edges and obscure extremes, is once more opened; Red Dust by W. D. Valgardson, in which another, but quite different, world of extremes is depicted in stories of survival in the stark environment of the Canadian north; and Dark Must Yield by Dave Godfrey, which includes three experimental works among more conventionally styled stories of rural Ontario. In poetry, Leonard Cohen's long-awaited Death of a Lady's

Man proved to be a many-layered collec-

tion of poems, annotations, second thoughts, critical

comments

and

spiraling into the poet's self-cen-

preoccupation with the possibility that he has failed as a poet — some critics agreed at least as far as this book was concerned. Miriam Waddington's Mister Never explored the concept of absence, especially that vacancy found in unrequited love, hauntingly evoking the search for the "other," the perfect mate. The Works: Collected Poems brought together four poems for voices written by Phyllis Gotlieb for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (cBc), along with other, earlier work, including haiku. Irving Layton's annual contribution. The Tightrope Dancer, uses language as a wire upon which to balance the forces, for both good and tre, his

,

that govern his life. In Earle Birney's new book. Fall by Fury, the title poem describes, with both horror and humour, the accident that left the poet lame and that vividly brings home to him the passage of time and the increasing physical frailty evil,

of old age.

In Being Alive, a collection of Al Purdy's work last 20 years, the past, its presence in the

over the

present, serves as a focus for Purdy's reflections on the wish to be remembered after one has died.

Craig Powell, in Rehearsal for Dancers, discovers and rediscovers himself and others in images of snow, light, water, and trees. Other books of poetry were Peter Trower's Bush Poems, revealing the life of the poet-logger; Deathwatch on Skidegate Narrows, an epic poem by Sean Virgo; The Inks and the Pencils and the Looking Back, Sean O'Huigin's first major Canadian publication; and The Pat Lowther Poem, in which Pat MacKay confronts the violent death of her friend and teacher. (ELIZABETH WOODS)

FRENCH France. It was a year for anniversaries. Voltaire and Rousseau, rival geniuses of an age struggling with dilemmas of public conscience and individual identity, died in 1778 and were commemorated, the first by two volumes in a definitive edition of his correspondence, the second by a number of reappraisals, notably G. A. Goldschmidt's Jeanwas also the tenth anniversary of the May 1968 student uprising; the corpse

Jacques Rousseau. There

what had euphemistically been called "the exhumed and found to have enough

of

events" was

it for a dozen new books. revolution, politically abortive, had been and its spirit lived on, most visibly in the antiestablishment press, the political and erotic comic strip, and science fiction, where there were signs of a distinctive French contribution in a market dominated by translations from the American. Bernard Blanc's investigation Pourquoi j'ai tue Jules Verne explicitly rejected the form created by France's pioneer in the field (born 150

meat on

The

culturally liberating

years earlier and enjoying a critical revival). In place of Verne's projection of technological achievement, writers were suspicious of material progress and more concerned with exploring "inner space" or elaborating political myths with im-

{Mai and Anne Cauquelin (Potamor) warned us to

plications for the present. Jacques Sternberg

86)

avoid the future at

all costs.

Heeding them, many novelists looked to the past, and childhood remained a favourite theme. Robert Sabatier dished up a sickly confection called Les Enfants de I'ete, about two orphans in Provence. It proved very popular. In Lorelei, Maurice Genevoix looked nostalgically at a young man's discovery of love in Germany in the innocent days before World War I, and Jean Cayrol, relaxing from the textual density of his recent work, wrote an account of children growing up in 1918, Les Enfants pillards. There was a similar mixture of autobiography and fiction in the year's Prix Renaudot winner, L'Herbe a bruler by the Belgian novelist Conrad Detrez, and in Bruno Gay-Lussac's La Chambre d'instance, but the most grimly compulsive work of this type was Alain Bosquet's merciless dissection of his relationship with his mother, Une Mere russe. The ambiguity of our feelings for others was the of Jean-Didier Wolfromm's highly praised novel about a crippled adolescent, Diane Lanster, awarded the Prix Interallie. Daniel Boulanger's icy depiction of the moral cripples in the stories of

theme

507 Literature

508

U Enfant

Literature

was justly acclaimed, as were indigo, Patrick GrainDiane rousse, and Raymond Jean's La Riville's La viere nue. Herve Bazin had a mixed reception for Un Feu devore un autre feu. The search for identity, which inspired so many novelists to retrace the experience of childhood, continued to haunt Patrick Modiano, the year's de Boheme

Helene Parmelin's Le Monde

Goncourt winner with Rue des boutiques obscures. Returning to Modiano's favourite background, the

German

occupation, it described a private detective's efforts to rediscover his past while suffering from amnesia. At least one critic felt that its author's treatment of his theme was becoming repetitive and dangerously facile. Identity was also a

keynote in Andre Wurmser's Une Fille trouvee, an honest and moving novel about a writer who is forced to question his beliefs and attitudes when he rediscovers his illegitimate daughter. The outstanding novel among many examining the condition of women in French society was

Un Arbre voyageur, in which the working-class heroine provides shelter for an assortment of children, friends, and lovers during her gradual achievement of political awareness. Marie Cardinal's Une Vie pour deux dealt with a comparable situation, and family life was also the subject of Yves Navarre's ]e vis oit je m' attache. Significantly, women writers headed one paperback Claire Etcherelli's

best-seller

list,

movement was

and the

women's number of es-

vitality of the

also recorded in a

says, notably Evelyne Sullerot's Le Fait feminin. On the whole, Modiano's work, predictable and

confirming a reputation without breaking new ground, was typical of the year's fiction. But there were exceptions. Georges Perec's La Vie mode d'emploi (Prix Medicis), a massive novel, or series of novels, constructed on the analogy of a house in which each room leads to another, was a work of

great poetic power, gaining strength from the constraints

imposed on

it

by

Wurmser, Una trouvee.

Fille

creator.

There was

Raymond Queneau (d. 1976), who was commemorated by an exhibition at the Bibliotheque to

Nationale.

Roubaud published a study of the alexandrin, the standard French verse line, in which he looked at the state of prosody in an age when some had questioned whether poetry is still compatible with verse. One sign of a possible return to more structured poetry was the renewed interest in the 16thcentury Rhetoriqueurs; Paul Zumthor studied them in Le Masque et la lumiere and edited a paperback anthology. In fact, poetry appeared healthy. Guillevic published Dw Domaine, characteristically spare and aphoristic; Joyce Mansour, Faire Signe au machiniste and Jean-Pierre Faye, Verres. Yves Martin explored the quality of everyday experience in :

]e fais bouillir

mon

vin,

and Jean-Claude Renard won

the Guillaume Apollinaire prize for La Lumiere du silence. (robin buss) Canada. Three novels stood out in 1978. In Le Bonhomme Sept-heures, chilling Louis Caron's fear assumes a new face and becomes almost "tender" when expressed in words that are, in effect, exorcistic incantations. Andre Mathieu's Demain tu verras attracted considerable attention, but it was questionable whether the book's commercial success was due to its real quality or to the fact that it is set in Quebec and traces the amorous adventures of the protagonist. Finally, La Grosse Femme d'a Cote est enceinte was the first novel by the play-

wright Michel Tremblay, French novelist Andre

its

delight too for the readers of Jacques Roubaud's Graal Fiction and Graal Theatre (the latter written with Florence Delay), two splendid rejuvenations of Arthurian myth in which the discontinuity between past and present, fiction and reality was explored with wonder, irony, humour, and a passion for language. Perec and Roubaud owed much

author of Les

Belles

The novel, taking place in a single day in 1942, was quite different from his other works. The poems of Marcel Belanger were published in two new collections. Fragments paniques and Infranoir. Written some time earlier, they were beautifully structured and full of depth. In La Belle soeurs.

Conduite,

Normand de

Bellefeuille

pursues his

search for the poetic voice that commingles the themes of day-to-day life, politics, and poetry. In theatre, the year was highlighted by three plays, each treating different aspects of the same subject, the Quebecois woman. In her first play, Les Fees ont soif, Denise Boucher looks at the virgin-

and promiscuous sides of women; Michel Garneau treats female passion, sadness, and tenderness in his excellent Quatre a quatre; and the indefatigable Jean-Claude Germain focuses on the reality of conjugal life in M' Amour et Conjuga — al

amoureuse quebecoise. of Rene Dionne's La Patrie litteraire appeared; the work provides a broad, 19th-century Frenchvaluable reference on Canadian literature. Robert Marteau's L'Oeil ouvert, gathering together articles on art criticism

Scenes de

la vie

The second volume

that appeared in Le Jour in 1974, offers a clear, insightful,

and readable commentary. (ROBERT saint-amour)

GERMAN political alarms of the previous months continued to be reflected in literature in 1978. It was a time for stocktaking, looking for reasons, abandoning causes, retreating into a private world, warning against "extremism." Alexander Kluge's Unheimlichkeit der Zeit, a col-

The

lection of clinically told short pieces, fiction-cum-

documentary, saw the terrorism of the present as a symptom of the triumph of technology foreshad-

owed both

in the Nazis' treatment of their victims

and in the Allied bombing of civilian targets. Bernward Vesper's posthumous autobiography. Die Reise, gave direct support to the "Hitler's children" was the son of an authoritarian Nazi writer who drifted onto the left-wing student scene in the 1960s and ended as an acccomplice of the terrorists Baader and Meinhof The hero of Peter Hartling's novel Hubert might have been a rather older Vesper. His domineering Nazi father gives him no opportunity to develop a personality, he finds identity only in film heroes, and although relatively successful in the postwar years, he lacks any qualities likely to inspire the respect of the younger generation. This political helplessness of the fathers when confronted with their children was the theme of Paul Kersten's moving Der alltdgliche Tod meines Vaters. The outstanding book of the year, acclaimed almost unanimously, was Martin Walser's novella Ein fliehendes Pferd. In it the failed liberal intellectual Helmut, the introvert on the run from his revo-

thesis; here

.

lutionary past and

from his

confronted with the extrovert,

own

identity,

vital,

is

successful

Not even the central scene, in which Helmut disposes of his rival overboard dur-

journalist Klaus.

ing a brilliantly evoked storm on Lake Constance, resolves the many rich ambivalences of this highly relevant work. Helmut wished to withdraw into himself, but outside reality constantly intruded. The trend to a new German "inwardness" continued in other critical successes. In Botho Strauss's Die Widmung, Richard, abandoned by his wife, spends his time locked up in his apartment writing a self-analysis which he hopes will justify himself to her but which she is unlikely to read. Gerhard Roth's Winterreise describes a journey in search of the self. Ingomar von Kieseritzky's Triigheit was both an example and a parody of this genre. Its hero represents an extreme case of narcissism;

it

is

also a

witty satire on the doctors and psychiatrists

we

like to believe in.

More conventional novels of social criticism included Die Vernichtung der Sorgen, the second volume of Wilhelm Genazino's trilogy on office workers' lives, and Wolfgang Hadecke's Die Leute von Gomorrha, a satirical portrait of life after pollution has destroyed our environment. The outstanding novel in this field was Die Riickfahrt by the Swiss writer E. Y. Meyer. As technology increasingly threatened the Swiss heritage, Meyer was looking for a "conservative" philosophy that would be neither antisocialist nor antirationalist. Historical novels were popular. Walter Kempowski's Aus grosser Zeit traced the fortunes of the Kempowski family between 1900 and 1918. Arno Surminski's Kudenow reminded its readers somewhat nostalgically how awful life had been in the immediate postwar years. These novels were superficially similar in their mixture of documentasnapshot narrative, but unlike tion and Kempowski, Surminski could not resist sentimencommentary. Siegfried Lenz's richly textured Heimatmuseum was probably more important than either. Devoted to the landscape, history, and customs of the Masuren region, it both celebrated "Homeland" and warned against the ideological dangers of such a celebration. A quite different work, but one equally concerned with the times, was the remarkable Eumeswil by the octogenarian Ernst Jiinger, an essay istic tal

Cerman

novelist Martin Walser's novella Ein fliehendes Pferd

was highly acclaimed.

Utopian novel defending "conservative anarchism," the ironic aloofness of one who has seen

many movements,

ideals,

and tyrannies fail. Bom's Ge-

In the area of lyric poetry, Nicolas

1967-1978 was very favourably received. Other important collections included Johannes Schenk's Zittern, two cycles of which described the U.S. and Portugal, respectively, with the eye of the critical left; Erich Fried's Die bunten Cetiime; and Alfred Andersch's Emport euch der Himmel ist

dichte

Other significant literary enterprises of the year included publication of Thomas Mann's Tagebiicher 1933-1934, Kurt Tucholsky's Die Q-Tagebiicher 1934-1935, a four-volume edition of the works of Ingeborg Bachmann, and the Gesamtwerk of Konrad Beyer. As East Germany approached its 30th birthday, the "midlife crisis" seemed to be felt particularly acutely. Werner Heiduczek's Tod am Meer was heavily censured for its negative presentation of an orthodox party writer's reckoning with his past. blau.

509 Literature

510 Literature

Jurek Becker's Schlaflose Tage and Klaus Poche's Atemnot were not even allowed by the authorities to appear in the East. The former described a middle-aged schoolmaster, the latter a middle-aged writer, both of whom realize they are unable to continue without questioning some of the assumptions of their society.

In lyric poetry, too, the most important works could appear only in the West: Bernd Jentzsch's Quartiermachen, Giinter Kenert's Unterwegs nach Utopia, and Rainer Kirsch's Auszog das Fiirchten zu lernen. (j. h. reid)

SCANDINAVIAN

i

and commentary.

An

intense, penetrat-

and personal glimpse of Greenland today was given in Balladen om identiteten, poems by aaju ing,

(Kristian Olsen).

Another Danish preoccupation, problems personal and social, showed in Jytte Borberg's Det bedste og det vxrst (1977), a continuation of the previous year's Eline Bessers Iceretid. Different, but with social overtones, were the poems Skuffebani

by

made

(1977),

man tic

Two

other women their mark. Elsa Gress's novel Salamander

newcomer.

a

though

a clef,

Iris

it

Garnov.

had certain

was ultimately an

temperament.

A

very

affinities

with

a ro-

analysis of the artisdifferent

study

of

personality and personal relationships was Herdis M^Uehave's Le (1977), one of the most discussed Danish novels of recent years, rivaled only, perhaps, by Dea Trier M(Zlrch's Vinterborn (1977) with its revealing and moving stories of patients in a

maternity ward.

However

different, the unemployment problem turned people's thoughts back to the Ole Sarvig's highly acclaimed novel De rejsende had those years as its setting, while the opof the 1970s

1930s.

was taken to publish a hitherto novel by Harald Herdal, Arbejdsl(^s. Henrik Stangerup published a collection of his own articles in Mens tid var, tracing his development as a thinker and writer. The Danish Academy's 1978 literature prize went to Tage Skou-Hansen, largely for his novel Den harde frugt (1977). His new play, NedtcelUngen, appeared in 1978. The 1977 prizewinner, Peter Seeberg, produced a controversial and experimental new novel, Ved havet, basically a collage of the actions and thoughts of some 40 characters during one day by the sea, and a play. Pa selve dagen, set in an old people's home. Another established writer, Willy-August Linnemann, continued writing of the Flensburg region in Bplgerne pd fjorden (1977). (w. GLYN JONES) Norwegian. A wide range of psychological, social, and philosophical problems were convincingly discussed in Carl Fredrik Engelstad's novel Den st0rste blant dem alle. Also outstanding was a documentary by Per Hansson, Den siste veien, dealing portunity

unknown

,

ling Pedersen's novel Ventetid.

Conventional male and female roles, respectivewere portrayed in Knut Faldbakken's Adam's dagbok and Ebba Haslund's amusing Behag og bedrag. In Musica, Finn Alnaes combined a number of topical problems with an intense erotic element. Kare Holt contributed a historical novel, S0nn av jord og himmel, centred on the 18th-century apostle of Greenland, Hans Egede. Erling T. Gjeldsvik's D^dt Iflp, set in Spain, was an outstanding debut. Science fiction was well represented by 0yvind Myhre's Snb^torene, with the fight for power moved from earth into space. The problem of identity was central in Sigbj(^rn Holmebakk's novel S0nnen, with illegitimacy and incest as the leading themes. Refreshing humour was a welcome aspect of Terje Stigen's small-town novel Huset og byen. Knut Hauge's/wi'ff was set in rural Norway during and ly,

Danish. Denmark was currently preoccupied with Greenland, whose independence seemed imminent. Niels Fenger's Hvid anorake was a good, straightforward novel from 1977, but a major artistic work was, without doubt, Thorkild Hansen's Sidste sommer Angmagssalik, much in the tradition of his earlier books, a mixture of narration, description,

with the last months in the life of a 22-year-old student dying of cancer. Novelists continued to show a keen interest in the life of the proletariat. Edvard Hoem's Gi meg de brennende hjerter was set in a small industrial town in western Norway at the end of World War 1 while the backdrop of Dag Solstad's Svik. F0rkrigsdr was Oslo in the period leading up to World War 11. Both were announced as first volumes of trilogies. The repercussions of North Sea oil on people and society in contemporary Norway were convincingly dealt with in Er-

after

World War

II.

Sverre Undaes's / dette hvite lyset og to andre spill contained his outstanding play Vinger. Major collections of poetry were Hans B0rli's Dag og dr0m: Dikt utvalg, Paal Brekke's Dikt 1949-1972, and i

Moren Vesaas's Dikt samling. The 150th anniversary of Henrik Ibsen's birth was marked by the publication of three valuable works of scholarship: Arild Haaland's Ibsens verdHalldis

Halldis

Moren

samltng.

i

Vesaas's collected

poems appeared

in

Dikt

i

Hemmer's Ibsen og BjOrnson, and Edvard Beyer's Henrik Ibsen. {See Theatre: Special Report.)

en, Bjijirn

(tORBJ(JRN ST0VERUD) Swedish. In Fdrfattarnas litteraturhistoria, a three-volume Swedish literary history, some 90 writers cooperated to present their own favourite authors or genres with a variety of methods and approaches, producing a work at once instructive and entertaining. Many novelists continued to chart the emergence of modern Swedish society, often from the perspective of class struggle. With Tid och otid, Lars Ardelius reached the second volume of a trilogy presenting the past 150 years of Swedish history, while Per Agne Erkelius' Drommen om Johannes, based on his father's diaries — also the middle volume of a trilogy — and Per Olov Enqvist's Musikanternas uttdg both dealt with life in northern Sweden in the early 20th century.

The humorous mode

of social

criticism

was

adopted by author and physician P. C. Jersild in Babels hus, a splendid satire on a huge modern hos-

which functions

as a microcosm of the welirony designed to expose the shams of a liberal, bourgeois society formed the pital

fare state.

Humorous

Gunder Andersson's Alia chanserl, a picaresque account of a provincial lad's attempts to

The country's self-examining mood was well

basis of

make good

Stockholm of trendies and exploiters. In SUddret skall bort K. Sivert Lindberg gave a bitter inside view of the burgeoning social services sector and its clients. Quite a different, individualistic view of Stockholm in the recent past was provided by young Klas Ostergren, whose novel Fantomerna was an attempt to exorcise in the

the phantoms of his early days. Social comment of another kind was found in Margareta Sarri's feminist burlesque, Mor ror, aran ar trasig, which followed the domestic struggles of a young wife and mother. In a politically oriented year, two established writers produced novels of a more imaginativemetaphysical kind: Lars Gyllensten's Bakliingesminnen starts with a man attending his own funeral and ends with him anticipating his own birth, and Sven Delblanc's Gunnar Emmanuel, clearly inspired by Swedenborg's Dreambook, sees the hero sent off on journeys to past historical epochs in search of his vanished girl friend Vera, who allegorically represents Truth. On the poetic front, Tomas Transtromer published Sanningsbarriaren, Tobias Berggren Bergsmusik, and newcomer Eva Runefelt Aldriga och barnsliga trakter.

(karin petherick)

ITALIAN While the number

of Italian readers did not seem to increase, the market was inundated with new books — a sign of both the country's cultural ebullience and the publishing industry's inflationary and ultimately self-defeating policies. There were too many books on the same topical themes, such

Moro case, the events of 1968, parapsychology, and the Holy Shroud of Turin. Most remarkable and effective was Giovanni Leone. La carriera di un presidente, by Camilla Cederna, which included some serious charges against Leone and significantly contributed to his resignation as president of the republic. as the

caught by Luca Goldoni who, with Non ho parole, achieved an even more devastating satire on contemporary Italian language and life than in his previous success, Cioe. In a category of its own was Questioni di frontiera, a coherent collection of essays in which Franco Fortini rigorously analyzed some of the major political and literary issues of the day. While the trend in fiction was away from formal experimentation, the emphasis was still on the country's social and political problems. Candido ovvero Un sogno fatto in Sicilia by Leonardo Sciascia was a novel of Voltairean inspiration in which reason and spontaneity are shown to be impotent against the ambiguities of what the narrator describes as the two churches of our time, the Catholic and the Communist. In a mood of deep political skepticism, Sciascia seems to propose literature as the only consolation left to the individual. Alberto Moravia published La vita interiore, which, despite being cast in the form of an interview between narrator and protagonist, was distinctly reminisfirst novel of almost 50 years earlier, Gli indifferenti. The theme was the familiar death wish of the bourgeoisie, represented by a young woman who gradually destroys all the traditional values of her social class and finally her own physical self. The same conclusion was reached, although by different means, in Ammazzare il tempo by the young novelist Lidia Ravera (co-author of the 1977 best-seller Porci con le ali). Here the narrator, having been on the barricades in 1968, discovers the gap that already divides and alienates her from the new generation of 1977 and decides to opt out. Among more generally apocalyptic novels, the most significant was // pianeta irritabile by Paolo cent of his

Volponi,

set in a characteristically surreal

world

where a nuclear explosion has suddenly eliminated all people. An immense catastrophe has also occurred in Antonio Porta's // re del magazzino, where the protagonist a

is

farm together with 29

days.

Some

found under the debris

of

recording his last critics detected a turning point in the letters

P,

C. lersild's Babels hus

was

a satire

hospitals.

on modern

512 Literature

career of Carlo Cassola, who with L'uomo e il cane gave a chilling view of a pitiless society doomed to self-destruction. However, Cassola, who lately had taken a firm stand — particularly with his essay La lezione della storia — in favour of a demilitarized Utopia, seemed to revert to his usual

banalization of human events with Un uomo solo, yet another novel about frustrated marriage plans. A group of novels focused on family life. Fer-

dinando Camon's Un

altare per la madre was a touching elegy for the figure of the mother as symbol of a waning peasant culture. Famiglia by Natalia Ginzburg included two parallel stories,

centred around two characters who, unaware of their own impending death, progressively lose contact with the families (of animals and objects as well as people) that surround them. Fratelli by Carmelo Samona, one of the best and most intense books of the year, was about two brothers, sharing a huge old apartment in the middle of a city and unsuccessfully striving, between sanity and madness, to communicate with each other. However, the year's best-sellers were undoubtedly two very straightforward novels. La sposa americana by Mario Soldati and // cappotto di astrakan by Piero Chiara. The former is the story of a man who discovers how much he loved his wife only after she has died; the latter has a provincial hero who longs for change and finds it only to discover that he prefers his

own

fantasies. Finally,

tiggia's excellent

//

Giuseppe Pon-

giocatore invisible

was

a

new

thriller in which a university professor desperately tries to identify the anonymous author him, thus laying bare the misery of a certain type of academic cul-

kind of

of a harsh review directed against ture.

Some excellent new poetic works appeared, notably Al Fuoco della coniroversia by Mario Luzi, Dimenticatoio by Leonardo Sinisgalli, and Poesie per un passante by Daria Menicanti. Also very successful were the much awaited collected poems of Eugenio Montale, Fortini,

Una

Tutte

le

poesie,

and

of

Franco

volta per sempre, poesie 1938-1973.

(lino fertile)

SPANISH Spain. The year's Premio de la Critica for poetry was awarded to J. M. Caballero Bonald for Descredito del heroe and for fiction to Gonzalo Torrente Ballester for Fragmentos de apocalipsis. First winner of the new £/ Bardo poetry award was Alvaro Pombo, for Variaciones; the same writer also published Relato sobre la falta de sustancia, a

widely acclaimed by the

book

of stories

critics.

Among new young writers, Eduardo Haro Ibars attracted attention with his collection of "neosurrealist"

poems

entitled Perdidas blancas. Feliz

de

book of verse, Pasar y siete and a novel. Las lecciones suspendidas, while Luis Antonio de Villena brought out his highly polished Viaje a Bizancio. The last poems of Asiia published both a canciones,

Pere Gimferrer, a collection of his verse translated from Catalan to Castilian by the author, was an important work. Garcia Hortelano edited an anthology of verse by the so-called Generation of the '50s: Caballero Bonald, Angel Gonzalez, Jaime Gil de Biedma, Carlos Barral, and others. Barral issued

M. Caballero Bonald won book Descredito del heroe. I.

the second

volume

Spain's Premio

of his

de

la

Critica for his

memoirs, Los

aiios sin

excusa.

The

politico-polemical

novel Autobiografia de

by the ex-Communist leader in exile Jorge Semprun, raised a storm of extraliterary argument. The same author's novel La segunda muerte de Ramon Mercader previously unpublished in Spain, was much less noticed though superior in quality. Juan Benet, of the same generation but Federico Sanchez,

,

belonging to a different literary world, published an experimental novel. En el estado. In the same genre, only better, was Entre espacios intermedios: Wham! by M. Antolin Rato, a mixture of medievalism and science fiction. Other outstanding young authors, occupying a terrain between philosophy and the strictly literary, included Antonio Escohotado, with his Historias de familia; Fernando Savater, the prolific author of Panfieto contra el todo, a libertarian polemic; and the Catalan Jordi ,

Llovet, winner of the sixth Anagrama essays, with his For una estetic egoista.

award

for

(ANTHONY KERRIGAN) Latin America. Cuba's Casa de las Americas prizes went to Claribel Alegria of El Salvador for Sobrevivo (poetry), to Costa Rican Joaquin Gutierrez for Te acordards, hermano (novel), to Mexican David Ojeda for Las condiciones de la guerra (stories), to Angus Richmond, Guyana, in the

category of Anglo-Antillan literature for A Kind of Living, and to Uruguayan Eduardo Galeano's Dias y noches de amor y de guerra (memoirs). Goodyear's biannual J. M. Arguedas Prize honoured Gregorio Martinez for Canto de sirena, a series of monologues in folksy language by an ancient black in southern Peru. Another Peruvian, J. M. Gutierrez Souza, received Spain's Blasco Ibariez Prize for his first novel, Asi me dijo Arturo, about the supernatural and the commonplace. Later, Gutierrez published in Lima Sole mia Nada Mas: life as seen by the dead. Cuba honoured J. Lezama Lima with a posthu-

mous cario,

edition of his unfinished novel Oppiano Lihis famous Paradiso, and of

which continued

his last poems, Fragmentos a su imdn. In the Casa's series "Valoracion Multiple,"

noteworthy:

El

and La

colectiva

teatro

two volumes were

latinoamericano de

creacion

novela romantica latinoamericana,

both important essay collections. As a complement to the latter, S. Menton published in Colombia, home of the romantic Hispanoamerican novel. La novela colomhiana: planetas y satelites, a valuable study of Colombian classics and iconoclasts. Elsewhere, fiction was abundant and good, in some cases appearing to move away from the author's usual concerns. In Mexico, Carlos Fuentes presented an "adventure novel," La cabeza de la hidra. Vicente Lenero offered Los periodistas and Elena Poniatowska Querido Diego, te abraza Quela, both novels. Other interesting fiction was by younger writers: Jorge Aguilera Mora's U.S. Postage Air Mail Special Delivery and Esther Seligson's Transito del cuerpo. Essayist Carlos Monsivais captivated readers with Amor perdido. In Colombia a new publishing house. La oveja negra, announced the first volume of Garcia Marquez's collected works, an initial attempt to publish this important writer in his homeland. Gustavo Alvarez Gardeazabal, second among Colombian novelists in a recent survey, forsook Tulua, the hometown terrain of his previous fiction, and stunned his public with El titiritero, a merciless novel about Colombia's university system. Oscar CoUazos brought out a formalistically indulgent novel, Cronica de tiempo muerto, mostly about himself. Neighbouring Venezuela provided an impressive

number

of narrations: Saul Ibafiez's stories,

A

traves de una mirada, and Jose Balza's keen look at Caracas via the mass media, D., were considered the most important. Excellent poetry was presented by Rafael Cadenas in Memorial. Peru main-

tained

narrative fertility and quality. Mario

its

Biographies) returned to his ori1952) and wrote a play. La Playwright Alonso Alegria finished his new verse drama. El tierno bianco. Julio Ramon Ribeyro, called by Vargas Llosa Latin America's "most unjustly neglected narrator," published the third volume of his short stories. La palabra del mudo III, containing an absolute masterpiece, "Silvio en el rosedal." His pensks were continued with Prosas apatridas aumentadas. Vargas Llosa

(see

gins (La huida sefiorita

de

del Inca,

Tacna.

Alfredo Bryce Echenique's saga of the suffering rich continued with a hilarious celebration of egotism, Tantas veces Pedro, a chronicle of a Latin-

American cultural emigre in Paris. A young diplomat, Harry Belevan, attracted attention with La piedra en fiction

el

and

agua, life,

an experimental novel about

and

Antologia del cuento fantastico

peruano, containing a dense study of the genre.

Another experimenter, Jose Antonio Bravo, published two novels, Un hotel para el otoho, about a writer's return to his youth, and A la hora del tiempo, concerning the coexistence of the New and the Old World in a Madrid pension. Chilean Jorge Edwards published, in Spain, his novel Los convidados de piedra, which illuminates the historical conflicts that produced Salvador Allende and the military regime that followed his

presidency. Poet Oscar Hahn's significant Arte de morir continuing his "popular poetry," vigorously denounced current Chilean reality. Matilde de ,

Neruda, with Venezuelan Miguel Otero Silva, put out her late husband Pablo Neruda's unpublished diary entries, memoirs, and other writings under the title of Para nacer he nacido. In Argentina and the world, curiosity about J. L. Borges was stimulated by Peruvian Carlos Meneses' publication, in Barcelona, of Poesia juvenil de J. L. Borges, which collected and studied largely unknown poems written from 1919 to 1922. Critical literature was dominated by the need for stocktaking: Jose Juan Arrom's Esquema generacional de las letras hispanoamericanas Argentine Saiil Yurkievich's La confabulacion de la palabra, and Ver I Ser visto by Alicia Borinsky. Limited to individual writers were Peruvian Jose Miguel Oviedo's up-todate and thorough Mario Vargas Llosa: La invencion de una realidad and Wolfgang A. Luchting's Mario Vargas Llosa: Desarticulador de realidades. In Spain an important effort was begun to gather the works of Uruguayan Juan Carlos Onetti and of Peru's great poet Cesar Vallejo. ,

(WOLFGANG

A.

LUCHTING)

PORTUGUESE Portugal. Political censorship under the pre-1974 regime had prevented publication of many works, some of which now saw the light of day. Among those to appear in 1978 was Alexandre Pinheiro Torres's A Nau de Quixibd. Written in 1957 and set in the early 1940s, it centres on a conflict between father and son during the latter's visit to Sao Tome, then a lonely outpost of the Portuguese empire. A debate on the idea of democracy, defended by the ailing father and opposed by the son, who holds the authoritarian convictions instilled in him by forced political indoctrination, turns gradually into an unsuspected ritual of initiation into manhood for the young visitor. A clear break with tradition was made by Carlos de Oliveira, one of the most distinguished novelists of the 1940s and the leading figure of the neorealist

movement. His

Finisterra

was an admirable

novella that appeared to be a remake of the psychological moods and tones that pervaded his highly successful Casa na Duna. Another new venture in fiction was A Personagem by Maria Ondina Braga. Acutely aware of the status of women in Portuguese society, she drew skillfully the portrait of a narrator who tries to create a fictional character in the pages of her diary. From this dual conflict with herself and her own creation, the new personality of the narrator emerges, breaking out of the old cocoon of domestic docility. In this scene of lively experimentation, O Escriba Acocorado by Rui Knopfli stood out as probably the most remarkable poem published during the year. By reverting to the regular form and metre of the long poem, currently out of fashion, and by adopting a terse poetic diction deeply rooted in Western tradition, Knopfli produced an epic of the individual tragedy of modern man. Portuguese and world literature suffered a serious loss with the death of Jorge de Sena (see Obituaries). (l. s. rebelo)

513 Literature

514 Literature

Brazil. Nelida Pifion's latest novel was an unusual departure from the highly personal nature of her previous fiction. A for^a do destino is a parody of the Verdi opera in vi^hich Nelida is both a char-

acter

and the commentator on the events.

An

ex-

pose of the violence and drug culture of Rio life was presented by Jose Carlos de Oliveira in Terror e extrase, with a plot vaguely resembling the story of Patty Hearst. Other important works of fiction were published by Ignacio de Loyola Brandao, Jorge Andrade, a distinguished playwright turned novelist, and the comic short-fiction writer Chico Anisio. Three highly respected novelists died during the year: Clarice Lispector, Osman Lins, and Juarez Barroso. Barroso's posthumous novel, Doutora Isa, evokes his native state of Ceara. Lins's

posthumous work deals with the relationship between literature and the media.

Anna Maria Martins published another

collec-

tion of stories, Sala de espera, in which she once again portrays characters lost at the crossroads of their lives. Bernardo Elis's Andre Louco brings together both previously published and new stories about his native Goias. Murilo Rubiao appears to search for the lyrical note of daily existence in the somewhat fantastic stories of A casa do girassol vermelho. Rubem Fonseca and Wander Piroli also

produced new volumes of short fiction. In the unique Brazilian cronica genre, Carlos Eduardo a delightful new collection. Facsimile editions of significant poetic reviews the Brazilian modernist movement (Klaxon,

Novaes published of

Revista de antropofagia, etc.)

were published. Wal-

dimir Diniz's volume of poetry Ate

o 8°

round,

which received a literary prize, is made up of 22 poems about daily life. The initial poem, which gives the volume its title, has eight verses, each presenting one of life's "battles." The poems of Cassiano Nunes's Madrugada merited attention not only for their unusual content but also for their graphic appearance. The novelist Accioly Lopes

wrote his first volume of verse. The Brazilian theatre remained at a virtual standstill, the most notable publication being an edition of the complete plays of Gianfrancesco Guarnieri. Brazilian novelist Nelida Pifion's novel A lorqs do deslino was a parody of Verdi's opera.

Three additional volumes of Wilson Martins's Historia da inteligencia brasileira appeared,

bringing

the study into the 20th century; the work remained on the best-seller list. There were several new studies of the works and influence of Guimaraes Rosa. Joan Dassin studied the political aspect of the modernist Mario de Andrade's poetry, and Joao Alexandre Barbosa "rediscovered" the works of the late Erico Verissimo.

Censorship

of

newspapers and magazines (with

the exception of the literary review Ineditos) lifted,

was

but radio, television, and books remained

subject to the censor's

whim. (iRWIN stern)

RUSSIAN Soviet Literature. The 150th anniversary of the birth of Leo Tolstoy was marked by the publication of all the great writer's major works. A 22-

volume

edition

of

his

collected

works

was

launched in an unprecedented print of one million. All central, republican, and regional publishers contributed to the publication of anniversary editions, including reminiscences by Tolstoy's relatives and intimate associates Sonya Tolstaya, Tatiana Tolstaya-Sukhotina, D. Makovitsky, and P. A. Sergeyenko, monographs by M. Khrapchenko, K. Lomunov, and others, and the symposia Tolstoy and the Artist, Tolstoy and Music, and Tolstoy and the Theatre. The Soviet Union's major literary award, the biennial Lenin Prize, went to Aleksandr Chakovsky for his novel Blockade and to the Belorussian poet Maksim Tank for his poem Narochanskye Pines. The annual State prizes went to Viktor Astafiev for his book Tsar-Ryba, to Andrey Voznesensky (who lectured in the U.S. during the year) for his volume of verse A Master of Stained Glass, to Daniil Granin for his story Klavdia Vilor, and to the Kazakh poet Djuban Muldagaliev for his

poems Eagle Steppe and Mudfloiv. The prize for children's literature was awarded to Anatoly Aleksin for four stories. The 200-volume edition of the Library of World Literature series, published over a period of ten years, was completed by the beginning of the year, and those engaged on the publication were presented with special prizes for their work. Among the winners of the 1978 Komsomol prizes were the young Siberian poet Viktor Potanin and the Tajik poet Gulrukhsor Safieva. The year saw the publication of an impressive autobiographical trilogy — Sms// Land, Rebirth, and Virgin Land — hy Soviet Pres. Leonid I. Brezhnev. The work provided a lively documentary record of the period from World War II to the great peacetime movement to develop the virgin lands. The war theme continued to hold an important place in Soviet publications, noteworthy among which were Vasily Bykov's To Co and Not Return, Konstantin Simonov's novels We Shall Not Meet and From Lopatin's Notes, Aleksandr Chakovsky's Victoand Anatoly Rybakov's The Heavy Sand. Major social and moral questions of Soviet life were also popular themes. Among best-sellers showing the tremendous transformations taking place in the villages were Fyodor Abramov's novels The Don and The Last Bow. Friendship among the ry,

little-comprehending culture. (In a speech at the Harvard commencement in June, Solzhenitsyn addressed that culture in no less uncompromising terms, berating it for its lack of courage, its corrupted humanism and "spiritual exhaustion." Of the work of other recent exiles published during the year, Vladimir Maksimov's novel Farewell from Nowhere was worth noting for the light it shed on criminal life in the Soviet Union and for the great sweep of country its young hero covers. In To Build a Castle, Vladimir Bukovsky describes his life as a dissident, in and out of prisons and psychiatric institutions. Some critics thought he showed an overly naive impatience with compatriots leading decent and difficult lives who had not em-

braced public dissidence. Poets suffer most sharply from the separation

from their linguistic environment in exile, and the pain and difficulty of the whole process could be seen in two collections (Konets prekrasnoy epokhi: 1964-71 and Chast' rechi: Stikhotvoreniya 1972-76) published by the most gifted of

Stikhotvoreniya

Russian poets, Mandelstam's heir Josif Brodsky. In one of the last poems in the second volume, the poet imagines the evening crowd pushing onto a Leningrad tram, all shouting "in the language of the man who has gone away." However, wrote Henry Gifford in a review in the Times Literary Supplement, "whatever Brodsky may fear, he is still marvellously at home in the lan(w. L. webb) guage." living

Aleksandr Chakovsky his novel Blockade.

won

the Soviet Union's Lenin Prize for

Soviet peoples was the theme of the novel Law of Eternity by the Georgian writer Nodar Dumbadze, and problems of the scientific and technical revolution were well developed in Valentin Kaverin's A Two-Hour Outing. The biggest editions of fiction were put out in the popular Roman-Gazeta pocket series (over 1.5 million copies). Apart from works by such well-

known

authors as Anatoly Ivanov, Valentin Rasputin, and the Estonian Paul Kuusberg, RomanGazeta published poetry and in 1978 devoted a

whole issue

to

young

authors.

(aleksey ovsyannikov)

EASTERN EUROPEAN LITERATURE Anniversaries are not always useful ways of focusing on history, but the tenth anniversary of the "Prague Spring" and of the Soviet invasion that crushed it helped to remind the world of the spirit that was kindled then and of its tenacious survival

Expatriate Russian Literature. Publication of the third volume of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's The Gulag Archipelago was doubly a landmark. With the conclusion of this arduous "experiment in literary investigation," the heroic age of "dissident" Russian literature in the post-Stalin age seemed also to be drawing to an end. No single-handed record of the misery of the Soviet prison camp system could be definitive as history, but no subsequent work, surely, would be able to embrace so closely so much of that bitter experience. In this sense. The Gulag Archipelago completed the perspective of one age on the history of Stalinism. Now it seemed as if the major part of the most important emigration of creative talent from Russia since the Revolution was completed as well. This last volume was perhaps the most contentious, defending very deliberately, for example, the cause of the Vlasovites and others who collaborated with the Germans during World War II. It also contained much of Solzhenitsyn's most personal writing; the author appeared as a participant in some of the struggles of the early 1950s as a foreman in the camp at Ekibastuz, taking part in

minds of many. The good news from Prague was of the extent and quality of the local version of samizdat called the "Padlock Editions." Ten years after the "restoration" in Czechoslovakia, there had been little of the kind of reconciliation or accommodation between the regime and the intellectuals that occurred quite quickly in Hungary after the uprising

a hunger strike in spite of a rapidly growing tumour. In its final pages a harsh and prescient pessimism seems to anticipate the time when he would be protesting not on his own soil but with the distant voice of exile, speaking from an alien and

Kohout, and two of their friends were evicted by police from the annual railwaymen's ball in Prague for fear they would contaminate the proletariat sounded like an episode from one of the more hilarious Czechoslovak films of the 1960s. A more

in the

Playwrights with international reputaVaclav Havel, Pavel Kohout, and Ivan Klima, and novelists and poets like Ludvik Vaculik and Jiri Grusa were still unpublishable. But by the summer of 1978 more than 100 books by these and other authors had been put into circulation "under padlock." The list was a roll call of most of of 1956.

tions, like

the country's really gifted writers, showing up sharply the thinness of the official lists. Two issues of a duplicated magazine called Spektrum that reached London during the year included philosophical and historical essays, stories, and poems of a similarly high quality. The bad news was of the penalties such work

could involve. Sometimes there was an element of dark comedy in such cases; accounts of how Havel,

515 Literature

516 Literature

was the imprisonment of Jiri Grusa, whose novel The Questionnaire was described by Eduard Goldstiicker as "undoubtedly one of the most important literary works to come out of occuserious matter

pied Czechoslovakia." Grusa appeared to be charged actually for the literary works he had

written (construed as "incitement"). It was feared that the authorities were hoping to attack the padlock press through a writer too young to have published much before 1968 and therefore little known in the West and less likely to become the subject of protest. (The Questionnaire was shortly to be published in France and West Germany, however.) Pavel Kohout published abroad, in London and elsewhere, a lively parody of neo-Stalinist angst, White Book, in which a schoolmaster succeeds, after years of concentration, in levitating to the ceiling and walking upside down, a defiance of the laws of nature with the gravest ideological consequences. Laughable Loves by Milan Kundera (currently being allowed by the Czechoslovak authorities to live and teach in France) was a set of stories mostly about seduction, elaborate stratagems unfolded with a neat but bleak irony which seemed to suggest that sexual love in the author's land had become a sort of faute de mieux activity. The most memorable Czech novel made available in translation, however, was Josef Skvorecky's T/ie Bass Saxophone, two novellas prefaced by a short history of jazz in Czechoslovakia in Nazi and Stalinist times. The title story was also about jazz and freedom and loyalty, a tender returning to the small Moravian town that was the setting for The Cowards, Skvorecky's earlier novel about growing up in the last days of the Reich protectorate. Hungary, which had a pleiade of poets larger and more gifted, probably, than those of any other small country since Ireland in the days of the Yeatsian renascence, completed for the time being a long and admirably intelligent program of transla-

Done in collaboration with a number of Britand American poets, it should release into the broader stream of European and world literature tion.

ish

such cherishable talents as those of the magical master Sandar Weores, Ferenc Juhasz (whose

"The Boy Changed

into a Stag"

was described by

W. H. Auden as "one of the greatest poems written

my time"),

LaszloNagy, and the austere Cathopoet Janos Pilinszky. Several of the poets who appeared in the large anthology Modern Hungarian in

lic

Poetry (edited by Miklos Vajda and published by the Columbia University Press) toured the U.S., where they gave warmly received readings. Samizdat publishing, now flourishing in Poland (notably in the magazine Zapis) started in Hungary as well. Profile, edited by Janos Kenedi, was ,

literary journal des refuses, while Marx in the Fourth Decade, edited by Andras Kovacs, contained the replies of 21 young writers and scholars to a questionnaire on Marxism. Writing in Index, Romanian novelist Paul Goma reported that Pres. Nicolae Ceausescu's "abolition" of censorship in Romania, announced with fanfares in the summer of 1977, had been replaced with a system of pre-censorship by committees of writers that seemed to be even more vexatious. (w. L. webb)

an 850-page

JEWISH Hebrew. S. Yizhar figured prominently in the literary headlines of 1978; his novel Yemei Ziklag headed a poll on the greatest accomplishments of Israeli literature since 1948. A television movie of "Hirbet Hiz'e," with its perspective of concern for civilian Arab war victims, caused a heated controversy. Two early works, "Ephraim hozer la'aspesset"

and

Greenberg, tritsky

were reissued. works by U. Z. Agnon, D. Vogel, and N. Bis-

"Befa'atei negev,"

Renowned but were

S.

Y.

out-of-print

also reissued. Retrospective antholo-

gies presented surveys of Israel's

first

generation of

Current novels included three with a Megged's Asa'el, B. Tammuz's Requiem leNa'aman, and D. Tselka's Philip Arbes. Tselka's novel and Y. Shabtai's Zikhron Devarim were the year's artistic highlights. D. Avidan, P. Sadeh, E. Megged, M. Ben-Shaul, and Zelda issued new poetry collections, and the playwrights A. Wolfson, A. Kenan, and H. Levin saw writers.

socio-historical perspective: A.

plays published. Critical studies by M. Perry, D. Miron, S. Zemach, and K. A. Bertini focused on Hayyim Bialik. G. Shaked brought out the first volume of his history of Hebrew literature from 1880 to 1970 and, with R. Weizer, edited a volume of documents and articles on Agnon. A. Sha'anan issued vol. v of his interpretive literary history, and B. Hrushovski published an outstanding study of Greenberg's poetry. Collected essays appeared on G. Shofman, H. Hazaz, and U. Gnessin. Among the promising new writers were several poets, including Y. Sharon, M. Galili, and E. Eli, as well as novelists D. Shavit and S. Calender. Anniversaries included the 80th birthdays of S. Halkin and Y. Zemora, the 75th of E. Amir, and the 60th of poets A. Gilboa and A. Kovner. E. Kishon published his 25th book. Several works appeared by Oriental Jews, notably D. Sitan, D. Rabi, and H. and B. Hakak. (warren bargad) Yiddish. The 1978 Nobel Prize for Literature was given to Isaac Bashevis Singer {see Nobel Prizes), the first Yiddish writer to receive this prestigious award. The Swedish Academy noted that Singer's art has its "roots in the Polish Jewish cultural tradition" and that he portrays the life of Eastern European Jewry "as it was lived in the towns and villages, amid poverty and persecution. The language was Yiddish, the language of ordinary people the language of the mothers in which was safeguarded the stories, legends, and reminiscences of hundreds of years." Singer writes in the tradition of the 19th-century prose masters and in the tradition of the Yiddish classics. He also was influenced by his older brother I. J. Singer and by Sholem Asch, Aaron Zeitlin, and Ephraim Kaganovsky. He created a body of work consisting of stories, novels, and memoirs portraying Jewish life in Poland in the last centuries. He also wrote about the survivors of the Nazi Holocaust and their struggle to adjust themselves .

.

.

.

.

.

to their new life. Some Yiddish critics criticized Singer for stressing negative elements in past Jewish life, but they all seemed to agree that he is a master storyteller.

As

of 1978 nearly 150 Yiddish writers lived in

where they continued

Israel,

to write in Yiddish.

The IsraeH quarterly Di Goldene Keyt, edited by Abraham Sutzkever, recently celebrated its 30th anniversary by publishing a special issue with contributions by Israeli, European, and U.S. Yiddish writers. Bay-Zikh, a literary journal edited by the poet and critic Itzhak Janosowicz, marked the 30th anniversary of Israel by publishing a thick issue with contributions by Yiddish writers from various countries. The Jerusalem Almanac devoted its recent issue to the memory of the Soviet Yiddish writers who perished during the purges. Collections of poetry by Israeli-Yiddish poets included books by Shloyme Roitman, Rachel Boymvol, and Jacob Shargel. Collections of essays and criticism included works by Abraham Lis, Gabriel Weissman, Yehuda Kersh, and Itzhak Korn. Der Mabul, a collection of extraordinary stories by Leil Rokhman, was published a few weeks before he died. The Yiddish work of S. Y. Agnon was published with an introduction by Dov Sadan. A collection of stories by Julien Hirshaut from the U.S. and a volume of poetry by Hayyim Plotkin were published in Israel. In Moscow Aleksandr Lizen published a novel, Nahumke Esrog, his first in Yid(eLIAS SCHULMAtj)

dish.

CHINESE Official

discouragement

of

"indigenous" literature

in the past two years appeared to have impaired the quality of literary efforts in Taiwan. Much

popular literature was produced in 1978. At best, such efforts as Chiang Hsiao-yun's Drift with the Tide entertained with humorous, at times witty, but never unduly disturbing tales. At worst, as in Ma Shen's Lives in a Bottle, they irritated with sentimental, pretentious accounts of innocuous love affairs. The more serious writings focused on various moods of personal loss. Szu-ma Chung-yuan's Wishing Well is a poetic evocation, in lyrical prose, of a lost Eden, summoned by the power of childhood reminiscences. Yu Li-hua's The Family Fu deals with the actualities of disillusionment, failure, and moral and spiritual confusion among members of a family that has emigrated to America. Hsin Tai lacks Yu Li-hua's disciplined grasp of events and situations, but in Pictures of Four Seasons she shows some promise in her exploration of her characters' shifting states of mind. On the mainland the most significant events were the publication of Chinese and Western classics after a long absence and the reappearance of works by writers persecuted during the Cultural Revolution. The government's more flexible and pragmatic political attitudes and policies were not yet reflected in current literature, however. Works like Liang Pin's Record of a New Life, Kuan Hua's Chiang Chun River, Hsi Ch'ing's Chu Lui, Ch'en K'ai's Spring Time over Ku Ma River, and Fired Steel

— the

last a collection of

of the

Communist

First

short stories by members Heavy Machinery Factory

— are didactic exercises designed to inculcate the virtues of patriotism, selflessness, and dedication and to warn against Soviet revisionism, exploitive capitalism, and the "gang of four." In this context of literary stereotypes— a situa-

lamented by such

tion

official

publications as the

and the Peking Review — ^u Min's The First Round stood out, by virtue of the extensive social panorama it covers and the writer's grasp of the psychology of human motives and behaviour. The ideological principles that give meaning to the People's Daily

characters' lives are never in question, but the human relationships portrayed by the author are seen to be governed by tangibles and intangibles that have to do not with ideology but with the way

(john kwan-terry)

people are.

JAPANESE The

literary scene

Some

appeared quite tame in 1978. even complained of the diffi-

literary critics

good fiction to recommend to the awarding literary prizes. Nevertheless, there were several important contributions. One of the most remarkable was by senior novelist Yasushi Inoue, whose Wadatsumi ("The Ocean") was impressive for both its scale and subject, though it remained a work in progress (only the first three culty in finding

juries

volumes). Its central character was a young Japanese who went across the Pacific at the beginning of the 20th century to settle in San Francisco, and the book discusses his "americanization" during the period when anti-Japanese regulations were instituted in California. Inoue planned to cover the whole turbulent period through the Pacific War

(World War

II).

Shinichiro Nakamura's Natsu ("Summer"), the second part of a tetralogy, traced the spiritual pilgrimage of a middle-aged author. Nakamura had been regarded as a westernized experimental nov-

whose work was too technical to be really sympathetic, but Natsu, mainly concerned with the amorous adventures of the protagonist, proved to be an entertaining story. It was also remarkable for its acute psychological analysis and skillful use of erotic motifs derived from classical Japanese literature. Junnosuke Yoshiyuki's Yugure-made ("Till the Evening") was another love story, and the description of the young girl, obsessed with virginity despite her liberated sexual behaviour, was curiously appealing. This novel made an interesting pair with Hideo Takubo's Shokubai ("A Catalyst"), whose central theme was an involved relationship with a neurotic woman. Yoshiyuki's elist

was remarkable for its cool delicacy and almost abstract lyricism; Takubo's novel, for its elaborate structure and romantic evocation of prewar Tokyo. Hiroko Takenishi's Kangengaku ("Shinto Music") and Yuko Tsushima's Choji' ("Favourite") were favourably received contribustyle

by two women novelists. was a fruitful year for biography and

tions It

literary

Takeshi Muramatsu's Emperor Godaigo and Shusaku Endo's Birth of Christ were entertaining and informative. Also worthy of note were Kozo Kawamori's Life and Times of Baudelaire and Shoichi Saeki's Yukio Mishima. One of the most active poets, Koichi lijima, published his lively colcriticism.

lected

poems and

a

book on Hakushu Kitahara. (shoichi saeki)

See also Art Theatre. [621]

Sales; Libraries;

Nobel

Prizes; Publishing;

517 Literature

a^ D

Luxembourg

Madagascar

A

Madagascar occupies the island of the same name and minor adjacent islands in the Indian Ocean off

monarchy, the Benelux country of Luxembourg is bounded on the east by West Germany, on the south by France, and on the v^^est and north by Belgium. Area: 2,586 sq km (999 sq mi). Pop. (1977 est.): 356,800. Cap. and largest city: constitutional

Luxembourg (pop., 1977 est., 76,500). Language; French, German, Luxembourgian. Religion; RoCatholic 93%. Grand duke, Jean; prime min-

man

ister in 1978,

Gaston Thorn.

In January 1978 Jacques Poos, the minister of finance, declared at a press conference that the

Madagascar

Luxembourg government was planning additional exchange controls. Banks in Luxembourg would have to supply more information on foreign exchange operations in addition to the monthly returns they already submitted to the Luxembourg Banking Commission. They would also have to observe criteria set by the Institut Belgo-Luxembourgeois du Change. The proposals were designed to curb speculative currency flights and in particular to defend attacks on the Belgian franc, at par with the Luxembourg franc. By the end of 1977 Luxembourg banks had accumulated balance sheets totaling LFr 2,115,000,000,000, or about $58.5 billion. The 20 or so West German banks — the grand duchy's largest single tax source — accounted for two-thirds of this, amounting to some 14% of the balances in their parent banks in the Federal Republic. Luxembourg, alone among the nine countries of the European Economic Community, issued a stamp in 1978 to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Rome. In June the European Commission approved plans to restructure the Saar and Luxembourg steel industries under Arbed of Luxembourg. Arbed would acquire 25% and management control of the Luxembourg-based Metallurgique Miniere de Rodange-Athus. (k. m. smogorzewski)

LUXEMBOURG Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 34,980, teachers 1,757; secondary, pupils 8,345, teachers 860; vocational, pupils 13,955, teachers 941; higher, students 427, teaching staff 135.

Livestock: see Agriculture and Food Supplies

Lumber: see Industrial Review

Lutheran Churches: see Religion

Macau: see Dependent States

Machinery and Machine Tools: see Industrial Review

Finance. Monetary unit: Luxembourg franc, at par with the Belgian franc, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free commercial rate of LFr 31.13 to U.S. $1 (LFr 61 = £1 sterling). Budget (1978 est.); revenue LFr 39,111,000,000; expenditure LFr 39,363,000,000. Cross domestic product (1976) LFr 86,500,000,000. Cost of living (1975 = 100; )une 1978) 120.8 Foreign Trade: see BELGIUM. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 4,970 km (of which 27 km expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 130,719; commercial 9,687. Railways: (1976) 274 km; traffic (1977) 297.5 million passenger-km; freight 567 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 165 million passenger-km; freight 300,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 157,800. Radio licenses (Dec. 1975) 176,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1974) 88,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): barley 33; wheat 16; oats 12; potatoes 20; apples c. 9; grapes c. 20; wine c 13. Livestock (in 000; May 1976); cattle 214; sheep 4; pigs 83; chickens 188. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): iron ore (29% metal content) 1,547; pig iron 3,571; crude steel 4,329; electricity (kw-hr) 1,302,000.

the southeast coast of Africa. Area: 587,041 sq km (226,658 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 8,776,000. Cap. and largest city: Antananarivo (pop., 1975 est., 438,800). Language: French and Malagasy. Religion: Christian (about 50%) and traditional tribal beliefs. President in 1978, Didier Ratsiraka; prime minister, Lieut. Col. Desire Rakotoarijaona.

economic and mounting political pressures in 1978. The Merina bourgeoisie of the High Plateaus remained hostile to the government but confined Pres. Didier Ratsiraka faced serious

difficulties

their opposition to passive resistance.

Some

left-

wing elements

resorted to direct action, however. In May student protests in Antananarivo degenerated into riots in which three people were killed

and more than 150 demonstrators arrested. The disturbances, which originated in a dispute over examinations, spread outside the schools to involve mainly unemployed youths. On February 4 a special military tribunal sentenced 54 persons to long prison terms for looting during the incidents at Majunga in December 1976. The circumstances surrounding these events remained obscure; they led to the death of about 100 people in pogroms mainly directed against the Comoran minority living in the town. The Malagasy leadership continued to maintain close cooperation with the countries of the Eastern bloc. President Ratsiraka paid official visits to Moscow in July and to Pyongyang, North Korea, in September. The country also retained close links

MADAGASCAR Education. (1976) Primary, pupils 1.1 million, teachers (1973) 16,351; secondary, pupils 114,468, teachers (1975) 5,088; vocational (1973), pupils 8,193, teachers 879; teacher training (1973), students 993, teachers 63; higher, students (1975) 8,385, teaching staff (1972) 411. Finance. Monetary unit: Malagasy franc, at par with the

CFA

franc, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a parity of MalFr 50 to the French franc (free rates of MalFr 218.81 = U.S. $1 and MalFr 428.75 = £1 sterling). Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $94.3 million. Budget (1977 est.): balanced at MalFr 137 billion. Foreign Trade. (1976) imports MalFr 68,430,000,000; exports MalFr 66,040,000,000. Import sources: France c. 41%; West Cermany c. 8%; lapan c. 5%. Export destinations: France c. 30%; U.S. c 21%; Japan c. 11%; West Germany c. 8%; Italy c. 6%,. Main exports (1974): coffee 27%; petroleum product:, 'i%; vanilla 8%; meat 7%;

7%; fish 6%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 27,507

cloves

in use (1974): passenger 56,700; commercial (including buses) 43,700. Railways: (1975) 884 km; (1976) 289 million passenger-km; freight 200 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 276.4 million passenger-km; freight 7,830,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 44; gross tonnage 39,850. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 27,700. Radio receivers (Dec. 1974) 855,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1975) 7,500.

km. Motor vehicles

traffic

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): rice corn (1976) 123; cassava (1976) 1,348; sweet potatoes (1976) c. 280; potatoes (1976) c. 123; dry beans 76; bananas 440; oranges c. 88; pineapples c. 51; peanuts 40; sugar, raw value (1976) c. 117; coffee 95; cotton 14; tobacco 4; sisal 21; beef and veal c. 113; fish catch (1976) c. 55. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1976): cattle c. 9,800; sheep c. 720; pigs c. 700; goats c. 1,350; chickens c. 13,250. 2,200;

(to which Ratsiraka paid a state visit in September), ahhough its relations with the former colonial power were somewhat soured by

with France

Malagasy territorial demands. In March and April Madagascar asserted its claim to four islands in the Indian Ocean administered by the French overseas departement of Reunion: lies Glorieuses, Europa, Bassas da India, and Juan de Nova. The group covers less than 50 sq km, but Madagascar considered

demand

its

a matter of principle.

Former president Philibert Tsiranana, deposed in May 1972, died on April 16 {see Obituaries). (PHILIPPE DECRAENe)

the country to cover the elections. Pres. Hastings Kamuzu Banda took the opportunity during a press conference to say that he had no intention of driving the Asians out of Malawi, although they had been entirely removed from the rural areas. He also stressed that there were no longer any political prisoners in jail. The relaxation of the order against the press did not last long, however, and foreign newspapermen were again excluded after the president accused them of misreporting events in the country. Economically, Malawi continued to prosper. The agricultural sector in particular flourished, and the country, having become self-supporting as far as staple foods were concerned could afford to export to its neighbours. (kenneth ingham)

519

Malaysia

,

Malawi A

republic and

member

of the

Commonwealth

of

Nations in east central Africa, Malawi is bounded by Tanzania, Mozambique, and Zambia. Area: 118,577 sq

km

(45,781 sq mi). Pop. (1977 prelim, census): 5,571,576. Cap.: Lilongwe (pop., 1976est., 75,000). Largest city: Blantyre (pop., 1976 est., 219,000). Language: English (official) and Nyanja (Chichewa). Religion: Christian 33%; remainder,

predominantly traditional beliefs. President in 1978, Hastings Kamuzu Banda. Malawi's first parliamentary elections since independence were held on June 29, 1978. Fortyseven of the 87 seats were contested, 33 candidates being returned unopposed while seven seats were declared vacant because the candidates could not pass the English language test. All candidates were

members of the country's single political party, the Malawi Congress Party, but nearly two-thirds of the sitting members in the constituencies where voting took place were defeated. Among those who lost their seats were two former government ministers.

After having been banned for several years, representatives of the foreign press were allowed into

Malaysia A federation within the Commonwealth of Nations comprising the 11 states of the former Federation of Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak, and the federal territory of

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

is

a federal

monarchy situated in Southeast Asia at the southern end of the Malay Peninsula (excluding Singapore) and on the northern part of

constitutional

Malaysia

the island of Borneo. Area: 329,747 sq km (127,316 sq mi). Pop. (1977 est.) 12,600,000. Cap. and largest city: Kuala Lumpur (pop., 1975 est., 557,000). Official language: Malay. Religion: Malays are

UN

Muslim; Indians mainly Hindu; Chinese mainly Buddhist, Confucian, and Taoist. Supreme head of state in 1978, with the title of yang di-pertuan agong, Tuanku Yahya Putra ibni al-Marhum Sultan Ibrahim; prime minister, Datuk Hussein bin

Onn. General elections for the federal Parliament and ten state assemblies began on July 8, 1978. The results confirmed the national leadership of Datuk

Hussein bin Onn,

mandate

who was

for the first

seeking a popular time since he succeeded the

Tun Abdul Razak as prime minister in January 1976. Out of 154 seats in the federal Parliament, the

late

MALAWI Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 663,940, teachers 10,735; secondary, pupils 14,826, teachers 725; vocational, pupils 685, teachers 88; teacher training, students 1,355, teachers 86; higher, students 1,285, teaching staff 122. Finance. Monetary

unit; kwacha, with (Sept. 18, 1978) kwacha to U.S. $1 (1.62 kwacha = £1 Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange (June 1978) U.S. $87,390,000. Budget (1977 actual); revenue 100,870,000 kwacha (excludes 6,740,000 kwacha of foreign grants); expenditure 131,370,000 kwacha. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports 211.8 million kwacha; exports 184,570,000 kwacha. Import sources: South Africa 37%; U.K. 19%; Japan 9%; U.S. 5%. Export destinations: U.K. 427o; U.S. 10%; The Netherlands 7%; South Africa 7%. Main exports: tobacco 47%; tea 23%; sugar 8%; pea-

a free rate of 0.83 sterling).

nuts

5%.

Transport and Communications. Roads (1975) 11,025 in use (1976): passenger 10,200; commercial (including buses) 10,600. Railways: (1975) 566 km; traffic (1976) 62 million passenger-km, freight 204 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 122.4 million passenger-km; freight 4,680,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1976) 20,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) 127,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977):

km. Motor vehicles

corn

c.

sorghum c. 105; sugar, 174; tea c. 30; tobacco Livestock (in 000; 1976): 700: sheep 88; goats 739; pigs 189; poultry c.

1,250; cassava (1976)

raw value (1976)

c

c.

cattle

8,092.

c.

c.

90; peanuts

53; cotton, lint (1976)

c.

6.

80; c.

ruling coalition, Barisan Nasional (National Front), won 131, the Democratic Action Party (dap) gained 16 (including one in Sabah), while Party Islam secured 5. Two independent candidates were elected in Sarawak and Sabah. The National Front was victorious in all the state

assembly

elections.

One

notable feature of the results was the poor performance of Party Islam, which, with 14 seats in the last federal Parliament, had been a member of the ruling coalition until it was expelled in December 1977. Conflict had arisen between it and the country's principal Malay party, the United Malays National Organization (umno), over the exercise of political power in the peninsular Malaysian state of Kelantan. After a state of emergency imposed in November 1977 was lifted in February 1978, elections for the Kelantan state assembly were held in March. The outcome was a decisive victory for umno, which was a major consideration in the holding of general elections in July.

A second feature of the general elections was the

Magazines: see Publishing

Malagasy Republic: see Madagascar

520

Malaysia

showing of the dap, which drew support primarily from the Chinese communiThis performance contrasted with the relativeweak showing of the Malayan Chinese ly Association the senior Chinese component within the National Front. In September, as a result of triennial elections held during the umno annual assembly, Datuk Hussein bin Onn was confirmed as president of the country's principal Malay party, although he faced a challenge from former publicity officer Suleiman Palestin, who secured approximately one-quarter of the votes cast. Dato Seri Mahathir relatively strong its

MALAYSIA

ty.

Education. Peninsular Malaysia. (1976) Primary, pupils 1,608,157, teachers 49,941; secondary, pupils 838,968, teachers 29,915; vocational (1975), pupils 21,134, teachers 930; higher (1974), students 34,524, teaching staff 2,624 Sabah. (1976) Primary, pupils 127,271, teachers 5,000; secondary, pupils 52,149, teachers 1,978; vocational, pupils 300, teachers (1974) 30 Sarawak. (1976) Primary, pupils 189,347, teachers 5,307; secondary, pupils 71,167, teachers 2,413; higher (1974), students 722, teaching staff 62. Finance. Monetary unit: ringgit, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of 2.30 ringgits to U.S. $1 (4.50 ringgits £1 sterling). Gold, SDR's, and foreign exchange (June 1978) U.S. $2,818,000,000. Budget (total: 1976 actual): revenue 6,166,000,000 ringgits; expenditure 7,414,000,000 ringgits. Cross national product (1977) 30,934,000,000 ringgits. Money supply (June 1978) 6,572,000,000 ringgits. Cost of living (Peninsular Malaysia; 1975 = 100; June 1978) 113.1. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports 11,178,000,000 ringgits; exports 14,962,000,000 ringgits. Import sources: Japan 247o; U.S. 13%; Singapore 9%; U.K. 8%; Australia eyeWest Germany 6%, Thailand 5%. Export destinations: Ja-

,

Mohamed,

the deputy prime minister,

was

re-

turned unopposed as deputy president of the party. In the contested elections for the three posts of vice-president, the successful candidates were

Tengku

Razaleigh

Hamzah

(the

minister

of

Datuk Musa Hitam (the minister of education), and Abdul Ghafar Baba. In March the head of state, Tuanku Yahya Putra ibni al-Marhum Sultan Ibrahim, rejected an appeal for a pardon by the former chief minister of Selangor, Datuk Harun Idris, who had been convicted on corruption and forgery charges. In Aufinance),

communal tension increased when four Muslim Malays were killed by guards while attempting to desecrate a Hindu temple in Kerling, 35 mi north of Kuala Lumpur. The Malays were members of an extreme fundamentalist group, itgust

a part of the wider Dakwah (missionary) movement that had gained many adherents among young educated Muslims. The killings marked a self

bloody end to the almost nightly desecration of Hindu temples during August. Government concern about Islamic fundamentalism was expressed publicly by Deputy Prime Minister Mahathir at the outset of the umno annual assembly when he denounced religious extremism. In March talks between Malaysian and British officials were suspended indefinitely after their failure to reach agreement on terms for the resumption of the joint British Airways-Singapore Airlines Concorde service between London and Singapore via Bahrain. At issue was whether to allow the supersonic airliner to fly through Malaysian air space over the Strait of Malacca. In April About 2,500 Vietnamese refugees were stranded aboard a crowded freighter off the coast of Malaysia when that government refused to allow them to land

in

November.

Canada, France, and the U.S. later agreed to accept the refugees, many of whom had become sick.

=

pan 20%; U.S. 18%; Singapore 16%; The Netherlands 7%; U.K. S%. Main exports: rubber 23%; timber 167o; crude oil 13%; palm oil 12%; tin 11%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 21,324 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 430,400; commercial (including buses) 140,300. Railways: (1976) 1,814 km; traffic (includmg Smgapore; 1977) 1,273,000,000 passenger-km, freight 1,212,500,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1977): 2,100,000,000 passenger-km; freight 48,395,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 179; gross tonnage 563,666. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 329,600. Radio licenses (Dec. 1975) 450,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1974) 390,000.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): rice 2,010; rubber c. 1,595; copra c 150; palm oil c. 1,643; c. 3; bananas c. 455; pineapples c. 284; pepper (Sarawak only; 1976) 35; tobacco c. 10; timber (cu m; 1976) 36,361; fish catch (1976) 517. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1975): cattle c. 423; buffalo c. 298; pigs c. 1,444; goats c. 369; sheep (Peninsular Malaysia only) c. 46; chickens c. 44,930. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): tin concentrates (metal content) 65; bauxite 615; cement 1,740; iron ore (56% metal content) 326; crude oil 8,790; petroleum products (Sarawak only; 1976) c. 950; gold (troy oz; 1976) 3.6; electricity (kw-hr) 7,206,000. c.

tea

Malaysian and Thai security forces resumed

joint

operations against the insurgent Malayan Communist Party in the Betong area north of their common border. The Vietnamese prime minister, Pham Van Dong, paid a visit to Malaysia on October 12-16 during his tour of capitals of states belonging to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. (michael leifer)

struggle or resolution of the country's economic

during 1978. Col. Moussa Traore strengthened his personal power and that of his government. In February an attempted coup led to the arrest of 43 officers, including the ministers of foreign affairs, transport, and the interior and the head of the security services. Kissima Doukara, former minister of the interior, and Tiecoro Bagayoko, security chief, were sentenced to death. Mali strengthened its links with both the U.S.S.R. and France. The Soviet deputy-minister of defense visited Bamako in June, and Mali was thought to be the West African country receiving the most Soviet military aid. The French cooperation minister paid two visits, in January and November. France was giving considerable technidifficulties

Maldives Maldives, a republic in the Indian Ocean consisting of about two thousand small islands, lies southwest of the southern tip of India. Area: 298 sq

km

(115 sq mi). Pop. (1978 census): 143,000. Cap.: (pop., 1978, 29,600). Language: Divehi. Religion: Muslim. Presidents in 1978, Ibrahim

Male

Nasir and, from

Gayoom.

November

11,

Maumoon Abdul

Ibrahim Nasir, in office since 1968, declined to serve a third term. Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, nominated president-elect by the Majlis (Parliament), was sworn in as president on Nov. Pres.

11, 1978.

In January Maldives joined the International

Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and ruary

it

was admitted

as the 43rd

in Feb-

member

of the

Asian Development Bank. The Indian and Kuwaiti governments provided aid for the development of Hulele airport. India operated Maldive International Air's first jumbo jet service, which helped the fast-growing tourist trade.

Tourism was encouraged by

free port

and no-

but suffered a setback as the result of a severe cholera epidemic and President Nasir's January statement that no "hippies" would be admitted. Foreign currency only was accepted at tourist resorts in an effort to fill the $500,000 a year gap left when the British abandoned the air base on Gan Island. As a nonaligned state, Malpassport

facilities,

dives had refused the 1977 Soviet offer of $1 million to lease the island as a fishing base. The many local unemployed, bereft of prosperity, educational facilities, and hospital treatment, claimed the Male government was deliberately neglecting them in revenge for an attempted secession in the

The government changed Independence March 29, the date when Britain handed (molly Mortimer) over Gan in 1976. 1950s.

Day

to

and financial aid to Mali, which suffered from inherited economic problems, corruption, and bad management in the public sector. (PHILIPPE DECRAENE) cal

MALI Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 253,351, teachers 9,413; secondary, pupils 48,168, teachers (1974-75) 511; vocational, pupils 2,605, teachers (1970-71) 332; teacher training (1974-75), students 1,839, teachers 126; higher (1974-75), students 2,445, teaching staff 327. Finance. Monetary unit: Mali franc, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a par value of MFr 100 to the French franc and a free rate of MFr 438 to U.S. $1 (MFr 857 = £ 1 sterling). Budget (1978 est.) balanced at MFr 61 billion. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports MFr 71.4 billion; exports MFr 32.9 billion. Import sources (1976): France c. 35%; Ivory Coast c. 27%; China 7%; U.S.S.R. c. 6%; West Germany c. 5%. Export destinations (1976): France c. 24%; China c. 11%; West Germany c. 10%. Main exports: cotton 43%; peanuts 12%; livestock c. 107o; textile yarns and fabrics

c.

5%.

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): miland sorghum c 850; rice (1976) 237; corn (1976) 81; peanuts c 230; sweet potatoes (1976) c. 36; cassava (1976) c. 401; cottonseed c. 78; cotton, lint c. 43; beef and veal (1976) c. 38; mutton and lamb (1976) c. 30; fish catch c. 100. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c. 4,080; sheep c. 4,219; goats c. 3,930; camels c. 178; horses c. 150; asses c 400. let

MALDIVES Education. (1977) Primary, pupils 4,411, teachers 30; secondary, pupils 641, teachers 55; teacher training, students 30, teachers 11. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Maldivian rupee, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a par value of MRs 3.93 to U.S. $1 (MRS 7.70 = £1 sterling). Budget (1976) revenue MRs 17.2 million; expenditure MRs 35.7 million. Foreign trade (1976): imports MRs 21,498,000; exports MRs 11,755,000.

Malta

Main destinations: Sri Lanka, Japan, and Thailand. Main exports: Maldive (dried) fish 46%; raw fish 44%; shells

The Republic of Malta, a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, comprises the islands of Malta, Gozo, and Comino in the Mediterranean Sea between Sicily and Tunisia. Area: 316 sq km (122 sq mi), including Malta, Gozo, and Comino. Pop.

5%.

(1978

Mali A

republic of West Africa, Mali is bordered by Algeria, Niger, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Senegal, and Mauritania. Area: 1,240,142 sq km (478,832 sq mi). Pop. (1977 est.): 6,468,200. Cap. and largest city: Bamako (pop., 1976, 404,022). Language: French (official); Hamito-Semitic and various tribal dialects. Religion: Muslim 65%; animist 30%. Head of the military government in 1978, Col. Moussa Traore. There was no relaxation in Mali's internal power

est.): 326,000. Cap.: Valletta (pop., 1977 est., 14,100). Largest city: Sliema (pop., 1977 est., 20,-

100). Language: Maltese and English. Religion: mainly Roman Catholic. President in 1978, Anton Buttigieg; prime minister, Dom Mintoff. Foreign policy dominated the Maltese political scene throughout 1978. Prime Minister Dom Min-

was assured by U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter that the U.S. was encouraging other countries to help Malta, but in September Mintoff revealed that discussions with Italy and France regarding guarantees for Malta's neutrality had ended fruitlessly; as a result, agreements with Libya and Algeria were being worked out. In July British journalists were barred from Malta and the British Forces Broadtoff

casting Service

was

closed.

522

Materials Sciences

November Malta appealed

In

to

Libya

to solve,

median line question involving the continental shelf boundary between the two countries. Exploration for oil had been impeded because of the dispute. Libya, which had been supplying low-cost oil to Malta since 1974, was refusing to refer the question to the International Court of Justice. The matter was especially pressing for Malta, which would need to make up on

a brotherly basis, the

the loss of M£28 million annually after the military bases agreement with Britain and nato expires in

March

M£

MALTA Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 29,063, teachers 1,428; secondary, pupils 25,953, teachers 1,773; vocationpupils 4,332, teachers 375; higher, students 1,285,

al,

staff 125.

Finance. Monetary unit: Maltese pound, with (Sept. 18, 1978)afreerateofMi:0.38 = U.S. $1 (M£0.74 = £1 sterling). Gold, SDR's, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $788.6 million. Budget (1976-77 actual): revenue

M£102.8

million; expenditure

M£90.2

million.

Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports M£217,680,000; exports

M£121, 790,000. Import

sources: U.K. 26%; Italy U.S. 9%; France 5%. Export 31%; U.K. 19%; Libya 11%;

18%; West Germany 11%; West Germany and aircraft stores 6%; The Netherlands 5%; Italy 5%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5%. Main exports: clothing 42%; machinery 7%; food 7%; petroleum products 6%; printed matter 5%. Tourism (1976): visitors 340,000; gross receipts

destinations:

fast firing.

Because heating ceramics to produce strength is highly energy intensive, fast firing has received much attention in recent years. For example, by the late 1970s wall tile could be

and hardness

1979.

Later, the Maltese government prohibited importation of British textiles and closed down the British Council in retaliation for Britain's request to the European Commission to restrict Maltese textile imports. The government budgeted for a record expenditure of 109.2 million in 1978-79. Two highly controversial laws were passed in July, to restructure tertiary education and to prohibit the use (without government authorization) of "Malta" or "nation" in the name of any publication or association. The labour dispute with doctors, which started in June 1977, continued. (albert ganado)

teaching

saved. In the new process spray-dried powders containing only about 5-7?o water are pressed to shape in carefully designed dies on automated hydraulic or mechanical presses. Automatic presses under construction were expected to be capable of producing 10-24 pieces per minute and to be better suited to automatic handling of the dinnerware through the glazing and decorating stages of production prior to delivery to roller-hearth kilns for

ship

$67 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 1,271

U.S.

km. Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 56,400; commercial 12,600. There are no railways. Air traffic (1976): 340.3 million passenger-km; freight 3,780,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 44; gross tonnage 100,420. Shipping traffic (1977): goods loaded 161,900 metric tons, unloaded 1,162,000 metric tons. Telephones (March 1977) 62,300. Radio licenses (Dec. 1976) 66,500. Television licenses (Dec. 1976) 63,000.

C

fired to 1,260°

(2,300° F) in as

kiln furniture,

Manufacturing: see Economy, World; Industrial

Review

Marine Biology: see

Life

Sciences

min-

which had

to

withstand rapid,

re-

peated firing cycles. Energy saving was also essential in the cementmaking industry, one of the top ten energy consumers in the U.S. and user of 1.6% of all the world's energy as recently as 1971. Conversion to dry processing had already reduced the energy used in removing water that once had been required for ease in mixing raw materials. Recently a composition change introduced by P. Kumar Mehta of the University of California, Berkeley, was expected to save 25% of the energy consumed in Portland cement production. The high iron oxide content in the new formula reduces the amount of lime that must be formed by dissociation of limestone during firing and lowers the firing temperature by 170°-220° C (300°- 400° F).

Corning Glass Works, Corning, N.Y., announced a new type of product, called polychromatic glass, that may represent the first photographic medium with true colour permanence.

When

activated by controlled ultravioletand heat treatments, the glass

light exposures

yields a full range of

opaque or transparent colours

The colours derive from the formation of sub-

in two- or three-dimensional patterns.

were thought

to

colloidal metallic particles of silver in a

memory

devices,

range of

which can

store vast amounts of information on a tiny integrated circuit, achieved their first Bell System ap-

plication as part of

Ceramics. Cost reductions and energy savings continued as central themes within the ceramics industry in 1978. The ceramic dinnerware industry in the U.S. verged on a breakthrough in its application of dry pressing and fast-firing processes, one that was thought to assure continued competitiveness with plastics and other alternatives to ceramics in domestic and world markets. In conventional wet forming processes at least 25% water is added to the clay body to achieve plasticity. By switching to dry pressing, capital equipment and labour required to introduce the water uniformly are avoided and the time and energy required to remove the water prior to firing are

as ten

could be fired to good quality in 45 minutes with proper compositional modifications. A major problem remaining was the cost and durability of the

shapes and sizes. Magnetic-bubble

Materials Sciences

little

50% compared with older methods. Whereas dinnerware firing was much more complex, even high-temperature porcelain utes, for a fuel saving of

an announcement system

to

replace current drum recorders that store and deliver standard "call assist" messages. Invented at Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, N.J., bubble devices employ the formation and movement of mag-

microdomains (which are minute regions of magnetization) in thin-film garnet crystals for the storage and retrieval of bits of information. Use of glass and graphite fibre grew dramaticalnetic

ly as applications

expanded

for fibre-reinforced

Nearly 2,000,000,000 pounds were used in 1978, about one-quarter in the automotive industry for weight, cost, and fuel savings. New compounding and moulding techniques allowed faster production rates and increased fibre content for plastic.

improved strength. Although glass fibres were still by far the most common reinforcement, use for graphite in high-performance composites increased as well, and in some cases the cost of graphite fibre was reduced 10-20%. Some initial applications of graphite fibres could be slowed, however, by recent indications that accidental release into the atmosphere of this light, electrically conductive material could cause interference with electronic equipment. (norman m. tallan) [721. D.2; 724.C.5]

Metallurgy. The year 1978 was marked by poor markets for most metals, a factor that joined with constantly rising costs to keep expansion and mod-

i'S/l>

,^

w:

^^

-t.

'\

^>

i(R) irleni •euter, D, K. (R) onough, John J. (D) 10. Burlison,

E. R. (R)

J.

(R)

(R)

9. Volkmer, Harold

Edwards, Mickey (R) 6. English, Glenn (D) Ore.— 1. AuCoin, Les (D) 5.

2. Ullmon, Al (D)

Thomas

8. Ichord, Richord H. (D)

22. Crone, Daniel B, (R) 23. Price, Melvin (D) 24. Simon, Paul (D) amin, Adam (D) Ind, 2. Fithion, Floyd J. (D) 3. Brademas, John (D)

12. McCloskey, Paul N., Jr. (R)

15. Coelho,

(R)

J.

1.

1

E.

Gene

7. Taylor,

G. M. (R) 18. Michel, Robert H. (R) 19. Roilsbock, ThomosF. (R) 20. Findley. Paul (R)

(D)

Coleman,

6.

17. O'Brien,

H. (R)

Robert

3. Motsui,

4. Steed,

5. Boiling, Richord (D)

Mikva, Abner J. (D) Annunzio, Frank (D) Crone, Philip M. (R) McClory, Robert (R) Erienborn, J. N. (R) IS.Corcoron, Tom(R) 16. Anderson, John B. (R)

Wes (D) Tom (D)

Wotkins,

3.

4. Skelton, Ike (D)

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

name, porty

Mike (D)

2. Synor,

l.Cloy, Williom (D)

Young, Robert A. (D) 3. Gephardt, Richard A. (D) 2.

(D)

January 1979

Okla.— I.Jones, James R.(D)

5. Lon, Trent (R)

R. (D)

Sidney

9. Yates,

J. (R)

2. Udall, Morris K. (D)

1983 1985 1983

Don

in

State, district,

Jon C. (R)

4. Hinson,

Mo

(R)

J.

8. Rostenkowski,

(R)

i

Montgomery, G. V. (D)

3.

7. Collins. Cordiss (D)

7. Shelby, Richard C. (D)

Armstrong, William L. (R) Conn.— Ribicoff, Abratiam (D) Weicker, Lowell P., Jr. (R) Del.— Biden, Joseph R., Jr. (D) Roth, William V., Jr. (R) Stone, Richard (D) Flo.

Hyde, Henry

3.

5. Flippo,

I.

6.

2.

fir

State, district, no

5.

(R)

L.

(D)

Alasko— Young, Don

Hayakowa, S. (R) Colo.— Hart, Gary W. (D)

Hawaii

W.

opening o( the

Stewart, Bennett (D) Murphy, Morgan (D) Russo, Martin A. (D) Derwinski, Edward J. (R) Fory, John G. (D)

Tom

4. Bevill,

Gravel, Mike (D) Ariz.— DeConcini, Dennis (D) Goldwater, Barry M. (R) Ark.— Bumpers, Dale (D) Pryor, David (D) Calif.— Cranston, Alan (D)

at the

name, party

.— 1.

3. Nichols, William (0)

2. Dickinson,

Stewort, Donald (D)

membership

lale, district,

via.- l.Edwords, Jack (R)

Howell (D)

Alasko— Stevens, Ted

.party

State, district, nO'

and party

6.

8. Roth, Tobias A. (R) 9.

Sensenbrenner, F. J. (R) Cheney, Richard (R)

Wyo.

—

715 4,

1978.

The Federal Administrative Budget in

millions of dollars; fiscal years

ending Sept. 30

Source ond function

1977

BUDGET RECEIPTS

$356,900

and gift taxes Customs duties Estate

Miscellaneous receipts

BUDGET EXPENDITURES National defense

Department of Defen Atomic energy defen; Defense-related

activi

International aHairs

Conduct of foreign affairs Foreign economic and financial assistance Foreign information and exchange activities International financial programs Military ossistonce

Generoi science, spoce, and technology Agricultun

Conservation and land managemi Pollution control

Other noturol Energy Energy supply

and abatement

r

Commerce and housing Mortgage credit and

credit thrift insure

Payment to the Postal Service Other advancement and regulot Transportation Air transportation Water transportation Ground transportation Other transportation Community and regionol developm

Community development

EDUCATION Public Elementary and Secondary Schools TEACHERS'

AVERAGE ANNUAL

INSTRUCTIONAL STAFF

STUDENTTEACHER RATIO

SALARIES

Arizona California

Colorado Connecticut

Delaware District of

Columbia

Florida

Georgia Idaho Illinois

Indiana

Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi

Missouri

Montana Nebraska

Nevada

New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania

Rhode

Island

South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texos Utoh

Vermont Virginia

Washington

West

Virginia

Wisconsin

379,321 51,325 393,985 240,447 2,451,854 306,000 416,769 57,967 66,323 776,714 672,681 90,977 105,591 1,451,745 585,665 306,345 266,232 438,047

443,000 169,865 421,044 583,070 1,029,052

410,672 280,142 614,938 108,447 159,126 73,069 104,632 864,717 142,689 1,597,667 823,061 58,105 1,290,125

39,002 5,690 27,285 25.023 201,090 34,580 40,541 6,884 7,015 87,322 55,808 9,346 10,692 121,238 59,772 39.044 29,381 36,550

332,559 39,019 158,657 218,331 1,703.831

262,000 200,156 60,033 54.349 758,856 427,056 81,372 95,842 718,795 558,375 282,415 179,893 256,132 396,000 75,975 415,788 581,700 998,597 435,380 225,893 316,294 58,395 145,205 69,589 69,986 514.821 139,027

45,621 13,608

49,337 74,900 100,591

50,020 27,842 55,634

319,200 275,930 1,053,300 83,833

1,076,800 84,135

382.449 93,888 538,648

243,534 49,643 339,776

1,518,000 173,386 61,557

1,342,000 143,789 41,377

1,054 1,286

9,840 1,550 2,113

372 473 3,945 2,340

619 575 6,766 3,599 1,380 1,526 1,950 2,190 1,192

3,397 4,700 6,902 2,128 1,590

3,257

90,300 16,355 187,100 61.650

5,600 1,810 13,010 3,731

8,191

335

28,110 126,500

7,000 1,820 2.290 5.400

39,556 23,520 57,500 6,055 2,456,827

166,861 416,365 40,530 19,059,309

379

635 999 405 580

10,476 33,608 9,412 46,105 168,900 14,615 7,510 63,130

420,112 381,226

2,000

10,339

10,695

20,319 6,965

1.630,881

368,714 66,980 885,465 278,700 202,100

662,072 395,237 234,174 501,498 48,470 24,573,051

mentary

Total

Elementary

546 2,270

500 2,310 8,500

849 890 4,370 2,840 1,619 2,100

400 137.932

17,976 2,564 16,932 10,909 109,100 15,475 21.450 2.489 3.587 38.066 33,105 4,370 4,908 54,919 26,243 15,859 13.839 20,475 23,322 7,380 20,720 30,700 45,532 20,125 13,835 24,428 5,516 9,407 3,045 4,780 47.500 6,875 77,180 37,302 4,416 54,000 15,600 13,125 54,800 4,994 17,509 5,343 24,605 79,370 6,643 3,276 33,767 17,902 11,214 30,000 2,700 1,169,177

hools; junior high schools, in secondary schools, )logical personnel, and related educational worki ' Estimates of Sclioot Statistics, , Research Di '

Universities

and Colleges

19,026 2,351

7,257 11,554 72.550 14.475 14,850 3,537 2,435 36,417 20,363

$11,761 22,475 13,406 9.814 16,240 13,825 14,340 13.497

17,473 11,935 12,025 18,086 4,936

22,508 34.500 41.202 24,462 11,012 23,893 3,984 8,437 3,005 4,374 29,000 6,900 87,090 17,862 3,068 51,300 15,300 10,665 57,600 4,127 11,819 2,954 15.751

72,130 6,351

2.894 24,993 15,789 9,558 25.400 2,725 1,007,606

10,221 18,800 14,201

14,726 14,016

11.517 14,659 13.227 12,899 11,382 11,435 13,712 11,247 15,511 15,000 18,710 14,258 10,285 11,911 12,082 11,230 14,064 10,966 15,197 12,585 17,800 12,574 11,121 12,990 11,180 13,650 14,150 14,026 11,003 10,800 11,680 12,600 12.822 10,867 12,350 15,750 11,807 13.500 12,955 $13,902

1977-78 (Copyright 1978.

12,461 17,143 11,947 16,151 13,941 13,837 13,061 12,305 14,203 12,313

16,080 15,300 17,128 15,384 10,770 12,365 13,211 12,328 14,233 11,700 15,758 13,025 18,200 13,652

11,620 13,885 11,660 14,245 14,550 15,223 11,750 11,016 12,353 13,050 13,275 11,649 13,450 16,679 12,325 14,100 13,605 $14,680

All rights

$1,259 3.123

21.3 20.0 23.3 22.0 22.5

23.3 18.5

11,430

3,511

4,653 52,394 27,125

$11,995 22,614 14,896

1,374 1,201

13.5 17.0 22.3

1,649 1,613 1,907 1,970

2,173 1,450 1,213 1,447

20.4 20.3 20.8 21.5 26.4 22.3

20.8 21.0 23.2 20.6 13.7

1,910

20.6

1,331

19.3 19.2

16.2

21.4 19.0 23.0 20.3 19.0 22.6 20.4 20.2 25.2

21.3 21.9

1,899 1,613 1,207 1,556 1,366 1,649 1,974

15.1

15.4 18.5 16.9 24.2

19.7 16.9

14.6 17.2

24.0 21.9

23.2 16.0 17.8 20.1 18.7 20.6 21.8 17.3

18.2

20.8 26.7 22.1 13.2

23.9 20.5 21.0 19.2 16.8 21.8 17.6

21.9 19.1 26.1 18.8 19.6 22.1

20.9 16.7 18.0

1,804 1,450 1,445 1,355

2,115 1,403

2,282 1,251 1,483

1,469

18.2 18.9 18.7

1.361

20.4 20.6 16.8 21.6 18.6 22.6 14.3 16.8

1,741

24.1 17.5 16.4

reserved. Used by permis

1,809 1,928 1,267 1,322 1,263 1,257 1,279 1,4

1,909 1,770

$1,634

Universities

and Colleges, 1977-78'

Selected four-yeor schools

Universities

and Colleges

Selected four-year schools

(c.

Crime Rates per 100,000 Population Stote or metropolitan

Communications

Facilities

COMMERCIAL BROADCAST STATIONS, 1976 Public

TV

stations

Total

Arkansas Colifornia

212 640 1,122

Colorado Connecticut

Delaware District

of Columbic

Florida

Idaho Illinois

Indiana

952 693 1,227

Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mis sippi Mis

Montana Nebraska

New New New New

Hompshin Jersey

Mexico

York North Carolina North Dakota

Ohio

1,082

Oklahoma Pennsylvanio

Rhode

632 349 1,790

Island

South Carolina South Dokota Tennessee

477,873 7,548,359 2,119,319 1,759,050 9,260,846

681,794 1,874,630

404 569 1,509

Utoh

Vermont Virginia

473,256 2,921,239 9,572,605 936,932 329,812

3,499260

Woshington

West

2,309,442 223,000 1,629,694 1,331,712 18,103,632 2,037,835 2,520,885 487,227 1,041,487 6,820,674 3,727,524 630,021 614,772 9,442,720 3,879,655 2,142,508 1,790,992 2,123,529 2,591,942 741,924 3,241,071 4,298,362 6,769,342 2,967,265 1,403,614 3,533,552 544,655 1,200,836 627,027 642,993 6,127,506 755,964 13,187,030 3,711,050

Virginia

Wisconsin

'Excluding District of Columbia. Year Book, 1978 (Copyright 1978.

2,786,380 1,037,003 3,272,967 319,379 162,072,146

of dollars

1977

1,763,468 124,880 1,183,229 1,007,219 12,965,153 1,441,313 1,879,009

358,752 507,008 5,048,481 2,783,986 409,514 453,625 7,037,941 2,998,622 1,623,936

Circulation

462,548 22,005 449,819 348,231 5,600,835 519,310 494,759 95,633

1,042,698

1,048,955 102,803 127,841 3,227,328

752,639

1,664,526

901,044 647,091 780,876 860,005 278,679 699,828 2,016,116 2,457,209

3,136,615 5,157,834 2,195,605 1,086,842 2,644,819 400,146 898,301 421,930 490,445 4,580,224 531,159 9,473,921 2,802,560 353,169 5,730,280 1,558,758 1,277,392 7,054,558 514,498 1,408,508 355,047 2,209,312 6,922,203 688,531 240,264 2,597,740 2,036,544 793,075 2,437,777 225,943

119752,597

ulalic

732,098 88,708 563,532 360,186 6,081,840 835,954 889,778 161,224 890,549 2,411,832 311,343 201,070 3,243,038

1,346,901 1,615,217 1,972,465 574,031 2,433,847

Sources: U.S. Postal Service- Federc Used by permlssio

All rights reserved.

Major Trading Partners, by Value in millions

Residentlol

638,252 770,225 433,732 576,308 510,889 161,348 780,087 1,137,158 1,517,694

1,109,546

988,635

395,425

285,195 1,573,006 139,582

1,682,814 195,045

492,523 189,618 177,954 1,722,018

256,119 6,809,813 1,322,720 4,860 3,405,601

863,046 664,844 3,886,526 362,644 586,883 177,283 1,177,702 3,416,383

712

National

Newspaper

Asi

;

1,540,966 85,017

269,533 195,099 554,472

1,052,847

1,050,731

266,399 742,346 71,516 37,892,883

382,587 851,493 61,746 52,429,234

59,237 608,234

American Telephone and Telegroph Co., The Editor

ciation;

49984 2,414,030 898,756 568,919 3,057,795 221,425 469,255 101,798 980,210 3,589,840 264,438 73,487 820,282

1,307,823 172,248

61,495,140

Communications Commissic .);

615,680

1,099,505 2,398,479 1,020,709 210,841 165,645 2,741,523 1,172,860 766,514 446,879 616,031 775,749 112,902 673,927 1,457,034 2,237,415 1,069,555 289,837 1,140,459 190,553 369,720 170,265 70,079 1,349,920 227,583 6,295,360 1,069,762

270,887

1,227,779 92,811

2,809

524,118 178,065 1,526,703 367,411

49,311

480,097 455,310 5,139,437 837,976 650,998 148,833

125,179 1,067,363 1,083,440

469,090 1,399

458,538 40,390 179,441 1,656,645 150,570 2,504,768

671,390

Corporation for Public Broadcasting.

&

Publishe

723

URUGUAY

upper Volta A republic of West Africa, Upper Volta is bordered by Mali, Niger, Benin, Togo, Ghana, and Ivory Coast. Area: 274,200 sq

km

(105,869 sq mi). Pop.

6,464,000. Cap. and largest city: Ouagadougou (pop., 1975 est., 168,600). Language: French (official). Religion: animist; Muslim and Christian minorities. President in 1978, Gen. Sangoule Lamizana; premiers. General Lamizana

(1978

est.);

Joseph Conombo. on April 30, 1978, marked a return to parliamentary democracy, under the and, from July

7,

Legislative elections

constitution approved in November 1977. With all parties allowed to participate, eight parties fielded 367 candidates for the 57 seats. However, the poll attracted only about

40%

of the electorate.

Four candidates contested the presidential

elec-

tion, including the incumbent president. Gen. Sangoule Lamizana. After an indecisive first round, Lamizana was reelected on May 28 with 56.2% of the vote. His chief rival, Macaire Ouedraogo, was considered to be a spokesman for former president Maurice Yameogo, who was deposed in 1966 and forbidden by law to take part

in the election.

On July 7, Joseph Conombo, a former minister in the French government, became premier of the first

government of the Third Republic of Upper He was elected by 29 votes, with one against

Volta.

and 27 abstentions, suggesting that the country's parliamentarians had not put aside their quarrels. (PHILIPPE decraene)

Vatican City

Education. (1976) Primary, pupils 382,759, teachers 15,679; secondary, pupils 141,731, teachers 13,980; vocationpupils (1975) 38,343, teachers (1973) 3,953; teacher training, students (1975) 3,997, teachers (1973) 341; higher, students 39,927, teaching staff 2,149. Finance. Monetary unit: new peso, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free commercial rate of 5.47 new pesos to U.S. $1 (12.68 new pesos £1 sterling). Gold, SDR's, and foreign exchange (June 1978) U.S. $469 million. Budget (1977 actual): revenue 2,937,500,000,000 new pesos; expenditure 3,177,100,000 new pesos. Cross domestic product (1976) 12,537,100,000 new pesos. Cost of living: (Montevideo; 1975 = 100; lune 1978) 335.2.

State

al,

=

Foreign Trade. (1977) imports U.S. $729.9 million; exports U.S. $607.5 million. Import sources: Brazil 13%; Argentina 12%; U.S. 10%; Iraq 9%; West Germany 7%; Nigeria 7%; U.K. 5%. Export destinations: Brazil 167o; U.S. 14%; West Germany 12%; The Netherlands 7%; Argentina 6%; U.K. 5%. Main exports: wool 20%; meat 18%,; hides

Upper Volta

5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1973; 49,634 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger c. 151,600; commercial (including buses) c 85,700. Railways (1976): 2,987 km; traffic 372 million passenger-km, freight (1975) 281 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 83 million passenger-km; freight 200,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 45; gross tonnage 192,792. Telephones (Ian. 1977) 258,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) 1.5 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1975) 351,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): wheat c. 160; corn c. 121; rice 228; sorghum c. 120; potatoes (1976) 166; sweet potatoes (1976) c 85; sugar, raw value (1976) 148; linseed 46; sunflower seed 34; apples (1976) c. 34; peaches (1976) c. 40; oranges c 43; wine c. 95; wool 38; beef and veal c. 314. Livestock (in 000; May 1977): cattle 10,241; sheep (1976) 15,974; pigs c. 310; horses (1976) c. 418; chickens (1976) c. 7,400. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): crude steel 15; cement 672; petroleum products 1,795; electricity (kw-hr) c. 2,800,000.

In February Gen. Gregorio Alvarez assumed as commander in chief of the armed forces (and hence virtual ruler of the country), but conflicts among army leaders continued. On June 27 the head of military intelligence. Gen. Amaury Prantl, was arrested (he had accused Alvarez and other officers of abuses). The Organization of American States refused Uruguay's offer to act as host to its 1978 General Assembly because of human-rights concerns. The government's market-oriented economic strategy continued to be based on export development. The low level of wages and the country's

power

UPPER VOLTA Education. (1977-78) Primary, pupils 160,528, teachers 3,204; secondary, pupils 16,992, teachers 710; vocational, pupils 3,213, teachers 174; teacher training, students 623, teachers 33; higher, students 1,673, teaching staff 124.

Finance. Monetary unit: CFA franc, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a par value of CFA Fr 50 to the French franc (free rate of CFA Fr 218.81 = U.S. $1; CFA Fr 428.75 = £1 sterling). Budget (1977 est.) balanced at CFA Fr 23.1 billion. Foreign Trade. (1976) Imports CFA Fr 34,420,000,000; exports CFA Fr 12,690,000,000. Import sources (1975): France 43%; Ivory Coast 207o; U.S. 7%. Export destinations (1975); Ivory Coast 48%; France 19%; Italy 77^; U.K. 6%;

Togo skins

Main exports (1975): livestock Tl%; cotton 16%; peanuts 15%;

5%,.

36%,; hides karite nuts

and 7%;

sesame seed 6%.

location

between Argentina and

Brazil

were

Vatican City

of-

fered as attractive advantages for foreign investors.

Uruguay A

republic of South America, Uruguay is on the Atlantic Ocean and is bounded by Brazil and Argentina. Area: 176,215 sq km (68,037 sq mi). Pop. (1977 est.): 2,814,000, including (1961) white 89%;

mestizo 10%. Cap. and largest city; Montevideo (pop., 1975, 1,229,700). Language: Spanish. Religion: mainly Roman Catholic. President in 1978, Aparicio Mendez. In December 1977 the government had ratified plans for a new constitution by 1980. Presidential elections, planned for 1981, would be restricted to one candidate chosen jointly by the two traditional parties, Partido Blanco and Partido Colorado.

New trade agreements were reached with Brazil and the European Economic Community, and exports to the U.S. increased. Economic growth for 1978 was expected to be about 3%. (marta bekermann de fainboim)

Vatican City State This independent sovereignty is surrounded by but is not part of Rome. As a state with territorial limits, it is properly distinguished from the Holy See, which constitutes the worldwide administrafive and legislative body for the Roman Catholic Church. The area of Vatican City is 44 ha (108.8 ac). Pop. (1978 est.): 729. As sovereign pontiff, John Paul II is the chief of state. Vatican City is

Universities:

see Education

urban Mass

Transit:

see Transportation u.S.S.R.:

see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

724

Venezuela

A throng

of

more than

50,000 mourners

jammed

St.

Peter's

Square on October 4 for the funeral of Pope lohn Paul The pope was enI.

tombed

in St. Peter's

Basilica.

administered by a pontifical commission of five cardinals, of which the secretary of state, Jean Car-

and

dinal Villot,

predominantly

is

president.

Three popes in a year, a pontificate that lasted only 34 days, and, for the first time, a Pole elected to the

Roman

pontificate

nary year. Pope Paul VI

made

1978 an extraordi-

Obituaries) showed signs of failing health in the spring when he did not take certain services during Holy Week. He addressed an anguished appeal to the members of the Red Brigades who had abducted the president of the Italian Christian Democrat Party, Aldo Moro, in March. He received Pres. Anwar as-Sadat of Egypt and King Hussein of Jordan and in July left for

his

summer

{see

residence of Castel Gandolfo,

where he died suddenly on August

An unusually brief conclave led

6.

unexpectedly to

the election on August 26 of the patriarch of Venice, Albino Cardinal Luciani, as Pope John Paul I. His smiling simplicity soon won him widespread popularity, but on September 28 he died in bed of a heart attack (see Obituaries). A new conclave

was summoned, and on October all

the forecasts,

it

16,

confounding

elected Karol Cardinal Wojtyla,

archbishop of Krakow, Poland, who chose the papal name John Paul II (see Biographies). (max bergerre) 5ee also Religion:

Roman

Catholic Church.

Venezuela A

republic of northern South America, Venezuela Brazil, Guyana, and the Caribbean Sea. Area: 899,180 sq km (347,175 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 13,122,000, including mestizo 69%; white 20%; Negro 9%; Indian 2%. Cap. is

bounded by Colombia,

est.,

largest city: Caracas (metro, area pop., 1978

2,755,000).

Language:

Spanish. Religion: President in 1978,

Roman Catholic.

Carlos Andres Perez. Political affairs in Venezuela in 1978 were dominated by the presidential election, held on December 3. The campaign opened on April 1 with eight candidates. Television personality Renny Ot-

who had announced his candidacy as an independent, had died in March in an air crash; in his place the former minister of information, Diego Arria Salicetti, stood as an antiparty candidate. tolina,

The principal issues of the campaign focused on housing, health, education, and the quality of public services. Under the constitution Pres. Carlos Andres Perez was prohibited from running for reelection until two intervening five-year presidential terms had passed. In the election Luis Herrera Campins, leader of the Social Christian Party (coPEi, equivalent of Christian Democratic), emerged

winner and was nominated as on December 4. His victory was a blow to the ruling Accion Democratica, whose candidate, Luis Pifiertia Ordaz, was supported by a clear

president-elect

President Perez.

Production of petroleum declined in 1978 and by October 9 had reached an average of only 2,130,000 bbl a day, compared with 2,280,000 bbl in the corresponding period of 1977. The fall in output caused concern about public finances, since the 1978 budget had been based on a production level of 2.2 million bbl a day. The budget was cut by about 6% overall to compensate for the loss of income, and when output recovered later in the year it was decided to base the 1979 budget on a conservative daily average of 2,170,000 bbl. The state oil company, Petroleos de Venezuela

(Petroven), placed emphasis on conserving stocks and exploration to compensate for declining reserves and to satisfy the increased demand for light and medium grades of crude oil. Offshore drilling was started in the Orinoco River delta with the

sinking in October of the

first

of six

deep

wells.

Other offshore projects were planned for the Golfo de la Vela and the Golfo Triste. Secondary recovery in existing oil fields was increased, and priority

was given to the expansion of the country's four major refineries in order to meet demand for lighter crudes.

No

were taken to develop the where reserves were es700,000,000,000 bbl, as compared with

further steps

Orinoco heavy-oil

belt,

timated at 60,000,000,000 bbl in the rest of the country, although an agreement was signed in October with West Germany for the study of extraction and processing techniques. Negotiations also began for the acquisition of a minority shareholding in the refineries

owned by Exxon and

Shell in

Aruba and

Zulia state. The latter was expected to supply the planned Zulia steelworks with four million tons of

725

Veterinary Science

coal annually as of 1980.

Increased imports of capital goods for developprojects and of consumer goods, coupled with reduced oil exports, caused serious concern over the balance of payments, which was expected to show a large deficit. Imports were forecast to exceed exports by about $2 billion, as compared with a small trade surplus in 1977. A ban was imposed on the importation of about 500 items, including nonessential domestic goods, but this was not expected to be sufficient. Lower rates of

ment

growth were expected and considered necessary to contain inflation, which grew at a rate of 6.8% in the

first

half of the year.

During the September disturbances in Nicaragua, Venezuela sent aircraft and guns to Costa Rica for defense purposes and pressed for the overthrow of Gen. Anastasio Somoza, president of Nicaragua. (sarah Cameron)

Curasao, respectively. In October the former minister of mines, Juan Pablo Perez Alfonzo, publicly

management of the nationalized oil industry by charging that Petroven sold oil below the prices of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and acted in response to foreign interests rather than those of its stockholders. Other projects started in 1978 included construction work on the Caracas underground railway and the formation of a coal-mining company in criticized the

VENEZUELA Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 1,990,123, teachers 63,198; secondary, pupils 583,163; vocational, pupils

34,240; teacher training, students 13,807; secondary, vocational, and teacher training, teachers 35,671; higher (197576), students 213,542, teaching staff 15,792.

Finance. Monetary

with (Sept. 18, 1978) a par value of 4.29 bolivares to U.S. $1 (free rate of 8.40 bolivares = £1 sterling). Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $6,240,000,000. Budget (1977 actual): revenue 40,506,000,000 bolivares; expenditure 49,984,000,000 bolivares. Gross national product (1976) 133,520,000,000 bolivares. Money supply (May 1978) 40,514,000,000 bolivares. Cost of living (Caracas; 1975 = 100; lune 1978) 122.7. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports (fob) c. 36,615,000,000 bolivares; exports Import 40,960,000,000 bolivares. sources (1976): U.S. 41%; West Germany 9%; lapan 8%; Italy 5%. Export destinations (1976): U.S. 33%; Netherlands Antilles 20%; Canada 13%. Main exports: crude oil 63%; petroleum products 33%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) 58,560 km. Motor vehicles m use (1975): passenger 955,200; commercial 369,400. Railways: (1976) 419 km; traffic (1971) 42 million passenger-km, freight 15 million net ton-km. Air traffic freight (1976): 2,538,000,000 passenger-km; 76,830,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 179; gross tonnage 639,396. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 742,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) 2,050,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1975) 1,284,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): corn c. 800; rice 508; sorghum c. 325; potatoes 190; cassava (1976) c. 353; sugar, raw valuer. 460; tomatoes c 102; sesame seed c. 80; bananas c. 1,050; oranges c. 258; coffee c. 40; cocoac. 17; tobacco c. 15; cotton, lintc, 19; beefand unit: bolivar,

c. 273. Livestock (in 000; 1977): cattle c. 9,654; pigs c. 1,997; sheep c. 104; goats c. 1,285; horses (1976) c. 457; asses (1976) c 557; poultry c 30,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): crude oil 116,821; natural gas (cu m) c. 11,300,000; petroleum products (1976) 40,019; iron ore (64% metal content) 13,684; cement (1976) 3,538; gold (troy oz; 1976) 16; diamonds (metric carats; 1976) 850; electricity (kw-hr; 1976)

veal

23,276,000.

Veterinary Science Worldwide, the number of veterinarians and veterinary schools continued to grow in 1978. There were indications that some Western countries,

among them Belgium and

Italy,

were

train-

ing more veterinarians than they could absorb. Australia also had a surplus, but it stemmed from the depression in cattle and sheep farming following long droughts. A continuing shortage of veterinary scientists in the third world was exacerbated because many graduates there preferred to work in the cities rather than in the rural areas where their services were most needed. An innovation with important implications for animal breeding was the availability for veterinary use of hormonal products with a potent effect on the female reproductive organs. Thus, in artificial insemination programs, prostaglandins or the synthetic prostaglandin analogue, cloprostenol, enabled estrus ("heat") to be synchronized in a number of animals, allowing inseminations to be

The two French

stallions

believed to have brought contagious equine metritis, a venereal disease of horses, into the U.S. are

Lyphard (left) and Caro. The disease was discovered

in

Kentucky

in

March and caused

losses of millions of dollars to

Thoroughbred horse breeders.

726

Newmarket, the main centre for Thoroughbred studs. The microorganism responsible for the disease was isolated, but it could not be identified with any known speresults kept in a central register at

Vietnam

cies.

British scientists therefore proposed

new species of the genus Hemophilus, is.

it

as a

H. equigenital-

Difficulties in positively eradicating the infec-

tion

led

to

insemination

would

renewed calls to allow artificial in Thoroughbred horses, which

effectively prevent the spread of the disease.

(edward boden) [353.C]

Vietnam The

Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a southeast Asian state bordered in the north by China, in the west by Laos and Cambodia, and in the south and east by the South China Sea. Area: 338,392 sq km

(130,654 sq mi). Pop. (1977

est.):

51,152,000. Capi-

Hanoi (pop., 1976est., 1,443,500). Largest city: Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon; pop., 1976 est., 3,460,500; government authorities report an estimated 700,000 people have been resettled outtal:

Two

litters

of test-tube

piglets were born in England in November. Embryos that had been fertilized in the U.S. were flown to Staffordshire, then transplanted

into

sows

side the city since 1976). Language: Vietnamese,

there.

at a planned time. Prostaglandins also made the technique of breeding by embryo transfer more feasible. Embryo transfer involves transferring a minute fertilized ovum from a mated cow to another in which it grows to term. Thus a pedigree

made

can be born to a nonpedigree mother. By using prostaglandins, veterinarians could ensure that a recipient cow is physiologically ready to accept an embryo from a donor animal. Swine fever (hog cholera) had been eradicated from many countries, but a related disease, Africalf

can swine fever, was appearing in a number of places outside the African continent. The virus responsible was carried in infected pork — harmless to humans — used in meals for aircraft passengers. The infection was passed on when uneaten meals and food scraps prepared in one country were fed to pigs in the country of destination. This was the cause of a serious outbreak of African swine fever in Brazil. Similarly, food waste from ships caused outbreaks in Malta and Sardinia. Incineration of such imported food waste would be necessary to eliminate the risk. The epidemiological patterns of other viral diseases, notably foot-and-mouth^ disease, were also influenced by the effects of longdistance transport, in this case by the growth of international trade in live cattle. Contagious equine metritis, a venereal disease of horses first found in Europe and Australia, traveled to the U.S., possibly from France. The U.S. Department of Agriculture placed restrictions on the movement of Thoroughbred horses from Kentucky for breeding purposes. Affected countries introduced rigorous control measures in an effort to stamp out the disease, which may cause sterility and spontaneous abortions. In the U.K. all breeding horses had to be tested for the infection and the

French, English. Religion: Buddhist, animist, Confucian, Christian (Roman Catholic), Hoa Hao and Cao Dai religious sects. Secretary of the Communist Party in 1978, Le Duan; president. Ton Due Thang; premier, Pham Van Dong. Border conflicts with Cambodia on the one side and China on the other kept Vietnam on tenterhooks for much of 1978. In late 1977 some 60,000 men had been thrown into a punitive strike against Cambodia, although Vietnam's main-line forces had not been involved and the Cambodians

VIETNAM Education. (1975-76) Primary, pupils 7,403,715, teachsecondary and vocational, pupils 2,915,753, teachers 108,454; higher, students 80,323, teaching staff 9,642. Finance. Monetary unit; dong, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of 2.18 dong to U.S. $1 (4.27 dong = £1 sterling). Budget (1977 est) balanced at 8,950,000,000 dong. Foreign Trade. (1976) imports c. U.S. $900 million; exports U.S. $300 million. Import sources: U.S.S.R. c. 33%; China c. 11%; Japan c 19%; East Germany c. 5%. Export destinations: U.S.S.R. c. 28%; China c. 17%; Japan c. 15%; ers 204,988;

Hong Kong c. 7%; East Germany c. 7%; Singapore c. 6%. Main exports (1974): clothing c. 10%; fish c. 107o: rubber c. 10%; coal c. 5%; beverages c 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1977) c. 60,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger c. 100,000; commercial (including buses) c 200,000. Railways:

c 4,230 km; traffic (South only; 1973) 170 million passenger-km, freight 1.3 million net ton-km. Air traffic (South only; 1975): 120 million passenger-km; freight 1 million net ton-km. Navigable waterways (1976) c. 6,000 km. Telephones (South only; Dec, 19731 47,000. Radio (1977)

1976) c. 5 million. Television receivers (Dec. 1976) c. 2 million. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): rice 11,250: sweet potatoes (1976) c. 1,200; cassava (1976) c. 1,150; bananas c. 510; tea (1976) c. 9; coffee (1976) c. 8; tobacco c. 21; jute c. 31; rubber (1976) c 20; pork c. 425; timber (cu m; 1976) 18,832: fish catch (1976) c. 1,010. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c 1,850; buffalo c. 2,260; pigs c 11,500; chickens c. 56,000; ducks c. 36,000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): coal c. 4,250; cement c. 700; salt c. 350; phosphate rock c. 1,4(X); phosphate fertilizers (1976-77) c. 110; electricity (kw-hr) receivers (Dec.

c.

2,500,000.

beat back the attack. Subsequently, thousands of former cadres demobilized after the Vietnam war were brought back into service, and by midyear some nine divisions were said to be battle-ready along the border. There were no immediate military moves, however; instead, emphasis was placed on propaganda. By April direct exhorta-

were going out to Cambodian soldiers to turn guns on "the present power-holders in Penh." Military activity was resumed in late November, leading to speculation that Vietnam was beginning a dry-season offensive. In early December Radio Hanoi announced the formation of a Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation dedicated to the overthrow of the Pol Pot government. By year's end Vietnamese forces had reportedly penetrated deep into Cambodian territory. Sino-Vietnamese relations were strained by tions their

Phnom

support for the otherwise friendless regime, as well as by a dispute over Vietnam's treatment of its ethnic Chinese minority. The ideological base for what developed into a campaign against ethnic Chinese was a decision by the Ho Chi Minh City People's Committee in China's

Phnom Penh

March

to

implement the policy

of "socialist trans-

formation of private industry and commerce in the southern provinces." This was to be achieved by "abolishing capitalist trade and shifting capitalist traders to production." By month's end some 30,000 private businessmen in the city — a vast majority of them Chinese — had ceased their activities. In the north rumours spread that war between Viet-

nam and China was imminent. The result was an exodus of Chinese from Vietnam, on foot through high passes along the northern border and by fishing boat across the Gulf of Thailand. Checkpoints in the north became scenes Vietnamese and Chinese faced each other, sometimes trading abuses, sometimes of high tension as

and sometimes shots. The escapees who prebecame part of a mostly tragic saga. Scores of overcrowded boats miraculously turned up in ports as far away as Australia; some of the refugees were picked up at sea, and an unknown number were lost without a trace. China protested vehemently and warned of grave consequences. In June two Chinese ships left Canton to take stranded refugees to the "motherland" but were not allowed to enter Vietnamese waters. In July China officially announced it had canceled its entire aid program to Vietnam. Chinese media charged that the Soviet Union was the instigator of trouble, while Hanoi roundly accused China of masterminding both the atrocities inside Cambodia and the border fighting between Cambodia and Vietnam. The bitter feuding with its Communist neighbours evidently forced Hanoi to reactivate its vast military machine. In midyear Radio Hanoi reported that regional armed units of battalion and regimental size had been set up in areas northeast of Hanoi. By August there were reports of a "general mobilization." The party newspaper Nhan Dan said that five million young people aged from 18 to 30 had been registered for a new paramilitary organization called the National Task Force. rocks,

ferred the sea routes

Another consequence was a reassessment by Hanoi of its relations with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (asean). Gone were the days when Vietnam saw the regional grouping as a U.S. conspiracy. In an all-out effort to cement relations with the asean countries. Premier Pham Van Dong made personal visits to them in September-October. He repeatedly pledged that Vietnam would not support insurgents in other countries — a promise that was greeted with particular enthusiasm in Thailand. On the whole, however, ASEAN countries were cautious. Hanoi's search for support was by no means

The wofst floods to Vietnam in 35 years

hit

damaged over half a million homes and killed more than 100 people. Workers struggle to rescue a rice crop in the village of

Hoang Long.

confined to Southeast Asia. In the first half of the year some 30 delegations visited foreign capitals from Bonn to Baghdad. Vietnam appealed to the U.S. for normalization of relations "without conditions." It asked all countries for help in coping with a cereals deficit of some two million tons and, in

September,

for assistance in fighting floods.

It

took loans from the International Monetary Fund and the Japanese Fund for External Economic Cooperation and joined the Soviet bloc Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) in mid-

The

any assistance, but several other Western countries and the World Bank showed a willingness to help. In May the government announced the unification of northern and southern currencies. The new year.

U.S. continued to refuse

dong's value against foreign currencies was unchanged at about 2.18 dong to a U.S. dollar. Simultaneously, a campaign was launched to limit the supply of money; all citizens were told how much cash they could keep and that anything above the limit would be confiscated unless a satisfactory explanation could be given. (t. j. s. george) See also China.

Virgin Islands:

see Dependent States Vital Statistics:

see Demography Volleyball:

see Court Games

Wages and Hours: see Economy, World; Industrial Relations

Wales: see United Kingdom

Warsaw

Treaty Or-

ganization:

see Defense

Water Resources: see Earth Sciences;

Environment

728 Calif.

,

who campaigned on behalf of three regional

sponsors.

Water Sports

gave phy,

Motorboating. Defending world offshore power-

the late

boat racing champion Betty Cook became in 1978 the first woman to win the United States driving title. The Newport Beach, Calif., resident trailed Joey Ippolito of HoUandale, Fla., by 220 points going into the season's final race, the Guy Lombardo Gold Cup, at Freeport, N.Y. But Ippolito was forced from the race by engine trouble, and Cook drove her 38-ft Scarab, "Kaama," to victory, taking the U.S. title, 1 ,700 points to 1 ,520 for Ippolito. The North and South American continental championships went to Billy Martin of Clark, N.J., who swept eight of his first ten races during the year, in Argentina, Uruguay, Panama, and the U.S. Cook, Martin, and Ippolito were selected to be the U.S. entries in the world offshore championships, scheduled to be held in Argentina. Both Cook and Ippolito drove 38-ft Scarabs, Cook's powered by twin Mercruiser 482s and Ippolito's by Kickhaefer Aeromarine 454s. Martin's "Bounty Hunter" was a superlight Cigarette, also Mercruiser-powered and formerly owned by designer Don

Aronow. In unlimited hydroplane racing, veteran driver Muncey in 1978 maintained his domination of

Bill

He won

the seven races on the circuit, his seventh Gold Cup at Owensboro, Ky., and the 50th unlimited victory of his career. He lost only the Tri-Cities, Wash., Regatta, when his Rolls-Royce-powered "Atlas Van Lines" developed engine trouble and Ron Snyder drove his "Miss Budweiser" to victory. Muncey's 50th win and his 50th birthday both occurred during the annual regatta in San Diego, Calif., in September. Three new racing teams joined the unlimited circuit during the year. They were Squire Shops of Seattle, Wash., Circus Circus of Las Vegas, Nev.,

the sport.

six of

and Chuck King and Roger Janke Betty

Cook

of

Newport

Beach, California, set a new record of 77.42 miles per hour in winning the 230-mile

Cowes-Torquay England

"in

race in

August.

of

Orange,

The Unlimited Hydroplane Commission

highest award, the J. Lee Schoenith Troto Ole Bardahl. The only other winner was

its

Guy Lombardo.

Ken Magoon postponed

his attempt to set a

new

powerboat speed record. He cited technical problems and said he would make the transatlantic

attempt in the early

summer

of 1979.

(albert w. limburg) River Sports. The fastest-growing of the river was rafting, with greatly improved equipment becoming generally available. Also during the year U.S. canoeists and kayakers were venturing onto the nation's more challenging white-water rivers in increasing numbers. The era of the familiar heavy, bulbous canoe might be sports during 1978

passing. Several sleek, straight-sided models de-

signed by naval architects and built of new synthetic materials were introduced in 1978. A long debate over the Boundary Waters Canoe Area in northern Minnesota culminated in the passage of new federal legislation conferring official "Wilderness" status on a large portion of the region.

A

landmark park-management proposal, de-

signed to limit access to the Grand Canyon in Arizona, received widespread public response; a rewrite of the plan was subsequently scheduled.

The 14th world held

in

flat-water

Belgrade,

Yugos.

championships were East Germany and

Czechoslovakia dominated the various canoeing races. The U.S. team made a surprisingly strong showing, with Brent Turner and Steve Kelly from the men's team and Leslie Klein and Ann Turner from the women's placing in the top ten in their events. In the U.S. national whitewater competition, held in North Carolina in May, Eric Evans won the men's kayaking class for the ninth time. Marathon racing, the "citizens' racing" of canoeing and kayaking, grew quickly in 1978, and

and kayaking

might be the

sport's biggest

form

of racing in

terms

of

number

were

of participants. Maratfion races

usually held on relatively moderate rivers, and there were enough different classes to accommodate boats of almost every description. (eric leaper) Water Skiing. Great Britain's Mike Hazelwood continued in 1978 to assert his mastery over the world's best water skiers by adding the Australian Moomba Masters and the U.S. Masters overall tithe world championship he captured in Cindy Todd of Pierson, Fla., the world womchampion, also won the overall in the two

tles to

1977.

en's

her bid for the U.S. national open overall crown to her teammate Deena Brush of West Sacramento, Calif.

Masters tournaments, but she

lost in

In the U.S. national championships at Tivoli Gardens, Mich., in August, IJrush won both the

slalom and jumping events. Cyndi Benzel of Prior Lake, Minn., won the national open women's

Ricky McCormick of Winter Haven, defended his U.S. national open overall title in the men's competition, but the individual events were won by Bob LaPoint of Castricks

title.

Fla., successfully

tro Valley, Calif., in slalom,

Lake,

Cory Pickos

and Robert Kempton

Fla., in tricks,

of Eagle of

Tam-

pa, Fla., in jumping. Todd moved back into the winner's circle at the Group I (Western Hemisphere) Championships in

September and

new world women's slalom Brush won the jumping title,

set a

record of 58 buoys. while Maria Victoria Carrasco, the world women's tricks champion from Caracas, Venezuela, won in her specialty. Carlos Suarez of Caracas, who held the men's world tricks title, scored a record 7,950 points in tricks that gave him the edge in the Group 1 men's overall competition. McCormick won jumping, and LaPoint took the slalom. U.S. skiers won the team title, just as they had at the 1977 world meet, with Venezuela second and

Canada

third.

(thomas

c.

hardman)

Surfing. The International Professional Surfing Association 1977 season ended with South Africa's Shaun Tomson capturing first place in the Hawaiian Tropic World Cup. This achievement carried

him

to the top spot in the ips ratings,

of 5,948 points.

Wayne Bartholomew

with a

total

of Australia

finished a strong second with 5,385 points. Among the total of 51 professional surfers. South Africans,

Hawaiians, and Australians gained the

first

18

places.

The seventh world amateur surfing championships were held under the auspices of the International Professional Surfing Association at Nahoon Reef, East London, South Africa, July 3-14, 1978. Participating were teams from the U.S. (except Hawaii), South Africa, the U.K., France, and Hawaii. Political problems prevented Australia from competing and dampened the ardour of the contestants. Anthony Brodowicz, surfing brilliantly in six-foot classic waves, won the championship (jack Flanagan) for South Africa. Water Polo. As they had done at the 1976 Olympic Games, Hungary and Italy battled it out for the top spot at the third world water polo championships, held in West Berlin in August. The the two perennial powers ended deadlocked 4-4, but a tie was all Italy needed to

game between

win lier

the gold medal as Hungary had been tied earby the U.S.S.R. Yugoslavia defeated the

729

Western Samoa

two teams finished third and The U.S. team continued its comeback effort by finishing fifth, followed by Romania, West Germany, and Bulgaria. Notably absent from the top finishers was The Netherlands, which fell from 3rd in Montreal to 13th. U.S.S.R. 6-4 as those fourth.

For the

first

time ever a major international tour-

nament was held in North America, as Canada, Mexico, and the United States acted as joint hosts for the first annual Can-Am-Mex series. Seven countries competed, with Hungary capturing first with a record of 16 wins, 1 loss, and 1 tie. Yugoslavia took second place, followed by West Germany and the United States. The men's Amateur Athletic Union outdoor na-

championship was once again won by Conas Walter Bricker led his team to a 5-4 victory over runner-up West Valley. The 1977 National Collegiate Athletic Association championships were held in the East for the first time, with tional

cord,

Brown University

in Providence, R.I., acting as won the

host. University of California (Berkeley)

tournament with good team play, while California (Irvine) paced by Gary Figueroa, took second. Stanford took third-place honours, with Pepperdine finishing fourth to complete a California (WILLIAM ENSIGN FRADy) sweep.

Western Samoa A

constitutional

Commonwealth

monarchy and member of the Western Samoa is an

of Nations,

island group in the South Pacific Ocean, about 2,600 km E of New Zealand and 3,500 km S of

Hawaii. Area: 2,849 sq km (1,100 sq mi), with two major islands, Savai'i (1,813 sq km) and Upolu (1,036 sq km), and seven smaller islands. Pop. (1977 est.): 153,000. Cap. and largest city: Apia (pop., 1976 census, 32,100). Language: Samoan and English. Religion (1976): Congregational 50% Roman Catholic 22%, Methodist 16%, others 12%. Head of state (O le Ao o le Malo) in 1978, Malietoa Tanumafili II; prime minister, Tupuola

Western Samoa

,

Tufuga Efi. During 1978 Western Samoa enjoyed a continued recovery from the economic low point of 1975. Rising copra and cocoa prices and increased Taisi

production helped to offset the loss in remittance income caused by a decline in the number of mi-

WESTERN SAMOA Education. (1977) Primary, pupils 41,280, teachers 1,346; secondary, pupils 9,087, teachers 468; vocational, pupils 231, teachers 48; teacher training, students 427, teachers 20.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit: tala,

with (Sept. 18,

1978) a free rate of 0.59 tala to U.S. $1 (1.17 tala = £1 Budget (1976 est): revenue 16,255,000 tala; expenditure 16,321,000 tala. Foreign trade (1977): imports 32,254,000 tala; exports 11,577,000 tala. Import sources: New Zealand 29%; Australia 17%; Japan 15%; U.S. 9%; West Germany 8%; Fiji c 5%; Singapore 5%. Export destisterling).

West Germany 46%; New Zealand 16%; The Netherlands 10%; U.S. 10%; Japan 7%. Main exports:

Weather: see Earth Sciences

Weight

Lifting:

see Gymnastics and

Weight

Lifting

nations:

cocoa 51%; copra 40%.

Welfare: see Social and Welfare Services

730

Winter Sports

grants working in New Zealand. There was continued emphasis on increasing the productivity of village agriculture and on discouraging dependence on imports. Government revenue was expected to rise by 18% to reach $22 million, sufficient to allow a slight surplus on the budget and some $6 million for development projects. Foreign aid grants, mostly from New Zealand and Australia, totaled $8.6 million. A new shipping venture (related to the development of the South Pacific Forum shipping line) was to be financed by

West Germany. Prime Minister Tupuola to attend the

Efi

traveled to Australia

Commonwealth heads of government

regional meeting in Sydney in February. While there he called for the involvement of all interested countries (including the U.S.) in the proposed South Pacific Forum joint agency for the management of 200-mi economic zones in the Southwest Pacific; it was a viewpoint that was not universally

popular with his Forum colleagues. (barrie

macdonald)

Winter Sports The major sports on snow and worldwide expansion during

ice

continued their More indoor

1978.

rinks brought a general increase in the number of skaters and curlers. Improved tracks in Europe and the U.S. added to the facilities for bobsledders and tobogganists. Winter resorts throughout the world lured even more skiers. Skiing. The respective organizers of the Alpine and Nordic competitions cooperated more than in previous years. There was a marked increase in cross-country long-distance in participation Hanni Wenzel was the first skier from Liechtenwin the women's World Cup, stein ever to

awarded on the

basis of

events spread over a period of

a series of skiing

four months.

events outside their traditional northern European stronghold, particularly in North America.

Alpine Racing. The 12th World Cup series, generally considered more prestigious than the biennial world championships — the former measuring consistency throughout a season as opposed

form at one meeting — consisted of 23 men's and 23 women's events spread over four months of meetings in Austria, France, Italy, Switzerland, to

West Germany, and Yugoslavia. Supreme in both slalom and giant slalom, Ingemar Stenmark (see Biographies) of Sweden took the U.S.,

the men's trophy for a third successive time, again without even attempting a downhill race. Phil Mahre of the U.S. and Andreas Wenzel of Liechtenstein finished second

and

third.

Franz Klammer

Austria was once more the outstanding downhiller, the results underlining a growing tendency to specialize. Stenmark won his 28th World Cup race — the men's record — since joining the circuit in 1974, having finished among the top three in 54 of 72 races entered. Hanni Wenzel, sister of Andreas, became the first winner from Liechtenstein of the women's

of

World Cup. Hers was, however, a somewhat hollow victory over Austria's Annemarie Proell-Moser, who would have won her sixth trophy by five points had she not been disqualified from one event when her ski suit did not conform with new regulations. Lise-Marie Morerod of Switzerland, the defending champion, finished third after again proving best in giant slalom. Wenzel topped the slalom list and Moser the downhill. Moser extended her seemingly untouchable career record number of World Cup race wins to 51, including 28 in the downhill.

The concurrently decided Nations' Cup was for the sixth consecutive year by Austria, again topping both men's and women's standings. Switzerland was runner-up for a fourth straight year, and the U.S. finished third.

won

Thirty-five nations sent 304 competitors (192 to the 25th world champion-

men, 112 women)

ships in Alpine events at Garmisch-Partenkirchen. West Germany, on January 29-February 5. Approximately 170,000 spectators attended, and the men's downhill alone drew nearly 50,000, a record for an Alpine competition. Stenmark gained two gold medals, decisively winning the giant slalom with more than two seconds to spare from runner-up Wenzel and his Willi compatriot, Liechtenstein third-placed Frommelt. Stenmark's other victory was in the slalom, which he won by more than half a second from Piero Gros of Italy; Paul Frommelt, brother of Willi, finished third. Josef Walcher of Austria won the downhill, only 0.07 sec ahead of Michael Veith of West Germany, with another Austrian, Werner Grissmann, third. Wenzel won the Alpine combination, with Josef Ferstl (West Germany) and Pete Patterson (U.S.) second and third; Stenmark did not qualify because he did not compete in the

downhill. In the women's events Moser took gold medals in the downhill and combination and also gained a bronze in the giant slalom,

which was won nar-

rowly by Maria Epple (West Germany) from Morerod. Second and third in the downhill were Irene Epple, sister of Maria, and Doris De Agostini (Switz.). Lea Solkner of Austria

won

the slalom

West Germany. Another Austrian, Monika Kaserer, was third despite making the fastest second run. Wenzel and Fabienne Serrat from Pamela Behr

of

90-m jumping, followed by Alois Lipburger (Austria) and Falko Weisspflog (East Germany). The 70-m jump was an unexpected success for another East German, Mathias Buse, relegating his more experienced compatriot, Henry Glass, to second place ahead of Aleksey Borovitin

731

lar

(U.S.S.R.).

Zinaida Amosova gained two gold medals and one bronze in the women's cross-country events, winning both the 10 km and 20 km and helping the Soviet team to finish third in the 4 X 5-km relay, behind the Finnish victors and East Germany. Helena Takalo won the 5 km from her fellow Finn Hilkka Riihivuori, with Raisa Smetanina (U.S.S.R.) third. Smetanina and Riihivuori reversed the order in the 10 km behind Galina Kulakova, the veteran Soviet winner of four

Olympic gold medals. East German ski-shooters dominated the world biathlon championships, held from February 27 to March 5 at Hochfilzen, Austria. Frank Ulrich, key racer in the team relay victory, also won the 10 km and placed second in the 20 km behind Odd Lirhus of

Norway.

Other Events.

Professional freestyle, the highpopular form of spectacular acrobatic and balletic skiing, made more headway in North America than in Europe. The men's World Trophy was retained by John Eaves ly specialized, increasingly

Canada, and the women's was captured by Genia Fuller of the U.S. Steven McKinney of the U.S. broke the world speed skiing record on July 14, hurtling down a glacier above Cervinia, Italy,

of

Soviet skaters Irina Rodnina and Aleksandr Zaitsev won their sixth consecutive victory in the pairs title in the world figure skating championships in Ottawa in March.

at 123.044

mph.

Ice Skating.

Although increased

cost tended to

of France finished second and third in the combined. But for Moser, members of the Wenzel

reduce the number of new rinks run by private enterprise, a trend to municipal ownership result-

family would have taken corresponding men's and

women's titles. Andre Arnold

ed in new facilities close to many people who had previously been without them. Figure Skating. All four titles were defended, but only one retained — indeed a rarity — at the

matt, runner-up for the third time. Jim Hunter of third. The first women's professional title, decided over three events, went to Lyndall

world figure and dance championships in Ottawa on March 7-11, involving 106 skaters from 19 nations. Higher and more difficult jumps were a main feature of a men's event, which ended so near to a three-way tie that the new champion, Charles

of Austria attained the world professional title on the North American 13-event circuit, defeating the Swiss favourite, Josef Oder-

Canada was Heyer

(U.S.), ahead of Judy Nagel (U.S.) and Toril Forland (Norway). Nordic Events. The 32nd world championships in Nordic events at Lahti, Fin., on February 17-26, were contested by 370 competitors (285 men, 85 women) from 28 nations; 173,500 specta-

A highlight of the tournament was the winning of medals for the first time by crosscountry racers from Poland and France. Josef Luszczek was Polish victor in the 15 km, more than two tors attended.

seconds ahead of Evgeny Belyaev (U.S.S.R.) and Juha Mieto (Fin.). Sergey Saveliev and Nikolai of the U.S.S.R. took the first two places km, Luszczek finishing third. Sven-Ake Lundback (Sweden) won the grueling 50 km from Belyaev, with Frenchman Jean-Paul Pierrat placing third. Sweden, Finland, and Norway finished in that order in the 4 X 10-km relay. Konrad Winkler and Ulrich Wehling of East Germany finished first and third in the Nordic combination, with Rauno Miettinen of Finland placing second.

Zimyatov in the 30

Tapio Raisanen of Finland

won

the spectacu-

Tickner of the U.S., was placed first by only two of the nine judges. Four placed Jan Hoffmann of East Germany in front and three chose Britain's Robin Cousins, but the complex scoring system marginally favoured Tickner. Despite this en-

and the humbling of Vladidefending the fourth-placed champion from the U.S.S.R., the little-known Vern Taylor of Canada, who finished only 12th, almost overshadowed all others by achieving the first triple axel jump in international competition — a mighty leap from a forward takeoff involving three and a half midair rotations. Tickner reached thralling cliff-hanger

mir

Kovalev,

with a combination of two great triple toe jumps joined by a three turn. Hoffmann might have succeeded to the title had he not fallen from a triple lutz. Cousins landed three triples and was adjudged the best of all in free skating, losing only because he was narrowly outscored in figures. Anett Potzsch became the third East German to capture the women's title. Linda Fratianne, the his peak

loop

Winter Sports

732

Winter Sports

A new the

course record

in

two-man bobsled

event was set

at

Lake

New York, in February by the Swiss Placid,

team of Erich Scharer and losef Benz. They drove the course in 1:05.12.

champion, clearly outpointed U.S. Potzsch in the free skating but could not close the

tive victory for this pair,

gap established by the new titleholder in the figures. Mindful of her initial advantage, Potzsch proceeded with caution but clinched the issue with two characteristic triple salchow jumps. Although the technical highlights of the third-place finisher, Susanna Driano of Italy, were almost flawless, her linking footwork and choreographic presentation were not so impressive. Several records were shattered when Aleksandr Zaitsev and Irina Rodnina retained, with apparent

Randy Gardner and Tai Babilonia. The most surprising title upset occurred

ease, the pairs title they first gained in 1973.

The

provided five action-packed minutes with admirable cohesion, excelling with a triple twist lift, throw axel, death spiral, and superbly timed double jumps. It was the sixth consecuslick Soviet pair

The U.S. curling rink, shown here in action,

7

won

the 20th world curling championship Winnipeg, Manitoba, April.

i

ii

two more than any other, but for Rodnina it was a tenth straight win — including four with her previous partner, Aleksey Ulanov. This equaled the largest number of world victories in any figure skating event, a distinction shared with two great pre- World War II soloists, Sonja Henie (Norway) and Ulrich Salchow (Sweden). A keen tussle for second place was won by the East Germans, Uwe Bewersdorff and Manuela Mager, edging out the more spectacular U.S. pair.

deposed

8 9

10

II

in the

dance when Gennadi Karponosov and Natalia Linichuk dethroned their Soviet compatriots Andrey Minekov and Irina Moiseyeva, who placed ice

second. Warren Maxwell and Janet Thompson of the U.K., second-place finishers in 1977, slipped to fourth behind their long-standing Hungarian rivals, Andras Sallay and Krisztina Regoczy. The international ice stage made way for the understudies when 81 skaters from 21 countries took part in the first official world junior championships, on March 21-25 at Megeve, France.

by age to 16 for singles and Canadians were most successful, with Dennis Coi winning the boys' event and Paul Marini and Barbara Underhill the pairs. Jill Sawyer of the U.S. took the girls' title, and the ice dance went to Sergey Panomarenko and Tatiana Durasova of the U.S.S.R. Speed Skating. Eric Heiden of the U.S. retained the men's world speed championship in Goteborg, Sweden, on February 25-26. Jan Egil Storholt of Norway was again runner-up, with Sergey Marchuk (U.S.S.R.) third. Heiden won three of the

With entrants

limited

18 for doubles,

four events, the 10,000 veteran Sten Stensen.

m going to the Norwegian

The women's world speed championship, in Helsinki on March 4-5, was dominated by Eastern Europeans. Tatyana Averina, who took two Olympic gold medals in 1976, won from her Soviet compatriot Galina Stepanskaya, with Marion Dittmann third for East Germany. Averina won the two middle distance events and Dittmann the

3,000

m, but the 500

m

went

to

another Soviet

skater, Valentina Golovenkina. The separate world sprint titles for

men and

contested on February 11-12 over the new Olympic circuit at Lake Placid, N.Y., were won,

women

,

respectively,

by Heiden and Liubov Sadchikova of

the U.S.S.R.

Three new world records were established. In March, Heiden lowered the 3,000 m to 4 min 7.01 sec at Inzell, West Germany, and reduced the 1,000 m to 1 min 14.99 sec at Savalen, Norway. In April, Khalida Vorobyeva of the U.S.S.R. clocked the women's 1,500 m in 2 min 7.18 sec at Medeo, Alma-Ata, U.S.S.R. Bobsledding. Highlight of the season was a the renovated Mt. Van Lake Placid, suitably improved for the 1980 Olympic events with two years to spare and in time to stage the 45th world championships on February 4-12. This event attracted competitors from 13 nations. The titles were retained by the defending champions. East Germasuccessful

testing

Hoevenberg track

of

three years for the U.S., which had defeated Tom Schaeffer's Swedish defending champions 6-5 in the semifinals. Norway made its first appearance in the final round after pulling the surprise of the tournament with a 6-2 triumph over Mike Chernoff' s Canadian rink in the other semifinal. Spectators at the final numbered 9,172 and a record 102,193 attended the seven-day tournament. Canada, represented by a Calgary rink skipped by Paul Gowsell, retained the fourth world junior 21), sponsored by Uniroyal Grindelwald, Switz., on March 11-17. Scotland was runner-up with Sweden and Norway third Howard bass) and fourth, respectively. (

See also

Hockey.

[452.B.4.g-hJ

Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of A

memory

Ice

at

of the

world champion (1949 Schonau, Scharer also defeated a

of the U.S.

1950). Like

compatriot who was the title defender, Hans Hiltebrand, this time humbled in fourth spot be-

hind runner-up Nehmer and the third-placed West German sled driven by Jakob Resch.

Tobogganing. Paul Hildgartner of Italy won the men's title in the 24th world luge championships on a fast, tightly curved track in Imst, Austria, on January 21-22. Close runner-up was Anton Winkler of West Germany, ahead of the third-placed Austrian veteran Manfred Schmid. Vera Sosulya achieved a women's victory for the U.S.S.R., followed by Andrea Fendt of West Germany and Angelika Schafferer from Austria. Swiss riders achieved grand slams in both the major classic events for skeleton tobogganists on the Cresta Run at St.-Moritz, Switz. Christian Nater won the 69th Grand National over the full course, with Bruno Bischofberger runner-up. Third was Gianni Bibbia, son of Nino, winner of the event a record eight times and, remarkably at 55, the sixth-place finisher. The 55th Curzon Cup from Junction was regained by Poldi Berchtold, the 1975 victor and holder of the track record, with runner-up Urs Nater followed by his brother. Christian. Curling. The 20th world curling championship for the Air Canada Silver Broom, in Winnipeg, Man., from March 27 to April 2, was won by a U.S. rink from Superior, Wis., comprising Bob Nichols, Bill Strum, Tom Locken, and Bob Christman. They beat Kristian Soerum's rink from Norway 6—4 in the final. It was the second title in

of

at

Horst Schonau steered the winning East German four-man sled with an aggregate time for the four runs 0.17 sec faster than the Swiss runnersup, driven by Erich Scharer. Meinhard Nehmer, the defending champion, finished third. Scharer proved to be the outstanding rider of the meeting, not only capturing the two-man title with brakeman Josef Benz, but setting new track records in both events and thereby earning the Stan Benham Memorial Trophy, awarded annually in

lie

championship (under

ny and Switzerland.

and

733

Yemen, People's Democratic Repub-

people's republic in the southern coastal region Arabian Peninsula, Yemen (Aden) is bor-

Yemen (San'a'), Saudi Arabia, and Area: 287,680 sq km (111,074 sq mi). Pop. 1,797,000. Cap. and largest city: Aden (pop., 1973, 132,500). Language; Arabic. Religion: Muslim. Chairmen of the Presidential Council in 1978, Salem Ali Rubayyi until June 26, Ali Nasir

dered by

Oman. (1977

est.):

m People's Democratic Republic of Yemen

Muhammad

Husani from July 1, and Abd-al Fattah Ismail from December 27; prime minister from Ali Nasir Muhammad Husani. July 1, In 1978 the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (Aden; South Yemen) increased its pro-Soviet orientation following elimination of the relatively moderate Pres. Salem Ali Rubayyi. In January and February South Yemen forces were involved in serious border clashes with Saudi Arabia. The Saudis were alarmed over events in the Horn of Africa, where Cuban-trained South Yemen troops were supporting the Ethiopians while Aden was being used as a staging area for Soviet arms and

YEMEN, PEOPLE'S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF Education. (1974-75) Primary, pupils 196,466, teachers 6,467; secondary, pupils 38,389, teachers 1,656; vocationpupils 676, teachers (1973-74) 142; teacher training, students 631, teachers 47; higher, students 934, teaching

al,

staff 92.

Finance and Trade. Monetary

unit:

Yemen

dinar, with

(Sept. 18, 1978) a par value of 0.345 dinar to U.S. $1 (free £1 sterling). Budget (1976-77 actual):

rate of 0.68 dinar

=

revenue 24,760,000 dinars; expenditure 39,150,000 dinars. Foreign trade (1976): imports 115.7 million dinars; exports 61.2 million dinars. Import sources: Kuwait c. 13%; |apan c. 10%; U.K. 6%. Export destinations: Canada c. 71%; Japan c. 9%. Main export: petroleum products 83%. Transport. Roads (1976) 10,494 km (including 1,356 km with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 11,900; commercial (including buses) 10,500. There

no railways. Shipping traffic (1974): goods loaded 2,308,000 metric tons, unloaded 3,780,000 metric tons. Agriculture. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1976): millet and sorghum c 65; wheat c. 12; watermelons c. 38;

are

dates 41; cotton, lint c. 3; fish catch c. 127. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c. 102; sheep c. 930; goats c. 1,230; camels c. 40; chickens c. 1,400. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): petroleum products c. 1,760; salt c. 75; electricity (kw-hr) c.

180,000.

Wood

Products: see Industrial Review

World Bank: see Economy, World Wrestling: see Combat Sports

Yachting:

see Sailing

734

Yemen Arab Republic

Cuban ing the

troops en route to Ethiopia. However, durfirst part of the year there were still tenta-

moves toward rapprochement with Saudi Arabia and other conservative Arabian states, sponsored by the president but opposed by the powerful secretary-general of the United Political Organization, Abd-al Fattah Ismail. tive

The

split

was worsened by

tention to merge

all political

Ismail's declared in-

forces into a single

Marxist Vanguard Party. The power struggle came to a head following the murder on June 24 of the Yemen Arab Republic's president, Ahmad al-

Ghashmi, by

a

bomb carried by an envoy of Presi-

On

dent Ali Rubayyi.

June

26, after fighting in

Aden, Ismail emerged victorious and Ali Rubayyi and two of his ministers were executed. Ali Nasir Muhammad Husani, chairman of the Presidential Council from July 1 remained prime minister after Ismail's election as chairman on December 27. (peter Mansfield) ,

dullah Saleh, was elected president by the Assembly on July 17. President Saleh, a member of the powerful Hashed tribal confederation, endeavoured to ease the chronic tension between northern tribesmen and urban political groups by bringing tribal leaders into the Assembly. An attempted coup by dissident army officers on October 15 failed, and on November 5, 12 of the 13 convicted participants were executed. Difficult relations

with South Yemen were ex-

acerbated by the assassination. North Yemen exonerated the South Yemen president, Salem Ali Rubayyi, who was himself executed in a coup on June 26, and blamed the militant Marxists who now dominated the Aden regime. Relations with Saudi Arabia remained close, and Saudi aid was (peter mansfield) substantial.

Yugoslavia

Yemen Arab Republic

A federal socialist republic,

A

republic situated in the southwestern coastal region of the Arabian Peninsula, Yemen (San'a') is

bounded by Yemen (Aden Saudi Arabia and the Red Sea. Area: 200,000 sq km (77,200 sq mi). Pop. (1975): 5,237,900. Cap. and largest city: San'a' )

Yemen Arab

Republic

,

(pop., 1975, 134,600). Language: Arabic. Religion: Muslim. Presidents in 1978, Col. Ahmad al-Ghashmi to June 24 and, from July 17, Col. AH Abdullah Saleh; premier, Abdel-Aziz Abdel-Ghani. In February 1978 Pres. Ahmad al-Ghashmi announced a "return to democracy" for the Yemen Arab Republic (San'a'; North Yemen) with the formation of a 99-member Constituent People's Assembly, to sit for three years. In April the new

five-year presidency, to Yugosia'

,

which Ghashmi was

elect-

replaced the Command Council. When Ghashmi was assassinated on June 24 by a bomb carried by an envoy from the Peo-

ed by the Assembly,

Democratic Republic of Yemen (Aden; South Yemen), the new political system allowed a smooth transition. A four-man Command Council was formed and one of its members. Col. Ali Abple's

Yugoslavia

is

bordered

Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, and the Adriatic Sea. Area; 255,-

by

Italy, Austria,

804 sq km (98,766 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 21,912,000. Cap. and largest city: Belgrade (pop., 1975 est., 870,000). Language: Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, and Macedonian. Religion (1953): Orthodox 41%; Roman Catholic 32%; Muslim 12%. President of the republic for life and president of the

UN

League of Communists in 1977, Marshal Tito (Josip Broz); president of the Federal Executive Council (premier), Veselin Djuranovic. Throughout 1978 Yugoslavia pursued an active policy in Europe and among the nonaligned nations. In March Foreign Minister Milos Minic traveled to Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia attempting to mediate the conflict in the Horn of Africa. In April and May Minic visited countries in South

and Southeast Asia. At the 11th congress of the Yugoslav League of Communists, held in Belgrade June 20-23, a newly streamlined 24-member Presidium was elected, with Stane Dolanc as its secretary. The concept of "self-managing pluralism" was put forward in a

by Edvard Kardelj, the party's chief ideoloand senior man after Tito. (Kardelj became seriously ill in the second half of the year, and on October 19 Branko Mikulic, a Croat leader from Bosnia, was elected Tito's deputy in the Presidium report gist

YEMEN ARAB REPUBLIC Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 221,482, teachers (1975-76) 6,604; secondary, pupils 24,873, teachers (1975-76) c 1,172; vocational, pupils 503, teachers (197576) 60; teacher training, students 1,650, teachers (1975-76) 113; higher, students (1975-76) 2,408, teaching staff (1973-74) 58. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: rial, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a par value of 4.56 rials to U.S. $1 (free rate of 8.89

= £1 sterling). Budget (1977-78 est.): revenue 1,550,000,000 rials; expenditure 2,053,000,000 rials. Foreign trade: imports (1976) 1,882,200,000 rials; exports (1977) 50,610,000 rials. Import sources: Saudi Arabia 12%: |apan 10%; India 7%; Australia 7%; U.K. 6%; China 6%; The Netherlands 6%. Export destinations (1976): Japan 42%; China 33%; Yemen (Aden) 27%; Italy 18%; Saudi Arabia rials

16%. Main 12%.

exports: cotton

49%; coffee 17%; hides and

skins

Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): barley c. 80; corn (1976) 104: wheat (1976) 90; sorghum c. 800: potatoes (1976) 86; grapes c. 43; dates c. 70; coffee c. 5; tobacco (1976) 6; cotton, lint c. 10. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c. 1,000; sheep c. 3,200; goats c. 7,400; camels c. 120; asses c. 640.

for 12 months.) At the congress Josip Vrhovec, Yugoslavia's foreign minister since May 16, criticized Cuba (without mentioning it by name) for its "hegemonistic" and "divisive" policy in the nonaligned grouping, as also did Minic. These criticisms of Cuba and its backer in Africa, the Soviet Union, were echoed by President Tito at the conference of foreign ministers of nonaligned countries in Belgrade (July 25-

The visit to Yugoslavia in August by the ChiCommunist Party leader Hua Kuo-feng was criticized in the Soviet press and led to a cooling of 30).

nese

September Tito canceled his planned meeting with Pres. Leonid I. Brezhnev of the Soviet Union. Relations with Bulgaria also deteriorated, again over Macedonia. relations. In

ALAIN

KELER-SYGMA

735

Yugoslavia

Chinese Communist Party Chairman Hua Kuo-feng addressed his Yugoslavian hosts at a banquet in Belgrade in

August. At Hua's

left is

President

Tito.

Yugoslavia's relations with the well. Tito visited the U.S. in March, when Pres. Jimmy Carter endorsed Yugoslavia's nonaligned stance and expressed support for its territorial integrity. Purchases of $1.4 million of U.S. military equipment were authorized in 1978, and Yugoslav Minister of Defense Gen. Nikola Ljubicic visited the U.S. in September to discuss further arms acquisitions. Also in September, Stane Potocar, chief of Yugoslavia's general In contrast,

West developed

The

Helsinki Accords

At the close of the 35-nation summit meeting of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in Helsinki, Fin., July 30-Aug. 1, 1975, the participants decided to review at a meeting two years later the progress achieved in implementing the provisions of the Helsinki Final Act. Preparations for this follow-up meeting were completed in the summer of 1977, and it was held in Belgrade, Yugos., from Oct. 4, 1977, to March 9, 1978. From the outset it was clear that deep differences of opinion existed among the participants.

The NATO and European Economic Community (EEC) nations saw the Belgrade gathering as an opportunity for a full and frank review of the achievements and failures of the Helsinki process, especially the so-called Basket

which

III

of the Final Act

dealt with cooperation in humanitarian

and

informational fields. The neutral and nonaligned states broadly supported the nato and EEC positions, especially on human rights, but also showed a great preoccupation with security issues.

On the Soviet bloc side, Romania took an independent line close to that of the neutral and nonaligned states. However, the rest of the Soviet bloc wanted only a perfunctory treatment of the Final Act implementation, with each government simply reporting what it had done. This was a clear reflection of the fear of the Soviet and Eastern European governments that the conference could

Staff, visited

Italian

China, North Korea, and India. The

Communist

Party's chief foreign relations

expert, Giancarlo Pajetta, visited Yugoslavia in August at the time of Hua Kuo-feng's visit. Press

reports suggested that Yugoslavia was helping to bring about a resumption of contacts between the Chinese and Italian parties. Italian Communist Party leader Enrico Berlinguer visited Yugoslavia in October. The prince of Wales was welcomed in

November.

Review Conference

own domestic human campaigners, who had already made the Helsinki act the basis for their activities. To divert attention from the human rights issues, the Soviet Union and its allies proposed conferences on energy, transport, the environment, and other topics from Helsinki's Basket II. They also tried to use the Belgrade meeting as a forum for attacking nato's security policy by, for example, pressing for a pledge by both nato and the Warsaw Pact not to take in new members— a move designed to make more difficult Spain's future entry into NATO. As far as public opinion outside the Soviet bloc was concerned, these tactics failed. The calls for human rights measures at Belgrade were incomparably better received than Soviet slogans for a "military detente." Nevertheless, at the Belgrade conference the Soviet Union managed to prevent the adoption of any further commitments in the human rights field. Deep disagreements over the content of the Concluding Document prolonged the conference by more than two months beyond its provisional closing date of Dec. 22, 1977. In the end, the non-Communist nations decided to accept a document without "teeth" rather than see the whole Helsinki process stopped completely. Another follow-up meeting was scheduled to begin in Madrid on Nov. 11, 1980. give a further boost to their rights

YUGOSLAVIA Education. (1976-77) Primary, pupils 1,456,809, teachers 58,801; secondary, pupils 1,786,330, teachers 83,377; vocational, pupils 483,969, teachers 40,415; teacher training, students 9,535, teachers 791;

higher, students 256,420, teaching staff 16,202.

Finance. Monetary unit: dinar, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of 18.79 dinars to U.S. $1 (36.81 = £1 sterling). Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $2,069,000,000. Budget (1976 actual): revenue 134,220,000,000 dinars; expenditure 145,240,000,000 dinars. Cross material product (1976) 593 billion dinars. Money supply (June 1977) 225.1 billion dinars. Cost of living (1975 = 100; lune 1978) 146.4. Foreign Trade. (1977) imports 176,290,000,000 Import exports 96,150,000,000 dinars. dinars; dinars

sources: West Germany 16%; U.S.S.R. 14%; Italy 11%; U.S. 6%; France 5%; Iraq 5%. Export destinations: U.S.S.R. 22%; Italy 13%; West Germany 7%; U.S. 6%. Main exports: machinery 19%; food 10%; textiles 8%; ships and boats 8%; chemicals 6%; tim-

6%; nonferrous metals 6%. Tourism (1976): vis$802 million. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) c. 113,510 km. Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger 1,732,100; commercial 152,360. Railways: (1976)

ber

itors 5,572,000; gross receipts U.S.

9,967

l^m;

traffic

(1977) 10,356,000,000 passenger-

km, freight 22,230,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 2,150,000,000 passenger-km; freight 20.6 million net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 459; gross tonnage 2,284,526. Telephones (Jan. 1977) 1,430,600. Radio licenses (Dec. 1976) 4,526,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1976) 3,463,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons;

1977): wheat 5,622; barley 650; oats 309; corn 9,856; potatoes c. 2,854; sunflower seed 437; sugar, raw value c 765; onions c. 280; tomatoes c. 440; cabbages (1976) c. 710; chillies and peppers (1976) c. 315; watermelons (1976) c. 556; plums (1975) c. 569; apples 367; wine 638; tobacco 62; beef and veal c. 325; pork c 660; timber (cu m; 1976) 14,036. Live-

The crackdowti on the so-called Cominformists (hard-line Communists friendly to Moscow) reached a climax on April 13 with the sentencing to 20 years' imprisonment of Mileta Perovic, who had

led anti-Tito

Communists

Union 1977. The

in the Soviet

but disappeared from Western Europe in authorities also continued their pursuit of Croat

Vjenceslav Cizek, who had disappeared from West Germany in 1977, was given a 15-year sentence on August 8. On November 1 five young Croats were sentenced in Zagreb for allegedly working for Croat separatism and for supplying information to exiled Croat journalist Bruno Busic. Busic had been murdered in Paris on October 16. In September West Germany refused to extradite eight Yugoslav citizens, six of them Croats, accused by Yugoslavia of terrorist activity; in retaliation, Yugoslavia, in November, released four suspected West German terrorists arrested on Yugoslav soil in May. Industrial production increased by 8.2% in the first half of 1978 as compared with the first half of 1977. In the first nine months of 1978 exports amounted to $4.3 billion and imports to $7.7 billion, but the trade deficit was reduced by 14% as compared with the first nine months of 1977. Over 30 strikes for higher pay occurred in the first half (k. f. cviic) of 1978, most of them in Croatia. nationalists.

(in 000; Jan. 1977): cattle 5,641; sheep 7,481; pigs 7,326; horses 812; chickens 53,779. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; metric tons; 1977): coal 509; lignite 38,595; crude oil 3,950; natural gas (cu m) c. 1,900,000; manufactured gas (cu m;

stock

1976) c. 230,000; electricity (kw-hr) 48,630,000. Pro. duction (in 000; metric tons; 1977): cement 8,005, iron ore (35% metal content) 4,451; pig iron 2,108, crude steel 2,584; antimony ore (metal content; 1976) 2; chrome ore (oxide content; 1976) 0.7, magnesite (1976) 391; manganese ore (metal content; 1976) 6.6; aluminum 200; copper 121; lead 130; zinc 99; gold (troy oz; 1976) 157; silver (troy oz, 1976) 6,400; petroleum products (1976) c 10,980; sulfuric acid 937; cotton yarn 121; wool yarn 46; man-made fibres 90; wood pulp (1976) 538; newsprint 96; other paper (1976) 533; television receivers (units) 402; passenger cars (units) 180; commercial vehicles (units) 48. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1977) 285,000 gross tons.

veloppement Miniere du Zaire in 1977-78 was a measure of the country's problems. The revitalization of agriculture was one of Zaire's most pressing needs. In spite of the fertility of much of the soil, exports of coffee, rubber, and palm oil had fallen badly, and a country that in 1960 had exported a considerable amount of surplus corn now found it necessary to import the greater part of its food. Fears of famine were aggravated by grave

ZAIRE Education. (1973-74) Primary, pupils 3,538,257, teach(1972-73) 80,481; secondary, pupils 225,606; vocationpupils 47,579; teacher training, students 62,018; secondary, vocational, and teacher training, teachers 14,483; higher, students (1974-75) 21,021, teaching staff 2,550. Finance. Monetary unit: zaire, with (Sept. 18, 1978) a free rate of 0.79 Zaire to U.S. $1 (1.54zaires = £1 sterling). Cold, SDR's, and foreign exchange dune 1978) U.S. $313,670,000. Budget (1975 actual): revenue 431.9 million zaires; expenditure 710.5 million zaires. Cross national product (1976) 2,829,000,000 zaires. Money supply (May

ers al,

1978) 1,184,510,000 zaires. Cost of living (Kinshasa; 1975 = 100; June 1978) 434.7. Foreign Trade. (1977) Imports 522.7 million zaires; exports 846.9 million zaires. Import sources (1976): Belgium-

Luxembourg c. 16%; France c. 15%; U.S. 12%; West Germany c. 10%; The Netherlands c. 5%; Spain c 5%. Export destinations (1976): Belgium-Luxembourg c. 44%; U.S. c. 14%; Italy c. 9%; France c. 8%; Japan c. 6%; West Germany c. 6%; U.K. c. 5%. Main exports: copper 41%; coffee

20%; cobalt 11%; diamonds 7%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1976) c. 145,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1974): passenger 84,800;

Zaire A

republic of equatorial Africa, Zaire is bounded by the Central African Empire, Sudan, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia, Angola, Congo, and the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 2,344,885 sq

km

(905,365 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 26,478,000. Cap. and largest city: Kinshasa (pop., 1974, 1,733,800). Language: French; Bantu dialects. Religion: animist approximately 50%; Christian 43%. President in 1978, Mobutu Sese Seko; prime minister,

Yiddish Literature: see Literature

Mpinga Kasenga. With an inflation rate of the order of 70%, an external debt of more than U.S. $2 billion, and with the price of copper showing little sign of rising, Zaire faced a difficult year in 1978. The loss of $15 million by the Tokyo-based Compagnie de De-

commercial 67,800. Railways: (1975) 5,245 km; traffic (1973) 447 million passenger-km, freight 3,017,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1976): 690 million passenger-km; freight 54.8 million net ton-km. Shipping (1977): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 34; gross tonnage 109,785. Inland waterways (including Zaire River; 1976) c. 16,400 km. Telephones (Dec. 1975) 48,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1974) 2,448,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1975) 7,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): rice 220; corn c. 515; sweet potatoes (1976) c 300; cassava (1976) 9,832; peanuts 312; palm kernels c. 72; palm oil c. 175; sugar, raw value (1976) c 74; mangoes c. 86; bananas c. 83; oranges c. 105; coffee c. 90; rubber c 27; cotton, lint c 14; timber (cu m; 1976) c. 13,690; fish catch (1976) c. c.

118. Livestock (in 000; Dec, 1975): cattle 1,144; sheep c. 711; goats c. 2,256; pigs 627; poultry c 10,992. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): copper 274: tin 0.6; zinc 61; manganese ore (metal content) 95; gold (troy oz) 86; silver (troy oz) 2,500; diamonds (metric

crude oil (1977) 1,126; coal (1977) c. 110; petroleum products 335; electricity (kw-hr) c. 3,502,000.

carats) 11,820;

737

Zaire

French Legionnaires

checked

identification

papers searching for rebels in Kolwezi in Shaba Province. France sent in troops when Zaire requested help in repulsing Katangese rebels who invaded the province from Angola in

May.

inadequacies in the system of transport and communications.

The U.S. Agency for International Development promised $20 million during 1978, half of it to finance food imports, but foreign sources generally were wary of providing assistance in view of the obvious shortcomings in the country's administration. Nor were they uncritical of Pres. Mobutu Sese Seko himself and of the vast private fortune he was believed to have amassed. Within the country there was wide-ranging opposition to the president, but it was weakened by its many divisions. Early in March it was announced that 91 people had been arrested on charges of organizing an armed revolt against the government and of attempting to blow up the Inga Dam hydroelectric installations. Fifteen others, officers in the armed

had been executed for mutiny after an immediate court-martial. Of the 91, 13 army offiand civilians were executed after trial and 63 were given prison sentences. These measures were followed by clashes involving relatives of the executed men, and a further 66 people were arrested. In the middle of May, Katangese rebels of the services,

cers

Congo National

Liberation Front (fnlc) crossed the border into Shaba Province from bases in Angola and attacked the towns of Kolwezi and Mutshatsha. Zairian troops put up little effective resistance, and the president at once called for help

from Belgium, France, Morocco, the China. France sent paratroops,

Kolwezi and reported

U.S.,

and

who quickly seized

atrocities against white Belgium, after a brief hesitation, also while the U.S. supplied military equipment. It was French troops, however, who were responsible for driving the rebels back over the border, after which they and the Belgians withdrew. Their intervention did not go uncriti-

civilians.

sent

troops,

Some of the Communist powers and the Organization of African Unity deplored external involvement in an African territory. China, however, gave its full approval, and in June Foreign Minister Huang Hua visited Zaire. The raid, although summarily dealt with, had serious effects both on the economy and on the country's political stability. There was an immediate threat to the world's cobalt supplies, 47% of which were supplied by Zaire in 1977; 85% of that total, and that of the highest grade, had come from the mines around Kolwezi. The temporary closure of the mines and the subsequent flooding after electricity supplies were cut off seriously affected production. The problem was aggravated because a number of European technicians, vital to the industry, had fled the country. In these circumstances Zaire's approach to outside sources for financial assistance met with a cool response. A meeting of representatives of some of the Western powers and the International Monetary Fund (imf) in Brussels in mid-June resulted in offers of monetary help from West Germany, Canada, and the European Economic Community, together with 40,000 tons of cereal and 1,900 tons of dried milk. This fell far short of the $1 billion tentatively mentioned by Zaire, and even these offers were made only on condition that Zaire surrender control of the national central bank and the Ministry of Finance to imf representatives. Events in Shaba, however, had alerted the Western powers to the danger that Zaire's important mineral resources might fall into hostile hands. cized.

Another summit meeting of francophone African states in Paris produced help of a different kind in the shape of an African security force (mostly Moroccan and francophone African), the first elements of which were flown to Lumbumbashi by

738

the U.S. Air Force on June 5. The need for their presence was reinforced by rumours that the rebels were preparing another attack and because it was feared that a large proportion of the povertystricken inhabitants might support the rebels. In one area there was a gleam of hope. In July talks began in Brazzaville, Congo, between Zaire and Angola aimed at reducing tension, and on

Zambia

October 17 Pres. Agostinho Neto

of

ZAMBIA Education. (1976) Primary, pupils 907,867, teachers 19,300; secondary, pupils 78,805, teachers 3,538; vocational, pupils 5,392, teachers 481, teacher training, students 2,780, teachers 229; higher, students 3,447, teaching staff 412. Finance. Monetary

unit: kwacha, with (Sept. 18, 1978) 0.80 kwacha to U.S. $1 (1.56 kwachas = £1 Gold, SDR's, and foreign exchange (June 1978) U.S. $99 million. Budget (1977 actual): revenue 500.2 million kwachas; expenditure 709.8 million kwachas. Gross national product (1977) 1,842,000,000 kwachas. Cost of living (1975 = 100; Feb. 1978) 159.1. Foreign Trade. (1977) imports 645,220,000 kwachas; exports 708,570,000 kwachas. Import sources (1976): U.K. 24%; Saudi Arabia 13%; U.S. 1^%; South Africa 8%; West Germany 7%; Italy 6%; Japan 5%. Export destinations (1976): lapan 17%; U.S. 15%,; West Germany 14%; U.K. 14%; Italy 9%; France 6%; India 5%. Main export: copper

a free rate of sterling).

Angola and

Mobutu signed a cooperation agreement Luanda. It was agreed that Angolans should

President in

inspect the controversial rocket testing range set up by the West German missile concern otrag in Zaire and dispel rumours of its military significance. As a further result of the rapprochement, the Benguela Railway, which had been closed as a result of guerrilla activity in

91%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1972) 34,963 km. Motor vehicles in use (1976): passenger c. 104,000; commercial (including buses) c. 61,000. Railways (1976) c. 1,934 km (including c 890 km of the 1,870-km Tanzam railway). Air traffic (1976): 356 million passenger-km; freight 19.8 million net ton-km. Telephones ()an. 1977) c. 55,400. Radio receivers (Dec. 1975) c. 100,000. Television

Angola and upon

which Zaire depended heavily for the export of its minerals, was officially reopened in November. (KENNETH INGHAM)

receivers (Dec. 1974) 22,000.

Agricuiture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1977): corn c. 980; cassava (1976) c. 163; millet c 86; sorghum c. 51; peanuts c. 32; sugar, raw value (1976) c 85; tobacco c. 7; cotton, lint c. 4. Livestock (in 000; 1976): cattle c. 2,300; sheep c. 50; goats c. 283; pigs c. 106; chickens c. 8,628. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1976): copper 695; coal (1977) 780; lead 14; zinc 37; petroleum products

Zambia A

republic and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Zambia is bounded by Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Rhodesia, Namibia (South West Africa), Angola, and Zaire. Area: 752,614 sq km (290,586 sq mi). Pop. (1978 est.): 5,514,000, about 99% of whom are Africans. Cap. and largest city: Lusaka (pop., 1976 est., 483,000). Language: English and Bantu. Religion: predominantly animist, with Roman Catholic (21%), Protestant, Hindu, and Muslim minorities. President in 1978,

Kenneth Kaunda; prime ministers, Mainza Chona and, from June 15, Daniel Lisulo. Zambia's economy in 1978 was in a desperate Rhodesian troops attacked terrorist strongholds in October. Bodies of suspected guerrillas lie on the ground outside an ammunition storage building at a ZAPU guerrilla training

camp.

c.

800; electricity (kw-hr) 7,034,000.

due to the continuing low price of copper and the high cost of imported food. In his New Year's State

message of January 1, Pres. Kenneth Kaunda (see Biographies) said that government subsidies on food would be scrapped, and shortly afterward the finance minister introduced an austerity budget. In March the International Monetary Fund promised a U.S. $390 million loan on various conditions. Kaunda appealed to China for help in increasing the efficiency of the railway link with Dar es Salaam in Tanzania, but although China agreed, the president had to reopen the railway link with South Africa through Rhodesia in October. The challenge to Kaunda's political position from former vice-president Simon Kapwepwe and Harry Nkumbula, the former leader of the African National Congress, was checked in September when the ruling United National Independence Party

amended

the party's constitution to prevent

anyone other than Kaunda from being nominated for the presidency in the December 12 election. Although his position became still more difficult in October after devastating Rhodesian air raids on guerrilla camps near Lusaka, he was massively reelected and sworn in for a fourth term on Decem(KENNETH INGHAM) ber 15.

Zoos and Botanical

Gardens Zanzibar: see Tanzania

Zoology: see Life Sciences

Zoos. As part of the extensive international cooperation among zoos to implement breeding programs on a worldwide basis, there was a determined effort in 1978 to multiply the number of

primates in captivity. Recent evidence showed

SYNDICATION INTERNATIONAL/PHOTO

Mottershead, the zoo's founder and di{see Obituaries). Unhappily, the baby succumbed to an intestinal infection at the age of ten days. Jubilee, Chester's baby Indian elephant born in May 1977, continued to make

739

after G. S.

rector,

who died in May

Zoos and Botanical Gardens

good progress. Several zoos underwent modernization and expansion during the year. A new Penguin House, designed for several species, was opened at the West Berlin Zoo. Renovation work was carried out at

the

London Zoo and

at

Edinburgh and Calder-

park (Glasgow) in Scotland. The Artis Zoo in Amsterdam opened a completely new building for small mammals in which certain climatic zones could be simulated. In Paris the Jardin des Plantes was to be expanded and modernized. Heidelberg, West Germany, and Oklahoma City zoos opened areas representative of Africa and South America, respectively. The areas

housed mammals, birds, a given faunal region.

reptiles,

and plant

Oklahoma City Zoo

life

of

incor-

porated an educational centre in its South American scheme, a mode of exhibiting animals that was being used increasingly. A new zoological garden was opened to the public

on June

1,

1978, at Santa Cruz, Bolivia. When animal collection was to be

fully established the

largely representative of South American species. of this completely new zoo coincided with the rediscovery of a bird which had

The establishment been thought

to

be

extinct.

The white-winged

(Penelope albipennis), the last recorded speciof which had been seen in 1877, was found in

guan

men

northwestern Peru by John O'Neill of Louisiana and was soon protected by law. Some of these birds might make their way to the collection. Cruz Santa (j. o. l. king)

State University having an Indian mother and an African father, was born at Chester Zoo in England. Unhappily, the infant died after 10 days.

A

rare LrubsDied elephant,

that the

number

of gorillas in the

wild state was

at

low level, and those in Rwanda and Zaire faced an increased threat of poaching. A mountain gorilla fund was established, and captive breeding remained a priority. San Diego, Calif., Seattle, Wash., and many other U.S. and European zoos had breeding projects under way. Although chimpanzee and orangutan births were no longer great news items, they were still a

It was anticipated that gorilla births would also become less of a sensation one day, which would redound to the credit of zoos. The Zurich (Switz.) Zoo hoped to acquire a group of gorillas for its new ape house. The Jersey (Channel

important.

Islands) Wildlife Preservation Trust launched an appeal to construct a new gorilla complex. London Zoo lost its famous gorilla Guy, who died at age 32 after undergoing dental surgery. Many zoos endured financial difficulties because of inflation, and so in Britain a successful venture to aid them was launched with the slogan "Save Our Species" (sos). Proceeds were to be divided among zoos to help cover their costs. A survey of elephants in the British Isles was conducted by Mary-Elizabeth Raw. After details of the survey had been published, Chester (England) Zoo recorded the birth of the world's first crossbred elephant. The male calf had an African father and an Indian mother and was named Motty

Hsing-Hsing and LingLing, giant pandas given to the Linited States by China in 1972, have yet to mate. Officials from the Washington, D.C., National

Zoo went

to

China in June to seek advice from zoo keepers there.

740

Zoos and Botanical Gardens

New

York's famed Botanical Garden Conservatory reopened in March after two years of

reconstruction at a cost of $5 million. Crowds

packed the conservatory after the

reopening.

Botanical Gardens. The educational and conservational functions of botanical gardens received much attention at a number of conferences during

The second Kew Conservation Conference in England, the 12th Conference on Problems of Botanical Gardens at Leipzig, East Germany, the International Conference of the Technical Heads of Botanical Gardens at Gottingen, West Germany, and the meeting of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta at Hamilton, Ont., all gave evidence of increasing efforts by garden administrations to improve and widen facilities for information, teaching, research, and 1978.

the implementation of protective measures for endangered plants within their regions. Other matters discussed were the role of botanical gardens in the training of future professional gardeners; measures to maintain efficiency while continuing to lose personnel because of enforced economies; and the use of electronic data storing as an essential aid

management of collections. The growing emphasis on plant conservation was stressed by the provision of specially arranged grounds at a number of gardens; these included the Conservatoire botanique du Stangalarc'h at Brest in the

and the Conservatoire des especes mediterraneennes de Porquerolles on the French Riviera. Successful work in this field was also reported from the botanical gardens at Tubingen, West Germany; Cambridge, England; Poznan, Poland; Bratislava, Czech.; Viera y Clavijo, Canary Islands, Spain; La Plata, Arg.; Jalapa, Mexin Brittany, France,

ico;

and from

the U.S.S.R.,

a

number of gardens in South Africa, and Hawaii. The establishment of

more gene banks as "Noah's Arks" for the survival of plants was also reported and would undoubtedmajor role in the conservation of threat-

ly play a

ened

species.

A new

106-ha botanical garden

was being

estab-

lished during the year at Maracaibo, Venezuela. There were also plans for gardens at the new universities at Bayreuth,

and Ulm Berlin,

in

Osnabriick, Regensburg,

West Germany and

Dresden,

Greifswald,

for

new gardens in

Karl-Marx-Stadt,

and Leipzig in East Germany. At the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Queen Charlotte's Cottage was reopened to the public on May 20 after extensive restoration. The cottage,

woods was used as a

built about 1772 in

the gardens, III

and

his family. Also at

in the southern part of

rural retreat by George Kew, construction con-

new pyramid-shaped temperate house with its surrounding water-filled moat designed to produce a flow of cool, humid air. The development of new research departments and tinued on the

nurseries for tropical plants was also in progress. After two years of renovation financed with a $5 million gift by philanthropist Enid Haupt, the New York Botanical Garden Conservatory reopened in March. A glass structure with a dome 90 ft high and with ten interconnecting pavilions, the

New York During the restoration hundreds of glass panes were replaced along with the heating and ventilating systems. A new underground passage-

conservatory covers nearly an acre in City.

way was

designed for displays of aquatic plants, (johannes apel)

mushrooms, and mosses. [355.C.6]

CONTRIBUTORS Names

of contributors to the

Book

Britannica

The arrangement

is

AARSDAL, STENER. Economic and

AYTON, CYRIL

Political Journalist, Borsen, Copenhagen. Biographies (in part); Denmark

Sport,

ANDREW

M. Free-lance ForADAMS, eign Correspondent; Editor and Publisher, Sumo World magazine. Author of Ninja: The Invisible Assassins; Born to Die; The Cherry Blossom Squadrons. Combat Sports: ]udo: Karate; Kendo; Sumo

AGRELLA, JOSEPH

C. Correspondent,

Blood-Horse magazine; former Turf Editor, Chicago Sun-Times. Co-author of Ten Commandments for Professional Handicapping American Race Horses. Equestrian Sports: Thoroughbred Racing and Steeplechasing (in part)

AIELLO, LESLIE C. Lecturer, Department of Anthropology, University ColLondon. Anthropology lege,

ALLABY, MICHAEL.

Free-lance Writer Lecturer. Author of The Eco- Activists; Will Eat? ; A Blueprint for Survival; Home Farm; Co-author of Robots Behind the Plow. Editor of The Survival Handbook: Dictionary of the Environment.

Who

Environment

ALLAN,

J. A. Lecturer in Geography, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Libya

ist;

retired

Broadcaster and Journal-

BBC Commentator. Author

of

Taking the Air; Over to Rex Alston; Test Commentary Watching Cricket. Cricket ;

J.

Assistant Direc-

tor, Institute of Polar Studies,

Ohio

State

University, Columbus. Antarctic

APEL, JOHANNES. Curator, Botanic Garden, University of Hamburg. Author of Ciirtnerisch-Botanische Briefe. Zoos and Botanical Gardens: Botanical Gardens

ARCHIBALD, JOHN and TV Columnist, St.

J.

Feature Writer Louis Post-Dispatch.

Author

of Bowling for Boys and Girls. Bowling: Tenpin Bowling (in part); Duckpins

Free-lance Journalist

and Writer, Dublin. Parliamentary Correspondent,

BARFORD, MICHAEL

sity,

Milton D. Ratner Professor of Hebrew Literature, Spertus College of Judaica, Chicago. Author of Hayim Hazaz: Novelist of Ideas; Anthology of Israeli Poetry.

Literature:

J.

Church

Historian, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Author of Great Basin Kingdom; An Economic History of the Latter-day Saints; Charles C. Rich; Mormon General and Western Frontiersman ; Building the City of God: Community and Cooperation

Mormons.

Religion: Church of fesus Christ of Latter-

day Saints

Professor of

Columbus. Author

of Transition to

Multiple-Line Insurance Companies; General Insurance (9th ed.). Industrial Review: Insurance

BILEFIELD, LIONEL. Technical JournalIndustrial

C. Professor

of Political Science, Yale University. thor of Politics in the U.S.S.R. Special Preprint: Soviet Union

BASS,

L.

ist.

Hebrew

BARGHOORN, FREDERICK

Au-

HOWARD.

Journalist and BroadWinter Sports, 1948-69.

Denver; Sport & Recreation, London. Author of The Sense in Sport; This Skating Age; The Magic of Skiing:

Ski Racing,

In-

Biographies (in part); Ice Hockey: European and International Winter Sports

Review: Paints and Varnishes

BINSTED, ARTHUR man, British Bottlers' Industrial part)

Winter Sports Correspondent, Daily Telegraph and Sunday Telegraph, London; The Olympian, New York City; Canadian Skater, Ottawa; Skate, London; Skating, Boston;

T. E. Former ChairInstitute, London. Review: Alcoholic Beverages (in

BODDY, WILLIAM Sport. Full

C. Editor, Motor of Motoring

Member, Guild

Writers. Author of The History of Brooklands Motor Course; The World's Land Speed Record; Continental Sports Cars: The Bugatti Story: History of Montlhery. Motor Sports: Grand Prix Racing

BODEN, EDWARD.

Editor, The Veterinary Record; Executive Editor, Research in Veterinary Science.

Veterinary Science

;

BAYLISS, DAVID. Chief Planner (Transportation), Greater London Council. Coauthor of Developing Patterns of Urbanization Uses of Economics. Advisory Editor of Models in Urban and Regional Planning. ;

Transportation

BOERMA, ADDEKE HENDRIK. Director General, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 196876.

Special Preprint: Food Supply of the World

BOLT, PETER H.

(in part)

mittee,

JOHN V. Business Development Engineer, Fluor Mining & Metals, Inc. Author of sections 1 and 34, Mining Engineering Handbook. Frequent Contributor to Mining Engineering. Mining and Quarrying (in part)

sociation, Geneva. Social and Welfare Services (in part)

BEATTY, JAMES F.

R. Research Fellow, B. Goodrich Research and Development

Center, Brecksville, Ohio. Co-author of Concepts in Compounding Physical Testing of Elastomers and Polymers in Applied Polymer Science. Industrial Review: Rubber

Secretary, British

Com-

World Methodist Council. Author

of A Way of Loving. Religion: Methodist Churches

BOONSTRA, DICK.

Assistant Professor,

Department of Political Science, Free UniAmsterdam.

versity,

Biographies

ROGER

A. Member of Secretariat, International Social Security As-

BEATTIE,

(in part);

Netherlands, The;

Suriname

BOOTH, JOHN NICHOLLS.

Lecturer

and Writer; Co-founder, Japan Free

Reli-

gious Association; Senior Pastor of a number of U.S. churches. Author of The Quest for Preaching Power Introducing Uni;

tarian Universalism.

Religion: Unitarian (Universalist) Churches

;

tor, Legal

ARRINGTON, LEONARD

BICKELHAUPT, DAVID

Insurance and Finance, College of Administrative Science, Ohio State Univer-

BARGAD, WARREN.

BECK WITH, DAVID

the

Editor and Di-

rector, World Tobacco, London. Industrial Review: Tobacco

Irish Independent.

Ireland

Among

F.

Vatican Affairs, Rome. Vatican City State for

BEALL,

ANDERSON, PETER

ARNOLD, BRUCE.

BERGERRE, MAX. Correspondent ANSA

Editor, Motorcycle

J.

ternational Encyclopaedia of Winter Sports; Let's Go Skating.

(in part)

ALSTON, REX.

the articles written by them.

London. Motor Sports: Motorcycles

caster. Editor,

and

of the Year with

alphabetical by last name.

Times of

Managing EdiWashington, WashingC.

ton, D.C. United States Statistical Supplement:

Developments

in the States in

BENTLEY, STUART.

1978

Principal Lecturer

in Sociology, Sheffield City Polytechnic, England. Co-author of Work, Race, Immi-

BOSWALL, JEFFERY. Producer of Sound and Television Programs, British Broadcasting Corporation Natural History Unit, Bristol, England. Life Sciences: Ornithology

BOYLE,

C. L. Lieutenant Colonel, R.A.

(retired). Chairman, Survival Service Commission, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1958-63; Secretary, Fauna Preservation Society, London, 1950-63.

Environment

(in part)

gration.

Migration, International; Race Relations

BRACKMAN, ARNOLD Specialist.

Author

C. Asian Affairs of Indonesian Commu-

742 Contributors nism: A History; Southeast Asia's Second Front: The Power Struggle in the Malay Archipelago; The Communist Collapse in Indonesia; The Last Emperor.

CASSIDY, VICTOR M. Writer and Editor, currently at work on a biography of

Wyndham

Lewis.

Biographies

(in part)

Indonesia

CHARLES M. Associate EdiEncyclopaedia Britannica, Yearbooks. Biographies (in part); Life Sciences: Intro-

CEGIELSKI,

BRADSHER, HENRY

S. Diplomatic Correspondent, Washington (D.C.) Star,

Philippines

tor,

Professor Emeritus of Old World Prehistory, University of Chicago; Field Director, Prehistoric Project of the Oriental Institute, Chicago. Author of Prehistoric Men (8th ed); Courses Toward Urban Life.

CHALMEY, LUCIEN.

Archaeology: Eastern Hemisphere

CHAPMAN, KENNETH

J.

tary-General,

Producteurs

Honorary Secre-

Union Internationale des

et

Distributeurs d'Energie

Program Manager

J.

Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Washington, for Seismological Research, U.S.

F.

Editor, Phila-

Magazine; Philatelic Correspondent, The Times, London. Author of Good Stamp Collecting; Commonwealth Stamp Collecting. Philately and Numismatics: Stamps

DC.

CHAPMAN,

BRECHER, KENNETH.

Haiti

ROBIN. Senior Economist, Lloyds Bank International Ltd., London.

Associate Profes-

sor of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of

Technology.

BRUNO, HAL. Director of Political Coverage, ABC Nevi-s, Washington, D.C. Biographies

(in part)

BURDIN, JOEL

Associate Director, of Colleges for

L.

Teacher Education: Editor, Journal of Teacher Education; Executive Secretary, Associated Organizations for Teacher Education. Co-author of A Reader's Guide to the Comprehensive Models for Preparing Elementary Teachers Elementary School Curriculum and Instruction. ;

Education

BURKE,

(in part)

DONALD

Executive Editor,

P.

New

York City. Industrial Review: Chemicals

Chemical Week,

ARDATH

wick, N.J. Author of The Government of pan; East Asia: China. Korea, Japan. Japan

ja-

BUSS, ROBIN. Lecturer in French, Woolwich College of Further Education, London. Literature: French (in part)

the World.

Boxing

Sports Editor, News of A History of

London. Author of

in Britain.

Combat

Sports: Boxing

CALHOUN, DAVID

clopaedia Britannica, Yearbooks.

Biographies

(in part);

Gambling

CA.MERON, SARAH.

CROSSLAND, NORMAN. Bonn

(in part)

Economist, Lloyds

Bank International Ltd., London. Colombia; Dominican Republic;

Maga-

Corre-

spondent, The Economist, London.

German Democratic

Republic; Germany,

Federal Republic of

CVllC, K. F. Leader Writer and East European Specialist, The Economist, London. Yugoslavia Chief, Section for

Operations and Training, Cultural Heritage Division, UNESCO, Paris. Historic Preservation

DAUME, DAPHNE.

Editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Yearbooks.

Biographies

(in part);

Guyana

(in part)

D.AVID, TUDOR. Managing Editor, Education, London.

CHOATE, ROGER NYE.

Education

Stockholm Cor-

respondent, The Times, London. Biographies (in part); Sweden

(in part)

DA VIES, JOHN.

Education Secretary,

The Publishers Association, London.

CHU, HUNG-TI.

Expert in Far Eastern

Affairs; Former International Civil Servant and University Professor. China; Taiwan

R. O. Principal Administrator, Social Affairs and Industrial Relations Division, Organization for Economic

Cooperation and Development, Paris. Coauthor of Workers' Participation in Management in Britain. Industrial Relations

Publishing: Books (in part)

DONALD

DAVIS, A. Editor, Drug & Cosmetic Industry, New York City. Contributor to The Science and Technology of Aerosol Packaging; Advances in Cosmetic Technology (forthcoming). Industrial Review: Pharmaceuticals d'EQA, RAUL. Retired from foreign

ser-

vice with U.S. Information Service. Coauthor of Latin American History. Brazil

CLEVELAND, WILLIAM

A. Geography

Editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica nica Yearbooks.

Mining and Quarrying

CLIFTON,

and Britan-

(in part)

DONALD

F. Professor of Metallurgy, University of Idaho. Materials Sciences: Metallurgy

DECRAENE, PHILIPPE. Member

of editorial staff, Le Monde. Paris. Editor in Chief, Revue fran^aise d'Etudes politiques africaines. Author of Le Panafricanisme Tableau des Partis Politiques Africains; Lettres de I'.Afrique .Atlantique.

Benin; Biographies (in part); Cameroon; Central African Empire; Chad; Como-

Congo; Djibouti; Gabon; Guinea; Ivory Coast; Madagascar; Mali; Mauritania; Niger; Senegal; Togo; Tunisia; Upper Volta ros;

CLOUD, STANLEY W. White House

R. Editor, Ency-

Editor, The Polo

Crime and Law Enforcement

CLARKE,

W.

Professor of Asian BURKS, Studies, Rutgers University, New Bruns-

BUTLER, FRANK.

Professor, Department of Legal Studies, Latrobe University, Melbourne, Australia. Co-author of The Police and the Public in Austraha and New Zealand. Co-editor of The Australian

Criminal Justice System (1st and 2nd ed.); Violence and Criminal justice ; Forcible Rape: the Crime, the Victim and the Offender.

American Association

J.

U.K.

DAIFUKU, HIROSHI.

CHAPPELL, DUNCAN.

Astronomy

CROSS, COLIN

Equestrian Sports: Polo

Energy: Electricity

Earth Sciences: Geophysics

Chief Correspon-

dent, Broadcasting, Washington, D.C. Television and Radio (in part)

zine.

Electrique, Paris.

telic

BRAZEE, RUTLAGE

British Correspondent, Herrenjournal International and Men's Wear, Australasia. Council of Management Member, British Men's Fashion Association Ltd. Former President, Men's Fashion Writers International. Fashion and Dress (in part)

CRATER, RUFUS W.

duction

BRAIDWOOD, ROBERT

COSTIN, STANLEY H.

Washington Correspondent and

Editor,

Time-Life News Service. Biographies (in part)

COGLE,

T. C.

J.

Editor, Electrical Review.

London. Industrial

Review:

Electrical

de FAINBOIM, MARTA BEKERMANN. Economist, Lloyds Bank International Ltd., London. Peru; Uruguay

Venezuela

COLLINS,

CASEMENT, RICHARD.

Science Correspondent, The Economist, London. Author of Urban Traffic: Policies in Congestion. Industrial Review: Special Report

CASSIDY, RICHARD

Public Relations Officer, British Gas Corporation. Author of Britain's Gas (in preparation). Energy: Natural Gas J.

L.

J.

D. Lecturer in Bulgarian

History, University of London.

BARRE, KENNETH.

Staff Scientist,

Presi-

dent, English Lacrosse Union. Author of "Men's Lacrosse" in The Oxford Companion to Sports and Games. Field Hockey and Lacrosse: Lacrosse (in part)

la

Arctic Institute of North America, Calgary, Montreal. Arctic Regions

Cyprus

COPPOCK, CHARLES DENNIS.

de

NORMAN

R. Pastor and ExDE PUY, ecutive Minister, First Baptist Church of

Dearborn, Mich. Author of The Alive.

Religion: Baptist Churches

Bible

Contributors 743

DESAUTELS, PAUL

Curator, Depart-

E.

of Mineral Sciences, National Muof Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Author of

ment seum

Executive Editor, Engineering, London. Engineering Projects: Bridges

FLANAGAN, JACK. Special Group TravNewspaper Columnist. Water Sports: Surfing

The Mineral Kingdom: The Gem Kingdom. Industrial Review: Gemstones

el

DIRNBACHER,

FOWELL,

Washington, D.C; Consultant, U.S. National Academy of Sciences. Editor, Transportation Research News. Engineering Projects: Roads tion,

GJESTER, FAY. Oslo Correspondent, nancial Times,

ELFRIEDE. Austrian

R.

J.

Lecturer, Department of

Mining Engineering, University upon Tyne, England.

Civil Sers'ant. Austria

New-

of

GOLDSMITH, ARTHUR. Editorial DirecNew York City.

castle

tor, Popular Photography,

Energy: Coat

DOWBOR, PAUL.

Economist, Lloyds

Bank International

London.

Ltd., Latin-American Affairs

FRADY, WILLIAM ENSIGN,

Editor,

III.

Water Polo Scoreboard, Newport Beach,

Photography Sports: Water Polo

Water

Chairman, Ove

Arup

Partnership, London. Engineering Projects: Buildings

Champion,

the Air.

Biographies

FRANZ, FREDERICK W. Watch Tower

Progress), Brussels.

Bible

H. Secretary, United

New

York City. of Christ, Religion: United Church of Christ

Church

EWART, W.

Press

All-England Women's Lacrosse

Association.

and Director,

D. Editor

Shipping. industrial Review: Shipbuilding: Trans-

portation (in part)

FAIRB-ANK, JENTY.

Director of Information Services, International Headquarters, of William and Catherine Booth. Cod's Soldiers. Religion: Salvation Army

The Salvation Army. .Author

FARR, D. M. L. Professor of History, Carleton University, Ottawa. Co-author of The Canadian Experience. Canada

FENDELL, ROBERT

J. Auto Editor, Auto Contributor, Quarterly. Author of The NewGentlemen's

& Mechanics;

Field Hockey part)

and Lacrosse: Lacrosse

{in

FRIDOVICH, IRWIN. James B. Duke Professor of Biochemistry, Duke University

Medical Center, Durham, N.C. Con-

tributor to Oxidase and Redox Systems: Molecular Mechanisms of Oxygen Activation. Life Sciences: Molecular Biology {in part)

FRIEDLY, ROBERT LOUIS. Executive Director, Office of

Communication,

Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Indianapolis, Ind. Religion: Disciples of Christ

SYDNEY E. Hockey Correspondent, The Times, London. Field Hockey and Lacrosse: Field Hockey FRISKIN,

FROST, DAVID. Rugby Union

Correspondent, The Guardian, London.

Rugby

Football:

GADDUM, PETER W.

Greats.

chants, Macclesfield, Cheshire, England. Honorary President, International Silk

Sports: U.S. Racing

R. W. Group Historian and Archivist, British Petroleum Company

FERRIER,

Gaddum

Chairman, H. T. and Company Ltd., SUk Mer-

.Association, Lyons.

and Where

It Is

Author

of Silk

— How

Produced.

Industrial Review: Textiles {in part)

London.

GANADO, ALBERT.

Energy: Petroleum

Lawver, Malta.

Malta

FIDDICK, PETER. Magazines

GBGB. Gaming Board :

Newspapers

{in

Gambling

of Great Britain.

{in part)

{in part)

GEORGE, FIELDS, DONALD. Helsinki Correspondent, BBC, The Guardian, and The Sunday Times, London.

T.

J.

S.

Editor, Asiaweek,

Hong

Kong. Author of Krishna Menon: A Biography: Lew Kuan Yew's Singapore. Biographies {in part): Cambodia; Korea; Laos; Southeast Asian Affairs; Thailand;

Finland

Vietnam

London.

GILL, JOSEPH B. City Editor, Columbus, Ind.

Religion: Religious Society of friends

Architecture: Special Report

FISHER, DAVID.

GILLESPIE,

Fox

&

Civil Engineer, FreePartners, London; formerly

E.

Executive Di-

Congress of America,

Chicago, Publisher-Editor of various trade magazines.

Games

Billiard

GOTTFRIED, MARTIN. Drama

Critic,

Saturday Review, New York City. Author of A Theater Divided: Opening Nights.

Theatre

(in part)

GOULD, DONALD W. Medical Correspondent, New Statesman, London. Health and Disease: Overview Mental Health

{in part):

GREEN, BENNY.

Jazz Critic, Observer, London; Record Reviewer, British Broadcasting Corporation. Author of The RelucYouth: 58 Minutes tant Art: Blame It on Ears. to London: Jazz Decade: Drums in Contributor to Encyclopedia of Jazz. Music: Jazz

My

My

GRIFFITHS, A.

R. G. Senior Lecturer in History, Flinders University of South

Author

of Contemporary

Aus-

tralia.

Australia; Australia: Special Report: Nauru;

Papua

New Guinea

GROSSBERG, ROBERT

H. Executive DiAs-

rector, U.S. Amateur Jai Alai Players sociation, Miami, Fla. Court Games: Jai Alai

GROSSMAN, JOEL

W

Director, ArchaeSurvey Office, Rutgers UniversiBrunswick, N.J. Archaeology: Western Hemisphere ty,

New

HARDMAN, THOMAS

C. Editor and Publisher, The Water Skier, American Water Ski Association. Water Skiing.

Water

HUGH

Republic,

M. Director of Communications, International Road Federa-

Co-author of

Let's

Go

Sports: Water Skiing

HARRIES, DAVID

FIRTH, DAVID.

Editor, The Friend, London; formerly Editor, Quaker Monthly,

rector, Billiard

ological

Specialist Writer, The

Guardian, London. Publishing: Introduction

man

{in part)

GOODWIN. ROBERT

Australia.

Era Car Book and Auto Survival Guide. Coauthor of Encyclopedia of Motor Racing

part):

Equestrian Sports: Thoroughbred Racing

and Steeplechasing

FRAWLEY, MARGARET-LOUISE. Officer,

Fairplay International Shipping Weekly, London. Author of Marine Engines: Atomic Submarines: Hydrofoils and Hovercraft: Building a Ship. Editor of World Atlas of

Ltd..

M. Free-lance Writer,

R.

London. of

Religion: fehovah's Witnesses

EVANS, JOSEPH

Motor

History of Chess. of Chess ; (in part); Chess

GOODWIN, President,

and Tract Society

Pennsylvania.

Belgium

A

Game

the

Contract Bridge

ENGELS, JAN

R. Editor, Vooruitgang (Quarterly of the Belgian Party for Free-

British Chess 1947, 1949, and 1955. Chess Correspondent, The Times and Observer, London. Author of Penguin Handbook of

Editor, English Bridge Quarterly. Bridge Correspondent, Yorkshire Post; Yorkshire Evening Post. Broadcaster. Author of Best of Bridge on

dom and

Science

GOLOMBEK, HARRY.

FRANKLIN, HAROLD.

EIU. The Economist Intelligence Unit, London. Economy, World {in part)

Author of The Photography Game: The Nude in Photography. Co-author of The Eye of Eisenstaedt.

Calif.

DUNICAN, PETER.

Fi-

London.

Norway

Moodie (1973)

Ltd.,

A. Director, Kinnear Peterborough, En-

gland.

Engineering Projects: Tunnels

HARRIS, RICHARD. Deputy Editor

and Asian

Foreign

Specialist, The Times,

744 Contributors London. Author of Independence and After; America and East Asia. China: Special Report

HASEGAWA, RYUSAKU.

Editor, TBS-

Britannica Co., Ltd., Tokyo. Baseball (in part)

HAWKLAND, WILLIAM

D. Professor of

Under

the Uniform Commercial Code; Cases and Notes; Transactional Guide of Uniform Commercial Code: Cases on Sales

Bills

the

H.

tory, University of Bristol, England. Author of Reformers in India; A History of East Africa. '

Angola; Cape Verde; Guinea-Bissau; Kenya; Malawi; Mozambique; Rhodesia; Sao Tome and Principe; Tanzania;

B. Specialist,

Human Nu-

and Food Science, Switzerland. Food Processing

HEBBLETHWAITE, PETER, Lecturer, Wadham College, Oxford, England. Author of Bernanos; The Council Fathers and Atheism: Understanding the Synod; The Runaway Church; Christian-Marxist Dialogue and Beyond. Biographies {in part): Religion: Roman

H. Staff Associate for Information Services, Office of Research, Evaluation and Planning, National Council of Churches. Editor of

A. Editor, The Domin-

Wellington, N.Z. Zealand

New

KELLMAN, JEROLD

L. Editor-in-Chief, Publications International, Ltd. Author of Presidents of the United States: Contributor to The People's Almanac. Biographies {in part): Computers

and Translator

JARDINE, ADRIAN. Company

Jorge Luis Borges. Author of At the Front

Visiting Professor, University of Illinois. Editor

Unamuno

de Director and Public Relations Consultant. Member, Guild of Yachting Writers.

Door of

of Selected Works of Miguel (7 vol.) and of works of

the Atlantic.

Literature: Spanish {in part)

Sailing

KILIAN, MICHAEL D. Columnist, Chicago Tribune: News Commentator, Radio, Chicago. Aerial Sports

WBBM

Editorial Consultant.

Oceanography, Oceanography, La

North American Publishing Company,

European Editor,

Member, Inter-Comprint Planning Committee; Member, Society of Photographic Engineers and Scientists. Editor of Encyclopaedia of Type Faces. Industrial Review: Printing Philadelphia.

Jolla, Calif.

Earth Sciences: Oceanography

HERMAN, ROBIN CATHY.

tition Division,

KERRIGAN, ANTHONY.

JASPERT, W. PINCUS. Technical C. Professor of Scripps Institution of

M. Agricultural Demand and CompeEconomic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Agriculture and Food Supplies Economist, Foreign

United States Statistical Supplement: Church Membership Table

Catholic Church

Sports Re-

porter, New York Times. Ice Hockey: North American

KILLHEFFER, JOHN

G. Executive Vice-President, National Wrestling Coaches Association, Salt Lake City, Utah. Combat Sports: Wrestling

JESSOP,

DAVID

Chronicle

and

A. Editor, West Indies Consultant on

Insight.

Caribbean affairs. Bahamas, The; Barbados; Biographies part):

Dependent States

(in

JOFFE, GEORGE. Journalist and Writer on North African Affairs.

Industrial Review: Telecommunications

Algeria;

Morocco

HOBDAY,

JONES,

C.

JULIA. Editor, Toys International, London. Games and Toys

HOPE, President, Hope Reports, Inc. Rochester, N.Y. Author of Hope Reports AV-USA Hope Reports Education and Media; Hope Reports Perspective. Motion Pictures (in part) W.

;

HORRY, JOHN H. Former Secretary, InSquash Rackets Federation. Contributor to The Oxford Companion to Sports and Games. Racket Games: Squash Rackets ternational

{in part): Israel

part):

Communications Editor, Electronics magazine. New York City. Author of numerous articles on electronics and mathematics. J.

Editor, Afro-Asian Affairs,

London. Author of There Could Have Been Peace: The Untold Story of Why We Failed With Palestine and Again with Israel: Seven Fallen Pillars; Second Arab Awakening. Biographies

(in part);

Dominica; Grenada; Guyana {in Jamaica; Trinidad and Tobago

V. Associate Editor,

Encyclopaedia Britannica. Nobel Prizes {in part)

KIMCHE, JON.

MARVIN

THOMAS

KELLEHER, JOHN

Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches.

HENDERSHOTT, MYRL

HINDIN, HARVEY

Publishing; Magazines {in part)

Uganda; Zaire; Zambia

JACQUET, CONSTANT

trition

HESS,

zine Selection.

KENNEDY, RICHARD

and Security. Law: Court Decisions

HAWLEY,

Professor of His-

(2nd ed. and supplement); Maga-

Libraries

ion,

INGHAM, KENNETH.

Law, University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign. Author of Sale and Bulk Sale on

Commercial Cases, and Eurolaw Commercial Intelligence. Author of Film Censors and the Law. Co-editor of Legal Problems of an Enlarged European Community. Law: International Law

KIND, JOSHUA

B. Associate Professor of Art History, Northern Illinois UniversiDe Kalb. Author of Rouault; Naive Art

ty,

in Illinois

Museums

M. Consultant, World Bowls;

Editor, Tennis. Member, British Society of Sports Psychology; Associate Member, British Association of National Coaches. Author of Winning Bowls; How to Become a

Champion: numerous books on tennis. Coauthor of Tackle Bowls My Way; Bryant on Bowls.

Bowling: Lawn Bowls

JONES, W. GLYN.

Professor of Scandinavian Studies, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, England. Author of Johannes Jftrgensens modne ar; Johannes Jorgensen; Denmark; William Heinesen; Faero

KING,

1830-1976. {in part)

^

O. L. Professor of Animal Husbandry, University of Liverpool, EnJ.

gland. Author of Veterinary Dietetics: Introduction

to

An

Animal Husbandry.

Zoos and Botanical Gardens: Zoos

KITAGAWA,

JOSEPH MITSUO. Professor of History of Religions and Dean of the Divinity School, University of Chicago. Author of Religions of the East; Religion in Japanese History. Religion: Buddhism KLARE,

HUGH

J.

Chairman, Gloucester-

HOTZ, LOUIS. Former Editorial Writer, Johannesburg (S.Af.) Star. Co-author and contributor to The Jews in South Africa: A

Literature: Danish

shire Probation Training Committee, England. Secretary, Howard League for Penal Reform 1950-7L Author of People in

JOSEPH, LOU. Manager

of Media Relaof Public Information, American Dental Association. Author of A Doctor Discusses Allergy: Facts and Fiction; Natural Childbirth; Diabetes.

the Peace.

History.

tions,

Health and Disease: Dentistry

Permanent Correspondent in Washington and Vice-President of the Association de la Presse Diplomatique Fran^aise.

og kosmos.

South Africa

HOWKINS, JOHN.

Editor, InterMedia, International Institute of Communications,

London. Author

Prison.

Bureau

of Understanding

JUSTIN, KAREN. Assistant

Television.

Television and Radio (in part)

clopaedia Britannica, Yearbooks.

Biographies

HUNNINGS, NEVILLE MARCH.

Justice of

KNECHT, JEAN. Formerly Assistant Foreign Editor, Le Monde, Paris; formerly

France

{in part)

KOPPER, PHILIP.

Gener-

Editor, European Law Centre Ltd., London. Editor of Common Market taw Reports. Commercial Laws of Europe, European

al

Editor, Ency-

Regular Contributor to

Prisons and Penology

KATZ, WILLIAM

A. Professor, School of Library Science, State University of New York, Albany. Author of Magazines for

Free-lance Writer,

Washington, D.C. Biographies part)

{in part):

Nobel Prizes (m

Contributors 745

KOVAN, RICHARD W.

Deputy

Editor,

LUCHTING, WOLFGANG German

Nuclear Engineering International, London. Industrial Review: Nuclear Industry

of

KWAN-TERRY, JOHN.

desnivel;

Senior Lecturer,

A. Professor and Hispanoamerican Lan-

guages and Literatures, Washington State University, Pullman. Author of Pasos a J.

R. Ribeyro y sus dobles. {in part); Literature: Spanish

Biographies

of English Language and Literature, University of Singapore. Editor of The Teaching of Languages in Institutions of Higher Learning in Southeast Asia.

LULING, VIRGINIA

Literature: Chinese

pologist.

Department

{in part)

R.

Social

Sun-Times. Biographies

Sports Writer, Chicago

(in part);

Football: U.S. Foot-

LARSON, ROY. Religion Editor, Chicago Sun-Times. Religion: Introduction Associate Editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Yearbooks. Biographies {in part)

Executive Director, Na-

tional Organization for River Sports,

terview Survey.

LEIFER, MICHAEL. Reader in International Relations, London School of Economics and Political Science. Author of Dilemmas of Statehood in Southeast Asia.

Malaysia; Singapore

LENNOX-KERR, PETER. European

Edi-

World. Author of Index to Man-Made Fibres Book. Editor of Nonwovens '71 Publisher of OE-Report, New tor, Textile

;

Mills, England. Industrial Review: Textiles {in part)

LEVE,

CHARLES

Editor, National Racquetball magazine; National Director, U.S. S.

Racquetball Association and National Racquetball Club, Inc. Author of Inside Racquetball; Co-author of Winning Rac-

MAZIE, DAVID M.

Racket Games: Racquetball

LIMBURG, ALBERT W.

Public Relations

islands.

MAZRUI, ALI A. Professor of Political Science, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor; Visiting Professor (1977-78) iri Modern Commonwealth History, University of Leeds, England. Author of Political Values and the Educated Class in Africa;

Dependent States Solomon Islands; Tonga; Tuvalu; Western Samoa

Biographies

{in part);

Economics

Ltd.,

C. Director,

World

London.

MACDONALD, TREVOR

Manager,

ty,

Industrial Review: Iron and Steel

Selling:

J.

MACGREGOR-MORRIS, PAMELA. Equestrian Correspondent, The Times and Horse and Hound, London. Author of books on equestrian topics. Equestrian Sports: Show jumping

McLACHLAN, KEITH School of Oriental and University of London.

Lecturer, African Studies, S.

Iran

McRAE, HAMISH. Financial Editor, The Guardian, London. Co-author of Capital City: London as a Financial Centre: The Second Great Crash. Feature Article: Another Day, a Different Dollar

Water

;

Christianity.

Religion: World Church

LOEFFLER,

EDWARD

Membership

Technical Director, National Machine Tool Builders' Association, McLean, Va. Industrial Review: Machinery and Machine

Orientalist

and

on Middle Eastern

N.J.

Author

of Personal

Consumerism

{in part); Industrial

Review:

Advertising

MELLBLOM, NEIL

B.

Director,

Bureau, Lutheran Council in the

New

News USA,

York City.

Religion: Lutheran Churches

MELLOR, CHRISTINE. Economist, Lloyds Bank International Ltd., London. Costa Rica; Guatemala

MERRIAM, MONIQUE.

Economist,

Lloyds Bank International Ltd., London. Chile; Ecuador; Paraguay Professor of

Church History and Patristics, St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary; Professor of History, Fordham University, New York City. Author of Christ in Eastern Christian Thought; Byzantine Theology. Religion: The Orthodox Church; Eastern

Free-lance Writer

MEYER, MICHAEL.

affairs.

Writer. Author of

Bahrain; Biographies {in part); Egypt; Iraq; Jordan; Kuwait; Lebanon; Middle Eastern Affairs; Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; Syria; United Arab Emirates; Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of; Yemen Arab Republic

Henrik Ibsen: The Making of a Dramatist; Henrik Ibsen: The Farewell to Poetry: Henrik Ibsen: The Top of a Cold Mountain. Translator of works of Ibsen and Strind-

MARSHALL,

MILES, PETER W. Chairman, Department of Entomology, University of Ade-

berg.

Theatre: Special Report

J.

J.

G.

SCOTT.

Horticultural

Consultant.

Gardening

laide, Australia.

{in part)

Life Sciences: Entomology

MARTY, MARTIN G. Sportswriter,

Chicago Tribune. Author of The Bulls and Chicago— A Stormy Affair. Basketball {in part)

South Orange,

Choice Against Chance; Introduction Marketing: Readings in the Discipline.

Non-Chalcedonian Churches

MANSFIELD, PETER.

Tools

LOGAN, ROBERT

to

MEYENDORFF, JOHN.

H. M. F. Editor, Wool Record Weekly Market Report, Bradford, England. Industrial Review: Textiles {in part)

Turkey

Religion, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa. Co-editor of Weltkirchenlexikon Author of Macmillan Atlas History of

MAZZE, EDWARD MARK. Dean and

ration.

Broadcaster.

H. Professor of

Towards a Pax Africana. Question Mark over Africa Feature Article:

Professor of Marketing, W. Paul Stillman School of Business, Seton Hall Universi-

MANGO, ANDREW.

FRANKLIN

Social and Welfare Services {in part)

International Affairs, British Steel Corpo-

Director, Boating Industry Associations, Sports: Motorboating

Writer.

Africa's International Relations:

Agriculture and Food Supplies: grain table: Transportation: table; statistical sections of articles on the various countries

Chicago.

LITTEL,

Associate of Carl T. Free-lance

Rowan, syndicated columnist.

MALLETT,

quetball.

Director, InternationVine and Wine Office, Paris. Industrial Review: Alcoholic Beverages {in part)

al

BARRIE. Senior Lecturer Massey University, Palmerston North, N.Z. Author of several articles on the history and politics of Pacific in History,

MacDONALD, M. Associate Editor, The Observer; Editor, Middle East Contemporary Survey and Africa Contemporary Record, London. Author of Must We Lose Africa?; Congo Disaster; Pan- Africanism: A Political Guide; South Africa: Crisis for the West. African Affairs; Biographies {in part)

Iceland

MAURON, PAUL.

Demography

Sports: River Sports

LEGUM, COLIN.

MATE] A, JAMES L. Auto Editor and Financial Reporter, Chicago Tribune. Industrial Review: Automobiles

of Biostatis-

{in part); Fiji;

Colorado Springs, Colo.

Water

Consultant; Ad-

MACDONALD,

LATHAM, ARTHUR.

LEAPER, ERIC.

S.

Department

University of North Carolina. Author of Systems of Demographic Measurement: The Single Round Retrospective Intics.

Canadian Football

ball:

Bookselling and Marketing, Publishers Weekly, New York City. Publishing: Books {in part)

MATTHIASSON, BJORN. Economist, European Free Trade Association, Geneva.

LUNDE, ANDERS junct Professor,

G. Associate Editor,

Anthro-

Somalia; Sudan

LAMB, KEVIN M.

MARYLES, DAISY

Fairfax M. Cone Distinguished Service Professor, University of Chicago; Associate Editor, The Chriftian Century. Religion: Special Report E.

MILLIKIN, SANDRA. Architectural Historian.

Architecture; Art Exhibitions; {in part)

Museums

746 Contributors

MITCHELL,

Department

K. K. Lecturer,

of Physical Education, University of

Leeds, England. Honorary General Secretary, English Basket Ball Association. Basketball {in part)

MODIANO, MARIO.

Athens Correspondent, The Times, London. Greece

MODRICH, PAUL LAWRENCE.

Climbers' Club Guides; Czvm Silyn and Tremadoc, Snowdon South; Alpine Club Guide: Selected Climbs in the Pennine Alps.

canter Magazine, London. Industrial Review: Alcoholic Beverages (in part)

Mountaineering

PASKOV, DAVID. NELSON, BERT. Editor, Track and Field News. Author of Little Red Book; The Decathlon Book; Olympic Track and Field; Of People and Things. Track and Field Sports

Assis-

NETSCHERT, BRUCE

Journalist,

Agence

France-Presse, Paris. Biographies {in part)

PAUL, CHARLES ROBERT, JR. Director Communications, U.S. Olympic Committee, Colorado Springs, Colo. Author of

of

University Medical Center, Durham, N.C. Life Sciences: Molecular Biology {in part)

C. Vice-President, National Economic Research Associates, Inc., Washington, D.C. Author of The Future Supply of Oil and Gas. Co-author of Energy in the American Economy: 1850-

MOFFAT,

1975.

PENFOLD, ROBIN C. Free-lance Writer specializing in industrial topics. Editor, Shell Polymers. Author of A Journalist's

Energy: World Summary

Guide

tant Professor of Biochemistry,

Duke

Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, England. Editor of Inspection, Operation and Maintenance of Existing Dams. Engineering Projects: Dams A.

I.

B.

MONACO,

ALBERT M., JR. Executive Director, United States Volleyball Association, San Francisco, Calif. Court Games: Volleyball

University Professor, Brown University, Providence, R.I. Author of Invitation to the Talmud; A History of the Mishnaic Law of Purities. Religion: Judaism

H.

S.

Free-lance Journalist; ForEditor, World Fishing,

mer Managing London.

MOORE, JOHN

E. Staff

Hydrologist, U.S. Geologi-

Water Resources Division,

and Singer, London. Music: Popular

Art Sales

;

MORGAN, HAZEL.

Free-lance Writer

MORRIS, DESMOND.

Research Fellow,

Wolfson College, University of Oxford. Author of The Naked Ape; The Human Zoo; Manwatching:

A

Field

Guide

to

Human

Behaviour.

Football: Special Report

MORRISON, DONALD. Time magazine. Publishing: Newspapers

Associate Edi-

tor,

NOVALES, RONALD ty,

Evanston,

R. Professor of Bi-

Northwestern UniversiContributor to Handbook

ological Sciences, 111.

:

Kenya.

MOSHANSKY, MOZELLE

A. Free-lance

Musician; Music Journalist, The Daily Telegraph, Classical Music Weekly, and bbc Radio. Editor and Author on musical topics.

Biographies (in part); Music: Introduction Opera; Symphonic

MUCK, TERRY CHARLES. Handball magazine, Skokie, Court Games: Handball

MULLINS, STEPHANIE. don. Biographies

Editor,

Retirement; Migration, Mobility, and Aging;

Historian, Lon-

Aging.

tion

of British

Ma-

Financing of Small Business; Perspectives on Insurance.

Stock Exchanges

{in part)

Committees on Publication, The First Church of Christ, Scientist, Boston. Religion: Church of Christ, Scientist of International Relations, University of Surrey, Guildford, England. Co-author of Collective

Union of Soviet

Chief, Knizhnoye Obozreniye, Literature: Russian {in part)

Editor in

Moscow.

A. B. Research Officer, National Institute of Economic and Social Research, London.

PALMER, of

S. B.

S.

Professor of

English Literature and Chairman, Division of Humanities, Stern College, Yeshiva University, New York City. Author of Milton's Inward Jerusalem; Faith and Reason; Judaism and Tragic Theology. Literature: United States

H. Y. SHARADA. Director, Indian Institute of Mass Communication,

PRASAD,

Delhi, India.

India

RANGER, ROBIN.

Associate Professor, of Political Science, St. FranXavier University, Antigonish, Nova Scotia; Department of National Defence Fellow in Strategic Studies (1978-79). Author of Arms and Politics. Defense; Defense: Special Report

Department

PAGE, SHEILA

Economy, World

Socialist Republics

PLOTKIN, FREDERICK

New

OVSYANNIKOV, ALEKSEY.

{in part)

Editor, The

Senior Lecturer, Depart-

cis

RAPPAPORT, PAUL.

Director, Solar En-

ergy Research Institute, Golden, Colo. Feature Article: Toward a Sun-Powered World

Applied Physics, University of

RAY,

Hull, England. Physics

Professor of Marine Biology, University of Liverpool; Director, Marine Biological Laboratory, Port

Senior Research Fellow, NaEconomic and Social London; Visiting Professor, Research, University of Surrey, Guildford, EnG.

F.

tional Institute of

PARKER, SANDY.

Publisher, Sandy

Parker Reports, a weekly newsletter of the fur industry; Business Editor, fur Chic

gland. Industrial Review: Introduction

Magazine.

rine Isopods.

Life Sciences:

the

Industrial Review: Building and Construc-

ment {in part)

Man. Author

Programs and

Social Goals, Social

Guardian, London. European Unity

NAYLOR, ERNEST. Erin, Isle of

C. Director, Bureau of Economic and Business Research, University of Florida. Editor of Income in

PALMER, JOHN. European

111.

PFEFFER, IRVING. Attorney. President, Dover Insurance Co., Ltd. Author of The

Security.

Editor, Rowing, 1961-63; Honorary Editor, British Rowing Almanack, 1961Author of Boat Racing in Britain. 1715-1975.

OSTERBIND, CARTER

of Trusteeship in Practice

PETHERICK, KARIN. Crown Princess Louise Lecturer in Swedish, University College, London. Literature: Swedish

OSBORNE, KEITH.

Correspondent, The Spectator, London.

Nations; Dependent States {in part); Equatorial Guinea; Gambia, The; Ghana; Lesotho; Liberia; Maldives; Mauritius; Nigeria; Rwanda; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; Swaziland

Literature: Italian

PICK, OTTO. Professor

Rowing

Botswana; Burundi; Commonwealth of

in Italian,

University of Sussex, England.

of Physiology ; Comparative Animal Physiology ; Frontiers of Hormone Research. Life Sciences: Zoology Overview

MORTIMER, MOLLY. Commonwealth Author

Plastics

PHINNEY, ALLISON W. Manager,

.

{in part)

Review:

FERTILE, LINO. Lecturer

Fisheries

NORMAN, GERALDINE.

Saleroom Correspondent, The Times, London. Author of The Sale of Works of Art Nineteenth Century Painters and Painting: A Dictionary; Co-author of The Fake's Progress.

Survey. Earth Sciences: Hydrology

cal

to Plastics.

Industrial

NEUSNER, JACOB.

NOEL,

The Olympic Games, 1968. Gymnastics and Weight Lifting

Marine Biology

NEILL, JOHN. Technical Manager, Submerged Combustion Ltd. Author of

Industrial Review: furs

REBELO,

PARNELL, COLIN.

Portuguese Studies, King's College, University of London.

Wine and

Literature: Portuguese {in part)

Spirit,

Consultant Editor, London. Publisher, De-

L. S.

Lecturer,

Department

of

Contributors 747

REIBSTEIN, JOAN NATALIE. Associate Editor, Wesleyan University Press, Mid-

SHACKLEFORD, CAMILLE.

dletown. Conn. Biographies (in part)

Industrial

Director, International Tourism Consultants.

Review: Tourism

SHARPE, MITCHELL

REICHELDERFER,

F. W. Consultant on Atmospheric Sciences; Former Director, Weather Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.

R. Science Writer; Historian, Alabama Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville. Author of Living in Space: The Environment of the Astronaut Yuri Gagarin, First Man in Space: "It Is I.

Earth Sciences: Meteorology

Seagull": Valentina Tereshkova, First Woman in Space: Satellites and Probes, the Develop-

H. Senior Lecturer in German, University of Nottingham, England. Coeditor of Renaissance and Modern Studies. Author of Heinrich Boll: Withdrawal and Re-emergence: Co-author of Critical Strategies: German Fiction in the Twentieth Cen-

ment of Unmanned Spaceflight. Space Exploration

REID,

J.

SHAW,

T. R.

Member,

Ker

States.

Combat

Cave Research Assn.

Sports: Fencing

Speleology

SULLIVAN, H. PATRICK.

Literature:

German

SHENK, CLAYTON

ROBINSON, DAVID.

Film Critic, The

Times, London. Author of Buster Keaton; The Great Funnies — A History of Screen Comedy: A History of World Cinema. Biographies (i>i part); Motion Pictures (in part)

RODERICK, JOHN. Longtime

Foreign Correspondent. Author of What You Should Know About China. Biographies (in part)

ROGALY,

JOE. Assistant Editor, FinanTimes, London.

United Kingdom

SAEKI, SHOICHI. Professor

of Comparative Literature, University of Tokyo. Author of In Search of Japanese Ego. Literature: Japanese

SAINT-AMOUR, ROBERT.

Professor,

Department of Literary Studies, University of Quebec at Montreal. Literature: French (in part)

SAMUELSON, PAUL sor,

P.

College, London. Literature: Norwegian

Feature and Sports Writer, New York Times. Author of The New York Times Ski Guide to the United

tury.

cial

ST0VERUD, TORBJ0RN. W.

Senior Lecturer in Norwegian, University

STRAUSS, MICHAEL.

Commander, Royal Navy.

British

Washington Post-Los Angeles Times News Service. Book Editor, American HorAuthor of Pruning Guide for Trees, Shrubs, and Vines: Lawn Guide. Gardening (in part) ticulturist.

Department

of

A. Institute Profes-

Economics, Massa-

chusetts Institute of Technology. Author of Economics: Foundations of Economic Analysis.

Feature Article: The Roots of

Inflation

SARAHETE, YRJO.

General Secretary, Federation Internationale des Quilleurs, Helsinki.

Bowling: Tenpin Bowling

(in part)

SCHOENFIELD, ALBERT.

Co-publisher,

Swimming World; Vice-Chairman, U.S. Olympic Swimming Committee. Contributor to The Technique of Water Polo: The History of Swimming ; Competitive Swimming as I See It.

Professor of Religion, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie,

N.Y.

SIMPSON, NOEL. Managing

SURO, ROBERTO.

Director,

Sydney Bloodstock Proprietary

Ltd.,

Syd-

SMEDLEY, GLENN

B.

SWEETINBURGH, THELMA.

Public Relations

American Numismatic Associa-

Director,

and Numismatics: Coins

SMITH,

R.

W. Dean, Graduate

Hodgson.

SMOGORZEWSKI,

K. M. Writer on contemporary history. Founder and Editor, Free Europe, London. Author of The United

and Great Britain: Poland's Access

to

the Sea.

Albania; Andorra; Biographies (in part): Bulgaria; Hungary; Liechtenstein; Luxembourg; Monaco; Mongolia; Poland; Political Parties;

Romania; San Marino

ARTHUR

J. Science Writer, Chicago Sun-Times. Author of Learning How to Live with Heart Trouble: Learning How to Live with Nervous Tension: Learning

How

to

Live with

tics,

New

Professor of Poli-

New

York University,

York

City. Author of International Law: Current and Classic: World A/fairs and the College

Curriculum.

United Nations

Religion: Islam

SNIDER,

(in part)

SWIFT, RICHARD N.

School, University of the Pacific, Stockton, Calif. Editor of Venture of Islam by M. G. S.

States

Paris Fashion Correspondent for the British Wool Textile Industry.

Fashion and Dress

tion.

Philately

Correspondent,

Midwest Bureau, Time magazine. Migration, International: Special Report

ney, Australia. Equestrian Sports: Harness Racing

High Blood

Pressure. (in part)

Health and Disease: Overview

SPELMAN, ROBERT

A. President,

Home

Furnishings Services, Washington, D.C. Industrial Review: Furniture

STAERK, MELANIE. Member, Swiss Press Association. Former

National Commission for Switzerland

Member, Swiss

UNESCO.

SYNAN, VINSON.

Assistant General Superintendent, Pentecostal Holiness

Church. Author of The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement: The Old Time Power. Religion: Pentecostal Churches

TAISHOFF, SOL J. Editor, Broadcasting, Washington, D.C. Television and Radio (in part)

NORMAN M. Chief, ProcessHigh Temperature Materials

TALLAN, ing and

Branch, Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio. Editor of Electrical Conductivity in Ceramics and Glass. Materials Sciences: Ceramics

TARADASH, DANIEL.

President, WritAmerica, West, 1977-79; forPresident, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Screenwriter

ers Guild of

mer

From Here to Eternity and Picnic. Motion Pictures: Special Report for

TATTERSALL, ARTHUR.

LYNN

ARTHUR. Professor of St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minn. Author of Counterexamples in Topology: Annotated Bibliography of Expository Writing in the Mathematical STEEN,

Lecturer in East

Executive Secre-

Religion: Hinduism

Swimming

SCHOPFLIN, GEORGE.

B.

tary, U.S. National Archery Association. Target Sports (in part)

Mathematics,

Textile Trade

Statistician, Manchester, England. Industrial Review: Textiles (in part)

TEITELBAUM, MICHAEL

sity of

London. Czechoslovakia

Sciences.

S. University Lecturer in Demography, University of Oxford; Fellow of Nuffield College. Editor of Sex Differences: Social and Biological Perspectives: The British Fertility Decline (in

Mathematics

preparation).

SCHULMAN,

STERN, IRWIN.

European

Political Institutions,

London

School of Economics and School of Slavonic and East European Studies, Univer-

ELI AS. Associate Professor, Queens College, City University of New York. Author of Israel Tsinberg, His Life and Works: A History of Yiddish Literature in America: Soviet-Yiddish Literature. Literature: Yiddish

Feature Article: As Assistant Professor of Portuguese, Columbia University, New

York City. Author of Jiilio Dinis e o romance portuguis (1860-2870) Co-editor of Modern Iberian Literature: A Library of Lit:

erary Criticism. Literature: Portuguese (in part)

Technical Editor, The American Rifleman. Target Sports (in part)

JR.

City.

Author

Ballet

Companion.

of

The Dance

Baltimore

Columnist,

News American; Washington

Post:

Critic,

New in

York

America: The

(in part)

THOMAS, HARFORD. STEVENSON, TOM. Garden

Age

Dance

Saturday Review magazine.

Dance

SEARS, ROBERT N. Senior Associate

Societies

TERRY, WALTER,

Retired City and Financial Editor, The Guardian, London.

Biographies

(in part)

748 Contributors

THOMPSON, ANTHONY.

VERDI, ROBERT WILLIAM.

European

Linguist Research Fellow, CLW, Aberystwyth, Wales. General Secretary, International Federation of Library Associations, 1962-70. Author of Library Buildings of Britain and Europe. Libraries

THOMSON, JAMES

Sportswrit-

Chicago Tribune. Baseball (in part)

er,

Chief Sports Subeditor, Daily Telegraph, London. Biographies {in part): Football: Association Football

VIANSSON-PONTE, PIERRE.

Editorial

Adviser and Leader Writer, Le Monde, Paris. Author of Les Gaullistes: The King and His Court: Les Politiques. Biographies (in part)

C. Retired Editor,

WILLIAMSON, TREVOR.

WILSON, MICHAEL. Employed with Carl Byoir & Associates Ltd., London. Industrial Review: Aerospace

Farmer magazine. Author of American Farm Organizations; The Changing

VINT,

Agricultural Extension Service. United States: Special Report

International Table Tennis Federation, Sussex, England.

the lournalist.

Table Tennis

Publishing: Special Report

WINSBURY, REX.

Prairie

TINGAY, LANCE. Lawn Tennis

Correspondent, the Daily Telegraph, London. Author of 300 Years of Wimbledon: Tennis,

A

Pictorial History.

Tennis

TINKER, JON.

Director, Earthscan, a service of the International Institute for

Environment and Development. Environment: Special Report

TRIGG, ROBERT H.

Director, Economic Policy Studies Sec-

Research, Committee tion, New York Stock Exchange. Stock Exchanges (in part)

TRILLING, OSSIA.

WADLEY,

J.

B.

Counselor,

Writer and Broadcaster

on cycling. Editor of Guinness Guide to Bicycling. Author of Tour de France 1970, 1971, and 1973; Old Roads and New. Cycling

PETER. Head, Ward News

Ser-

vice, Parliamentary Press Gallery, Ottawa; Contributing Editor, Canadian Business magazine. Canada: Special Report

spondent, Country Golf

P.

A. Golf Corre-

Life,

WAY, DIANE L. Research Assistant, Ontario Historical Studies Series. Biographies {in part) JR. Retired from U.S. Foreign Service. Salvador; Honduras; Nicaragua

El

WEBB, W.

Literary Editor, The Guard-

TRUSSELL, TAIT. Administrative American Forest

Wood

UMANSKY, DAVID

WEBSTER, PETER

tions

Director, Office of

Office of the United

High Commissioner

WEEDEN,

CYRIL. Assistant Director,

Glass Manufacturers' Federation, London.

Na-

Industrial Review: Glass

WIJNGAARD, BARBARA.

UNNY, GOVINDAN. Agence

Presse Special Correspondent for India,

Nepal, and Sri Lanka. Afghanistan; Bangladesh; Bhutan; Biographies {in part): Burma; Nepal; Pakistan; Sri Lanka

VALE, NORMAN K. Retired Director News Services, The United Church of

of

Canada. Religion: United Church of Canada

HOVEN,

Consumer

ISOLA. Writer on Hague, Neth.

Affairs, The Consumerism {in part)

Free-lance Sports-

Racket Games: Rackets; Real Tennis

WOOD, KENNETH

H. Editor, Adventist Review. Author of Meditations for Moderns; Relevant Religion. Religion: Seventh-day Adventist Church Writer. Author

Economist, Lloyds Bank International Ltd., London. Biographies {in part): Bolivia; Cuba; Portugal; Spain

WOOLLEY, DAVID.

WILKINSON, GORDON. Head, Communications Section, Research and Development Division, Rentokil

Editor, Airports In-

London.

Transportation

{in part)

WORSNOP, RICHARD tor, Editorial

L.

Associate Edi-

Research Reports, Washing-

ton, D.C. United States

WRIGHT, ALMON

R. Retired Senior Historian, U.S. Department of State.

Panama

WYLLIE, PETER JOHN. Homer

J.

Liv-

ingston Professor, University of Chicago. of The Dynamic Earth. Earth Sciences: Geology arui Geochemistry

Economist,

Lloyds Bank International Ltd., London. Argentina; Mexico

France-

WOOD, CHRISTINA.

Author

for Refugees.

Refugees

van den

L. Associate ProfesDepartment of Botany, University of Massachusetts. Co-author of The Cell. Life Sciences: Botany

sor, J.

Public Affairs, Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D.C. Transportation: Special Report

UNHCR. The

L.

London and Manchester.

Institute.

Products

Rodeo

ternational,

Literature: Introduction; United Kingdom; Russian {in part); Eastern European

Industrial Review:

WITTE, RANDALL E. Associate Editor, The Western Horseman magazine.

WOOLLER, MICHAEL.

ian,

President,

New TechTechnology and

The Yellow Volkswagen; Gone. Literature: English {in part)

Religion: Presbyterian, Reformed, and Congregational Churches

Vice-

New

of

WEBB, HENRY, T. Secretary, Department of Cooperation and Witness, World Alliance of Reformed Churches.

Editorial Director,

London. Author of

nology and the Press;

WOODS, ELIZABETH.

London.

{in part)

TRINDADE, INGRID

Fintel Ltd.,

writer.

WARD,

WARD-THOMAS,

Vice-President, Inter-

national Association of Theatre Critics (1956-77). Co-editor and Contributor, International Theatre. Contributor, BBC, the Financial Times, London.

Theatre

ARTHUR KINGSLEY.

Ltd.,

Crawley, England. Chemistry Consultant, New Scientist, London. Author of InTimber Preservation. Chemistry.

YANG, WINSTON

L. Y. Professor of

Chinese Studies, Department of Asian Studies, Seton Hall University, South Orange, N.J. Author of Modern Chinese Fiction; Teng Hsiao-p'ing: A Political Biography (forthcoming). Biographies (in part)

YOUNG,

dustrial

WILKINSON, PAUL. Reader in Politics, University of Wales. Author of Political Terrorism; Terrorism and the Liberal State. Feature Article: Terrorism — Weapon of the

M. NORVEL. Chancellor, Pepperdine University, Malibu, Calif.; Chairman of the Board, 20th Century Christian Publishing Co. Author of Preachers of Today; History of Colleges Connected with Churches of Christ The Church Is Building. Religion: Churches of Christ ;

Weak

VAN GORKOM, JEROME

YOUNG, SUSAN. News

W. Chairman

Board and Chief Executive Officer, Trans Union Corp., Lincolnshire, 111. Member, Advisory Council on Social Security, U.S. Department of Health,

WILLEY, DAVID DOUGLAS. Rome

Education, and Welfare.

WILLIAMS, PETER.

of the

Social

and Welfare Services:

Special Report

respondent, BBC. Biographies {in part);

PRAAG, JACK

H. National Public Relations Director, U.S. Badminton Assn. Racket Games: Badminton

Times, London. Religion: Anglican

Editor, Church

Communion

Italy

ZANDER, MICHAEL. Editor, Dance and Dancers, London. Chairman, Arts Coun-

Great Britain's Dance Theatre ComChairman, British Council's

Professor of

London School of Economics and Author of Social Workers,

Science.

Law,

Political

Their

mittee;

and the Law; Legal Services for Community; Editor of Family Guide to

Drama Advisory Committee.

Law.

Dance

Law: Special Report

cil,

van

Cor-

{in part)

Clients

the the

714

officials

Index

Agriculture and

black type entries are article headings in the Book

The

The

headings that are indented under black type

light type

article

ings refer to material elsewhere in the text related to the subject listed.

The

79,

policies 377 food processing 385 Food Supply of the World 150 "Roots of Inflation, The" 60 solar energy possibilities 21 sweet corn breeding 400 U.S. statistics 709 (table)

head-

publishing 585 (table)

American Stock Exchange (Amex) 637

American Telephone and Telegraph Co. (AT&T) 450 Amies, Hardy 379 Amin, Idi 159, 683 Amino acids 498

under AGR's:

see

Advanced gas-cooled

reac-

Ahmed, Mohammed Ahn,

Philip: see

1

see

Obituar-

261

Obituaries 79 see Biographies

dren (AFDC) 622 Alley. Alvin 280 "Ain't Misbehavin" (play) 665,

il.

666

Airbus Industrie 435 Air conditioning: see Heating and

Abdallah, Ahmed 261 Abelin. Pierre: see Obituaries 78 Aboriginals (people) 593 Abortion 705

Akuffo, Fred W.

il. 621 463 New Zealand 560 Italy 463 "Test-Tube Babies— The Legal Implications" 484 U.S. funding debate 622 Abrahams, Harold Maurice: see Obituaries 79 Abramsky, Yehezkiel: see Obituaries

78 Abreu, Hugo 229 Abruzzo, Anderson, and Newman: Biographies 79

see

ballooning 156

ABT

(American

Abu Dhabi

Ballet

Theatre) 279

(emirate) 688

energy 351 Lesotho aid 487

Academy

Mo

of

Scit 541 "Oscar Turns 50" 545 :

Academy

of Television Arts

and

Sciences 656

Accidents and safety

consumerism 264,

il. 265 death causes 300 energy issues 345 engineering projects 352 Ford automobile recall 437 "Indestructible Garbage. The" 366 legal decisions 480 "Menace on the Rails" 677 motor sports 547 Acheampong, Ignatius Kutu 405 coup d'etat 159

Acropolis (Athens. Gr.) 184 Acrylonitrile 385 Action for Children's Television 434 Adair, Paul Neal ("Red"): see Biogra-

phies 78 Adams, J M. G. ("Tom") 216 Additives 385 Aden: see Yemen, People's Democratic Republic of .Adenyl cyclase (biology) 498 ADF: see Arab Deterrent Force Adolescents 142, 337 Adoula, Cyrille: see Obituaries 79 Adrian, Edgar Douglas Adrian, 1st Baron, of Cambridge: see Obituaries 78 Adrisi. Mustapha 683 Advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGR's) 349, 446 Advertising 265, 434 Academy Awards nominees 545 U.S. state laws 706

Aegean

Sea,

Europe

Greece-Turkey dispute 408, 481, 682

AELC

(Association of Evangelical Lu-

theran Churches) 600 Aerial Sports 79, 78, 77 Aerosols 362

Aerospace 434, defense 285 disasters 56

il.

435

il.

tourism 452

Biographies

Ghana 405 Alabama 700. 704

Depen-

dent Children) 622 Affirmative action

Bakke case 594 education 340 Religious Society of Friends 602 "Affirmed" (horse) 369, il. 368 Afghanistan 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 173 defense 291, 284 (table) demography 297 (table) disasters 59 publishing 585 (table) U.S.S.R. 688 African Affairs 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 161 Belgium-Zaire relations 223 Canadian relations 237 Commonwealth countries 260 Cuban involvement 273 defense 282 demography 296 dependent states 309 "Detente, Entente, or Cold War?" 295 ly, world 330 338 ;rgy 348 jineering projects 355 ince 396 Republic 401 481 '

.Mbatross (zoology) 496 Albers, Josef: see Obituaries 77 Alberta, province. Canada "Petrodollars on the Prairie" 238 Alcan pipeline 196 Alcoholic beverages 435

Hungarian restrictions 422 U.S. state legislation 705 Aldwake, Yorkshire 353 Alexander, Eben Roy: see Obituaries 79 Alfalfa: see Feed grains Algae (zoology) 497, 386 Algebraic K-theory (math.) 524 Algeria 79, 78, 77 African affairs 158 agriculture 171 (table)

Ma .

demography 297

(table)

energy 350

437 Middle Eastern affairs 527 mining and quarrying 537

industrial review

museums 551 publishing 585 (table) "Question Mark over Africa" 9 transportation 674 (table)

Queen

Biographies 79 Obituaries

African countries African Community 160 African National Congress (ANC) 159 African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde (PAICC) 241, 411 African swine fever 726

Dominican Republic outbreak 313 Aged:

see

Senior citizens

Age Discrimination

in

Employment

(defoliant) 361 Agnelli, Giovanni 464 Agonists (biology) 497

eforn Algeria 17 El Salvado 343 Honduras 421

Mexico 526 Nigeria 562 Portugal 582 Agricultural Information Sysl

(UNESCO) 488 Agriculture, U.S. Departmenl

(USDA)

161

gardening 400 horse disease control 726

Alloys 523 All-Star Game (baseball) 218

Antwerp, Neth. 201 Apples 400 Aquino. Benigno S.. Jr. 571 Arab Bank for Economic Develop-

Almelo, Netherlands 359 Alonso, Alicia 279, il. 280 ALP (Australian Labor Party) 210

Aluminum

523, 536, 564

Alunni, Corrado 270, 463 Alvin Alley American Dance Theater

ment in Africa 10 Arab Deterrent Force (ADF) 527 defense 290

Lebanon 485

280 "Alydar" (horse) 369, il. 368 (Amplitude modulation) 653 (American Medical Association)

AM AMA

Syria 649

Arab Emirates, Federation United Arab Emirates

of: see

Arab-Israeli conflict:' sfe Middle East-

416 see

Bi-

ographies 77

Amateur (Ham) radio 658 Amaury, Emilien: see Obituaries 78 Amazonic Cooperation, Treaty of (Amazon Pact) 230, 477 River

international settlement 481

AMC

(American Motors Corp.) 437 American Agriculture Movement

(AAM)

702

American Ballet Theatre (ABT) 279 American Chemical Society 244 American Farm Bureau Federation (AFBF) 702 American Friends Service Committee 602

415

Antigua 308 publishing 585 Antimatter 206 Antimony 536 Anti-Nazi League (ANL) 594 Antiprotons 576 Antitrust 533 Anturane (drug) 414

Woody: see Biographies 79 motion pictures 540 Allison, Bobby 548

Amazon

Antibiotics 242 decline in effectiveness

(tables) (table)

Amairik. Andrey Alekseyevich:

Act 340

Agent Orange

Ibsen sesquicentennial 667

numismatics 570 publishing 587

demography 296 79

see also

art exhibitions 199

archaeology 186 see

of Jordan: see

Allen.

687 United Kingdom 692 United Nations 694 West Germany 405

Anniversaries

nuclear waste disposal proposal 366

Afri

U.S.S.R.

1

Rhodesia 610 Sao Tome and Principe 615 Zairean relations 738 defense 290 demography 297 (table) economy, world 332 publishing 585 (table) refugees 596 Anguilla 298 (table) Animal behaviour: see Zoology Animal breeding 725 ANL (Anti-Nazi League) 594 "Annie Hall" (film) 541

Anthropology 79, 78, 77

Moses 683

Muhammad:

Chile 247 Andean Pact 482 Anderson. Eddie: see Obituaries 78 Anderson. Maxie: see Abruzzo, Anderson, and Newman .\nderson. Sparky: see Biographies 77 Andorra 79, 78, 77 demography 298 (table) Andre, Carl il. 200 Andreotti, Giulio: see Biographies 77 Italy 462 Andretti. Mario 547 Androsch. Hannes 213

Anthony, Douglas 207 Anthony, Earl 227

boxing 256

592

(African National Congress) 159 Ancient Sunspot Records Research Group (China) 205 Anda. Geza: see Obituaries 77

"Another Day, a Different Dollar" (McRael 65 Antarctica 79, 78, 77 demography 297 (uble) dependent states 303 fisheries 384 marine biology 496

defense 290

78

refugees 596 transportation 676

ANC

Cuban involvement 273 "Question Mark over Africa"

demography 298 (tables) publishing 585 (table)

Alia,

Biographies

African affairs 158

defense 284 (table)

All. All,

see

457

Amplitude modulation (AM) 653

Angola 79, 78, 77

capital city design 191

mining and quarrying 533 Albania 79, 78, 77 China 250 Fed-

(ship) 359, 383, 482.

Anglerfish 491 Anglican Catholic Church 598 Anglican Communion 597, 599

Alabama, University of 390 Alaska 196, 704

transportation 673 U.S. deregulation 697 see also Space exploration Afars (people) 311 .\fars and Issas: see Djibouti eration) 702 AFDC (Aid to Families with

Italy

K.: see

79

International Airport 467,

466

AFBF (American Farm Bureau

anti-abortion demonstration

air

Airline Deregulation Act (U.S.) 673 Air pollution: see Pollution Ajman (emirate) 688 Akawaio (people) 593

Saudi Arabia 616

Tokyo (Hugo) Alvar Henrik: see Obituaries 77 AAM (American Agriculture Movement) 702 Aantjes, Willem 558 ABBA (rock group) il. 556

"

357, 362

Andean Group 477

77 Ahtisaari, Martti 382, 628 Aid to Families with Dependent Chil-

Dulles Airport controversy 191 Ethiopia 374 Kenya industry 471 Maldives 521

ils,

Amouzegar. Jamshid: 78

Ahrweiler, Helene:

"Saint."

Aalto.

Amnesty International 692

"Amoco Cadiz Agt, Andreas Antonius Maria van: see

Biographies 79 Netherlands 558 Ahidjo, Ahmadou 233 Ahmed. Fakhruddin AH: ies 78

(AMA)

416

EEC

light type

Association 361 American Medical Association

American Motors Corp. (AMC) 437 American Samoa 311 demography 296 (tables)

il.

headings that are not indented refer in the text not given a special article. Biographies and obituaries are listed as cross references to the sections "Biographies" and "Obituaries" within the article "People of the Year." References to illustrations are preceded by the abbreviation "il." Ail headings, whether consisting of a single word or more, are treated for the purpose of alphabetization as single complete headings. Names beginning with "Mc" and "Mac" arc alphabetized as "Mac"; "St." is treated as

which they are to information

Food Supplies

consumerism 263. 265 economy, world 330

of the Year.

Manufacturing Chemists

701

"

78, 77 arable land decrease 357

of the Year.

These black type article entries do not show page notations because they are to be found in their alphabetical position in the body of the book. They show the dates of the issues of the Book of the Year in which the articles appear. For example "Archaeology 79, 78, 77" indicates that the article "Archaeology" is to he found in the 1979, 1978, and 1977 Book

of Architects 189

(table)

"Rebellion Down on the Farm Rift Valley fever program 416

ern Arafat,

affairs

Ya

"Te 132

Arber, Werner 105

Archaeology 79, 78, 77 Dublin Viking finds 459 hair analysis 245 museums 551 605 Archery 652 "Architectural Record (per.) 187 "Architectural Review" (per.) 188 Architecture 79, 78, 77 art exhibitions 201 engineering projects 353 solar building design 20. il. 21

mummy

religious discoveries

"

750 Arcosanti

INDEX I

Bongo.

".\urore. L' " (newspaper)

585

Australia 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 162 Antarctic research 179 archaeology 183 Commonwealth of Nations 260 defense 284 (table)

Omar

demography 296 Arcosanti (community) 353 ArcUc Regions 79, 78, 77 Alberta development plan 240 Areas: see Demography ARENA (National Renewal Alliance)

228

Arena Sports 77 Argentina 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 162 Antarctic research 179 defense 284 (table) demography 299 (tables) dependent states 302 disasters 57 earthquake 315 energy 350 fisheries 384 industrial review 437 international law 482 Latin-American affairs 476

(tables)

"As Societies Age" 141 dependent states 310 economy, world 321 education 336 energy 347 engineering projects 354 fisheries 382 industrial review 443. 453 Japanese relations 469 law 482 migration, international 530 mining and quarrying 536 motion pictures 541 New Zealand 560 prisons and penology 583 publishing 588 "Vanishing Daily. The" 591 race relations 593

Arginine-8-vasotocin (hormone) 492

Biographies 78 Armagnac 436 Armstrong, Anne: see Biographies 77 ng. Anthony: see Obituaries 77 Ted: Biogr; phi, 79 of Religion. The" 608 Armstrong. Herbert W. 608 ;

:

Arnold. Andre 731 Arron. Henck 644 Arsenic 536 Art archaeological forgeries 183 see also Architecture; Art exhibitions; Art sales; Dance; Literature

Museums; Theatre

photography 574 insemination 483 animal breeding progress 725 Art Sales 79, 78, 77 Arts Council (U.K.) 199. 662 Aruba. island. Netherlands .\ntilles 309 Arutunyan. Shagin 685 Asbestos 361, 415. il. 418 Asbestosis (disease) 415 Ascension, island, Atlantic O. 309

ASEAN:

see

Asi!

Association of Southeast

Na

Ashton. Elizabeth il. 371 Aspirin 414 Assad. Hafez al-: see Biographies 77 Middle Eastern affairs 528. 649 Assassinations 270 Argentina 198 Chile 247

464 Nicaragua 560

television and radio 653 transportation 674 (table) veterinary science 725 Australian Labor Party (ALP) 210 Australopithecus 182 Austria 79, 78, 77 agriculture 171 (table)

PLO

679 Association of Evangelical Lutheran

Churches (AELC) 600 iciation of Self-Defense for

Pea

ants (Mexico) 526 Ass iciation of Southeast Asian Na-

China relations 250 Japan 468 Southeast Asian affairs 629 Cambodia 232 Thailand's relations 661 Vietnam 727 "As Societies Age" (Teitelbaum) 139 Asteroids 204 Astronautics: see Space exploration Astronomy 79, 78, 77 earth sciences 314 space exploration 634 spectroscopic studies 243

AT&T

(American Telephone and Telegraph Co.) 450 Athabasca Tar Sands (Alberta. Canada) 240 Athens. Gr. 184. 361 Atherton. Alfred 460. 527 Athletics: see individual sports Atlantic City. N. J. 398 Atmospheric sciences: see Meteorology

Atomic energy:

see

Nuclear energy

543

Batista

i

Berkeley. Busby: see Obituaries 77 Berkowitz. David (Son of Sam) 271 Berlin. Ger. 353. 405

Bermuda 308 demography 298 of

Roca. Josef Maria:

series) 656.

655 I

Beacon Press 602 Beagle Channel (South America) 247. 478. 482 Beatry.

198.

Warren

Beaumont. ies 77

540. il. 542 Cyril William: see Obituar-

Bedford. D(avis) Evan: 79 Bedson. Henry 415

see

Obituaries

,\rmy Faction; Rote

Armee

Frak-

tion) 131

Bachauer. Gina:

see

Obituaries 77

Backfire bomber 698. il. 294 Bacteria 414 Baddeley. Angela: see Obituaries 77 Baden. Michael il. 271 Baden-Powell, Olave St. Clair. Lady: see Obituaries 78 Badminton 594 Bahamas, The 79, 78, 77 demography 296 (tables)

(table)

Qatar border dispute 592 Bahrain Petroleum Co. 215 Bahro. Rudolf 401 Baibakow. Nikolay 331 Bainbridge. Beryl 502 Baker. Howard, Jr 697 Baker, Sir Stanley: see Obituaries 77 Bakery products 386 Bakhtiar, Shahpur 457 Bakke, Allan: see Biographies 79 law 340. 478. 594. 700. il. 479 Balance of payments: see Exchange Balanchine. George 278 Balcon. Sir Michael Elias: see Obituaries

78

Ballet

Rambert 280

Balukas. Jean 224

Banaba (Ocean

Island) 309 Banda. Hastings Kamuzu 519 Bangladesh 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 163

Burmese

relations 231

defense 284 (table)

demography 297

(table)

/3

255

Taurid m^

204

Betz. Carl: see Obituaries 79 Beullac, Christian 339 Beverages. Alcoholic: see Alcoholic

beverages Bhaktivedanta. A, C, Swami Prabsee

Obituaries 78 (table)

Bhutto. Zulfikar All 271. 565 Big bang hypothesis 206 Biggs. E(dward George) Power:

see

Obituaries 78

Obituaries 78 310 Biko, Steven Bantu: see Obituaries 78 Bijedic. Dzemal: see Bikini Atoll 311, il.

Bilandzic, Stjepan 135 Bilingualism: see Languages

Billiard Games 79, 78, 77 Budd" (opera) 553 Bilzingsleben skull 182

"Billy

Bingham Report

(U.K.) 692

Biochemistry: see Molecular biology Biographies: see People of the Year: Biographies Biological sciences: see Life sciences Biomass 18 Biophysics: see Molecular biology

Birching 479 Birds: see Ornithology Birmingham, Eng. 361

raphy Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii 200

see Biographies 79 Menahem: set Biographies 78 Middle Eastern affairs 527. 528 Egyptian relations 341 Israel 460 Syria 649 Nobel Prize 103 U.S. relations 697 Begle, Edward Griffith: see Obituaries 79 Behavioural Sciences 77 football violence theories 392

Beirut,

Lebanon

engineering projects 355 European affairs 375 industrial relations 430 industrial review 433

mining and quarrying 536 publishing 585 (table) religion 601 and welfare services 620 stock exchanges 639 theatre 664 social

Central African Empire 241 Bolan, Marc: see Obituaries 78 Bolivia 79, 78, 77

transportation 674 (table) Zaire 397, 737

demography 299

355 al law 481 Latin-American affairs 247, 477 migration, international 530

Honduras) 308

demography 298

(table)

Guatemala 410

Peter

M

Biographies

576

Bell Laboratories 244. 450. 522. il.

(table)

57

Belgrade Conference 735 Cuban participation 273 San Marino 615 Switzerland 648 USSR. 684

publishing 585 (table) Bell, Griffin Boyette: see

Obituaries 77

Bloomington, Ind. 414 Blousons 377 "Blue Collar" (film) 540 Blue whiting (fish) 384 Blumfield, Charlie il. 595 Board Games 77 games and toys 399 Boat people 530, 596 Australian immigrants 211 Malaysia il. 520 Bobsledding 733, il. 732 Bodnaras. Emil: see Obituaries 77 Boeing 435 Bokassa I: see Biographies 78

301, 141 (table)

economy, world 320 energy 347

78

phies 77 Black holes 206 Black Muslims: see World Community of Islam in the West Black robin 363 Blacks: see Negroes, American Black Sea Turkish-Soviet agreement 682 Bland, Roger 575 Blaupunkt (auto mfr.) 263 Blazejowski, Carol il. 221

defense 282

Belushi. John

phies 77 Black, Shirley Temple: see Biogra-

Blair, David: see

agriculture 171 (table) dance 281

demography

Rabah 175 Bjelke-Petersen, Johannes: see BiograBitat,

Bladder 417

il. 596 649 Maurice 281 Belgium 79, 78, 77

refugees

Syria Bejart.

Bell,

Ballooning 156. 658 Baltimore Canyon (Atlantic Ocean)

Obituaries

79

Birmingham, University of (U.K.) smallpox case 415 Birth and death statistics; see Demog-

Belize (British

Baldwin, Faith: see Obituaries 79 Ballesteros. Severiano 406 Ballet 278 Ballet Nacional de Cuba 279 Ballet of the Twentieth Century 281

Best. Charles Herbert: see /3-lipotropin 498 Be Belis

Beel. Louis Joseph Maria: see Obit-

il.

see Obituaries 78 Baader-Meinhof gang (RAF; Red

Biogra-

Meat and meat products Bee Gees: see Biographies 79 music 556

Begin.

Baader. Andreas:

see

phies 77 Suriname visit 644

Beef: see

uaries 78 Beer 435 Begelman. David:

B

Netherlands:

Bhutan 79, 78, 77 demography 297

(TV

Obituaries 79 Bauxite 534 Baykal-Amur Mainline Railway il. 686 Bayreuth Festival 553 BBC (British Broadcasting Corp.) 654 Iron Age village il. 183 Beach. Bill 227

Authors Guild 589 Automobile racing: see Motor sports Automobiles: see Motor vehicles Autoradiography il. 573 "Autumn Sonata" (film) 543 Auxins (botany) 496 Averina. Tatyana 732 Aviation: see Aerospace Avon. (Robert) Anthony Eden. 1st Earl: see Obituaries 78 Awards: see Prizes and awards Ayckbourn. Alan: see Biographies 77 Azores, islands 303

of Lippe-Biesterfeld. Prince

The

hupada:

see

221. il. 222 Bauer. Charita: see Biographies 78 Baughman. J. Ross 574. 587 Baumgartner. Wilfrid Siegfried: see

speleology 636 theatre 664 transportation 674 (table)

(table)

publishing 585 (table)

Bernhard

Obituaries 79 Bats (zoo.) 364 il.

Strait

gas pipeline proposal 196

Barcelona Convention 358 Barley: see Grains Barre. Raymond: see Biographies 77 France 328. 395 Barry. Rick 220 Baryshnikov. Mikhail 278. il. 279 Baseball 79, 78, 77 television 657 Basketball 79, 78, 77 Basques (people) 131. 634. il 133 Bate. Walter Jackson 506

Baudouin

demography 297

(Sana') 734 Association football: see Soccer Association of American Railroads

77

669

(table)

education 339 energy 350 engineering projects 353 environment 359 European affairs 377 industrial review 445. il. 446 numismatics 571 publishing 585 (table)

'

Yemen

Bering

of England 324 of the South Pacific

"Battlestar Galactica"

Bahrain 79, 78, 77

leaders 458. 529

Bank Bank

demography 296 "As Societies Age" 139

indu 452 publishing 585 (table)

Italy

terrorist attacks 129

Beresford. Jack: see Obituaries 78 Berg. Paul 491 Bergen. Edgar: see Obituaries 79 Bergman. Ingmar: see Biographies

publishing 585 (table) Barbour, Elaine il. 336 Barcelona. Sp. 353

and

Artificial

Benzene 448

publishing 585 (table) race relations 594 refugees 529. 596 terrorism 136 transportation 674 (table) Banking: see Money and banking

energy 349

Arteriosclerosis 300

Art Exhibitions 79, 78. See Art Art Exhibitions 77

Obituaries 79 Benz. Josef 733. il 732

international law 481

Commonwealth of Nations 260 demography 296 (tables)

defense 284 (table)

occurrence on Venus 634 Argon-41 (isotope) 365 Ariane (rocket) 633 Arizona 704 Grand Canyon proposal 728 mining 534 tax limit vote 700 Arkansas 704 Arledge, Roone Pinckney. Jr.: see

Bentley. Nicholas Clerihew: see

energy 349 (table) fisheries 384 (table)

Banzer Suarez. Hugo 225 Baptist Churches 599 Barbados 79, 78, 77

speleology 636

Brazilian relations 230 Chilean relations 247 literature 513 publishing 585 (table) transportation 674 (table)

disasters 57

574

541

Benguela Railway (Africa) 178. 535. 738 Benin 79, 78, 77 African affairs 160. 397 defense 290 demography 297 (table) publishing 585 (table) Bennett. Michael: see Biographies 77 Bennett. Vivienne: see Obituaries 79

mining and quarrying 536 publishing 585 (table) religion 603 transportation 674 (table) zoos 739 Bombeck, Erma: see Biographies 7

Bombings Argentina 198 France 396 historic sites 421, il. 420 separatist movements 303 terrorism 131

United Kingdom 692,

il.

691

Bond, Alan: see Biographies 77 Bonding (chemistry) 243 Bongo, Omar: see Biographies 78

Gabon 397

Brittany, region. Fr,

Tome and

Sao

"Amoco Cadiz" d

Principe 615

Bonn Agreement 358 203

see Obituaries 77 Broadcasting: see Television and

Bophuthatswana 628

demography 297 Borg. Bjorn:

see

Baron:

(table)

Biographies 77

Borneo 636 Bosco. Henri Fernand Joseph Marius:

Obituaries 77

Bossy. Mike: see Biographies

79

Bostock. Lyman; iee Obituaries 79 Boston, Mass. 420. 551 baseball 217

Botanical gardens: see Zoos and botanical gardens Botany 435, 496. 740

gardening 400 Botha. Pieler Willem: see Biographies

79 South Africa 626

Botswana 79, 78, 77 .\frican affairs 158. 610 (table)

demography 297

food processing 386 publishing 585 (table) Boulez, Pierre 553 Boumedienne. Houari: see Obituaries

79 Algeria 175 Middle Eastern affairs 527

radio

Broadway 665 Brooklyn, NY. 489 Brooks, Gwendolyn (Elizabeth):

tennis 659

iee

il.

separatist bombings 303 Britten, (Edward) Benjamin Britten,

Books 588 art sales

360. 384.

357

251 "Detente, Entente, or Cold War?"

Syria 649

Boundary Waters Canoe Area (Minnesota) 728 Bourguiba. Habib 680

Bowling 79, 78, 77 Boxing 256 see Obituaries 79 Bracero Program 532 Bradshaw. Robert Uewellyn: see Obituaries 79 Bradshaw. Terry 389. il. 391

Boyer. Charles:

Bradwell. Thomas Edward Neil Driberg. Baron: see Obituaries 77

Brain see

Grains

Brandy 436 see

Obituaries

78 Bravo. Alfredo 198 Brawne. Michael 190 Brazil 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 162 defense 284 (table) demography 299 (tables) disasters 58 energy 348 engineering projects 354 fisheries 384 (table) industrial review 440 international law 481 Latin-American affairs 476. 723 literature 514 mining and quarrying 536 Netherlands' uranium sale 359. 558 publishing 585 (table) transportation 674 (table) Bread 386 Brearley. John Michael: see Biographies 78 Brecher. Kenneth 205 Brecon. David Vivian Penrose Lewis. 1st Baron: see Obituaries 77 Breech. Ernest Robert: see Obituaries

79 Brel, Jacques: see Obituaries 79 Bretons (people) 303. 396 Bretton Woods system (econ.) 67 Brezhnev. Leonid Ilich: see Biographies 78

foreign relations

Angola policy 178 China 250 Czech relations 277 Ethiopia treaty 374

Hungary 422 Mongolian relations 538 Poland 576 relations 611

West Germany 404.

il.

see

Obituar-

see

Budker, Gersh Itskovich: ies 78

405

see

fi-

Obituar-

defense 284 (table)

demography 296

(tables) population 141 (table)

G

Burma

79, 78, 77 agriculture 171 (table)

Bangladesh relations 216 defense 284 (table) demography 297 (table) disasters 56 energy 349 (table) fisheries 384 (table) publishing 585 (table) race relations 594 refugees 529, 596 transportation 674 (table) Burma Aid Group 231 Burnett, Carol 655. il. 654 Burnham. Forbes 411 Burra. Edward: see Obituaries 77 Burundi 79, 78, 77 demography 297 (tables) disasters 58

Motor

vehicles

Obituaries 78

Bush. Jack:

Ll.S.S.R.

Busia. Kofi Abrefa: see Obituaries 79 "Business of Religion. The" (Special see

Contract bridge

Brik. Lili: see Obituaries 79 British Broadcasting Corporation; see

BBC Columbia, province, Canada "Petrodollars on the Prairie" 239

British British

Commonwealth:

see

Common-

wealth of Nations British Guiana: see Guyana British Honduras: see Belize British Indian Ocean Territory demography 297 (table) British Leyland 690 British Museum 200 British North America Act 236 British Open (golf) 407 British Rail Pension Funds art purchases 202 British Railways 675 British Virgin Islands 308 demography 298 (table)

numismatics 571

Report) 607 Business review: see Economy, World Busing 339 Bustamante. Sir William Alexander: see

Obituaries 78 Obituaries 77

Butter: see Dairy

and dairy products

Bykovsky, Valery 633 Byrd, Robert Carlyle:

78 305

United States 697

Biographies

education il, 336 energy policy 344. 363 farm protest meeting 702 fashion and dress 379 il.

630

Belgium visit Brazil 230

China recognition 251 EEC economic policy 375

Cameras 572 79, 78, 77

Egypt 341

demography 297

(table) energy 349 (table) publishing 585 (table) Campbell, Earl: see Biographies

French

79

390 David summit 342, 461. 528. 697 Iraq reaction 457 Jordanian reaction 470 Saudi Arabian reaction 616 Canada 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 163

visit 397 India visit 428 Israel 460 Japanese relations 469

Latin-.\merican affairs 476. Liberia visit 488. il. 487 Malta 521 Middle Eastern affairs 527. Nigeria visit 563. il. 562

(tables)

"As Societies Age" 139 disasters 56 earth sciences 313

economy, world 320 education 338 energy 347 engineering projects 354 environment 364 fisheries 382 food processing 385 foreign relations Panama loan 567 South Africa 627

686

U.S.S.R.

West Germany 404 industrial relations 431 national health insurance plan nuclear policy 446 "Roots of Inflation. The" 62

on: see

Obituaries 77

Cass. Moses 210

Cassava 164 Cassin. Rene-Samuel: Cassola. Carlo 512

mining and quarrying 534 motion pictures 542

Castillo.

602

"Roots of Inflation, The" 61 satellite crash 631 social and welfare services 621 stock exchanges 639 television and radio 653 theatre 666

Leonel 532

Castle. William: see Obituaries Castro. Fidel: see Biographies

Church

Algeria 176

Cauthen. Steve: Caves 635

Cancer 300, 414. 417

see

Cayman

Canon (photography) 572

CB (Citizens band) CBS (network)

Islands 308

demography 298

demography 299 (table) CAP: see Common agricultural policy Cape Cod. Mass. 362 Cape Verde 79, 78. See Cape Verde Islands 77 (table)

Justice

CCD:

(table)

radio 658

Department Confer,

see

tee

:

suit

589

of the

Co

on Di

CDC

(Center for Disease Control) Legionnaires- disease 414 Ceausescu. Nicolae 611 U.S.S.R.

411

Cement

687

522. 536

Censorship

570

Capital punishment 271. 582 U.S. state legislation

Biographies 78

Cayenne 308

705

Cannes Film Festival 542 Canoeing 728

elatii

78 79

"Question Mark over Africa" 1 Caterpillar (mfr.) 449 Caterpillars (zoology) 494 Cathedral of St. John the Divine (New York. N.Y.) 279 Catheter il. 415 Catholic Church: see Roman Catholic Catholic Theological Society 598 Cato. Milton 308 Cattle: see Livestock Catton. Bruce: see Obituaries 79 Caulkins. Tracy 646

transportation 676 Canal Zone 309 demography 298 (table) Canary Islands 309

Carazo Odio. Rodrigo: phies 79 Costa Rica 267

Obituaries

Cuba 273

ornithology 495 publishing 585 (table)

i-Bis

see

77

508

migration, international 530

78.

416

and welfare programs 62 1 solar energy policy 17 television use 657 transportation 673 United States 695 water resources policy 316 Carter. Maybelle: see Obituaries 79 Cartland. Barbara: see Biographies 78 Casalegno. Carlo: see Obituaries 78 social

Casinos 398 United States 706

hijacking sanction pact 270 industrial review 433

demography 297

528

Saudi Arabia 616

Casaroli. Msgr. Agostino (>04 Casey. Richard Gardiner Casey. Bar-

United Kingdom 692 United Nations 694 health and disease 414

U.S. state legislation

il.

477

illegal alien policy

consumerism 264

religion

il.

Yugoslavian relations 735 531

architecture 188 Arctic regions 196

libraries 489 literature 506,

222

il.

Cambodia 232

African affairs 160

c

foreign relations

relations 726

transportation 674 (table) Cambridge University 613

Guii

78

Carter. Billy: see Biographies 78 Carter. Jimmy: see Biographies 79, 78, 77

economy, world 322

publishing 585 refugees 596 Southeast .\sian affairs 629, Thailand relations 661

Capex

Obituar-

defense 282 "Detente. Entente, or Cold War?"

Canton and Enderbury Islands see

see

ies 78 Carrillo. Santiago: see Biographies Carstens. Lina: see Obituaries 79

consumerism 264 Obituaries 78

Calvosa, Fedele 464 Cambodia 79, 78, 77 "China After Mao" 254 defense 291

food contaminants 385

Buthelezi. Gatsha 627 Butler. Sir Mervyn Andrew Haldane: see

77 Callas, Maria: see

demography 296

energy 349 (table) industrial review 452 Mexican relations 526 motion pictures 544 publishing 585 (table) theatre 664 transportation 674 (table) Bultmann, Rudolf (Karl): see Obituaries 77 Bundesbank 328 Burgess, M. il. 268 Burlington, Vermont 346

literature

Bribery 271. 481 Bridge. Contract: Bridges 352. 676 Hungary 422

United Kingdom 690 see Biographies

Callaghan, Morley:

defense 284 (table)

56

economy, world 331

see

Carr. Sir William Emsley:

Bakke, Allan

basketball 220

Callaghan, (Leonard) James: see Biographies 79, 77 fashion and dress 379

football

agriculture 171 (table) crime and law enforcement 270

disasters

il.

Carpentier. Marcel Maurice: see

Camp

617

Bukovsky, Vladimir Konstantinovich: see Biographies 78 Bulgaria 79, 78, 77

aging

case: see

Economic Development 260 XVI Gustaf 645 James P. 419 Caroline (princess. Monaco) 537 Carlos.

Obituaries 78

California. University of

Bakke

Cardenal. Ernesto 603 Carew. Rod: see Biographies 78 baseball 218 Carey. Hugh L. 582 Cargo: see Freight Caribbean Group for Cooperation in Carl

education cutbacks 336 Mexican border fence proposal 532 Proposition 13 699. il. 697

Cameroon

solar energy use 20

Buses: see

514 684

il.

health and disease 415 California 185, 704 agriculture il. 169 earthquakes and floods 315

Vietnam

Government

Buerkle, Dick 672, il. 670 Building and construction 352, 438 architecture 187

Saudi Arabia

Braun. Wernher von:

Romanian

Budgets, National:

:

graphies 78

(table) (table)

consumerism 264 Czechoslovakia 278

opiate receptor research 497

Bran:

Taiwan 650 Buchan, Alastair Francis: ies 77 Budapest, Hungary 422 Buddhism 605

Calder, Alexander: see Obituaries 77 Caldwell, Philip: see Biographies 79 Calitano, Joseph Anthony, jr see Bio-

demography 297

Japanese relations 468

Center for Disease I Control

Carcich, Guido 608. il. 607 Carcinogens: see Cancer

78

:

Bonn Agreement

derailment accident 677 Cadmium 536 Cain, James Mallahan: see Obituaries

Calame, Odile 205

see

Biographies 77 Broudre-Groger. Joachim 404 Brown, Arnold: see Biographies 78 Brown, Harold 283 Brown, Louise Joy: see Biographies 79 health and disease 414 religious issue 598 "Test-Tube Babies — The Legal Implications" 483 Bruce, David Kirkpatrick Este: see Obituaries 78 Brugnon, Jacques: see Obituaries 79 Brunei 311 demography 297 (table) Bruxism (dentistry) 419 Bryan, Frederick van Pelt: see Obituaries 79 Bryant, Anita: see Biographies 78 Bryant, David 228 ski, Zbigniew: see Biographies 78 Chii

Cabinda, exclave. Angola 177 Cable television 653 Cabot. Sebastian: see Obituaries 78 Cabral, Luis 411

705 see

Biogra-

literature 514 Nicaraguan newspaper il. 584 •Centennial" (TV series) 656. il. 655 Center for Disease Control (CDC) Legionnaires' disease 414

752

INDEX

Central African Empire

I

hina 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 163

Corro,

Hugo

Central African Empire 79, 78, 77 demography 297 (table) energy 349 (table) publishing 585 (table) Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 502 Centre Beauborg (Paris, Fr.) 489 Centre for Environmental Studies (U.K.) 363 Centre National d'Art et de Culture Georges Pompidou (Paris. Fr.) 489 Ceramics 522 Cereals: see Grains Cerebrovascular diseases 300 Cessaire. Aime 308

CETA

(Comprehensive Employment and Job Traming Act) 621 Ceulemans. Ray 223. 224 Ceuta, enclave. Morocco 309 Ceylon: see Sri Lanka il.

CFC's (Chlorofluorocarbons) 361 CGT (Confederation general du travail) 431 Chabrcl, Claude 542

Chad

.African affairs 160 Albanian relations 175 Argentinian relations 198 Burmese relations 231

Channel Islands

demography 298

(table)

Channel Tunnel (Europe) 675 Obituaries 78 Academy Award 546 theft of body 272 Charismatic movement 601 Charlton. Susan il. 430 Charter 77 (Czech.) 277 Chase. Ilka: see Obituaries 79 Chastenet de Castaing. Jacques: see Obituaries 79 Chatham Islands. New Zealand environment 363 Chaudhry. Fazal Elahi 565 Chavez. Carlos: see Obituaries 79 Chavez. Federico; see Obituaries 79 Cheese: see Dairy and dairy products Cheever. John: see Biographies 78 Chemiosmotic coupling (chem.) 242 Chemistry 79, 78, 77 cancer causation 417 environment 361 industrial review 439 "Menace on the Rails" 678 molecular biology 497 Nobel Prizes 104 Chemtrcc 679 Chercau. Patrice: see Biographies 77 Chernenko. Konstantin 684 Cheshire. Geoffrev Chevalier: see Obituaries 79 Chess 79, 78. See Board Games 77 electronic games 399 Cheysson. Claude 178 Chiang Ching-kuo 650 Chiang Yce: see Obituaries 78 Chiburdanidze. Maya 245 Chicago. 111. 356 Croatian terrorists 135 Chaplin. Charlie:

see

ies

Ren

Jacqu

advertising issues 434

delinquency prevention 583 law 480 social and welfare services television and radio 656

620

vaccination controversy 416

Chile 79, 78, 77 agriculture 171 (table) Antarctic research 179 Beagle Channel dispute 198. 482

defense 284 (table)

demography 299

(tables)

disasters 56

earthquake 315 energy 348 fisheries 384 Grenada 410 Laiin-American affairs 476 literature 513 mining and quarrying 536 publishing 585 (table) transportation 674 (table)

hockey 423 Climate: see Meteorology

police data banks

ies

Biogra-

79 Chitin (zoology) 493 Chlorine derailment disaster 677 flour treatment risk 385

Chloronuorocarbons (CFC's) 361 Chloroquine (drug) 416 Chorley. Robert Samuel Theodore Chorley. 1st baron; see Obituaries 79 Chou En-lai: see Obituaries 77 Chretien. Jean 236 Christian Broadcasting Network 608 Christian Brothers 607 Christian

Church

(Disciples of Christ)

599 Christianity 597

Eastern Churches; Protestant churches; Roman Catholic

see also

Church "Christianity

Today"

(per.)

598

Christian Science (Church of Christ, Scientist)

Christie.

600

Dame Agatha (Mary

sa): see

Claris-

Obituaries 77

78

Cobalt 533 Zaire supply threat 737 Cobb. Lee J.: see Obituaries 77 Cobham. Charles John Lyltelton. 10th Viscount: see Obituaries 78 Cochrane. Sir Ralph (Alexander): Obituaries 78

see

Cocoa 167 260

.Australian acquisitions 207.

demography 299 (table) Codon (biology) 499 Coffee 167. 255. 683 Coffin, William Sloanc.

Jr.: see

Biogra-

phies 78 Coggan. Donald 599 Cogley. John: see Obituaries 77 Cohen. Leonard 507 Cohen of Birkenhead. Henry Cohen. 1st Baron: see Obituaries 78 Coins: see Philately and numismatics Cole. Edward N see Obituaries 78 Coleman. James 339 Coleman. Peter T. 311 Colleges: see Universities and colleges Colley. George 459 Collier, James Lincoln 556 Collin. Frank: see Biographies 79 Collins. Sir William Alexander Roy: see Obituaries 77 Colombia 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 167 defense 284 (table) demography 299 (table) disasters 58 energy 348 engineering projects 355

see

"

(ship) 364.

482

Chromite 536

513 mining and quarrying 534 publishing 585 (table) transportation 674 (table) Colonies and dependencies: see Dependent states Colorado 534. 704 Columbia Health Sciences Library il. 489 Columbus. Indiana "Unlikely Treasures of Columbus. literature

officials

24

Churchill. Lady: see Spencer-Churchill. Clementine Ogiivy Spencer-Chur-

Baroness

Church

of Christ. Scientist (Christian Science) 600

Chu Teh: see Obituaries 77 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) 502 Cigarettes: see Smoking: Tobacco Cinema: see Motion pictures Ciolkosz. Adam: see Obituaries 79 "Circus Maximus" (boat) il. 614 Cirrhosis of the liver 300 Cities and urban affairs 363. 676 African aid bias 14 bird residence studies 494 Cleveland's financial crisis 700 engineering projects 353 historic preservation 420 social and welfare programs U.S. cities 707 (table)

The

"

192

see

Biographies 77

79, 78, 77 Comecon: see Council for Mutual Economic Assistance

622

US

Department

of

714 (table)

Commission p.

Churches of Christ 600 chill.

Lalin-.American affairs 477

Comets 204 Commerce.

Obituaries 79

"Chrisios Bitas

see

Obitua

for

Development Coop-

eration between

The Netherlands

and Suriname 644 Commission on Civil Rights. US. 594 Committee for Original Peoples Entitlement (COPE) 196 Commodities trade stock exchanges 642 U.S. statistics

722 (table)

agricultural policy (CAP). 165. 377 rket: see

Con 1th

78 Confederation g ral du (CGT) 431 Conference of Atomic Energy Suppliers 289 Conference of the Committee on Disarmament (CCD) 289. 693 Conference on Trade and Development, UN (UNCTAD) 481 agriculture and food supplies 168 electrical industry charges 440 Latin-American countries 477 Confucianism 606 (table) 79, 78, 77 African affairs 160 defense 290 demography 297 (table) energy 349 (table) publishing 585 (table) religion 602

transportation 674 (table) Congo, Democratic Republic see

of the:

Zaire

Congo National

Liberation Front: see

FNLC Congregational Churches: byterian. Reformed, gational Churches

see

Pres-

and Congre-

Connecticut 704 Connors. Jimmy 659 Conomba. Joseph 723

Conrad. Robert Conrail 675

il.

655

Conservation: see Environment; His-

'

ve

Building and con-

Group on

International

ultural Research 174 Federation of America

international law 481

Indiana.

Christophers. Sir (Samuel) Rickard:

U.S. sale to U.S.S.R.

Conant, James Bryant:

Congo

Coconuts 421 Cocos (Keeling) Islands 310

Combat SporU

(table)

430

newspaper impact 590 272 printing 448 terrorism data bank 135

79

Comaneci. Nadia: gymnastics 412

Christie, Julie il. 542 Christie's (auction house) 203 Christmas Island 304

317 337

toys 399 industrial relations issues libraries 489

:

Chirality (chemistry) 242 Chirau. Jeremiah 158. 609 Chirico. Giorgio De: see Obituaries

il.

games and

Clunies-Ross. John 310 Cluster compounds (chemistry) 244 CMEA: see Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Coal 344. 347. 533 miners' strike 431 solar energy alternative 18

e litera .

educational use

Clinch River nuclear plant 446 Clothing: see Fashion and dress Clouzot. Henri-Georges: see Obituar-

U.S.S.R- 687 United Nations 694 United Slates relations 698 Vietnam relations 726 West Germany 405 Yugoslavian relations 735 Zaire 737 Zambia 738 industrial review 445 law 481 literature 517 mining and quarrying 535 ornithology 495 publishing 588 religion 605 space exploration 633 television and radio 654 ansportation 676 "Ch na After Mao" (Special Report) 252

Chronology of Events 1978 Chrysler Corp 396. 437. 690

Children

Report) 454 79, 78, 77

246

Clayton. N.M. 346 Clegg. Sheila il. 228 Clements. William 532. 696 Cleveland. Ohio financial crisis 363. 700 ice

Chromium 536

78

cial

79

Romanian relations 6U Rwanda president visit 613

demography 299 "Chicago Daily News" (newspaper) 586 Chicago Symphony Orchestra 554 Chick. Dame Harriette: see Obituar-

(CET.M 621

.Act

Computers ches;

377 French relations 396 Greece 408 Indonesia relations 428 Italy 464 Japanese relations 468 Korea 474 Laos 475 Mexican relations 527 Mongolia 538 Mozambique 550 Nepalese relations 558 Oman 565 Pakistan relations 566

Thailand's relations 661

Liberation Front: see

Training

Compton. Fay: see Obituaries 79 Compton. John 303 "Computer Comes Home. The" (Spe-

EEC

foreign relations African affairs 158

Frolinat

"Question Mark over Africa" 12 Southeast Asian affairs 629 see also various countries

Community of the Great Lakes 232 Comoros 79, 78, 77 coup d'etat 159 demography 297 (table) dependent states 309 Comprehensive Employment and Job

see also various countries Clark. Glenn 419 Clark. Gregory: see Obituaries 78 Clark. Joe: see Biographies 77 Clark, Tom Campbell: see Obituarie

foreign relations

Taiwan 650

Chakovsky. Aleksandr 514. il. 515 Chamberlain. Richard il 655 Chamorro Cardenal. Pedro Joaquin: see Obituaries 79 Nicaragua 560 Chamoun. Camille 485 Channeled Scablands. region. Wash. 314

"

Latin-American countries 476 mental patients 418 race relations 592 religious groups' positions 598

Somalia agreement 626 Southeast .\sian affairs 629 Swaziland aid il. 644

Chad National

The (newspaper) 585

band (CB) radio 658 (CAB) 673 478 Belgrade Conference issues 735

journalism 584

79, 78, 77 defense 289 demography 297 (table) energy 349 (table)

French relations 397 publishing 585 (table)

"Citizen.

Citizens

Civil Aeronautics Board Civil rights and liberties

archaeology 184 defense 282 demography 297 (table) dependent states 311 education 336 energy 347 engineering projects 355 fish consumption risks 385 fisheries 384 (table)

European Eco-

uty

Development Corpo-

n 260 wealth Foundation 260 wealth Games 260. 669 ealth of Nations 79, 78,

economy, world 320 industrial review 434 VS. state regulations 706 Price Index

Consumer

Social Security factors 624 Safety Commission

Consumer Product

264. 362. 441 "Consumer Reports" (per.) 437 Contagious equine metritis 369. 726. il. 725 Continental drift 318 Continental shelf 482 Black Sea agreement 682 oil drilling case 345 Contract Bridge 79, 78, 77 Contreras Sepulveda. Juan Manuel 272 Convention on Trade in Endangered Species 44 Conway. William Cardinal: see Obituaries 78 Cook. Betty 728 Cook County Vending Co. 227. il. 228 Cook Islands 310 demography 299 (table) New Zealand 560 numismatics 571 publishing 585 (table) COPE (Committee for Original Peoples Entitlement) 196

Copepods (zoology) 495 Copper 533 Copra 164 Copyright 588 Copyright Clearance Center 588 Fred: see Obituaries 78

77 set also Commonwealth countrie Communist Movement 77

African affairs 160 "Detente. Entente, or Cold

293

Wa

264

79, 78, 77 aging population effect 143 .

Cornell University 576

Corning Glass Works 522 Corporal punishment 479 Corpus dam (South America) 477 Corro. Hugo 256

Corsica, island, France 303 Corsicans (people) 396 Cortez, Ricardo: see Obituaries 78 Cosio Villegas. Daniel: see Obituaries

Curcio. Renato: see Biographies 79 conviction 270. 463 Curling 733. il. 732 Current Good Manufacturing Prac-

77

77

ies

Cotton 169. 451 Cotton Bowl (football) 391 Cottonseed 164 Cotzias. George C see Obituaries 78 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon; CMEA) 330 German Democratic Republic 402 Guyana membership 411 Council of Energy Resources Tribes 593 Council of Europe :

Liechtenstein membership 491 prisons and penology 583 Counterfeiting 272. 570

adenyhc acid Cycling 79, 78, 77 Cyclic

(biol.)

498

Cyclones: see Storms Cyprus 79, 78, 77

demography 296

d'etat

Czechoslovakia 79, 78, 77 agriculture 171 (table)

defense 284 (table) demography 296 (tables) "As Societies Age" 141 economy, world 331 energy 349 (table) food processing 386 Hungary 422 industrial review 435 literature 515 motion pictures 544 publishing 585 (table) transportation 674 (table) United Nations 694

(play) 665. Daetwyler, Max:

261

Covent Garden Royal Ballet 280.

il.

281

Cowen. 78

Sir

Zelman:

663 Obituaries 77 Dahomey: see Benin Dailey. Dan: see Obituaries 79 "Daily Star" (newspaper) 585 Dairy and dairy products 165. 386 Dakwah movement (Malaysia) 520 Dalai Lama 605 Daley, Richard J(oseph): see Obituaries 77 "Da"

Bangladesh 215 Bolivia 225

see

Biographies

il.

see

Cox. Warren Earle: see Obituaries 7( Cozzens. James Gould: see Obituaries

79 Crab Nebula 205

Dam.

Crabs (zoology) 495 Crane. Bob Edward:

(Carl Peter) i

see

Obituaries

79 Cralhorne, Thomas Lionel Dugdale. 1st Baron: see Obituaries 78 Crawford. Francis Jay 271. 688 Crawford. Joan: see Obituaries 78 Craxi. Bettino: see Biographies 77 Credit and debt 322 Indi! 197 Cricket 79, 78, 77 Crime and Law Enfor nt 79, 78, 77 aging population effect 142 hair analysis method 245 Hong Kong police corruption 311 illegal aliens in U.S. 531

gambling 398 newspaper files cases 586 prisons and penology 582 religious donations 608 "Terrorism — Weapon of the Weak"

77 Cross-country skiing 731

Crown

of St

Stephen 422

Cruise missile 287, 698 Crust of the Earth 313 Cuba 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 166

He

77

fisheries

il.

433

il.

Dis

Denktash, Rauf 276

Diving 647 Di\ 301

Denmark

79, 78, 77 agriculture 171 (table) dance 281 defense 284 (table) demography 296. 141 (table)

79

Nauru 557 Dery, Tibor:

Obituaries 78 Biographies 78

see

elalit

691

i

India 426 Pakistan relations 566 Desegregation: see Civil rights and

Dance Theatre

lib-

Race relations Detente 292. 611 "Detente. Entente, or Cold War?" (Special Report) 292 Detroit. Michigan 353. 552 Deutsch. John James: see Obituaries 77 erties;

65

Harlem 279

agriculture and food supplies 161 Chinese foreign policy 250 "China After Mao 253

Danube

consumerism 264

River.

"

Europe 422 Biographies 78

263 District of

Columbia 704

"Test-Tube Babies — The Legal I plications" 483 Djibouti 79, 78 defense 289 demography 297 (table! DNA 498. il. 499 Docker. Sir Bernard Dudley Frank see Obituaries 79 DOE: see Energy. US. Depa of Dog racing 398 Dogs 364 Dole. Robert Joseph: see Biographie:

77 65

EEC

375

policies

"Roots of Inflation, The" 61 Dominance hierarchies (Pecking orders) 493

Dominica 79 Commonwealth of Nations 260 demography 298 (table) independence 302. 481 UN membership 695 78, 77

(table)

publishing 585 (table) Dopfner. Julius Cardinal: see Biographies 77 Dorfman, Nat N.: see Obituaries 78 DOT: see Transportation. U.S. Depart-

ment

of

Double Eagle II (balloon) 156. 658 Dowiyogo. Bernard 557 Dowling. Eddie: see Obituaries 77 Dow Jones average 323. 637 Drama: see Theatre Dress: see Fashion and dress Dreyfuss. Richard 541 Drilling 318 Antarctic research 178.

Dandridge. Bob il 219 Danish literature 510

of

Distributed data processing (DDP)

energy 349 law 482

Desai, Morarji: see

il.

179

energy 345

Drought

160. 398

Drug Abuse 77 health

and disease 415

demography 139

Honduran drug

d'Aquino. Iva Toguri ("Tokyo Rose"):

economy, world 321

opiate receptor research 498

Biographies 78 DArcy. The Rev Martin Cyril: see Obituaries 77 Darquier de Pellepoix. Louis 396

education 336 environment 358 fisheries 384 food processing 385 industrial relations 431 industrial review 432

United States 705 Drugs. Pharmaceutical:

mining and quarrying 535 "Question Mark over Africa" 9 religion 598 Southeast Asian affairs 629 television 658 "Terrorism — Weapon of the Weak"

DuBois. Shirley Graham:

Daoud. Abu:

see

see

Dati

nforn

iing:

::hnology

Dating (archaeology) 183 Daud Khan. Sardar Mohammad: see Obituaries 79 Davidson. Jimmy: see Obituaries 79 Davies. Rhys: see Obituaries 79 Davies. Rupert: see Obituaries 77 d'Avigdor-Goldsmid. Sir Henry Joseph. 2nd Baronet: see Obituaries 77 Davignon Plan 444 Davis, Joe: see Obituaries 79 Davis. Tom 310 Davis Cup (tennis) 659 Dayan. Moshe 342. 460 DDP (Distributed data processing) 263 DDT 493 Dean. Basil Herbert: see Obituaries

79

lib-

;

Dominican Republic 79, demography 298 (table)

Developing nations

79, 78, 77

r Civil rights and Rac, elalions Disease: see Health and disease

various countries Denard. Robert: see Biographies 79 Comoros 159, 261 Dendur, Temple of 550. il. 552 Dene Nation (people) 197 De Niro, Robert: see Biographies 78 set also

Latin-American projects 477

Dance

DSDP (Deep

traffic

421

see

Phar-

Sea Drilling Project) 318

Dubai (emirate) 688 energy 351 Dublin. Ireland 459

137 transportation 673 veterinarian shortage 725 World Bank report 695 Developtnent, Economic and social agriculture and food supplies 172 Commonwealth of Nations 260 "Question Mark Over Africa" 10

ies

see

Obituar-

78 17

Obituaries 78 Duke-Elder. Sir (William) Stewart: see Obituaries 79 Duke University 220 Dulles International Airport (Washington. DC.) 191 Dutch National Ballet 281 Du Vigneaud. Vincent: see Obituaries 79

Devine, Andy: see Obituaries 78 Dhofar. province. Oman 564 Diabetes 300 Diamond-anvil high-pressure cell 314

Diamonds

dance 279 defense 290

demography 296

359 167, 170

353

I

archaeological salvage work 184 Hungary-Yugoslavia project 422

illegal

129 US. statistics 721 (table) "Violence in the Stands" 392 set also various countries Croats (people) 131. 736 Crombie, David: see Biographies 77 Crosby. Bing: see Obituaries 78 Crosland. (Charles) Anthony Raven: see Obituaries 78; Biographies

il.

il.

unemployed

dependent states 303 economy, world 333 energy 349 (table) engineering projects 353 European affairs 375 fisheries 383 libraries 489 motion pictures 543 publishing 585 (table) theatre 664 transportation 674 (table) United States 698 Dent. Bucky 216 Dentistry 419 Den Uyl, Joop 558 Denver, Colorado 219 Derian, Patricia 476 Deoxyribonucleic acid: see DNA Dependent States 79, 78, 77 DeRoburt, Hammer: see Biographies

D

Afghanistan 157 African countries 159 Mali 521 Mauritania 525 Somalia attempt 626

Italian

480

(tables)

energy 349 (table) Greece 408 Larnaca .Airport incident 136 Middle Eastern affairs 342. 408. 682 publishing 585 (table) transportation 674 (table) United Nations 693 Cy Young Award il. 217

Country music 557

Coups

farmers' protests

nuclear energy opponents 345 prison riots 538. il. 584 race relations 594, il. 593 "Violence in the Stands" 392 "Wilmington Ten" supporters

447

tices

Cosmetics 265. 378 Cosmology 206 Cosmos 954 (salcllile) 197, 631 Costa Rica 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 167 demography 296 (tables) energy 349 (table) fisheries 384 law 482 publishing 585 (table) transportation 674 (table) Costello. John Aloysms: see Obituar-

environment 358.

441.

il.

442

Botswana 226 (tables)

384 (table)

foreign relations African affairs 159 Angola 178 "Detente. Entente, or Cold War?"

295 Ethiopia 373 Jamaican relations 465 Lesotho 487 "Question Mark Over Africa" Somalia 625 law 482 literature 512 mining and quarrying 536 prisons and penology 582 publishing 585 (table) transportation 674 (table) Cubillo. Antonio 309

Debt.

Government

fi-

DeConcini. Dennis 567 Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) 318 78, 77

antiterrorist forces 136

1

Act (U.S.) 185

Obituaries

Diba. Kamran 190 Dibbs, Eddie 660 Didion. Joan: see Biographies 78 Diederichs. Nicolaas J.: see Obituaries

79 Diet 181 fibre increase 386 heart attack decline 414 see also Nutrition Dinubenzuron (Dimilin) (insecticide)

EAC

(East African

Community) 160

Eames. Charles: see Obituaries 79 Eanes. Antonio dos Santos Ramalho: see Biographies 77 Portugal 581 Earth. The 206

Defense. U.S. Department of officials 714 (table)

Diggs. Charles

Dehn, Paul: see Obituaries 77 Delaware 705 De La Warr. Herbrand Edward Dun-

Digit (gorilla) 363

Earthquakes: see Seismology Earth resources satellites 173 Earth Sciences 79, 78, 77 Antarctic research 178 nuclear waste disposal 366

Dijoud. Paul 310 Dimilin (Diflubenzuron) (insecticide)

Earthworms 386

Southeast Asian affairs 630

Obituaries 77 Cultural Properry Implementation see

Obituaries 79

see see National: see

Defense 79,

Cuisenaire. £mile-Georges: see

Cunningham, Imogen: 77

Demography

Death statistics: Debre. Robert:

donald Brassey Sackville. 9lh Obi( 77 Deligne. Pierre 524 Del Zio. Doris and John 484 Democratic Party (U.S.) 695 •

i

493

C,

707

697

satellite studies

East African

493

633

Community 160

Dingle. Herbert: see Obituaries 79 Diouf. Abdou 618

Eastern Non-Chalcedonian Churches

Dioxin 361

East 289. 693

Demography

79, 78, 77 "As Societies Age" 139 school populations 336 Social Security factors 624

Jr.

693 Dn 289, 693 Disasters

p.,

604

Germany: ic

UN

56

"Menace on the Rails" 677 Disciples of Christ (Christian

Church)

see

German Democrat-

Republic

East Griqualand. region. South Africa

629 Eastman Kodak Co. (Kodak) 573 Eccies. Marriner Stoddard: see Obituaries 78

754

INDEX

Ectvit. Bulent

I

Electronics

Computer Comes Home. The' 454 games and toys 399 newspaper impact 590

Fire'

Ecevii, Bulent 375. 681 Eclipses 206 (table) E. coh: see Escherichia coti Ecology: see Environment

Economic Community

of

West Afri-

(ECOWAS)

can States

160. 481

Gambia 398 Economics 77

printing 448 Saudi Arabian industry 616 telecommunications 450 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) 339 "Eleni V" (ship) 482 Elephants 739 Elizabeth II: see Biographies 78 United Kingdom 692. il. 303 Ellice Islands: see Tuvalu El Salvador 79, 78, 77 agriculture and food supplies 167

demography 296

literature 505 Nobel Prizes 106

energy 349

Economy, World

79, 78, 77 African countries 160 "Another Day. a Different Dollar"

Embry.

65

European problems 374

ies

E

industrial relations 429 industrial review 432

477

Latii

legal issues 481 "Roots of Inflation. The" 62

and welfare

social

services

620

Southeast Asian affairs 630 stock exchanges 637 see also various countries

ECOWAS:

see

Economic Community

of West African States

Ecuador

79, 78, 77 archaeology 187

demography 299 fisheries

384

(table) (table)

international law 481

Latin-American affairs 477 publishing 585 (table) transportation 674 (table) Ecumenical movement 597 Eda. Saburo: see Obituaries 78 Eddy. John A. 205 Eden, (Robert) Anthony: see .\von. (Robert) Anthony

Eden

Earl

1st

Edinburgh. Scotland 199

Edmonton. Alta. 190. 391 Education 79, 78, 77 African class stratification 14 aging population effect 141 peoples 197 Bakke Bakke. Alia 265 ning 489 594