Britannica Book of the Year 1975
During the period 1938-2018 Encyclopædia Britannica published annually a "Book of the Year" covering the past
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English Pages [771] Year 1975
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Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Contents
Feature Articles
A World Without Want
Information Industries in the United States
Chronology of Events, 1974
Special Reports
The Sahel Drought
Strikes in an Affluent Society
Canada's Native Indian Peoples
Are Cartels Inevitable?
Cyprus and the Great Power Balance
Craftsmen Without Number
Definitions of Ill Health
Institutional Care and Mental Illness
The Quality of Working Life
The Law of the Sea
World Population Year
The Problem of Prisons: Reform or Abolition?
The Geography of Religion in America
A Wind of Change?
Impeachment of a President
BOOK OF THE YEARS
ADVERTISING
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SUPPLIES
ARCHITECTURE
BARBADOS
BIOGRAPHY
BIOGRAPHY
CHEMISTRY
COMMODITY TRADE
CRIME AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
DEFENSE
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
EDUCATION
ENGINEERING PROJECTS
FASHION AND DRESS
GAMES AND TOYS
HEALTH AND DISEASE
HEALTH AND DISEASE
INDIA
INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
JAPAN
LIECHTENSTEIN
LITERATURE
METALLURGY
MOTION PICTURES
NOBEL PRIZES
PAKISTAN
POPULATIONS AND AREAS
QATAR
RELIGION
SOMALIA
SRI LANKA
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
TRACK AND FIELD SPORTS
USSR
UNITED STATES
Contributors
INDEX
A
B
C
D-E
F
G
H-I
J-K
L
N-O
P
Q-R
S
T
U
V-W
X-Y-Z
Citation preview
BRITANNICA 1975 BOOK OF THE YEAR
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. Chicago, Toronto, London, Geneva, Sydney, Tokyo, Manila, Johannesburg, Seoul
©
197S
BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
Copyright Under Intern^ All Rights Reserved Under Pan Americc By Encyclopcedia tfrttannica, Inc. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 38-12082 International Standard Book Number: 0-85229-30S-8 .rt
work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage without permission in writing from the publisher.
of this
inical,
BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR {Trademark Reg. U.S. Pat. Printed
in
Off.)
U.S.A.
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
;
Managing Editor Editors
Lawrence K. Lustig
Daphne Daume, Chicago London
J. E. Davis,
Editorial Staff
David Calhoun, Vanessa Clarke, Judy Fagelston, R. M. Goodwin, David Hately, Barbara VVescott Hurd, Arthur Latham A. G. Armstrong, Richard H. Kessler, M.D., Miroslav Kriz, Martin E. Marty,
Harvey Sherman Correspondents
Joan Harris, Toronto H. W. De Weese, Sydney Shigcki Hijino, Tokyo Cesar A. Ramos, Mexico City Paulo Dallfollo, Rio de Janeiro
Art Director Picture Editors Assistant Editor Layout Artist
Cartographer Art Staff
Cynthia Peterson Jeannine Dcubel; Barbara Hilborne, London
Kunkler Richard Batchelor Chris Leszczynski
Julie A.
John L. Draves, Miguel Rodriguez
Geography Editor Geography Research Editorial Production
Manager
Production Coordinator Production Staff
Copy Control Supervisor Copy Control Staff
William A. Cleveland
Anne Buczkowski J.
Thomas Beatty
Ruth Passin Sujata Bancrjec, Charles Cegielski, Elizabeth Chastain, Barbara W. Cleary, Jeanne Dcitei, Emilie Fall, Susan Goodfellow, Marilyn Klein, Lawrence Kowalski. Thomas Radko, Susan Recknagel. Julian Ronning, Mark Schoene, Harry Sharp, Dcnise Tinberg, Chervl M. Trobiani, Colcen Withgott, Anita K. Wolff,
Melinda Ann Wright Mary C. Srodon
Mary
K. Finley
Barbara Index Supervisor Assistant Supervisor Index Staff Librarian Library Aide Secretarial Staff
Managing
Britt,
London
Frances E. Latham Rosa E. Casas
Mary Neumann, Mary Reynolds Terry Miller Naomi Gralnek Fleurv Nolta Ballantyne, Eunice L. Mitchell
Editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Margaret Sutton
ENCYCLOPEDIA Chairman
of the
BRIT.ANNICA, INC. Robert P. Gwinn
Board
President
Vice President, Editorial
Charles E. Swanson Charles Van Doren
:
Contents
Feature Articles
6
A World
Without Want The problem of hunger and food of the world
18
is
supplies in the less developed nations
examined by Indira Gandhi.
Information Industries in the United States An information explosion and the concomitant growth of communications systems have led to the formation of new kinds of industries, described by Anthony Oettinger and Peter Shapiro.
Chronology of Events
A month-by-month summary
account of significant happenings that
have occurred in 1974.
Book
42-735
of the Year
An alphabetically organized treatment of the people, places, and developments of significance during 1974, including the following general areas
Biographies and Obituaries
Economic Developments Environment and Natural Resources
Food and Agriculture Health and Disease
Human
Affairs
Industrial Production
Literature and the Arts
National and International Affairs Science and Technology Social Sciences
Sports and
737
Contributors
745
Index
Games
Special Reports 66
Agriculture:
The Sahel Drought
A
climatic catastrophe has led to widespread devastation and famine along the southern margin of the Sahara, by Martin Wdker.
95
154
an Affluent Society Improvement of wages and living standards in industrialized nations has not produced the expected results, by Philip Bentley. Australia: Strikes in
Canada: Canada's Native Indian Peoples original Canadian inhabitants are afflicted with some problems
The
that are unique, but erally,
180
by Verna
J.
many
that are
common
to minority
groups gen-
Kirkness.
Commodity Trade: Are Cartels
Inevitable?
Successful use of the "oil weapon" by producing states has raised fear of cartel formation among countries that export other essential commodities, by
Andrew W.
Staines.
216
Defense: Cyprus and the Great Power Balance The Turkish invasion of Cyprus in July had dire consequences for the island's inhabitants, but it also raised wider issues of great-power strategy in the eastern Mediterranean, by Robert 1 Ranger.
319
Games and Toys: Craftsmen Without Number
.
The
satisfaction derived
simple materials
341
is
from the creative use of one's hands and
ubiquitous, by Susan Nelson.
Health and Disease: Definitions of
III
Health
The is
question of what constitutes sickness, in contrast to well being, more complex than might be supposed, by Barbara Starfield.
349
Health and Disease : Institutional Care and Mental Illness The community health care concept is valid, but limits to its effectiveness do exist, by William G. Smith.
402
Industrial Relations:
432
Law: The Law of the Sea The United Nations conference
The Quality of Working Life Experimental innovations in assembly line procedures have led to increased worker satisfaction, by Richard E. Walton. in Caracas produced spirited discusand relevant international issues, but little agreement emerged, by Tony Lojtas.
sion of ocean resources
556
World Population 'Year first World Population Conference produced confrontation between those advocating population control and those holding that economic underdevelopment posed a still greater problem for many nations, by Jon Tinker. Populations and Areas:
The
567
Prisons and Penology:
The Problem of
Prisons:
Reform
or Abolition?
An examination
of incarceration as a deterrent to criminals
abolitionist's viewpoint,
592
Religion:
New
The Geography of Religion
717
in
America
data have revealed more precisely than before the distribution
of believers in the United States,
623
from an
by Jessica Mitjord.
by Martin E. Marty.
South Africa: A Wind of Change? Events in Portugal's African territories herald a possible reexamination of South Africa's policies, by Helen Suzman. United States:
The
Impeachment of
a President
political conditions surrounding Richard M. Nixon's near impeachment are compared and contrasted with those that confronted Andrew Johnson, by Bruce L. Felknor.
A World Without Want by Indira Gandhi Until two hundred years ago, India was regarded as the
Indira Gandhi has been prime minister of India since 1966.
A
student of Visva-Bharali University, Bengal, and of Oxford University, Mrs. Gandhi has devoted much of her
Her conwell known
career to economic planning and social reform.
cern for the underprivileged of the world
and
is
is
revealed again in the following article, which sets
forth her views on the problem of hunger. Overpopulation,
which
is
considered by
many
observers to be a dominant
factor in the world hunger problem, in the Special
treated principally
is
world's most prosperous country, a magnet for traders,
and military adventurers. The wealth of Akbar Mughal is computed at several score limes that of the Holy Roman emperor Charles V or Louis XIV of France. Yet in his reign -as in those of the others the common people lived in poverty. The multitude starved, while nobles lived in splendour. Even in those times there were large irrigation works in countries like China and India, seafarers,
the
—
—
countries, there
have always been
power and looting
Two-thirds and
this
of the world's peoples are underprivileged,
life.
Technology
has given us the knowledge to supplement or to substitute
what has been provided
in nature.
millions remain undernourished
mum Why
Vet many hundreds of
and are denied the miniand education.
clothing, shelter, medical care,
does this paradox exist? Natural resources are un-
and there
fore,
The world I
is
to the
no feeling of collective responsibility.
is
is still
tre-
of their advanced tech-
nology. Individual and national self-centredness
at the stage of
economic nationalism.
belong to a generation that spent
its
childhood and
youth (the so-called years of careless rapture!) fighting every inch of the way for our basic
human
rights as citizens
of an ancient and honourable land. It was a hard
life,
of
sacrifice and insecurity, of anger and impatience. Yet the in our eyes and our hearts never dimmed, for we were beckoned by the star of freedom, by the bright promise of a world without want and exploitation. Can it be only
hope
27 years ago? Science, the key to the new world for which
we
longed, has not been allowed to serve those whose need
is greatest but has been made to pander to the desire for profits and to narrow national objectives. Far from having
provided more, today we face a world beset by dire forecasts of global food inadequacies,
where even the richest
countries are experiencing shortages of one article or other.
Many
countries that are labeled as developing are the
very lands where civilization began. Poor today, though rich in their contribution to the story of
India, Iran, intellect
man, Iraq.
Egj'pt,
and China were among the early cradles of
and endeavour. Here man
plant breeder, and metallurgist.
became farmer, Here he fathomed the first
movement of own mind. The first
mysteries of mathematics and medicine, the stars in the
sky and of thoughts in his
seers in India arose
from among farmers, singing praise
of the earth, water, and the sun and celebrating the energy of growing things.
From
the sun
and from rain food, and from food
comes all
rain,
modern idea arose of and compact
Until the
unseemly and
they said,
living beings.
victor.
social engineering for
could avoid
societies
disparities. In earlier times, the larger the extent
government, the wider the gap between
efficiency of
a small
and poor. Military
impoverishment of the van-
equality, only small
number
The
of rich and the masses of the poor.
Industrial Revolution
and the
international disparities.
evenly distributed, and some countries have acquired
mendous economic power because
led to the
countries as within
rich
quished and the enrichment of the
despite such breathtaking achievements of
science as space travel, instant communication, and the
unraveling of the very building blocks of
Among
but famines were not unusual.
Report entitled World Population Year.
rise of colonialism
Even the
sharpened
difference in the life span
of people in Western Europe and South Asia
is
the sequel
of Europels earlier lead in science, for until the beginning of the 19th century, mortality rates were roughly the
same
But the present affluence of the advanced due as much to colonial exploitation as to their mastery over science and modern technology. The pace of a country's technological advance depends in all countries.
countries
is
upon the stock of technology
Any survey
of elementary
has already accumulated.
it
human needs and
the
means
to
fulfill them brings out the incongruous coexistence of overabundance and deprivation. In Western Europe and North America, people's chief worry is to restrict their intake of
calories, for their
average consumption
is
22%
higher than
the energy requirements of the body. Elsewhere, entire
nations suffer from malnutrition. For us in India, scarcity is
only a missed monsoon away.
The Meaning
of Want.
The
definition of
want
is
not
constant. Increasing incomes in a time of transition from
one stage of technology to another bring many changes in their train- in habits as well as in the very concept of what
—
is
desirable. Additional earnings are only partly spent
on
more food and other necessities, while the rest go into displaying the signs of new status. To give only one example, in India the rise in the income scale has meant giving up millets for rice in
no
and wheat, discarding regional costumes
favour of modern city wear. Need has a psychological less
than an economic connotation.
There are
at least three
kinds of want:
the essentials of existence, such as clothing,
such as
first,
a shortage of
minimum
nutrition,
and housing; second, the absence of elements, education and recreation, that give meaning and
purpose to
life;
and
third, the
absence of the extras that
advertising proclaims as necessary to good living.
have grown even
due to increases
faster,
gap has had
tent, this
to
be
by
filled
U.S. and
Canada have controlled
To
a great ex-
the transfer of food
North America.
surpluses, mostly of the rich countries of
The
and
in population
per capita income and changed eating habits.
a larger share of the
world's exportable grain supplies than the Middle East
does of the world's
The mechanism tries
oil.
of food aid saved farmers in rich coun-
from the disastrous decline
in
incomes that surplus
production would have caused. For decades these countries
and actually paid
restricted acreage
grow crops
Now
!
their
farmers not to
the United States has ended restrictions
on acreage, but increases in domestic consumption there,
and changes pluses. It
is
and
in trade patterns
in attitudes
toward
aid,
dependence on North American sur-
rule out long-term
urgent that developing countries improve their
domestic production. That
the only sure basis for sus-
is
tained growth in other sectors.
In 1970 technological and other experts had prophesied widespread famine in India, but for us
was a year of
it
when our new agricultural policy bore abundant and we could accumulate a buffer stock of nine mil-
plenty, fruit
lion metric tons of grain.
—ten
unforeseen events
But the year following brought war followed
million refugees, a
Our surplus was deby with marginal imports. by the world financial crisis and the sky-
by acute drought. Aid was pleted,
though we managed
Then we were The
first
kind of
want
of existence, such as
nutrition, clothing,
hit
rocketing price of
the world: "a shortage of the essentials
in
minimum
and housing."
the
Many
form of bread.
this grace.
The per
is
developed countries
it
hardly 200 kg. a year, whereas in is
90%
noted that nearly
veloped countries
hungry see God in millions are not yet vouchsafed
said that the
capita availability of grain in the less
developed countries
is
close to 1,000 kg. It should be
of the consumption of grain in de-
indirect,
through
meat and poultry. In 1970 the
its
conversion into
rich countries
In addition, drought has persisted
oil.
in successive seasons.
The Present Food
Mahatma Gandhi once
stalled.
to get
used some
cern over food 1972.
is
Crisis.
The
current woridwide con-
a poignant consequence of events since
Drought made
itself
causing production to
fall
across whole continents,
felt
simultaneously in the Soviet
Union, China, India, parts of Africa, and Southeast Asia.
down by 4%,
Total world production of cereals went
more than 30
or
million metric tons. In such a situation
was natural for food-surplus countries
to
make
the
it
most
of their advantage. Grain prices rose to dizzy heights, add-
375 million metric tons of cereals to feed animals, a quan-
ing to the already escalating forces of worldwide inflation
human
and compounding the problems of developing countries
tity greater
than the total cereal consumption by
beings and domesticated animals in China and India put together.
The noted economist Barbara Ward has com-
puted that, since 1967, the United States has added to
its
already staggered by steep increases in the price of
oil.
In the absence of an international system governing trade in grain, the limited stocks that
were available
in
"surplus"
grain-beef conversion rate almost the entire equivalent of
countries were distributed, through bilateral trade, to those
India's level of consumption.
who could
UN
estimate, the
will
grow by
demand
27%
in
Meanwhile, according
for food
to a
between 1970 and 1985
developed countries and by
72%
in
A Basic
The world food problem
Inequality.
the contradictions inherent in the massive
highlights
and continuing
injustice in the control of the world's resources
we have is
lately
begun
to realize, are
unevenly distributed.
On
—which,
not unlimited. Land
a per capita basis, the United
States and the Soviet land.
Canada has
2
Union have close to 0.9 ha. of arable ha. and Australia more than 3 ha. The
— particular, — has also been unequal.
distribution of other resources
and material inputs Is
not remarkable that,
in
technology
payments problem
almost
is
entirely due to the high prices of food, fertilizers,
We
developing countries.
afford to pay.
India's current balance of
and
oil.
are exploring every possibility of substituting other
fuels to
meet the energy needs of our economy, but what
can take the place of food and short supply
all
fertilizer? Fertilizer is in
over the world because of high
and because the demand creased tremendously.
I
in
oil
prices
developed countries has
lawns green. This to India to
is
more than the
grow food
in-
have read that the United States
uses three million metric tons of fertilizer just to keep
its
entire supply available
in 1971.
Africa illustrates the severity of the present food
crisis
these disadvantages,
along with the untapped potential for higher production.
developing countries as a group were able to achieve, over the last decade, a growth rate in agricultural production
In the Sahelian zone of Africa, drought conditions have persisted for a
close to that of the industrial countries?
the land-man ratio in several countries
it
in spite of
But
their
demands
number
of years.
On
the is
same continent, favourable, and
;
.
there fly
is
ample opportunity
to develop the land if the tsetse
and other disease carriers can be controlled.
estimated that when this
is
It
has been
accomplished an area of nearly
seven million square kilometres agricultural area of the United
—
larger than
World
2.
Assurance of some internationally controlled supplies to
addition, land deliberately withheld
from production
some 70 million metric
resented a potential output of
reptons.
developing countries
in
meet abnormal shortages that might occur
in a
bad
year; and i.
grain stocks have slumped to a precariously low
must be met:
Greater production
the entire
In 1961 they totaled 154 million metric tons and, in
distinct needs
1
States— can be brought un-
der cultivation.
level.
Three
Generation of adequate purchasing power for develop-
ing countries to finance needed imports. Increasing Food Supplies. The first step
is
clearly the
responsibility of the developing countries themselves.
must
set their priorities right
In 1974 grain stocks were estimated at 89 million metric
in land
tons, the equivalent of barely four weeks' consumption,
lizer,
They
and provide for investment
improvement, use of water, production of
and the development of technologies needed
ferti-
to in-
The
crease food production. In affluent nations, both agriculture
capacity of the world to meet a sudden adverse turn in
and industry use mass-production techniques. Agriculture
the weather
itself
and there
is little idle
is
left in
"surplus" countries.
thus greatly reduced.
The demand
many
land
for food
may
exceed
its
potential supply for
years to come. According to estimates of the
Food and Agriculture Organization of cereals, currently about
1
UN
the world production
.200,000,000 metric tons, will
have to increase on an average by 25 million metric tons each year to meet the rising demand.
By
1985 developing
countries might face a total annual gap of nearly 85 million metric tons of
nosis of a gaping
able
and
countries.
food grains. Nor
chasm between what
what
is
James
J.
needed
confined
dismal prog-
is
this
is
likely to be availless
developed
of the
New York
to
\eedham. chairman
Stock Exchange, has said that in the period 1974-85 capital will fall
approximately $650 billion short of U.S. eco-
nomic requirements.
Drought In
in India. In
a dried-up
industr>' in
With such tivity
is
which fewer people
cul-
capital-intensive technology, per capita produc-
high and so are individual incomes. In India, on
the other hand,
we
face a situation where
more and more
people will have to cultivate progressively smaller areas of land. Unemplo>Tnent figures in India appear most de-
pressing
when employment
capita productivity. This
most urgent
is
task, therefore,
is
calculated in terms of per
Our augment per hectare pro-
the basis of our poverty. is
to
ductivity through the scientific use of our biological and physical assets.
This goal can be achieved only through widespread involvement of the rural community in scientific methods of
farming
in
which every individual can participate. Unfor-
1970s the rains bypassed parts of western India and these women must dig The bridge suggests form"r -i'v -f .ih'irrtjnt w.itc i-^ this area.
the early
riverbed.
become an
has
tivate ever increasing areas with the help of machines.
for
waier
— tunately, even in agriculture much of the planning has been based on the model of mass production evolved in affluent countries, without regard to our peculiar circumstances.
underground reserve of water. Some of our farmers have developed low-cost devices that can be used to tap this resource, such as tube wells made of bamboo, but if en-
Experts and technical knowledge are driving forces that push us inexorably. The men and women who may be sim-
ergy
must remain the most concerned and affected by our programs tend to be relegated to the sidelines as somewhat bewildered spectators. The interest and enthusiasm of farmers and their wives
ple but yet
must be aroused, not only
in increasing
production but
in
seeing that the grain reaches the market on time. Scientific farming should be part of the all-round development of
And women
the village.
aspects of village
life
play a very important part in
—economic,
and
political,
all
cultural.
—
—
power is not available, the much, the opportunities for employment generation provided by multiple cropping will either electric or diesel
wells cannot function.
By
that
have been diminished. Mixed farming, combining agriculture and livestock husbandry, has a large potential
in irrigated as well as rain-fed
income and employment for farmers with small holdings and for landless labour. But mixed farming should not be introduced without adequate scientific in-
areas. It adds to
vestigation.
For example, poultry farming should be en-
couraged only
if
there are plenty of food grains, since
have not appreciated their relevance to the achievement of
poultry consume large quantities of maize, sorghum, and other grains. On the other hand, the cow and the buffalo can
development
digest cellulosic material that
Most developmental processes have bypassed them and
India has
goals.
many
sophisticated and large-scale industries,
but vast areas and groups of people are untouched by them and the pressure on land continues to be excessive. Life is
hard
we cannot
the rural areas. Therefore,
in
small-scale
industries
greatly improved
and
village
crafts
that
neglect
could be
by intermediate technology. Far from
man cannot utilize. Thus, the cow and the human being is comIn China scavenging anicompetitive. and not plementary mals like pigs have been used effectively in production sysrelationship between the
tems based on recycling principles. The same principles can be adopted for pond fisheries by developing highly productive systems based upon the supply of some waste produce
being incompatible with modernization, intermediate technology is a step in that direction. It is intended to increase
of ducks and pigs. Such high-synergy systems have a multi-
to lighten drudgery, without alienating peo-
In July and August, eastern India and Bangladesh are often devastated by floods, and the Brahmaputra Valley
efficiency
and
their environment. In developing societies there always be room for processes that create work for people where they live, using local materials and without
from
ple
will
indiscriminate adoption of
norms and practices from
opulent societies has led to a disorientation of values and aesthetic feeling. In their emulation of international vogues, architects in tropical countries sometimes
even of climatic conditions. It conditioned room, but what essential production in field
is
if
become
delightful to this
and
diverts
factor>'?
oblivious
sit in
an
air-
power from
Labour-saving
methods are welcome when they save time and money, but not when they seal off possible sources of employment. In
many
is
on economic growth.
chronically flood-prone. Flood control
sible,
and even when
it is
branches of engineering, especially agricultural en-
gineering, there should be many-faceted research
aimed
developing improvements and methods that will
at
make
stroyed.
With
the help of surface irrigation
Modern
Agricultural Programs. In
irri-
gated areas, employment can be increased through multiple cropping. Scientific dry farming is more useful in semiarid regions. Tropical
and subtropical regions are fortunate
in
should take care that their agricultural growth scarce, expensive,
Developing countries that are not endowed with fossil by en-
ergy conservation and recycling. This
modern
will have to play a dominant role in increasing employment opportunities and lowering underemployment in the rural areas of the tropics. In the Indo-Gangetic plain of North India we have a large
12 years he has adopted
from colonial rule."
of
crafts, so is
new methods with great alacrity many new crops. Just as in-
to cultivating
elbowed out traditional rural
with the advent of modern farming, the farmer
abandoning several excellent traditional practices.
He
tends to apply more chemical fertilizer than prudence and science would dictate.
.
way
agriculture, but in the last 10 to
dustrialization ever>'where has
.
the best
duction potential. For a long time the Indian farmer was
and has taken
.
is
ensuring growth that does not erode the long-term pro-
months. The Indicative World Plan prepared by the F.'XO
should be compared living conditions of the people of India not with conditions in the rich countries but with the stat« of affairs prevailing at the time of our liberation
not
fuels should try to achieve their agricultural goals
skeptical about
"The
is
and pollution-
generating forms of energy.
having abundant sunlight, and with adequate water and nutrients some crop or other can be grown during all 12
acknowledges that multiple cropping
and the use of
kilogram of wheat protein and 65,000 kilocalories to produce one kilogram of beef protein. Obviously, poor coun-
are different from those of the advanced countries.
for
raised in
Modern mechanized agriculture itself has become a major consumer of energy derived from nonrenewable resources. It has been calculated that while India uses 286 kilocalories of energy to produce one kilogram of rice protein, affluent nations use 2,800 kilocalories to produce a
tries
well lead to patterns of satisfaction that
is
requires power.
entirely dependent on
The Need
not always pos-
is
involves heavy invest-
underground water, the flood-free months could be converted into the main cropping season. However, this also
people and of the available materials with which they are
may
it
the flood season, with the result that crops are often de-
fuller use of the experience and capability of the local
familiar. This
possible
ment. At present, the main crop in these areas
the necessity of imports or high investment.
The
plier effect
to
The farmer should be reeducated compost and green manure is known
use organic fertilizer
—
along with inorganic. In other matters also, what
and cheap
is
not necessarily harmful or useless.
^^^.-'^-^
m^':M The tries
scarcity of pesticides
may
strike developing coun-
with even more severity than the
fertilizer shortage.
labour as a substitute for capital or technology have not
escaped vast food
Tropical conditions are particularly hospitable to insects.
wide fluctuations
A way out
and China and
is
through pest-management procedures that are
locally relevant.
These may be based on pest avoidance
Even
if
pesticides
are plentiful, experience shows that insects soon resistant to them.
become
Farmers should be more judicious
their use of pesticides, learning the value of
many
in
insects
and the importance of maintaining nature's balance. Research can never end. Every agroecological milieu has its own problems, and new ones keep appearing. For
This
In the
last
few years, developments
prompt reon the different theories of development that have has been said that It propounded from time to time. been certain forms of government or certain constitutional frameworks promote faster growth than others; that excessive individualism or concern with human rights and legal remedies
may
act as a brake on economic progress;
and that some governments and as "soft states" with
be minimized by mixing
fertilizer
with margosa cake, de-
rived from the seeds of the margosa tree. Such local solutions to local
problems must be encouraged.
in different parts
flection
many
nutrients are lost because of leaching. This could
demonstrated by the
of the world, especially in the matter of food,
example, during the southwest monsoon period in India, soil
is
food production in the Soviet Union
ports from abroad.
instead of control, or on taking advantage scientifically of
natural enmities within the insect world.
deficits.
in
their resultant recourse to large-scale im-
little
states can
be characterized
prospect of rapid
human
im-
seems to belie such generalizations. Economic development is a complex process, and the reasons that some economies are growing more provement. The present economic
crisis
must now conserve energy, which
rapidly than others cannot be found solely in the forms of
becoming scarce and costly. Scientists and technologists have yet to develop commercially feasible methods of har-
government or institutions prevalent in different societies. Adequacy of resources and their efficient use play an important part in development. There are also random and
Even
affluent countries
is
nessing the energy of the sun, wind, and tides, but this
work is attracting greater attention and several experiments are under way. Hitherto unused sources of natural power must be developed as quickly as possible to meet the
uncontrollable factors, including the unpredictability of
needs of production and to assure remunerative employ-
countries have to face the consequences of fluctuations in
ment to a fast-growing population. Growth Strategies and Resource Constraint. Human endeavour and organizational change alone will not compensate for deficiencies in natural endowments and the material inputs of modern agriculture. Systems that have used
nature. Agricultural production to
is
particularly vulnerable
such forces, and at one time or another almost
all
food production on the economy as a whole. Discipline in society is as essential as a
production and secure of right priorities
its
determined
is
augment The choice
effort to
equitable distribution.
and technology
a must;
we cannot
ignore the fact that resources are limited and the efforts
Death in
worst drought of tlw 20lh century brought famine, disease, and death to animals and humans alike, and Ethiopia (above). The devastation and disaster were even more widespread in West Africa than in East Africa.
in Africa. Tlie
Kenya
(left)
of individual countries to achieve self-sufficiency in food
must be supported by international action
to
assist
in
meeting unforeseen contingencies.
The
existence of present deficiencies should not detract
from the very considerable progress in agricultural development that has already been achieved in several developing countries, including India. In contrast to the near-stagnation of the decades before India achieved inde-
pendence
began
in
1947, agricultural production since planning
in the early
trend of about
1950s has maintained a long-term growth
3.5%
annually. India
thus
is
among
the
countries in which agricultural growth has been ahead of the growth in population, although not so
we would have
liked.
much ahead
as
At the beginning of the 1950s, grain
Food-Grain Production
Groin
(in
In India
000,000 matric loni)
— WORLD WITHOUT WANT
A
importance, and this
vital
to India's agricultural
why
is
indicates that a world without
Planning and Technology. In the million people have acquired
homes
20 years, two
last
to land for the first time.
title
Landless labourers are being given house to build
and loans
sites
of their own. Ceilings have been placed on
the total area that a person or a family can own,
surplus
among
being distributed
is
Ensuring World Food Security. Recent experience also want cannot come into being
land reforms are crucial
program.
the landless.
and the There is
considerable resistance to this from the bigger landowners,
and the implementation of these programs has been rather
among themselves
unless nations agree
gency food reserve that can be used
to create
an emer-
in times of
need and
a world buffer stock of grain that can be used to level out
and prices. any country is able to operate a free market system in so basic a commodity as grain. Price support is necessary to protect producers, and some control has to be exercised over stocks and distribufluctuations in food production
On
the national plane, hardly
nations are in a better position to use science and tech-
consumer. Difficulties arise partly from the nature of the cycle of agricultural production and partly because of unequal distribution of incomes
nology for further advancement, so at our national level
within each country.
tion in the interest of the
slow.
Just as, at the international level, the more advanced
we
find that intensive
farming methods and the extension
have benefited the
services of the agricultural universities
community. To correct
in the rural
imbalance,
only fair that the
it
is
new
contribute to rural uplift, since their prosperity
now
inputs
the
available
is
due
to
Recently we have
them.
to
this
rural rich should
are aggravated in those counrising faster than
domestic supplies.
comparatively well-off farmer, widening the gap between
him and others
They
where the demand for food has been
tries
The world must think arrangements that
will
in
terms not of free trade but of
ensure the distribution of limited
food supplies in accordance with some criterion of need, rather than solely on the basis of purchasing power.
arrangements
may
untary contributions
cultivators in dry areas.
they could take the form of an agreement
In any drought-stricken area total
drop
in
purchasing power
the loss of crops.
Even
if
in India, the is
sudden and
even more serious than
enough food can be moved
in
from other parts of the country, few can afford to buy it. Hence we are compelled to start public works that will
some income immediately and enable people
generate
to
to a
minimum
in
accordance with internationally agreed
western India, 9.5 milhon people were employed
in
To have averted deaths during droughts magnitude is no mean achievement.
of such
The
works.
and other crops
increase in the production of grain
has been uneven because of climatic variations from year to year. is
Even now, only about 25% of our
irrigated. In
in irrigation
cultivated area
view of the shortage of funds, investment
has traditionally been of a protective nature.
Only during the
few years has
been possible
rules.
They imply
capacity and a conscious decision to con-
efficient storage trol
consumption when crops are good
adequate stocks for the future. This
some
relief
nations
national and international action to create adequate and
in the richer countries.
on
among
level of stocks for times of scarcity
maintain a
feed themselves rather than subsist on food doles. In 1965-
sthan
world buffer stock; alternatively,
to
when two successive monsoons failed in eastern India, we provided work for three million people. In 1971-72, when the rains bypassed Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Raja66,
Such
involve an international system of vol-
launched special programs to help marginal farmers and
Any system
in order to build
especially necessary
is
of food security for the world will
mean
some curtailment of current consumption
sacrifices,
on the part of the developed countries. If they substituted direct use of grains, vegetables,
and other foods for even
one-third of their meat and poultry consumption, enough supplies
to make up World demand for
would be released
deficit in cereals.
the potential world
up
grain has gone
not only because of increasing population and improved diets in the less
developed countries, but also because of
changing consumption patterns within affluent countries.
They have
the
means
to
pay for what they want and,
in
to pro-
the process, the limited resources of the world are wasted
vide resources for the full utilization of available water
and the really needy are deprived. Voluntary restraint or
last
it
through irrigation systems. With improved water manage-
the turning of enlightened enthusiasts to vegetarianism will
ment and assured
make hardly any
inputs, especially of
been estimated that India could double in the next IS years.
Some developing
its
fertilizer,
it
has
food production
countries have an
even higher potential. In the current year
it
that requirements will be met, even though
we
is
unlikely
are giving
the highest priority to fertilizer imports.
The world shortage all
of fertilizer
developing countries in the
endowments, but mainly
it
a
medium
tribution of fertilizer stems partly ral
is
is
term.
to
The maldis-
from variations
in natu-
a result of the inability
of the developing countries to invest adequately in fertilizer
ernmental action
production. International action must be initiated to
The world cannot risk the free play of market commodity like fertilizer, any more than in food
in
and patterns of profiscal
and other gov-
order to influence the relative prices of
different products.
Until recently there was no shortage of grain on a global yet from time to time individual countries have
scale;
major handicap
dent. Eating habits
duction must be guided by systematic
faced acute shortages and have lacked the funds to import
from other regions. Within the poor countries, the main brunt is borne by the weakest sections of the populace. Thus national policies are as important as internasupplies
tional action.
The
entire philosophy of
development
— as
it
an individual nation and the world as a whole
affects
correct this.
has so far concentrated attention on problems of economic
forces in a
growth and of ensuring relative rates of growth that
supplies.
Equitable distribution of the limited fertilizer
reduce disparities
available in the world should be an integral part of the
tries.
world food security system.
development
It is
now is
will
among developing and developed coun-
generally realized that this approach to
inadequate.
The
attack on poverty must be
more
direct, within nations as
among
nations.
Such an ap-
proach involves massive redistribution of economic opportunities, not merely transfers from rich to poor through bilateral or international aid
programs.
It
involves devising
worldwide arrangements to assure the world's poor that
own standard of living. For educated, wellnew baby makes heavy demands on time and budget. For the really poor, an extra child makes
effect
on
their
to-do parents, each
hardly any difference. It may,
in fact,
be regarded as an
earner and a helper.
technological progress will not be to their disadvantage,
India has the largest officially sponsored family-planning
accompanied by
program of any country, and our birthrate has been coming down, though it varies sharply from state to state. It is lower where per capita incomes are high or where women have more education and wider interests. For the country as a whole, the birthrate has fallen from 41 per
that economic growth will be everywhere social justice.
The Overpopulation Question. Underdevelopment, poverty, and hunger are often regarded as consequences of burgeoning population.
Many
in the affluent lands, read-
30 in
ing at their breakfast table of starvation in Africa or Asia,
1,000 population to 37 in the last decade, but
are content to shrug their shoulders and blame
Kerala and Tamil Nadu, where education has made great
on the
it
headway, and 33
increase in numbers.
There
no question but that world population must be made large outlays on
is
contained. Poorer countries have
money
been tangible. Family planning cannot
in isolation. It is
part of development.
family
curbed, although not yet eradicated, several diseases, the
terms of
however, the basic problem
its effect
in India,
scarcity
on the
is
one not
size of their
on the per capita income of the nation
or on the world's food problem.
"For us
Punjab, where
the increase in agricul-
but of personnel, not of methods but of moti-
;
vation. Couples do not decide in
be viewed
is
Our increased population is not due entirely to new births. Thanks to our public health programs, which have
population control of
in
tural production has
it
Is
What
concerns them
is
the
life
rate,
span of the average Indian has risen and the death
which was 31 per 1,000 population
only a missed monsoon away." Rations of rice beina distributed in an Indian village.
in the 1930s, is
WORLD WITHOUT WANT
A down
to 17 per 1,000.
ever.
We
We
cannot rest on our laurels, how-
for instance, that mosquitoes have reap-
find,
peared and that the new strain
modern medicine, we must place
cost of
rising
greater
and sections of the popula-
classes
tion are able to avail themselves of it?
Experiments
resistant to insecticides.
is
Considering the vast number of people involved and the
when other
closed just
in
education are being undertaken by indi-
viduals and organizations in cially interested to learn of
some countries of
many countries. I was espeUNESCO's educational work
However, the basic
issues con-
emphasis on the prevention of disease. Proper nutrition
in
and sanitation are essential. So is education, especially of mothers. Some knowledge of elementary health care could
cerning educational reforms are often clouded over by a
much
prevent
For example, almost four-fifths of
illness.
Africa.
preoccupation with unemployment. The sole purpose of education
is
not to enable young people to get jobs or even
know more, but
them become better human
to help
bUndness could be prevented by giving babies the vitamins
to
so handily found in leafy vegetables.
beings, growing in awareness
We
are encouraging a
new approach
medical educa-
to
and organization so that health services are not con-
tion
the challenges of tomorrow.
In the beginning
centrated around hospitals but reach out to village homes.
Indigenous systems of medicine, the Ayurvedic and the
To give been known
Unani, have centuries of experience behind them.
one example, the Sarpagandha plant has long
and nervous system, but
as a cure for ailments of the heart
it was rediscovered West and given a place in pharmacopoeias under reserpine. have descriptions of caesarean secname We
our modern doctors ignored
by
it
until
the
the
and
tions
plastic surgery as they
cient times
now be
should
how
and of many
were performed
investigated scientifically.
We
In medicine there
is
a
ternational responsibility. Certainly a wider pooling of ex-
perience and inquiry in the fields of agriculture and nutrition
is
A
called for.
consortium of technical experts drawn from different
and organizations could ensure that
countries, disciplines, scientific
programs are based upon
critical action-reaction
analyses. There have been reports of changes in the global
weather pattern. The variations we have experienced during the past few years are unfortunately to our disad-
problems, however, for the colonial education struc-
vantage, and the position of the Sahelian zone of Africa
The developing
is satisfied
most of them inherited have proved wholly inade-
tures
quate for the needs of a developing economy. that
China has succeeded
by
fabric
itself off is
not im-
and metallurgy. somewhat greater awareness of in-
jectives, especially in the realms of energy
with
if
educational system.
cial
is
referred to the remarkable progress
countries face spe-
wonder
I
dogma! any contemporary society
the dictates of
to
I
made by science and its demonstrated capacity to fulfill human requirements. How do we harness this creative potential for national and global purposes? Too often, scientific knowledge has been made subservient to national ob-
have seen
the ancient Chinese practice of acupuncture has sud-
denly aroused worldwide interest. Even science
mune its
in an-
remedies that
efficacious rural
and compassion so they can
grapple with the problems of today and be prepared for
We
read
in overhauling its educational
and by cutting generation. But it
totally breaking with the past
from the world for an entire
India
growth
there
has been
in education.
a
phenomenal quantitative
The school population has increased
from around 23 million to nearly 90 million in three decades, and the number of college students from 300,000 to 3 million. Several qualitative
—
a
even worse. Thus there
new
changes have also taken
time to lose
is little
international
cooperation
that
in initiating
endeavour and a type of
style of national scientific
designed
is
to
eradicate
hunger and poverty.
National Interests
in
try can afford to take a
not always possible or even desirable to do this.
In
is
since
The
it
No
a Shrinking World.
narrow view of
has to live in a world that
is
its
own
coun-
interests,
closely interlinked.
richer regions cannot abdicate their concern. Pros-
perity for
some cannot be enjoyed
for most. It perils
is
in the
midst of poverty
not military confrontation alone that im-
world peace; disparity
is
an equal danger. As Rabin-
has been placed on science and
dranath Tagore once wrote, power has to be made secure
engineering and on the building up of scientific research
not only against power but also against weakness. So the
centres and national laboratories,
some
quest for an egalitarian society
earned international renown.
the large majority of
place
a
new emphasis
Still,
of
which have
our young people pass through the educational mill without acquiring the vocational skills they need to earn a living
what
more important, the confidence and intellectual them to face life. An open and democratic society grants many rights to
or,
is
attributes that will enable
the individual
;
it
also expects far
more
responsibility
and
It
is
a practical necessity
Perhaps we are
still
if
is
not merely humanitarian.
the world order
is
to survive.
remote from a meaningful system
of world taxation and redistribution of wealth through
such taxation, but international economic pohcy must at least
aim
at securing rapid
equality of opportunity
growth
among
in
world income, greater
the nations of the world,
and a worldwide system of economic security, especially
maturity from him than an authoritarian society does. The
food security. In 1974 two major world congresses were
number of our educated unemployed has grown, but many of them are unemployable. Everyone talks of the need
held, one dealing with population
for change but
most are afraid of
it
and
resist
it.
We
are
and the other with food
supply. These subjects are of vital importance for most
developing countries.
It is to
be hoped that the congresses
indeed witnessing a greater demand for vocational training,
provided us with some insight into the thinking of those
and more polytechnics and agricultural
who have the power to fellow human beings.
established.
We
colleges are being
are advised that higher education should
be restricted, but
this raises
a pertinent social question.
All these years, opportunities for higher education
been confined to a privileged few. Should
its
have
doors be
Whether one thinks
help the less fortunate
in
among
their
terms of geography, historical
it seems as though Europe and North America have long regarded their two continents
perspective, or cultural patterns,
as the
hub
of the world. Formerly, as far as they
—and indeed
this
was the case for many long years.
Colonialism has gone, but their attitude of self-importance continues. Interest
is
taken in our development, but the
criteria they use to assess
temporary trends vision
They
is still
our progress are those of con-
in the affluent countries;
The pattern
were con-
cerned, Africa and Asia existed to be used for their pur-
poses
their angle of
based on their interest and global strategy.
ignore the relevance of climate, of geographical com-
of growth that
we have copied from
the
advanced countries itself generates dissatisfaction. And disquiet is most marked in those sections whose expectations are the highest, such as the urban, educated middle and
classes
workers
skilled
dustries. In a
in the
more sophisticated
way, the outlook of such groups
is
in-
similar
to that of the people of rich countries: a feeling that
they
alone matter and a disinterestedness in the welfare of the
huge numbers
who
Unless the minds of
live in villages.
pulsion and the forces of history, of centuries of national
people are remolded, infused with comprehension of and
experience and civilization.
compassion for the suffering of the many, progress
When poverty.
foreigners visit India, they profess shock at our
They have no
different levels of
development among regions)
just to survive in this fast-changing tive
world
—
and highly competi-
to say nothing of traveling
from one age
to
another as we are trying to do. The living conditions of the people of India
and other developing countries should
be compared not with conditions
in the rich countries
but
with the state of affairs prevailing at the time of our liberation
from colonial
It is
easy for rich nations to forget that they too had
poverty not so long ago and that pockets of poverty exist in the heart of their plenty this with
and extravagance.
I
no thought of complaint or accusation, for
still
my own
in cities
— and perhaps — between town and
country
tries as well
tend to
rural areas,
in
I
am
other developing coun-
Those who live think that they are India and that the village.
where the vast majority of our people
on the periphery.
When
centuries of sleep, try
is
live, are
awake
after
When a apathy, many
coun-
a giant heaves itself
much
dust will be raised.
aroused after generations of
types
come to the surface. Today, our countries are ferment. We must try to understand the primary forces
of evil will in
behind the changes that are shaking our societies, instead of finding fault with the efforts governments are
the
new problems
made
vastly
of growth and
making more complex by
by the interaction of
global crosscurrents.
write
only too conscious of the fact that a similar situation exists in
the economic revolution, but here they are taking place
simultaneously.
to solve age-old problems,
rule.
itself
be unreal.
In the Western world, the political revolution followed
idea of the stupendous effort re-
quired for a nation of 560 million (with such wide diversity
and such
will
I
have written mostly about India, for that
own in
experience
lies.
By and
is
where
my
large, similar situations exist
other developing countries although, because of India's
greater size and population, every problem here assumes gigantic
proportions.
sistance
at
Developing countries do need
various levels and
in
as-
varying degrees, but
equally they need deeper understanding of their aspirations
and
difficulties.
million
Information
and
payments per month to Social Security recipients and was also processing $18 million
their beneficiaries
per month
in hospital bills.
Similarly,
Industries in the United States
by the early 1970s banks were spending an
estimated $4.3 billion per year on processing checks, and
banks and other firms were spending another $2.4
billion
per year on processing slips and billings for the nation's
These expenditures are understandable when compared with the numbers of checks and credit-card
credit cards.
statements that required handling. In 1970 an estimated 22,500,000,000 checks were written on commercial banks'
demand-deposit accounts; the corresponding estimate for credit-card transactions
by
The Information
Anthony Gettinger and Peter Shapiro
4,700.000.000.
is
Industries.
States's largest private enterprises
Many
the
of
United
and publicly supported
have as their sole or primary product a serv-
institutions
ice that involves
processing,
one or more of the functions of creating,
collecting,
or
communicating
information.
These enterprises and institutions are best viewed as
in-
person's five senses receive and transmit to his
formation industries that serve as society's perceptors,
brain every waking hour countless messages from other persons and objects. Many of these messages ap-
nervous system, and memory. They aggregate and comple-
parently cost nothing, and so the information they contain
assumptions about the
Each
not only
plentiful but also
is
formation
is
seems cheap. But while
prodigiously plentiful,
much
of
it is
in-
available
as a product of information services that are far
from
cheap. In fact, of every $5 spent in the United States in the early 1970s on goods, services, construction,
and new
machines, more than $1 was allocated to an information service of
some
kind.
illustrate the overall expenditures on information
To
services in 1970, the table below
lists
ment actions
of individuals both in developing society's
in transmitting
way
things are and should be and
such assumptions to successive generations.
As discussed above, they consume nual
GNP,
a large part of the an-
but they also play a significant role
the revenues of in-
is
ures for Information Servic< in the U.S. in 1970
spending on informa-
tion services within broader industries.
The
latter
group
h
includes banking and credit card services, insurance, and securities listings.
At
first
glance,
it
seems arguable whether the primary
outputs of the "processors" in the table, with the clear exception of data processing services, are information services or
and
something
else.
However, each of these agencies'
services' "production lines"
is
nothing more than an
king
is
a
fundamental prerequisite
ond cre
ranee ogenis frilies brokgi
information-handling process. For example, information processing
to posting Social
Security, Medicare, and medical insurance payments. In
1971 the Social Security Administration was mailing 27
Anthony Oettinger is a professor oj applied mathematics at Harvard University and is director of the Program on Injormation Technologies and Public Policy at that institution.
He
tion, as
has written extensively on the subject of informa-
developed in
this
article,
and
is
the author of
several books, including Automatic Language Translation
and Run, Computer, Run: The Mythology of Educational Innovation.
Peter Shapiro
is
a former research fellow in the
Program
Televiiion
>l
is
currently a staff
member
of the telecommunications
group of Arthur D. Little, Inc., Cambridge, Mass. His works include Networking in Cable Television: Analysis of Present Practices and Future Alternatives.
on
Photographic
on Information Technologies and Public Policy at Harvard
and
stimulat-
form and develop are of crucial public concern. Particularly critical issues for the next decade and beyond concern the structure of the information industries
formation-related industries and outlays for tax-supported public institutions. Also included
in
and distributing its benefits. For these reasons, the ways in which these industries per-
ing general economic growth
$000,000,000
markets, namely, determining which functions should be
tween the giant data processing industry, dominated by
performed by private and public institutions; privacy
International Business Machines Corp.
versus access to information;
equally huge telecommunications industry, dominated by
and public control over
media content. The following paragraphs are devoted
to a
discussion of these issues.
now
are jockeying for control of old
and new markets. Longstanding boundaries between them have been broken down by the merging of technologies for processing, storing, and communicating information. Autonomous functioning of is
way
giving
to
interdependence and, more
by (FCC), but
inquiry
formed by
IBM
agreed to acquire financial control of a prospective
domestic
satellite enterprise,
the challenges of competition.
and
composition
directly
onto
home
all-electric operation
photosensitive
paper.
Some
delivery of "newspapers" foresee
from the moment the news item
leaves the reporter's hand to
its
delivery via wire, micro-
wave, or laser beam to the television set of the reader, who then has the option of capturing the text permanently through some form of dry-copying or printing technology. The telephone companies and cable television systems will eventually compete with paper boys, delivery trucks, and the post office in the home delivery of locally produced
"printed" media. For nonlocal delivery, the post office may face challenges from the telephone companies, new
microwave common satellite
carriers,
and from various domestic
systems.
Taking a more futuristic perspective, one can visualize newspapers being someday complemented by, replaced by, or transformed into computerized information retrieval systems. Subscribers will be able to request via their home terminals any items they wish to read. Although much institutional
change
will be required before such systems are they are becoming technologically feasible and on a small, highly focused scale some prototypes are
On
challenge
its explicit
another front, com-
puter manufacturers and makers of dry-copying equipment
have entered each other's
slugs of metal type, increasingly relies on computer-aided
marking
telecommunications companies.
to
Commission
and processors remains open. In 1974
ing machines,
The effects of technological change are pervasive. For example, printing, once associated with movable, reusable
Communications
Federal
the
Markets traditionally characterized by stable monopoly and oligopoly structures are now experiencing
visions of future
the
T). The
the issue of the proper functions to be per-
carriers
traumatically for the institutions concerned, to direct competition.
an
&
overlap of these industries has already led to an extensive
Structure of Information Industries Markets. Despite their diverse origins, formerly separate industries
the industries
(IBM), and
American Telephone and Telegraph Co. (AT
Though
and Xerox
many
there are
conflict at the
ices, there
territory.
IBM now
makes copy-
producing computers.
is
possible examples of confusion
boundaries between information serv-
some important instances
are also
of coordina-
The widespread tie-ins of computer and communications services are cases in point. Another is Western Union's "Mailgram" service, which links priof operations.
tion
vate-sector electronic transmission with public-sector onfoot transmission. Customers with teleprinters on their
premises teletype their messages to Western Union headquarters, while others telephone in their messages; the
company then retransmits the messages to post equipped with teleprinters where postal workers re-
telegraph offices
move
the messages, place
them
in envelopes,
and put them
the first-class mail stream for next-day delivery.
in
For company, "Mailgram" represents a poten-
the telegraph tially lucrative ice,
and
transformation of
for the Postal Service
it
telegram serv-
its ailing
may be
a
first
step into
the age of electronically delivered mail.
Examples of structural change dislocating traditional and practices are particularly evident in two of the first is that in which broadcasters, motion-picture theatres, and telephone companies have in recent times distributed information to, from, and roles
communications markets. The
among
community;
points within a
making room
this
market
for a potentially highly versatile
is
now
newcomer,
in operation,
cable television.
already being tested by information scientists. For example, the National Library of Medicine has established a
exclusive province of the local telephone company.
system for computerized searching of its bibliographic files. Called Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System (MEDLARS), this system is accessible nationwide through leased telecommunications facilities.
market
The second such market involves telecommunications services that heretofore have been the Structural upset in the local information distribution is
being created largely by the growth of cable
tele-
Cable TV's first and still primary function has been to receive distant television signals, via microwave vision.
and high antennas, and
Besides their major impact on printed media, such information retrieval systems would obviously have impli-
to retransmit these along highcapacity coaxial cable to the sets of local subscribers. Even on this basis, cable television represents competition
cations for (or might be transformations of) libraries, data
for local broadcasters in that
banks, and the electronic media.
tional
would
affect the availability of
citizens
More
important, they
information resources for
and organizations; current inadequacies and
in-
equities-might be eit,her resolved or exacerbated depending on the rules governing the operations of these systems.
With computers
increasingly used as switching devices communications networks, and with electronic communications facilities becoming intrinsic elements in comin
puter data processing services, the distinction between processing and communications is becoming blurry. As the functions of the two seem to merge, contests loom be-
the
its subscribers have addiviewing options. But cable's major potential lies in
programming
retransmits. It
is
it
in
originates
the
payment system
scribers
rather
this potential
theatre owners foresee danger.
than
in
what
that broadcasters
They view
called pay-cable,
it
and
as the real threat
which
offers to sub-
for a per-program or per-channel
charge such
fare as movies, sports,
and
special-interest events.
As
of
1974 in the U.S. there were more than 3,000 cable television systems serving about eight million subscribers (about
13%
TV homes), but only 46 of However, pay-cable was growing,
of the nation's
these offered pay-cable.
INFORMATION INDUSTRIES IN THE UNITED STATES causing the National Association of Broadcasters in 1973 to
mount a $600,000 publicity campaign against it. The anxiety of broadcasters derives from the prospect
of reduced viewing audiences and, therefore, reduced ad-
dependent telephone companies, in the
each year
absorbs
it
of the capital that all of the corporations
20%
almost
U.S. raise from outside sources.
AT &
Yet, increasingly since 1968,
vertising revenues. In addition, they fear that successful
various segments of
T's monopoly in
telecommunications market has
its
pay-cable operations could outbid them for desirable pro-
been breached by the entry of competitive firms. In the
gramming. Theatre owners anticipate fewer box-ofi5ce customers because motion pictures could be viewed more
six
cheaply and comfortably at home. IVIotion-picture pro-
has developed to provide terminals ranging from decorator
much
of their current revenue
television,
but they are also pre-
ducers are cautious because
comes from broadcast
pared to see pay-cable develop as an alternate market for
movie
distribution. Sports
promoters have similarly
These and other factors have led from the FCC. For example, be-
conflicting motivations.
to restrictive regulations
years since the
FCC
ruled that non-Bell System termi-
nals could be attached to Bell
System
an industry
lines,
telephones to local switchboards. In addition, a series of regulatory decisions beginning in 1969 has helped to enable
microwave companies and domestic
satellite carriers to pro-
vide competitive leased circuits for data, voice, and video
communications between
AT & T
cities.
has relentlessly opposed entry by the
new
termi-
into the nation's largest 100 markets.
and leased-circuit companies on numerous technological, economic, and social grounds, whereas the prospective entrants, communications users, and the FCC have dwelt
there
upon the
tween 1966 and 1972 cable television systems were essentially
prohibited from importing distant television stations
However, in 1972 was some easing of the rules to permit some signals to be imported into major markets. Some limitations were; with certain exceptions, movies could not be shown that had been released to theatres more than two, but
than
less
nals
open competition would
benefits that
yield.
Inno-
vations in terminals already have blossomed and, in com-
have been
petitive leased-line markets, prices also
cut.
AT & T
competition by developing new
has responded to
no sports events could be shown that
leased-hne facilities designed for transmission of data to
had been televised live, on a non-pay basis, within the preceding two years; and dramatic series with intercon-
and among computers. Although revenues from terminals and the leased lines that are at stake total more than $1 billion, representing
ten years previously
;
nected plots were prohibited.
Expansion of pay-cable could result
in eventual replace-
only a small proportion of the Bell System's overall
in-
ment of advertiser-supported mass programming by more
come, the results of market restructuring
narrowly focused viewer-supported television programs.
could have wider implications. First, the quantity, quaUty,
Whether
or more modest impacts would be in the
this
public's best interest
parties;
thus far,
is
a matter of hot debate
representatives in
"public's"
the
among
who
have been and
the
with other businesses, government agencies, and individ-
pay-cable concept.
may
AT &
may
generally have supported the
Cable television eventually also
to the public
the
government rule-making arenas have been academic and think-tank spokesmen
and cost of services available
in these areas
uals
additionally be affected. Also,
may
be altered:
T's relationships
the telephone company's relative
power may be increased or decreased, and the scope of its role in society broadened or narrowed. If the new entrants
many
years before
challenge local
fail to
gain viable footholds,
telephone systems in providing facilities to businesses and
AT &
T's supremacy even in minor telecommunications
it
On
will
be
other organizations for high-volume data, voice, or video
sectors again
communications between predesignated
introduction of non-Bell components into the nation's tele-
Other communications
city.
within a
offices
entities in this
market would
is
challenged.
the other hand, increased
communications system could lead
to loss of efficiency in
include the Postal Service and, in the future, point-to-
planning for the future by Bell, possibly to Bell's shrug-
point local microwave, laser beam, and optical-fibre sys-
ging
tems. Cable's possible role in delivering print media to the
rates for residential telephone users.
home
Whether cable wonders the
is
still
television
will
actually achieve
these
an open question. Financing
difficulties,
broadcaster hostility into
restrictive
translating of
off
The
has already been mentioned.
that burden altogether,
and perhaps
issues are complex. All branches of
to
higher
government have
been drawn into the fray, including the White House, the courts, the
Department of
antitrust suit against
Justice,
AT & T
which instituted an
in late
1974, the Depart-
regulations, the uncertainties of big-city markets,
ment of Defense,
limited goals of cable entrepreneurs have
commissions as well as the FCC. The pubUc's stake
velopment of
this
and the impeded de-
new medium. Nevertheless, preliminary
stages of a revolution
in
the systems for locally distribut-
ing information are clearly visible and almost
With regard tural changes
to a
upon
us.
System
but
its
best interest remains unclear; at
any
rate, disin-
terested representatives of the public have yet to be heard.
Privacy and Access to Information. The main thrust
control,
In operating
and
its
to a large extent provide, all
"natural monopoly" service,
has become one of the world's largest private
organizations.
is
large, for the reasons described in the previous paragraph,
of technological innovation has been to improve the abil-
aspects of telecommunications service, from terminal to
AT & T
state public utility
AT & T
have dislocated traditional patterns,
that links the nation's millions of telephones requires that
the Bell
and
second major market in which struc-
has argued that efficient operation of the complex system
terminal.
the Congress,
Along with the several
relatively small in-
the information industries to process, store, and communicate information. Most would applaud this as a progressive trend. Danger flags have been raised, however, ity of
with respect to the implications of these changes for zens' rights of privacy
—
citi-
their rights to control the dissemi-
nation of information about themselves as balanced by the legitimate requirements of law-enforcement agencies.
insurance, and other necessary services
credit,
proved access
The
im-
for
privacy stem from constitutional
legal rights to
data bank. Retail Credit Co. of Atlanta, Ga., produces
more than 35
such personal information.
to
in-
terpretations and judicial, legislative, executive, and ad-
ministrative acts at federal and state levels. In general, these date from an 1S90 Harvard Law Review article by Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis that cited the dangers of "recent innovations and business methods" (instanta-
neous photographs and newspaper enterprises). The article called for explicit recognition of the implicitly accepted
million reports each year
from 45 million
files
maintained on individuals and businesses.
The link between privacy and freedom appears obvious many Americans, and threats to privacy implied in data bank operations can cause emotions to run high. Howto
ever, for an
economic system based on credit
to function,
the U.S. needs credit reporting centres; for the society to
combat increasingly sophisticated criminals, law enforcement agencies need prompt, effective, information retrieval
enacted privacy legislation, and others amended their con-
systems; and for public service agencies to perform both short-term services and long-run planning, they must have
stitutions to include privacy rights. In 1965 the U.S. Su-
information on the people they serve. The
right of citizens to be let alone.
Some
states subsequently
that a "zone of privacy"
preme Court held
constitutional guarantees such as the First
was created by .\mendment on
critical
questions
turn not on the existence of these data banks and information retrieval services but rather
on the rules that might
freedom of association, the Fourth against unauthorized search and seizure, and the Fifth against self-incrimination.
prevent abuses of them.
In 1967 the court included electronic surveillance as violat-
porting Act, which permits individuals to interrogate a data
Amendment, except where such by judicial order. Congress
ing the Fourth
lance was authorized
drew boundaries on the
ability of
government
surveil-
1968
in
to intercept
In 1970 the U.S. Congress passed the Fair Credit Re-
bank and review the accuracy of themselves.
A
its
records concerning
report in 1973 out of the U.S.
(HEW)
of Health, Education, and Welfare
Department
suggested fur-
private messages through wiretapping.
ther legislation to ensure that individuals be able to find
Concern for privacy recently has been revived in view of the widespread development of computerized data banks. Manual record-keeping systems had long existed in government agencies and private companies to keep track of individuals for such purposes as law enforcement, highway
out what information
held on them by data banks, to
is
obtain a copy of such information, to contest
and
to
be informed of
to codify the
HEW
its
uses.
As
its
accuracy,
of April 1974, in efforts
were 102 privacy
report, there
bills
House of Representatives and similar legissponsored by 62 lawmakers in the Senate. Some enacted additional privacy laws: for example, Mas-
pending
in
the
pre-employment checking. But
lation
computers made a difference in that they permitted vastly enlarged data storing and processing systems, and they
states
also facilitated access to personal data and the transfer of
records to criminal justice agencies and others authorized
safety, national security, or
among
such data
by
separate organizations.
current extent of development of the data bank in-
The dustry
The FBI
op-
of law-enforcement record systems.
As
illustrated
is
erates a
number
of the early 1970s
by the following
its
fingerprint
figures.
file
contained nondupli-
cated print sets of 86 million persons, of which 19 million sets file
in the criminal section;
were stored
"narrative"
its
held 6 million records produced by criminal,
and special investigations;
plicant,
its
contained 56 million cards arranged by
and groups and used as an index
The FBI
files
are
made
civil,
ap-
"name-index"
file
name
of persons
to the narrative
available
to
file.
various
law-
enforcement jurisdictions throughout the U.S. and are used in FBI reports written on individuals or groups for interested service
is
government agencies. An information operated by the
FBI
to
retrieval
provide data to inquiring
police officers on an on-line telecommunications basis. This service,
called
(NCIC),
the National Crime
Information Center
as of 1974 held 4.5 million items, of which 450,-
000 were criminal
histories.
work, called the National
A
separate but similar net-
Law Enforcement Teletype
tem (NLETS), was operated
Sys-
for the states.
Credit bureaus are private data banks that provide in-
formation on individuals to such subscribers as department stores,
automobile dealers, banks, and local businesses. The
largest credit bureau in the early 1970s
Data
of
Long Beach,
Calif. In
1970
this
was
TRW
Credit
company provided
12 million credit reports to 7,000 subscribers; the reports
were based on records held concerning some 30 million individuals.
The
largest
sachusetts limited the dissemination of criminal offender
pre-employment and pre-insurance
specific state or federal statutes. In
implementing
this
had authorized, as of March 1974, the disclosure of records to approximately 70 federal and state law. Massachusetts
agencies but had refused the requests of 104 other organizations, including credit bureaus, insurance companies,
and
executive departments of state and federal governments.
As data bank and information retrieval systems become inclusive, more interconnected, and more efficient, the issue of privacy will deserve commensurately deepening
more
public attention and concern.
The
critical
questions will re-
quire continuing public vigilance:
What
individuals should be collected and
how? Should
jects of the information be
informed?
information on
How
How
information be kept, and with what safeguards? it
Who purposes? How
be changed?
what
is
to be permitted to see
the sub-
should the can
and for
it,
can regulations concerning the opera-
banks be enforced? Public Control over Media Content As of 1972 approximately 64 million homes in the U.S. had television tions of data
newspapers had a paid circulation of 1 1 1 million, and periodicals a circulation of 410 million. A basic postuof the late U.S. democratic system is that the independent operations of these and other media are checks on the
sets, daily
power of government. Freedom from public control over media content was enshrined in the First Amendment to abridgthe Constitution: "Congress shall make no law .
.
.
." freedom of speech, or of the press. However, 200 years later the process of defining the limits of press freedom continues, both with regard to print media and even more intensively with respect to the major
ing the
.
.
INFORMATION INDUSTRIES electronic
medium,
television.
This discussion will focus
The foothold
for state
and
citizen intervention in tele-
that broadcast stations use the electronic
is
spectrum, or airwaves, for which they require licenses from the FCC. Unlike newspapers, therefore, broadcast stations for their use of a public resource.
become accountable
Citizen groups have fought in the
FCC
renewal of licenses to broadcasters reflect
community viewpoints
to block
and courts
who they
claim do not
programming. Gen-
in their
groups and local stations arrive at compromises on hiring and programming practices before the licensing decision has to be made by the FCC. Broadcasters erally, the citizen
have lobbied forcefully
yond
to
extend the licensing period be-
current three years and thus to reduce their vul-
its
nerability to citizen-group pressures; as of 1974 legislation
providing for this extension was pending
in
Congress.
Broadcasters are subject to the Fairness Doctrine, which asserts that they shall present controversial issues
the
same time make
and
at
a genuine effort to represent fairly the
certain children
and
their television viewing.
Citizen groups have been the active parties seeking to
reduce violent content on television; an especially promigroup, Action for Children's Television (ACT),
nent
evolved from a meeting of mothers
in
Boston
The
in 196S.
controversy continues in 1974, as do the presentations on cartoons and action programming.
television of violent
Citizen groups such as
drug companies
ACT
have also worked for changes
advertising over television. Several large
in child-oriented
in
1972 were induced through
ACT
pres-
sure to end their advertising of vitamins on children's television.
In
groups,
the
from
under severe pressure
1974,
citizens'
FCC,
Federal Trade Commission, and the
broadcasters imposed on themselves a limit to the number of minutes per hour in children's programs that would be given over to advertising, and banned on such programs the advertising of nonprescription drugs or vitamins.
Control over media content
is
many
an issue that has
doctrine's history has evolved
faces other than the few described here. Recently, for ex-
FCC rulings and a Communications Act of 1934. Based on a postulated
ample, there was great concern over intimidation that broadcasters claimed was explicit in the attacks by former
The
different viewpoints.
1959 amendment
through various the
was inconclusive, although it did between the aggressive behaviour of
mittee's report in 1972 find an association
affect television.
on control-of-content issues as they vision content
THE UNITED STATES
IN
to
"right of the public to be informed," the doctrine has
been applied to news, public
and dra-
religious,
affairs,
matic programming as well as to liquor advertisements (1945) and cigarette advertisements (1967). The broadcaster's obligation in the case of advertisements
to
1974 there
provide time for counteradvertisements. In
were several moves
was
to reduce the scope of the doctrine
:
a
U.S. Court of Appeals found that commercials suggesting air pollution
were
not subject to Fairness Doctrine constraints, and the
FCC
Chevron F-310 gasoline reduced
that
U,S, vice-president Spiro
Agnew and
other White
House
networks and
in the several
challenges of broadcast station licenses by
friends of the
spokesmen on the
television
Nixon administration. As long as political and social mores continue to evolve, and as long as the First Amendment is taken seriously
way
of
life,
in the
United States as a guarantor of a
the control-over-media-content issues will re-
main critical and never wholly resolved. Other Information Industries Issues. How the information services markets are structured, how individual
adopted a report that rejected as a precedent for future decisions its own prior ruling that cigarette commercials
personal privacy can be reconciled with the information
raised a fairness issue.
ally protected
Broadcasters tend to view the Fairness Doctrine as an
abridgment of their First Amendment protection; public, however, has benefited
from
it
because
it
the
has served
wedge to gain television time to counteract perceived programming. An additional benefit has been to curb excessively one-sided programming on the part of as a
biases in
some
licensees.
On
the other hand, the doctrine has also
needs of crucial social services, and
many important One
of these
is
also has
come under
effects of televised violence is
scrutiny
almost as
old as television itself, beginning in the early 19S0s,
and
issues that are not discussed in this essay.
mandated copyright law by the use Xerox copying machines, tape recorders, and cable television. As the U.S. Constitution recognized, creators of information must somehow be rewarded for their efforts so that creativity can be maintained.
ingly easy copying
electronic technology?
comic books. In 1969 a
set of 23
should be the
and sharing of information through
has roots in previous concerns over violence depicted in in
What
formula for providing such rewards in an era of increas-
motion pictures and
studies costing $1 million
But
enor-
the issue posed in the effective bypassing
of
on the attitudes and behaviour of children.
is
mous, and the huge information industries are inextricably bound up with the fate of the society as a whole. There are
of a constitutionally
its effects
economy
the information services sector of the
curbed forthright editorializing and controversial program-
for
the constitution-
questions to which this essay has given brief attention.
ming by broadcasters. Television programming Research on the
how
freedom of the press is being modified by media content raise critical
efforts of the public to control
A
was sponsored by the surgeon
second issue concerns society's priorities
On what
in allocating
kinds of prob-
general of the U.S. at the request of Sen. John Pastore
its
(Dem., R.I.)
lems should research and development funds be spent?
to explore further the general
hypothesis that
violence in the media sets examples for violence-prone
viewers
—
that
it
not only might trigger violent behaviours
but also would suggest the most effective ways of doing
harm.
An
advisory committee established to advise the
surgeon general on the results of the studies included rep-
information services dollars:
How
can the public influence the evolution of information
services
and the structuring of information markets
to re-
dress inadequacy or inequity in the distribution to citizens
of information resources? Resolution of quires at the outset the recognition of
all
such issues
common
re-
factors in
resentatives of broadcasters, the public, and the scientific
the private and public enterprises here discussed as infor-
community. Possibly because of
mation industries.
this
composition, the com-
CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS JANUARY Northern Ireland power
1
assumes
coalition
8
to 15 years'
energy
in the
worldwide
crisis
The Organization Carlos Arias Navarro, sworn in as the new premier of Spain on January 2, named his Cabinet and later pledged to allow
some
political
and
social liberalization in
the country. Arias replaced Luis Carrero Blanco, who was assassinated in December 1973 by members of the Basque separatist
group ETA.
of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) concluded a three-day meeting in Geneva with the announcement that there would be no change in the price of crude oil prior to April 1.
4
him to surrender hundreds of White House tapes and documents. In a letter for
committee chairman Sam J. Ervin, (Dcm., N.C.), Nixon stated: "To produce the material you now seek would unquestionably destroy any vestige of conto
Jr.
Presidential
of
communica-
thereby irreparably impairing the
functions of the Presidency."
constitutional
New
the
office
in
Washington
in
of
United Kingdom
The government extended
the state of emergency in the U.K. for a third month. Slowdowns by coal miners and railroad engineers and reduced oil supplies contributed to the crisis. .\s the country entered its second week of the three-day
workweek. Prime Minister Edward Heath announced the establishment of a Department of Energy. Heath also announced that since the three-day week was instituted on Dec. 31, 197.i, the country had saved about 1.5 million tons of coal and reduced electricity consumption by 21%.
U.S. Department of
Commerce
quarterly rise in inflation since 1951. The U.S. Department of Labor reported on January 8 that the wholesale price index had risen 18.2% in 1973. 1
o
Suez disengagement agreement signed Israel signed an agreement to separate their forces along the Suez Canal, ending the conflict that began on Oct. 6, 1973, when Egyptian forces attacked territory in the Sinai Peninsula occupied by Israel since the 1967 Arab-Israeli war. The accord was negotiated by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in a series of
Egypt and
meetings with Egyptian and Israeli officials. Syria, which had attacked Israeli-held positions in the Golan Heights at the same time Egypt moved in the Sinai, was not a party to the agreement.
Watergate defense attorney Britons face a winter of austerity reminiscent of the World War II years. In Christmas week storekeepers show determination to make the best of hardship caused by power cuts.
hired
James D. Nixon to
St. Clair
was hired by President
replace J. Fred Buzhardt, Jr., as special counsel to the president in charge of his Watergate defense. Buzhardt was
named White House counsel, a John W. Dean
post pre-
viously held by
III.
Attorney general vacancy
BycANDiE.po«:6*m,;;i5i.iP
filled j
William B. Saxbe was sworn
as U.S. attorney general. Saxbe, the fourth attorney general to serve in the Nixon administration, filled the vacancy that was created on Oct. 20, 1973, by the resignation of Elliot L. Richardson.
/
in
Japanese devaluation
The Bank
of
Japan suspended
its
inter-
vention in support of the yen on foreign exchange markets. A 6.77c de facto devaluation of the yen immediately followed
and the
mark
British
also
pound and West German
suffered
dollar rose sharply increased.
as the U.S. the price of gold
declines
and
%.«XS^THURSill*
re-
ported a slowdown in the growth of the gross national product during the last quarter of 1973, combined with the worst
February
State of emergency continues in the
Pres. Richard M. Nixon told the Senate committee investigating Watergate that he would not comply with subpoenas calling
tions,
meet
United States: Inflationary trend continues
The
to discuss energy problems.
United States: President Nixon comply with subpoenas
refuses to
fidentiality
17
In the U.S. the White House announced that President Nixon had invited the foreign ministers of major oil-consuming nations to
of experts reported to U.S. District
Court Judge John J. Sirica that an 18jminute gap on a tape of a conversation between President Nixon and former White House aide H. R. Haldeman, surrendered to the court by President Nixon in connection with the Watergate affair, had been caused by at least five separate erasures and rerecordings.
imprisonment.
Developments
new premier forms Cabinet
Spain's
tape gap
two emergency measures and decreed that anyone criticizing the constitution faced up
9
Watergate: Report on IS^-minute
A panel
In a
land. The move ended 21 months of direct rule by the British government. Brian Faulkner, Unionist Party leader, was
3
15
move designed to end growing opposition to the new constitution. South Korean Pres. Park Chung Hee proclaimed
executive governing body composed of 15 members of both the Protestant and Roman Catholic factions tool< office in the beleaguered province of Northern Ire-
An
chief of the executive body.
South Korean President Park cracks down on dissidents
1973
Chronology
FEBRUARY 19
23
Franc devalued
Sub-Saharan drought worsens
French Finance Minister Valery Giscard d'Estaing announced that France would allow the franc to float for sLx months. The announcement came a day after the meeting of the International Monetary Fund's Committee of 20 in Rome had
Addeke H. Boerma, director general of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), reported that the severe drought in sub-Saharan Africa had worsened. The nations most severely affected were Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, and Up-
ended in disagreement over how to deal with the monetary effects of the oil crisis. The decision by France had far-reaching effects and was contrary to the IMF's declaration that "countries must not adopt merely aggravate the policies which problems of other countries."
per Volta.
.
25
The second gress
session of the 93rd U.S.
convened
in
Con-
Food
Washington, D.C., fac-
persons were reported to have died in the state of Gujarat, India, since riots protesting food prices and shortages broke out on January 18. Maharashtra State experienced similar protests earlier in the month.
In a major policy speech to the Diet, Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka urged to
listen
to
criticism
riots in India
A number of
26
Japanese problems
Continuing warfare in Syria Syrians claimed to have inflicted heavy Israeli casualties in sporadic fighting in the Golan Heights. The U.S. and Egj-pt continued to put pressure on Syria to enter into negotiations with Israel. Since the 1967 Arab-IsraeU war the Israelis controlled the strategically located Golan Heights, which are inside Syrian territory. During the October 1973 war Israel pushed about 15 mi. farther, to within artillery range of the Syrian capital of Damascus.
formally began withdrawing along the Suez Canal. Details of the disengagement were drawn up the day before at a meeting of Israeli and Egyptian chiefs at Kilometre 101 on the Cairo-Suez road,
energy
countrymen
27
Suez Canal
56 Democrats, 43 Republicans, and 1 independent. The House of Representatives was composed of 243 Democrats and 189 Republicans, with three vacancies.
his
tle
Israeli forces
spiraling prices, shortages, unemployment, and possible impeachment of the president. The Senate consisted of
ing
following a bloody gun batbetween left-wing guerrillas and soldiers at an army tank garrison in Azul. rilla terrorists
.
.
urged strong action against guer-
earlier
Pullout of Israeli forces along the
U?uted Slates: 93rd Congress' convenes in Washington
21
19 bombing attacks against leftist leaders and organizations were reported in various Argentine cities. Pres. Juan Pcron had
30
Pres. Richard M. Nixon, in his state of the union address, urged an end to consideration of the Watergate affair and promised improvements in the economy and the energy crisis. He also outlined major programs in health care, welfare reform, and mass transit.
Koruturk approves coalition Cabinet in Turkey Turkish Pres. Fahri Koruturk formally approved the coalition Cabinet formed by Bulent Ecevit, leader of the Republican People's Party. The RPP and the National Salvation Party agreed to form the coalition government on January 15.
in
order to improve their mutual relationships with other countries of the world. The speech followed Tanaka's return from a Southeast Asian tour that had been marred by anti-Japanese demonstrations in Thailand and Indonesia. Domestically, Japan faced serious economic problems, including spiraling prices "fueled by the oil problem" and a high balance of payments
Cambodian
rebel attacks
Fighting continued between Khmer Rouge insurgents and Cambodian government forces, and Cambodian Pres. Lon Nol declared a six-month state of emergency. Close to 100 civilians had been reported killed since January 2i, when rebel attacks
Argentine terrorism continues after the Argentine Chamber of Deputies passed a strong antiterrorism bill,
One day
deficit.
United States: State of the union address
began on the capital of
Phnom Penh.
FEBRUARY fect for most retailers since August 1973, were lifted. Controls remained on food, motor vehicles and parts, and petroleum
"Cultural Revolution 11"
i
In a campaign aimed against the teachings of Confucius and the policies of the late defense minister Lin Piao, China launched what was seen as a new Cultural Revolution. In an article in the Communist Party newspaper, Jenmin Jih Pao, the campaign was described as a "war against feudalism, capitalism, and revisionism and a heavy blow to revisionism, imperialism, and reaction. It is a matter of first importance for the whole party, the whole army, and the whole nation," Apparently related to this ideological drive was the announcement in January of a military shake-up.
4
Record U.S. budget
products.
Hearst kidnapping Hearst, the 19-year-old granddaughter of the late newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst, was kidnapped from her Berkeley, Calif., apartment by a group connected with the radical-terrorist Patricia
same day wage and
price controls, in ef-
/
investigation ratified
By
presidential impeachment investigation and giving the committee broad subtee's
poena powers.
Arab
oil
boycott warning
U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger warned Arab countries that their continua-
oil to
the U.S., in
Grenada declares independence British
rule,
the
Caribbean island of Grenada became independent. Prime Minister Eric M. Gairy urged an end to antigovernment demonstrations. These were in protest against Gairy's one-man rule and an unemployment rate of more than 50%. Resulting incidents of violence had swept the island
United States: Impeachment
a vote of 410-4 the U.S. House of Representatives approved a resolution the House Judiciary Commit-
embargo on
After 200 years under
Symbionese Liberation Army. 3
ratifying
President Nixon submitted his proposed budget for fiscal 1975. Calling for $304.4 billion in expenditures, it was the first U.S. budget to surpass $.?00 billion. On February 1 in his annual economic report to Congress, Nixon indicated a "highly uncertain" outlook for the economy. On the
tion of the
October 1973 Middle East war, "must be construed as a form of blackmail." The statement was made by Kissinger as U.S. efforts toward negotiating a peace in the Middle East continued. effect since the
since
8
November
1973.
United States: Skylab splashes
down Skylab mission
4,
the last scheduled U.S. Skylab the U.S. -Soviet joint en-
until
deavour planned for July 1975, splashed down in the Pacific Ocean. The three astronauts aboard the orbiting scientific craft
Chronology
FEBRUARY every needy person in the state of California, a demand that Hearst said he was unable to meet.
23
conference of Western Hemisphere for-
eign ministers adjourned in Mexico City and issued the "Declaration of Tlatelolco," calling for future conferences but contain-
ing few concrete decisions. The three-day conference was attended by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and foreign ministers from 24 La tin -American and Caribbean nations.
Islamic nations meet at Lahore
\
«^-rf fli-jg
5S-mph speed
three-day meeting of more than 30 Islamic heads of state and government at Lahore, Pak., ended with the issuance of the "Declaration of Lahore," establishing a committee to study ways of assisting less developed Muslim nations hit by high oil prices, while rejecting specific aid measures. The nations also recognized the Palestine Liberation Organization as sole representative of the Palestinians and repeated demands that the Old City of Jerusalem be returned to Arab control. On the first day of the meeting Pakistan officially recognized the nation of Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan), which had broken away
in
from Pakistani control
litiiir
!
I
igyqi
The Skylab space station in earth orbit, photographed by the Skylab 4 astronauts from the command module. The left-side solar shield was lost when the space station was launched in May 1973. 1 hour 16 minutes Three days earlier an unmanned probe of the planet Venus by Mariner 10
limit, which went into effect January as a fuel-saving measure; reduced fuel supplies; and higher fuel costs. On February 7, after an eight-day strike,
spent a record 84 days in space.
had relayed data that indicated Venus was
the truckers' representatives accepted the administration's proposal, which included a surcharge on freight rates.
not closely related to the earth.
10
1
Latin-American conference
A
27
6%
Coal miners strike in the United
1
3
earlier
1
Soviet Union deported dissident novelist Alcksandr Solzhenitsyn and issued a decree stripping him of his citizenship. Solzhenitsyn 's family would remain in the U.S.S.R. until he decided on a permanent residence. This was the first forced Soviet expulsion of a major political dissident since 1929,
than required.
Southeast Asian conflicts continue
insurgents and Cambodian government forces. In South Vietnam the
Saigon government claimed to have killed 118 Communists in clashes southwest of the city of Pleiku. The exchange of prisoners of war between South \"ietnam and
a U.S. proposal for cooperation in dealing with the energy crisis. The agreement came despite French Foreign Minister Michel Jobert's vociferous opposition to several key points in the program.
the Viet Cong resumed February 8 after a seven-month suspension.
Independent truckers returned to work after accepting an agreement negotiated with the help of Pennsylvania Gov. Milton J. Shapp. A number of violent incidents involving truckers occurred on highways in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. The truckers were protesting the
19
list
receipt of the conditions for holding dis-
talks with Syria.
Canadian Parliament opens
Newly appointed Gov. -Gen.
Jules L^ger opened the second session of the 29th Canadian Parliament in Ottawa with a speech in which the government called for a record %22 billion spending program.
Stalin exiled his
issued following a three-
POW
announced that
fulfilled its
engagement
Leon Trotsky.
day meeting of 13 major oil-consuming nations (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, West Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, and the U.S.) endorsed
later
rael list
Washington energy conference
A communique
Khmer Rouge
strike
when Joseph
erstwhile colleague
Nearly 200 civilians were reported killed at Phnom Penh, Cambodia, in one of the worst rebel shellings in the conflict between
United States: Independent truckers end violence-marked
U.S.S.R. deports Solzhenitsyn
The
Union of Mincworkers (NUM) after a vote by the miners, had caused Heath to dissolve Parliament and call for a general election to be held February 28, 16 months
Syria releases Israeli
U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger delivered a list of Israeli POWs held by Syria to Israeli Prime Minister Golda Meir in Jerusalem. Kissinger had obtained the list from Syrian Pres. Hafez al-Assad. Is-
Kingdom After rejecting a 16.5% pay raise offered by Prime Minister Edward Heath, British coal miners began a full-scale strike, demanding 30-40% pay increases. The scheduling of the strike, ordered by the National
in 1971.
28
U.S. and relations
Egypt resume diplomatic
During a visit to Cairo by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger it was announced that the U.S. and Egypt were resuming diplomatic relations. The Egypgovernment reported on February 7 it had begun clearing the Suez Canal sunken ships and mines and shells in
full-scale
tian
that of
Utiited States: Hearst
for reopening of the canal, closed since 1967. Israeli troops completed their withdrawal from the western bank
giveaway plan
of the canal on February
Randolph Hearst announced a plan away $2 million worth of food
give
release of his daughter, Patricia,
to for
kidnapped
by members of the SymThe kidnappers had issued a mandate on February 12 for Hearst to provide $70 worth of food for on February
4
bionese Liberation Army.
preparation
2L
U.K. general elections parties both Parliament in
The Labour and Conservative failed to gain a majority in
Final results gave Labour 301 seats, Conservatives 296, Liberals 14, and others 24. British
elections.
Chronology
MARCH
MARCH coincided with increased unrest among the Iraqi Kurds, who rejected a plan put forward by the Iraqi government that would
Ethiopian ambassador to the UN, Endalkachew Makonnen, was appointed by Se-
United States: Watergate indiclmcnts
1
head a new Cabinet.
lassie to
give
Seven former White House and Nixon campaign officials were indicted, on charges
New
1
including conspiracy, obstruction of justice, and making false statements to investigators, by the grand jury investigating the Watergate affair. The seven included former attorney general John N. Mitchell and former White House advisers John Ehr-
Burma
as
of
British government ended the state emergency that was declared in Novem-
because of fuel shortiges. On the National Union of Mineworkers and the National Coal Board agreed on a settlement of the nationwide miners' strike that would give the miners a 30% overall increase in wages. On March 7 Energy Secretary Eric Varley canceled the three-day workweek.
ber
offers cooperation with the
After gaining approval of EEC foreign ministers meeting in Brussels, an offer was made by the EEC to explore the possibilities of long-range economic cooperation
with 20 Arab countries.
United Kingdom: Labour government takes over Harold Wilson, leader of the Labour Party, was appointed as the new British prime minister. Conservative Party leader Edward Heath had resigned as prime minister after failing to win the Liberals' support for a coalition government. Heath sought to form the coalition after his party failed to win a parliamentary majority in the February 28 elections.
5
Ethiopian unrest response to nationwide unrest that started with rioting in the capital, Addis
In
Ababa, and an army mutiny in Asmara on February 26, Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie agreed to call a constitutional con-
vention in an attempt to quiet the disturbances. On February 28 the former
1973
March
1
4
6
Kurds Kurdish
seize Iraqi land rebels, led
by Gen. Mustafa
al-
Barzani, seized a large area on the Iraqi border with Turkey after several days of fighting
between
the
Kurds
and
Iraqi
troops. Iran filed a complaint on March Security Council concerning with the alleged Iraqi attacks on the Iranian border. 6
Arabs
Latin-American leaders
forces seized
power
in Brazil in 1964.
On
affairs
The
United States: Military expenditure defended
EEC
New
oil interests.
United Kingdom: Domestic
1 1
republic
In a report to Congress defending the fiscal 1975 defense budget, U.S. Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger warned that the vigilance military U.S. must increase against the Soviet Union because "detente is not the only, and in certain circumstances not the primary, policy interest of the U.S.S.R."
The Kurds
March 12 Carlos Andres Perez, in his inaugural address as president of Venezuela, promised that he would seek a national consensus for nationalization of U.S.
public criticism of the role he allegedly played in the October 1973 war.
with one-party rule. The country had been ruled by a miUtary coalition since 1962.
4
status.
Ernesto Geisel was sworn in as the president of Brazil. Geisel was the fourth military man to hold the office since the armed
on March 6 after a nine-week government crisis and threats by Dayan that he would resign in response to severe
dissolved
established
15
coalition
In accordance with the provisions of the country's new constitution effective in January, Burmese Prime Minister Ne Win dissolved the ruling Revolutionary Council and turned its powers over to the new People's Assembly. The new constitution
them autonomous
were alleged to have received arms and from Iran.
assistance
in
22-member coalition Cabinet, including Moshe Dayan as defense minister, were sworn in as the government of Israel. Meir announced the formation of the majority
Burma: Revolutionary Council
a socialist
government sworn
Prime Minister Golda Meir and her new
lichman and H. R. Haldeman.
2
Israeli
The
UN
fighting, which had reportedly been going on sporadically since December 1973,
1
8
U.S. oil
embargo
lifted
of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries in Vienna, seven oil-producing nations agreed to Uft the embargo on oil shipments to the U.S. Syria and Libya planned to continue the embargo, and Iraq did not attend the meeting. The embargo, imposed in October 1973, remained in effect against Denmark and The Netherlands because, according to Saudi Arabian oil minister Ahmad Zaki al-Yamani, they "have not made clear their position on asking for a full (Israeli) withdrawal from occupied territories."
At a meeting
South Vietnamese fighting worsens The South Vietnamese government announced that over 400 North Vietnamese and close to 100 government soldiers had been killed in the Central Highlands of
Kurdish artillery in action along the Iraqi-Turkish border during fighting between Kurdish rebels and Iraqi troops.
Chronology
APRIL
South Vietnam in the worst fighting since the signing of the cease-fire agreement in January 1973.
9
Food
21
arguments over Cyprus and the Aegean Sea.
United States: Watergate grand jury report ruling upheld by Court oj Appeals
riots in India
Ceausescu
of Appeals upheld U.S. Court Judge John J. Sirica's ruling that the secret grand jury report on Nixon's possible role in the Watergate af-
The U.S. Court
Twenty-two persons were reported
to
have
lowed the March 15 decision by Prime Indira Gandhi to dissolve the assembly in Gujarat because of mounting unrest there.
Romanian
rights in
president
Romanian Communist Party leader Nicolae Ceausescu was elected to the newly
District
been killed in Bihar State, India, in several days of rioting over rising food prices and political corruption. The Bihari riots fol-
is
oil
created post of president of Romania. Ion Gheorghe Maurer resigned as premier two days earlier and was replaced by Deputy
should be turned over to the House of Representatives for purposes of its imfair
Premier
peachment inquiry.
Manea Manescu.
Minister state
EEC-U.S.
28
Kissinger talks with leaders in
29
Indirect negotiations on IsraeliSyrian conflict begin
Moscow U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger returned to Washington after three days of talks with Soviet leaders in Moscow. A general communique issued jointly by the U.S. and Moscow indicated that no substantive progress toward breaking the
relations
President Nixon, in a speech to the National Association of Broadcasters meeting in Houston, Tex., softened his remarks made four days earlier at a qucstion-andanswer session before business executives in Chicago, at which time he accused the EEC and Europe of adhering to a policy of "confrontation and even hostility" with the U.S. Relations between the U.S. and the EEC had been strained earlier in the month when the EEC announced its intention to cooperate with 20 .^rab countries. The U.S. State Department protested that the EEC had not consulted with the U.S. before making its Arab cooperation offer.
deadlock
Geneva
in the
tation talks
(SALT
troop disengagement were submitted by Defense Minister Moshe Israeli proposals for
to U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in Washington. This began the first round of indirect negotiations on the
Dayan
Israeli-Syrian conflict.
arms limiand other matters
strategic
II)
Solzhenitsyn reunited with family
had been made.
Exiled Soviet novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn was reunited with his family in Ziirich, Switz. Natalya Solzhenitsyn left Moscow with their four sons and her mother to reside in Switzerland, where Solzhenitsyn was expected to apply for political asylum.
Greek-Turkish relations worsen bombers made unauthorized Greek airspace during a N.\TO naval exercise, causing Greece to withdraw from the exercise. Relations between the two countries were already strained by
Turkish
sorties into
APRIL 1
U.K. seeks renegotiation of terms At a meeting Luxembourg,
of
EEC
income and claimed six categories of unwarranted deductions.
EEC
foreign ministers in
5
U.K. Foreign Secretary James Callaghan warned that Britain wanted major revisions to be made in the
in
promises, ostensibly to better Britain's economic position in the Community. Callaghan stated that it was possible that the question of U.K.
EEC
withdrawal from the to a popular vote.
2
might be put
French President Pompidou dies
in
8
Pompidou,
Gen.
Charles
game
judicial
became interim president
until elec-
y
President Nixon agrees to pay delinquent taxes Reports issued separately by the Interna!
Revenue Service and the Congressional Joint Committee on Internal Revenue Taxation indicated that President Nixon
owed over $400,000
in
back taxes for the
period of his first term in agreed to pay $432,787.13
office.
Nixon
plus interest congressional committee's findings indicated that he had failed to report five categories of taxable their
issuance.
The
in
Aaron betters Ruth
of the Atlanta Braves, in a Atlanta, Ga.. against the Los
1 1
to repatriate Bengalis in Pakistan.
placing
a the
United States: House committee subpoenas tapes After rejecting a White House compromise House Judiciary Committee, by a vote of 33-3, issued a subpoena ordering President Nixon to turn over tapes and other presidential materials relating to 42 White House conversations. It was reportedly the first subpoena ever served on a president by a House committee. The deadline for compliance was set at April 25.
India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh signed an agreement in New Delhi, the first indication of an opening of relations and easing
more non-Bengalis from Bangladesh and
was prompted by report
for Israel's military
offer, the
Indian subcontinent accord signed in New Delhi
of tensions among the three nations since the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. The agreement provided for release of 195 Pakistani soldiers to be tried for war crimes by Bangladesh, and Pakistan agreed to accept
commission
unpreparedness at the beginning of the October 1973 war on the top military command. The socalled Arganat Report cleared Defense Minister Moshe Dayan of responsibility for the bungling but caused deep division in Mrs. Meir's Labour Party.
blame
Angeles Dodgers, hit his 715th career home run, surpassing Babe Ruth's total of 714. Aaron's total at the conclusion of the 1974 season was 733.
tions could be held.
after
Baseball's
Hank Aaron
de
Gaulle's successor to the French presidency
3
coalition government,
home run record
after de Gaulle's resignation in 1969, died in Paris. Alain Poher, president of the Senate,
elections were held. Mrs. Mt-ir's resignation, which brought down the month-old
tional Political Council.
Paris
Georges
formed
Laos
coalition government (the third since 1957) composed of neutralist, rightist, and pro-Communist Pathet Lao was formed in Laos. Prince Souvanna Phouma continued as premier, and Pathet Lao leader Prince Souphanouvong, after 11 years in exile, became head of an advisory body, the Na-
elt-ction
to resign
Golda Meir announced her "irrevocable" decision to resign as prime minister of Israel, a post she had held since 1969. She agreed to stay on in a caretaker capacity until a new government was formed or
A
terms under which it joined the EEC in January 1973. This position was one of the
Labour Party's
Coalition government
Golda Meir
1
1
2
Qiryat
Shemona and
retaliation
Israeli troops raided six villages in
Lebanon
in retaliation for the April 11 attack by 3 Palestinian guerrillas on Qiryat Shemona, Israel, near the Lebanese border, in which 18 persons were killed.
Chronology
MAY Egypt no longer
1
national elections, a virtual Vorster's apartheid policies.
relies exclusively 07i
Soviet aid After 18 years of exclusive Egyptian reliance on Soviet military materiel, Pres. Anwar as-Sadat announced that Egypt would begin to seek other sources of arms. Egyptian requests to the U.S.S.R. for supplies had not been acted upon by that country for six
19
25
Portuguese coup
A seven-man
junta led by Gen. Antonio power in Portugal army officers seized control of the government in a virtually bloodless coup. Pres. Americo Tomas and Premier
de Spinola assumed after dissident
months.
Marcello Caetano were deposed in the overthrow. The junta promised to put the country back on its feet, after the demoral-
Israeli-Syrian air battle Syria and Israel fought their first air battle over the Golan Heights since the October 1973 war. Artillery engagements continued on the Golan Heights-Mt. Hermon front, in the wake of Kissinger's receipt of troop disengagement proposals from
izing efforts of the old government to preserve control over the overseas territories of Angola, Mozambique, and Portuguese
Guinea (Guinea-Bissau).
2o
Federal jury acquits Mitchell and Stans
both countries.
Z1
Colombia
In Colombia's tion in
After 26 hours of deliberation spread over four days, a federal district court jury in New York City acquitted former attorney general John N. Mitchell and former commerce secretary Maurice Stans of all
elects president first
free
presidential elec-
more than two decades, the people Lopez Michelsen, candidate
charges related to a secret Nixon campaign contribution by financier Robert Vesco.
elected Alfonso
of the Liberal Party, with about
55%
of
the votes.
ZZ
Israeli
in April.
net.
13
Rabin had served
as chief of staff dur-
was ambassador
Nixon
to release trajiscripts
President Nixon, in a nationwide television address, stated that he planned to release 1,308 pages of edited tape transcripts of Watergate-related White House conversations to the House Judiciary Committee.
government
ing the June 1967 war and to the U.S. (1968-73).
Syria submits troop disengagemetit plan Syrian military intelligence chief Brig. Gen. Khalil al-Shihabi submitted his country's plan for troop disengagement with Israel on the Golan Heights in a meeting with U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger in Washington.
new
The Central Committee of Israel's ruling Labour Party, by a vote of 298-254, elected Yitzhak Rabin to form a new Cabi-
Joyous crowds in Lisbon following the overthrow of the Portuguese government by a military junta
29
Yitzhak Rabin chosen to form
30
United States: President's authority impose controls ends
to
The Economic
24
Stabilization Act of 1970, which gave the president authority to impose mandatory wage and price controls, expired. Only prices in the petroleum industry remained controlled under authority of the 1973 Emergency Petroleum
Vorster's party gains in South African elections
Hikmat
The
Nationalist Party of South African Prime Minister B. J. Vorster increased its parliamentary majority by four seats in
Allocation Act.
MAY with the Guillaume spy affair," in which Giinter Guillaume, an aide to the chancellor, was discovered to be an East tion
United States: Watergate transcripts published
1
tions.
most of
into
its
morning
The Government Printing
planned to
sell
to the
Canadian government dissolved
Democrats
(the principal coalition partner of Brandt's Social Democrats), to head a caretaker government until a new chancellor was chosen.
After being defeated on a vote of no confidence in the House of Commons on May Liberal government of 8, the minority Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau
edi-
Office
copies of the transcripts,
numerous paperback distributors. Judiciary Committee voted to notify President Nixon that his release
as did
o
was
Rail strike in hidia
July
The House
shorter working hours.
The
for
"negligence in connec-
Canada's
strike threat-
United States: Formal impeachment hearings open
responsibility
and elections were
set
for
The vote centred on Parliament's
of the government's budget, which was said to deal ineffectively with
1
9
West German Chancellor Willy Brandt submitted his resignation to Pres. Gustav Heinemann. In resigning Brandt took full
8.
rising inflation.
ened to cripple India, which relies heavily on railways for production and trade.
West German Chancellor Brandt resigns
dissolved,
rejection
Indian railway workers began a nationwide strike, demanding higher wages and
of the transcripts instead of the actual tapes did not constitute compliance with the committee's subpoena.
6
House impeach President Nixon. The session summarized events leading Watergate burglary of June 1972.
initial
German spy. Heinemann was asked to name Walter Scheel, leader of the Free
U.S. newspapers began publishing installments or excerpts of the White Houseedited Watergate tape transcripts released on April 30 by President Nixon. The Chicago Tribune managed to get the entire
document
full
The House Judiciary Committee opened the formal hearings at which it would decide whether or not to recommend that the
3
Italians support divorce law
In a two-day referendum Italian voters overwhelmingly supported retention of the three-year-old law permitting divorce. The vote was considered a blow to the ruling Christian Democrat Party, which wanted the law repealed.
Chronology
MAY Millions of children face malnutrition
Henry R. Labouisse, executive
director of told a UNICEF board meeting that at least 400 million children in less developed countries face severe malnutrition, even starvation, and recommended that the board declare an emergency situation.
UNICEF,
14
101st archbishop of Canterbury
named The archbishop of York, the Most Rev. Donald Coggan, was named to be the 101st archbishop of Canterbury by Queen Elizabeth II. Coggan was to succeed the Most Rev. Michael Ramsey, retiring at the age of 70, as titular head of the worldwide
Anglican Communion.
15
President Nixon after his April television address announcing release to the House Judiciary Committee of edited White House tape transcripts, shown at right.
Splnola assumes Portuguese presidency
rubble after the shoot-out, she was presumed to be alive, and the FBI subsequently issued a warrant for her arrest.
Gen. Antonio de Splnola became provisional president of Portugal and announced the formation of a Cabinet, with Adeline
da Palma Carlos as premier; Mario Soares, a socialist who had been exiled under the old military regime, became foreign minister. Meanwhile, guerrilla leaders in the Portuguese African territories of Angola, Portuguese Guinea (Guinea-Bissau), and Mozambique continued their fight for independence from Portugal.
20 Israeli children die massacre
in
Ma'alot
Three Palestinian guerrillas, after crossing the border from Lebanon, entered the village of Ma'alot, Israel, and took 90 schoolchildren hostage, demanding the release of 20 guerrillas who were being held prisoner in Israel. The Israeli government agreed to concede to the guerrillas' demands but, after a mixup regarding the dcadUne for release of the prisoners, Israeli troops stormed the school and the ensuing battle left 20 children and the S guerrillas dead.
1
6
Ma'alot reprisals continue
Reprisal raids for the
May
Ma'alot were continued by 1
8
In an underground test in the Rajasthan Desert, India exploded its first nuclear denuclear vice, thus becoming the sixth
power
after
the
U.S.,
the
USSR.,
Antiguerrilla operations in
Argentina Argentine federal police began mass arrests in Tucuman Province in a drive against the left-wing People's Revolutionary Party (ERP). Left-wingers in the country had been restless since Pres. Juan Peron's May address, which prompted fighting between right- and left-wing Peronistas in the streets of Buenos .\ircs.
22
United States: Nixon refuses to release additional tapes In a letter to House Judiciary Committee Chairman Peter W. Rodino, Jr. (Dem., N.J.), President Nixon stated that he would not comply with two subpoenas issued by the committee on May 15 for additional tapes and documents related to the Watergate affair and that further subpoenas would be rejected also. On May 21 Rodino issued a statement in which he indicated that President Nixon had learned the Watergate cover-up earlier than 21, 1973, as he had previously admitted, and that this had been edited out of the transcripts released April 30.
of
March
remove Israeli children from a Ma'alot school after the May 15 gun battle belvieen Palestinian guerrillas and Israeli troops, which resulted in the deaths of many children.
Israeli soldiers rush to
West German chancellor sworn Helmut Schmidt,
in
finance minister in the
outgoing Cabinet of Willy Brandt, was sworn in as the chancellor of West Germany. On May 15 the presidential electoral college elected Walter Scheel to succeed retiring Pres. Gustav Heinemann.
Shoot-out between the Symbionese Liberation Army and Los Angeles police
members of the Symbionese Liberation Army, who had kidnapped and claimed to
Six
have converted
to their cause publishing Patricia Hearst, were killed in a shoot-out with police in Los .\ngeles. Since Miss Hearst was not found in the charred
heiress
on
the
U.K., France, and China. In an announcement by the Indian government calling it '*a peaceful nuclear explosion experiment," it also was stated that India had "no intention of producing nuclear weapons."
Day
15 attack on Israeli jets
Palestinian targets in Lebanon. Jerusalem and most of northern Israel were placed on security alert after reports that a group of Palestinian guerrillas had infiltrated across the Lebanese border.
India explodes nuclear device
Ma'alot retaliation by Israel In the heaviest raids ever carried out by Israeli jets against Lebanon, close to 50 persons were reported killed and over 1 70 wounded in reprisal for the guerrilla raid on the Israeh village of Ma'alot on May 15.
17
2 1 —22
Chronology
JUNE
27
The Senate consisted of 29 seats each for the Labor and Liberal-Country parties, with the balance of power held by one member of the Liberal Movement and an
Executive coalition in Northern
Valdry Giscard d'Estaing new French
Ireland jails after five-month rule
president
Northern Ireland's Executive coalition of
Valery Giscard d'Estaing was sworn in as president of France, after narrowly defeating leftist candidate Franqois Mitterrand in a runoff election May 19. Giscard d'Estaing, finance minister under Georges Pompidou, named Jacques Chirac premier.
2o
and Roman Catholics coland the chief of the body, Brian The demise was resigned. brought about by a general strike of the
independent.
Protestants lapsed,
Faulkner,
3
1
Ulster Workers' Council, a group of Protestant extremists, which had crippled the economy and gained wide public support.
Israel
ment
did not have the crippling effect that the union leaders had anticipated. The walkout was quashed when the government began mass arrests of railway union lead-
and workers.
ers
Yitzhak Rabin forms Israeli Cabinet Yitzhak Rabin, prime minister-designate of Israel, announced the formation of a new Cabinet to replace the caretaker government of Golda Meir. The new Cabinet
29
Ulster Workers' Council ends strike in
Supreme Court
government in London immediately imposed a form of direct rule on the province.
government.
for the Liberal-Country
to consider tape case
Supreme Court granted special Watergate prosecutor Leon Jaworski's plea for prompt consideration of Nixon's refusal
The
U.S.
on the grounds of executive privilege to
Labor government of Whitlam retains narrow majority in Australia
Rights List. Notably absent were Moshe Dayan, Abba Eban, and Pinhas Sapir, who had been ranking members in Mrs. Meir's
consisted of members of the Labour Party, the Independent Liberals, and the Civil
intensive negotiation by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger. It was the first such agreement between the two countries since the armistice of 1948.
Northern Ireland
After achieving one of its main objectives, the overthrow of the provincial Executive coalition, the Ulster Workers' Council called off the general strike in Northern Ireland that began May IS. The British
Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam formally claimed victory for his Labor Party in the May 18 elections. Final results indicated that Labor obtained 66 seats in the House of Representatives, against 61
and Syria formally signed an agreeGeneva to disengage their forces
in
on the Golan Heights. Agreement was reached May 29 after over a month of
Rail strike ends in India
Union officials ended the 20-day rail strike that had disrupted major Indian cities but
and Syria sign disengagement agreement
Israel
turn over 64 White House tapes. On May 20, U.S. District Court Judge John J. Sirica ordered Nixon to comply with Jaworski's subpoena for the tapes, which felt were essential to the trial of seven former Nixon aides accused in the Watergate cover-up. The seven men were indicted on March 1.
Jaworski
Party coalition.
JUNE accused
3
United States: Colson pleads guilty Charles W. Colson, formerly one of President Nixon's closest aides, pleaded guilty to a charge that he obstructed justice in the trial of Daniel Ellsberg, which was thrown out of court in 1973 because of
government
interference.
(Ellsberg
had
been indicted for unauthorized possession of the Pentagon papers in June 1971.) In return for Colson's guilty plea, all other pending charges against him were dropped, and he agreed to testify in other Watergate-related cases. Israeli coalitio?i wins parliamentary
approval
The Israeli Knesset approved Yitzhak Rabin as prime minister by a vote of 61-51 with 5 abstentions.
4
The U.K. eases
EEC
deina?ids
At a meeting of EEC foreign ministers in Luxembourg, British Foreign Secretary James Catlaghan presented his country's
demands its
for renegotiation of the terms of
EEC
membership. The U.K.'s tone on was more conciliatory than April threat to withdraw from the
this occasion its
Community
if
renegotiation failed.
Uganda's Amin accused of creating "reign of terror"
The Geneva-based
International Commission of Jurists, after a three-year study,
Ugandan
Pres. Idi
Amin
pursue their March offer of economic, technical, and cultural cooperation with 20 Arab nations. Progress on the matter had been delayed because of U.S. objections.
of creat-
ing a "reign of terror." The group concluded that Uganda had experienced a "total breakdown in the rule of law."
lU EEC
mi?iisters to cooperate with
1 1
Kissinger resignation threat
Arabs Accompanying President Nixon on At a meeting
in
Bonn, W.Ger., the nine
foreign ministers of the
EEC
agreed to
to the
his trip
Middle East, U.S. Secretary of State
Henry Kissinger held an emotional news
Chinese posters on a wall near Peking's city hall. Left-wing militants charged, among other things, "a serious recurrence of right-wing deviation among the leaders.'
Chronology
JUNE included stops in
conference in Salzburg, Aus., in which he threatened to resign unless his name was cleared of charges that he had participated in illegal wiretaps undertaken by the White House in 1971. The charges, made by unidentified congressional sources, alleged that be had played a more important part in federal wiretapping than he had indicated during the 1973 Senate hearing on his confirmation as secretary of state.
12
technology for peaceful purposes. In Syria, Pres. Hafez al-.\ssad announced resumption of diplomatic relations, and in Jerusalem promises of military and economic aid as well as nuclear technology were made to Israel.
Nixon and
Argentine President Perdn agrees to remain in office
20
Argentine Pres. Juan Pcr6n withdrew his threat to resign after thousands of Peronistas gathered outside Government House to remonstrate with him. The resignation threat had been made in the wake of rising
A number
and crippling strikes, Pcron sought full public support for his economic policies.
IMF's Committee oj 20 meets
President Nixon's Watergate tapes were significantly different from the edited transcripts made public by the White House. The committee's versions suggest that Nixon knew of some elements of the Watergate scandal before the meeting with John W. Dean III on March 21, 1973.
in
Washington, D.C.
The International Monetary Fund's Committee of 20 ended its sixth and final meeting with the adoption of interim rules for dealing with international monetar>' affairs. Final agreement on a permanent solution to the international monetary crisis had eluded the committee since its meetings began in September 1972. .attempts to reach a solution were abandoned in January after soaring world inflation and quadrupled oil prices were added to existing trade and balance of payments
Italian Cabinet
in
Big Ben screened by smoke from a fire following an IRA bomb explosion at the Houses of Parliament, London.
15
government
United States: Supreme Court to consider "unindicted co-conspirator" question
Third opens
Smallpox epidemic
23
hits India
Independence talks collapse Guinea
7
Houses of Parliament bombed The Houses of Parliament in London were damaged by a bomb explosion that injured 11 persons. London police blamed
in
the incident on the militant Provisional wing of the Irish Republican .\rmy which
Talks between Portugal and the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and
opposed,
Cape Verde (PAIGC)
presum-
ish
ably in response to a speech delivered June 11 by Portuguese Pres. .\nt6nio dc Spinola. In the speech, which reportedlv angered the PAIGC, Spinola offered to let the African territories of Angola, Portuguese Guinea (Guinea-Bissau), and Mozambique decide their own future once "a climate of freedom" and democratic institutions had been established there.
the
collapsed,
among
other things, the presence
of British troops in
Northern Ireland. Brit-
Prime Minister Harold Wilson told House of Commons June 4 that with-
drawal of British troops from Northern Ireland offered "no easy solution" to the Ulster problem.
9
Nixon concludes Middle East tour U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon returned to Washington after a one-week tour that
Conference
UN
Israeli pullout
25
from Syria
Israel files complaint against
Lebanon As antagonism between the Palestinians and Israelis continued, Israel filed a complaint with the
ing that
UN Security
Council charg-
Lebanon should be held responJune 24 guerrilla attack on
sible for the
Nahariya, Israel, because it continued to permit terrorist groups to operate freely from Lebanese territory. The latest terrorattack, and Israel's damaging air attacks on Lebanon June 18-20, in retaliation for the June 13 Palestinian raid on Kibbutz Shamir, brought threats and counterthreats from both sides. ist
1
UN Law of the Sea
completed their withdrawal from Syrian territory occupied during the October 1973 war. The exchange of prisoners of war between the two countries began June 1, and the first 500 members of the 1,250-man UN Disengagement Observer Force arrived in Qunaytirah, Syria, on June 5.
been manually produced. 1
differences.
Israeli troops
Between 10,000 and 30,000 persons were reported to have died in India, primarily in Bihar State, in one of the worst smallpox epidemics in recent history.
their
the oceans.
the final report of the panel of electronic experts appointed by the court, submitted to U.S. District Court Judge John J. Sirica on June 4, indicated that the 18j-minute gap on one of the Watergate tapes had
local ofiicials.
4
U.S. Supreme Court agreed to broaden consideration of the White House tapes
matter and include the question of whether the Watergate grand jury had the right to name President Nixon as an unindicted coconspirator in the Watergate cover-up. The White House on June 5 acknowledged that the grand jury had voted in February to name Ni.xon as an unindicted co-conspirator. In other Watergate developments,
settle
third Conference on the Law of the Sea opened in Caracas, Venezuela, with over S.OOO delegates and observers from 148 nations attending. The ten-week session was to be devoted to drafting an international treaty to govern man's use of
The
The its
to
These principally involved methods of dealiAg with Italy's serious economic crisis.
Peking
Posters denouncing the Municipal Revolutionary Committee, Peking's equivalent of a city council, were put up outside committee offices by private citizens. The posters appeared to be a radical counterattack against reported suppression by conservative ofiicials. They accorded with a directive that was issued on May 18 by the Chinese Communist Party's Central Committee authorizing people to criticize
1
resumes operation
Premier Mariano Rumor informed Pres. Giovanni Leone that his Cabinet was functioning again. Leone refused to accept Rumor's resignation, tendered on June 10, and ordered the members of the coalition Italian
problems.
China : Poster war
House Judiciary Committee
of
memoranda were released indicating that the committee's versions of some of
staff
as
3
Watergate: House committee reveals transcript discrepancies
inflation, shortages,
1
Egypt, Saudi Arabia,
and Jordan. In Cairo, Nixon and Egyptian Pres. -\nwar as-Sadat signed an agreement of friendship and cooperation with a provision under which the U.S. would provide Egypt with nuclear Syria, Israel,
Chronology
JULY
26
Bank
collapse in
NATO
West Germany
Because of heavy exchange trading, the West German Bankhaus I.D. Herstatt KG, one of the coun-
bank
first
27
NATO
countries, of state of 15 in Brussels, signed a 14-point declaration of principles on Atlantic relations. It included a pledge to improve communication and consultation on matters of common interest. The declaration was agreed upon by the countries' foreign
The heads
Nixon arrives summit talks
to so col-
major institution in the world to encounter trouble since the major currencies were allowed to float
ministers in
Ottawa on June
in
U.S. Pres. Richard
meeting
try's largest private banks, was ordered
liquidated. It was the lapse and the fourth
countries sign declaration
in Brussels
losses incurred in foreign
Moscow
for
M. Nixon
arrived in
for his third summit meeting with Communist Party leader Leonid I. The two leaders pledged Brezhnev.
Moscow
Soviet
a "strengthening of universal peace" and expressed hope that significant progress could be made by the two powers in the
19.
control of nuclear weapons.
early in 1973.
JULY Israelis retaliate for
Argentina's Peron dies
1
Argentine Pres. Juan Peron died in Buenos Aires and was succeeded by his wife and vice-president, Isabel. Mrs. Peron, who had taken over the duties of the presidency
on June
was
29,
the first
woman
Soviet
TV
satellite
chief of
commandos
in retaliation for the
Palestinian
attack
network censors U.S.
Trudeou regains majority Canadian elections
broadcasts
from Moscow by corre-
Satellite reports
The Liberal Party
spondents of three major U.S. TV networks were cut off when the reporters at-
tempted sidents,
Sakharov that began June
29. The correspondents were in cover President Nixon's visit.
3
Ntxo7i returns
Moscow
to
the U.S. following his visit to Moscow addressed the nation from Limestone,
Prime
1
5
Representatives of 11 major central banks, from the U.S., Canada, Japan, and eight Western European nations, agreed in principle to assist financially troubled banks in
The agreement stemmed from concern over the collapse of the Herstatt bank in West Germany and their respective countries.
fensive weapons.
West Germany champion West Germany won
is
reports that other banks were in trouble as the result of losses incurred in foreign exchange trading.
world soccer
a 2-1 victory over
9
The
in the World Cup soccer final Olympic Stadium in Munich. The West Germans would hold the world title at
U.S. House committee releases transcripts
Netherlands
when
The House Judiciary Committee produced its
the next competition
own
lated
in Argentina.
United States of America Richard M. Nixon
transcripts of eight Watergate-reWhite House conversations. The
some major from those previously released by the White House. The variations pointed toward greater involvement of President Nixon in the Watergate cover-up.
House
transcripts differed in
respects v.
Presidential defense counsel James D. St. Clair and special Watergate prosecutor
Leon Jaworski presented oral arguments to the Supreme Court in the cases of United States of America v. Richard M. Nixon and Richard M. Nixon v. United States of America. At issue was the constitutionality of President Nixon's claim of executive privilege in relation to the Watergate tapes and other documents, and whether the grand jury had the right to name the president as an unindicted coconspirator in the Watergate cover-up.
for other
Makarios overthrown on Cyprus Greek
officers
led
Cypriot National
the
Guard in a coup that ousted Archbishop Makarios HI as president of Cyprus. Greek Cypriot newspaper publisher and former guerrilla leader Nikos Sampson was sworn in to succeed him. Initial reports from the troubled island indicated that Makarios had been killed in the fighting, but these proved false, and Makarios eventually escaped to London.
16
Greek-Turkish relations strained As relations between Turkey and Greece worsened over the Cyprus situation, U.S. William B. Ambassador to Turkey Macomber. Jr., returned to Ankara, ostensibly to aid in efforts to
ward
off a conflict
between the two nations. Macomber had been recalled to Washington for consultations concerning Turkey's July 1 lifting of the ban on opium poppy cultivation. Political unrest in
Japan
Takeo Fukuda, Japanese finance
at
least until 1978,
and
banks
and Me.
Several agreements on nuclear matters were signed by Nixon and Soviet Communist Party leader Leonid L Brezhnev, but the summit failed to produce any permanent gains toward limitations on of-
o
Canadian
Assistance for financially troubled
U.S. Pres. Richard M, Nixon returned to
would be held
ing up campaign practices legislative changes.
in
from Moscow
summit
7
of
Presidential Campaign Activities released its final report. The report recapitulated the evidence the committee had uncovered and made 35 recommendations for clean-
Minister Pierre Elliott Trudeau won an absolute majority in the House of Commons in national elections. The elections, which were called in May following the government's defeat in a no-confidence vote against the proposed budget, gave Trudeau the majority he had lost in the 1972 elections.
to discuss activities of Soviet disincluding the hunger strike of
physicist Andrei
After a 17-month investigation, the Senate Select Committee to Investigate the 1972
June 24 on Nahariya, Israel. The guerrillas were believed to have gained access to Nahariya by sea from southern Lebanon.
state in the Americas.
2
United States: Senate Watergate committee issues final report
Nahariya raid
Thirty fishing boats in three southern Lebanese ports were sunk by Israeli naval
1
3
Portugal gets
Army
new premier
Col. Vasco dos Santos Gonqalves, considered to be a leftist, was named premier by Portuguese Pres. Antonio de Spinola. Goni;alves replaced the centrist AdeHno da Palma Carlos, who resigned July 9 after the Council of State refused to grant his Cabinet additional powers. Spinola had dismissed Carlos' two-monthold civilian Cabinet on July 11.
resigned his
demands
powerful post
in the
minister, wake of
for organizational reform in the
ruling Liberal-Democratic Party. The demands were brought on by the party's loss of eight seats in the upper chamber of the country's national legislature, the House of Councillors, in elections on July 7. State Minister Shigeru Hori also resigned July 16, and Deputy Prime Minister Takeo Miki resigned four days earlier.
Z\J—ZZ
Cyprus powderkeg explodes
Turkey, claiming its right to protect the Turkish communities on Cyprus, invaded that island by sea and air at sunrise. Turktroops gained control of a 16-mi. corridor from the port of Kyrenia to the capital of Nicosia, and fighting erupted along the "Green Line," which separates ish
The U.S. House Judiciary Committee following the
its
historic vote to
Greece ordered a general mobilization and sent troops to the Turkish Thrace. Subsequently, both in countries accepted a UN proposal for a cease-fire to become effective July 22. British Foreign Secretary James Callaghan announced that representatives from Turkey, Greece, and Britain would begin talks in Geneva within a few days. tal.
border
Greek military junta resigns; new president for Cyprus The Greek
military junta under the leadership of Brig. Gen. Demetrios loannides resigned, and Greek Pres. Phaidon Gizikis
summoned former prime
minister Konstantinos Karamanlis from his self-imposed exile in Paris to form a new civilian government. In Cyprus Nikos Sampson resigned as president and was succeeded by Glafkos derides, speaker of the Cypriot House of Representatives and a moderate. Sampson, a proponent of enosis, had failed to gain Cypriot support since taking over the presidency on July IS, and resigned in what he termed "the national interest."
of Pres. Richard
M. Nixon the committee's subpoenas was cited in the third article, and it was adopted by a vote of 21-17 on July 30. On July 30 the tapes
tapes
of forces
23
recommend impeachment
and documents of 64 presidential conversations subpoenaed by Special Prosecutor Leon Jaworski for use in the Watergate cover-up trial. In a statement read by his defense lawyer, James D. St. Clair, Nixon announced that he would comply
Greek and Turkish sectors of the capi-
20 White House conversations were turned over to US. District Court Judge
of
John J. Sirica, the first step by the White House in complying with the Supreme
with the ruling.
Court's July 24 decision.
27
Portugal promises to jree
30 New
territories
Portuguese Pres. Ant6nio de Spinola promised to start transferring power immediately to the people of the three African territories of Angola, Mozambique, and
Portuguese Guinea (Guinea-Bissau). The three territories had been part of Portugal since 1933.
27—30
The
United States: House committee recommends impeachment
House
Judiciary
Committee
re-
cessed after approving three articles recommending that the U.S. House of Represen-
impeach President Nixon and seek removal from office through a Senate The first article, adopted on July 27 by a vote of 27-11, charged President Nixon with obstruction of justice. The second article, charging that President Nixon had failed "repeatedly" to carry out his constitutional oath and duty to uphold the nation's laws, was adopted by a vote of 28-10 on July 29. Nixon's defiance of
cease-fire
on Cyprus
Turkey, Greece, and Great Britain signed an agreement in Geneva providing for a standstill cease-fire on Cyprus. The agreement included an expanded peacekeeping role for the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP), and provisions for new talks between the parties aimed at "reestabhshing constitutional government" on Cyprus. The three countries are all guarantors of Cyprus' sovereignty under the treaties w'hich granted the island independence in 1960. Fighting had continued on Cyprus despite the UNsponsored cease-fire of July 22. Further negotiations on political issues were slated to begin in Geneva August 8.
tatives his
Z4
trial.
United States: Supreme Court rules against
Nixon
The Supreme Court
ruled 8-0 that claims of executive privilege could not be used to withhold evidence in a criminal trial and that President Nixon must provide the
J
Greece charges Turkish violations
1
Cypriot Pres. that
Clerides charged the control since the July
Glafkos
Turkey had more than doubled
territory
under
its
22 cease-fire and was continuing to expand bridgehead around Kyrenia despite the provisions of the July 30 cease-fire. its
33
Chronology
AUGUST
AUGUST Constitution reinstated in Greece
1
9
United States: Kissinger cleared in wiretap controversy
)
Gerald Ford sworn in as president of the United States oj America
Greek Prime Minister Konstantinos Kara-
i
Provisional Ethiopia
Vice-Pres. Gerald R. Ford was sworn in as the 38th president of the United States of America by Chief Justice Warren Burger. Richard M. Nixon's formal resignation was delivered to Secretary of State Henry Kissinger as Nixon was en route from Washington, D.C., to his home
The Senate Foreign Relations Committee
manlis reinstated the 19S2 constitution, abolished in 1967 by the military junta. Provisions of the constitution relating to the monarchy were temporarily suspended.
issued a report clearing U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger of responsibility for the wiretapping of 17 officials and news-
men, including some of his subordinates, between 1969 and 1971. Kissinger had threatened in June to resign unless cleared of the charges, which alleged that he had
Cabinet approved in
Selassie approved a new Cabinet in Ethiopia to be headed by Michael Imru. On July 22 Endalkachew Makonnen had been deposed as prime minister by the Military Council for
played a greater role in federal wiretaps than he had indicated at his 1973 Senate confirmation hearings.
Emperor Haile
San Clemente,
in
14
Cyprus
Calif.
down
talks break
provisional
demands was announced on August konnen had been arrested. failing to effect their It
J
Nixo?i releases transcripts his complicity
that
—admits
transcripts
showed that
talks between Greece, Turkey, Great Britain, and Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot leaders broke down when Turkey refused to allow time for Greek and Greek Cypriot consultations on the Turkish plan for a federal system on Cyprus. Within hours Turkish forces unleashed heavy air and ground attacks on Cyprus, as the Turks began using military force to gain the demands they were unable to obtain in Geneva.
his intention to
resign
Ma-
M. Nixon released subpoenaed transcripts of three conversations of June 23, 1972, and ordered them turned over to U.S. District Court Judge John J. The
Nixon announces
>
for reform. 1
U.S. Pres. Richard
Sirica.
The Geneva
Three days after his admission of complicity in the Watergate cover-up and amid eroding support evidenced in public statements by an overwhelming number of fellow Republicans as well as Democrats, Pres. Richard M. Nixon announced that he would submit his resignation the following day because he had lost his "political
base in Congress."
1
have. As a result, those arguing my case, as well as those passing judgment on the case, did so with information that was incomplete and in some respects erroneous. This was a serious act of omission for which I take full responsibility and which I deeply regret."
Cyprus Geneva
cease-fire talks
resume
Turkey declares a unilateral cease-fire
Turkey reached its objective of partitioning Cyprus de facto into Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot areas and declared a unilateral cease-fire. With the
six
days after the Watergate break-in Nixon had ordered an end to FBI investigation of the matter. In an accompanying statement Nixon said; "At the time, I did not realize the extent of the imphcations which these conversations might now appear to
6
in
northern third of the island under
As
continued on Cyprus, peace between Greece, Turkey, and Great Britain resumed in Geneva in an attempt to establish an effective cease-fire and to fighting
resolve the political differences underlying the fighting. Meanwhile, representatives of the three nations and the were in Nicosia attempting to establish cease-fire lines in accordance with the July 30 ceasefire declaration.
President Nixon and his family bid farewell to the White House staff.
UN
its
con-
trol Turkey announced that it was willing to resume negotiations in Geneva, a proposal that the Greeks rejected.
talks
1
y
U.S. ambassador to in Nicosia
Rodger
Cyprus
killed
Davies, U.S. ambassador to Cyprus, was shot and killed during an anti-American demonstration at the U.S. P.
embassy in Nicosia. The demonstration was headed by Greek Cypriots who believed that the U.S. had sided with Turkey in the
2{j
Cyprus
situation.
Nelson Rockefeller nominated for U.S. vice-presidency
U.S. Pres. Gerald R. Ford announced that he had chosen Nelson Rockefeller, former governor of New York, to be the next vicepresident of the United States. In his spirit of "openness and candor*' Ford had solicited suggestions for the office from members of Congress, governors, and his personal staff and advisers.
/t"
New
president in India
Fakhruddin fice as
Ali
Ahmed
formally took of-
president of India.
Ahmed, who had
support of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, was elected on August 17 to succeed V. V. Gin. the
Chronology
SEPTEMBER
Zb
Waldheim
effects
UN
Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim succeeded in bringing about the first meeting between Cypriot Pres. Glafkos derides and Rauf Denktash, the leader of the Turkish community on Cyprus, since the
Geneva talks collapsed on August 14. Denktash and Cleridcs discussed only the
27
refugee problem, avoiding poUtical issues, but agreed to meet once a week thereafter.
Portugal grants independence to Guinea-Bissau
United States: Stock market hits four-year low
The
cific
3
market
continued to lose ground, with the Dow Jones industrial average dropping to a four-year low of 671.54 on the New York Stock Exchange. stock
to aid Italy
to lend $2 billion to Italy to ease the serious economic crisis in that country. In an interview released on August 24 West German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt had warned the Ford administration that extreme measures taken to curb inflation in the U.S. could seriously disrupt the world economy. Schmidt, the former finance minister, said that deflation in the U.S. economy would eventually
UN
Conference on the Law of third the Sea adjourned in Caracas, Venezuela, on August 29 without having reached spe-
The
signed
West Germany
1
West Germany agreed
29—30 UN conferences end
an agreement, effective September 10, granting independence to Portuguese Guinea. The agreement ended Portugal
agreement on any of the matters before it. In Bucharest, Rom., the UN World Population Conference ended with the approval of a "Plan of Action" but no specific goals were agreed upon during the 12 -day conference.
400 years of dominance over the West African territory by Portugal. Negotiations continued with nationalist leaders in Mozambique, another African territory seeking independence from Portugal.
Cypriot meeting
spread to world markets.
SEPTEMBER 2
Evel Knievel fails to traverse Snake River Canyon
United States: Federal standards set for private pensions
pany mismanagement and bankruptcy, will ensure that pensions benefits are paid.
{'.5.
and East Germany
establish
Economists meet D.C.
in
President Ford presided over the first of several meetings scheduled as preliminaries to an economic summit to be held September 27 and 28. Twenty-eight U.S. economists were almost unanimous in concluding that the Federal Reserve Board should ease its tough monetary poUcy, which they said affected money, credit, interest rates, and, indirectly, the stock market.
President Ford grants Nixon full
i
pardon Pursuant to the power conferred upon him
by
Art. II, sec. 2 of the U.S. Constitution,
Ford granted a full pardon to former president Richard M. Nixon for all federal crimes he "committed or may have committed or taken part in" while in office. It was announced that an agreement had been made with Nixon whereby he would be given title to his presidential papers and tapes, but that they would be kept intact and available for use in judiPres. Gerald
cial
President Ford's support waning
A Xew York Times
Washington,
proceedings for three years.
promote integration. A number of schools, mainly in South Boston, were boycotted by white students and there were scat-
1
diplomatic relations
5
public schools opened under a busing plan ordered in June by Federal District Court Judge W. Arthur Garrity to
Boston
tered incidents of violence.
lU
poll
indicated
A
United States : Clemency for Vietrmm war deserters and draft
that
support for President Ford had dropped sharply as a result of his pardon September 8 of former president Nixon.
evaders
public
The
U.S. established formal diplomatic relations with East Germany, the last major Western country to do so since 1971, when the Communist country emerged from isolation on acceding to the four-power Berlin pact. Embassies were to be opened in both countries by early 1975.
violence in Boston
U.S. stuntman Evel Knievel failed in his highly publicized attempt to cross the Snake River Canyon in Idaho in a steampropelled rocket. The vehicle parachuted safely to the bottom of the canyon and Knievel was rescued by helicopter.
President Ford signed into law a pension reform bill. The new law, aimed at protecting the retirement benefits of an estimated 23 million employees from com-
4
Court-ordered busing leads to
1
2
President Ford signed a proclamation offering conditional clemency to thousands of Vietnam war deserters and draft evaders, in return for an oath of allegiance and up to 24 months of alternative service. The proclamation was received coolly by most of the estimated 7,000 evaders and de-
Haile Selassie deposed as emperor of Ethiopia Haile Selassie I, emperor of Ethiopia since 1930, was peacefully deposed by the ruling Military Council. Crown Prince Asfa Wosscn, who had lived in Switzerland since suffering a stroke in 1972, was asked to return as figurehead monarch. Parliament was dissolved and the constitution suspended. Lieut. Gen. Aman Michael Andom was put in charge of the Provisional Military Administrative Council.
serters residing in
1
7
29th
UN
Canada.
General Assembly opens
Abdel-Aziz Bouteflika, foreign minister of Algeria, was unanimously elected president of the 29th General Assembly at its opening session in
Angry parents opposed to busing rebuke Sen. Edward Kennedy
in
New York
Boston.
City.
Chronology
OCTOBER
Prime
British
Harold
Minister
Wilson
general election to be held second to be held in 1974. It was the first time in more than SO years that two general elections had been called called
for a
October
in
iy
wake. Tons of were sent from all over the
world, but a
Honduran
20
United States: press secretary
Zj
his
White House
the U.S.
Portuguese president resigns
Release of Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot prisoners begins
wounded
prisoners
on September
^^
June
21.
U.S. Senators
Nixon being treated for blood
Chung Hee
expressing regret that the August 15 assassination attempt on Park had been planned in Japan. Tanaka also extended condolences over the death of Park's wife, who had been killed by the
28
White House "summit" on
clot
zation of American States, stituted sanctions against
in
in-
1964,
inflation
consider lifting those sanctions.
ends In a speech ending the two-day national conference on inflation President Ford announced that three decisions had been
assassin.
Hurricane
which had
Cuba
voted unanimously on September 20 to
Repeal of year-round Daylight Saving Ti?ne
made
to aid in implementing a program to deal with inflation and recession. Spe-
The
U.S. Senate completed action on a measure repealing year-round Daylight Saving Time, which had been instituted on Jan. 6, 1974, as an energy-saving device. Standard Time was to be reinstated during
points of the program were not announced, but there was agreement among cific
yy~Z\J
meet with Castro
Senate Foreign Relations Committee members Jacob Javits (Rep., N.Y.) and Claiborne Pell (Dem., R.I.) returned from a visit to Cuba, which they had undertaken on their own initiative. They had met with Prime Minister Fidel Castro in Havana in an attempt to end the 13-year rift between their respective governments. The Organi-
Former president Nixon's personal physician announced that Nixon, who had been hospitalized at Long Beach, Calif., on September 23 for treatment of phlebitis and tests, had a blood clot in his lung, but the situation was "not critical at this time."
Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka sent a letter to South Korean Pres. Park
25, 1975.
had been completed
San
Calif., estate.
by 67%.
Gen. Antonio de Spinola resigned as provisional president of Portugal and was replaced by Gen. Francisco da Costa Gomes, chief of the joint military staff. On September 7 Portuguese Foreign Minister Mario Soares and Frelimo leader Samora Machel signed an agreement whereby the Portuguese African territory of Mozambique would become fully independent on
cording to terms of an agreement reached on September 20 by Cypriot Pres. Glafkos Clerides and Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktash. The exchange of sick and
Japanese-South Korean tensions eased
would-be
New
Canada's 30th Parliament opens the speech from the throne opening Canada's 30th Parliament, the government promised to attack the problem of In developments earlier this inflation. month, Canadian Energy Minister Donald Macdonald had announced a new policy to protect the domestic uranium market and on September 20 Canada had unilaterally raised the price of natural gas exported to
In
general release of all Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot prisoners began, ac-
Former president Nixon subpoenaed
Clemente,
30
estimated
The
one year in the U.K.
subpoena was served on Nixon at
official
Ron Nessen, a National Broadcasting Co. correspondent, was named White House press secretary by Pres. Ford, Ford's first press secretary, Jerald terHorst, had resigned September 8 in protest against the pardon of former president Nixon,
10, the
Special Watergate prosecutor Leon Jaworski subpoenaed former U.S. president Richard Nixon to appear as a prosecution witness in the Watergate cover-up trial. The
of devastation in its
that it would be at least two years before the country's economy had recovered fully from the disaster.
U.K. : General election announced
1
relief supplies
worth
Japanese terrorists free hostages French ambassador to The Netherlands Jacques Senard and eight other hostages were freed by the Japanese terrorists who took over the French embassy in The Hague on September 13. The captors, who said they were members of the Japanese Red Army, were demanding the release of an army comrade from a French prison. The terrorists, along with the prisoner, Yutaka Furuya (who had been flown from Paris to The Hague), fled the country in a French airliner.
Fifi strikes
Honduras
most
of the participants that cutting the federal budget would not do much very quickly to reduce the rate of inflation.
Hurricane Fifi struck Honduras, killing thousands and leaving millions of dollars
November-February.
OCTOBER 1
25 years of Communist rule China
events that forced the resignation of Richard M. Nixon, the trial had five defendants former attorney general John N. Mitchell, ex-Nixon aides H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman, Kenneth Parkinson, lawyer for the Committee for the Re-election of the President, and former assistant attorney general Robert C. Mardian.
in
—
Fireworks and music and dance performances in Peldng's parks marked the 2Sth anniversary of Communist rule in China. Notably absent was Chairman Mao Tsetung, believed to be too frail to appear on the rostrum of the Gate of Heavenly Peace, where in 1949 he stood to proclaim the birth of the People's Republic of China.
'
United States : Dow Jones average Jails below 600 Prices on the
dropped
Watergate cover-up
trial
The Watergate cover-up
opens
trial
opened
in
Washington, D.C., before U.S. District Court Judge John J. Sirica. Involving the
Dow
New York
Stock Exchange
for ten consecutive sessions
Response
to the
worldwide
oil crisis
After a five-day joint meeting with the World Bank in Washington, D.C., the International Monetary Fund announced that it was drawing up plans for a major lending operation. Administered by the IMF and funded principally by the oil-producing nations, it would benefit countries in financial disarray because of their difficulties in paying higher prices for needed oil imports.
new
and
Jones industrial average fell below the 600 mark for the first time in almost 12 years, closing at 587.61. On Jan. 11, 1973, the Dow Jones average had peaked at 1,051.7. the
T
EEC
council of aid ministers agreed on October 3 to contribute $150 million to aid 25 developed nations that were worst hit
less
by quadrupled oil prices. Under the joint agreement $30 milUon would go to the
Chronology
OCTOBER UN emergency
fund set up for this purpose and $120 million would go directly to the
French workers granted
17
unemployment pay
President Ford defends the Nixon pardon
countries involved.
French management and labour leaders
6
Appearing as guest of honour at a rally in East Berlin celebrating the 25th anniversary of East Germany, Soviet Communist Party leader Leonid I. Brezhnev stated that he is prepared to take additional steps with the U.S. to curb the arms race. 1
"whip
J
National Guard
is
best interests of my country." He also stated that no "deal" had been made between himself and former president Nixon.
mobilized in
Boston
American League's Oakland A's capture World Series
now"
inflation
VS.
Pres. Gerald Ford presented his antiinflation program to a joint session of Congress. Proposals included a board to develop national energy policy, a cut in forsurtax on families eign oil imports, a
S%
earning more than $15,000 annually, and measures to help the depressed housing industry.
9
is believed to be the first formal appearance by a president of the United States before a congressional panel, Gerald Ford came before a House subcommittee in an attempt to quash suspicions raised by his unconditional pardon of Richard Nixon. The pardon. Ford said, was granted solely "out of my concern to serve the
agreed to a plan that gives 20 million wage earners in France a guarantee of one year's pay if they are laid off because of bad conditions. The agreement, economic which was supported by the Giscard government, will be financed by a fund to which employers, employees, and eventually the government will contribute.
The German Democratic Republic marks 25 years
President Ford urges U.S. to
In what
Hostages freed Republic
in the
Massachusetts Gov. Francis Sargent ordered the mobilization of 450 National
Guardsmen
as racial violence ignited
Baseball's Oakland A's beat the Los AngeDodgers by a score of 3-2, to win their third consecutive World Series.
by
court-ordered busing continued in Boston's schoob. Sargent had asked President Ford to send federal troops to the city, a request that the president refused on the ground that the use of U.S. troops would not be in order until the state's full resources had been exhausted.
les
lo
Dominican Rockefeller requests action
A
U.S. official and six other hostages held by left-wing guerrillas for almost two weeks in the Venezuelan consulate in Santo Domingo were freed after the terrorists accepted a Dominican government offer of
safe-conduct to Panama,
Labour Party
1
in
mns
slim majority
United Kingdom
Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Labour Party were returned to power in the second general election to be held in Great Britain in 1974. The returns showed Labour with a three-seat majority over the combined strength of Conservatives, Liberals, and other parties in the 635-seat House of Commons.
1 1
Brezhnev urges reopening of Middle East talks
Communist Party leader Leonid L Brezhnev urged that Middle East peace talks in Geneva be reconvened at the earli-
Soviet
est
date,
contending that
further
delay
would mean sitting "on a powdcrkcg which might blow up at any moment." He charged that Israel and "her traditional foreign patrons" were trying to evade the resumption of such negotiations.
1
4
Palestine Liberation Organization
recognized by the United Nations is
The
UN
General .Assembly recognized the
Palestine Liberation Organization as "the representative of the Palestinian people," and invited the PLO to participate in the assembly's debate on Palestine in November.
The vote was 105^, with 20 abstenThe four voting against were the
tions.
U.S., Israel, the Bolivia. Many
Dominican RepubUc, and
Western bloc nations, including a few EEC members, voted to extend recognition.
U.S.-Soviet trade program In an announcement made at the White House, Sen. Henry Jackson (Dem., Wash.) said that President Ford and Congress had formally agreed on a compromise to provide trade benefits to the USSR. In return,
Vice-president-designate Nelson Rockefeller requested "immediate" congressional bearings on his nomination because the iswithsue was "being tried in the press out my having the opportunity to present all the facts." He was referring to continued reports concerning his substantial gifts to former aides and public officials. Under the 25th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, a majority vote in both houses of Congress must confirm the nomination of the person chosen to fill a vice.
.
relax
policies. U.S.
its
stringent
Secretary of State
Henry Kissinger said that Moscow had assured him that there would be an end to harassment of would-be Soviet emigrants.
.
vacancy. They act after hearings and votes by the designated congressional committees.
presidential
Moscow would
emigration
20
Swiss voters reject deportation
referendum Voters in Switzerland rejected by a substantial margin a proposal that would have meant deporting one half of the country's 1.1 miUion foreigners, including 300,000 immigrant workers, by the end of 1977. The proposal lost, with 66% voting against.
Pres. Gerald Ford defends the Nixon pardon before a congressional panel.
Chronology
NOVEMBER 23
Former Greek prime minister Former Greek Prime Minister Georgios Papadopoulos and four other leaders of the 1967 military coup in Greece were arrested and exiled to the Aegean island of Kea, 60 mi. SE of Athens. With the first elections under the democratic regime set for November 17, opponents of Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis had been
him for indecisive action with regard to the former military dictators.
criticizing
25
Fanjani
fails to
form
coalition
days of negotiation, Amintore Fanfani abandoned his attempt to form a coalition government in Italy. On October 3 Italy's 36th Cabinet since World War II had resigned and Pres. Giovanni Leone had asked Fanfani to form a government. Premier Mariano Rumor remained as head of After
11
a caretaker regime.
2o King Hussein
(ieft) of
Jordan at the Arab summit conference
in
Arab nations back Arafat and FLO
Rabat, IVIorocco. in Rabat, Morocco, 20 Arab state, including Jordan's King Hussein, unanimously issued a declaration
At a meeting verria,
21
Mexican-U.S. border meeting
commenting on the recently
heads of
re-
ported discovery of substantial deposits of oil in southeastern Mexico, called the development very important considering current world market prices. The implication of his statement was that the U.S. would not receive preferential treatment from Mexico.
calling for the creation of an independent Palestinian state and recognizing the Palestine Liberation Organization as the "sole
—
Mexican Pres. Luis Echeverria Alvarez and U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford met on both sides of the Arizona-Mexican border. No formal agreements were signed and Eche-
legitimate representative of the Palestinian people." The decision was a victory for Yasir Arafat, the PLO leader.
NOVEMBER 5
Democrats receive mandate
National Gtiardsmen acquitted in
in
The Democratic Party swept toward domination of the 94th Congress, raising their majority to two-thirds in the House of Representatives and three-fifths in the Senate. The Democrats won 27 governorships against 7 for Repubhcans an independent was victorious in Maine. In the Senate, Democrats captured formerly Republican-held seats in Colorado, Florida, Kentucky, and Vermont. Nevada was the only state in which the Republicans gained a seat held by a Democratic senator. In the House the Democrats gained 43 seats, to bring their total to 291 against 144 for the Republicans.
Eight former Ohio National Guardsmen
10
State of siege in Argentina Argentine Pres. Isabel Peron placed the nation under a state of siege as political assassinations and terrorist attacks continued. She acted after meeting with the three armed forces commanders following the assassinations of the federal police chief and his wife and a former Peronist union official. About 140 persons had died in political violence since the death of her
husband on July
1.
Organization, telHng the delegates that his organization's goal remained a Palestinian would include Muslims, Christians, and Jews.
15
defeated in Brazil
the government party, ARENA, in federal state elections. The results were seen as a repudiation of the government's economic and social policies and a protest against an estimated 33% inflation rate.
and
that sub-
UN General Assembly suspends South Africa UN General Assembly voted 91-22 to suspend South Africa's participation in the The
assembly's current session. The decision did not exclude the nation from membership.
Government party soundly In the freest elections to be held in more than ten years, the Brazilian Democratic Movement, the only officially tolerated opposition group in the country, defeated
Saharan countries suffering famine as a consequence of severe drought were experiencing a normal autumn rainy season.
12
on Palestine opens
state that
Sub-Saharan countries receive needed rain
The New York Times reported
UN debate UN General
Assembly debate on the opened with Yasir Palestine question Arafat, head of the Palestine Liberation
The
were acquitted of violating the rights of students at a demonstration at Kent State University on May 4, 1970, in which four students were killed and nine wounded. Chief Judge Frank J. Battisti of the U.S. District Court in Cleveland said that government prosecutors had not the proved "beyond a reasonable doubt" that the guardsmen willfully intended to deprive the students of their civil rights.
;
6
iJ
Ketit State killings
U.S. elections
16
World Food Conference approves 7tew agency
At the
final session of its 11 -day meeting the World Food Conference approved the formation of a new UN agency in
Rome,
(the
World Food Council)
to
supervise
Chronology
NOVEMBER programs intended to provide less developed nations with more and better food.
its pre-1967 war boundaries. This was the position taken by the EEC and stated by the West German delegate
within
had been arrested during the purge that culminated in the overthrow of Selassie on September 12.
first
on November
17
Karamanlis victorious
in
19. Britain's delegate stressed that the right of Palestine should not infringe or challenge the right of Israel to exist as a state.
Greece
Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis won an overwhelming victory in the first
Police charge six in U.K.
Police charged six men from Northern Ireland with the bombings of two crowded pubs in Birmingham, Eng., on November
democratic election to be held in Greece 1964.
since
The New Democracy Party,
^2,
which Karamanlis founded in September, received about SS% of the vote in the first official returns and it was believed that the party would control almost 200 seats in the
Canada reduces U.S. Canada, the
oil
allocation
21.
largest single supplier of oil
300-member Parliament.
the
oil
Brezhnev and Ford reach tentative agreement on nuclear weapons
were expected and Canada eventually plans
Ford begins East Asian tour
1
to stop exports completely.
U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford arrived in Japan, the first stop on an eight-day journey to East Asia. The president defined his travels as both timely and significant as a step toward preserving world peace.
20
Antitrust action against
resolutions declaring that the Palestinian
At a meeting in Vladivostok, U.S.S.R., U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford and Soviet party leader Leonid I. Brezhnev reached tentative agreement to limit their countries' offensive strategic nuclear weapons and delivery vehicles through 1985. U.S. Secretary of State
people have the right to independence and sovereignty, and that the PLO should be granted observer status in affairs.
effort to halt the
The
AT&T
Nineteen people were killed and over
100 were wounded in the worst display of anti-British terrorism in over two years.
U.S., announced that exports of to the U.S. would be reduced by 100,000 bbl. a day, to 800,000 bbl., effective Jan. 1, 1975. Further reductions
to
crude
pub
bombings
VN
grants observer status to
the
PLO
UN
General Assembly approved two
Henry Kissinger but
UN
critics
it a breakthrough, meaningless, in the
called
termed
it
arms
race.
The Department
of Justice filed an antitrust suit in a federal court in Washington, D.C., against the .American Telephone and Telegraph Co., the world's largest privately owned corporation. The suit alleged that AT&T held an illegal near-monopoly of the telecommunications business and attempted to force AT&T to divest itself of the Western Electric Co., a manufacturing subsidiary. It would also require that the corporation get out of the long-distance telephone business or dispose of some or all of the 23 wholly or partly owned local Bell telephone companies.
Mora forms
•^J
Italian Cabinet
Palestine debate continues
UN General Assembly
debate on the Palestine question, Britain, France, and Italy urged a Middle East settlement that would enable Israel to live peacefully In the
Japan's Tanaka announces resignation
.^4
Kakuei Tanaka yielded to pressure that down as prime minister of Japan.
he step
The move came
as a result of accusations that he had used his high political office to amass a considerable personal fortune. The resignation was submitted to the ruling Liberal-Democratic Party, which would choose his successor.
Executions in Ethiopia
Two
UN
26
Aldo Moro, Chrbtian Democrat foreign minister in the outgoing Cabinet of Mariano Rumor, formed a minority government of Christian Democrats and Republicans. Pres. Giovanni Leone approved the Cabinet, ending the crisis that began when Rumor's Cabinet resigned on October 3.
former prime ministers, the head of the ruling Military Council, and a grandson of Emperor Haile Selassie were among the
2,y
Britain outlaws Irish Republican
Army wake
bombings and other terHouse of Commons apoutlawing the \K.\ and unprecedented powers to
60 people whose execution was announced
In the
by the military government
rorist attacks, the
in Ethiopia.
A
radio broadcast said the executions were "an act of justice." Most of those executed
proved
of
legislation
giving the police Britain. The laws authorized police to search and detain suspected terrorists and to impose restrictions on travel between Ireland and England. fight terrorism in
The Alem-Bekanye prison compound
in
Addis Ababa, Eth., site of the November executions.
National Assembly legalizes abortion in France In a historic breakthrough for a predominantly Roman Catholic country, France's National .Assembly voted to legalize abortion during the first ten weeks of pregnancy. The vote overturned a 1920 law.
Nixon too
ill
to testify in
Watergate cover-up
trial
A
court-appointed panel of three physicians informed U.S. District Court Judge John J. Sirica that former president Richard M. Nixon's pooi- health would not permit his appearance at the cover-up trial in Washington, D.C., until at least Feb. 16, 1975, and that he would not be able to testify by deposition until January 6. Attorneys for the five defendants accused of covering up the June 17, 1972, break-in of Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate complex began presenting their cases
November
25.
Chronology
DECEMBER
DECEMBER Mine workers
U.S. faces triple threat
sign contract in U.S. * ^
10 lU
United Mine Workers' leaders signed a new three -year labour contract with the coal industry, ending a 24-day miners' strike. Arnold R. Miller, president of the union,
In a televised news conference President Ford said that the U.S. faced three chalinflation, recession, and an energy lenges crisis. This was the first time he had not given inflation as the first among the nation's woes, and he called on the 93rd Con-
—
on his recommendations for $4.6 billion in budgetary reductions. He also asked the legislators to pass emergency measures to curb rising unemployment be-
Greek Cypriots
fore adjourning.
hail
Makarios
when it was awarded to him in 1970. ten winners of the 1974 awards for physiology or medicine, chemistry, physics, and economics also received their prizes at the ceremonies in Stockclaim
literature,
holm.
Pound reaches new low
hi
U.S. space vehicle Pioneer 11 headed toward Saturn after surviving a pass within 26,600 mi. of Jupiter. It gave scientists substantial information on the planet's atmospheric conditions and internal properties, as well as on the moons of Jupiter, one of which exhibited a polar cap. The spacecraft will arrive in the vicinity of Saturn in 1979.
home with
to its lowest level ever.
of England intervened on forexchange markets to support the pound, which fell by 1.15 cents against the
dollar to $2.3240.
Mills resigns chairmanship of the
House Ways and Means Committee
House of Representatives Ways and Means Committee, a post he had held since 19S8. On December 2 Mills's Democratic col-
Greek Parliament reopens after seven years
make Greece
a
republic es-
tablished in 1832, 300 members of the new Parliament were sworn in. The vote, taken on December 8, ran about 2 to 1 in favour of "uncrowned democracy," as it was designated on the ballot. This meant that King Constantine, who had been in exile since the military coup of 1967, would be
stripped of his
leagues in the House divested him of his authority to make committee assignments and the next day agreed without dissent to increase the committee's membership from 25 to 37, further reducing his vast power. Mills had been the subject of ridicule and scorn because of his indiscreet association
Greek electorate voted
after the
and eliminate the monarchy that was
Takeo Mikt, new prime minister of Japan, practices calligraphy at
it
The Bank eign
Rep. Wilbur D. Mills (Dem., Ark.) resigned his position as chairman of the U.S.
resoundingly to
—
currency, driving
continued since talks between Greek and Turkish leaders collapsed in August.
One day
testify
U.S. District Court Judge John J. Sirica ruled that former president Richard Nixon need not testify in any way— either on the witness stand or by deposition at the Watergate cover-up trial. Sirica's six-page opinion cited Nixon's poor health and the fact that his testimony's value to the defendants "should not be unrealistically overestimated" as reasons for the ruling.
would stop taking the pound sterling payment for oil touched off a run on the
tions in
political fate of the island
y Nixon need not
Reports that the major oil-exporting na-
Thousands of enthusiastic Greek Cypriots greeted President Makarios of Cyprus in the capital from which he fled for his life in a coup in July. In a speech delivered from the balcony of the Palace of the Ethnarch, Makarios promised not to accept partition of the island between ethnic Greeks and Turks. Uncertainty over the
The
•
The
Nicosia
Pioneer 11 begins five-year journey to Saturn
l
;
-..
j
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn received the Nobel Prize for Literature that he was unable to
said that 56% of the 79,495 members who had exercised their new right to reject or accept their leaders' proposal had voted for the new contract.
gress to act
c l nr i d Solzhenitsyn claims Nobel Prize
with strip-tease dancer Fanne Foxe.
1 1
minister
Takeo Miki of the Liberal-Democratic Party was formally elected prime minister by the Japanese Diet. Miki, who has held a long succession of Cabinet posts, including foreign minister and deputy prime minister, succeeded Kakuei Tanaka, who resigned on November 26.
U.K. energy-saving program
The
British government announced a mandatory energy-saving program, including lower speed limits on many highways and a maximum temperature of 68° F in most buildings, except homes and hospitals. The program was aimed at reducing energy consumption by 10% as well as expenditures
on imported
more than $8 ber
3
oil,
now total On DecemRoy Mason an-
which
billion annually.
Defense Secretary
nounced plans to cut defense spending by reducing manpower, ending new programs, and closing overseas bases. The cuts were expected to save about $700 million a year from a current defense budget of $8.6 billion a year.
—
Burma
Burmese youths began rioting in Rangoon after troops and policemen removed the body of former UN secretary-general U Thant from a mausoleum that students had built on the university campus. U Thant had died in New York City on November 25. The protest represented resentment against the rule of Burmese Pres. Ne Win who overthrew Premier U Nu, a political mentor of U Thant.
Takeo Miki new Japanese prime
his wife,
Mutsuko.
Student protest in
title.
1
o
Layoffs increase in the U.S. layoffs in U.S. manufacturing industries General Motors Corp. anincreased, nounced additional layoffs and production cutbacks for the first quarter of 1975. The action reflected one of the sharpest declines
As
in
the automotive industry
War
II.
temporarily
since
World
GM
By January
000 workers
would have 91,with another 41,000 laid off. The industry-wide laid off
automobile sales decline, expected to continue.
29th session of
UN
down 30%, was
General
Assembly recessed
UN
General Assembly Pres. Abdel-Aziz Bouteflika of Algeria recessed the 29th session of the assembly. Action taken during
Chronology
DECEMBER the 13-weck session included suspending South Africa, thus denying that country the right to participate and vote in the assembly, and granting Yasir Arafat's Palestine
Liberation
Organization
observer
status in the body. Bouteflika recessed the body rather than adjourning it so that members could be called back for a Middle East debate without the formality of
conducting a poll on reconvening.
1
y
Rockefeller becomes 41st vicepresident oj the U.S. Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller was sworn in as vice-president of the United States by Chief Justice Warren E. Burger in a televised ceremony in the Senate chamber, marking the first time that neither the president nor the vice-president had been elected to office. Rockefeller had been confirmed by the House of Representatives by a vote of 287-128.
^U
Remains of suburlun homes
The 93rd Congress adjourned after giving approval to a controversial trade reform bill. Much of the Congress' two years were taken up with the Watergate investigation and impeachment proceedings against former president Richard Nixon, but some
23
Darwin
An
Darwin, Auslr., after the cyclone on Christmas Day
airlift
Brezhnev postpones Middle East
begins
was begun
to evacuate victims of the cyclone that struck Darwin, Austr., on Christmas Day. Ninety percent of the city airlift
I. Brezhnev inpostponed his visit to Egypt, Syria, and Iraq, planned for mifl-January 1975. The postponement was seen as a setback for Moscow, which had recently been attempting to increase its influence in
definitely
trophe in Australia's history. Difficulties
were exacerbated by Darwin's relative remoteness; relief supplies came principally from Sydney, almost 2,000 mi. away.
be of historic significance.
bringing about a Middle East peace settleSome sources reported that Brezhnev in ill health, but others saw the "illness" as a diplomatic one.
ment.
was
197S Holy Year inaugurated. Pope Paul VI tapped three times on the Holy Door to St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, which had been walled up since 1950 the last Holy Year of the Roman Catholic Church and led a procession into the church, inaugurating the 1975 Holy Year.
28
—
Soviets hit U.S. trade
A spokesman from
bill
the Kremlin
warned
that the Soviet Union might reexamine its economic commitments to the U.S., par-
—
ticularly
in
light
of
what
the
Soviets
view as discriminatory provisions in the trade reform bill enacted by the U.S. Congress on December 20. The U.S.S.R. charged that Congress violated the 1972 accord providing for equal status between
Christian pilgnms attending midnight mass Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem were searched by Israeli security forces because of recent terrorism in Jeruin the
salem and Tel Aviv.
the two countries by attaching qualifications to the bill that linked the U.S. extension of lower import tariffs to a policy of
Pope Paul VI at the threshold of the Holy Door on Christmas Eve.
freer Soviet emigration.
3
1
CIA domestic
Tax cuts proposed
to
spying reported
William E. Colby, director of Central Intelligence for the U.S., reported to President Ford in response to allegations pub-
New
York Times lished December 22 in the that the Central Intelligence .Agency (CIA) spied on U.S. citizens. In the report Colby told of thousands of files on citizens and surveillance,
of electronic
break-ins,
and
mail inspection. Three chairmen of major congressional committees had announced that they would begin extensive hearings into CIA activities when the 94th Congress
convened
29
trip to
Soviet party leader Leonid
was destroyed and 47 were killed in what was described as the worst natural catas-
congressional leaders believed that much of the legislation enacted would prove to
fa4
in
Q3rd U.S. Congress adjourns
in
January.
slow recession
in U.S.
Cease-fire continues in Northern
A
source in the Ford administration said that the president had abandoned his proposal for an anti-inflationary income tax surcharge. Economkts were reported to be putting strong pressure on Ford to do the opposite and cut taxes as a stimulus to increase consumer spending and pull the economy out of the worsening recession.
Ireland Britain announced the release of a
on December
Gold j(j
5,000 dead in Pakistani earthquake Official reports indicated that nearly 5,000
persons were killed in an earthquake that struck a number of towns in northern Pakistan on December 28. The toll was expected to rise as runners reached regions farther to the north, which had been cut off since the quake.
number
of political prisoners, buoying hopes for an extension of the holiday cease-fire that had been called by the Irish Republican Army 22.
sales legal in U.S. after
41 years
The widely heralded
gold rush in the U.S. did not materialize as only a small number of purchases were made on the first day that gold bullion sales were legal in the U.S. Prices fell $5 to $9 an ounce at various trading centres; in London the price fell from $195.25 to $186.50 an ounce.
1974
bad/tear ^_. •^ ^'^o
0>
— taxmen. and consumer activists were laying siege with increasing vigour. In the U.S.. Lewis Engman, chairman of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), startled the ad community by announcing that he was tors,
Advertising At the beginning of 1974 the advertising industry was, about what the coming in store. Despite the fact that 1973 had been a good year for the business worldwide, the spectres of inllation, materials shortages, the energy crisis, and continuing pressure on the regulatory front contributed to either cautious optimism or some slight negativism on the part of marketers. The year 1973 had indeed been a record one for many. In Britain expenditure was up by 23% and only an acute media shortage during the last quarter prevented the figure from going higher. It was also the first year in almost a decade in which the number of people employed by the industry had increased. Although at the close of 1973 there were rumours of massive staff cuts by agencies, most shed their surplus fat by attrition to bring the total employed by agencies at the end of 1974 to 14,000, a drop of at best, cautiously optimistic
year held
6,000 in eight years.
The outlook
for the critical last
quarter of 1974 was very uncertain, an uncertainty in Britain by the political upheaval of a second general election within 12 months. In the U.S., according to an Advertising Age survey
aggravated
of major media organizations, advertising
volume
for
1974 was expected to show a 4.5% gain over the previous year, with an anticipated total for 1974 of $14,245,000,000.
Of
the ten
major media categories
FTC draft guidelines that would outlaw offers to children. The hue and cry that followed Engman's announcement apparently gave the FTC chairman second thoughts, and it was announced that the FTC would permit public comment on the issue before any final verdict was reached. The proposed ban on premiums was only part of a much
having the
premium
larger picture
—
the advertising directed to children,
beamed
particularly the advertising
to the
younger
generation via the country's most ubiquitous babythe television set. Demands on advertisers whose ads are directed primarily to children ranged all the way from those of the strong consumer activist groups who wanted all advertising to children banned to the more moderate voices who wanted more strict time limitations on commercials and advertising of
sitter,
certain
products
—
drugs
over-the-counter
like
banned from
children's programs. Despite the U.S. surgeon general's report of 1964 and the subsequent banning of cigarette advertising
from the airwaves starting
in
1971,
U.S.
sales
of
A
study by Advertising Age of sales and ad expenditures in 1973 for the top 20 brands showed that even though there was a cigarettes continued to rise.
3.5% in 1973, volume jumped 4.6%. The 1973 outlay was
decline in ad spending for this group of their sales
22.2%
less
than the $241,093,469 invested in adver20 cigarette brands in 1970, the year
survey only two remained constant in volume compared with the previous year: direct mail point-of-purchase advertising. Projected national and
before the broadcast ad ban went into
newspapers was $1,047,000,000, up 4.7% from 1973. Total ad volume for newspapers, including retail and classified as well as national advertis-
dustry sales volume trend, it had severely hampered the marketing of new brands. But the cigarette makers continued to introduce new brands, or differing ver-
ing, was expected to hit $7.8 billion, a gain of 4.5%. Network television estimates showed total network, spot, and local TV ad revenues up 9%, to $4,870,000,000 in 1974. Magazines were slated for a 3% boost in volume for the year, to a total of $1,350.000.000. Business publications were anticipating a
sions of established ones
covered
in the
ad volume
in
tising the top
effect.
the broadcast ban had not affected an
Chesterfield,
.Mthough
upward
still
in-
among
the top 20, though sales had been slipping each year,
was returning to one announced of its most successful advertising themes: "They satisfy"; the new copy line would read: "They satisfied then. They satisfy now." late in
1974 that
it
purchase held about even, with $4 billion and $2.5
Two U.S. airlines found themselves in trouble with both women's liberation groups and some of their own stewardesses and other female employees because of allegedly sexist ad themes. National Airlines, which had brought down the wrath of these same forces in 1973 when it ran ads featuring a photo of a stewardess with the headline reading: "Hi! I'm Debbie. Fly me to (a National Airlines destination city)," decided to
billion respectively.
start a
But despite the dollar volume gains racked up by advertisers, there were some severe distress signs on the horizon as the year drew to a close, and it was
photo of a stewardess but with the headline changed to read: "I'm going to fly you like you've never been flown before." Continental .Airlines encountered similar opposition when it launched an ad campaign
move
into the billion-dollar category, with a $1,030.000.000 ad volume figure, up 5.5% from the previous year. Total network, spot, and local radio advertising was expected to reach $1,330,000,000 for 1974. National outdoor advertising, according to Advertising Age's estimate, would move to $185 million in 1974, an increase of almost 9%. Direct mail and point of
runaway
inflation that lay at the root of the trouble.
Probably the most ominous news from the U.S. in the final quarter of 1974 came from Detroit, where by the end of 1974 sales were oft by 35%. But the automakers were not in a mood to pull back on their promotional activities in the wake of the steep slump in sales; instead, they announced plans to spend additional ad dollars in an attempt to reverse the declining sales curve. One way in which a number of advertisers approached the problem of selling in a highly inflationary economy was to institute price/value advertising, stressing that the products advertised at the price shown are a bargain, or a good value. It was not only on the financial front that the advertising business
was threatened.
Politicians, legisla-
*3
Advertising
new
version of that campaign,
around the theme:
"We
Neither airline indicated
One was the
still
featuring a
move our tail for you." planned any changes.
really it
of U.S. television's best-known ad personalities
retired from active service in the Plumber (actress Jane Withers),
of scouring the nation's sinks with
fall.
Josephine
after 11 years
Comet
cleanser,
was dropped by Procter & Gamble because the company felt she was losing her effectiveness. The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe was preparing a paper concerned with the control of tobacco and alcohol advertising and measures to curb consumption of these products. The Aden: same group was also responsible for the Consumer ""Democratic Republic of Protection Charter, which included a provision for
and when the party took
the interests of advertising,
over government early in 1974 no time was lost in applying pressure. This included the announcement that in the future service industries would be brought within the jurisdiction of the Fair Trade Act, concerned with restrictive practices that could be construed as operating against the public interest. The government also made it clear that it was not satis-
with the effectiveness of the voluntary control system operated by the advertising industry to prevent and discipline malpractice. Unless this was improved, a tax would be imposed on the industry to fied
finance a statutory control system. In fact, the intention to tax advertising in
part of the
one form or another had been
Labour Party's
advertising industry
moved
election manifesto.
The
rapidly in self-defense,
imposing a levy amounting to 0.1% of all advertising revenue (except TV, which was included in another system to finance a larger staff for the Advertising Standards Authority, the industry's self-disciplinary watchdog, and also a publicity campaign to tell the )
public about the
work
of the authority.
The
television
companies also responded with their own campaign to inform viewers of their existing control system. Subsequently the minister for consumer affairs, Shirley Williams (see Biography), agreed to receive a deputation representing
all
sides of the advertising
industry for a presentation covering the economic
and
social aspects of advertising.
The defensive moves by
One of 32 in
the
1974
ng^entries British
Poster Design Awards
was the
Elliott
advertisement.
Boots
corrective
advertising.
Late
in
1973 a Consumers'
Consultative Committee was established to "represent
consumer
interests to the European Commission and to advise the Commission on the formulation and implementation of policies and actions regarding consumer protection and information, either when requested to do so by the Commission or on its own initiative." Included in the draft program were projects to define and establish "criteria for judging whether an advertisement was considered deceptive, misleading or unfair to consumers in any way; by requiring advertisers to justify the validity of
claims
made by them;
a way to end quickly any deceptive or unfair campaign." It seemed likely that the Interna-
and by seeking
Chamber of Commerce advertising code would be accepted as the general guideline. tional
There was an interesting precedent when the Commission agreed to reserve three million Community units of account (about $4 million) in order to give
help in the form of advertising support to the market-
EEC countries. This was to take the form of an additional contribution equal to the budget
ing of beef in
already proposed by
The
British
member
states for this purpose.
Labour Party, when in opposition, had was generally hostile to
issued a Green Paper that
the industry in
Britain
were echoed in other countries, for example, in 'West Germany where two leading publishing groups. Axel Springer and Heinrich Bauer, each ran campaigns designed to inform the public of the economic and social benefits of advertising. Axel Springer's campaign, prepared by Lintas, the international advertising agency, was offered at no cost to other publishing groups. A third campaign proposed by GWA, the German agency association, was in preparation by the U.S. -based agency Leo Burnett. In Britain advertisers of tobacco products and alcoholic drinks agreed to accept tighter controls to be administered by the Advertising Standards Authority. These would outlaw drink advertising aimed at young people and any suggestion that smoking improved the quality of life. In addition, it was announced that all cigarette advertisements would be compelled to quote the official tar yield. In Norway advertising of cigarettes was banned altogether. But perhaps the most extreme development took place in The Netherlands, where legislation was to be introduced at the end of the year forbidding advertising that encouraged "increased consumption of confectionery" and decreeing that all advertisements for sweets and chocolates should carry a symbol of a toothbrush. The industry in Australia was busy setting up its own Advertising Standards Advisory Authority, and the Australian Broadcasting Control Board, following in Canada's footsteps, introduced a tough new directive relating to TV commercials aimed at children. The Japanese, also concerned with self-regulation, established the Japanese Advertising Review Organization
(JARO)
similar to the
Code of Advertising
Committee in Britain. Turning to the agency scene, news that Interpublic, the huge multinational agency, was to acquire Troost International made it the first agency group to top the billion-dollar mark. Interpublic, which already included the McCann-Erickson and Wasey CampbellEwald groups, had 1973 billings of $969 million to Practices
which Troost's European organization would add a further $53 million. J. Walter Thompson, with world billings up from J722 million in 1972 to $845 million in 1973, maintained its lead as the largest single
of excessive billboard and other advertising within
agency.
A challenge from Dentsu Advertising Ltd., the vast Japanese conglomerate with 1973 billings of $950 million, was rejected by the other contenders on
000, a
grounds that the method of computing billings in Japan was so different as to invalidate comparison. Annual billings of U.S. advertising agencies hit an all-time record of $12.9 billion in 1973, according to
ten advertisers increased their expenditures in 1973; the tenth. Sears. Roebuck, spent about the same as
Advertising Age's annual survey. This total was billed by 689 agencies, with the top ten agencies billing $5.3
Sears,
billion.
Many
of the
most striking gains registered by
leading U.S. agencies were in the international field, reflecting the trend among U.S. agencies to increase their overseas business.
The top
ten in billing for 1973
were J. Walter Thompson ($845 million), McCannErickson ($680,989,000), Young & Rubicam ($650 million), Leo Burnett Co. f$512.443.000), Ted Bates Co. ($484.282, 500V SSC&B Inc. ($483,494,000), Ogilvy & Mather ($432 million). Batten, Barton,
&
& Osbom f$428,585,000), D'Arcy-MacManus ($396 million;), and Grey Advertising ($352
Durstine million).
In West Germany, Lintas, with billings of 250.4 million, just failed to overtake
had
billings of
DM.
DM.
McCann, which
252.7 million, as the
ranking
first
agency. In France, Havas-Conseil, with Fr, 550 million, retained its lead over Publicis-Conseil's billings of Fr. 445 million. In Italy the agency scene was en-
livened by the news that
OGD
was
to
combine with
Linea SPN. the house agency of ENI, a major stateowned holding company, to give a total billing of 17 million lire, just ahead of McCann-Erickson. currently the largest agency with 1973 turnover of 16.422.000 lire. In Finland, contrarj' to the general trend, agency turnover was up 14.2'^f for the first quarter of 1974 over the same period in 1973. .Agencies in Finland were charging their clients
14.5'~'r
over the bank rate, which
on overdue bills, 2^c have contributed to
may
their well-being.
Walter Thompson (£41.1 million). Fourth was McCann-Erickson with £25 million, and fifth, Leo
name in Far East when Cathay .\dvertising Ltd.
a distinguished
advertising disappeared
(1973 billings $12.5 million), already an associate of George Patterson of .\ustralia (part of the Ted Bates
Ted Bates, Hong Kong. The media also suffered from the effects of inflation. The price and scarcity of newsprint, and in Britain group), became
continuing industrial print media,
and
in
strife,
added
burden of
to the
the case of national newspapers
in Britain, the ability of several to
survive
if
the trend
continued was in question. In June the chairman of the Council of the Royal Society of Arts wrote a letter to
The Times (London) complaining
that the pro-
liferation of advertising billboards at cricket
was spoiling
his
enjoyment of the game.
grounds
A month
another hallowed British tradition, the OxfordCambridge boat race, announced the intention to seek
later
a sponsor, but no doubt
The top
in 1972.
tions
ten
their 1973
and
Procter
outlays:
ad and promo-
& Gamble ($310
million).
Roebuck and Co. ($215 million) General Foods ($180 million). General Motors ($158.4 million), Warner-Lambert ($141,723,000), American Home .
Products Corp. ($133 million), Bristol-Myers ($132 Ford Motor Co. ($127.2 million), Colgate-
million).
Palmolive ($120 million), and the U.S. government ($99.2 million). Procter & Gamble, perennial leader of the pack in ad expenditures, had a very sizable from $275 million the previous year increase in 1973
—
$310 million, A large part of the increase went into a $15 million introductor\' campaign for their new Sure aerosol antiperspirant deodorant. Almost as big a boost as Procter & Gamble's was chalked up by the U.S. government, which moved into the top ten by increasing its ad spending from $65,828,000 in 1972 to $99.2 million in 1973. Most of the government increase came from heavy armed forces recruitment advertising and increased outlays for public ser\'ice campaigns and U.S. Postal Service advertising. Two more major U.S. advertising agencies that had gone public decided to abandon the venture and return to private ownership in 1974, thus joining Clinton E. Frank Inc.. which had reached a similar decision in 1973. McCaffrey & McCall announced in February that it planned to buy back its publicly held shares and seven months later Wells, Rich. Greene made a similar announcement. (JARLATH JOHN GRAHAM; GEOFFREY DEMPSEV) See also Consumerism; Industrial Production and Techto
nology; Marketing and Merchandising; Publishing; Telecommunications; Television and Radio. 6:').r.4.c]
Afghanistan A
republic in central .Asia, Afghanistan
is
bordered
by the U.S.S.R., China. Pakistan, and Iran. Area:
Burnett with £23 million.
Hong Kong
7.8% increase, despite a slowdown in ad growth early in the second half of that year, according to the annual tabulation by Advertising Age. Nine of the top
Wynne- Williams,
with billings of £32 million, overtook Ogilvy Benson Mather (£26 million) to regain its position behind J,
In
In the U.S. the top 100 advertisers raised their total ad and promotion investment in 1973 to $5,680,000,-
[534. 1;
In Britain the agency of Massius
Afghanistan
camera range.
the chairman of the
RSA
would have taken comfort from the decision of West Germany's two television channels. ARD and ZDF, to cancel live transmissions of several major sporting events from SwiUerland, Italy, and Austria because
252.000 sq.mi. (652,000 sq.km.). Pop. (1973 est.): 18,293,800, including (1963 est.) Pashtoon 59%; 29% Uzbek 5% Hazara 3%. Cap. and larg-
Tadzhik
;
;
Kabul (pop., 1973 est.. 341.000). Language: Dari Persian and Pashto. Religion: Muslim. President in 1974. Sardar Mohammad Daud Khan. Throughout 1974 Afghanistan continued to sufier from the effects of the shortage of rainfall that had afflicted the northern and central areas during the
m
est city:
preceding three years.
Many
of the affected areas
were remote and difficult to reach, lying as they did beyond the main lines of communication and the few good highways laid down by SoN-iet and U.S. engineers as part of the massive aid programs of their respective countries. President Daud and his Cabinet in Kabul did their best to
help of aid
mount rescue operations with
the
areas where
the
from abroad, but
in
subsistence level remained low. even in the best of times, deaths from starvation could not be prevented. Inevitably, discontent over the
failure
of the
new
republican regime to cope with economic difficulties manifested itself in a number of areas. In the capital
Aerospace Industry: Defense; Industrial Production and
iec
Tectinology; Space Exploration; Transportation
46
African Affairs
the euphoria that had followed the abolition of
itself,
the the
monarchy in 1973 and the attendant hopes for dawn of a more democratic era began to pass away
in the face of the president's
masterful
rule.
Many
who had expected an improvement in their position, including members of the armed services and the cenbureaucracy, found themselves disappointed. The leaders of the abortive attempts to overthrow
tral
September and December 1973 were executed; those who had followed them were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment. The Kabul press accused Pakistan of fomenting these conspiracies, but no solid evidence for the accusation was forthcoming. In view of Pakistani Prime Minister Z. A. Bhutto's desire for friendly relations with Afthe republican regime in
it was more likely that the conspiracies were the products of domestic discontent. Further symptoms of this disaffection were manifested during 1974. In the autumn it was announced that another attempt to overthrow the regime had been discovered and quashed; its leader had been
ghanistan,
executed
and
11
participants
imprisoned.
Strong enough to enforce
its will
upon outlying areas
should the occasion arise. The president's firm rule was also manifested in his management of foreign affairs. His close ties with the Soviet Union were not allowed to imperil Afghanistan's cherished and traditional neutrality.
He
concluded a cooperation agreement with China and formed a new link with Bangladesh, to which he promised assistance. Only with Pakistan were his relations difiScult; he continued to support schemes for the creation of an independent Pakhtunistan and a new "Greater Baluchistan" that, if realized, would give Afghanistan a corridor through friendly territory to the coast of the Arabian Sea. His representatives raised these questions at
numerous international gathsummit held at Lahore,
erings, including the Islamic
little or no encouragement. However, this in no way diminished Daud's determination to persist with his plans.
Pak., early in the year, but they received
(l. f.
rushbrook willums)
[978.C.2]
Shortly
there was trouble in Takhar Province, where the Muslim Brotherhood, which disliked President Daud's secularizing policy, was very influential. The government was obliged to take stern action; 70 members of the brotherhood were arrested, along with the governor of the province, the revenue commissioner, and the superintendent of police, and all were brought to trial on charges of plotting against the
afterward
state.
Nevertheless, the president's personal authority over the central government was never effectively challenged. He commanded the loyalty of the bulk of the
forces, and their efficiency, thanks to Soviet both training and the supply of sophisticated
armed
help
in
weaponry, was high. The central government was
AFGHANIST.'XN Education. (1971-72) Primary, pupils 614,790, teachers 14,796: secondary, pupils 147,221, teachers 6,446; vocational, pupils 4,036, teachers 490; teacher train-
students 4,440, teachers 188; higher, students 9,447, teaching staff 1,014. Finance. Monetary unit: atghani, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a free rate of 58.40 afghanis to U.S. $1 (135 £1 sterling). Gold, SDKs, and foreign exafghanis change, central bank; (June 1974) U.S. $61,590,000; (June 1973) U.S. $53,720,000. Budget (1972-73 est.): revenue 7,622,000.000 afghanis; expenditure 8,295,000,000 afghanis. Money supply: (May 1974) 9,754,000,000 afghanis; (May 1973) 9,454,000.000 afghanis.
ing,
=
Foreign Trade. (1972-73) Imports
9.1
billion af-
ghanis; exports 7,270,000,000 afghanis. Import sources (1971-72): U.S.S.R. 24%; U.S. 19%; Japan 12%; India 7%: West Germany 7%; U.K. 6%. Export destinations (1971-72): U.S.S.R. 39%; U.K. 20%;
West Germany 9%;
Lebanon 5%; Pakistan 5%; India S%. Main exports: fruits and nuts 43%: natural gas 18%; karakul (persian lamb) skins 16%; cotton 11%; carpets 11%: wool 6%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1970) 6.700 km. (including c. 2.000 km. with asphalt). vehicles in use (1971): passenger 38,400; commercial (including buses) 26,100. Air traffic (1972): c.
Motor 181
million passenger-km.;
freight
900,000 net ton-
km. Telephones (Dec. 1972) 23,000. Radio
receivers
(Dec. 1972) c. 450.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; 1972 in parentheses): corn c. 680 (c. 680); wheat c. 3,700 (2,950): rice (1972) 340. (1971) 350; barley c. 320 (375); cotton, lint c. 27 (c. 25); wool (1972) 1972-73): c. 17, (1971) c. 17. Livestock (in 000: cattle c. 3,800; sheep c. 23,644 (including c. 6.800 karakul); horses c. 400; asses c. 1,300; goats (197172) c. 3,300; camels (1971-72) c. 300. Industry. Production (in 000: metric tons; 197273): salt 31: cotton yarn (1971-72) 0.6; cotton fabrics (m.) 48.000; coal (1971-72) 135; cement 99; electricity (kw-hr.) 439,000.
African Affairs Portugal's 400-year-old African empire finally collapsed in 1974 following a military- coup in Lisbon in April; this development presaged far-reaching changes
southern Africa. Guinea-Bissau became Africa's 44th independent state (counting the Malagasy Republic) in September; Mozambique was promised its independence for June 197S, but no date was set for Angola's freedom. Apart from a number of small islands, the only dependent states left on the con-
in
were the Spanish Sahara, the French Territory and Issas, the British colony of Southern Rhodesia (which had unilaterally declared its independence in 1965), and Southwest Africa (Namibia). Another momentous event was a military coup in February in the ancient Ethiopian empire which by tinent
of the Afars
September ended the long rule of Emperor Haile Selassie I (see Biography) and brought new uncertainty to the
Horn
drought in living
The
of Africa.
memory
continent's worst
continued to ravage millions
of people, while the dramatic rise in oil prices severely disrupted the economies of all but the eight oil-pro-
ducing African countries.
Drought and Food. There was little relief from the when the rains came to some areas, fell in floods that brought new distress as it became even more difficult to bring in food and medical supplies. In Wallo Province, Ethiopia, where more than three million people were afllicted by famine,
great drought;
they
Apart from Ethiopia the worst-affected region was the Sahel
locusts followed the rains, bringing further ruin.
— the
sub-Saharan region embracing, as
Mali,
Upper
Volta, Niger, and
of the poorest countries
in
its
nucleus,
Chad; these were four
the world. Altogether, an
area of some 5.5 million sq.mi. was affected. The famine was worsened by reduced harvests in a large part of .\frica and by the rapid depletion of world
food reserves. It was estimated that a total target of one million tons of food would be required to alleviate conditions in the Sahelian countries. {See Agricul-
ture AND Food Supplies: Special Report.)
The
deterioration in the world food situation
especially
marked
in Africa,
which, as
a region,
was had
the poorest record in the less developed world. This
was due partly
to the drought, partly to
an actual de-
cline of agricultural production in 16 countries
(2%
in North Africa, but 5% up in Central Africa), and partly to rising living standards with a resultant
down
demand
increase in
ports rose by
up
40%
for food; for example, cereal im-
decade
to 7.3 million tons in the
end of 1973.
to the
Wars and Coups. The
three colonial wars in .An-
Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau had all ended by October after a promise of independence by Portugal. This left four areas of armed conflict. In Eritrea the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF), with the backing of radical Arab states, continued its tight for the province's independence from Ethiopia. In Chad a mainly Muslim movement continued its rebellion despite the withdrawal of Libyan support and French disengagement from support for the government forces. In Rhodesia the guerrilla challenge by the Zimbabwe African National Union Z.\NU forces grew in violence until the Lusaka negotiations in December. (See Southern Africa, below.) In Namibia South West African People's Organization the
gola,
i
(SWAPO) rica,
maintained
which
still
its
)
challenge against South Af-
refused to comply with
declaring the former
mandated
Only one military coup
(
UN
decisions
territory independent.
other than Ethiopia's) oc-
curred during 1974; in Niger, Pres.
Hamani
Diori was
overthrown in April. Promises by military regimes to hand back power to civilians were not fulfilled. In Upper Volta, Gen. Sangoule Lamizana in February reversed his policy because of the alleged failure of the politicians to face
up
to their responsibilities; and,
significantly, in Nigeria the federal military gov-
more
ernment
October canceled
in
surrender power
in
its
previous promise to
1976,
Southern Africa. Mozambique's promised independence under a government to be formed by the
Mozambique
successful Front for the Liberation of
(Frelimo) brought new dangers to
its
two white-ruled
neighbours, Rhodesia and South .\frica. For Rhodesia, where Ian Smith's regime had successfully maintained rebellion against the U.K. since 1966, the dangers were to both economy and security. The Smith regime had in the past depended largely on Mozambique for its easiest access to the sea and as a means of evading the international campaign of sanctions. The anti-Smith guerrilla movement could hope to count on Frelimo's support once the latter took power in its
Mozambique become more vulnerable after the
1975. Rhodesia's extensive frontier with
was
also likely to
final withdrawal of the Portuguese .\rmy.
For South.^frica the changes
in
Mozambique meant
that the republic would have a large neighbour under black rule. The republic had relied heavily on the
100.000 migrant workers from Mozambique to opits gold mines, and it had counted heavily on
erate
the much-needed input of cheap energy from Mozambique's Cabora Bassa hydroelectric project, due to
begin operating in 1975. .Although South Africa was considerably less \ailnerable to the pressures of a hostile ister,
neighbour than was Rhodesia,
B.
J.
vigorous
its
prime min-
announcement of by embarking on a
Vorster, reacted to the
the Portuguese reversal of policy
campaign of detente with black
Africa.
secret diplomacy with the Ivory Coast, Senegal. Malawi. Zambia, Botswana, and Tanzania, he
Through
persuaded the Smith regime to enter into an agreement following talks at Lusaka, Zambia, in December. All poHtical prisoners were to be released in Rhodesia as a prelude to a constitutional conference to be held early in 1975. The .Africans, on their part, agreed to suspend guerrilla activities. Already faced with growing inter-
BIEd^
was about
be invaded by Tanzania and Zambia,
to
the Somalis acted as intermediaries, only to find the
charges groundless. Somalia failed, however, to
any progress
pressing
in
its
make
border claims against OAU Goodwill
Ethiopia, despite the efforts of the
Committee chaired by Nigeria's Gen. Yakubu Gowon. In East Africa, relations between Uganda and its neighbours remained tense, with Kenya adopting a somewhat more critical attitude toward Amin than
Kenya and Tanzania (both members of the East African Community) worsened when a trade dispute led the former to close its fron-
before. Relations between
tier
with Tanzania for a brief period. Tanzania and
Zambia maintained
their traditional close
working
re-
lationship; with Zaire they established a firm triple
an
especially active role in trying
among
the warring Angolan liberation
alliance that played to restore
peace
movements
as a prerequisite for starting negotiations
with the Portuguese for Angola's independence. In northern Africa. Algeria's Pres. Houari Boumedienne (iff Biography) continued as in 1973 to maintain his important leadership role in relation both to Africa and to the nonaligned world. He discouraged Trained militia on review in Mumbue, Angola. These troops were trained by the Portuguese
ex-commando
at their
front as part of the process
toward
independence in Portuguese Africa.
Intra-African Relations. Harmonizing relations between Arab and non-Arab African countries was a major activity during 1974. All but four of the black African states (Malawi, Swaziland, Lesotho, and Mauritius), having suspended their relations with Israel in 1973, expected that the Arab oil producers would continue supplying oil to them while, for the first time, imposing a total oil embargo on Rhodesia and South Africa, Some African states (notably Ghana and Kenya) adopted critical attitudes toward the Arab states for not doing enough, while others pressed for more generous treatment. In addition to
funding ABEDA, the Arab oil producers were also persuaded to set up an Arab Bank for Agricultural and Industrial Development, with an initial capital of $500 million and a technical assistance fund of $15
the proposed merger between Tunisia and Libya, and he gave important backing to President Sadat in his conflicts with the Libyans and with the more militant
Palestinian leaders.
The French-speaking African community continued to
be mainly concerned with the future of the declin-
Common African and Mauritian Organization (OCAM; see below). The Ivory Coast helped to pro-
ing
reconciliation between
mote
a
while
OAU
Guinea and France,
mediation was accepted
in a frontier dis-
pute between Mali and Upper 'Volta. Morocco's militant campaign in support of its claim to the Spanish Sahara upset its neighbours, Mauritania and Algeria, both rival claimants to the phosphate-rich semidesert
$715 million would
Spanish colony. External Relations. In the absence of a Middle Eastern settlement, Africa's official policy continued to be largely hostile toward Israel; strong moral sup-
be available in loans to assist, over the next eight years, African and other less developed nations suffering
port was given to the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Relations between black Africa and the
from the increased prices for oil. Somalia followed Mauritania to become the second Muslim, but nonArab, state to join the Arab League. The Sudan played a leading role in mediating between the African and
Arab oil-producing states were, however, not free from friction. See The Organisation of African Unity,
million; this
meant that a
total of
Arab worlds.
(
above.
)
The
U.S.S.R., on the whole, maintained a low-
which
profile presence in Africa except in Somalia,
it
continued to supply with modern weapons. Egypt's
maverick role in pursuit of its Islamic designs. In January it announced an agree-
policy of seeking closer relations with the U.S.
was
combined
still
ment with Tunisia
friendly, attitude
Libya continued
its
to establish a joint
Republic, but nothing came of
Libyan leader, Col.
Muammar
his quarrel with Egypt's Pres.
Arab Islamic
The
Soviet
al-Qaddafi, extended
lishing
the
proposal.
Anwar as-Sadat
with
a
continuingly
critical,
but
toward Moscow. Libya, a critic of Communism, went some way toward estabbetter relations with the U.S.S.R. The Soviets
continued
provide support for the liberation moveto an armed struggle in southern
to the point of an open break, Sadat announcing that he dis-
ments committed
agreed "100 percent" with Qaddafi's policies. Libyan-
Africa, but their desire to strengthen the presence of
Sudan relations improved after a visit by Sudan's Pres. Gaafar Nimeiry to Tripoli. Relations between Libya and Gen. Idi Amin's (see Biography) Uganda
their navy in the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean was not welcomed by any African government. China's policies continued to win more friends on the continent, mainly because of its generous and effective aid programs, support for liberation move-
cooled somewhat during the year, but Qaddafi main-
to
tained good relations with Chad, Niger, and Togo. In place of the earlier proposed Egypt-Libya-Sudan-Syria union, an agreement was signed by Egypt and the
ments, and careful policy of nonintervention in .\frican affairs. The leaders of two countries previously
Sudan
hostile to China, Pres.
in
February
to establish
common
institutions
for closer cooperation
between the two countries. Somalia, whose president, Maj. Gen. Muhammad Siyad Barrah, became the 1974 chairman of the OAU, played an active role in trying to forge closer hnks between black Africa and the Arab Middle East.
When
General
Amin once
again alleged that
Uganda
Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire and Pres. Omar Bongo of Gabon, both visited Peking and established cordial relations. As a result of Mobutu's visit, the Chinese agreed to provide 250 military experts to help train Holden Roberto's National Front for the Liberation of .\ngola
whose external headquarters were
in
(FNLA),
Zaire.
49
While African relations with Britain continued to be generally friendly, they were marked by continuous criticism of British policy toward Rhodesia, South Africa,
African Affairs
and Namibia, especially over joint military Simonstown naval was under dis-
exercises with South Africa at the
base, Britain's continued use of which
cussion. U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger's peace efforts in the Middle East found favour in Africa, but the disclosure of the contents of a U.S. policy document, supposedly approved by Kissinger, favouring a more conciliatory attitude toward South
Africa, produced predictably angry reactions.
French policy continued to undergo changes as more French-speaking African countries demanded revisions of their special treaty relations with Paris and changes in OC.\M. (See Intra-African Relations,
above.)
French
Senegal joined the growing list of former that negotiated new treaty rela-
colonies
tions with Paris
;
it
terminated the previous agreement title to a military base at Dakar.
granting the French
The French agreed Comoro Islands, and
to
grant
independence
to
the Distribution of overland
at the same time announced their moving their naval base from Diego Suarez in Madagascar to a new site in Mayotte in the Comoros. French arms sales to South Africa and
intention
communication routes
of
expanding trade with that republic continued to criticism from black Africa, but the arms that it supplied and its Middle East policies won
its
attract
France favour among North .\frican .\rab states. Spanish policy in the Sahara brought a threat of conflict with Morocco; Spain's offer of a referendum for the colony's mainly nomadic inhabitants to determine their own future failed to placate its African critics. African countries adopted a sharply
armed
critical attitude to the developied
their international trading policies,
nations because of
and especially be-
cause of the greater costs of industrial exports in the wake of the rise in oil prices. Negotiations to find
an acceptable economic relationship between the EEC and the associated and associable states of Africa, the
in
Caribbean, and the Pacific continued. (See cial AND Trade Policies.)
Economy. increased
oil
The energy
crisis,
Commer-
produced by steeply
prices, seriously impaired the continent's
economies, except for the eight oil-producing countries (Libya, Algeria, Nigeria, Egypt, Angola, Gabon, Tunisia, and the Congo), The 35 (Guinea-Bissau excluded) non-oil-producing countries were further hit by the resultant increase in the cost of imports from the industrialized nations as well as by the need for See Drought and Food, increased food imports. above. These developments put a severe strain on (
I
payments problems of the great maof African countries. For the lucky eight oil
the balance of jority
producers, total fuel exports were expected to reach 270 million metric tons in 1974, earning them about $12 billion. The additional cost to the rest of the
was estimated at about SI. 3 billion, as compared with about $500 million in 1973. Africa's overall economic performance continued its disappointing downward trend in 1974. By the end of 1973 the growth rate of the gross domestic product (GDP) had declined to 4.3%. as compared with 4.7% continent
during the 1960s. The share of agriculture in the total output of independent Africa declined from 41.5% in 1960 to 29.7% in 1972 and showed signs of falling even lower. Manufacturing output continued to show a small rise in values in 1973-74 from the 5.7% increase
shown
in 1972;
minimum 8% ment Strategy
but this was
target set
Plan.
By
still
short of the
by the International Developcontrast, mineral production
to rise, with greater attention being given to crude petroleum and mineral exploration. By 1974 about 10% of the worid's total pe-
and exports continued
troleum production came from Africa. The value of independent Africa's exports, at $14,160.000.000. was 18% higher in 1972 than in 1971. The value of imports in 1972 amounted to $12,387,000,000,
an increase of 8.5% over the previous year. The balance of payments of most African countries continued to be characterized by deficits on the current account; the exceptions were the petroleum- and other mineralexporting countries. projects were and the trans-Saharan highways,
Communications. The major road still
the trans-African
Africa.
which would eventually link West Africa to East and North Africa, respectively. Railways continued to be 'he most important long-distance carriers in terms of bulk volume. The Tanzam railway being built by the Chinese would link landlocked Zambia to Tanzania when finally completed in 1975. Airline traffic continued to increase in 1974, and harbour facilities
50
Aericulture and
Food Supplies
were considerably improved with greater use of container techniques. The Pan-African Telecommunications Network remained the most important project in this field; when finally completed it would serve 33 countries.
Population. The 1972 estimate put the continent's population at 322 million. Projection studies calculated that the total population would be 457 million in 1980 and 818 million in the year 2000. If no decline in the fertility rate occurred, the population could reach 900 million by the end of the century.
birth and mortality rates produced a popuwhich 45% of all Africans were below the age of 15, 52% were between 15 and 65, and only 3% were above 65 years of age. (COLIN legum)
The higher
lation structure in
See
also Dependent political units.
Refugees;
States;
the
article
[971.D.6; 978.D-E]
Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Africa: Living in Two Worlds (1970); Boy ol Botswana (1970): City Boy of the Ivory Coast (1970); A Family of Liberia (1970); Two Boys Youth Builds a Nation in Tanzania of Ethiopia (1970); (1970); Silent Safari (1972); Elephant (1973): Cirafe (1973); Lion (1973); Zebra (1973); Cheetah (1973').
Near East and Africa held per
summer
of 1974, there
was
hope that 1973-74 crops would prove sufficient to avert famine in some heavily populated regions of the less developed world. World grain stocks had been lowered to levels that had not obtained for more than 20 years, while population during this period had increased more than 50%. Generally rising affluence had also increased demand. This was not an overnight development. Several observers had been predicting severe shortages and even widespread famine for a decade or more, But several events in 1973-74 brought about a confluence of trends that could no longer be ignored. Production setbacks in the less developed regions and poor grain crops in critical areas of the developed world in 197273 combined to lay the groundwork for heavy trading in cereals and animal feedstuffs. Touched off by heavy Soviet purchases and fueled by the accelerating demand for feedstuffs in Western Europe, Japan, and other areas, cereal purchases in the dollar market were given added impetus by currency revaluations. As a result, stocks were reduced to very low levels and prices of cereals and oilseeds skyrocketed. Countries with limited foreign exchange had difliculty obtaining needed supplies. Then, at the turn of the year, the Arab oil embargo and the sharp increase in fuel prices set the stage for energy and fertilizer shortages. It had been hoped that increased productivity, resulting in large measure from the combination of production inputs known as the Green Revolution, would enable large areas of the less developed world to little
—
—
gredients
drawn down
But a shortage of
food.
new
—
fertilizer
at least
—halted
high-yield varieties
one of the key
in-
further adoption of the
and was,
in fact, cited as a
cause of a production shortfall of some 20 million metric tons of grain in the less developed
principal
countries in
By
1974.
by the Food and Agri-
September it was clear that 1974-75 crops, affected by adverse weather in parts of North America, South Asia, and China, would not equal the estimated record 1,253,000,000 tons of grain produced in 1973-74, Production of wheat, coarse grains, and rice all fell below 1973-74 levels, and reduced output
(FAO),
of soybeans in the U,S, foreclosed the possibility of
world food production in 1973 increased 4% from a year earlier to an index of 131 (1961-65 = 100). This provided a 4% increase in per capita supplies in the developed market economies, but re-
improved oil meal and vegetable oil supplies. There were indications of increased meat supplies, though high prices continued to restrict demand. No one could predict with any degree of accuracy the effect of reduced production and stocks on the world's populations. For those in the developed regions, supplies would be adequate, though high prices were forcing some shifts in consumption patterns. The effects would fall hardest on heavily populated South Asia and the drought-beleaguered nations of the African Sahel. At midyear an assessment of the world food situation by the FAO indicated that 20 to 25% of the populations in the Far East, the Near East, and Africa suffered from "significant undernutrition," In early July UN Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim warned that the "sheer survival of millions" depended on sustained relief measures by the international com-
levels.
By
to critically
most estimates indicated that 1974
fall
2%
less
than in 1973.
WORLD FOOD SUPPLIES On
the basis of data collected
culture Organization of the United Nations total
Indexes of Food and Agricultural Production Averoge 1961-65
=
100
Total agricullufol
Per cop food produ(
production
19691973*
1972
1973'
71
1972
Oceonia Eastern Europe ond the U.S.S.R.
developed market economi< America
totin
eluding Isroel) For East (e.clui jChin
late
munity. Later in the month Norman E. Borlaug. winner of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970 for his contri-
ond Jopon) Jing Soul)) Africo)
bution tincluding countries in other re( Source, Food ond Agricullure C Stofisffcs
the
the less developed regions to only
the end of the
Early hopes for a banner year in agriculture in 197374 withered as Asian crops, affected by serious fertilizer shortages and poor weather, failed to materialize and severe drought in the U.S. reduced grain production. This destroyed prospects for a buildup in world
harvests would be about
lets
By
2%,.
reach some reasonable degree of self-sufficiency in
low
I.
in
capita gains in
Agriculture and Food Supplies
grain stocks, which had been
Table
duced output
(March 1974).
>
of the United Not
,
Monthly
fiuffelin
of AgficulWfol
to
the
development
of
high-yield
grains,
forecast that from 10 million to 50 million people in India would starve to death unless massive food aid w'as forthcoming.
Concern over the world food situation culminated
World Food Conference, held in Rome in NovemFAO. Despite the pleas of several less developed nations. Utile in the way of in a
ber under the aegis of the
immediate action
to relieve famine emerged from the 12-day conference. However, the delegates did agree in principle to several long-term recommendations,
including establishment of an agricultural develop-
ment fund,
originally proposed by a group of Arab by the UN General Assembly, a World Food Council was to be established which would coordinate a three-year program to deliver ten million tons of grain per year to needy countries over three years, a permanent grain stockpile to meet emergency conditions, and an early warning system to monitor crop conditions and provide advance notice of possible famine. The UN body, however, was to have a purely coordinating role, and details of the projects were to be worked out later. Differences within the U.S. government reemerged
countries. Subject to approval
among members of the U.S. delegation to the conference. Some urged an increase in food aid for humanitarian reasons or believed, with U.S. Secretary of State
Henry
Kissinger, that the national interest dictated
a trade-off between U.S. food resources and the resources of the less developed countries, including
oil.
Others agreed with the Departments of Agriculture and the Treasury that world hunger problems had
been exaggerated, that a solution could be achieved through expanded trade and continuation of modest food assistance directed toward improving productivity in the less developed countries, and that a substantial increase in food aid would exacerbate the inflationary spiral. Secretary of Agriculture Earl L. Butz, the head of the U.S. delegation, emphasized that food is "a tool in the kit of .American diplomacy." Consumption, Expenditures, and Prices. The index of per capita food production among the less developed nations rose from 101 0961-65 = 100) in 1972 to 103 in 1973 and from 115 to 120 in the developed economies. Even so. production reverses and distribution problems left many countries in extremely difficult circumstances. Deaths from famine in the African Sahel were estimated at more than 100,000 in 1973 alone. Drought in Ethiopia affected
hundreds of thousands. Poor crops and maldistribu-
-^
Table
Agriculture and
III.
Survey of Retoi In
Food Supplies SteoV,
il
Food
Prices In Selected Citiet, Sept. 4,
U.S. dollars pei pound, converted at current
1974
exchange rolei
Roost, Roi
Bread, ;, /
Bonn,
W. Gar.
Brasilia. Broz.
Brussels, Belg. Buenos Aires, Arg.'
Conberro, Auslr.
Copenhagen, Den. MTxko'CilJ.'Mex. Oltawo, Ont. Paris, Fronce Rome, Italy
Stockholm, Swed. The Hogue.Neth.
3.37
Oranges, white, Apples doien pkgd.
tons in 1972-73 to about 173,700 tons.
The
USDA
requested an appropriation of $778,473,000 for 197475 Food for Peace operations. Late in September House Appropriations Committee approved
the the
budget request in its report, which allocated 52% to Title I programs. Although the bill was passed in the House on October 9, the program was criticized by congressmen and others for supplying South Vietnam and Cambodia with large amounts of food that were
money for miliamendment to the Foreign
alleged to have been converted into tary purposes. In July an
Assistance Act provided $150 million for disaster relief
and rehabilitation aid
the
to
drought-stricken
African nations, Pakistan, and Nicaragua.
Domestic food assistance at
some
in the
U.S. was estimated
$5.1 billion in 1973-74, an increase of about
20% from
the year earlier.
The Food Stamp Program,
which subsidized food purchases of low-income persons and families, accounted for approximately $2,995,367,000, and participation averaged about 14 million persons per month. Direct distribution of farm foods in areas where the Food Stamp Program was not yet operating totaled about $246,037,000. Child nutrition programs were estimated to cost about
Empty cattle pens at the Cliicago-Joliet
NORTHAMERICA ,,
.,
.
^.
„
.
_,
by poor peo-
United States. Crops. The 1974 crop year proved disappointing. With strong domestic and world demand for wheat and feed grains, record high net farm income for 1973, and the release of nine million acres
groups and some members of Congress. Marketing and Manufacturing. Of the $132 2 billion spent for food by U.S. consumers in 1973, an
formerly set aside under federal programs, early projections for overall production were high. March 1974 planting intentions indicated a drive by U.S.
$1,612,000,000. Late in the year an administration
proposal to raise the cost of food stamps to the recipients' net income
was
criticized
30%
of
ple's
estimated $82.3 billion represented the costs of trans-
and marketing. This marked a 5% rise in the "margin" between farm and retail value as compared with a year earlier. By mid-1974 marketing margins had risen 36% above August 1973, portation, processing,
month of the federal price freeze. Labour costs, at an estimated $40.3 billion,
the last
counted for foods
in
49%
of the total marketing
bill
ac-
for U.S.
1973; this was 7.2% more than in
1972.
farmers for all-out production, as well as some shiftand wheat. However, heavy spring moisture delayed plantings and a long, hot, dry period in the Midwestern and ing to high-demand crops such as corn
plains states dealt sharp blows to production hopes.
Moisture conditions improved in late August and early September, but early frosts further damaged corn and soybean crops. Critical drought conditions also caused sharp declines
in
per-acre yields, especially for corn,
Packaging costs totaling $10 billion were 6% above a year earlier, reflecting sharp increases in the prices of paper and other packaging materials. Rail and transport costs of $6.1 billion were unchanged, as in-
sorghum, wheat, soybeans, and cotton. All-crop production dropped sharply to an indicated index of 110 (1967 = 100), 10 points below a year earlier. Production of food grains (wheat, rye, and rice)
creased transport rates offset the smaller volume of
at 54,109.000 metric tons, up 7% from 51,458.000 tons a year earlier. The total wheat crop, though somewhat smaller than originally hoped, was forecast at 1,780,594,000 bu., 4% above 1973 and 15% more than the 1972 crop. Harvested acreage for all wheat rose 19% to 64,102,000 ac, the largest combined wheat acreage since 1953. Hard red winter wheat accounted for 879,310,000 bu. or slightly more than half the total crop, soft red winter wheat for 288,876,000 bu., durum for 78,014,000 bu., hard red spring wheat for 284.253,000 bu., and white wheat, both winter and spring, for 250,141,000 bu., a 40% increase over 1973. The rye crop was indicated at 19,616,000 bu., compared with 26,398,000 bu. a year earlier. Rice production was estimated at a record 114,808.000 cwt., 24% above the 1973 crop. Projected production of feed grains (corn, sorghum, oats, and barley) was 20% below a year earlier. Corn for grain was forecast initially at 5.700.000.000 bu., but drought conditions and early frosts reduced this to 4,621,248,000 bu., 18% below the record 1973 crop. Even so, the 1974 harvest was the fourth largest on record. Acreage was up 3% but per acre yield fell from 91.4 bu. in 1973 to 72.5. Sorghum grain produc-
farm goods marketed. Capital costs associated with and marketing of farm foods rose about 6%. to $6.9 billion, and interest rates for longterm credit and commercial and factory building costs increased 0.2 and 6.6%, respectively. Advertising costs for the food industry were reported at $2.3 billion. Corporate profits, before taxes, for the food industry were reported at $4.6 billion, an increase of about 31%. The largest share of the total marketing bill went to the food-processing industry, which accounted for $28.1 billion. Food wholesalers accounted for $11.7 billion of the marketing bill, food retailers for $23.6 billion, and restaurants and other food-servthe processing
ice institutions for
$18.8 billion. Sharply increased prices of food processors and rebrought critical responses from political leaders and consumers in 1974. Generally speaking, the brunt of criticism was borne by food retailers, whose prices continued to increase long after prices received by farmers and wholesalers began to decline. Early tailers
chairman of the Federal Trade Com(FTC) announced that a broad investigation was under way to determine if mergers in the food industry had contributed to food price rises. Earlier, the FTC moved to break up the market power of
in the year, the
mission
the nation's four largest breakfast cereal companies.
was indicated
was indicated at 609,272,000 bu., a drastic 35% from a year earlier. Oat production was 648,711,000 bu., compared with 663,860,000 bu. in 1973,
tion
decline
livestock centre
indicate the fluctuations i" >>««'
delivery
''"""' ^^^'^'
Agriculture and
Food Supplies
Cattle are unable to slake their thirst at this waterless pond in South Dakota. Drought conditions were widespread in several Midwestern
states during the year.
Table
IV. U.S.
Gra
Toblt V. Colton Producfion at Ih* Principal Producing
for phosphates, greater farm
Agriculture and
Food Supplies
Total farm assets as of Jan. at
1974, were valued
1,
$478.8 billion, up 23.8% from January 1973; real The average value
estate accounted for $325.3 billion.
25%
of farmland per acre rose nearly
in
the year
ended March 1, 1974. According to September 1 estimates, farm debt on Jan. 1, 1974, stood at $83,884,000,000, a 12% increase over the previous year. Mortand for $41,280,000,000 gage debt accounted short-term debt (excluding Commodity Credit Corporation loans) for $42,104,000,000. Trade and Stocks. U.S. agricultural exports reached record levels in fiscal 1974. Agricultural exports
amounted
to $21,320,000,000,
A
demand, and increased
use per acre, led to shifting marketing patterns and shortages for many farmers.
65%
above the record
$12.9 billion of fiscal 1973. At the same time, agricultural imports also rose, to $9.5 billion from $7.3 billion. The leading export was wheat (including products), with an export value of $4,738,000,000.
Feed
bill to
extend the Sugar Act for five years failed
House passage
in
June; defeat of the measure meant and domestic beet and
the end of sugar import quotas
cane production allocation as of Dec. 31, 1974. On November 18, however, the White House announced that the president had imposed an import quota of
seven million short tons of sugar for 1975, to be purchased on a first come-first served basis rather than under the country-by-country quota system specified in the Sugar Act. The action made it possible to keep import duties on sugar at current levels. Nevertheless, retail price of sugar up from 18 cents a pound January to 60-65 cents in November and with even higher prices forecast, the government urged Americans to conserve supplies and reduce sugar con-
with the in
sumption.
Canada. Early expectations of Canada Agriculture (formerly the federal Department of Agriculture) for a larger wheat crop were set back by unfavourable weather conditions, especially in the Prairie Provinces. for total production of
(excluding products) accounted for $4,551,000,000, or double the previous year's sales. Soybean exports amounted to $4.4 billion, compared with $2.3
The Wheat Board had looked
billion a year earlier. Japan continued to be the lead-
some
market with purchases of $3.4 billion. Western Europe bought $6.S billion of farm commodities; Canada, $1.2 billion; China, $852 million; and the U.S.S.R., $509 million. By August 1974 export activities had begun to slow and by the end of August, USDA specialists were forecasting a decline of up to 50% in total feedgrain exports. Causes were identified as steadily ris-
stocks of only 10.2 million tons, exports were expected to decHne to a possible 11.6 million tons. The export
grains
ing
well over 16 million metric tons, but
September 19
estimates were reduced to about 14.2 million tons, 2
picture
million tons below 1973 levels.
was
also disturbed
With June 30
by labour problems,
in-
cluding an eight-month slowdown, followed by a complete work stoppage in August, by grain handlers in
ing prices for U.S. corn, a lessening of foreign demand because of improved crops in some areas, and
Vancouver, B.C. The accidental closing of the St. Lawrence Seaway cut July-August exports by nearly a million tons. In June negotiations were completed for the sale of 2,030,000 metric tons of wheat to China, bringing total Canadian wheat sales to China
strong pressure from consumer groups and others to
in
keep domestic food prices down. Despite repeated assertions by congressional leaders and administration officials that export controls would not be implemented, several agreements were negotiated during the
summer
that effectively cut or held
back e.xports of wheat and feed grains. The commissioner of agriculture of the EEC agreed to a temporary
1974 to 3,050,000 tons.
With 55,000
additional hectares planted, estimated
corn production rose to 2,875,000 tons from 2,767,000, despite a 6% decline in yield. Oat production,
was down from 5,041,000 A new feed grains policy, anMay, provided for a national market for with prices based on supply and demand;
forecast at 4,530,000 tons,
tons a year earlier.
nounced
in
10%
feed grains, a price guarantee to producers for commercial sales
the Soviet
market not under Wheat Board control; a spereserve stock; and provisions for a delivery quota system to be imposed at the discretion of the board.
cutback in U.S. corn orders; Japanese trade representatives told USDA officials they would need 10% less feed grains during the next fiscal year; and
Union canceled orders
of wheat. In October the White
for 13.3 million bu.
House unexpectedly
to the cial
First official estimates for oilseed crops indicated
some
requested two major grain exporters to cancel sales of $500 million in wheat and feed grains to the Soviet
increase in rapeseed production, to 54.7 million bu.,
Union and moved
Cattle herds rose 6.1% during the first two quarters of 1974, to a record high 14,978,000 head. Beef cows
implement a system of
to
tight
supervision over large grain sales. 1 stocks of corn were reported at 428 milcompared with 709 million in 1973 and 1,126,000,000 in 1972. For all feed grains, beginning stocks
October
lion bu.,
for
1974-75 totaled 20.5 million short tons
million in 1973-74).
million bu. for
Wheat
(32.4
stocks, indicated at 249
1973-74, were expected to drop to
218 million bu. for 1974-75, and carryover stocks of soybeans, reported at 172 million bu. in August, were projected at 60 million bu. by August 1975. Only rice stocks were expected to rise. Legislation and Administration. To assist hardpressed livestock producers,
Congress enacted the
Emergency Livestock Credit Act
of 1974, establishing
a one-year guaranteed loan program. Individual loans
were limited
to
$250,000 and the total loan debt
ceil-
ing to $2 billion. Congress also considered, but failed to pass, legislation
to
indemnify poultry producers
were destroyed when federal inspectors detected traces of the chemical dieldrin in some birds.
whose
flocks
and a
slight decline in flaxseed.
and heifers were up 7.7 and S.5%. respectively, and steers were up 18.2%. Canada Agriculture forecast a possible significant increase in cow slaughter, depending on the level of feeder cattle prices and the availability of adequate forage supplies. In April Canada forbade importation of meat and meat animals fed with the growth hormone diethylstilbestrol (DES) after a U.S. Court of Appeals reversed a lower court order banning use of the hormone in feeding U.S. livestock. The hormone, which had been found to cause cancer in laboratory animals, was illegal in Canada. This action effectively prevented the importation of U.S. slaughter cattle and caused live cattle prices to rise sharply. In August Canada agreed to a U.S. proposal whereby animals exported to Canada would be as free from exposure to DES. However, with the imposition of a new import quota system for cattle and beef, to be in effect until Aug. 11, 1975. The quota system was an attempt to certified
this coincided
Btl.Tr
'< '
Agriculture and
Food Supplies
from soybeans. Livestock numbers rose and higher domestic prices encouraged a
2% 6%
in slaughter. Agricultural exports increased
in 1973,
increase
about
21%
in 1973. Exports of coffee to the U.S. rose 45% as Mexico toolc advantage of high prices and suspension
of quotas under the International Coffee Agreement. Central America. Agricultural production rose
throughout the six-nation region in 1973, and the outlook was for continued expansion in 1974. particularly for cotton and sugar. Corn crops in 1973-74 rose to 1,729.000 metric tons. Rice harvests were up about
8%, with lower production
in
El Salvador and
Panama
Costa Rica. Sugar production rose nearly 7% to 1,093,000 tons. The 1974forecast at 7,850,000 bags (60 75 coffee crop was kg. each"), a 9% increase over 1973-74 crops; only
by increased output
offset
in
Costa Rica's crop was expected to decline from 1973-74 levels. The 28% increase in cocoa bean production, to 9,100 tons,
was attributable to the larger
crop in Costa Rica. Cattle numbers rose 3.5% to 10.452.000 head; the Costa Rican herd increased by
9%
while the other five countries reported modest Beef production in the region was expected to 5% in 1974. but most governments did
gains.
increase about
not increase export quotas. Panama took the lead in urging Central American countries to raise export
Panama.) South America. With excellent soybean, com, and
taxes on bananas. (See
coffee crops forecast for 1974-75, agricultural output
Brazil was expected to rise 8%, continuing the upward trend of 1973-74. Almost all major crops except coffee and cotton improved in 1973-74, providing most of the country's food needs and contributing to in
The corn harvest an estimated IS million metric tons, but with domestic demand increased by the fast-growing poultry industry, exports were banned by the government to maintain domestic supplies. Production of
a significant gain in export earnings. rose
Table X.
Centr
8%
to
ghum.
It
was authorized
to
make
bilateral
agreements
with foreign buyers, and sales agreements were re-
ported with China and North Korea.
The high world
was also credited with refusal to extend domestic sugar legislamid-1930s had maintained U.S. prices above world levels, although an overall U.S. import quota for 1975 was later set by the president. Cuba was said to be promoting the formation of an price
by the U.S. Congress
Agriculture in Uruguay and Paraguay continued to reflect stagnant economies. Paraguay's 7% rise in
crop production in 1973 was partially offset by reduced output of livestock products. Most crops in the
association
of
sugar-exporting
countries
Andean Group countries Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela) showed improvement in 1973-74, and the outlook for 1974-75 was good. Chile's performance was mixed, reflecting un-
after
certainties associated with the agrarian reform policies
crease farm price support prices
six
(
patterned
WESTERN EUROPE At
its
March 1974 meeting,
the
EEC
agreed to
in-
production rose 50%. Output of almost all crops in Peru also rose. Production of red meat in 1973 was
down
half the increase in other countries.
new
military government and the failure of
offi-
cial prices to keep up with inflation. Agricultural output rose sharply in Bolivia in 1973 with recovery from adverse weather in the highly populated Altiplano.
The wheat,
barley,
slightly,
by expansion
and corn crops improved, and sugar
but lower supplies were partly offset in poultry.
The IS-day-per-month ban
on beef sales was continued. Several factors combined to hold Ecuador's agriculture to a no-growth level in 1973-74. Farmers adopted a "wait and see" attitude toward government measures promising agrarian reform, while excessive rain in the coastal regions and drought and frost in the Sierra severely affected cultural situation
some
crops.
The
agri-
was eased by increased petroleum
exports to the U.S., which helped pay for imports of
wheat, soybeans, and farm machinery. Overall output in
Colombia declined
in
1973-74, largely because of
severe drought and fertilizer shortages. Coffee produc-
10%, however, and
the outlook was for a further increase to 9.5 million bags in 1974-75. In Venezuela shortfalls in corn and cotton in 1973 were attributed to drought and floods, but rice, sugar, and sesame showed substantial improvements. Livestock production, which had increased about 5% per year for five years, failed to maintain its momentum, partly because of drought and feed shortages. Caribbean Countries. Total agricultural output in the Caribbean countries declined slightly in 1973-74, to an index of 116 (1961-65 = 100) from 117 a year earlier. Adverse weather in some countries, together with political and economic difiiculties and population increases, reduced per capita food production from an index of 93 in 1972-73 to 95. Most Caribbean countries continued to be heavily dependent on food imports; Cuba was reported to have imported 919,000 metric tons of wheat and wheat flour in 1973, mostly from Canada. Sugar production throughout the region rose to an estimated 7,750,000 tons (raw value) in 1973-74, an increase of nearly 10% above a year earlier. The Cuban harvest, at 5.8 million tons, was 10,5% larger than in 1972-73, and production of 1,225,000 tons in the Dominican Republic represented a 7% improvement. World sugar production in 1974-75 was expected to rise to about 83.7 million tons (raw value), exceeding the 1973-74 record of an estimated 81,174,000 tons. Increases were expected in South America, Asia, and Oceania, while the outlook for Western Europe and North America was for harvests about equal to those of 1973-74. At the same time, world consumption was expected to reach 81.5 miUion tons. Prices rose sharply in 1974, from a 1973 average of 9.61 cents per pound to 15.32 cents in January 1974 and 36 cents in New Vork in early September. High prices were reported to have reduced consumption rates in some countries. tion rose
Food Supplies
OPEC.
by an average of 8.5%; support prices were increased 4-6% for most grains and 15% for hard wheat. The Community did not change the intervention price for butter, which had been plagued by surpluses, but the price for skimmed, powdered milk was raised 19.7%. To protect British consumers from price increases, the British beef support price was raised only 6.3% for 1974,
of the
Agriculture and
tion that since the
A subsidy on calf and pig production and an increase in the consumer subsidy on butter were to be met by British rather than
EEC
funds.
Farmers throughout Western Europe were hard hit by inflation. In Italy, where the government controlled prices of such household staples as pasta, bread, sugar, and meat, chronic shortages appeared as producers held back deliveries. Widespread farmers' strikes and protests eventually led to the announcement of an unprecedented midseason increase in price supports. Italian farmhands staged a 24-hour strike for higher pay. sharecroppers held rallies to demand government aid. and cattle breeders and dairy farmers manned
border crossings
in
an effort to stop trains bringing
meat and dairy products into the country. In July French farmers demonstrated for a 12.5% increase in prices, a ban on imports of non-EEC food products, and subsidies for fertilizer, fuel oil, and other farm supplies. Argentine meat was dumped at Le Havre, and other shipments of food were dumped and burned. By August French protests had become so disruptive An that the agriculture minister threatened to withhold
outbreak
of foot-and-mouth disease
$120 million in farm aid. Farmers in The in Brittany, France, was brought under control Netherlands blocked highways with farm machinery, by slaughtering 17,000 and in mid-September simultaneous demonstrations animals, principally were held in all nine EEC countries. On September 20 pigs. It was the first such epidemic an overall increase of 5% in support prices was an- in the region in nearly nounced. West Germany was strongly opposed to the 20 years. a promised
was resolved at a meetEarlier, West Germany had exempting durum wheat from an EEC plan to raise farm price levels by 8-9%. Western Europe enjoyed generally favourable weather in 1974, although early fruit crops in some areas were damaged by frost and small grain and row crops in the northern regions suffered from dry conditions from March through June. In the fall westcentral France was declared a disaster area because of drought. The worst drought conditions in parts of Britain in 50 years were alleviated by June rain. Total grain production in Western Europe in 197475 was projected at 135.4 million metric tons, compared with 133.2 million tons in 1973-74. Imports were forecast at 37.7 million tons, far below 1973-74 levels of 47.1 million tons, and exports were also expected to fall, from 26 million tons to about 23.4 million tons. Total wheat production rose to 53.2 million tons in 1974. To prevent an outflow of EEC grain, export levies on cereals were increased in August. Italy reported a good harvest, though there was some dispute among producers and government statisticians on the size of the 1974 grain crop. In Septemincrease, but the disagreement
Agriculture and
Food Supplies
ing in
early October.
succeeded
in
ber the Central Statistical Institute projected soft wheat production at 6.8 million tons and durum pro-
The barley and oat crops and \0%, respectively, but drought condilO-lSf^. Although weather tions cut corn production and low temperatures delayed late summer cereal harvests in Britain and caused some loss of quality, September projections indicated that wheat production had risen to 5,250,000 tons. Oats and barley were below a year earlier, while corn and rye harvests were projected at the same levels. France forecast an in-
duction at 2.7 million tons. rose 20.5
crease in wheat and corn production, but rye, oats,
and barley declined. West Germany of 6% in wheat production, 4% in oat production, 6% for corn, and slight increases for rye and barley. Denenjoyed increases
mark experienced losses for all grains, while Finland, Norway, and Sweden showed gains. A serious red meat surplus in Western Europe was expected to continue well into 1975-76. The EEC approved subsidies on beef and veal exports for the first time in December 1973, and on July 16, 1974, the Community banned all imports of beef, veal, and live animals through the end of October. The resulting drop in European imports was expected to have serious implications for other producing nations with beef supply problems of their own. Midyear forecasts for Western Europe showed cattle inventories at 94.1 million head, a 4% increase over 1973, while hog numbers were 24% above the 1965-69 average. Total red meat production for the EEC was expected to increase 7-8% in 1974. At the same time, rising meat prices discouraged consumption, and beef stocks of 250.000 tons by year's end were predicted. By September storage capacity in the
EEC
was reported
to be exhausted.
Western European poultry producers experienced problems of high feed costs, surpluses of competing protein foods, and tight credit in 1974. During the summer DANPO, the largest Danish poultry slaughter cooperative, was taken over by creditors, and one of the largest turkey producers in the U.K. was forced into receivership. In the EEC an effort was made to cut broiler production by 10%, and export subsidies were made available to dispose of surpluses outside the Community. France took advantage of the subsidy
by exporting 10,000 tons
A
of broilers to the U.S.S.R.
serious sugar shortage occurred in England
when
Commonwealth Sugar Agreement CCSA')
countries
diverted supplies to world markets to take advantage
was relieved when payments under the CSA were increased. Filbert and almond production rose sharply in Spain and Italy, with Italy's al-
of higher prices
mond
:
it
crop at twice the 1973 level. Olive oil production was expected to rise as much as 32%. Spain
in Italy
planted an estimated 45.700 ac. to processing toma-
12% increase over 1973. The Western European apple crop declined some 19% because of early frost, heavy rain, and low temperatures during the blossoming period. toes, a
EASTERN EUROPE AND THE
U.S.S.R.
Eastern
Europe. Although foreign trade prices within Comecon were frozen through 1975, approximately a third of the members' trade was conducted with nonmemhers. Thus Eastern Europe was not isolated from world market prices, and retail prices for gasoline, diesel fuel, coffee, cocoa, fruits, and vegetables were raised in 1974. However, government subsidies absorbed price rises for bread, milk, meat, and sugar. In Yugoslavia, which did not belong to Comecon and had a less tightly regulated economy, retail prices increased 23% during the first seven months of the year. There were indications that the 85% of Yugoslavia's farmland in private ownership was being shifted to a more predominantly collectivized system. Eastern Europe experienced dry weather conditions from the fall of 1973 until the end of April 1974. Good rainfall occurred during late April and early May, but heavy rains in May, June, and July caused some flooding and delayed the harvest of winter grains and the planting of silage crops. East Germany was the exception favourable weather prevailed there all year. The 1974 grain harvest in Eastern Europe was fore;
cast at nearly 87 million metric tons, the level of the previous two years. Preliminary figures showed wheat
production at 32.2 million tons, up slightly from 1973 but substantially more than the 1968-72 average. Late reports from Hungary were of a record wheat harvest
—
larger than the 4.5 million tons of 1973.
duction, at 10.379.000 tons, a year earlier.
The
Rye
pro-
was down somewhat from
oat crop also declined, while barley,
at 12,765,000 tons,
was about the same. Total
com
production, at 25,230.000 tons, was well above the
1968-72 average. Feed supplies were low in relation to A good potato crop was
livestock numbers, however.
expected to dampen demand for grain. Like other producing nations, the Eastern European countries were caught in a situation of red meat oversupply. Midyear inventories for cattle were reported at 37,636.000 head, nearly
numbers had
risen
i.i%
4%
to
over 1973, and hog
154.5 million. Stocks of
frozen beef began to build after the Common Market ban on beef and cattle imports went into effect. Eastern European feeders slowed slaughter operations, and shifts to other markets were expected. U.S.S.R. Plans for 1974 were announced after the December 1973 meeting of the Supreme Soviet. Government capital investment in agriculture was to be
11.6% higher than in 1973. with a major share allocated to land improvements. Funds were also earfor the purchase of 64.6 million metric tons
marked
of fertilizer,
major increases
construction of
new
in
farm machinery, and
poultry, cattle, and hog units.
Gross agricultural production was scheduled to rise 6.4% over the 1973 record. The Soviet Union enjoyed a generally favourable winter in 1973-74, although the southwestern section
was abnormally dry until late April. The area east of the Urals was hot and dry throughout the growing seaand drought took its toll on regional crops. Crop production for 1974 appeared to be approximately 5% below year-earlier levels while livestock production increased 5 to 10%. Thus, overall agricultural production would be somewhat larger than in 1973, although son,
short of the planned
6.4%
increase. Total grain pro-
duction was estimated at about 205 million tons, or 8% below 1973 production, but the quality was expected to be generally good. Wheat production was forecast at 90 million tons, nearly 18% less than the record 1973 crop, and total feed-grain production (barley, oats,
and corn)
at a record
88 million tons.
Several incidents cast doubts on final figures, how-
In accordance with agreements of the U.S.U.S.S.R. Joint Working Group on Agricultural Economic Research and Information, the U.S. sent a ever.
three-man delegation to the Soviet Union in August to gather information on the 1974 grain crop, but its itinerary was rejected. After canceling an order for 13.3 million bu. of U.S. wheat in August, the Soviets entered the market in September to buy 3.4 million tons of wheat and corn. That sale was halted by the U.S. government, but a 2.2 million-ton sale was negotiated in October after the Soviets agreed to receive the grain in staggered shipments and not to buy any additional U.S. grain until the
The ninth
five-year
plan
summer
this effort
(1971-75)
Algeria,
Algeria
continued
to
redistribute
had called
explained at least part of the unprece-
dented Soviet grain purchases. Output of livestock products in 1974 was expected to be S to 10% above a year earlier. Livestock numbers at the beginning of the year were at record levels for all classes except hogs, and midyear inventories showed 106.2 million head of cattle, compared with 104,006,000 head a year earlier. Meat production was estimated at 14.4 million tons and milk production at 90.8 million tons. Total oilseed output was forecast at 7 million tons, nearly 6% less than the 1973 record. Soybean production was expected to return to normal levels after the rather poor 1973 crop. Spring coolness apparently reduced sugar-beet and potato crops. Estimated sugarbeet production was down by 3-8% and the potato crop by 7-12%.
Morocco's redistribution of land belonging to foreigners had been completed in 1973. Agricultural production in Egypt increased 5% in 1973-74, with larger crops of cereals, citrus, sugar, and cotton. An increase in wheat production of nearly 14% was attributed in large measure to adoption of a new variety, Giza 155, a cross between Mexican dwarf varieties and local wheats. Cotton production rose to an estimated 2.4 million bales. The lower volume of cotton shipments in 1973 was offset by higher prices, raising the value of cotton exports above $500 million.
At
the
same
time, higher grain prices increased the
value of agricultural imports to some $470 million.
The
U.S. once again became a major supplier of grains in
1973-74
declined from an index of 144 to 132, and per capita
food production
fell
from 110
peanuts, sugar, and oilseeds
important cotton crop rose
Sub-Sahara. Rain came
Sorghum, millet, declined, though the
to 99.
all
22%
to 1.1 million bales.
to
the drought-stricken
nations of the Sahel in late August and early Septem-
ber 1974, breaking
—
at least temporarily
—
the drought
had ravaged the region for over six years. Whether the rains would be sufficient to restore some degree of food self-sufficiency was highly questionable. Some experts thought that relief supplies would be needed for several years. Harvests in Mauritania, Mali, Upper Volta, Niger, Chad, and The Gambia in 1973-74 continued to be as much as 25% below those in 196970. Livestock herds were down by at least 25%, and the FAO estimated that over 3.S million cattle had died in 1973 alone. Conditions in Senegal, at the west-
ern terminus of the region, did show a marked im-
provement, with total 1973-74 production rising to an index of 101 from 73 a year earlier. The millet, sorghum, and rice crops all improved, and the 1973 peanut crop was up 20%. Elsewhere in the region, 1973 peanut crops were reported to be poor; Niger's was less
than half the previous year's output of 195,000
metric tons, and Mali's
fell to
an estimated 100,000
tons from 150,000. (See Special Report.) in sev-
was most severely hit, but parts of Kenya, Tanzania, and the Malagasy Republic were also affected. Total agrieral East African countries in 1973-74. Ethiopia
Total agricultural production in Africa declined in 1973, from an index of 125 (1961-65 = 100) to 120, and per capita food production fell about 6%. Drought, which had seriously affected the Sahelian
cultural production in
Malawi showing
1973-74 declined, with only
a slight increase.
region for several years, spread southward and east-
Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania
Dry weather also seriously affected crops in South Africa. All three of Africa's most important ex-
harvest was
ward.
—
coffee,
cotton,
and cocoa beans
—were
smaller in 1973. High prices increased export earnings in several countries,
but the gains were generally
off-
by the equally high prices of imports. Northern Africa. Agricultural production throughout most of the Maghreb and Libya declined in 1973-
set
74 as a result of adverse weather. Algeria's production of about 1.1 million metric tons of wheat
was the
Morocco's wheat harvest was down 21%, and barley was nearly 50% below a year earlier. Total production in Libya declined an esti-
smallest since
1966.
mated 20%. By contrast, Tunisia did exceptionally well; cereals improved slightly and production of an estimated 140,000 tons of olive
15%
Sudan
to Egypt. Agricultural output in the
East Africa. Drought conditions appeared
AFRICA
port crops
holdings.
large
that
of 1975.
for massive increases in the Soviet livestock industry,
and
fell sharply in Morocco, and Libya, and rose 14% in Tunisia. The rewas for a 20% increase in 1974-75 cereal crops. Structural changes continued to be made.
capita basis, food production gional outlook
oil
contributed to a
increase in overall agricultural output.
On
a per
Wheat production fell
to
in
an estimated
1,680,000 metric tons for 1974-75, and Ethiopia's rye down 6%. However, the important corn crop showed a slight improvement. Corn production in Zambia, Tanzania, Burundi, and Uganda was expected to recover from relatively poor crops in 1973-74. Rice production continued almost unchanged, at an esti-
mated 2,043,000 tons; 1,805,000 tons were accounted for by the Malagasy Republic. Sugar production throughout the region showed a modest improvement in 1973-74; the estimated output of 1,618,000 tons was about 6% more than in 1972-73. Tea production in 1974 was down about 6%, Kenya's output of an estimated 49,000 tons was about 15% less than in 1973. East Africa's 1974-75 coffee crop was estimated at 5,017,000 bags, marking a strong recovery from the year before when it had fallen by 15%, Kenya's 1974-75 output, to 112,500 tons;
Agriculture and
Food Supplies
Agriculture and
Food Supplies
Circular farms in
the Libyan Desert
employ electrically controlled irrigation
systems.
Up
to
1,200
gal.
of water per minute
can be discharged on each 205-ac. disc.
1,217,000 bags, was up 16%. Masai tribesmen in Kenya were said to have lost a high per-
estimated at
centage of their cattle herds
With reduced
sisal
in the
1973-74 drought.
output in Kenya and Brazil par-
Tanzania and .Angola, world production declined about 2.6% in 1973-74, to 1,433,000,000 lb. World production of all hard fibres (sisal, henequen, and abaca) was forecast at 2.011,000,000 lb. for 1974-75, almost equal to the previous crop. Henequen, grown mostly in Mexico, was expected to total 350 million lb., and abaca was forecast at 228 million lb., with the Philippines accounting for 201 million lb. Rapidly rising demand pushed prices upward. In mid-April 1974 Tanzanian-Kenyan sisal tially
offset
by increases
in
prices reached $1,075 per metric ton,
$420
compared with
a year earlier.
West
14 nations
of the
1973-74, but only
5
of
the less populous countries raised per capita food pro-
Drought conditions were reported in the parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, Dahomey, Ghana, and Guinea adjacent to the southern reaches of the Sahel. The region's 1973-74 corn crop, estimated at 3,329,000 metric tons, was about 6% above the 1968-72 average, and the forecast of 3,460,000 tons
duction.
northern
1974-75 represented a further increase of about 4%. Nigeria's corn harvest was 12% above a year earlier, but per capita food production in Nigeria declined in 1973 by about 5%. In Ghana, where corn production rose nearly 20% in 1973-74, per capita food production was down nearly 6%. Rice production for the region was estimated at 2,131,000 tons, 5% more than in 1972-73. Production in Zaire rose nearly 30% to an estimated 227,000 tons. Total sorghum and millet production for the region was estimated at 6.5 million tons, about 10% less than a year earlier; Nigerian production was down 11%, in
gains
in
several
Cas.sava and other root crops rose tons, but
their crops because of possible food shortages. Some of the crop was also being smuggled into Chad and Niger, where high prices could be obtained. West African governments continued to encourage agricultural production through a variety of price incentives and development schemes. With technical assistance from the U.S., Israel, and Taiwan, Ghana was constructing a 50-mi. irrigation canal to move water from the Volta Dam to the Accra plains, where intensive vegetable production was planned. Ivory Coast planned to increase cocoa acreage some 320.000 ac. by 1981 a second cocoa-processing plant was being completed and a new factory complex for processing palm oil was opened. Nigeria continued to extend its highway system to improve marketing of farm products. The 1973-74 cocoa bean harvest in West Africa was indicated at 962,400 tons, about 4% less than in 1972-
sell
;
Africa. About half the
region increased output in
offsetting slight
was sharply below the 1972-73 crop of 1.125.000 tons. Reports in February indicated that Nigeria's Northern States Marketing Board was having difficulty purchasing peanuts from local farmers, who were reluctant to
smaller countries.
3%
to 55.8 million
1973-74 appeared to be down substantially. Drought reduced peanut crops in Cameroon, Dahomey, Togo, and Ghana, and the important Nigerian crop, estimated at 700,000 tons, peanut production
in
73.
Production was down
13%
in
Ghana, to an
esti-
tons, and about 1 1% in Nigeria, where 235,000-ton crop was forecast. Ivory Coast and
mated 365,000 a
Cameroon reported
gains. Early estimates for
1974-
75 placed total world production at 1,461,300 tons,
only slightly more than the 1,451.500 tons of 1973-74.
The West African crop was estimated tons as weather conditions
in
at
1.035.800
September and October
cut earlier forecasts of production gains to about
8%,
while a reduced Brazilian main crop brought South
American production to an estimated 279.100 tons, compared with 353,600 tons a year earlier. Tight supplies and record prices characterized the cocoa market in 1974; prices reached a peak of $1.30 per pound (N.Y. spot "Accra"') in May and then dropped to $1.06 by the end of August. High prices were lowering consumption in the major cocoa-using nations. U.S. grindings in January-June 1974 totaled 126.417 tons, compared with 151.275 tons in the first half of 1973; the West German grind was reported to be down 15%; and The Netherlands grind fell 4.5%. The International Cocoa Agreement, which came into force on
June 30, 1973, had
little
influence in 1974, since cocoa
prices throughout the year substantially exceeded the
agreement's price range of 23-32 cents. Southern Africa. Production in South Africa and Rhodesia declined in 1973-74. Drought in the western
Transvaal and northwestern Orange Free State damaged corn and sorghum crops, reducing South Africa's total output to an index of IIS from 141 a year earlier, while in Rhodesia the production index fell from 113
to 96.
South Africa's corn crop, estimated
metric tons, was
down 18%. The
desian corn crop was
at 9 million
1.6 million-ton
Rho-
20%
below 1972-73, and the Rhodesian wheat harvest declined by the same amount. Wheat production in South Africa fell from
Sorghum production de242,000 tons, and wool produc-
1,835,000 tons to 1,725,000. clined
50%
in 1973, to
tion fell for the third consecutive year.
Sugar production in South Africa fell about 9% in 1973-74, to an estimated 1,732,000 tons; with domesconsumption at about 950,000 tons, some 800,000
tic
tons would be available for export, compared with shipments of over a million tons in 1972-73. Additional land was to be planted to sugarcane before the 1975-76 season. Cotton production was estimated at about 78,000 bales in 1973. Tobacco output continued
downward
trend, to about 26,600 tons. Deciduous production was seriously affected by drought in 1973, and exports fell 16%. Adverse weather also reduced oilseed production, but generally good grazing its
fruit
conditions increased cattle numbers to about 8.2 million head. A levy of about $15 per ton on fish-meal sales was being used soybean production.
to build
up a fund
to
encourage
MIDDLE EAST AND THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT Middle East. The 1974 wheat crop
Middle East fell short of early projections, though most nations reported gains in actual production. Rainfall was sparse during the critical growing months, especially in Turkey and Iran, the region's major producers. Turkey expected a crop of eight million metric tons, the same as a year earlier but nearly one million tons below the 1968-72 average; imports were forecast at in the
Early in the year Turkey announced that its threeyear ban on opium poppy production would be Ufted. In making the announcement, the government cited of employment and income; 100,000 families which had cultivated poppies had been forced to turn to less profitable crops such as wheat, barley, and sugar beets. (See Drug Abuse.) Israeli citrus exports were expected to rise to 47 million crates during the winter months, with the bulk of the shipments going to Western Europe. Of the total, 22 million crates were Shamouti oranges, 12.5 million were grapefruit, 10.5 million were Valencia oranges, and the rest were lemons and navel loss
oranges.
Indian Subcontinent. Indian agriculture experienced a devastating year in 1974. Severe drought,
Iran predicted an average crop of 3.9 and expected to import 1.3 million tons. wheat crop rose to 1.6 million tons, despite unfavourable weather. Israeli wheat production was forecast at 300,000 tons, an impressive gain over the
and low farm prices contributed to a pro7%, and there were predicFarmers found themselves without enough fuel to operate irrigation pumps at full capacity. Fertilizer, desperately needed for growing the new, high-yield varieties of seeds, was scarce and extremely ex-pensive. Fertilizer plants were reported
242,000-ton crop of 1973. Turkey increased production to 3.1 million tons.
of fuel shortages.
1.5 million tons.
million tons Iraq's
Table
XII.
America
barley
World Cocoa Production
1,461.3
oulh
its
1,451.5
1,398.3
1,327.4
shortages,
duction decline of at least
tions of widespread famine.
to be running at only
60%
of capacity, largely because
Workers harvest in
rice
a lush producing area
of Java. Despite
bountiful yields,
population increases have led to a life of hunger and want for most. The population density is about 2,200 per square mile in this
region.
40%
least
was was
lost.
of the annual food output of 12 million tons
Wheat
production, forecast at 150.000 tons,
1973 crop but still of demand. Massive imports were needed to ensure average per capita consumption of 15-16 oz. per day. In October the U.S. agreed to send 100.000 tons of wheat and wheat flour and 50,000 tons of rice under Public Law 480. At least 50,000 tons of wheat had been shipped by year's end. Government programs in Pakistan designed to encourage rice production appeared to have had some success. September projections for the 1974-75 crop were 3.8 million tons (rough basis), compared with 6 million tons in 1973-74. The 1974 wheat crop was projected at eight million tons. Pakistan looked toward self-suflftciency in wheat, though it still expected to import 500,000-700,000 tons to build slocks and to supply ration stores. larger than the 90.000-ton
painfully
short
•
FAR EAST Japan Potatoes are irradiated with cobalt-60 In Hoklcaido. Japan. Each container carries 1.4 tons of potatoes around the radiation source (centre). The exposure prevents germination and rot, thus permitting long-term storage.
initiated a
new program
to increase agricultural
year the government abandoned a year-
production, expand grain and oilseed stocks, and ex-
old nationalized wheat distribution program, designed
pedite the diversification of supply sources. Soft wheat
and to stabilize Farmers had held back sup-
and soybean production were to be increased in order to balance domestic supply and demand for rice and to prevent fallow rice land from being brought back into production. Early indications were that rice land would decline by an additional 850,000 ac. in 1974. Conversion incentive payments were set at $535 per acre for annual crops and $610 per acre for permanent crops. Added to these were direct pa>'ments of $157 per ton for soybeans and $126 per ton for wheat, plus
Early
in the
originally to eliminate private traders
wheat prices plies,
at
low
levels.
shortages developed, and the cost of wheat had
risen dramatically. Distribution of foodstuffs to cities
was inadequate, and food throughout the country. especially
riots
had erupted
Despite the failure of the nationalization program, fears that lack of
government control would
result in
continuing food price rises seemed well founded.
By
and crop estimates became more gloomy, there were reports of widespread hunger and starvation. Tragically, hunger arose not only from lack of food but from lack of money. In some parts of the country market prices for rice doubled over a two-week period in early September. In October there was some relief as prices for grains, sugar, vegetable oils, and other essential items declined 10 to 20%. This appeared to be the result of strong government measures against smuggling and hoarding and of rainfall in several drought areas. Some economists, however, saw the declines as omens of recession. Massive food aid was needed. In October 1973 the Soviet Union had agreed to lend India two million metric tons of wheat. Beginning in April India purchased 1.8 million tons from other nations, chiefly the U.S., and an agreement providing at least one million tons of U.S. grain was announced in October. Total food-grain output for July 1973-June 1974
high guaranteed prices for both crops. Incentive pay-
rose significantly, to 103 million tons, but the favour-
Asia,
fall,
as rains failed
weather of 1973 did not continue into the At 24 million-25 million tons, estimated
able
fall
new
year.
coarse grain production for 1974-75 would be
below a year
earlier.
Wheat production was
10%
also ex-
ments were also scheduled clover, and rye.
The northern
for oats,
com
(for silage),
regions of China experienced heavy
fall of 1973 and an extremely dry winter. Early cold spells affected field operations in central
rains in the
and southern China, and subsequent unstable conditions indicated lower crop production. Weather conditions in most other parts of Asia were generally favourable. The Philippines were an exception, as midOctober typhoons on Luzon caused approximately $18 million
damage
to rice crops.
Preliminary reports indicated a 1974-75 world rice crop slightly below the year-earlier record of 309.8 million metric tons (paddy). Thailand forecast a decline of
about 300,000 tons as a result of drought durBurma expected a decline
ing the planting season, and
of about 300.000 tons. Partly offsetting these losses
were improved production
in
northern and eastern
bumper crops in Indonesia, and gains in Sri Lanka. South Vietnam expected some improvement. In the early fall China announced that its grain production was adequate to feed the nation's 800 million people. Reports varied, but
mid-September estimates
pected to decline, from 24.923,000 tons to 22.5 million,
released in Peking were for a 1974 grain crop of 250
Estimated 1973-74 pro-
million tons. Late reports indicated a 1974 rice crop
but rice was expected to
rise.
duction of major oilseeds was up of domestic demand. In
March
21%
still
short
of nearly 103 million tons, the
the Ministry of
Com-
ord.
but
as the 1973 rec-
main
estimated that at
continued on pate 68
of Bengal Deshi cotton for the remainder of the 1973-74 season. Tea production in 1974 was expected to reach a record 480,000 tons. Severe flooding in Bangladesh in July and August affected 20.000 sq.mi. and devastated the main rice crop. Unless farmers could replant in the fall, losses would reach one million tons or more. Initial estimates were that 80% of the summer crop was de-
stroyed, along with seedlings planted officials
same
forecast at 27.7 million tons, a slight
Nonewheat purchases were negotiated with Canada (75 million bu.) and Australia (one million tons). This brought total committed wheat imports for 1974-75 to 5.650.000 tons. During 1973-74 China imported approximately $1 billion in farm products from the U.S. In June it canceled orders for 48 million bu. of U.S. corn and shifted to a purchase of $121 million worth of soybeans.
merce banned exports
winter crop. Government
Wheat was
for the
decline from 1973 but well above 1972 levels. theless, large
Prodoi
1961-65
Produ.
1961-65
Product!
1970-73
1961-65
SPECIAL REPORT
Equally shortsighted were the relatively rich neighbours of the Sahel nations, the fast-developing coastal countries of Ivory
Coast, Ghana, and Nigeria,
who took up
to
40%
of the young
adult males of the Sahel countries and the bulk of their only
THE SAHEL DROUGHT
export
—livestock— without
Nomads from Niger have
economies. the long
ever attempting to integrate their
trail to
to drive their cattle
By Martin Walker
money cannot be
J. he great West African drought was a disaster that took the world by surprise. Yet it was no sudden act of God, no overnight .
that could
It
have been predicted some years before the news
first
in 1973.
is
easier to understand these failings
if
we remember
the
remoteness of the Sahel lands where the tragedy began. The Sahel (the name comes from the Arabic word meaning shore) is the boundary between the true desert of the vast Sahara and the beginning of the fertile lands and forests that stretch down to the West African coast. The Sahel, therefore, is essentially an area of marginal land, supporting Tuareg and Fulani nomads with their camels and cattle in the north, and thousands of villages, dependent on subsistence crops of millet, maize, and sor-
ghum,
in the south.
The Sahel
in Niger, they buy Nigerian goods (at inflated prices) and smuggle them home. In 1973, according to an estimate of the European Development Fund, two-thirds of Niger's peanut exports had been "imported" from Nigeria. Flight from the Desert. The greatest tragedy of the Sahel came after the disastrous year of 1972, when almost no rain fell. The vast cattle herds had devoured what little desert pasture there was by December. The herds moved south, to the Niger River and to the Senegal, where they were met by angry peasants whose own crops had failed. By May 1974 the mighty Senegal was salt 250 km. from the sea, so feeble was its flow. The dry riverbeds were choked with the dead cattle of Mauritania (herd loss 70% ), Mali (55% ), Niger (80%), and Chad (70%). With the dwindling herds came a swelling mass of refugees. The town of Rosso on the Senegal grew from 8,000 to 40,000 within
spent
buildup of thunderclouds, hurricane, or t>'phoon, but the result of a long process of ecological rape and political mismanagement
broke
down
the slaughterhouses of northern Nigeria, where
they are paid in Nigerian money. Since this
region stretches from the Atlantic
Ocean on the
west through Mauritania, Mali, Upper Volta, Niger, and Chad to the very centre of the African continent. Much of Senegal,
Ghana, Cameroon, Nigeria, and the Central African Republic also Sahelian in ecology, and it can be argued that the Ethiopian drought formed the eastern flank of the great dry belt that extended across Africa by 1974. UN Secretary-General Kurt is
Waldheim estimated in March 1974 that as many as 25 million Africans were directly affected and this in one of the least
—
densely populated parts of the earth.
Causative Factors. The human roots of the problem go back to 1960, when France began to give independence to its West African colonies. A handful of tiny countries, none economically viable and all more or less dependent on French budgetary and administrative aid, were left with a highly centralized, Frenchstyle civil service in a region where slow communications impeded administration. Without census, tax roll, or statistics, the embryonic nations began the daunting task of development. The first decade of independence began well, with eight years of good rains. International aid provided new wells, brought vaccination programs for the cattle and the nomads, and the growing economies of the coastal nations like Nigeria and Ivory Coast provided ready markets for the expanding herds. In short, the 1960s saw a population explosion among the Sahel's human and animal inhabitants, until in 1968 bad rains served the first warning that the fragile ecological balance of the desert shore could not support so much life. Few cattle died in that year, but around most of the new wells there were great swathes of dead land where the cattle and goats between them had overgrazed until not a tree or bush or blade of grass remained.
The
governments of the Sahel, meanwhile, were wondering what to do about the "nomad problem." The nomads, culturally different from the settled blacks of the south who dominated politics, had
the space of six weeks.
The first warnings of the disaster had reached the UN Food and Agriculture Organization in Rome in October 1972, but there was no effective means of evaluating the scale of the emergency until the herds and refugees began to reach the major centres in early 1973. Nor were the local governments eager to undermine their precarious authority by admitting to the world that their people were starving. By June 1973 the nature of the crisis was beginning to emerge. Between half and two-thirds of the cattle herds were dead, and the bulk of the sur\'ivors had trekked far to the south. The nomads who had driven their cattle south had left families and dependents in the north, where at least two million scattered people were in desperate need of food aid. Another million peasants from the marginal villages had fled to the cities and were living in makeshift, disease-prone encampments. Behind them a vast tract of land was now bereft of trees, of desert scrub, of pasture, and of the hardy Sahel vegetation that traditionally held back the desert. In 1973 there were places where the Sahara advanced southward up to 100 km. The nomads and peasants of the Sahel are a hardy people, accustomed to deprivation and disease. Even in the good years of the 1960s, infant mortality among the Tuareg rarely fell below 50%. But some of the new diseases that came with the refugees led to disaster. In the remote villages of the Air Massif, in northern Niger, about half the school-age children perished in a measles outbreak.
were the
FAO's
In Mauritania, in 1974, influenza and chicken pox In Chad diphtheria was widespread. When the
killers.
Mensah, visited northern mid-1973, he was asked by local chiefs not to send any more merciful death than starvation. There will never be any wholly reliable statistics of how many people died in 1973 because of the drought. The Carnegie Endowment report. Disaster in the Desert, by two individuals with
Chad
regional administrator, Moi.se
in
vaccine, because diphtheria would bring a faster and
no first-hand experience of the disaster, estimated the death at 100,000. it
The Sahel
two
figures,
and the
toll
long-term importance
little
time for tax collectors and less for the man-made national frontiers that cut across their traditional trading routes. Sporadic
blight the children
guerrilla warfare plagued the Sahel throughout the 1960s.
alive in a series of
One
The
for 1974 is
who
own
toll
coordinating office placed
truth probably
was probably
lies
between the
similar.
Of greater
the effect of malnutrition, which will did survive for the rest of their lives.
British journalist reported that the only children he had seen nomad encampments were deformed or sufferfrom speech and motor impediments. The immediate result for the Sahel nations was economic disruption, further weakening their already frail economies. Before the drought, Upper Volta had a per capita gross national product of $55, and the inhabitants of Niger had an average ing
Martin Walker is a journalist on the staff of The Guardian, London. He visited the Sahel region in 1973 and 1974 and his reports on conditions south oj the Sahara were notable for their clarity and perception.
countries'
at not less than 50,000.
annual income of $85. In Niger the decimation of the cattle herds instantly removed that 35% of the tax base which came from the head tax on the nomads' animals. By late 1973 the international oil crisis was adding its own savage financial effects. International Aid: Difficulties and Delays. When the cattle a major contributory factor in died in 1973 they were eaten
—
the mixture of luck
An
and muddle that staved
international airlift of essential supphes
May onward.
Pres.
Hamani
off mass starvation. was organized from
Diori of Niger later pointed out that
the cost of the airlift in his
own country would have
paid for
the irrigation of 11,000 ha. of land near the Niger River that
could have produced the 110,000 tons of food Niger needed. In Mali the team of three U.S. Hercules transport aircraft expended one ton of aviation fuel for every ton of food they flew to the worst-hit area. In Chad it took 19 tons of aviation fuel to fly in one ton of medical supplies. And the aviation fuel had to
compete with food for the available
The 1973
rail
transport.
distribution of the 550,000 tons of food aid donated in
fell
into three stages. First, transport to the few overloaded
West Africa. In Dakar, Senegal, grain that had arrived July was still stored on the docks as late as November, soaked and partly ruined by the rainy season. The second stage involved moving the food from the ports to the regional centres. The Dakar-Mali railroad was the vital link, moving up to 10,000 tons a month. But both road and rail transport ceased to be reliable after the rains began to wash out the dirt tracks and undermine the railway lines. The third stage of distribution, from regional centre to famine area and refugee camp, depended on trucks. In the Sahel, UN officials were reporting that the life of a modem truck was about 1,000 hours because of the desert conditions and lack of maintenance facilities. In September 1973 an FAO investigating committee estimated that 650,000 tons of food would be needed for 1974, which meant that distribution from the ports had to begin in January if all the food was to reach the affected areas before the rains came. The Sahel governments themselves put their food needs at 1.2 million tons. Bureaucratic and budgetary delays at the FAO in Rome and the U.S. Agency for International Development headquarters in Washington meant that 1974 food shipments did not begin to arrive in great quantity until late March. The situation was saved, ironically, by the spread of the drought into Nigeria, where ports of in
it cut the peanut crop by 60%. This freed the vast Nigerian truck Over 400 Nigerian trucks were hired by the FAO in early June and used as a nonstop shuttle to the Sahel, moving up to 50,000 tons of food each month. It was in 1974 that the political whirlwind was reaped. In Niger the social strains of the drought, combined with a political crisis, led to a military coup that overthrew the civilian government of President Diori in April. In Ethiopia the drought brought a sudden acceleration of social unrest and dissatisfaction that led
fleet.
Emperor Haile Selassie's final downfall in September. Rehabilitation or Resettlement? Research into climatic changes that had brought on the drought pointed to a long-term, fundamental climatic shift that would render much of the Sahel uninhabitable within two decades. The study, collated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was cited by the U.S. delegate to the July conference of the UN Economic and Social Council. He argued that emergency food aid must continue, but long-term attempts to irrigate or rehabilitate the Sahel would be doomed to failure. The evidence for this long-term climatic change is not yet conclusive, but it is strong enough to remove the expensive option, urged by the Sahel governments, of a billion-dollar investment to
in irrigation
and restocking of the
region. Increasingly, the aid
agencies and the Sahel governments are beginning to accept the fact that the
nomad way
of
life
may have come
to
an end.
Much
of the nomads' economic role in camel-borne trade (particularly of salt) has been taken over by trucks, and the expansion of the
amount of grazing land left them. If expansion of the Sahara continues then the way of the
desert has significantly reduced the to
Tuareg could be doomed and the proud, impoverished nomads forced to
become
resettled cultivators.
But at least some lessons have been learned. Notice has been served on the third world that rural development must never overstrain the local ecological balance.
And
the international
food agencies, accustomed to providing relief in countries such as India with effective distribution systems, have learned not to send food that will rot before it can be delivered. Above all, in the year when world food reserves fell to an all-time low, the threat of further disaster in the Sahel helped to concentrate the minds
community on the need to prepare for what Paul Ehrlich has called "the decade of famine." of the international
Refugees search for wind-scattered grain in tile
sand at a food
distribution site in tlie
Sahel.
A
chopper-harvester
cuts through a field of sugarcane in
Queensland, Austr.
continued from page 64
Thailand's corn production was forecast at three million tons for 1974-75, a substantial gain over year-
There was speculation
The Australian sugar
earlier levels of 2,350,000 tons.
industry, concentrated
that corn might eventually replace rice as Thailand's
on the Queensland coast, is almost entirely mechanized.
main
agricultural export.
Corn production
in the Phil-
ippines rose to an estimated 2,350,000 tons, but im-
ports of wheat, corn, and rice were expected to rise as
domestic needs increased and an effort was made to maintain adequate stock levels. South Korea announced production goals of 458,000 tons of oilseeds for 1974, a 56% increase over 1973. World production of palm oil in 1974 was forecast at 2.6 million
tons
(oil
equivalent), up
13% from
1973. Philippine copra production, at an estimated
1,120,000 tons fin oil), would account for nearly half
and coconut oil exports fell months of 1974. In August
the total. Philippine copra
44%
during the
the government
first six
moved
to create a
sustain the prevailing price
— and
—
at
marketing board to
400% above
the tradi-
maintain the country's predominant market position. However, by late August, Philippine copra prices on European markets fell to a low $630 per ton, Philippine export prices, shipping tional level
to
charges, and export taxes discouraged exporters, and supplies began to increase at a rate of 50,000 tons a
TabI* XIV. Production of Meals
in Principal
Producing Countria
Australia's 1974 wool clip produced an estimated 772,000 tons, greasy basis, an increase of IC^ from 7% below average.
the low production of 1973 but
Exports of wool for the 1973-74 season were estimated at 587,269 tons, a decrease from 760,457 tons a year earlier. World wool production in 1973-74 was estimated at 2,511,900 tons, greasy basis, 4.5% above a year earlier but somewhat less than the 1955-69 average.
World
prices
had reached
their highest levels
20 years in the first quarter of 1973, but they subsequently declined as monetary instability and energy shortages reduced mill consumption. The average in
market
prices of Australian wools on the world
fell
as
as 30% in late 1973 and early 1974, and in the July auctions at Sydney the Australian Wool Corporation, apparently to prevent further erosion,
much
bought a reported 200,000 bales, two-thirds of the first offering from the 1974 clip, presumably at prices equal to or above the intervention price of A$2.50 per kilogram. The corporation subsequently postponed auctions planned for August until further government financial support could be obtained.
New about
Zealand. Agricultural production declined in 1973-74. Crop production fell an estilivestock output was 3.7% below a
4%
mated 3.5%, and year
13%,
earlier.
Grain harvests declined approximately government's emphasis on live-
reflecting the
stock and livestock products. A low ceiling price on wheat contributed to a smaller harvest, reported at
245,000 metric tons. Barley production continued to decline; 1973-74 production of 208,000 tons was 16% below the 1968-72 average. Production of feed grains increased, however.
Livestock numbers as of Jan. effects of drought.
fell
sharply. Cattle
numbers rose
slightly to an esti-
mated 9.2 million head. Production of mutton and lamb fell more than 4%, as lower weights and lambing rates prevented sheep farmers from taking advantage of higher prices. Milk production decreased slightly to 13,561,000.000 ditions,
lb.,
largely as a result of drought con-
and dairy exports
situation improved.
as the world supply in
tons, greasy basis,
turn to pre-drought levels.
245,159 tons,
fell
Wool production
an estimated 304,500
Wool
1974 rose to
marking a
re-
exports, estimated at
20% below 1972-73. SHERMAN; FRANCES G. ROBBINS)
were more than
(hARVEY
R.
Sec also Alcoholic Beverages; Commercial and Trade Policies; Commodity Trade; Cooperatives; Environment; Fisheries; Food Processing; Gardening; Industrial Production and Technology; Prices; United Nations. [4S1.B.1.C; 534. E; 731;
Encyclop/Edia
—
10/37.C] Films.
Britannica
Problems
of
Con-
servation Soil (1969); Problems of Conservation— Our Natural Resources (1970); The Farmer in a Changing America
(1973).
Albania A
people's
in
the
bordered by Greece and Yugoslavia. Area:
11,100 sq.mi.
(28,748 sq.km.). Pop. (1973 est.): 2,315,000. est.,
nue 5,247,000,000 leks; expenditure 4,937,000,000 leks. Foreign Trade. (1964) Imports 490.6 million leks; exports 299,620.000 leks. Import sources: China 63%; Czechoslovakia 10%; Poland 8%. Export destinations: China 40%; Czechoslovakia 19%; East Germany 10%; Poland 10%. Main exports: fuels, minerals, and metals (including crude oil, iron ore, chrome ore, and copper chemicals) 54%; foodstuffs (including vegetables, wine, and fruit) 23%; raw materials (including tobacco and wool) 17%. Transport and Communications. Roads (motorable; 1960) 3.100 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970); passenger c. 3.500: commercial (including buses) c. 11,200. Railways: (1972) c. 201 km.; traffic (1969) 220.4 million passenger-km., freight 230 million net ton-km. Shipping (1973): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 18; gross tonnage 57,068. Shipping traffic (1970): goods loaded c. 2.1 million metric tons, unloaded c. 670,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1963) 10.150. Radio receivers (Dec. 1972) 170.000. Television receivers (Dec. 1972) 3,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1972; 1971 in parentheses): corn 300 (270); wheal c. 250 (c. 230); oats c. 16 (c. IS); cotton, lint c. 8 (c. 7); sugar, raw value c. 19 (c. 18); potatoes c. 140 (c. 140); wine r. 10 (c. 10); tobacco c. 13 (c. 13). Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1972): sheep c. 1,590; cattle c. 444; pigs c, 154; goats c. 1,300; poultry c. 1,800. Industry. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1972): crude oil 1.569; lignite (1971) 675: petroleum products (1971) 968; chrome ore (oxide content; 1971) 230; iron ore (1970) c. 540; copper ore (metal content) (1971) 360; electricity (kw-hr.; 7; cement 1971) 1,104,000.
Assembly. Haxhi Leshi; chairman of the Council of Ministers (premier), Mehmet Shehu. On Nov. 29, 1973, on the occasion of Albania's National Day, the Moscow daily Pravda, the chief organ of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, People's
had published an
Cap. and largest city: Tirana (pop.,
174,800). Language: Albanian. Religion:
Muslim, Orthodox, Roman Catholic. First secretary of the Albanian (Communist) Party of Labour in 1974, Enver Hoxha; president of the Presidium of the
editorial
suggesting
that
Soviet-
Albanian relations should become normal once more. The editorial indicated that the basis for such a relationship could be found in mutual respect for national sovereignty, territorial integrity, nonintervention in domestic affairs, and economic cooperation. Difficulties in Soviet-Albanian relations, which had arisen in December 1961 when Moscow severed diplomatic relations with Tirana, were considered by the Soviet gov-
ernment as short-term passing problems. This offer to renew Soviet-Albanian diplomatic relations was by no means the first since the rupture of 1961. It was also reiterated on Jan. 16, 1974, when the official Soviet news agency Tass distributed an article from the foreign affairs weekly review Novoye Vremya claiming that the time had come to end the abnormal situation existing between the two countries. According to a report from Belgrade, Yugos., Hoxha rejected as he had on previous occasions an official Soviet invitation to renew diplomatic relations that was extended at about the same time. He stated that relations between the two countries could be re-
—
republic
western Balkan Peninsula, Albania is on the Adriatic Sea,
1971
=
=
slightly to 56.8
million head, and hog numbers, at 409.000 head, were
down
Albania
(1971-72) Primary, pupils 579,759, teachers 20,555; secondary (including vocational and teacher training), pupils 95,796, teachers 3,030; higher (including Tirana University), students 28,668, teachers 1.153. Finance. Monetary unit: lek, with (Sept. 16, 1974) an official exchange rate of 4 leks to U.S. $1 (free rate of 10.10 leks £1 sterling) and a noncommercial (tourist) rate of 10.25 leks to U.S. $1 (free rate of 23.25 leks l\ sterling). Budget (1970 est.): reve-
1974, reflected the
1,
Sheep numbers
ALB.\NI.\ Education.
—
stored to normality only when the people of the Soviet Union reestablished a true Marxist-Leninist regime. On Oct. 3, 1974, Hoxha announced that Albania
wished to establish friendly relations with Yugoslavia and Greece, though not yet with Bulgaria; he indicated that diplomatic relations could also be set up 'ith Great Britain and West Germany, but were out of the question with the U.S. and the U.S.S.R.
Aircraft:
Defense; Industrial Production and Technology; Transportation
see
^j^ pj^ces-
Defense
70
Alcoholic
Beverages
and the Soviet Union did not rep-
Europe was unlikely to be as marked as in 1973, in North America it was expected to be significantly greater. In the period from January to August 1974, U.S. breweries sold over 5% more beer than in the same period of 1973. On the other hand, in West Germany, the world's second-largest beer producer and
resent equal threats to the country. After the election
the country with the highest average per capita con-
Early in September it was reported that Col. Gen. Beqir Balluku, defense minister since 1953, had been removed from his post. A possible explanation lay in a speech General Balluku had delivered several months earlier in which, contrary to the party line, he had said that the U.S.
of the
new National Assembly
October, Premier
in
Mehmet Shehu took over the job of defense minister, A report from Vienna in May 1974 stated that 80year-old Monsignor Damian, head of the Albanian Orthodox Church and archbishop of Tirana, had died
He had
been imprisoned since 1967, when all churches and mosques in Albania were closed in an effort to make Albania the first "atheist
in
November
1973.
state in the world." On May 21 a bomb exploded in the Albanian embassy in Rome, causing considerable damage but no injuries, and three other bombs were found. In an
energetic note of protest delivered to the Italian em-
bassy in Tirana by the Albanian Ministry of Foreign was blamed on "fascist provoca-
Affairs, the incident
tion" aimed at disturbing relations between the two (k. m.
countries.
smocorzewski)
sumption see Table 1 the increase was no more than about 0.5% and the market showed increasing signs of (
1
,
saturation. Likewise in Austria, Switzerland, Belgium,
and Scandinavia, expansion of the market seemed to have reached the sticking point. Of the southern European wine-producing countries, only Spain showed any impressive rise in beer consumption. France had registered an increase of more than 12% in 1973, but this followed several years of pronounced stagnation. In the U.K. a great increase in output had been recorded in 1973 and also in the first half of 1974, but the rate of increase was expected to slow down gradually thereafter. This left The Netherlands as the EEC member country most likely to continue with above-average expansion rates. There, the rate of beer consumption had doubled since the mid-1960s, when it had been no more than about one-third the level of consumption in neighbouring Belgium.
[972. B. 3]
A marked industry in
Alcoholic Beverages Beer. The prevailing upward trend
feature of the situation of the brewing
many
countries was the combination of
increasing production and decreasing profits. Thus, for
example, in the in
world beer pro-
brewery,
first
half of 1974 the world's largest
Anheuser-Busch Inc. of
St.
17%
Louis,
Mo.,
duction continued even more strongly in 1973, encour-
recorded an increase in output of
aged by particularly good "beer weather" in most the important beer-producing areas. An increase of million hectolitres (hi.) brought total production over 730 million hi. (1 hi. = about 26 gal). Rates
but a decrease in profits of 16%. To the perennial problem of constantly rising labour costs
of
42 to
of
increase throughout the world were: Western Europe
5.6%, Eastern Europe 3.9%, North America 3.5%, Central and South America 12.6%, Africa 15.3%, Australia and Oceania 4.9%.
To judge from data available for the first eight months of 1974, a further rise in the world average rate
of increase of at least
5%
over the previous
year could be expected. While the increase in Western
Toble
1.
Esllm
million
hi.
(to
some
19.5
I
had been added price increases for raw materials of a magnitude unparalleled for many years. Partly due to the world oil crisis and partly due to other signs of scarcity (most of the shortages being exacerbated by speculation), almost the entire range of brewing and packaging materials had been subject to spectacular rises in cost. For example, in the U.S. alone in the first seven months of 1974 the price of beer cans in a country where canned beer accounts for 60% of the market rose by 25-30%.
—
—
In addition to this the industry in the U.S. had had more than double those of the
to face barley prices
previous year as a result of a drought in North
Amer-
ican barley-producing areas. This was not without effect
on world market
ward
turn.
scarcely
The
more
its
which took a sharp upwas
prices,
international market situation
satisfactory for other crops used in the
and sugar. In Central Europe barley and malt prices rose by up to one-third, although prices in the EEC remained below world prices due to EEC regulations. The fact that hop requirements could still be met at favourable prices was small comfort since for many industry, such as rice, corn,
now accounted for only 1-2% of and for some less than 1%. The hop content of most beers was progressively decreasing due to three main factors: a trend toward lighter, milder beers; the cultivation of varieties of hop with a higher bitterness content; and the growing use of concentrated hop extracts and powders, which required far smaller quantities and could be stored for years without loss of brewers this factor costs,
potency. In the case of additives, regulations such as the U.S. labeling law affected the situation by requiring
on containers.
that they be precisely listed
(tilman schmitt) Spirits.
With
the
notable
exception
cognac
of
brandy, spirits enjoyed a good year in 1973-74 despite economic problems in many markets and reduced purchasing power among consumers. A cynical obser\'er
might have concluded that bad times were good for the spirits market, at least in Britain, where sales rose appreciably during the gloomy period of the three-day working week toward the end of the 1973-74 winter.
Perhaps the most successful
ume
increase
if
spirit, in
terms of vol-
not in profitabiHty, was Scotch whisky.
During the first eight months of 1974 exports at 61,006.224 proof gal. represented an increase of 27% over the corresponding period of 1973. As the result of an increase in the export price of Scotch at the beginning of 1974, the value of those exports rose by 40% to £221,920,099. Because Scotch exports had reached 78,449,664 proof gal, worth £260 million 1974 promised to be another record year.
in
1973,
important spirits markets. Total vodka sales in Britain were estimated at 932,000 proof gal. in 1974, compared with 732,000 proof gal. in the previous year, an increase of 27.3%. Gin sales rose too, but by a modest 4.6%
Vodka
in the
A
sales also increased significantly in
U.K.
in the
January-June period.
curious fact concerning 1974 spirits sales was that,
despite economic troubles in
many
markets, sales of
more expensive "premium" brands of Scotch and American whiskies, gin, and vodka did well, especially in the U.S. market. In contrast to these better selling
was cognac brandy, hit by high production costs. Following a 15-year period of expansion during which exports rose to an all-time high of 270,912 hi. of pure alcohol in 1972-73, exports in 1973-74 fell back to 230,440 hi. In the important cognac markets of West Germany and Hong Kong, exports fell by more than 30%. Sales in America, hit since 1964 by an extra duty on all cognac entering the U.S. at a cost of over $9 a U.S. gallon, were expected to improve in 1974 following an agreement to raise the limit to $17. This spirits
would
just
allow
the
least
cognacs to get through.
Apparent consumption of in
expensive "three star" (colin parnell)
distilled spirits in the U.S.
1973 reached a record high of 402.5 million gal,
2.7% above 1972. Per capita annual consumption rose 2.1% to 1.93 gal. Total expenditure for alcohoUc
beverages for 1973 was $26.9 billion, compared with $25.7 billion in 1972. The U.S. federal excise tax on spirits
remained at $10.50 per proof
1974, U.S. agents seized 1,813 spirits,
stills
gal.
During
producing
Alcoholic
fiscal
Beverages
illicit
785 less than in 1973.
Social drinking continued to ized in 1974. Six
more
states,
become more liberalmaking a total of 32,
lowered the drinking age below 2 1 two states lessened or removed the ban on serving liquor on election days. A total of 821,602,063 gal. of distilled spirits were produced in the U.S. in fiscal 1974, 4.4% less than in 1973. This included production at industrial alcohol ;
some of which was not used for beverages. Whiskey production declined 17.3%, to 92,599,166 tax gal. Brandy increased 76.3%, to 20,559,829 tax gal, and rum decreased 28.9%, to 1,131,195 tax gal. Total U.S. bottlings rose 0.4% in 1973. Whiskey increased 6.1% to account for 181,572,665 gal, or 53.5% of the total 339,131,702 gal. bottled. Whiskey plants,
type were: blended whiskey 34.3%, 37.5%, blended straights 0.8%, bonded 2.1%, whiskey 2.2%, and bulk imports 23.1%. Bourbon whiskey continued as the largest selling spirit in the world, sales amounting to 72,002,090 gal Vodka continued its phenomenal increase, jumping 12% to 70,-
botthngs by straights light
358,477 gal Gin increased 0.6%, to 36,944,363 gal. Cordials increased 11.6%, to 31,652,556 gal, and brandy rose 8.9%, to 14,206,861 gal There were 4,396,780 gal. of rum bottled, an increase of 1.6%. In Canada public revenue from alcoholic beverage
12.8% to Can$l, 243,866,000 in fiscal 1973. Consumption of spirits in the same year climbed 8.1% to 31,310,000 imperial gal Production rose 5.1% to 90,920,000 imperial tax gal; imports decreased 1.3% to 7,651,000 imperial tax gal; and exports increased 17.7% to 29,522,000 imperial tax gal. (juLius wile) Wine. World production of wine in 1974 was estimated at 318 milHon hi, 37 million hi below the previous year's all-time record but still above the 1972 taxes rose
production and the average for the years 1967-71. Quantitatively, 1974 was thus an excellent year, despite the fact that weather conditions were not consistently favourable in the main wine-producing countries. Quahty, while differing from one country to another, was in general no better than average.
Early wine
is
subjected
to high intensity light in a device called
a Weberizer, after its inventor, George Weber. Within seconds the wine acquires a smoother and more mellow taste that otherwise can be
achieved only by aging in
wine
cellars.
72
Algeria
Smaller harvests
in
Europe, the source of more than
SOri of the world's wine, were almost solely responreduced total production in 1974. How-
sible for the
the two other main wine-producing regions, Argentina and the U.S., with 40 million hi. and 11
ever,
million
respectively, also produced less.
hi.,
The French harvest of 73 million hi., while 13% below that of the previous year, was still abundant and well above the average for the previous decade (66 million hi.). The wine was well up to average in quality, with rather low alcoholic content. In the Bordeaux district weather conditions were bad during the harvest, but the wines, although not exceptional,
from the previous year, with
all
was down
regions, but espe-
cially the north, experiencing a decline.
Quality was
better almost everywhere, but strength varied.
In Spain relatively abundant rainfall had a beneficial
and despite damage caused by
effect,
and
hail
disease the harvest, at 30 million hi, considerably exceeded the average of the five previous years. The
West German hi.
in
1973,
harvest, which
fell
had reached
to 7.5 million hi. in
10.5 million
1974— still
ap-
preciably above average.
In the Bordeaux "winegate" affair, 8 of the 18 wine shippers and merchants accused of fraudulently adulterating and mislabeling some 40,000 hi. of wine were convicted on December 18 and received sentences ranging up to the maximum of one year's im-
prisonment and a fine of Fr. 27,000. (paul mauron) Approximately 4.2 million tons of grapes were harvested in the U.S. in 1974, well above the 3.2 millionton average of the previous five years and almost the
match
Finance. Monetary unit: dinar, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a free rate of 4.02 dinars to U.S. $1 (9.29 dinars £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs. and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 19741 U.S. $1,859,000,000: (June 1973) U.S. $433 million. Budget (1972 actual): revenue 9,333.000,000 dinars; expenditure 7.729,000,000 dinars. Money supply: (Dec. 1973) 21,483.000,000 dinars; (Dec. 1972) 16,746,000,000
=
dinars.
Foreign
Trade.
(1973)
Imports
9,748.000,000
exports 7,514.000,000 dinars. Import sources
dinars;
followed by overabundant rainfall occurred during growth, the harvest was of good average quality. In .Msace the harvest was below the average of recent years but quality was excellent. In Champagne both hi,,
Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 2,244,844, teachers 51.461; secondary, pupils 278.543, teachers 9.892: vocalional, pupils 57,422. teachers 3,391; teacher training, students 7.128. teachers 542: higher (including 3 universities), students 26,522.
were of
quite good quality. In Burgundy, although dry periods
quantity and quality were satisfactory. In Italy too the harvest, at 70 million
ai,gi;ri.\
30^ ^"'
of Bengal in the south. Area: 5.^.126 sqmi.
(142,776 sq.km.). Pop. (1974): 71,316,517. Cap. and
Dacca
Language: Bengali. Religion: Muslim S0%, with Hindu, Christian, and Buddhist minorities. President in 1974, Muhammadullah; prime minister, Sheikh Mujibur largest
city:
Rahman. Domestic
Affairs.
(pop.,
1974,
1,310,976).
The devastating
floods of July-
August 1974, two and a half years after the liberation war of 1971, dealt a crippling blow to the country's reconstruction and development efforts. Floods, drought, or typhoons had alternately ravaged Bangla-
need $320 million worth of food and flood half that to
much
relief
and
again to enable the various industries of law and order
became worse during
the year. A total of 15,000 persons had been killed and another 2,000 were missing in various parts of Bangladesh in raids by terrorist elements since the liberation. Political rivalry and personal vendettas were behind most of the killings. Officials admitted that the government's failure to absorb the former fighters into the armed forces or employment and education had led
freedom
give
them
gainful
to a
wors-
ening of the situation.
The most when a gang
serious incident occurred in April 1974
masked gunmen sprayed machine-gun group of students on the Dacca University campus, killing seven of them. Press reports attributed the tragedy to political rivalry between the student and youth wings of the ruling Awami League. Sheikh Mujib's repeated warnings that he would take drastic steps to deal with the terrorists brought no response and on December 28, as lawof
bullets into a
was demeasures he considered necessary to restore law and order and to deal with the country's worsening economy. The sheikh made some attempts to streamline his Cabinet and to eliminate corrupt and inefficient administrators. He dropped nine ministers from the Cabinet in July, redistributing their portfolios and lessness
clared
continued, a
state
empowering him
of emergency
to
institute
himself taking charge of the vital jute affairs ministry.
desh many times in the past, but the inundation of 1974 was the worst in more than two decades. Some
Awami League government affairs. A newly established National Economic Council liberalized terms for both domestic and foreign invest-
32,000 sq.mi., or more than half the area of the country, were submerged, almost all the standing crops were destroyed, and the threat of famine began to
ment. Parliament also enacted a law providing for death sentences for smugghng, hoarding, and blackmarketeering.
loom as the hard-pressed government sought international assistance to meet the crisis. The official death toll in the month-long floods was placed at 1,500, while nearly one-third of the population was directly affected. Experts estimated that the country would
Bangladesh
resume operations.
The problem
He had
earlier relinquished the post of
president to devote
more time
to
Muhammadullah, who was made acting president Abu Sayeed Choudhury in De-
on the resignation of
cember 1973, was
officially elected
president in Janu-
was taken during February-March. In June a provisional report gave the total ary. Bangladesh's first census
i
^
Transport by rowboat in flooded Dacca.
Balance of Payments: see
Exchange and
Payments, national
Inter-
population as 71,316,517, an increase of the East Pakistan census of 1961.
40.2%
since
entry into the Islamic summit conference held in Lahore, Pak., the same month and forged closer rela-
already
cement
plant, a fertilizer plant,
and a sponge
iron
plant in Bangladesh and a clinker plant in Meghalay.i
The Economy. Economic activity in Bangladc-h sluggish, faced new challenges as Sheikh
Mujib's regime attempted to deal with rising oil prices, worldwide inflation, and such internal problems as
of repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war, Bengalis stranded in Pakistan, and Biharis in Bangladesh who
wanted to go to Pakistan. Under the agreement Bangladesh also gave up its plans to try 19S Pakistani
was about 20% hiiiher 1972-73 but 10% below the target set by the government. The jute industry, which earned 80% fi the country's foreign exchange, remained disorganized.
prisoners for war crimes.
Official statistics
reconciliation
dashed
in
with
former East
were Dacca ended
Pakistan
when his official visit to The sheikh and Bhutto could not solve and the number
June,
in a fiasco.
the vital issues of division of assets
of Pakistani nationals to be repatriated from Bangla-
desh to Pakistan. Nonetheless, the Pakistani recognition had removed the last remaining obstacle to the
admission to the UN, which accepted Bangladesh unanimously in September. China was the only major world power that had not yet recognized Bangladesh, but officials in Dacca believed recognition would soon be established. Relations with the Soviet Union and India became closer. Sheikh Mujib spent nearly a month in Moscow early in the year undergoing treatment for chronic bronchitis. In May he made an official visit to New Delhi and signed a joint declaration and a border demarcation agreement with Prime Minister Indira republic's
BANGLADESH Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils teachers teachers
c.
6
million,
124,146: secondary, pupils c. 1.7 million, 6i,000; vocational and primary teacher
c.
training, students 11,300, teachers 8S7; higher and third-level teacher training, students 45,014, teaching staff 3,073.
Finance. Monetary unit: taka, with a free rate (Sept. 16, 1974) of 7.80 taka to U.S. $1 (18 taka £1 sterling). Foreign exchange (March 1974 est.): U.S. $95 million. Budget (1973-74 est.): revenue 4,113,000,000 taka; expenditure 2,953,000,000 taka (development budget 5.253,000,000 taka). Cost of liv. ing (Dacca; 1970 100): (Feb. 1974) 255; (Feb. 1973) 184. Foreign Trade. (1972) Imports 1,027,700,000 taka; exports 2,273.186,000 taka. Export destinations (jute only; 1970-71): U.K. 14%; Belgium-Luxembourg 8%; West Germany 5%; France 5%. Main exports: jute products c. 36%; jute c. 24%; lea 13%.
=
=
Transport and Communications. Roads (1972) 24,000 km. (including c, 4,000 km. with improved surface). Motor vehicles in use (1972): passenger 66,700: commercial (including buses) 23,300. Railways: (1971) 2,858 km.; traffic (1970-71) 2,095,000,000 passengcr-km., freight 1,022,000,000 net ton-km. Navigable waterways (1972) c. 8.000 km. Shipping (1973): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 90; gross tonnage 60,601. Shipping traffic (1972): goods c.
Money and Banking
a
tions with several Arab heads of state. The tripartite agreement signed with Pakistan and India in New Delhi in April brought to a close the vexing problems
Pakistani Prime Minister Z. A. Bhutto's hopes for
Banking:
million ($50.6 million) for setting up four projeci^--
east India, to supply clinker to Bangladesh.
a
ttt
Gandhi. India pledged to cooperate in checking smuL' agreed to extend credits totaling Rs. v:_
gling. It also
Foreign Affairs. The Dacca government's foreign policy paid dividends as Pakistan, which had withheld recognition for more than two years, finally granted it on Feb. 22, 1974. Sheikh Mujib made a triumphant
loaded 275,000 metric tons, unloaded 2,141,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1972) 48,000. Radio licenses (March 1969) 531,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; 1972 in parentheses): rice c. 19,050 (c. 14.387); dry beans c. 60 (e. SS); potatoes c. 800 (753); onions c. 180 (160); jute c. 972 (c. 1,170); lea c. 27 (23); tobacco c. 39 (3S); fish catch (1970) 247, (1969) 277. Livestock (in 000; 1972-73): horses c. 45; cattle c. 26,000; buffaloes c. 700; sheep c. 700; goats c. 11,900; chickens c. 28.500. Industry. Production (in 000: metric tons; 197172): cement 23; nitrogenous fertilizers (plant nutrient content; 1972-73) 98; jute fabrics (1969-70) 589; cotton yarn 21; paper (1969-70) 79.
corruption,
mismanagement, hoarding, and
smugglitiLV
Industrial output for 1973-74
than
in
showed that only 2.7 million bales raw jute could leave the country during 1973-74, compared with the target of 3.5 million bales. Production had fallen to 6 milhon bales from the 1969-70 peak of 7.2 million bales. According to economic experts, smuggling across the border to India had acof
counted for at least 1 million bales. All essential commodities were in short supply, and the prices of rice, kerosene, and cloth rose by three to four timc; in one year. The taka, officially at par with the Indian rupee, was bringing twice as much in the black market.
An
International
Monetary Fund suggestion
to de-
value the currency was rejected by the government for political reasons.
—
Despite generous help in foreign aid about 7,340,000,000 taka from the West and Japan since independence Bangladesh could make little headway economically. By the end of June 1974, foreign exchange reserves had hit a new low of about $80 million, far less than estimated needs for essential imports in Jul\ -
—
December. Rice output during 1973-74 was put at 11.8 million tons, compared with the 12.580.000-ton target. After the floods it was stated that Bangladesh would need to import at least 2.8 million tons of rice to prevent starvation in the coming months. In June Finance Minister Tajuddin .\hmed submitted to Parliament a 1974-75 budget showing revenues and expenditure balanced at 4.7 billion taka. A separate development budget envisaged e.xpenditure of 5,250,000,000 taka, including 3,940,000,000 taka to be covered by foreign loans and grants.
(govindan unny) [976.A.3.b]
Barbados The parliamentary state of Barbados is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and occupies the most easterly island in the southern Carib-
bean Sea. Area: 166 sq.mi. (430 sq.km.V Pop. (1973 est.) 241,500, 91% Negro; 4% white; 4% mixed. Cap. and largest city: Bridgetown (pop., 1970, 8,868). Language: English. Religion: Anglican 53%; Methodist 9%; Roman Catholic 4%; Moravian 2%; others i2%. Queen, Elizabeth :
II; governor-general in 1974, Sir Winston Scott; prime minister, Errol Walton Barrow. Early in March 1974 the government put before the House of Assembly the 1973-77 National Development Plan. Among its goals were the creation of 11,300 new jobs mainly in manufacturing and 4,000 in construction, and tourist growth requiring an addi-
MftvM.&KMI
BARBADOS Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 43,246, teachers 970; secondary, pupils 24,640, teachers 1,020; vocational (1971-72), pupils 1,121, teachers (1969-70) 64: higher, students 1,099, teaching staff 75. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Barbados dollar, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a free rate of Bar$2.07 to £1 sterling) (official rate of Bar$4.80 U.S. $1
=
Budget (1973-74 est.): revenue Bar$I20.7 milliqn expenditure Bar$146.9 million. Foreign trade (1973) imports U.S. $168,550,000; exports U.S. $53,540,000, Import sources: U.K. 25%; U.S. 21%; Canada 11%; Trinidad and Tobago 8%. Export destinations: U.K 34%; U.S. 17%; Windward Islands 9%; Trinidad and Tobago 8%; Canada 6%. Main exports (1972) sugar 32%; clothing 6%; rum 5%. Tourism (1972) visitors 210,000; gross receipts c. U.S. $60 million Agriculture. Sugar production, raw value (in 000; metric tons; 1973) c. 119, (1972) c. 113,
might be withheld from the lineup in Cincinnati in an effort to save his historic 714th and 715th homers for Atlanta Stadium. But baseball Commissioner
Bowie Kuhn ordered the Atlanta management to start Aaron in at least two of the three games in Cincinnati. So it was that Aaron, in his first swing in the first inning of the first game of the new season, smashed his 714th off the Reds' Jack Billingham to tie the record. It was Aaron's lone hit of the game. He sat out the second game and had no hits in the third. That brought Aaron and the Braves back to Atlanta for their nationally televised home opener. The date was April 8 when Aaron batted against left-hander Al Downing of the Los Angeles Dodgers with a count of one ball and no strikes. On the next pitch the 40year-old right-handed slugger rifled his 715th
tional 2,000 jobs and 1,800 hotel beds. If these goals were reached, unemployment would be reduced from 11% in 1974 to 8% by 1977. A labour force of 110,000 was expected by 1977. The forecast expenditure on capital projects during the development period was
Bar$17S.6
much
external
million,
institutions
providing
of the development funds,
Baseball The Oakland tion
A's, continuing to thrive on a combinamutinous tendencies and brutally efficient
of
skills,
won
successive
house
the
World
time
Series of baseball for the third
1974.
in
fights, legal
Prospering despite
Dodgers, 4 games to first
club-
infringements, and assorted other
inner turmoils, the A's cut 1,
to
down the Los Angeles make a shambles of the
on record. Four of the five the post-season classic were determined by
all-California Series
games
in
scores of 3-2. It
was a year
in
which three of baseball's moun-
tainous individual barriers, two statistical and one sociological, fell
Biography) of Ruth's
mark St.
home run
in sports.
by
the wayside.
Hank Aaron
{see
Babe most prestigious Biography) of the
the Atlanta Braves shattered
record, probably the
Lou Brock (see Maury
Louis Cardinals broke
Wills's stolen base
Frank Robinson was named baseball's first black manager by the Cleveland Indians. Aaron entered the season-opening three-game series
record.
713 home runs, only one behind total. In deference to Atlanta's home Braves originally announced that Aaron
at Cincinnati with
Ruth's hfetime fans,
the
Aaron ended the season with 733 home runs. Brock stole 118 bases in 1974, wiping out Wills's mark of 104 set in 1962. Wills had broken another of baseball's sacred records, the 96 stolen bases for one
season of able.
Barbados was hit by rising import costs, inflation, economic slowdown, and increased unemployment. In June the all-items index of retail prices stood at 254.3, compared with 182.4 in June 1973 (October 1963 = 100). The 1974 sugar crop was expected to yield just under 109,000 tons, a small decrease from the 1973 crop, but large world price increases augmented revenue by about £4 million. In the summer Errol Barrow's Democratic Labour Party (DLP) government put forward proposals for constitutional changes, vesting additional power in the executive. They concerned the attorney general's powers, judicial and public service appointments, citizenship restrictions, and parliamentary disqualifications, and they aroused protest from the official Barbados Labour Party opposition and other bodies. Nevertheless, the House of Assembly, with its DLP majority, passed the controversial amendments on (sheila PATTERSON) August 29.
home
run over the left-centre&eld fence, some 400 ft. distant, to end his dramatic chase of Babe Ruth's ghost.
at
Ty Cobb,
a standard once
deemed unbeat-
Brock's 105th steal came against Philadelphia
Busch Stadium
in St.
Louis on September 10 and
he concluded the year with a lifetime total of 753, surpassing Max Carey's modern National League record of 738. Cobb continued to hold the major league high of 892.
Frank Robinson was appointed to the Cleveland managerial job on October 3, replacing Ken Aspromonte. Robinson, a 19-year veteran in the majors, was the only man ever to win Most Valuable Player honours in both the American and National leagues. Al Kaline of the Detroit Tigers collected his 3.000th
game at Baltimore on September 24. He was 12th man to reach that total and the first in American League since Eddie Collins in 1925. California Angels fireballer Nolan Ryan pitched his third career no-hitter on September 28, striking hit in a
the
the
101
Baseball
in a record 106 games, including 13 another record. Cleveland pitcher Gaylord Perry won 1 5 games in a row, one short of the American League record. The National League turned down a request by financially troubled C. Arnholt Smith to sell the San Diego Padres to Washington, D.C., interests. Ray
Dodgers pitched
straight,
Kroc
Biography), the McDonald's hamburger
(see
king, then bought the Padres for a reported $10.1 mil-
and kept the team
in San Diego. The Hall of Fame at Cooperstown, N.'V'., added .-ix members. Present for induction ceremonies were Mickey Mantle and Whitey Ford of the New York Yankees, umpire Jocko Conlan, and James ("Cool Papa") Bell, the Ty Cobb of the Negro leagues. Sam Thompson and "Sunny Jim" Bottomley were hon-
lion
oured posthumously.
Major Leagues. Three
of the four divisional races
major leagues were not settled until the last days of the season. In the National League the Pitt.-burgh Pirates won the East Division laurels on (litfinal night of the regular season, beating the Chicmn in the
Sal
Bando
A's tags
of the Oakland
Bill
Buckner, Dodger outfielder, on a close play at third base in the fifth game of the World Series.
out IS and walking 8 in a 4-0 conquest of the Minnesota Twins.
tists
Oakland went on to win the
a
game
and the championship, defeating Los Angeles four
games
Sandy Koufax of
the
Dodgers holds the
record for no-hitters with four. Ryan's feat came three weeks after four Rockwell International scien-
had clocked his fastball at a record 100.8 mph in at Anaheim, Calif. The previous fastest unclocking was the 98.6 mph attributed to Bob
game
official
Feller in 1946.
to one.
Two Busby
other no-hitters were recorded in 1974. Steve
Kansas City Royals stopped Milwaukee, becoming the first pitcher to post a no-hitter first two seasons in the majors. CleveDick Bosman handcuffed Oakland, 4-0, missing of the
2-0, thus in
each of his
land's
a perfect
game
as the result of his
own throwing
error.
Bob Gibson of the St. Louis Cardinals recorded his 3,000th strikeout on July 17. Only Walter Johnson, with 3,508, previously had reached that milestone. came on the same day that former Cardinal pitching great Dizzy Dean died. Relief star Mike Marshall {see Biography) of the Ironically, Gibson's feat
Cubs, 5-4, in ten innings to oust St. Louis by l\ games. Los Angeles clinched the West Division title on the next-to-last night of the season. Cincinnati four games out. In the American League, the Baltimore Orioles beat the New York Yankees by two games in the East Division in another finished second,
race that went down to the next-to-last night. Oakland easily, taking the West Division by five games over the surprising Texas Rangers. In the .iKmerican League play-offs Oakland won the thrce-out-of-five series, 3 games to 1. Los Angeles topped Pittsburgh, 3 games to 1, for the National League pennant. The World Series opened at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, and the A's beat the Dodgers, i-2. Jim ("Catfish" Hunter, the ace Oakland starter, was sum-
won more
)
moned
in relief this
time to record the
final
out after
Jim Wynn's two-out solo home run and a subsequent single had put the tying run on first. Hunter, who had started and won the American League play-off clincher three days earlier, relieved RoUie Fingers, the winning pitcher. Fingers had replaced starter Ken Holtzman in the fifth inning to put down a Los Angeles threat. Reggie Jackson homered off losing pitcher Andy Messersmith in the second inning. The A's made it 2-0 in the fifth inning on Holtzman's double, a wild pitch, and Bert Campaneris' squeeze bunt. Holtzman was batting in a
game
for the first time all season because
the American League's designated hitter rule could
not be used
in
the Series.
An
error led to the
first
Los Angeles run in the bottom of the fifth, but Fingers came on with two on and one out to pitch 4i effective innings of relief. Third baseman Ron Cey's wild throw enabled the A's to score their decisive third run in the eighth.
Los Angeles evened the Series in the second game by the same 3-2 score. Mike Marshall came on in relief for the Dodgers after a hit batsman and Jackson's double had imperiled winning pitcher Don Sutton's 3-0 lead. Joe Rudi singled for two runs, but Marshall then proceeded to pick off Herb Washington, pinch-running for Rudi at first. Washington, a former Olympic Games sprint champion, had been signed by
Hank Aaron hits his 715th home run, surpassing Babe Ruth's lifetime total.
the A's earlier in the year solely as a pinch runner. Joe Ferguson's two-run homer off loser Vida Blue in the sixth provided the Dodger victory margin. Steve Yeager had singled home the first Los Angeles run in the second.
Series switched to Oakland Coliseum for the game, and the habit-forming trend of 3-2 final scores continued. Oakland won by that familiar margin to pull in front, 2 games to 1. Hunter and Fingers pitched for the winners again, combining to hold the Dodgers to seven hits. Hunter, the winner, started
The
New
'Vork Yankees estimated at been declared a free agent by an arbitrator, who ruled that Oakland owner Charles Finley reneged on part of Hunter's 1974 contract. Amateur. The University of Southern California won its tenth national championship and fifth straight contract with the
He had
third
$3,750,000.
and spread five hits over 7} innings, departing when Bill Buckner homered to pare Oakland's lead to 3-1. Fingers finished up, yielding a homer to Willie Crawford in the ninth but escaping later as second baseman Dick Green of the A's initiated a double play for the third time in the game. An error by catcher Ferguson, his first of two, gave Oakland one run and set up another during a two-run third inning off loser Al Downing. Campaneris' single sent home the other A's
by beating Miami of Florida, 7-3, in the finale of the NCAA College World Series at Omaha, Neb. The win-
run in the fourth.
of Little League Baseball, Inc., announced in June
Holtzman was the star of the fourth game, his bat and arm triggering Oakland to a 5-2 triumph and a commanding Series margin of 3 games to 1. He homered off the loser, Messersmith, for the game's first run in the third inning and checked the Dodgers on
would permit girls to play on the teams. of Taiwan won the Little League World Red Bluff, Calif., in August. It was the fourth consecutive year that a Taiwan team had taken the title. In November it was announced that in the future only continental U.S. teams would be (jack brickhouse) allowed to participate. Japanese. The Lotte Orions of Sendai won the World Series of Japan, 4 games to 2, over the Chunicfii Dragons of Nagoya. The Dragons had taken the pennant of the Central League for the first time in 20 years, while the Orions captured the pennant in the rival Pacific League by defeating the Hankyu Braves
six hits
before giving
way
to Fingers in the eighth.
Los Angeles grabbed a 2-1 lead Russell's
two-run
highlighted by tled the issue.
base started a
in the
fourth on Bill
but a four-run A's sixth,
triple,
Jim Holt's pinch two-run single, setA spectacular stop by Green at second double play to kill off the final Dodger
threat in the ninth.
Oakland won its third world title, 4 games to 1, by staving off Los Angeles by that customary 3-2 seventh-inning home run reliever Marshall snapped a 2-2 tie. The
score in the fifth game.
A
by Rudi off blast came after the game had been held up temporarily to clear off debris thrown by unruly fans at Oakland Coliseum. Fingers, who pitched in relief in all four A's wins, came on in the eighth and mopped up Los Angeles quickly; he was voted Most Valuable Player of the Series.
Minnesota Twins captured his fourth career American League batting title and third straight by hitting .364. Dick Allen of the Chicago White Sox topped the home run list with 32, and Jeff Burroughs of the Texas Rangers led the league in runs batted in with 118. Ralph Garr of the Atlanta Braves won the National League batting championship with a .353 average, Philadelphia's Mike Schmidt grabbed home run honours with 36, and Johnny Bench
Rod Carew
of the
of Cincinnati led in runs batted in with 129. The National League whipped the American League in the All-Star
game
for the 11th time in the last 12
ning pitcher on the strength of a five-inning relief job
was George Milke, his third tournament win. Milke was voted the Most Outstanding Player award. The New Jersey Division on Civil Rights in April ordered Little League teams in the state to allow girls to play alongside boys. Faced by suits to end sex discrimination in other states, the board of directors that they
Kao Hsiung
Series, 12-1, over
of Nishinomiya, 3-0, in a best-of-five play-off series.
After making a good the bottom, but
start, the Dragons once fell to by mid-July they closely followed the
front-running Hanshin Tigers of Osaka. In August
they overtook and passed the Tigers after winning
six
straight games.
Attracting the most attention during the season was
whether the Yomiuri Giants of Tokyo could win the Central League title for the tenth straight year. However, the Giants failed, chiefly because of the high average age of their players and an overall poor pitching performance. Especially cited as an unfavourable element was the marked decline of Shigeo Nagashima, nicknamed "Mr. Giants," who had been a dominant player for the past 17 years. Nagashima later an-
nounced
his retirement.
In the Central League, Sadaharu
hammered 49 home
runs, hit .332,
runs, winning th£ triple
season.
He was
also
crown
named
Oh
of the Giants
and batted
in 107
for the second straight
as the league's
Most Valu-
able Player.
was 7-2 at Three Rivers Stadium in Pittsburgh. Steve Garvey of the Dodgers was voted Player for his two hits and fine deMost Valuable fensive play. The winning pitcher was Ken Brett of
In the Pacific League, Clarence Jones of the Kintetsu Buffaloes of Osaka, who had 38 home runs, became the first foreign player from the West to win a title since the present two-league system came into
the Pittsburgh Pirates, the loser Luis Tiant of the
being in 1950. Isao Harimoto of the Nippon
Boston Red Sox, The Nationals led the series, 26-18, with one tie. Most valuable player awards went to Steve Garvey in the National League and Jeff Burroughs in the American. Cy Young awards for outstanding pitching were won by Mike Marshall in the National League and Catfish Hunter in the American. Mike Hargrove of the Texas Rangers was named American League rookie of the year, and Bake McBride of the St. Louis Cardinals won the award in the National League. Manager of the year in the National League was Walter Alston of the Dodgers and in the American,
Fighters of
outings.
The
score
Martin of the Texas Rangers. Hunter in December became the most highly paid
Billy
baseball player in history
when he
signed a five-year
Tokyo was crowned
Ham
as the league's leading
with a .340 average. Tokuji Nagaike of the Braves had the most runs batted in with 96. Tomehiro Kaneda of the Orions was the league's leading pitcher with a 16-7 record, and also won the Most Valuable
hitter
Player award for his contribution to bringing his team to victory.
(ryusaku hasegawa)
[4S2.B.4.h.iii]
Basketball United States. Projessional. The Boston Celtics Uved up to their illustrious heritage in 1974 by winning the championship of the National Basketball
103
Basketball
Chaney. a long-armed, 6-ft. 5-in. guard, harassed Milwaukee's aging Oscar Robertson unmercifully. But still the Bucks traded victories with Boston up to the seventh and deciding game. The reason, quite simply, was Jabbar, who scored 35, 36, 26, 34, 37, 34, and 26 points in the series and who led a defense that kept the explosive Celtics under 100 points five times. One of the two games in which Boston broke 100 was a double-overtime 102-101 loss that Jabbar won by sinking a long hook shot with three seconds remaining. Experts placed the battle among the most memorable ever seen in the play-offs, but the Celt is forgot about it in time for the deciding game. Cowen>
Basketball
their aggressive, muscular, 6-ft. 9-in. centre, neutral-
ized Jabbar with long shots good for 28 points, and Havlicek and the other Celtics continued their usual feverish pitch. The result was a 102-87 victory and a Cornell
return to
Warner
When
Havlicek
game
in
of the
glory for Boston.
season's end, Jabbar,
the sixth
NBA
championship
NBA
individual honours were
handed out at the who averaged 27 points and 14.5 rebounds a game, was named the NBA's most valuable
Milwaukee Bucks evades the Celtics' John
of the
player for the third time in his five-year career.
finals.
also
Association
(NBA). The
title
was a record 12th for
first since 1969. Fittingly, one two players left from that last championship team, John Havlicek. led the way to victory. Havlicek, a veteran of 12 seasons, shifted from forward to guard and back again without missing an important shot or a vital defensive assignment as Boston toppled Buffalo, defending champion New York, and Milwaukee.
the Celtics but their of the
The
success of the Celtics' fast-break style flew in
the face of the slower and, so some critics said, duller pace at which many successful NBA teams had played since Bill Russell retired as Boston's centre in 1969. While Havlicek knew the running game best,
each of his fellow Celtics got a chance to demonstrate that the tradition had been placed in reliable hands. Boston won the league's Atlantic Division by 6^
games and went
into the play-offs against the Buffalo
Braves, who. led by 6-ft. 9-in. centre Bob McAdoo, suddenly ceased to resemble the mere third-place team they were. Stepping to the foul line in the sixth game, Jo Jo White sank two free throws, giving Boston a 106-104 win and the series, four games to two. The New York Knickerbockers were the defending NBA champions and they were fresh from vanquishing their perennial
play-off opponents, the Capital
they were no match for Boston. The went into high gear against New York, with Havlicek, centre Dave Cowens, and forward Paul Silas providing the impetus, and the best-of-seven series ended in five games. Impressive as had been Boston's first two series, its opponent in the finals, the Milwaukee Bucks, did even better by losing just one play-off game in nine. Generating most of Milwaukee's power was 7-ft. 2-in. Kareem Abdul Jabbar, the game's most dominant player on offense and defense. Except for the lone quarterfinal game lost to the Los Angeles Lakers, Jabbar brought victory to the Bucks almost at will. After he scored 38 points and grabbed 24 rebounds to conclude a four-game sweep of Chicago, the Bulls' coach, Dick Motta, wondered publicly if his team could beat Jabbar playing by himself. It often did seem as though Jabbar was on the court alone when Milwaukee met Boston in the finals. Havlicek, Silas, and Don Nelson, the three forwards employed most frequently by Celtic coach Tommy Heinsohn, devastated their opposition, while Don Bullets, but
Celtics
found himself
at centre
on the league's
He
all-star
team, surrounded by Havlicek of Boston and Rick
Barry of Golden State at forward and Walt Frazier of and Gail Goodrich of Los Angeles at guard. Youth found its place among the veterans when it came to statistics. Buffalo's McAdoo became, at age 22, the youngest player ever to win an NBA scoring title. He averaged 30.6 points a game and also topped
New York
the league with a .547 field goal percentage, the
first
leading scorer to do that since Wilt Chamberlain in 1966. Ernie DiGregorio, a 6-ft. guard from Buffalo
who was voted
rookie of the year, led in assists (8.2
game) and free throw percentage (.902). The premier rebounder in the NBA was Elvin Hayes of the Capital Bullets, with an 18.1 average. Watching the action were 6,885,289 customers, approximately a
51,000 more than paid to get into games in 1973.
The
New
NBA assumed a
different look after the season.
Orleans was awarded a franchise, later nickthe Jazz. It was stocked by a player draft
named
that produced veteran centre Walt Bellamy of Atlanta and guard Dean Meminger of New York, as well as by a trade that provided Atlanta's controversial, highscoring Pete Maravich. Age and injuries forced long-time NBA stars Oscar Robertson of Milwaukee, Jerry West of Los Angeles, and Willis Reed and Jerry Lucas of New York into retirement after the 1973-74 season. A third Knickerbocker standout, Dave DeBusschere, gave up playing to become the general manager of the New York Nets of the American Basketball Association (ABA).
Change came
to
the
ABA
as well in
1974.
The
domination of the league by the Indiana Pacers was ended, and the youthful Nets defeated the Utah Stars four games to one to capture the championship. New York's first-year coach, Kevin Loughery, molded the Nets around forward Julius Erving, whose 27.3 points a game made him the ABA's top scorer and most valuable player. Er\'ing was
named
to
the league's
team with Kentucky centre Artis Gilmore, a season high of 18.3 rebounds a game, forward George McGinnis of Indiana, and guards Jimmy Jones of Utah and Mack Calvin of Carolina. The ABA's rookie of the year was Erving's fellow forward on the Nets, Larry Kenon. Attendance in the league held steady at 2.6 million. all-star
who averaged
One
franchise, the Carolina Cougars, ran into trouble because of a lack of fans and an abundance of admin-
— istrative
problems, and
it
Louis, an abandoned
St.
named the Spirits. Moses Malone, the
wound up being moved
NBA
who
draft choice
biggest sensation in the
ABA,
basketball in 1974 because he
to
stronghold, and re-
created the
did not play college
was
still
attending Pe-
High School. The subject of an intense war among the nation's leading basketball schools, the 6-ft. 11-in. Malone had signed a letter of intent to play at the University of Maryland and was preparing to register for classes when he finally agreed to a $1 million, five-year contract with the Utah Stars. In doing so, he became one of the few players to move directly from high school ball to the profestersburg (Va.)
recruiting
sional level.
As Malone was coming onto the scene, another big man, 7-ft. 2-in. Wilt Chamberlain, announced that he was retiring from his $600,000-a-year job as coach of the San Diego Conquistadors. Chamberlain had ended his record-setting playing career in the NBA in 1973 with Los Angeles. A lawsuit over his services as a player prevented him from performing for the Conquistadors. Collegiate. The new face under the championship crown of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in 1974 belonged to North Carolina State. With an attack built around David Thompson, the Wolfpack smashed any doubts about its right to such stature by defeating powerful UCLA on the way to the title. But because of the record seven consecutive championships the Bruins had won before their fall, 1974 would undoubtedly be remembered chiefly as
the year
UCLA
UCLA
lost.
charged into the season as rich in talent as set an NCAA record
The same Bruins who had
ever.
—
with 75 wins in a row 6-ft. U-in. Bill Walton and sharpshooting Keith Wilkes, to name but two tacked on 13 more triumphs, including an 84-65 victory over North Carolina State, before they ran into
Notre Dame. The Irish came from
hind with three minutes to go and
jump
1 1
points be-
won 71-70 on
a
shot by guard Dwight Clay with 29 seconds
left. Ironically, the last loss the
had been on the same South Bend, Little
more than
a
month
Bruins had suffered Ind., court in 1971.
later,
the Bruins were
back-to-back games by Oregon State and Oregon. It was the first such embarrassment for UCLA since 1966, but the experience slowed them only momentarily in their quest for the Pac Eight Conference championship, the first step upset
again,
this
toward another
time
NCAA
in
tournament.
the other side of the country. North Carolina was trying to prove it was as good as had been indicated by its 27-0 record in 1973, when it was barred from postseason play for recruiting violations. Although the Wolfpack still had its leader, the 6-ft. 4-in. Thompson, who leaped as high as his foot-
On
State
Mojor
Behavioural Sciences
for UCLA against San Francisco, with Wilkes and Walton leading an 83-60 runaway. The real NCAA championship game was in the semifinals when UCLA and North Carolina State played for the second time. The Wolfpack had revenge working for it. Thompson had to show that he was better than Wilkes, who had outdone him earlier, and Burleson and Towe had to prove that the maturity they had gained during the season was no illusion. When North Carolina State was trailing by 11
points at the outset of the second half,
its
three stars
began doing what they set out to and did not stop until they had done away with UCLA 80-77. The Wolfpack's final game, against Marquette, conqueror of Kansas 64-51, was more of a formality than anything else. The Warriors could do little to avert defeat 76-64, and the championship belonged to
North Carolina Victory paid
the Wolfpack.
assorted
Slate.
a host of individual honours for
off in
Wire
sports publications, and
services,
associations
athletic
named Norm Sloan
coach of the year and Thompson player of the year. The Sporting News selected Thompson to its AUAmerican team, putting him at forward with Marvin
Barnes of Providence. The team's centre was Walton of UCLA and the guards were Tom Henderson of Hawaii and Dennis DuVal of Syracuse.
The
final statistics
of the college basketball season
found only one first-team AU-American among the leaders, Barnes, who grabbed 18.7 rebounds a game. Pacing the scorers with a 33.4 average was sophomore forward Larry Fogle of Canisius. From the foul line, was Rickey Medlock of Arkansas, who
the best shot
made 87
of 95 free-throw attempts.
rate shooter
from the
field
who connected on 136 percentage
that
tied
The most accu-
was Al Fleming of Arizona,
of 204 attempts for a .667 the
NCAA
record
held
by
UCLA's Lew Alcindor (now Kareem Abdul Jabbar) and Abilene Christian's Kent Martens. Alcindor's record career field-goal percentage of was topped by his replacement at centre at
.639
Walton, who made 65% of his shots in three years. Oddly, Walton never won a season fieldgoal percentage championship.
and the final placings had to be decided by goal average, which resulted in Yugoslavia's being second and the U.S. third. Cuba, Spain, and Brazil occupied the next three positions.
In the 1974 edition of the European Cup, Real Madrid (Spain) was back on the throne, beating memorable final at
Ignis Varese (Italy) 84-83 in a
Nantes, France. In the 17 years of the cup competition, Soviet clubs had won eight times, Spanish five, and Italian four. In the Cup Winners' Cup, Crvena Zvezda Belgrade (Yugos. ) defeated Spartak Brno (Czech.) 86-75. In the Korac Cup, Birra Forst Cantu (Italy) secured a trophy for Italy by beating
KK
Partizan Belgrade (Yugos.). In
the
Women's Cup, once more,
predictably,
Daugava Riga (U.S.S.R.) defeated Clermont Ferrand (France). The scores were 96-67 in the Soviet Union and 69-53 in France. In recent years Clermont Ferrand had been the only club capable of giving the team a reasonable game. magnificent Latvian Daugava won this cup for the llth time in a row. The U.S.S.R. also took the honours in the
Women's Cup
Winners' Cup final; Spartak Leningrad (U.S.S.R.) snatched the trophy from GEAS Sesto San Giovanni (Italy), the fine performance in Italy when GEAS beat Spartak 65-57 not being sufficient to overcome the ten-point deficit when Spartak won in Leningrad 68-58. In 1974 a new cup appeared, the European Cup for National Teams. Played on an experimental basis, it proved such a success that it was decided to continue it
in 1975. Six
teams competed. The
final
team stand-
ings were Italy, Yugoslavia, Greece, Turkey, France,
and West Germany. Seoul, South Korea, was the site of the fifth Asian Basketball Championships for women. In the final round South Korea and Japan played outstandingly, and the result was a close and exciting game with South Korea finishing strongly 76-70 to take the (k. k.
championship.
Mitchell)
[4S2.B.4,h.iv]
UCLA,
Morgan
State, featuring 6-ft. 11-in. centre
Marvin
Webster, beat Southwest Missouri 67-52 to become the first team in 17 years to win the NCAA college division championship in its first try. Unheralded West Georgia College upset Alcorn State of Mississippi 97-79 to become the champion of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics.
(JOHN schulian) World Amateur. At its meeting on July 10, 1974, at San Juan, P.R,, the Central Bureau of the International Amateur Basketball Federation admitted into membership China's Basketball Federation. Basketball in China was hampered by lack of contact with the rest of the world, but it was expected that regular exchanges would take place, and the English Basket Ball Association was invited to send its men's team to China in July 1975. Women's basketball was scheduled to be included in the Olympic Games for the first
time
in
world championship Olympic gold medal. It was not easily achieved. In the final round Yugoslavia beat the Soviets 82-79 but lost to the U.S. 91-88, and the U.S.S.R. chalked up a victory against the U.S. 105-94. This left the three teams with equal points, the
title to its
Beer:
ue Alcoholic Beverages
U.S.S.R. added
Behavioural science research during 1974 was strongly by changing mores. The annual psychological and sociological association meetings, prodded by the women's liberation movement, gave high priority to sex role stereotyping. The controversy over the use
influenced
IQ and other tests that result in the labeling of children and adolescents continued to receive attention, but much of the hysteria evidenced in earlier of
years was absent. Behavioural scientists were more worried about job opportunities, research funding, and inflation.
on
Psychology and Law. New laws affecting research human subjects and the use of behaviour modifi-
cation techniques in prisons and mental hospitals were certain to influence the
However, some
the
controversial 1972
work
of behavioural scientists.
scientists turned the tables
ing themselves in legal proceedings.
fense lawyers in a
1976.
In the world championships, held in Puerto Rico in July,
Behavioural Sciences
number
by involv-
They helped
de-
of notable conspiracy trials
of militant leaders, including the .\merican Indians tried in connection with the 1973 occupation of Wounded Knee, S.D. Their work centred mainly on the jury selection or voir dire procedure and involved
such sophisticated techniques as the construction of computer profiles of the "ideal" (from a defense standpoint) juror.
—
that can be used to excuse prospective jurors without
behaviour by boys than by girls, while male students expressed greater disapproval of such behaviour by both boys and girls than did the female students. The fact that adults accept tomboy behaviour more freely than sissy behaviour helped to explain the results of a psychological study at Bowling Green (0.) State University. When women students in a class on the psychology of women were asked to write autobiographical accounts, 78% reported having been tom-
and prose-
boys. Thinking this might be a specialized group, the
This type of advocate psychology was criticized by social scientists who expressed concern that it could prevent fair trials. A wealthy defendant, for instance, would have an advantage over the prosecu-
some
tion unless
both sides could avail themselves of the
same techniques.
Social scientists, of course, did not
invent the jury-selection procedure, in which each side is allowed a given number of peremptory challenges stating a reason.
Lawyers
cution have long used
for both defense
homespun psychology
efforts to obtain a jury that will
A
social psychologist
and
a
favour their legal
in their side.
scholar, of the
Chicago, examined how peremptory work under actual trial conditions. With the cooperation of three federal judges, they were University of
challenges
able to study ten cases, each of which had one real jury and two experimental ones: an "English" jury,
chosen at random from the jury pool, and another of individuals challenged by either the de-
made up
fense or the prosecution. The two mock juries received the same treatment as the real one. In the ten cases, the real jury voted guilty five
times and not guilty five times. The challenged jury voted guilty eight times. The English jury found the defendant guilty every time. The judges, asked what their verdicts would have been, voted guilty in nine of the cases. Post-trial analysis showed that both defense and prosecution had used their challenges effectively in eliminating jurors likely to vote against
them.
When
asked
why
prospective jurors were chal-
lenged, both defense and prosecution mentioned race
most often, followed by demeanour, occupation, residence, sex, and age. On the basis of how jurors actually voted, challenges based to be correct
(80%
on race were most likely
of the time) and those based on
sex were least likely to be correct (44%). Sex Stereotyping. Several studies indicated that sex-role stereotyping begins in the delivery
room and
continues from then on. Questioning of 30 sets of parents within 24 hours of the birth of their first child by asking them to describe their baby, rating the child
on 18 adjective scales (firm/soft, big/little, relaxed/ nervous, and so on), yielded interesting results. Although hospital records showed no significant differences between the 15 male and 15 female children, the parents of daughters saw their children as softer, finer-featured, smaller, and more inattentive than did the parents of boys.
In another study, 11 mothers were observed while nursery playing with a six-month-old boy. Five
in a
saw the child dressed in blue pants and were told his name was Adam. The other six saw him in a pink dress and were told his name was Beth. Three toys were available for play: a fish, a train, and a doll. Though all the mothers agreed that there were no sex differences in the
way six-month-old
children should play
and were not aware that they treated Beth/Adam differently, the mothers who thought they were playing with a girl handed the baby a doll more often while those who thought he was a boy tended to give him the train. There was no difference in the handling of the sex-neutral
At
fish.
the University of
Wyoming 40 male and
male college students were asked proval/disapproval
scale,
ten
to rate,
sentences
67
fe-
on an apdescribing
young children engaged in activities usually considered more appropriate for the opposite sex: a boy playing with dolls; a students were
girl
playing baseball. All the
more disapproving of "inappropriate"
Behavioural
Sciences
researchers questioned young girls at a summer camp and found that 63% considered themselves tomboys and 60% said they had been tomboys when they were younger. In a random group of adult women at a shopping mall, 51% reported they had been tomboys when they were girls. These findings led the investigators to speculate that "tomboyism is not so much abnormal as it is typical." Nonverbal Communication. Several Harvard psychologists developed a Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity Test (PONS, for short). The subject is shown a series of scenes in which a woman is either seen, heard, or both for just two seconds. After each scene, the subject says which of two possible situations he
has just witnessed;
e.g.,
"expressing jealous anger" or
"talking about one's divorce." Females, as early as the third grade, scored consistently higher than males in interpreting nonverbal clues, though men in occupations requiring artistic or expressive behaviour for example, actors, artists, and clinical psychologists
— tended Child
to score high.
Development.
It
was learned
that
the
of a heartbeat and the rhythm of human speech strongly affect newborn babies. Observing that mothers at New York Hospital consistently held infants on the left side, researchers exposed a group of
rhythm
newborn babies day and night to the sound of a recorded heartbeat: it was found that the babies cried less and gained more weight than a control group. Interestingly, mothers who had been separated from their children for 24 hours or more after birth did not show this tendency. It appears that a mother's tendency to hold the baby near her heartbeat also a need that might have been fulfills her baby's need
—
Electric shocl< therapy
imprinted before birth.
Sound
films of infant-adult interactions at
Boston
University Medical Center were compared for sound and movement, frame by frame. It was found that
is
used on a convicted
child molester
an effort to achieve behaviour modification.
108
Belgium
movements of mouth, body, and limbs tended change direction and speed at natural breaking points in the adult's speech. It was concluded that day-old children already react to the particular speech patterns of their culture, long before they start to infant to
use them in actual speech.
Good Samaritans.
In an effort to find those per-
sonality traits associated with helping behaviour. 40
students at Princeton Theological Seminary were tested
for
three
briefly
as
religion
types as
The
religion as quest.
of
religiosity,
means, religion
first
summarized as end, and
students were then given a pas-
sage to read (in one case a discussion of possible future jobs for seminary students in the other the bib;
lical
parable of the
Good Samaritan).
Finally, they
were asked to go to another building to record a short talk on the subject of the passage. Each was told either that he was late for his appointment, that the assistant with the recorder was ready for him, or that he had plenty of time. On the way to the next building, the subject passed a supposed victim, slumped in a doorway with head down and eyes closed, coughing or
moaning intermittently. Sixteen men offered some type of
aid; 24 did not.
Neither the passage read nor the subject's type of religiosity seemed to predict how he would react. The one significant factor was how hurried he was. In the
low hurry condition,
63%
helped;
medium
hurry,
helped; high hurry, only 10% helped. It was concluded that "the frequently cited explanation that ethics becomes a luxury as the speed of our daily lives increases" is at least an accurate description. (PATRICE DAILY HORN)
45%
[441.A.3.a;
432.C.2.4.C;
S23.A.2.a.i;
SS3.F.3.a;
10/51. B.6]
Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. The House
of
Man,
Pari II— Our Crowded Environment (1969); View jrom llie People Wall: A Statement About Problem Solving anil Abstract Methods (1973).
In the
first
instance, how-ever.
King Baudouin asked
the leader of the Flemish wing of the Social Christians,
Deputy Prime Minister Leo Tindemans (see Biography), to try to form a government. Only when this attempt w'as
for
due to Tindemans' inability to obtain support from the Walloon wing of his party,
failed,
sufficient
Parliament dissolved and a general election called 10. The results were: Social Christians 72 Walloon and Brus-
March
seats; Socialists 58; Liberals 30;
federalists (Rassemblement Wallon and Front Democratique Francophone) 25; Flemish federalists
sels
(Volksunie) 22; Communists
4.
Since the Socialists had rejected the tripartite for-
mula,
monarchy on
the North Sea coast of bordered by The Netherlands, West Germany, Luxembourg, and France, Area: 11,782 sq.mi. (30,514 sq.km.). Pop. (1973 est.): 9,756,600. Cap. and largest urban area: Brussels (pop., 1973 constitutional
Europe, Belgium
est.,
commune
is
153,400, urban agglomeration 1,063,-
Dutch, French, and German. Repredominantly Roman Catholic. King, Bauprime ministers in 1974, Edmond Leburton until January 19 and, from April 25, Leo Tindemans. The tripartite coalition government, comprising Socialists, Social Christians, and Liberals under the leadership of Edmond Leburton, resigned on Jan. 19, 1974, after the withdrawal of Iran from the joint oil refinery project in the Liege area, which was to have been run by the Iranian-Belgian Refining and Marketing Company (IBRAMCO). The Liberals and Social Christians had strong doubts about the potential profit300), Language: ligion:
douin
I;
making capacity of the state-run
enterprise, the Lib-
erals stressing that private industry
had not defaulted,
while the Socialists continued to uphold their long-
Bermuda; Dependent States Beverages, Alcoholic: re Alcoholic
Beverages Bicycling:
Cycling
standing
minister-designate
menced negotiations on
Belgium A
prime
demand
for state intervention in the crucial
energy sector. As a result, arguments within the government dragged on beyond the time limit set by the Iranians, who promptly announced their withdrawal
from the project. The Socialists regarded the issue as a test case for their beliefs on the subject of state intervention and many considered the matter a good issue on which to fight a general election.
Tindemans
com-
the basis of a coalition between
Social Christians and Socialists. However, serious disagreements on the crucial and long-standing issue of regional devolution, as well as on the subjects of abortion law reform, state intervention in industry, and educational problems, led him to abandon the attempt and turn to the Liberals, The latter urged him to invite the federalist parties to join in a broad coalition that would command the two-thirds majority required to pass legislation on the controversial matter of devolution of powers to French-speaking Wallonia, Dutch-
speaking Flanders, and the bilingual Brussels
On ties,
April 19-20 a conference of leaders of
district. all
par-
excluding the Socialists and Communists, took
place at Steenokkerzeel Castle near Brussels,
A num-
ber of differences between Flemings and Walloons were ironed out in a marathon 23-hour session, but it proved impossible to reach any mutually acceptable
agreement on the
limits of the Brussels region.
ever, the conference did pave the
way
How-
for a minority
government of Social Christians and Liberals headed by Tindemans, with the tacit support of the federalist parties who were expected to join in at a later stage. The new government, which was sworn in on April 25, consisted initially of 13 Social Christian ministers 6 Liberals, with 3 Social Christian and 3 Liberal Of the federalists, only the Rassemblement Wallon eventually joined the government, with one minister and three secretaries of state. The Volksunie and the Front Democratique Francophone remained at loggerheads over the limits of the Brussels
and
secretaries of state.
region. Finally, just before the
summer
recess, Par-
liament approved provisional legislation on the devolution issue which did not require the special majority.
The
bill,
which provided for the setting up by Octo-
of three ministerial councils, one for each of the regions, was passed by a total of lOS votes in favour,
ber
1
with 78 against and 13 abstentions. On taking office, the new government was immediately faced with a crisis in the energy sector. The
had consistently refused to oil products, and on March 12 had come to a halt. Four days later an interim increase was agreed to, but the oil companies regarded this as inadequate and on April 4 all refineries ceased production and strategic stocks had to be used until production was resumed on April 23. Finally, on September 24, IBRAMCO was dissolved. Problems also arose in the educational sector when the schools reopened and teachers refused to supervise children outside normal school hours. Moreover, news that Belgium would issue school registration certifioutgoing government
grant higher prices for distribution
cates to foreigners illegally residing in the country led
to
an
influx of
Education. (1968-69) Primary, pupils 1,008.444, teachers (1967-68) 47.902; secondary, pupils 309,137, teachers (1967-68) 40,074; vocational, pupils 518,709, teachers (1966-67) 47,956; teacher training, students 19,282, teachers (1967-68) 6,089; higher (4 universities; 1970-71), students 75.106, teaching staff (1967-68) 5.489. Finance. Monetary unit: Belgian franc, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a free rate of BFr. 39.51 to U.S. $1 (BFr. 91.40 = £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs. and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1974) U.S. $4,070,000.000; (June 1973) U.S. $4,449,000,000. Budget (1973 actual): revenue BFr. 427.089,000.000; expenditure BFr. 512,725.000.000. Gross national product: (1972) BFr. 1,583,000.000,000; (1971) BFr. 1,419,000.000,000. Money supply: (Feb. 1974) BFr. 562.6 billion; BFr. 520.8 billion. Cost of living (Feb. 1973) (1970= 100): (June 19741 132; (June 1973) 117.
Foreign
Trade.
(Belgium-Luxembourg
economic
union; 1973) Imports BFr 851.1 billion: exports BFr. 868.7 billion. Import sources: EEC 71% (West Ger-
many 25%, France 19%, The Netherlands 16%, U.K. 7%); U.S. 6%,. Export destinations: EEC 73% tWest Germany 24%, France 21%, The Netherlands 18%, Italy
and
5%, U.K. 5%); U.S. 6%. Main exports: 16%; machinery 10%; chemicals 10%;
steel
iron tex-
yarns and fabrics 8%; motor vehicles 10%; nonferrous metals 6%. Tourism (1972): visitors 6.952,700; gross receipts (Belgium-Luxembourg) U.S. $435 million. tile
Transport and Communications. Roads (1972) 92.666 km. (including 398 km. expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1972): passenger 2.247,000; commer(1972) 4,081 km.; traffic cial 220.000. Railways: (1973) 8,092,000,000 passenger-km., freight 8,164,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1973): 3,644,000.000 passenger-km.; freight 247.608,000 net ton-km. Navigable inland waterways in regular use (1971) 1,536 km. Shipping (1973); merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 236; gross tonnage 1.161.609. Shipping traffic (1973): goods loaded 36,917,000 metric tons, unloaded 60.762,000 metric tons. Telephones (Dec. 1972) 2,324,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1972) 3.560,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1972) 2,289,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons: 1973; 1972 in parentheses): wheat c. 900 (924); barley 660 (653); oats 240 (249); rye 63 (76): potatoes c. 1.400 (1,337); apples (1972) c. 238, (1971) 272; sugar, raw value c. 778 (c. 685): pork c. 545 (511); beef and veal c. 260 (258); milk (1972) c. 3,680, (1971) 3,604; fish catch (1972) 59, (1971) 60. Livestock (in 000; May 1973): cattle c. 2,865; pigs c. 4,412; sheep 69; horses c. 60; chickens (1972) c. 43.500. Industry. Fuel and power (in 000; 1973): coal (metric tons) 8,873: manufactured gas (cu.m.; 1972) 3.165.000: electricity (kw-hr.) 41,071,000. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1973): pig iron 12.635; crude steel 15.526; copper 372; lead 113: zinc 282; sulfuric acid 2.594; cement 7,042: cotton tin 4.5; yarn 65; cotton fabrics 72: wool yarn 84; woolen fabrics 37; rayon and acetate yarn and fibres 32.
states. Inflation
new government. In
a
the
nine months of 1974 the consumer price index
first
major concern
for the
109
Bhutan
climbed more than 11%. The 1975 budget called for increased company and motor vehicle taxes. Farmers' dissatisfaction with EEC agricultural policies and the rising cost of oil products and foodstuffs led to a series of demonstrations in September. In the sphere of foreign affairs, on February 1 1 the government concluded an agreement with Zairian Pres. Mobutu Sese Seko providing for BFr. 4 billion compensation for the giant mining company Union Miniere and for Belgian aid
new copper
in the
construction of a
(jan
refinery in Zaire.
r.
engels)
[972.A.7]
Bhutan A monarchy tan
is
18,000
Bhuand Sikkim. Area:
situated in the eastern Himalayas,
bounded by China, sq.mi.
1,129,000.
BELGIUM
immigrants from other
became
(47,000
Official
India,
sq.km.).
cap.:
Pop.
Thimphu
(1973
(pop.,
est.):
approxi-
mately 10,000). Administrative cap.: Paro (population unavailable). Language: Dzongkha (oflicial). Religion: approximately 75% Buddhist, 25% Hindu. Druk gyalpo (king) in 1974, Jigme Singye Wangchuk. Eighteen-year-old King Jigme Singye Wangchuk was officially crowned in Thimphu on June 2, 1974. The week-long ceremony was attended by the presidents of India and Bangladesh, by diplomatic representatives of the five permanent members of the UN
^.
Security Council, including China, as well as those of other countries,
and by royalty from Sikkim and
Nepal. Before the coronation, Bhutanese
officials
an-
nounced that Tibetan refugees had plotted to assassinate the king and that 30 persons, including Deputy Home Minister Phuntsho Dhondup and the police commandant, had been arrested. Gyalo Thendhup, King Jigme Singye Wangchuk on his throne a brother of the Dalai Lama in exile in India, was said following his installation to be their ringleader. Speaking after the coronation, in Thimphu. the king praised India for its economic aid to Bhutan and expressed satisfaction at the working of the IndoBhutan treaty of 1949, but declared that Bhutan's aim was greater self-reliance. Indian aid continued to be the major factor in Bhutan's development. In March an agreement was signed under which India was to finance a Rs. 830 million hydroelectric project; surplus power was to go to India. In September the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF) agreed to provide $600,000 in 1974-75 to improve health services for children and expectant mothers. Bhutan's first currency notes were released in Thimphu in April. Called ngultrums. they were at par with the Indian rupee, which would remain legal (govindan unny) tender.
BHUTAN Education. (1969) Primary, pupils 10.150, teachers (1968) 275; secondary (1968). pupils 2,559, teachers 141; vocational, pupils 197, teachers 19; teacher training, students 53, teachers 6.
Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: ngultrum, at par with the Indian rupee, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a free rate of Rs. 8.20 to U.S. $1 (official rate of Rs. 18.97 £1 sterling). Budget (1971-72): revenue Rs. 2 7.5 million: expenditure Rs. 69.1 million. Third five-year development plan (1971-76) total expenditure (est.) Rs. 350 million (including c. Rs. 330 million from India). About 95% of external trade is with India. Main exports (1963-64): timber Rs. 1,2 50,000; coal Rs. 220,000.
=
complete rabbit culture, including a lan-
Biography 1974 The
following
is
a selected
list
men
of
and women who influenced events in 1974.
AARON, HENRY April 8, 1974, Hank Aaron picked out a fastball thrown by Los Angeles and 1 Dodger left-hander Al Downing and drove
On
over Atlanta Stadium's left-centre field fence, just to the right of the 385-ft. marker. That home run, the 715th of his career, broke Babe Ruth's lifetime record, which had stood for almost 40 years and which many believed would never be exceeded. Shortly after the season ended, Aaron was traded by the Braves to the Milwaukee Brewers of the American League. He hit 398 of his 733 home runs before the National League Braves moved from Milwaukee to Atlanta after the 1965 season and had exit
pressed a desire to return. Aaron began the season with 713 home runs, and it was all but inevitable that he would break Ruth's record. Detractors took up their refrain of the season before, namely that the modern baseball is livelier than in Ruth's day and that Aaron had played in more games than Ruth. Aaron's defenders countered that he had to contend with the slider, a breaking pitch not introduced until after Ruth retired, and a high percentage of night games. Aaron smiled politely through the turmoil, which included a large measure of hate mail, much of it of a racial nature. Born on Feb. 5, 1934. in Mobile, Ala., Aaron played with the Indianapolis Clowns of the Negro American League until June 1952, when the Boston Braves paid $10,000 for his contract and signed him for $350 a month. In 1954, after a stint in the minors, he joined the Braves, who by then had moved to Milwaukee. Aaron suffered a broken ankle in September, but came back the next season to hit .314 with 27 home runs and 106 RBIs. He won the National League batting championship with a .328 average in 1956 and was named the league's most valuable player in 1957. His last contract with the Braves called for $200,000 a year. The 1974 season began with pressure on Aaron from within baseball as well as from without. The Braves had planned to hold him out of a three-game series in Cincinnati so he would have a chance to break Ruth's record in Atlanta. However, baseball Commissioner Bowie Kuhn ordered Aaron to play opening day in Cincinnati, and Henry tied Ruth's record with his first swing of the season. Kuhn also ordered that he play in the third game, but he failed to get a hit. The feat was thus saved for a cool, overcast day in Atlanta. Aaron told the cheering crowd, "I just thank God it's all over." (j.
TIMOTHY WEICEL)
ADAMS, RICHARD GEORGE Continuing tradition
the
in
of
A.
A.
British
Milne,
animal-fantasy Lewis Carroll,
Kenneth Grahame, and J. R. R. Tolkien, Richard Adams produced a saga of wild rabbits that became one of the most popular novels of 1974. Watcrship Down, published in England in 1972 and in the U.S. in 1974, is a fable of survival: a group of rabbits, forced to flee their warren by human housing developers and guided by a gentle and persuasive leader, roam the English countryside in search of a new home, encountering and overcoming various dangers along the way. In addition to the anthropomorphic,
but
not
sentimentalized,
personalities he created,
Adams
rabbit
invented a
guage, folklore, and culture hero. The novel developed out of stories Adams told to his two young daughters. When he decided, at the urging of one daughter, to write- the stories down, he studied R. M. Lockley's The Private Life of the Rabbit (1964), which provided much of the plausible detail of rabbit life that contributed to the book's success. The novel thus began as a children's book, although its appeal to adults as well made it a best-seller. Adams maintained that he did not intend to create an allegory of the human condition or a political parable (although the book was so interpreted by some readers) but "to write a cliffhanging story, to pay tribute to the beauty of this part of the English countryand to provide a study of leadership." side
—
In 1973 the book won the Carnegie Medal the Guardian Award for children's fiction. The critical acclaim the book received in England was not entirely echoed in the U.S. one New York reviewer found Adams' creatures to be male chauvinist rabbits but that did not seriously affect the book's popular appeal. The novel was also purchased for a full-length animated movie.
and
—
—
The author, who was in his mid-50s, was born and brought up in Berkshire, Eng., near the Watership Down area that he described in his book. He studied history at Worcester College, Oxford, and served in the Royal Army Service Corps during VV'orld War II. After the war he entered government service and was assistant secretary (head
department) of the Department of the Environment when Waterof the air pollution
ship
Down was
from
his
vote
full
published. Adams retired in 1974 to detime to writing. He had already completed his second novel, Shardik, about an empire led by a bear-god. (JOAN NATALIE REIBSTErN)
government position
ADLER, MORTIMER JEROME In the rather staid publishing world of scholarly books and reference works, the month of February 1974 must be regarded as a benchmark of some significance. The new 15th edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica burst upon the scene amidst a torrent of publicity releases, reviews, and national advertising. Startlingly new in concept, design, and content, this total revision of the venerable Britannica occasioned no httle surprise even the name had been altered. The new Britannica 3, so designated because of its tripartite format, represented years of planning and preparation under the guiding genius of Mortimer Adler, Briiannicd's man for all seasons. Adk-r has been variously described as a philosopher, educator, editor, and businessman, and it is fair to say that his career reflects and encompasses each of these diverse callings. As an honours student under John Er.skinc at Columbia University in the 1920s, Adler became impressed with the value of readings and discussions based on great books the best-sellers of the ages, as it were. When he later joined Robert Hutchins in the halcyon years of educational ferment at the University of Chicago, the two men did much to promote the concept that study of great books could provide the core of a liberal education. They attempted to make such an education available to all adults through publication of the 54-voIume Great Books of the Western World in 1952. The Syntopicon of this set is a two-volume index of great ideas devised by Adler. It has served as the seminal source for a host of additional works, including The Great Ideas Today
—
—
(1961-
Many
).
of his books were written or edited at the Institute for Philosophical Research,
which Adler directed from 19S2. Most notable arc The Conditions of Philosophy (1965), The Difference of Man and the Difference It Makes (1967), The Time of Our Lives (1970), and the widely acclaimed 20volume compilation of Americana entitled Annals of America (1968). The latter set, produced for Britannica, includes a two-volume Conspectus treating great issues in American history, also devised by Adler.
A man of boundless energj- characterized tireless ferocity in pursuit of an idea, Adler at 72 was still to be found everywhere, seemingly doing everything at once. He would address a luncheon at the Harvard Club, return to his Institute to confer on manuscript progress, stride to Britannica headquarters to meet with and inspire the sales force, appear on a television talk show, lecture at the University of Chicago, jet to Aspen or Santa Barbara to hold seminars, and on and on. Little wonder that this man was chosen to direct the massive undertaking of planning the new Britannica and that he accepted the challenge. By reason of his breadth of knowledge, perseverance in the by
—
face of adversity,
and good common
sense,
Adler welded the editors of the several parts of the circle of knowledge to common purpose so that in 1974, at last, the final obstacles were overcome and the great work completed. The classification of knowledge is apart from the actual creation of knowledge and. in this sense, can be considered an artifice, or nonscholarly enterprise. But in the absence of classification there can be no order and, in the final analysis, no rational scheme for compiling an encyclopedia. The production of a new Britannica is no little thing; rather, it is the event of a lifetime and the capstone of a career. Mortimer Adler had good reason to be proud of his efforts in (LAWRENCE K. LUSTlc) 1974.
AHMED. FAKHRUDDIN
ALI
India's fifth president and the second Muslim to hold the office, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed succeeded V. V. Giri on Aug. 24, 1974. A Congress Party veteran of more than 40 years' standing, he had been a member of the party's central parliamentary board from 1964. In the political crisis of 1969, in which the Congress Party split into two distinct parliamentary factions, he had stood firmly by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Born in Delhi on May 13, 1905, the son of an army doctor from Assam, Ahmed attended St. Catherine's College, Cambridge, graduating in 1927, and was called to the bar by the Inner Temple the following year.
Back in India, he threw in his lot with Gandhi and Nehru and opposed the sectarian politics of the Muslim League. Elected to the Assam legislature in 1935, he became the province's minister of finance and revenue in 1938. He was responsible for some radical taxation measures and was the first in India to impose a levy on agricultural income. The outbreak of World War II led to a confrontation between the Congress Party and the British power, and Ahmed spent most of the war years in prison. Released in April 1945, he lost to a Muslim League candidate in the election of that year. A year later he was appointed advocate general of Assam, a post he held for six years. After a term in the national Parliament, he returned
Assam politics and was a minister from 1957 until 1966, when Mrs. Gandhi included in her first Cabinet. At the national level he held a variety of portfolios, As minister of industrial development, he piloted the antimonopolics bill through Parliament. Unflamboyant and soft-spoken, Ahmed on occasion had disarmed Parliament by his to
him
quiet
humour. When a member charged that
he had married a woman many years his junior, he replied: "The honourable member is correct. I did indeed marry an IS-year-old girl, but that was 20 years ago!" Begum Abida and he were married in 1945 they had two sons and a daughter. The new poetry, president's pastimes were Urdu classical Indian music, and tennis. He was president of the All-India Lawn Tennis (h. y. sharada Prasad) Association. ;
ALMIRANTE, GIORGIO Political secretary of the neofascist Italian
Social
Movement-National
Right
(MSI-
DN)
party, Giorgio Almirante gained attention during 1974 following the proceedings of an inquiry by Milan judge Luigi Bianchi D'Espinosa that aimed at prosecuting Almirante for reconstitution of the Fascist Party, barred by Italian law. In May 1973, during a debate in the Chamber of
Deputies concerned with obtaining permission to proceed legally against a member of Parliament, Almirante had voted in favour of allowing such permission in the hope that a new inquiry would disprove the conclusions reached by Judge D'Espinosa. The authorization was granted by 485 votes to 59, and the papers in his case were therefore transmitted for competence to Rome judge Carmelo Spagnuolo. On Jan. 24, 1974, Almirante was interrogated for two hours, and inquiries continued throughout the year. Almirante's name also became front-page news a few days after the August 4 bomb
views, he brought together the MSI and the Monarchist Party to form the right-wing MSI-DN coalition of which he became
AMIN,
IDI
DADA OUMEE
A burly, extroverted soldier who became president of Uganda in January 1971 after a military coup against Pres. Milton Obote, Idi Amin survived army mutinies and assassination attempts in 1974 by acting swiftly. He gained a reputation as an increasingly dangerous and difficult man to
of triumph, Yasir Arafat, chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), appeared before the General Assembly on Nov. 13, 1974. His arrival in New York triggered one of the most massive security operations ever undertaken in that city because Arafat personified the "enemy" to its large Jewish population. His speech did Ht-
cross.
He accused two neighbour states, Tanzania and Zambia, of planning to attack Uganda. When the International Commis-
tle to dispel such antagonism, for .Arafat proclaimed as his goal the organization of a new secular Palestinian state, one which
sion of Jurists published a harsh indictment of the conduct of affairs in Uganda, Amin countered by establishing his own commission to inquire into the disappearance of prominent citizens and their unexplained deaths, including those of a former chief justice and the lately dismissed foreign min-
would include MusHms, Christians, and Jews. Opponents were quick to equate this aim with elimination of the state of Israel as presently constituted an Arab dream
He separated from his three wives, of one was subsequently arrested and charged with smuggling while another died under circumstances about which conflicting reports were published. On November 28 he suddenly dismissed Elizabeth Bagaya (formerly Princess Elizabeth of Toro), foreign minister since February 19, for alleged misconduct in Paris and had her placed under brief house arrest. A revealing French documentary film of Amin's personal rule. ister.
whom
on the "Italicus" train, which killed 12 people. He claimed that he had been warned of it and had informed the proper authorities. His gesture was regarded as an attempt to establish a moral alibi since extreme right-wing terrorists were held to be explosion
responsible for the planting of the
bomb.
Born at Salsomaggiore on July 27, 1914, Almirante embraced Fascism and the Mussolini cult as a student, becoming a member a group that aimed at keeping peace and order Fascist-style— at his university.
of
—
A
journalist at IS, with // Tevere, the newspaper edited by Fascist theoretician Telesio
Interlandi, he later became assistant editor before joining as a volunteer for the war in Abyssinia. Returning to Italy, he worked as a teacher and then again as a journalist. After July 25, 1943 (when the Fascist government was overthrown) he joined the Army, became a prisoner of the Germans, and later joined the Italian Social Republic. When it fell, he disappeared f-or 18 months, during which time he worked at odd jobs until he was able to return to teaching. He ,
was elected to the Italian Parliament in 1948 and advanced within the MSI until he became its secretary-general following the death of former leader Arturo Michelini in 1969. After shedding some of his extreme
Giorgio Almirante
Biography
leader.
by the Swiss director Barbet Schroeder, was widely distributed in 1974. Born about 1935 in the village of Koboko and a devout Muslim from the small Kakwa tribe, Amin was largely self-taught, having joined the British colonial army as a young service in the Burma campaign War II with the King's African
man. He saw in
World
Rifles,
an East African
regiment.
Subse-
Mau Mau
fought against the rebellion in Kenya. Under the colonial regime he rose to the highest noncommissioned rank and became an officer only a year before Uganda achieved its independence in quently, he
1962. Four years later he was made army commander. Most at ease with the rank and file of the Army, Amin was for ten years heavyweight boxing champion of Uganda and an enthusiastic rugby football player. He was closely involved with Obote in dealing with previous attempts at coups and assassinations in Uganda. But the two men became increasingly estranged after 1969, when Obote decided on changes in the army structure. These disagreements turned into hostility, and Amin was on the point of being dismissed when he staged his successful coup.
(COLIN lecum)
ARAFAT. YASIR Wearing the familiar checkered kaffiyeh, dark sunglasses, and an unmistakable air
UN
—
since 1948.
Arafat's appearance represented the culmination of a long struggle among several Arab factions At issue had been the question of who would speak for the displaced Palestinians of the Gaza Strip, the West Bank of the Jordan River, and those still farther removed from their original homeland. When the West Bank fcllinto Israeli hands following the Six-Day War of June 1967, King Hussein of Jordan asserted his fundamental sovereignty over the territory and was thus acknowledged as the refugees' principal spokesman. The discontent produced by Israel's victory in that war, however, led to seizure of control of the PLO by Arafat's preexisting guerrilla group, Al Fatah (an acronym in reverse for Palestine Liberation Movement). He became chairman of the PLO in 1969 and this organization was named the sole legitimate representative of all the Palestinian people at an Arab summit meeting held in Rabat, Morocco, in October 1974. This stunning political defeat for King Hussein also dashed hopes for an early settlement of the Middle
East situation. Arafat was born in Ramallah (or possibly Jenin), north of Jerusalem, in 1929. He received a civil engineering degree from Cairo University and during the 1956 Suez conflict served as a lieutenant in the Egyptian .Army. He subsequently joined the firm of Emile Bustani, which operated in Beirut and the Persian Gulf area generally, and did not become seriously concerned with Palestinian politics until the early 1960s. However one might view Arafat's role in Middle East affairs, his ascent to the podium must be considered remarkable for a man who but a few years earlier hved in caves in the desert, hiding from agents of both Israel and King Hussein. Some observers thought it likely that he would ultimately emerge as the head of a government-
UN
but others, aware of the volatility of events in the region, suggested that his influence might wane as rapidly as it had in-exile,
(lawrence
arisen.
k. h;stig)
ARIAS NAVARRO, CARLOS The
bomb
that blew Premier Luis Carrero Blanco and his car over a church wall on Dec. 20, 1973, cleared the way for Carlos Arias Navarro to become, on December 29, the unexpected first civilian premier of post-Civil War Spain, a personal choice of Franco over three candidates put forward by the Council of the Realm. Less a pohtician than a personal servant of General Franco, Arias Navarro was characterized chiefly by a capacity for ruthlessness. Though recently described as courteous, approachable, and willing to listen, he retained an unyielding nature. His unpredicted 11 changes in the 19-man Cabinet demonstrated terrorist
his independence.
— While staunchly supporting the maintenance of law and order, Arias Navarro accepted that expediency required the introduction of a modest degree of political liberalization in Spain. His cautious moves in that direction met with fierce hostility from the right wing of the regime. In defending his policy he showed tenacity, individuality, and resourcefulness, which delineated him more clearly in the public eye.
Arias Navarro was born on Dec. U, 1908, Madrid, where he went to the university and became a doctor of law. In 1929 he entered the technical services of the Ministry of Justice and six years later was appointed a state prosecutor. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1936, Arias Navarro swiftly transferred his allegiance from the republic to General Franco. He was captured and imprisoned in Malaga by the Republicans, and then freed on the arrival of Franco's forces. He was made a military prosecutor and gained recognition for his harshness. Between 1944 and 19S7 he held various civil governorships and was then appointed director general of security. The eight years during which he occupied this position were noted for the vindictiveness displayed toward opponents of the regime. As mayor of Madrid, during 1965-73, he appeared in a more favourable light, achieving advances in the fields of education and transport, and even making some headway in tackling the city's acute environmental problems. In June 1973 he was named minister of the interior in Adm. Carrero Blanco's Cabinet. in
(JOAN pearce)
BARZANI, MULLA
MUSTAFA In
AL-
March 1974 Mulla Mustafa
al-Barzani
was once again leading an insurrection against the Iraqi government to secure autonomy for the Kurds of northeastern Iraq. Born in about 1902 as a member of the leading Kurdish Barzani clan, Mulla Mustafa was the younger brother of Sheikh Ahmed, a religious eccentric who led the Kurdish national struggle from Worid War I until the late 1930s when he retired from politics. Mulla Mustafa then took over the leadership and headed the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP), formed in 1945. In 1946 he
commanded
the army of the short-lived autonomous Kurdish Mahabad RcpubHc, established with Soviet support in a strip of Iranian territory on the Iraqi and Turkish borders. When Soviet troops were withdrawn from Iran, the Mahabad Republic collapsed and the territory was reoccupied by Iran. Mulla Mustafa and the other Barzanis escaped over the Soviet frontier.
Muila Mustafa remained
Union
until
in
the
Soviet
allowed to return to Iraq by regime after the
Abd al-Karim Kassem's
overthrow of the Iraqi monarchy
in
1958.
He lived in Baghdad, which he was not allowed to leave, until 1960, when he escaped to the Kurdish areas and organized a new revolt against the Baghdad regime. His efforts were a major factor in the overthrow of Kasscm in February 1963, but after a war was resumed against Kassem's Baath Party successors. Another followed the downfall of the Baathists in November 1963, but an agreement with Iraq in 1966 was abortive and tension, with frequent clashes, continued until a new 15point agreement with the new Baathist government in March 1970 appeared to give Barzani and the KDP their main objectives. It was their insistence that Iraq had failed to implement this agreement in good faith and, especially, had not included the oil-rich Kirkuk area in the autonomous Kurdish region that led to the renewed fighting in short respite the lull
—
1974. A generally taciturn man of commanding presence and proved qualities as a guerrilla leader, Mulla Mustafa was opposed in 1974 by a minority group of younger Kurds, including one of his own sons, who regarded him as too conservative and tribalistic and deplored his connections with the Iranian government. But most Iraqi Kurds were expected to rally to his support in any internal struggle. At the end of November 1974 rumours that he had died in an Iranian hos(peter mansfield) pital were denied.
BECKENBAUER, FRANZ Known cles as
throughout West German soccer cir"Kaiser Franz," Franz Beckenbauer
realized a double ambition in 1974 when he led his country to the world championship
Bayern Munich, to European Cup success over Atletico Madrid of Spain. His World Cup medal was achieved on the third attempt, for he had played in the 1966 finals in England, where VVest Germany lost the final to the host country, and in Mexico in 1970, where the West Germans finished and
his club,
third, losing in the semifinals to Italy.
Born
Munich on
Sept. 11, 1945, Beckenbauer joined his local club, Bayern, after leaving school and started as a centre back. He was soon drafted onto the senior team, operating in various positions, including midfield, striker, and sweeper. in
During his long tenure on a regular first team, Beckenbauer helped his club to four national league
Winners'
Cup
titles,
the
European Cup-
(1967), and four national cup
with an award by the West German government following the World Cup success. (TREVOR WILLIAMSON)
BENN, ANTHONY NEIL
WEDGWOOD In Britain in 1974 the English language acquired a new word: Bcnnery. It was used to encapsulate the Labour government's program for extending state ownership and intervention in industry, and it was associated with the name of Tony Benn, appointed secretary of state for industry in the
Wilson government
in
in that post after the
March and confirmed October election.
In practice, "Bennery" might be taken to imply a commitment to nationalization and state intervention, plus worker participation in management, or outright worker control that went further than the government's declared program but reflected Benn's own ideological commitments. It was reported that the ofiicial White Paper on British industry was a much watered-down version of Benn's original draft.
Because of
his highly
contentious views,
Benn became anathema to the Confederation of British Industry and to the City of London, but a favourite of the Labour left wing. At the November party conference he headed the poll in the election of constituency members of the executive, suggesting that the he had attracted had not harmed his political standing, at least within the party. In December came a spectacular application of *'Bennery" to Britain's ailing automotive giant, British Leyland, with the partial revelation of plans for state intervention to secure its survival. hostile publicity
Born in London on April 3. 1925, the son of the first Lord Stansgate, Benn was educated at Westminster School and, after World War II service as a pilot, at Oxford. Elected a Labour in 1950, he had to relinquish his seat on succeeding to the peerage in 1960. Subsequent legislation allowing peers to renounce their titles enabled him to return to the House of Commons in 1963. Later he discarded other outward signs of his family background, eliminating references
MP
to his education in his Who's Who entry and dropping Wedgwood from his name. Minister of technology from 1966 to 1970, he was a leader of the anti-EEC group in the Labour Party and insisted that the question of
Brftish
membership be
dum.
by a referen(HARFORD THOMAS)
settled
BLATTY, WILLIAM PETER The enfant diable was William Peter
of screenwriters in 1974 Blatty, a Jesuit-educated
former publicist. Author of The Exorcist, which sold nine million copies, he converted the novel into a film that raised many eyebrows, swelled other people's gorges, and turned more than one stomach. Based on a documented case, the story involves the demonic possession of a young (played by Linda Blair, 13). Inexplicably, her normally pleasant personality and girl
European Cup. He also helped West Germany win the European championship in 1972 and participated in the 1966 and 1970 Worid Cup appearances. Over this period Beckenbauer was voted European Footballer of the Year in 1973, and with 72 international appearances
her surroundings begin to change: her room turns cold her bed tosses her like an infernal trampoline she desecrates a chapel, has evil prescience, speaks in tongues. Convinced that the child is possessed, her mother {Ellen Burstyn) turns to Georgetown University
for his country surpassed the record previously held by Uwe Seeler, Off the soccer field Beckenbauer had interests in insurance and would have gone into that business had he not taken up football for a living. Although in his most recent seasons he played as a centre back, he never lost his thirst for attack, and his long-range dipping shots caught many a goalkeeper unaware. His talent was recognized in 1974
priest (Jason Miller)
victories as well as the 1974
;
;
(Blatty's
alma mater) for help. A young and a venerable Jesuit (Max von Sydow) begin an
archaeologist
exorcism while the girl levitates, masturbates with a crucifix, and twists her head 360" while screaming obscenities. Both priests die in the ordeal, but the girl becomes her old self again.
Released the day after Christmas 1973, the film grossed $2 million in the first month as people flocked to it like crippled pilgrims
to Lourdes. But not all of them could stay. fled, others fainted or vomited. The movie's popularity was linked to other occult fads such as astrology and witchcraft, and theologians, critics, and social observers joined in a debate over its significance. New York Times critic Vincent Canby sneered that it treated diabolism with the kind of slickness "movie makers once lavished on
Some
the stories of saints." Newsday argued that it "creates the experience of evil and sustains it for two hours." A CathoUc writer called it "an exceedingly well-made bad picture." The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences agreed. Though nominated for ten for the sound track Oscars, it won only two
—
and the screenplay adaptation. The scenarist and producer of the film, Blatty was born Jan. 7, 1928, in New York City. While at Georgetown he read of the suspected real-hfe possession of a suburban boy. He took a doctorate at American Uniserved as a psychological warfare officer with the Air Force, and held several public relations jobs while trying his hand at screenplays. His screen credits included A Shot in the Dark and John Goldfarb, (philip jcopper) Please Come Home. versity,
appointed regional representative of the FAO for Europe. He became director general in (FRANCIS s. pierce) 1968.
A
who had
puritan soldier
already led Al-
but determined road and industriaUzation, Pres. Houari Boumedienne emerged in 1974 as a champion among the third world states against what he saw as the economic domination of developed and industrialized nageria along an austere toward self-sufficiency
tions.
Boumedienne had given an indication of trend toward "economic liberation"
the
when he
chaired the fourth conference of nonaligned nations at Algiers in September 1973. That conference had readily followed Algeria's lead, and Boumedienne carried his leading role further by calling for a special General Assembly to consession of the sider the third world's problems. The as-
UN
to his call, and Boumekeynote speech at the on raw materials and economic development held in New York in April 1974. He urged the less developed countries to nationalize their resources and
sembly responded dienne
made
the
special session
BOERMA, ADDEKE HENDRIK
the industrialized nations to collaborate with, rather than confront, the third world
When Addeke Boerma became
in their
director gen-
economic dealings.
UN Food and Agriculture Or(FAO) in 1968, the Green Revo-
Born Muhammad Boukharouba (Houari was a nickname and Boumedienne a pseudo-
lution in the less developed countries gave promise of making them self-sufficient in food and dispelling the Malthusian spectre forever. Indeed, one of the chief problems that he stressed at a 1970 World Food Conference in The Hague was that of employing labourers who would not be needed on the land as modern farming methods took over.
nym) on Aug. 23, 1927, the son of a small farmer, he had a mainly religious education at the Islamic Institute in Constantine, Alg., and at al-Azhar University in Cairo, Egypt. In December 1954, a month after the outbreak of the war against France, he switched
eral of the
ganization
By
1974
combination of economic and weather anomalies had a
dislocations changed the picture drastically. World grain reserves were at a 20-year low. Even in affluent countries, food was being priced out of reach of the poor, and the first
UN
World Food Conference
in
November
faced (though it did not solve) the reality of widespread famine and malnutrition.
The most immediate problem coming to on Boerma's desk in 1974 was as old
rest
of office, though the six-year drought in Africa's Sahel region had not come to public attention until 1973. In January he estimated that 500,000 tons of grain and 60,000 tons of high-protein foods were needed if widespread starvation and malnutrition were to be avoided. In March the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace issued a study charging that the U.S. as his term
government and various international agencies had contributed to the deaths of 100,000 people in Africa because they were slow to prepare relief programs. The FAO chief denied this, saying that he had seen no evidence that governmental bodies were at fault.
At the same time, Boerma
tried to di-
rect the world's attention to a longer
term
aspect of the food problem. He sent a telegram to the governments of 38 countries pointing out that the world production of fertilizer was in danger of declining because of the increase in energy costs. Boerma is an international cjvil servant who avoids the publicity so often courted by other men of his station. An agricultural engineer from The Netherlands, he has been with the FAO for more than 25 years. He was born April 3, 1912, and graduated from the State Agricultural University in Wageningen. In 1938 he entered government serv-
The Netherlands as an officer in charge of preparing for food distribution in case of ice in
war. After World War II he became involved in the preparatory planning for an international food organization^ and in 1948 was
Biography
BOUMEDIENNE. HOUARI
from religious to mihtary studies in Egypt and then took further training in Morocco. In 1955 he joined a guerrilla unit in western Algeria and three years later was in charge of all operations in the western sector. In 1960 he was put in charge of the National Liberation Army force with headquarters in Tunisia. After independence was achieved, the 30,000 troops under Boumedienne's command
were the decisive factor in the struggle for power, and he led them into Algiers in September 1962 in support of Ahmed Ben Bella. He was rewarded with the Defense Ministry and set about transforming a guerrilla
army
into a
modern
fighting force.
he was soon disillusioned with
Houari Boum^dieni
Ben
But
Bella's
left-leaning coterie, and while vice-president he seized power in June 1965. After taking over the presidency he eschewed the speech-
making, promises, and
political philosophizing of his predecessor in the belief that his people wanted bread, schools, and economic (peter kilner) progress.
BOUTEFLIKA, ABDEL-AZIZ The United Nations'
choice of Abdel-Aziz Bouteflika, foreign minister of Algeria, to be president of its 29th General Assembly was yet another indicator of the growing determination of the third world to use its voice more effectively. It indicated also the special role that Algeria had come to play as a spokesman for the "have-nots." Bouteflika, only 37 at the time of his election in September 1974, already had more than a decade of ministerial experience in international affairs. In 1963 he had become th; world's youngest foreign minister.
Bouteflika came to the General Assembly presidency with a reputation as a tough negotiator; as an accomplished diplomat despite a lack of formal education; and as one whose earUer anti-Western stance had gradually softened during the years he guided his country's foreign poHcy toward an impartial pragmatism. His youthful appearance beUed an iron determination to make full use of his year as president in the service of the new nations, which formed a majority among the UN's members. His ability to express this majority will, at the conventions, was disexpense of older played particularly during the special debate
UN
on Palestine in November. At home, Bouteflika had long been identified with and overshadowed by Pres. Houari Boumedienne (q.v.), for almost 20 years his close associate, but he was far from merely speaking with his master's voice. Born at Tlemcen, in western Algeria, on
March
2, 1937, Bouteflika was the son of a small-time merchant who settled at Oujda, just across the Moroccan border. He was studying at Oujda when the Algerian revolution broke out in 1954 and soon afterward joined the guerrillas, being attached to the
commanded by Boumedienne. He followed Boumedienne to Tunisia when the National Liberation Army's external headquarters were established there. With Alsector
independence in 1962, Bouteflika member for Tlemcen in the NaAssembly and was given the portfoUo of youth and sport by Ahmed Ben Bella, the
geria's
was
elected
tional
country's first president. A year later Ben Bella moved him to foreign affairs, but strained relations developed between the two it was Ben Bella's threat to dismiss Bouteflika that finally led Boumedienne to oust Ben Bella and seize power himself. ;
(peter kilner)
BROCK, LOU baseball season was one of glorious achievement and bitter disappointment for Lou Brock. The man destined perhaps to be-
The 1974
come
the most proficient base stealer in basemajor-league stolen base record (118) for the St. Louis Cardinals. He also, at the age of 35, batted .306 and scored 106 runs. But he did not win the National League's most valuable player award. That honour went instead to Los Angeles Dodger infielder Steve Garvey, and only a mighty effort in self-control kept Brock from spilling ball history set a
on the public. Brock was in Chicago the day the awardwinner was announced and had already his bitterness
114
much
benefit for his people as possible. dismissed the idea that KwaZulu, fragas it was, could become genuinely independent and he saw no future in the government's consolidation proposals. Ideologically, Buthelezi was a disciple of Chief Albert LutuU (1898-1967), former head of the African National Congress (banned in 1960) and 1960 Nobel Peace Prize winner. His basic philosophy was one of equal rights for all South Africans, pref-
as
He Biography
mented
scheduled a press conference in anticipation
However, after Garvey was named, Brock called off the conference and granted no interviews. In no mood to answer questions, he was willing to pose one of his own: What did he have to do to win the award that he had not done already? Indeed, Brock's accomphshments in 1974 were awesome. His total of 118 base thefts shattered the old mark of 104, set by Maury Wills. Brock broke the record on September 10 in St. Louis when he stole numbers 104 and IDS against the Philadelphia Phillies. He finished the 1974 campaign with a career of his victory.
total
stolen bases, a
of 753
new National
League record. The only man still ahead of him was Ty Cobb, and his all-time record of 892 seemed within Brock's reach. Brock was born on June 18, 1939, in El Dorado, Ark., one of nine children. He was awarded a $30,000 bonus with the Chicago Cubs in 1961 and hit a home run on the first pitch thrown to him in his professional career, at St. Cloud, Minn., in the Northern League. He played two seasons in Chicago and then was shipped to St. Louis in a trade that turned into a true "steal" for the Cardinals. Six players were involved in that deal of June 1964, and by 1974 Brock was the only one still playing baseball. Brock led the Cardinals to a pennant during that 1964 season and was also a prime mover in the flags won by St. Louis in 1967 and 1968. In 1968 he also led the National League in doubles, triples, and stolen bases,
a feat not accomplished since Honus Wagner garnered the honour in 1908. The only man to steal seven bases in a single World Series, Brock did this twice, in 1967 and 1968. His 14 steals overall in World Series play tied him with Eddie Collins. Brock would Hke to increase his marks before retirement but claimed that he was not aiming at Ty Cobb's lifetime total.
(j.
timothy weicel)
BUTHELEZI, GATSHA
MANGOSUTHU Considered to be one of the ablest and most dynamic black leaders in South .Mrica, Chief Gatsha Buthelezi, while cooperating with the
government councillor of
in his capacity of chief executive
KwaZuIu {formerly Zululand),
critical of South Africa's policy of separate development and ultimate independence for the Bantu homelands, or Bantustans. A descendant of the royal line of the warrior Zulu nation through his mother, Buthelezi was born Aug. 27, 1928, at Mahlabatini, where his father was chief of the Shcnge
remained openly
Brought up
royal kraal at Nongoma, the KwaZulu capital, he received a degree in history and native administration from Fort Hare University College, South Africa's main higher educational institution for Africans only. At the age of 25 he was elected acting chief of his tribe, and in 1958 tribe.
in the
full chieftain.
Traditionally the Buthelezi family provided the chief councillors, or "prime ministers," to the Zulu rulers. For 16 years Buthelezi was chief councillor to Paramount Chief Cyprian; he became chief executive councillor for the KwaZulu homeland in 1972 when, after years of opposition to the apartheid Bantustan concept -led by Buthelezi himself the four million-strong Zulu people accepted Bantustan status. He made no .secret of the fact that he cooperated in the existing system because it gave him a platform for expressing his views and opportunities for influencing events and obtaining
—
erably in some form of federation. He was a prolific writer and a widely traveled speaker whose voice commanded respect both in and outside South .Africa. A devoted member of the Anglican Church, in 1963 he was one of the three diocesan delegates from Zululand to the World Anglican Congress
Cairns indeed tried to break
away from
the Treasury formula for combating inflation. According to the Treasury, businesses were to be forced to stop paying higher wages and charging higher prices through
Treasury-induced loi^ses, and workers were to be made to give up wage claims by manipulation of the unemployment level. In the Chifley Memorial Lecture at Melbourne University in August, Cairns said: "What is needed is not just a way to control inflation but a way to reform society so that it may avoid inflation. We need to stop treating society as if it were just an economy .
.
.
(Louis HOTz)
and remember that it is a community." Cairns was born at Carlton, Victoria, in 1914. He was a Victorian police officer (1935-44) and enlisted in the 2nd .AustraUan Imperial Force in January 1945, serving
Republic of Guinea-Bissau became independent of Portuguese colonial rule on Sept. 10, 1974, its first president was Luis Cabral, the 45-year-old half brother of Amilcar Cabral, the noted revolutionary who led the .African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) until
with the Army Educational Corps in .Australia and Morotai. Before he entered Parliament he was a senior lecturer in economic history at Melbourne University. He was elected to the House of Representatives for Yarra in 1955 and for Lalor in 1969, and when Labor took power in December 1972 he became minister for overseas trade and (a. r. o. crufiths) secondary industry.
in
Toronto.
CABRAL, LUIS When
the
his assassination in
January 1973.
Luis Cabral was born at Bafata, Portuguese Guinea, in 1929, of mixed European and African parents who came originally from the Cape Verde Islands. He did not follow his brother to the university in Lisbon but began his working life as a clerk in Bissau, the capital of Portuguese Guinea. He became an active labour leader in the late 19SOs, took part in the founding of PAIGC in 1956, and was the main organizer of the
longshoremen's strike at Pidgiguiti in August 1959. The strike resulted in the shooting of 230 African workers (SO of whom died) by Portuguese police. As a result Cabral went into exile in neighbouring Guinea, where in 1964 he became an executive member of the PAIGC, mainly concerned with party organization. In 1965 Cabral was sent by PAIGC to Cuba, where he successfully enlisted support from its prime minister, Fidel Castro. In 1972 P.MGC prepared to proclaim the RepubUc of Guinea-Bissau, and the Cabral brothers busied themselves in organizing regional councils and elections for those areas that had been freed from Portuguese control. After Amilcar Cabral's death Aristide Pereira headed PAIGC, and he and Luis Cabral continued the struggle until talks with the Portuguese were begun in May. A Marxist like his late brother, Cabral nevertheless proved himself to be both tolerant and pragmatic in his negotiations with Portugal for his country's independence.
(COLIN
lecum)
CAIRNS, JAMES FORD When James
F. Cairns displaced Lance Barnard as deputy prime minister of Australia, the conservative triumvirate (Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, Treasurer Frank Crean, and Barnard) that had led the country in the first Whitlam ministry was shattered. Cairns's promotion came after the Australian Labor Party faced and won its second election in two years. In 1970 Cairns had been virtually written off a5 a po.ssible Labor minister because of his leadership of the antiwar Vietnam moratorium movement. But the parliamentary party elected him deputy in July 1974, and almost immediately speculation began as to whether he was running the country. It seemed as though the prime minister had been kicked upstairs to titular head of the government while Cairns, who was also, and still is, minister of trade, had been left with the day-to-day management of the economy.
CALDWELL, SARAH first lady of opera in America in 1974 did not sing a note. Sarah Caldwell was a stage director and operatic conductor, at once the driving force and personification of the Opera Company of Boston. Paul Hume, the Washinglon Post's music critic, believed "she is a special treasure in the world of opera, one of the geniuses of our time." She was all the more a phenomenon for belonging to a select fraternity domi-
The
nated by men. Miss Caldwell was born in Maryville, Mo., A music and mathematics prodigy, she graduated from high school at 14, studied psychology at the University of .Arkansas, and went on to the New England Conservatory of Music. She became the protegee of impresario Boris Goldovsky and for 11 in 1929.
years was his assistant at the New England Opera Company. In 1957 she founded the Boston Opera Group, which became the Opera Company of Boston in 1965. The city had razed its old opera house, but she put it back on the operatic map with an astonishing series of spectaculars performed in derelict movie theatres and college gyms. Her reputation for joining musical perfection with stagecraft unknown elsewhere in opera earned her national attention and brought many of the world's greatest voices to Boston. Among other American premieres, she presented Luigi Nono's Intolteranza (after fighting the State Department for his visitor's visa),
Schoenberg's monumental Moses
und Aran, Schuller's The Fisherman and His Wife, Bartok's The .\firaruhus Mandarin, and Stravinsky's Rake's Progress. When she staged The Bartered Bride, the sad-faced circus clown Emmett Kelly played a role. In a production of Don Quichotte her knight-errant actually spun around on the windmill because the script called for it. In Berlioz' Les Troyens she included a 900-lb. Trojan horse and sacked the city with "fire, smoke, tumbling temples and crumbling statues" in a five-hour extravaganza. In 1974 her masterpiece was a rare fulllength presentation of Prokofiev's War and Peace that brought audiences to their feet at Washington's new Wolf Trap Park amphitheatre. Generally unconcerned with her appearance, she dresses shabbily except during performances and has been known to roll up in a carpet to sleep in a theatre aisle after a marathon rehearsal. (puilip kopper)
CALLAGHAN, (LEONARD) JAMES In March 1974, James Callaghan was appointed foreign secretary in Britain's new Labour government. With the single exception of Prime Minister Harold Wilson, no one in the Cabinet had had longer experience in office. First elected to
ParUament
in 1945,
he became a junior minister in Clement Att-
government in 1947. Then, in the Wilson governments of 1964 to 1970, he held key Cabinet posts as chancellor of the Exchequer and home secretary (in the latter he found himself responsible for handling the outbreak of civil strife in Northern Ireland). From 1957 he had a place on the Labour Party's executive, and as party chairlee's
man in 1973-74 he took a leading role in the preparation and presentation of the Labour program at the two general elections of 1974. In moving to the Foreign Office, he took charge of one of the most crucial issues raised by Labour's return to power: Britain's relationship with the European Economic Community. Labour had promised that the terms of Britain's entry to the EEC, accepted in 1972 by Edward Heath's Conservative government, would be renegotiated and that the decision on whether or not to stay in would be put to the country by a referendum. With Labour deeply divided on this question, Callaghan's undoctrinaire middle of the road position and his equable, pragmatic temperament were natural advantages. At the beginning of negotiations with the European foreign ministers in April, Callaghan said he was looking for "successful renegotiation from which the right terms for continued membership will emerge." Apart from the EEC negotiations, Callaghan was anxious to improve relations between Europe and the U.S. In these highly charged areas, his bluff, no-nonsense style seemed to be paying off. When war broke out in Cyprus between Turks and Greeks, Callaghan was the principal peacemaker in talks at Geneva. By dogged persistence, he was instrumental in bringing about first a cease-fire and then an interim settlement.
Born on March 27, 1912, in Portsmouth, Callaghan was educated at local schools, and before World War II he worked first as a tax official in the Inland Revenue, then as trade-union officer of the Inland Revenue Staff Federation. On election to Parliament in 1945, he was quickly spotted and brought on by Hugh Dalton, then chancellor of the Exchequer. in the ten years
(HARFORD THOMAS)
CAMARA PESSOA, DOM HELDER The award
in February 1974 of a "People's Peace Prize" to Dom Helder Camara, archbishop of Olinda and Recife in Brazil, did more than recognize Camara's "fight for peace, freedom, justice, and human dignity against oppression and exploitation"; it also underlined widespread dissent over the award of the previous year's Nobel Peace Prize (for which Camara had been a nominee) jointly to U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and North Vietnam's Le Due Tho. The "alternative" peace prize resulted from
a campaign in Norway and other countries that collected 1,510,000 kroner for the purpose. At a ceremony in Oslo on February 10 it
was presented
to
Archbishop Camara,
who
stated that the money would be used to train poor agricultural workers in northeastern Brazil. Earlier in February he was nominated
by
six members of the Norwegian Storting (parliament) for the 1974 Nobel Peace Prize.
Dom
Helder
first
national attention
Council in
Rome
began to attract interthe Second Vatican He belonged to
at
(1962-6S).
a group of bishops who wanted the church to be poor, both in reality and in appearance. In Brazil he had been an advocate of radical reform. The plans of the mihtary government for opening up the northeastern region seemed to him like the substitution of foreign-dominated capitalism for feudalism. He denounced the use of torture. One of his
Father Antonio Henrique Neto, was murdered in mysterious circumin 1969. Yet the revolution he preached was one of charity and justice. He was accused of being naive and also, more damagingly, of being a Communist. A selfstyled spokesman of "those who have no voice," he made lecture tours around the world. From time to time the government placed restrictions on his movements or on reporting them. At one stage, the Vatican closest associates,
stances
appeared to have backed up the government, only to relent later. Dom Helder was born in Fortaleza in February 1909 and ordained priest in 1931. In the i950s he was secretary of Catholic Action and then auxiliary bishop of Rio de Janeiro. His first conflicts with the authorities came when he launched "Operation Hope" to rehouse shantytown dwellers. He was appointed archbishop of Olinda and Recife in April 1964. (PETER HEBBLETHWAITE)
CEAUSESCU, NICOLAE A Communist
leader who enjoyed considerpopularity in his country, Nicolae Ceausescu had accumulated great power by 1974, when he was made president of the Socialist Republic of Romania on March 28. He had already been named general secretary of the Romanian Communist Party (RCP) on March 22, 1965, and chairman of the State Council on Dec. 9, 1969. The presidency was proposed by the Central Committee of the RCP and endorsed by the Grand National Assembly. As president, Ceausescu was chief of state and supreme commander of the armed forces, but also continued to chair the State Council, Born a peasant's son on Jan. 26, 1918, at Scornicesti, Olt district, Ceausescu joined able
the illegal Union of Communist Youth at the age of 15. During the German occupation of Romania he played an active part in the struggle against the occupying Nazis and their Romanian accomplice. Gen. Ion Antonescu. After King Michael's coup d'etat of Aug. 2i, 1944, when the Communist Party became legal after 20 years of underground militancy, Ceausescu was elected to its Central Committee. He joined the party's secretariat in 1954, when Gheorghe GheorghiuDej ceased to be first secretary and was succeeded by Gheorghe Apostol. The following year Gheorghiu-Dej reassumed control of the party as first secretary of the Central Committee, and Ceausescu was elected to the Politburo. After Gheorghiu-Dej's death the ninth congress changed the party's name from Ro-
manian Workers' to Romanian Communist Party, and the country's name from People's Republic to Socialist Republic. At the same time, Ceausescu's role was given the wider title
of general secretary of the
RCP.
In the
Draft Program of the Rotnanian Communist Party (a booklet of 178 pages), adopted
by the Central Committee on Sept.
14, 1974,
Ceausescu averred that in the 1920s the activity of the party had been difficult because "it took an incorrect stand on the national question" (referring to Bessarabia, won from the U.S.S.R. in 1918 and lost in 1940) and because some leaders of the party, "sent by the Comintern," were ignorant of the "country's realities." Ceausescu, indeed, had the self-confidence to inspire the 11th party congress in November to make an unpar-
Dom
Helder CSmara Pessoa
culture (1972-74),
castigated U.S.,
conflicted with French interests. As minister of the interior from March 1974 he was entrusted by President Pompidou with preparations for the
agricultural
independence from Soviet political domination, to the effect that the activities of Communist parties could no longer be centrally controlled. (K. M. SMOCORZEWSKi)
alleled statement of
CHIRAC. JACQUES RENE From
when he
West German, and European Commission
Biography
policies
that
presidential election, then scheduled for 1976 but brought forward by Pompidou's death. (PIERRE VIANSSON-PONTE)
CLERIDES. GLAFKOS JOHN A
the outset of his career Jacques Chirac,
nominated to head France's new government by Pres. Valery Giscard d'Estaing (q.v.) on May 27, 1974, at the early age of 41, had stood out as the ver>* model of the jeunes loups ("young wolves") of French political In 1962, only three years after graduating from the £cole Nationale d'Administration the nursery of France's top civil servants he had become head of the personal staff of Georges Pompidou (then premier), who referred to his protege as "my bulllife.
— —
Although more of a "Pompidolian" than a Gaullist, he had been an approved dozer.'*
prominent Greek Cypriot lawyer and deputy president of the republic of Cyprus after August I960, Glafkos derides became interim president on July 23, 1974, after Nikos Sampson, the nine-day "president" installed by Greece's military government, was whisked away to Greece. Clerides soon re-
moved
the
government established by Samp-
son and brought in a new team of liberals and moderates, thus creating a climate of confidence, which, he hoped, would enable him to pursue reconciliation with the Turkish community. Konstantinos Karamanlis (g.v.), the new Greek prime minister, expressed his confidence in Clerides and agreed with him that no peaceful settlement of the Cyprus problem was possible on the basis of partition of the island in two federated parts, with an exchange of populations. Both men also agreed that the president. Archbishop Makarios (qz'.), should not return immediately, and Clerides continued to serve as interim president until Makarios reen-
member lated
by
of de Gaulle's entourage, being remarriage to the general's sole com-
panion at the time of the June 1940 Appel. As state secretary at the Ministry of Economy and Finance (1968-71) he had worked closely with Giscard d'Estaing, who then headed the ministry. No doubt the new president, not himself a member of the GauIIist Union des Democrates pour la R^publique (UDR), saw in the essentially pragmatic Chirac the qualities needed to reconcile the "Giscardian" and "non-Giscardian" factions of the parliamentary majority. As premier, indeed, Chirac quickly set about persuading the Gaullists that, despite the social reforms promised by President Giscard, the basic tenets of Gaullism, such as national and European independence, would be retained. By an astute move he secured his election as secretary-general of the in the face of potential opposition
party
UDR
from the
"barons" and soon afterward con-
solidated his hold over the majority by easily defeating an opposition motion of censure. Jacques Chirac was born in Paris on Nov. 29, 1932, the son of a company director. He was educated at the Carnot and Louis-leGrand lycees in Paris, graduated from the Institut d'£tudcs Politiques, and attended Harvard University's Summer School before entering the fecolc Nationale d'.\dministration in 1957. Elected a deputy in 1967, he was made a junior minister the same year and a senior minister in charge of relations with Parliament in 1971. He first attracted international attention as minister of agri-
tered Cyprus on December 7. Clerides was born in Nicosia, Cyprus, on April 24, 1919, the son of the attorney general with the governor's executive council when the British ruled Cyprus. He studied law at King's College, London University, and later at Gray's Inn, His law studies were interrupted by Worid War II, during which he served in the Royal Air Force. Taken prisoner when his Wellington bomber was hit over Germany, Clerides escaped from captivity three separate times. After the war he returned to Cyprus and joined his father's law firm in Nicosia. As did every Greek Cypriot, he sympathized with the enosis movement for union with Greece. During the revolt that started in 1955 he defended many political prisoners in court. In 1960, after the first elections to the House of Representatives of the republic of Cyprus, he was elected speaker and exofficio deputy president of the republic. The ablest of President Makarios' advisers, he stood aloof from the intrigues that led to the breakdown of the 1960 constitution as well as from the widespread fighting between the Greek and Turkish communities that started in December 1963. Attempts at mediation by the U.S. and the UN, as well as
by Greek and Turkish governments, failed. During the summer of 196S direct talks began between Clerides and Rauf Denktash (q.v.), president of the Turkish Cypriot these continued after the Turkish occupation of 1974. They
Communal Chamber, and were, return.
however, interrupted by Makarios' (K. m. smocorzewski)
COGGAN, (FREDERICK)
DONALD Donald Coggan's appointment as archbishop of Canterbury had seemed unlikely until the untimely death in October 1972 of Ian Ramsey, bishop of Durham, who was the expected successor to the present archbishop, Arthur Michael Ramsey. Thereafter, the field appeared wide open. Because of the seniority of his see, the archbishop of Canterbury has a primacy of honour— although not of jurisdiction in the worldwide Anglican Communion, and it had even been suggested that the next archbishop might come from outside England. Pressure had also
—
up for ecclesiastical appointments to be decided by the Church of England itself rather than by the secular government.
built
resignation was announced in 1974, to take effect on November 15. In July the church's General Synod votpd in favour of controlling its own appointments, but Coggan's nomination had already
Ramsey's
March
been announced on May 14. A noted biblical scholar and member of the team that produced the New English Bible, Coggan, until his consecration as bishop of Bradford (1956), had pursued an almost exclusively academic career. A smallquiet man in spectacles, loathing ostentation, he had become an efficient and discreet administrator. His theolog>' was orthodox to the point of conservatism and
ish,
An "evangelical" churchvoted for the abortive scheme
firmly Bible-based.
man who had
of union with the Methodists, he nevertheless transcended church party distractions. As
archbishop of York (from 1961), he drew Roman Catholics as well as Free Churchmen into his "Call to the North" evangelism program. Because he was 65 and Anglican bishops now retire at around 70, he could, for that and other reasons, be labeled a "caretaker" archbishop (though it might be
remembered that Pope John XXIII was tially cast in
ini-
that role).
Born on Oct. 9, 1909, in Highgate, London, Coggan was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and the University of Cambridge. .After holding a lectureship in Semitic languages at the University of Manchester (1931-34) and a working-class London curacy (1934-37), he was appointed profes-
New Testament at Wycliffe Colki:(\ Toronto (1937-44), returning to England become principal (1944-56) of the LomJun College of Divinity. (Stephanie mullins) sor of
CONNORS, JIMMY and EVERT, CHRIS was a starrv night in Julv and the band played "The Giri That I Marry" as Jimn,. Connors and Chris Evert led off the trmiitional first dance at the Wimbledon Ball. It
The
darlings of the centre court had already aroused more public interest than any sports
romance
in history.
When
they then became
first engaged couple to win both the men's and women's singles titles at Wimbledon, the most prestigious tournament in tennis, public imagination ran wild. The 21-year-old Connors said he had dreamed of winning at Wimbledon since he was six, and the 19-year-old Miss Evert said she had been afraid to dream of winning because .she was so young. The tennis world
the
of the scheduled November wedding of the two young superstars. But as in all dreams, everyone had to awaken. The November 8 wedding date came and went without a ceremony. Chris said she still had the IJ-carat diamond that had been rained especially for her in South Africa, and Jimmy still had his gold and elephant-hair bracelet. The wedding was said to be "just postponed" because of the unyielding demands of their tennis schedules, but many thought that the postponement might prove to be permanent.
dreamed
Even if romance seemed a temporary Connors-Evert team did little but win on the tennis courts during the 1974 season. Connors established himself as one of the greatest male players in the game with his smashing wins over Ken Roscwall in the finals of both Wimbledon and the U.S. Open. The native of Belleville. 111., and former UCLA student put on an awesome display of power as he smashed Rosewall 6-1, 6-0, 6-1 in the U.S. Open at Forest Hills, N.Y. The victory was the climax of a typically loser, the
mercurial year for the controversial Connors.
— He won
three of the "Big Four" tournaments Wimbledon, and the U.S. (Australian,
Open), but was barred from the fourth, the French Open. He sued the Association of Tennis Professionals for |10 million, alleging that they illegally excluded him from the French event. Miss Evert also enjoyed a big year, winning in the Australian, Wimbledon, French, and Italian tournaments. But Evonne Goolagong upset her at Forest Hills, thus breaking her amazing 10-tournament, S6-match win-
ning streak. The pony-tailed prodigy, born Dec. 21, 19S4, in Fort Lauderdale, Fla., first burst into America's imagination in 1971, when at 16 she became the youngest semifinalist ever at Forest Hills. Her father, Jim Evert, was a national indoor tennis champion, and her sister and two brothers are also outstanding players. Cj. timothy weigel)
CRUYFF, JOHAN World Cup finals in West Germany, Johan Cruyff led the Dutch soccer team in the decisive game against the host nation in Munich on July 7. But there this brilliant young athlete, born in Amsterdam Star of the 1974
in 1947, just
missed attaining every football
player's ambition of a winner's medal. Cruyff started his career at 16 as a junior
—
with the local club, Ajax its stadium was just around the corner from his birthplace and was given number 14. He retained it throughout his career in The Netherlands, where he became known simply as "No. 14." Cruyff helped his club to seven national titles, four national cup triumphs, three successive European Cup victories, and an Inter-Continental Cup success; he himself won several other cups for The Netherlands. He was also voted Europe's top football player in 1971 and 1973. However, even his brilliance could not help The Netherlands gain the
World Cup
His footwork
finals in
—delicate
Mexico
in 1970.
as Delft china
— con-
and shrewd football brain continually showed up in Ajax's achievements, yet through it all he remained cool and modest. After his tremendous success with the Amsterdam club in 1973 came a new chapter in his life and a new nickname, "El Salvador." Barcelona, wallowing in the relegation trol,
zone of the Spanish League, paid $2,250,000 the Dutch superstar, who thus rejoined his old coach Rinus Michels. Cruyff immediately gave the lie to the old axiom for
Jimmy Connors and
'JL
V
Chris Evert
Biography
DEWHURST, COLLEEN When marked
the "Today" that the lady
show interviewer rewas "discovered" every
few years, Colleen Dewhurst smiled ful
agreement.
first
A
magnitude
in rueprofessional actress of the
for nearly 30 years, she
was
rediscovered again in 1974 when she won her second Antoinette Perry (Tony) Award for portraying Josie Hogan in Eugene O'NeiU's A Moon for the Misbegotten with Jason
Robards, Jr. The problem
was
that
Dewhurst was
a character actress with a broad range and an abiding interest in the classics. While a Bardot is discovered once and stays on top as long as people want to watch the same sex symbol, Dewhurst was a differently earthy woman in every part. Seeing her play a new role was to discover a new character. Also, though she had won every major stage and television acting prize, she rarely appeared in films.
Born
in
Montreal
College for
in 1926, she left
Young Ladies (now
Downer
part of St.
Lawrence University) to go to New York. She studied acting while working as a Carnegie Hall usher and as an instructor in a reducing g>'m. Joseph Papp tended her career before he became famous as the producer of Shakespeare in New York's Central Park. She appeared as Tamora in Titus Andronicus, Kate in Taming of the Shrew, Gertrude in Hamlet. She was featured in Camille and Wycherley's The Country Wife. Other credits included starring roles in Antony and Cleopatra, Cocteau's The Eagle Has Two Heads, Albee's The Ballad of the Sad Cafe and Who's Afraid of Virginia
Woolf?,
Brecht's
The
Good Woman
of
Setzuan, and Sartre's No Exit. She was an old hand at O'Neill, and this was the third time she had played Josie under Jose Quintero's direction. "I love the O'Neill women," she said. "They move from the groin rather than the brain. To play O'Neill you can't sit and play little moments of sadness or sweetness." Time's critic wrote of her performance, "No woman has been big enough for the part before. Not only physically [she is 5 ft. 8 in.] but in generosity of heart, mind and spirit." Clive Barnes wrote that "she spoke O'Neill as if it were being spoken for the first time." Offstage she lived with her two sons in a 200-year-old farmhouse in Westchester, N.Y., commuting distance from Broadway. She met their father, actor George C. Scott, onstage at the Circle in the Square theatre in New York when they appeared together in Children of Darkness. They were married and divorced twice. (piiilip kopi-er) .
.
.
DUGDALE. BRIDGET ROSE After pleading "proudly and incorruptibly
Rose Dugdale, daughter of wealthy landowning parents, was sentenced in Dublin on June 25, 1974, to nine years' penal serviguilty,"
tude for receiving paintings (valued at £8 million [$19.2 milHoni) stolen from the Irish country home of Sir Alfred Beit. The armed robbery, in which she almost certainly took part, was the culmination of a career of increasingly vocal and criminal activity directed against the English "establishment," in furtherance of which she had identified herself
and worked with unofficial Irish ReArmy (IRA) groups. Superficially,
publican
Rose Dugdale could be considered an English Patricia Hearst (q.v.), a child of riches and privilege turned revolutionary. But whereas chance apparently precipitated Patricia's ''conversion," Rose seemingly had been mo-
tivated by a need to act out a conflict with her father, the roots of which must lie deep in her earlier life. Daughter of an cx-army officer turned Lloyd's underwriter. Rose Dugdale, bom in March 1941 near Axminster in Devon, was educated at private schools, "came out" as a debutante, and then read philosophy, politics,
and economics
at St.
Anne's Col-
Oxford (1959-62). There she learned the theories that were to provide rationalization for her later activities; but for a while longer her career remained "respectable" (work in the Ministry of Overseas Development and a lectureship at Bedford College, London University, where she received her doctorate). She was already helping the underprivileged in north London when her meeting in 1972 with Walter Heaton prelege,
cipitated her development into a full-fledged revolutionary. Heaton, an ex-soldier, shop steward, and ex-convict, left his wife and daughters to live with Rose and share her work; they also made trips to Northern Ireland, on which, the police suspected, they smuggled arms to the IRA. Rose gave large sums to Heaton's wife and to the needy; a consequent shortage of funds, together with an increasingly bitter and almost obscene animosity against her father, probably motivated the burglary of her parents' Devon home (June 1973), for which Heaton was imprisoned. Rose received only a suspended sentence, and on its expiry apparently moved to Belfast. There she began to act with unofficial groups of the Provisional IRA and in January 1974 was allegedly involved in the
attempted station.
aerial
The
bombing
Beit
of Strabane police
robbery,
in
was
April,
naively conceived and ineptly conducted, almost certainly independent of IR.\ authorization. (STEPHANIE MULLINS)
ECEVIT,
BULENT
Bulent Ecevit became prime minister of Turkey on Jan. 25, 1974, at the head of a coalition of his Republican People's Party (RPP) and the Islamic National Salvation Party (NSP), the long-standing feud between secular progressives and religious conservatives in Turkish political life appeared to have ended. A humanist and social
democrat in home affairs, whose first action as prime minister was to secure an amnesty for all political prisoners, Ecevit surprised many in the West when he authorized Turkey's military intervention in Cyprus on July 20 following the Greek-led coup there. The success of the operation greatly enhanced his reputation, and he became a force to be
reckoned with in Turkey. Consequently, he felt strong enough to dispense with his NSP partners and on September 18 he resigned, the expectation
of
then being able to
form an alternative coalition. This he was unable to do, and a prolonged governmental crisis ensued. (See Turkey.) Like
many Turkish
the party seemed destroyed after March 12, 1971, when, against Ecevit's advice, Inonu backed the national coalition imposed on Parliament by the military commanders. Ecevit fought back, defeated Inonu, and became leader of the party on May 14, 1972. His criticism of militan.* intervention in
many of the party's traditional supporters but was rewarded in the Oct, 14, 1973 election, in which the RPP won the major share of the popular poll and a plurality in Parliament. (Andrew mango) politics alienated
ETEKI
MBOUMOUA.
WILLIAM AURELIEN
When
in
Bulent Ecevit
reformers in the
last
was a Western-trained inBorn in 1925, he went to the prestigious American Robert College in Istanbul. He developed a taste for literature, and after a spell as a junior embassy official in London, returned to Turkey to become a writer and journalist. This led him into politics, and he gravitated toward the RPP, which his father had represented in Parliament. He was elected to Parliament in 1957 and two years later he joined the party council. He gradually emerged as leader of the left-of-centre group, whose policy century, Ecevit tellectual.
the party adopted but which the electorate rejected in 1965. As minister of labour ( 196165) he legalized strikes for the first time in Turkish history. In 1966 he became
RPP
secretary-general under Ismet Inonu's leadership, but the hold that he established over
The new key African
figure in the Organization of
Unity
(OAU),
William
Etcki
Mboumoua was
elected on June 16, 1974, Muqdisho, Somalia, to succeed Nzo Ekangaki, a fellow countryman from the at
Cameroon Republic, as the administrative secretary-general of the O.WJ. William Eteki (by which name he was best known) was an experienced administrator and politician. Born on Oct. 20, 1933, in Akwa, Douala, he was given a scholarship at the age of 14 to study in France. He qualified as an administrator in the £cole Nationale de la France d'Outre Mer, the school for overseas administration, in 1956 and went on to take a law degree before returning home in 1959. He was employcil by the French colonial administration as a prefect, or district officer, in the SamagaMaritime division, a notoriously rebellious area, and won a reputation as a symF>athetic administrator. A year after Cameroon achieved its independence in 1960, he was made minister of national education, youth, sports, art, and culture. In 1971 he was appointed as a special technical adviser to the president. He also served for a year in 1970 as president of the assembly in
UNESCO
and subsequently wrote two books, Certain Humanisms (1970) and Democratiser la culture (1974). Eteki was described as an elegant and softspoken diplomat. In his new job, which had proved to be intractably difficult for his immediate predecessor, he was required to be both diplomatic and firm, two qualities which he seemed to have acquired from his political experience during which he successParis,
Un
fully ficial
made
the transition from colonial ofto Cabinet minister in a newly inde-
pendent
slate.
(COLIN legum)
EVERT, CHRIS: see Connors, Jimmy.
brought into the Cabinet of Harold Wilson in the key position of secretary for employment. His first task was to help bring an end to the miners' strike and the three-day workweek. He was then committed to the repeal of the Industrial Relations Act of 1971, which had been enacted by the outgoing Conservative government in the face of bitter trade union hostility. He had to dismantling of wage controls their replacement (at a time of unprecedented inflation) by a form of voluntary oversee the
and
wage
restraint
social contract
embodied in the so-called between the Labour govern-
ment and the unions. Foot was chosen for
this formidable assignment as an ardent Socialist whose position had been plainly on the left wing of the
party since he first entered ParUament in 1945. Beginning in 1960 he represented Ebbw Vale, a Welsh mining constituency. Born July 23, 1913, in Plymouth, Eng., Foot did not come of working-class background himself. He was one of a notable family of Liberals, his father being a Liberal
MP
for more than 20 years, while his brother Foot started his political career as a Liberal; another brother. Lord Caradon, was U.K. representative at the Sir Dingle
UN
(1964-70). At Oxford University Michael to be following in the family foot-
FELKER, CLAY
seemed
As the editor and founder of New York magazine and the president of its parent company, Clay Felker became involved in a
steps,
controversy surrounding the 1974 corporate merger of the magazine with the Village Voice, a New York City newspaper. When the merger was announced in June, writers
and editors of the Village Voice, as well as some New York staff members, expressed concern about the editorial independence of their publication and asked for a guarantee that the current editor and publisher would retain control over editorial matters. Felker refused to relinquish absolute authority, but maintained that, notwithstanding his plans for expanding the Village Voice, the two
becoming president of the Oxford Union and of the university Liberal Club. But a meeting with the family of Sir Stafford Cripps (chancellor of the Exchequer in the Labour government of 1947-50) led him to join the Labour Party in 1935. Foot made his name in politics as an outstanding parliamentary debater from the back benches, as a writer (his biography of Aneurin Bevan was a classic of contemporary political history), as a journalist (for some years on the staff of the London Evening Standard), and as a television celebrity. He won a reputation as an outspoken rebel of the left and was one of those most adamantly opposed to Britain's entry into the
(HARFORD THOMAS)
Biography
the country, expressing faith in Pres. Rich-
who had nominated Ford By late July, however, the Watergate scandal could no longer be brushed aside, and Nixon resigned rather than face impeachment. Ford walked with him to the helicopter in which he would begin his journey into retirement, and two hours later took the oath of office. His first words to the nation were a message of healing: "My fellow Americans, our long national nightmare is over." Promising "openness and candor," he made himself available to the press and congressional leaders. With his wife and four outspoken children, he seemed unintimidated by the high the needed antidote for the secretiveoffice
ard Nixon (q.v.), for the office.
—
and suspicion of Nixon's last days. The end of the honeymoon came a month after Ford took office, when he granted a ness
full
pardon
to
NLxon "for
all
offenses against
the United States" that he may have committed while in office. Ford's opinion poll ratings plummeted. To counter the widespread outcry, Ford voluntarily appeared before a House subcommittee on October 17 the first time a to explain his reasoning sitting U.S. president had formally testified before a committee of Congress.
—
With Watergate relegated
to
the courts,
ills emerged as a Ford convened an "economic summit meeting" to suggest ways of coping with inflation and the energy crisis, but it produced little more than evidence that
the
country's economic
first priority.
economists tend not to agree. Confirmation of his choice for vice-president, Nelson Rockefeller (?.!).), was delayed by a long congressional investigation. There were personal troubles, too in September Mrs. Ford underwent surgery for breast cancer.
—
With
the
November
tions approaching,
congressional elec-
Ford undertook a vigor-
publications
EEC.
identities, staffs,
FORD, GERALD RUDOLPH
ous campaign tour which did not, however, prevent an overwhelming Democratic vic-
signed. At the time of the merger, the Village Voice, founded in 19SS, was a tabloid with a circulation of 150,000. It represented a generally radical, counterestablishment per-
Gerald Ford, a man of the Congress who had always seemed likely to remain there, became the 38th president of the United States on Aug. 9, 1974. Confirmed as vicepresident only eight months earlier, he spent much of the intervening time crisscrossing
dominate foreign policy. Ford traveled to Japan, South Korea, and the Soviet Union
would keep their independent and facilities. By midyear, however, the Village Voice editor had re-
,in politics and entertainment. New York magazine, on the other hand, founded by Felker in 1967, was a weekly with a circulation of 355,000 and was directed toward relatively affluent and liberal New Yorkers. Felker was born in St. Louis, Mo., on Oct. 2, 1928. He received his B.A. in 1951 from Duke University, where he served as
spective
editor of the Duke Chronicle. As a correspondent for Lije magazine from 1951 to 1957, he worked in New York City and Washington, D.C. He was features editor for Esquire magazine from 1957 to 1962 and editor of the Sunday magazine of the New York Herald Tribune and its successor, the
New
York World Journal Tribune, from
1963 to 1967. This Sunday magazine became York magazine, the basis for Felker's which appeared as an independent publiYork cation in 1968. After a weak start. with such writers as critics John Simon (theatre) and Judith Crist (movies), contributing editors Gael Green and Gloria Wolfe Steinem, and "new journalists" and Jimmy Breslin established itself firmly in the publishing business.
New
New
—
—
Tom
Gerald Rudolph Ford
—
Though Henry Kissinger (9.11.), retained as secretary of state, continued to
tory.
in late
November
;
at Vladivostok he signed
a preliminary agreement with Soviet party leader Leonid I. Brezhnev on limitation of strategic missiles. As the year drew to a close, and recession replaced inflation as the major economic woe, there were indications that Ford planned to drop his stalemated anti-inflation program in favour of measures to stimulate the economy. Ford was born July 14, 1913, in Omaha, Neb. He graduated from the University of
Michigan and received a law degree from Yale. After service in the Navy during- World War II, he was elected to the House of Representatives from Michigan. He was chosen Republican minority leader of the House in 1965 and held that position until October 1973, when he was nominated to replace former vice-president Spiro Agnew.
(STANLEY WILLS CLOUD)
FUJINO, CHUJIRO At
73,
Chujiro Fujino, chairman of Mitsu-
bishi Shoji and vice-president of the Tokyo Chamber of Commerce, was given the top
FOOT, MICHAEL
the "Mitsubishi Group," Japan's most powerful business empire. On Nov. 1, 1974, Fujino was chosen chairman of the Kinyokai, the real nucleus of power in the Mitsubishi Group. As chairman of Mitsu-
After a lifetime in British politics, Michael Foot got his first job in government at the age of 60 when in March 1974 he was
bishi Shoji, he ran the massive trading firm that is well known in other countries as the Mitsubishi Corp. The entire Mitsubishi
(JOAN NATALIE REIBSTEIN)
chair in
union organizer, concentrating his efforts on small plantations on the island. As a result, the wages paid to farm workers soon doubled a fact, according to Gairy, that
120
Biography
—
Group, however, constituted scores of companies, of which Mitsubishi Shoji was just one. Some 26 top executives from Mitsubishi Shoji, the Mitsubishi Bank, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Mitsubishi Estates, Nippon Yusen Kaisha (XYK), and Tokyo Marine Fire Insurance held regular meetings in a huge boardroom on the 15lh floor of the Mitsubishi Building in the Marunouchi district of Tokyo, where they exchanged information and discussed the management strategy of the Mitsubishi syndicate. This
meeting was called "Kinyokat," or the Friday Conference, since it was held on the second Friday of every month. This conglomeration of companies grew up in the control of the Iwasaki family, but the family lost its proprietorship as a result of the Decentralization Law, by which the U.S. occupation of Japan after World War II outlawed the zaibatsu, or financial combines. Quite obviously, however, Mitsubishi has risen again to the position of dominance it had held before the war, thanks to the booming Japanese economy. The strength of
the Mitsubishi Group in 1974 was illustrated fact that its annual sales were equal
by the to
10%
of Japan's total
GXP.
ending 324 years of colonial rule, first by France and then by Great Britain. Full independence had been approved Dec. 11, 1973, by the British House of Commons. But the change in status was at best a mixed blessing for the 105,000 people who lived on the island. The transition was 1974,
marked by
thus
and which
violence, crippling strikes,
political controversy, at the centre of
was the prime minister, Eric Gairy. As Grenada moved toward independence, Gairy's opponents
— including —
left-wing in-
tellectuals, wealthy landowners, businessmen, and religious leaders had mounted a major campaign to drive him from office. They considered Gairy a ruthless dictator and feared that he would extend his one-
man
control over the country after independence was granted. Late in 1973, Gairy's opponents organized a series of demonstrations and strikes, causing political and economic chaos. Despite harsh countermeasures taken by Gairy and his secret police, the strikes continued through independence day.
Businesses closed and hundreds of Grcnadians fled the island. Tourism dropped off markedly. By the end of the year, however, the situation had quieted. Born on Feb. 18, 1922, in Grenada and privately educated, Gairy was a schoolteacher in the late 1030s. He was employed
1940 at Dutch oil refineries in Aruba, where he became involved in the labour union movement. When he returned to Grenada in 1951, he continued to work as a
in
he held until independence,
was changed
when
his
to prime minister. (STANLEY WILLS CLOUD)
GEISEL, ERNESTO On March
15, 1974. Gen. Ernesto Geisel office as Brazil's fourth successive military president in ten years. An austere, colourless man who shunned unnecessary public appearances, Geisel was almost completely unknown to most Brazilians when the rigidly censored national press announced his candidacy in 1973. Geisel was
took
the choice of incumbent Pres. Emilio Medici and the ruling military junta, and his ratification by the generals' ARENA Partycontrolled electoral college was a foregone conclusion. Formerly director of Petrobr&s,
powerful
stale-owned
petroleum
monopoly, he was a political conservative whose commitment to the status quo ensured adherence to the junta's goals of rapid economic development and controlled social his
change.
Some who had followed Geisel's career for a degree of liberalization of the generally repressive military regime during his five-year term of office. In 1966, he successfully opposed the dissolution of Congress by the generals. While campaigning for president on the slogan of "development and security," he stressed continuing economic growth rather than combating political subversion. By the year's end, however, Geisel's hoped
government had not proved significantly different from the other military dictatorships
GAIRY, ERIC The tiny fl33-sq.mi.) West Indies island of Grenada became an independent nation 7,
tion title
Brazil's
Fujino was an appropriate choice to head such a combine. A 40-year career in foreign trade and a reputation as one of the best informed Japanese in world economic matters give him unique qualifications to steer his company through trying times. After graduating from the economics department of Tokyo Imperial University, which subsequently became Tokyo University, he joined Mitsubishi Shoji. During his early career, he lived at various places in North America and had an opportunity to observe closely the Depression of the 1930s. During World War II, he managed Mitsubishi's branch in (masaki matsubara) Talien, China.
Feb.
underlies the continuing hostility many plantation owners feel toward him. Gairy's career as a government official began in 1951, when he was first elected to the Legislative Council. In 1956 he became minister of trade and production and in 1961 chief minister and minister of finance. After 1953 Gairy's United Labour Party won every election but one. Gairy became Grenada's premier in 1962, a posi-
that preceded
The
fession as a bit player, understudy, and stage manager. Following his professional debut as the
made
both
Henry V
in
mark
(donna ZIMMERMAN)
GIELGUD, SIR (ARTHUR)
JOHN Hailed by many critics as Britain's foremost Shakespearean actor. Sir John Gielgud in 1974 celebrated his 70lh birthday and the 53rd anniversary of his professional debut by appearing as Prospero in Peter Hall's production of The Tempest for the National Theatre Company at London's Old Vic Theatre. Later in the year he played Shakespeare in Edward Bond's semlbiographical drama of the poet's last days. Bingo, at the Royal Court Theatre. The latter performance, for
sight as for Gielgud's
its
psychological in-
unique talent for mak-
ing theatrical bricks out of a dramatist's straw, came as a fitting climax to the dis-
in 1921, he
soon
as a leading juvenile actor
classical
year after his
New York
Shakespearean
the state lottery, his family used the money to send Ernesto and his older brother Orlando, now minister of the Army, to military college. Before reaching the rank of general at age 53, Geisel held a number of important Army and civil service positions including secretary of finance and public works in the State of Paraiba, superintendent of a government oil refinery, and as a member of the National Petroleum Council. He neither drinks nor smokes, is fluent in five languages, and plays chess for relaxation.
much
Herald his
and modern drama. A period of apprenticeship with the Oxford Repertory Company, and another with Theodore Koraisarjevsky's London-based troupe, led him to the Old Vic in 1929, the in
it.
and youngest child of a poor schoolteacher who immigrated from Stuttgart, Ger., Geisel was born Aug. 3, 1908, in Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost Brazilian state. When his sister Amalia won fifth
praised as
tinguished career, by no means exhausted, of an actor, director, and producer renowned on both sides of the Atlantic. Born in London on April 14, 1904, Gielgud was descended on his mother's side from the famous Terry family, Ellen Terry being his great-aunt. Destined for the theatre from early childhood, he studied privately and at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (as it was to become) before entering the pro-
roles
debut. definitively
inter-
preted by Gielgud included Hamlet, Romeo, Richard II, Angelo, Lear, Cassius, Leontes. and Prospero. Equally memorable in the
modern
repertoire were his
John Worthing
Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Earnest and Gayev in Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard. On both sides of the Atlantic he won critical acclaim and awards as Harr>' in David Storey's Home. Gielgud also became a major screen character actor, appearing in such films as The Barretts oj Wimpole Street, The Charge of the Light Brigade, Harrowhouse and and, most recently, Murder on the Orient Express. He was knighted in 1953 and holds honorary degrees in
U
from Oxford and St. Andrews universities. His autobiography is set forth in three volumes: Early Stages (1938); Stage Directions (1963);
(1972).
and Distinguished Company (ossiA trilling)
GIROUD, FRANQOISE Appointed secretary of stale
for
women's
on July 16, 1974, Fran(;oise Giroud, at the age of 57, moved directly from journalism into politics to take up a post in the French government specially created for her affairs
by Pres. Valcry Giscard d'Estaing iq.v.). Previously she had been editor in chief of the news magazine L'Express, the first woman editor of a major French weekly outside the specialist field of fashion and "women's interests." A self-made woman of strong convictions, she was well suited to take on the task of bettering the life of French women, having brilliantly bettered
her
own through
telligence,
Born
in
strength of character, in-
and appetite for work. Geneva, Switz., on Sept.
21, 1916,
daughter of the director of the Ottoman Telegraph Agency, Franqoise Gourdji went to school in Paris. At 16 she began work as There a salesgirl in a Left-Bank bookshop. she was noticed by the film producer Marc AUegret, who engaged her as a typist and girl. After becoming script worked on Allegret's production of girl, Marcel Pagnol's Fanny (1932) and with Jean Renoir on La Grande Illusion (1936). She then became assistant director and also wrote scripts and lyrics. During World War afterII she joined the Resistance and was ward decorated for the part she played. Turning to joumahsm after the war, she
assistant script
she
her
served
apprenticeship
French women's magazine
on
Elle,
the
leading
under Helene
1953 she joined with JeanJacques Servan-Schreiber in founding L'Express, a French version of the Time magazine format. She became in 1971 editor in Lazareff.
chief
of
In
L'Express, having been
named
a
of the board of the publishing company Express-Union in 1970. Although not politically committed, Mme. Giroud had called on her readers to vote
member
Francois Mitterrand, the candidate of the Socialist-Communist alUance, in the 1974 presidential election. Her appointment as a junior minister reflected President Giscard d'Estaing's need to give his administration a more liberal image in view of his declared intention to transform French society. Mme. Giroud was far from being a militant for
women's
liberationist.
A woman,
she held,
had the "right ... not to become an ersatz for man." Furthermore, she said, "I reject the term of equality between men and
women, when
it
claims to ignore biology." ( PIERRE VIANSSON-PONTE)
GISCARD D'ESTAING, VALERY As a boy of 12 Valiry Giscard d'Estaing informed his schoolmates that one day he would be president of France. That early prediction came true in May 1974 when, still only 48, he succeeded Georges Pompidou (see France; Obituaries) as the Fifth Republic's third president. Leader of the Independent RepubUcans— moderate allies of the Gaullists Giscard had
—
promised electors social and political reform and an "open, modern style of government." At his May 27 inauguration he threw off the chains of protocol and tradition and entered on his seven-year term of office visibly relaxed and with an elegant ease of manner.
Val^ry (discard d'Estaing
the new presidential style and image were initially popular, and Uberalization measures such as reduction of the voting age to 18, cessation of wiretapping, and reform of abortion and divorce legislation found favour, Giscard's reforming zeal made Uttle impact against current economic reali-
But although
ties.
With
inflation
and
unemployment
criticized for lack of firm guidance, and by the end of November, following a period of widespread strikes, opinion polls showed his popularity at a low ebb. Criticism extended to his mode of life
mounting, he was
the program of the AFM. During the first provisional government after the coup, Gon(;alves worked as chairman of the movement and served with the directorate of the engineering branch of the Army, until called to (michael wooller) the premiership.
GREENE, JOE
rift
the Pittsburgh Steelers won the championship of US. professional football by defeating the Minnesota Vikings 16-6 in the Super Bowl on Jan. 12, 1975, they established the remarkable record of holding Minnesota to a gain of only 17 yd. rushing. The Viking running attack was completely thwarted by one of the greatest de-
caused by de Gaulle's "long Uve free Quebec" speech of 1967. Soviet leader Leonid I. Brezhnev's visit early in December emphasized the continuing importance to the Soviet Union of its French connection. The meet-
fensive lines in the history of professional football, a foursome consisting of Dwight White, Ernie Holmes, L. C. Greenwood, and "Mean" Joe Greene (a nickname he disclaimed). For 6-ft. 4-in., 275-lb. tackle
ing in Paris, at Giscard's invitation, of the EEC heads of government seemed to increase the Ukelihood of Britain remaining a member. Finally, Giscard's meeting with
Greene, the game was a high point in an outstanding career that had already gained him national awards for his defensive play.
U.S. Pres. Gerald Ford in Martinique (December 14-16) marked a new French attitude of cooperation with the U.S., in par-
ple,
ticular over energy problems. Born in Koblenz, Get., on Feb. 2,
nation. After the season he played in the Senior Bowl and was voted the outstanding
and of worldng, the influential newspaper Le Monde pointing out that the president's family had not moved into the Elysee Palace as was customary, and that his own whereabouts were sometimes unknown. A number of summit meetings brought consolation. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau of
Canada's
visit in
October closed the
1926,
Giscard came from a patrician background, his family owning land at Estaing in the Auvergne. After a brilliant academic career he became an inspector of finances in 1954 and was elected deputi for Puy-de-D6me in 1956. Secretary of state at the Ministry of Finance from 1959, he was minister of finance during 1962-66 and 1969-74. (PIERRE VIANSSON-PONTE)
GONQALVES, VASCO DOS SANTOS After the resignation of Pres. Antonio de Spinola on Sept. 30, 1974, power in Portugal seemed to be divided between Gen. Francisco da Costa Gomes, the country's new president
and miUtary
chief
of
staff,
and
(later Brig. Gen.) Vasco dos Santos Gonqalves, premier from July 12 and also a career officer. Gongalves was regarded as the principal architect of the April 25 coup that overthrew the government of Marcello Caetano, but he was unknown to the country at large. After he had formed hii new Cabinet, Goni;alves and the more conservative Spinola disagreed on almost all imporpoUcy issues. Where Spinola saw tant anarchy, Gongalves saw a healthy popular vigilance. But with Costa Gomes, Gon-
Col.
galves had much more agreement on policy and therefore was in a far better position to clarify the situation with his analytical, poUtical mind. Reportedly the first choice of the Armed Forces Movement (AFM) as the to design and implement its program, he saw his task as doing so without provoking economic dislocation and a consequent
man
right-wing backlash. Gon(;alves was born in Lisbon on May 3, 1921, son of an international football player of the celebrated Benfica team. He
became a career army officer and specialized in engineering, becoming a captain in 1954, major in 1963, and lieutenant colonel in 1967. His various commissions were technical and connected with his specialty, for he was a brilliant engineer. He served in Goa during 1955-56, as well as in Mozambique and Angola during his time in Africa he served with General Costa Gomes, and the two became friends. Together they participated in the April coup and in formulating ;
When
Greene was born Sept. 24, 1946, in TemTex. During his senior year at North Texas State he was the unanimous choice as the top college defensive lineman in the
lineman for the South. In the 1969 professional draft of football players Pittsburgh chose Greene in the first round. He was named defensive rookie of the year by the Associated Press, and in 1971 and each year thereafter was elected to the National Football League all-star team. The Associated Press named him the NFL's most valuable defensive player in 1972. During one game that year he sacked the opposing quarterback five times in one of the finest defensive performances ever witnessed in the
NFL.
Greene clearly helped lead Pittsburgh from position as perennial doormat to a divisional championship in 1972. The Steelers reached the American Conference finals in that year before losing to Miami. In 1973 they gained the conference play-offs but lost its
the semifinal game to Oakland. But Greene and his fellow front linemen gained
in
revenge in 1974, holding the Raiders to 29 yd. rushing in a 24-13 victory that qualified the Steelers for the Super Bowl. (DAVID R. CALHOUN)
GUILLAUME, GUNTER arrest on April 24, 1974, of Giinter Guillaume on suspicion of being an East German spy led to the resignation less than two weeks later of the West German chancellor, Willy Brandt. In mid-December the federal pubUc prosecutor's office announced that Guillaume would be tried tor treason
The
and espionage early
in 1975.
Guillaume was appointed as a between the chancellor's office and the Social Democratic Party (SPD). In this capacity he was in almost daily contact with the chancellor and had access to secret In
1972
liaison officer
information. When he was arrested, he confessed to being an officer of the East German National People's Army and an official of the East German State Security. Born on Feb. 1, 1927, in Berlin, Guillaume joined the Nazi Party in 1944 when he was 17. After World War II he worked for a state publishing company in East Berlin. He came
West in 1956, ostensibly as a refugee, and joined the SPD in 1957. Enthusiastic and efficient, he quickly rose to a position of influence in the party in Frankfurt, and to the
HALSTON
a senior party functionary in that city (1954-68). He joined the staff of the Chancellery in 1970. Former colleagues described him as a right-winger who was in favour of throwing young dissidents out of the party. Guillaume fell under suspicion of being a spy in the
was eventually appointed
of 1973, and Brandt was told about But on the advice of the security authorities Brandt continued to employ Guillaume. It was later established that for many years Guillaume had been collecting intelligence material and sending it to his East
summer this.
German
masters.
At a parliamentary commission
of inquiry
the Guillaume affair (which cleared Brandt of any direct blame), Brandt said that although he accepted political responsibility for any negligence that had occurred, he had been kept in complete ignorance of how the security services were handling the into
Until immediately before Guillaume's arrest he had not been told that their suspicions had been confirmed. situation.
(NORMAN CROSSLAND)
HAILE SELASSIE Emperor of Ethiopia and Lion of Judah, diminutive but imposing, Haile Selassie lost his throne on Sept. 12, 1974, when a provisional military government was established. His long rule had lasted since 1916, when, at the age of 24, as the then Lij Tafari,
he became regent; after the death of Empress Zauditu he was crowned emperor in 1930. For the next 44 years, except for an interregnum during the Italian occupation (1935-41), he exercised his imperial power with considerable skill, toughness, and, recently, with tolerance and moderation. His outstanding achievement was to unify his empire and to begin the process of modernizing Ethiopia's ancient feudal society. He also succeeded in capturing a leadership position in the
modern
ment, making
his capital,
Pan-.\fricanist
move-
Addis Ababa, the
seat of the Organization of African Unity. His proud defiance of Benito Mussolini's
military occupation of Ethiopia was memorably symbolized by his lonely but dignified appeal to the League of Nations in 1936 for world support; this he failed to get until the Allies went to war against the fascist dictators in 1939, liberating Ethiopia in 1941.
Haile Selassie was born near Harer on July 23, 1892, a nobleman of royal blood but not close to the throne. Although he introduced a number of modern reforms, he
was most proud
of the written constitution he conferred on his subjects at his silver jubilee in
1955.
But
his rule suffered
from
two major
defects: with an old man's doggedness he clung stubbornly to his imperial supremacy, refusing to surrender any of the effective powers of his questionably used patronage system; and he refused to submit to pressures to allow for a smooth transition of his imperial crown to his son, Crown Prince Asfa Wossen. It was only after the beginning of the military coup in February 1974 that he finally agreed to proposals to convert the role of the emperor into that of a constitutional monarch. But the young
army
officers,
who had
increasingly
made
themselves the political masters of Ethiopia, suspected that he was only playing for time
these words deQuiet, classic, comfortable scribed the women's clothing designed by Halston, twice winner of ihe Coty "Winnie" Award, the fashion world's highest honour. Shrewd, energetic, successful these words described Roy Halston Frowick, who started his own salon in 1968 and in October 1973 sold out to a conglomerate for $10 million
—
in
stock.
Born in Des Moines, la., in April 1932, Halston made his first hat in 1945 as a gift for his mother. High school friends remembered how beautifully he dressed and how rich girls would drive him around in their convertibles. As a student at the Art Institute of Chicago, he supported himself by making window displays for the Carson Pirie Scott department store and, in his spare
hours, created hats in his apartment. When these were displayed at Chicago's Ambassador Hotel, they won such acclaim that he opened a millinery salon. Halston moved to New York City in 1958 to work for designer Lilly Dach^, left a year later for Bergdorf Goodman, and soon became head of Bergdorf's custom millinery department. When Jacqueline Kennedy asked him for hats to wear during her husband's 1960 presidential campaign, Halston designed the beige felt pillbox that became a nationwide fad. His other customers included Pcrle Mesta, Mrs. William Paley, and Mrs. Henry Ford. He won a Coty Special Award in 1962 for millinery and four years later began to design complete ensembles. With capital supplied by a wealthy Texas socialite, Halston entered business on his own in 1968. He established a custom millinery and clothing salon on New York City's Upper East Side and also designed ready-to-
wear fashions. His
first
solo
clinging jersey fabrics in dresses, and became the first designer to work successfully with man-made suede. In October 1973, with his sales approaching $2S million, he sold
Norton Simon conglomerate. Freed to devote most of his time to designing new products for what was now a subto
the
he continued to work as vigorously ever. Going against the trend toward longer, looser clothes, he shocked the audience at his fall showing by introducing the "skimp" the miniskirt revisited. sidiary,
as
—
(VICTOR M. CASSIDY)
HARTONO, RUDY In March 1974, for a record-breaking seventh consecutive time, Rudy Hartono of Indonesia won the men's singles title at the All-England Badminton Championships at Wembley, Eng., generally accepted as the unofficial world championships. Hartono won his first All-England title in his first attempt in 1968, and in accomplishing this emulated the feat of such distinguished predecessors as Conny Jepsen (Denmark and later Sweden) in 1947, David G. Freeman (U.S.) in 1949, and Tan Joe Hok (Indonesia) in 1959.
Hartono was 18 years old when he won his first All-England title, the youngest man ever to do so. He has also won major national championships in many other parts of the world. An aggressive player, he tries to win
as possible, hits given the slightest opportu-
his points as rapidly
when
manipulate the situation. Unable to use the emperor to legitimize its radical reforms, the Military Council eventually decided to
very hard
dethrone him. The emperor was accused of corruption and trickery, and then detained. (COLIN lecum)
singles players. His shots arc
to
collection, in
1969, won a second Coty Special Award. Halston emphasized casual, comfortable wear with long flowing lines. He brought back the cardigan sweater of the '50s, used
out
and docs not rely on defense, which the strategy employed by many leading
nity, is
Hartono was bom in Surabaja, East Java, 18, 1949, and was educated at Trisakti University, Jakarta, where he majored in economics. He also studied medicine, civiJ aviation, and acting. Raised in a family that strongly emphasized physical fitness, he has a sister, Utami Dewi, who is also a national Aug.
—
Biography
noted for their accuracy and for deceptiveness that remorselessly works his opponent out of position.
champion
in
badminton.
In Indonesia Hartono
is
considered a na-
tional hero and frequently makes front-page headlines for his achievements in badminton. Despite the fact that one of his gifts was a
house, most of the time he lives in simple quarters along with Indonesia's other badminton stars at Jakarta's vast Scnayan Sports complex. His national fame and international mastery of the game have been a powerful stimulant to Indonesian youth. (JACK H. VAN PRAAC)
HAYNIE. SANDRA Almost every prize in women's golf had been won by Sandra Haynie as 1974 drew to a close. Only topping the yearly money list and taking the Colgate-Dinah Shore tourna-
ment escaped her. The S-ft. S-in. 120-lb. Texan was the second highest money-winner of all time in women's professional golf, behind only Kathy Whitworth. Beginning in 1962 Miss Haynie won 34 major tournaments, and in 1974 she took two out of the "big three" by winning the U.S. Women's Open and the Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), both in July. Still, the nagging query "Sandra who?" seemed to follow her as she played along the women's circuit. Most observers agreed that her public recognition had not kept pace with her success on the golf courses. Other performers such as Kathy Whitworth, Jane Blalock, Jo.\nne Carner, and Carol Mann seemed to enjoy higher public profiles and more lucrative endorsement contracts to supplement their golf earnings. But the softspoken Texan never protested her obscurity. Miss Haynie finished the 1974 campaign with approximate earnings of $75,000, third behind Mrs. Carner and Miss Blalock. This was a considerable improvement over her
1973 earnings of $47,000.
In
fact,
steady
improvement and remarkable consistency have marked her 17 years of competition. Miss Haynie was born in Fort Worth, Tex., on June 4, 1943. She began her golf career at the age of 11 when Warren Cantrell, a teaching professional at the Lubbock Country Club, told her father she had the "gait of a born golfer." Three years later, she won the Texas Amateur championship at the age of 14 and the following year took the TransMississippi, her first national title. Always an intense worker, Sandra blistered her hands by swinging a club for three hours the first time she got hold of one. As of 1974 she had not stopped swinging and insisted that practice was the major reason for her improvement.
(J.
TIMOTHY WEICEX)
HEALEY. DENIS WINSTON Within nine months of being appointed the U.K. chancellor of the Exchequer in March 1974, Denis Healey had introduced three budgets an indicator of the pace at which the economic crisis in Britain was developing in 1974. His reputation in the Labour Party as one of its most powerful intellects had been built up first as a specialist in foreign affairs and then as defense minister for the six years of the 1964-70 government of Harold Wilson. While the parly was in opposition during the government of Edward Heath, Healey turned to financial and economic affairs as "shadow" chancellor. Born in Mottingham, Kent, on Aug. 30, 1917, Healey was educated at Balliol College, Oxford. .Mthough he had been an MP since 19S2 and before that had worked in
—
— 123
Biography
Turning northward, he made Hawaii in midMarch. The rest was plain sailing. Though he became an authentic Japanese hero through his exploits, Horie retained his modesty. Born Sept. 8, 1938, the oldest son of an auto parts dealer in Osaka, he became interested in saihng while a freshman at Kansai University's First High School, where he joined the yacht club. He concealed his plan to sail the Pacific, departing without a passport and arriving in the U.S. without a visa. Both governments indulgently forgave him. (JOHN p. RODERICK)
ISHIHARA. SHINTARO
the Labour Party's secretariat in the international department, he had moved up through the party hierarchy somewhat more slowly than some of his contemporaries, becoming a member of the party executive only in 1970. His tough, hardheaded view of what needed to be done to revive economic activity in the U.K. by helping companies to improve their profits and their capacity to invest caused some Labour MPs to regard his November 1974 budget as too soft on industry. This mood was reflected later in the month at the party conference
when Healey only narrowly held on the executive. 1974 Healey was not exclusively preoccupied with Britain's economic prob-
elections, his place
But
in
lems. He took a national meetings to devise ways of of handling the
leading role in the interof finance ministers called dealing with the problem vast surplus of "petrodollars," initiating a plan of his own for recycling the earnings of the oil producers. Healey also warned his fellow finance ministers of the danger of a world slump on the scale of the 1930s, and urged them not to take defensive measures nation by nation that would create a worldwide recession. He suggested that a watershed in world history had been reached, and that a new period was beginning when economic growth would encounter material restraints.
(HARFORD THOMAS)
HEARST, PATRICIA At
Patricia Hearst, granddaughter of one of the country's most powerful publishers, the late William Randolph Hearst, was 19,
to all appearances an easygoing California quietly with her boyfriend in a Berkeley apartment. By her 20th birthday, girl living
was the central figure in one of the most bizarre blends of street crime and poprotest the nation had ever seen. On the night of Feb. 5, 1974, two women and two men, later identified as members of a small, loosely organized group of former convicts and self-styled radicals called the Symbionese Liberation Army, kidnapped Patty Hearst from her flat, beat her fianc6, and fled in a hail of bullets to ward off pursuers. As ransom, the SLA demanded food for the poor, and Patty's wealthy father, publisher Randolph A. Hearst, then spent she
litical
million for food that was given away in poor sections of San Francisco. On April 3 a tape recording was received on which
$2
Patty declared that she had chosen to "stay and fight" on the side of her captors for the "freedom of oppressed people." She assailed her father as a "corporate liar" and called the food giveaways a "sham." During the April 15 robbery of a San Francisco bank, hidden cameras photo-
graphed Miss Hearst training an automatic rifle on bank employees. But they also
showed other SLA members apparently covering her, and her family insisted she had been coerced or brainwashed. Meanwhile,
FBI search went on, 17, 400 law ofticers laid siege shabby stucco house in Los Angeles. In 70 minutes more than 1,000 rounds of ammunition were expended, and the house eventually burned to the ground. Six bodies were recovered from the debris and coroners identified them as known SLA members; Patty Hearst was not among them. In a later tape she claimed she had been in love with one of the victims. Thought to be in the company of the last remnants of the SLA, she was sought unsuccessfully on a federal fugitive warrant for her part in the bank robbery. An aging gangster, Mickey Cohen, claimed to have known something of her whereabouts, and she was variously reported in Cleveland, Texas, and Canada. The FBI refused comment, and the mystery of Patty Hearst continued. (JOHN F. stacks) the intensive police and
and on
May
to a small,
HORIE, KENICHI In Japanese fashion, Kenichi Horie usually masked his emotions, but he could not hold back the tears when, on May 4, 1974, he nosed his three-ton sloop "Mermaid III" into Osaka harbour. He had fulfilled a lifelong dream, circumnavigating the earth alone nonstop. The 30,000-mi. voyage took 276 days, breaking the record of 292 days set in 1971 by Britain's Chay Blyth. Blue water was in the 35-year-old Horie's blood. In 1962, at the age of 24, he became the first man to sail the Pacific alone without a halt. The 5,000-mi. Osaka-to-San Francisco crossing took him 93 days aboard the tiny 19-ft. "Mermaid." After acquiring a wife, Nobuko, and opening a small restaurant, Horie began planning his round-theworld adventure. With the money he earned and contributions from sailing enthusiasts, he quietly began building "Mermaid II." He set out on Nov. 12, 1972, hoping to girdle the earth in 290 days or less. But 70 mi. SSW of Osaka one of the masts snapped in a storm, and he suffered the humiliation of being towed back to his home port. Undaunted, he went to work on "Mermaid HI." On Aug. 1, 1973, he set sail from Osaka again, heading westward into the Indian Ocean from the Pacific in September and October, then rounding the Cape of Good Hope to enter the South Atlantic at the beginning of November. Early in January 1974 he bucked high winds and towering seas to force a passage through the narrow strait named after Sir Francis Drake at Cape Horn, South America's southernmost tip.
One of Japan's best-known politicians and most widely read noveUsts, Shintaro Ishihara shocked many Japanese in June 1974 when he said his country might have had a better working democracy if Emperor Hirohito had been tried and executed after World War II. Ishihara wrote in the monthly Jiyu that the U.S. decision not to try the emperor left unanswered the question of his responsibility for the war. Had he been executed after
testifying
to
his
Ishihara said,
role,
Japan would have been able to digest democracy more slowly and would have understood it better. Late in 1973 Ishihara helped form the Seirankai or "Blue Storm Society," a group of 31 ultraconservative members of the Diet belonging to the ruHng Liberal-Democratic Party. Anti-Communist and pro-Taiwan, Seirankai led an unsuccessful fight to prevent Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka from concluding an aviation agreement with China. Commercial service between Japan and China began Sept. 29, 1974, but the Nationalist government on Taiwan retaHated by canceUng the Tokyo-Taipei route. The reactionary nature of Seirankai it resorted to violence in the Diet and had signed its founding document in blood turned more moderate Japanese against it. By year's end it had lost ten of its members, but Ishihara remained a prominent
—
controversial figure. He refused his party's bid to run for governor of Tokyo in 1975 and threatened to create a new party
and
to foster his ideas.
Startling his compatriots was a specialty Born Sept. 30, 1932, in Kobe, he began the process in 1956, while still a student at Hitotsubashi University, with his first novel, Taiyo-no-Kisetsu ("Season in the Sun"). It portrayed his contemporaries as amoral and selfishly individualistic. More novels, plays, and movies followed depicting the youthful Japanese "Sun Tribe," as they soon were called. Ishihara's younger brother, Yujiro, became a movie star in film versions of the books. of the 42-year-old Ishihara.
When Shintaro turned to he won a landslide election
politics in to the
1968
House
of
Councillors (upper house) of the Diet, then
moved
House Though he was
to the ruling
tives in 1971.
of Representathe nation's top
vote getter, he remained nonconformist.
(JOHN
p.
RODERICK)
JAWORSKI, LEON As the federal government's Watergate prosecutor, Leon sided over the crucial phase gation that toppled a U.S.
second special Jaworski preof an investipresident and brought men who had once been among the most powerful in the government to the bar of justice. The assignment was a difficult and sensitive one, and when Jaworski returned to private life on Oct. 25, 1974, there was general agreement that he had car-
Jaworski was born Sept. 19, 1905, in Waco, Tex., the son of a Protestant minister who had migrated from Poland. He attended Baylor University in W^aco and re-
124
Biography
ried it out with care and responsibility, even though much work remained to be done. Jaworski, a Texas attorney, was appointed to the special prosecutor's job by Pres. Richard Nixon to replace the first special prosecutor, Archibald Cox, whom Nixon ordered fired on Oct. 20, 1973. Cox had gone beyond his franchise, Nixon felt, in demanding White House tape recordings as evidence and in carrying his investigation into areas of alleged wrongdoing not di-
ceived a law degree there in 1925. Later he joined a leading Houston, Tex., law firm and became a senior partner in 1951. He served as president of the American Bar Association (1971-72). When he resigned as special prosecutor, he was replaced by his assistant,
Henry
S.
Ruth, Jr. (STANLEY WILLS CLOUO)
Jaworski.
—
as prime minister. He demanded and obtained the subordination of the armed forces
Still, when Jaworski's nomination was announced, it received a mixed reaction his integrity was never in doubt but his record as a Nixon supporter in 1972 led some observers to predict that he would be less
aggressive than Cox.
To be sure, even after Jaworski stepped down, there were those who thought he had been too flexible in his plea bargaining with defendants and that he should at least have attempted to indict Nixon, either before or after the president's resignation.
But
these
criticisms notwithstanding, Jaworski was widely praised for his work. He pursued in-
vestigations into the Watergate affair begun by Cox: the break-in of Daniel EUsberg's psychiatrist's office by the White House "plumbers," election "dirty tricks," the misuse of campaign funds, and other matters. The evidence he presented to a federal grand
jury led to the indictment, on charges related to the Watergate cover-up, of seven important figures in both the Nixon administration and the Committee for the Re-election of the President.
The evidence also persuaded the grand jury to name Nixon as an unindicted coconspirator in the cover-up. Furthermore, Jaworski and his staff were able to obtain a number of guilty pleas and convictions in 1974, including the conviction of John Ehrlichman, Nixon's former domestic affairs adviser, in connection with the Ellsberg burglary. Perhaps most important, Jaworski successfully challenged Nixon's attempt to withhold from the special prosecutor subpoenaed tapes and documents of 64 presidential conversations. On July 24 the U.S. Supreme Court sustained Jaworski's arguments in an 8-0 opinion.
,
and averted a catawar with Turkey over Cyprus without loss of prestige. He had been recalled by Pres. Phaidon Gizikis, who had dismissed the government of the military junta after the disaster of its attempted coup against Cyprus on July 15 and its miscalculation about Turkey's reaction. Karamanlis was born in 1907 at the village of Proti, near Serrai, in Greek Macedonia (then still a Turkish province), the eldest of the seven children of a schoolteacher. After graduating from the law school of the University of Athens in 1932, he practiced law in Athens. Launched into politics by the Populist Party, he was elected to Parliament in 1935 for Serrai. In 1950 he joined the Greek Rally of Field Marshal Alexandros Papagos, which at the Nov. 16, 1952, elections obtained 239 out of 300 seats. He entered the Papagos government as minister of public works and earned popularity by his energetic road construction program. When Papagos died in October 1955, King Paul chose the young and successful administrator as prime minister. Karamanlis formed not only his government but also his own party, the National Radical Union (ERE), and at the Feb. 19, 1956, elections obtained 161 seats. He improved Greece's relations with Yugoslavia, but those with Turkey, and especially with Great Britain, remained strained owing to the Cyprus issue. In order to restore friendly relations with the NATO powers, Karamanlis decided to disentangle the awkward Cyprus problem by the establishment of an independent republic on the island. On Feb. 5-11, 1959, he met Adnan Menderes, the prime minister of Turkey, in Zurich, Switz., and reached a compromise endorsed eight days later bv the British prime minister, Harold Macmillan. On Oct. 29, 1961, Karamanlis won his third election with 176 seats, but on June 11, 1963, he resigned following King Paul's rejection of his advice that the king's state visit to London should be postponed. (K. M. SMOCOKZEWSKi) to civilian authority,
strophic
KARDELJ. EDVARD A
close colleague of Tito since the
the
1941^5
emerged
partisan war,
of
whom had
fallen into disgrace.
The
best
Djilas, who fell out with Tito because of his insistence on more rapid liberalization in 1954, and Aleksandr Rankovic, who was dismissed in 1966 for plotting against Tito and preparing a conservative regime to follow his disappearance. Because of his lack of strong support, either in his native republic of Slovenia or with other groups in Yugoslavia, Kardelj remained essentially a lonely figure, respected but not loved and therefore vulnerable to coups from left and right. A member of Yugoslavia's collective state presidency and of the Presidium of the League of Communists, Kardelj was born in Ljubljana on Jan. 27, 1910, into a working-
known were Milovan
KARAMANLIS, KONSTANTINOS After 11 years of self-imposed exile in Paris, Konstantinos Karamanlis, who had held power in Greece for a record near-eight returned to successive years ( 1955-63) Athens on July 24, 1974, and was sworn in
rectly related to Watergate. Congress, howhad insisted on independence for Cox, and provided even more safeguards for
ever,
—
or charisma in a more attractive light. Perhaps more important, Kardelj took an increasing share in running the country's foreign policy, which had always been Tito's jealously guarded preserve. The most important of several foreign missions that he undertook in 1974 was his visit to Moscow at the beginning of September to discuss the degree of Soviet involvement in a conspiracy uncovered in Montenegro in April. Tito had had several heirs apparent, all
humour
days of
Edvard Kardelj
in 1974 as the 82-year-old
Yugoslav
chosen successor. Kardelj, the leading theoretician of his country's "road to socialism," was entrusted with the task of preparing the new constitution, which was adopted in February. A long and complex document, it embodied most of Kardelj's thinking on workers' self-management as the basis of Yugoslavia's political, economic, and social system. Throughout the year the mass media strove to present Kardelj a rather dry, schoolmasterly man without much sense of president's
—
Having joined the party's youth organization at 16, he spent two years in prison in Yugoslavia and from 1934 to 1936 lived in Moscow. In 1939 he published a study of the national question in Slovenia, the first of a long series of theoretical works. He was closely involved in the development class family.
of the whole Yugoslav politico-social system (k. f. cvnc) after 1945.
KARPOV, ANATOLY The
official challenger to Bobby Fischer for the 1975 world chess championship, Anatoly Karpov was certainly the best prospect for winning the title that the Soviet Union had produced since the advent of Mikhail Tal and Boris Spassky, His recent career had been an almost uninterrupted series of successes, and it was only against Viktor Korchnoi, whom he eventually beat by the odd game in the final of the 1974 candidates' matches, that he experienced any real
difficulty.
Born May 23, 1951, at Zlatoust in the southern Urals, Karpov learned chess at the age of four and at nine was rated a firstcategory player the equivalent of a firstclass amateur in the U.S. or the U.K. At 15 he won an international tournament, contended by many adult masters, and later he won the 1967-68 junior international tournament at Groningen, Neth., an event subsequently recognized as the European junior championship. In 1969 he became world junior champion and in 1970 the world's youngest grand master. The following year he was fourth in the 39th Soviet champion.^hip at Leningrad and equal first with Leonid Stein at the Alekhinc Memorial Tournament in Moscow. He was equal first (with Korchnoi) at the 1971-72 Hastings (Eng.) Congress Premier Tournament and at San Antonio, Tex., in 1972 (with Tigran Petrosian of the U.S.S.R. and Lajos Portisch of Hungary) In the 1973 Leningrad Interzonal Tournament he again tied for first with Korchnoi. He beat Lev Polugayevsky and Spassky easily enough in the quarter- and semifinals of the 1974 candidates' matches. A student at the Leningrad State University, Karpov was modest, unassuming, of deceptively small stature and almost fraillooking, but endowed with remarkable powers of endurance. His style of play was that of the complete grand master, without any noticeable weaknesses except, perhaps, that he much preferred attack to defense and
—
.
was occasionally
liable
to
wilt under the
pressure of a fierce onslaught. However, should the match for the world title with Fischer take place, there was no doubt that he would make a thoroughly worthy adversary. Karpov himself stated in an interview that he doubted Fischer's willingness to
(HABRV colombek)
play.
KERR, SIR JOHN ROBERT Sworn mander
in as governor-general and comin chief of the defense forces of Australia at Parliament House on July 11, 1974, during a ten-minute ceremony in the Senate, Sir John Kerr, chief justice of the Supreme Court of New South Wales, took over the office from Sir Paul Hasluck. From the first Sir John adopted a note of informality. His first press statement was on the subject of curtsying. He wished it to be known that the ladies' curtsy to the governor-general ought to be replaced by shaking hands. He favoured the shaking of hands as a reciprocal gesture of greeting and respect but added that a slight bow to the governor-general and his wife by both men and women at the time of shaking hands would not be inappropriate. Since the governor-general's main function was to open sessions of Parliament, give the royal assent to acts of Parliament, and act as the queen's viceroy and chief of state, Kerr made no controversial statements and took no part in domestic politics. Arriving at the vice-regal residence via a distinguished but esoteric law career unUke most of his predecessors, who had been involved in spectacular political or militar>' pursuits he had an air of aloof mystery which the nature of his office did little to dispel. Kerr was born in Sydney. Austr., on Sept. 24, 1914. Admitted to the New South Wales bar in 1938, he served with the 2nd Australian Imperial Force (1942-46). He became a queen's counsel in 1953; a judge of the Commonwealth industrial court in 1966; a Supreme Court judge of the Australian Capital Territory in 1966, and of the Northern Territory in 1970. He played an important part in Australian industrial relations as deputy president of the Trade Practices Tribunal (1966) and as a member of the Courts of Marine Inquiry (1967-72). His administrative ability was recognized by his appointment as chairman of the committees on the review of administrative decisions (1968) and on reviewing the pay of the armed forces (1970). (a. r. g. Griffiths)
—
—
KIRCHSCHLAGER, RUDOLF The nomination
of Rudolf Kirchschliiger by the Austrian Socialist Party (SPO) as its candidate for the presidency in succession to
Franz Jonas {see Obituaries) caused general surprise. Previously, the SPO's candidates had always been highly placed in the party hierarchy, whereas Kirchschlager, a lawyer and diplomat who had been foreign
minister since 1970,
was
not.
However, his won 51.7%
candidacy was successful, and he
of the votes cast in the election of June 23, 1974. On July 8 he was sworn in as president of Austria.
Kirchschlager was born on March 20, 1915, Upper Austrian village of Obermiihl. His youth was marked by poverty and deprivation. Orphaned at the age of 11, he had to earn money for his studies, but these were interrupted when he was drafted for military service during World War II, in the course of which he was twice seriously wounded. After the war he entered the justice department of the civil service, workin the
first in Horn in Lower Austria and then Vienna as a district judge. In 1954 he joined the foreign service. At that time the State Treaty granting Austria full sovereignty was under preparation. As legal ad-
ing in
Kirchschlager took part in 19SS in negotiations with the great powers and collaborated in drafting the constitutional law of perpetual Austrian neutraUty. Subsequently, he was active in various branches of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, as leader of delegations to numerous international conferences, as chief secretary to foreign ministers Lujo Toncic-Sorinj and Bruno Kreisky, and as ambassador in Prague. Meanwhile, he also taught international law and collaborated in the writing of a number of legal publications. When in 1970 Kreisky became chancellor, he appointed Kirchschlager foreign minister. In this capacity he defined the goal of Austrian foreign policy as the maintenance and strengthening of the republic's independence; Kirchschlager viewed Austria's neutrality as fundamental both to the preservation of its independence and as a stabilizing element in the maintenance of international peace. (elfriede dirnbacher)
125
viser,
KISSINGER, HENRY ALFRED Through more than
five years,
as assistant for national security affairs to U.S. Pres. Richard Ni.xon and then also as secretary of state, Henry Kissinger had demonstrated that he was a statesman of extraordinary energy and abihty. He became very nearly indispensable to Nixon and then, in the late summer of 1974 when Nixon resigned as a result of the Watergate scandals, Kissinger demonstrated that he was also a political man of unusual skill. From the beginning of the Nixon presidency, foreign affairs were the president's chief preoccupation, and Kissinger was the president's chief instrument in formulating and executing U.S. foreign policy. When Nixon began his struggle to avoid impeachment, it was his administration's success abroad that was used as the main argument against his being ousted. Kissinger's role then became double-edged. He began the year telling the public that Nixon, rather than himself, was still in charge of the nation's foreign policy despite the growing impeachment threat. Yet the denial was not believed; Kissinger had helped Nixon to his administration's successes, but his very excellence diminished the president's own claim on indispensability. Kissinger continued his world travels throughout the year, and appeared indefatigable in the many long negotiations he attended. His marathon, 32-day flyingshuttle diplomacy between Israel and Syria produced on May 31 the first signed accord between those two hostile states since the
Henry Alfred K
first
Biography
armistice ending the 1948 war for Israeli independence. Kissinger also paved the way for Nixon's summit meeting with Soviet leaders in Moscow in June, and continued on that trip and on a subsequent journey in
October to negotiate toward a further limitation on strategic nuclear weapons. He organized Pres. Gerald Ford's first meeting as president with Soviet Communist Party general secretary Leonid I. Brezhnev in Vladivostok. As the pressure of Watergate on Nixon increased, Kissinger himself came under greater scrutiny for his role in the early Nixon years in establishing wiretaps on some newsmen and on his own National Security Council employees. In June an FBI memorandum was published which identified Kissinger as the initiator of the taps. He had denied such a role and repeated that denial. During the year Kissinger became concerned with the continued functioning of U.S. diplomacy in the face of the eroding stature of the Nixon government. That problem was finally solved in early August when Nixon left office, a course counseled and guided by Kissinger. Kissinger was born in Fiirth, in what is now West Germany, on May 27, 1923. He became a U.S. citizen after fleeing Nazi Germany with his family in 1938. Before his
appointment in 1968 as Nixon's assistant he was a professor of government at Harvard University. In 1974 he married Nancy Maginnes, an aide to former New York governor Nelson Rockefeller.
(JOHN
F.
stacks)
KNIEVEL, EVEL The
year's
most spectacular
failure
was Evel
Knievel, a petty thief turned motorcycle exhibitionist who tried to vault Idaho's
Snake River Canyon and ended up at its bottom. The attempt, on Sept. 8, 1974, was also the year's nonevent, a publicity man's outlandish dream that somehow mesmerized a nation still rocky from its summer-long constitutional crisis. Knievel flashed a $6 million check, purportedly his advance fee from admission and closed circuit receipts. Promoters promised a $1 million party, which turned out to be a free round of beer in a drive-in. They claimed 200,000 people were coming to tiny Twin Falls to watch the stuntman soar across the canyon. And a few motorcycle gangs did appear,
TV
along with some spaced-out young people and others looking for kindred spirits. The
news media showed up in force. Two newsmen were beaten, one by Knievel personally, and a couple of girls were willingly stripped and then mauled. Then, after a week of raucous idleness, Knievel climbed into his steam-powered Sky-Cycle for "the jump." Before the vehicle had cleared the launch ramp the landing parachute popped out deployed prematurely either by a malfunction or by Knievel's own nervous thumb and the vehicle drifted down to the water's edge. Rescue helicopters reported that he was not hurt. And the party was over. Robert Craig Knievel was born in Butte,
—
—
Mont., Oct. 17, 1938. By his own admission he started stealing hubcaps as a teenager, and he later supported himself as a con man, card shark, and sneak thief. A semipro athlete, hunting guide and sports promotor for a while, he became a motorcycle dealer, then took to stunt riding taking off from wooden ramps and sailing over lines of
—
1974 exceeded $1 billion, making McDonald's a bigger supplier of food than the U.S. Army. Twenty years earlier there had been only one McDonald's, and Raymond A. Kroc was
sales in
an obscure, moderately prosperous businessman. Born Oct. 5, 1902, in Chicago, Kroc
worked at a series ambulance driver
of occupations, including in World War I, jazz
pianist in Chicago nightclubs,
and Florida
land salesman, before becoming exclusive distributor of the Prince Castle Multimixer, a gadget that stirred six milkshakes at once. In 1954 one restaurant purchased eight multimixers. Startled, Kroc traveled to San Bernardino, Calif., to find out what sort of operation could sell so many meals. He saw a prosperous fast-food restaurant that served hamburgers, french fries, and milkshakes only. It was owned by two brothers,
Maurice and Richard McDonald. Hoping to sell more multimixers, Kroc approached the McDonalds with a scheme to franchise their idea. He began franchising in 1955 and soon went into it full time. Capital was not easy to find in the early '60s, but Kroc persevered and by 1965 he owned the business outright. The rest was history. With Harry Sonneborn, an early business associate since retired, Kroc devised a franchising system whereby the parent company bought a site, constructed a restaurant, then leased the operation for a percentage of sales. A franchise holder, who paid roughly $150,000 to enter the business and could expect to net about $50,000 per year, had to learn his trade at the company's Hamburger University in Elk Grove Village, 111. A McDonald's hamburger, for example, consisted of precisely 1.6 oz. of beef with no more than 19% fat; it was placed on a 3j-in. bun and had to be thrown away if not sold within ten minutes. Early in 1974 Ray Kroc bought the San Diego (Calif.) Padres, a baseball team wretched in both performance and attendance. Early in the season, he chastised the entire team over the stadium's public address system later apologizing for this understandable display of emotion. The team finished last, as usual, but Ray Kroc, of all people, knew the value of perseverance. (VICTOR M. CASSIDY)
—
KUROISHI, TSUNE
^JtiL-
ji^
parked cars or snarls of rattlesnakes.
On
New
Year's Day 1968 he gained some national attention trying the same trick in Las Vegas. He managed to clear the fountains at Caesar's Palace hotel hut botched the landing. He boasted that this and other accidents had broken every major bone in his body except his neck, Still, he was deemed a contemporary phenomenon, featured in The New Yorker and Business Week, which reported on the successful commercial exploitation of his notoriety. There had even been a movie about the man who called himself "the last gladiator in the New Rome."
(PHILIP kopper)
KROC. RAY "Over 15 Billion Served." The familiar sign had to be changed every four months in 1974 as McDonald's restaurants sold a billion more hamburgers at 2,300 locations in the U.S., Canada, Europe, and Japan. Total
Tsune Kuroishi believed that women could scale any mountain on earth. She spoke from lofty experience. On May 4, 1974, she led an 11 -member, all-Japanese women's climbing team that conquered 26,760-ft. Mt. Manaslu in the Himalayas. Three women, Mieko Mori, Masako Uchida, and Xaoko Nakaseko, made it to the top and claimed a record for women climbers. The feat was marred by the death the day before of Teiko Suzuki on a smaller peak.
$100,000. In choosing Manaslu they tackled a killer mountain. It was regarded as one of the deadliest of the Himalayan peaks, its hanging glacier a mass of shifting snow and ice reached by clambering over the steep
rocky face below. Avalanches
killed IS
mem-
bers of a South Korean team in 1972. Kuroishi took over the team's direction after its leader, Kyoko Sato, was stricken with a kidney ailment and had to be re-
turned to Japan. Born in Yamagata, Aug. 5, 1925, she started climbing in 1950 after Tokyo Women's Medical College. Over the years she scaled most of the prominent Japanese mountains, climbed Peruvian Andes, and had done some in the trekking in Nepal. A doctor of internal medicine, she regarded mountaineering as a hobby, like golf. Neighbourhood doctors took care of her patients when she was away on long climbs. Married to an economist turned drugstore owner, she has no graduating from
—
and thinks men are superior mountain climbers. (john p. Roderick) children
LAUGERUD GARCIA, KJELL EUGENIO A
44-year-old army general, Kjell Laugerud Garcia was elected president of Guatemala 3, 1974, over two other soldiercandidates in a contest that was basically like a division of opinion on a miHtary promotion board. He won because he was the handpicked successor to the outgoing president. Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio, also an army officer, and because there was little
on March
real difference in the slightly right-of-centre positions of the three candidates. When army backers of the two losing candidates from the Democrata Cristiano and Revolucionario parties chose not to challenge the election, Laugerud was inaugurated for a four-
year term on July
1.
Laugerud was born Jan. 24, 1930, in Guatemala City, the son of a Norwegian immigrant father and a native-born Guatemalan mother. He rose to eminence by way of the Politecnica, Guatemala's military academy, where he graduated in 1949 and eventually became superintendent in 1965. He later served as military attache in the U.S. and was defense minister of Guatemala until resigning in 1973 to run against Gen. Jose Efrain Rios Montt of the Partido Democrata Cristiano and Col. Ernesto Piaz Novales of the Partido Rovolucionario. Laugerud was the candidate of the combined Movimiento de Liberacion Nacional (MLN) and the Partido Institucional Democritico (PID), a mildly rightist coalition that had successfully elected .^rana four years earlier. Laugerud declared himself unalterably opposed to the return of Cuba to membership in the Organization of full States. And, as all Guatemalan must, he asserted Guatemala's claim to sovereignty over the British colony
American
politicians
Kuroishi, a veteran of 24 years of mountaineering, directed the team from camp no. 1 at 17,160 ft. Two of the women, Uchida and Nakaseko, reached the summit without oxygen masks, which they discarded as too heavy. Originally, the team had planned to go up the menacing and hitherto unclimbed east ridge, but on April 1 the women gave up that attempt and turned to the traditional glacier course. A Japanese men's team had first climbed Manaslu the world's seventh highest mountain in 1956. The previous record for women climbers was
—
—
claimed by Setsuko Watanabc of Tokyo, who reached the 26,240-ft.-high South Col of Mt. Everest in 1971. Preparations for the expedition were difficult, Kuroishi said, because the Jungfrau Alpine Club had little money and fundraising was slow. The assault had been planned for five years and cost more than
of Belize.
Laugerud faced serious economic probin Guatemala, which suffered considerit had to pay for imported oil. With Marxist guerrilla
lems
ably from the higher prices
movements remaining the
nation's
stability,
a potential threat to Laugerud was ex-
pected to remain a firm friend of the U.S. (JEREMIAH A. O'LEARY)
LECANUET. JEAN ADRIEN FRANQOIS Appointed minister of justice in the new French government formed after the May 1974 election of Val^ry Giscard d'Estaing (q.v.) as president of the republic, Jean Lecanuet became a leading member of the regime he had once effectively opposed. In 1965 he had himself been a candidate for the presidency then youthful-looking at ;
45, with a brilliant smile, he made television appearances during the presidential election campaign that charmed 15% of the voters (against an expected 2-3%) into
L^ger was the second governor-general of French Canadian origin. A brother, Paul Emile Cardinal Leger, had been archbishop of Montreal but gave up that post to work
casting their votes for him, and so forced the founder and leader of the Fifth RepubGen. Charles de Gaulle, to a second ballot. For the Gaullists this was a kind
among
lic,
of lese majesty, and consequently during the remainder of de Gaulle's presidency and the ensuing five years of Georges Pompidou's, Lecanuet was confined to a posture of ineffectual opposition.
Following Pompidou's death, the scene changed. Lecanuet, whose Democratic Centre Party had in 1972 joined with the Radical Party of Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber to establish the
Reform Movement,
rallied
to Giscard, bringing to the latter the votes of a large portion of the former Christian
Democrats who formed the rank and file of the Democratic Centre. The Reform
Movement
lost its cohesion and, eventually, formal existence, after Servan-Schreiber, minister of reforms in the new government, was dismissed for criticizing French nuclear poHcy but Lecanuet's Democratic Centre Party remained an indispensable ally of President Giscard's Independent Republicans in developing policies of social change and liberalization, Lecanuet was born on March 4, 1920, in Rouen. Active in the Resistance during World War 11, he was arrested once by the Germans but escaped. After the war he helped form the (Roman Catholic) People's Republican Movement (MRP), of which he became president in 1963 and which in 1966 merged into the Democratic Centre. Lecanuet became a deputy in 1951 and served in Edgar Faure's government of 1955. As
its
who became
;
mayor of Rouen and president of the Regional Council he established a solid personal power base in Normandy. (PIERRE VIANSSON-PONTE)
LEGER, JULES On
Jan. 14, 1974, Jules Leger became Canada's 21st governor-general. As such, he was the representative of Queen Elizabeth II in Canada, charged with the duties of summoning and dissolving Parliament, giving the royal assent to parliamentary bills, and reading the speech from the throne at the opening of each session of Parliament. He was unable to perform that duty when the 30th Parliament opened on September 30, however. He was convalescing from a stroke suffered on June S, and the speech was read by Chief Justice Bora Laskin. The chief justice had been sworn in on July 2 as administrator of Canada, a post filled only when the governor-general has died or is absent or incapacitated.
lepers in Africa. St. Anicet, Que,,
born in
and was educated
Jules Leger was on April 4, 1913,
Canada and France. B.A. from Valleyfield
in
After receiving his College in Quebec (1933), he studied law at the University of Montreal (1933-36)
and the Sorbonne
A
quiet,
collector,
in Paris.
reflective
and man
man. a of
in
the
public
service."
scholar,
brilliant
After
art
Leger has
letters,
been called "one of the most
minds
joining
the
Canadian government as third secretary the Department of External Affairs in 1940, he saw service in Chile, Mexico, England, Italy, France, Belgium, and Luxembourg. He was adviser to the Canadian delegation to the UN General Assembly in Paris (1948^9) and ambassador to NATO (1958-62). Within Canada, he had served in
as undersecretary of state for external affairs (1954-58) and undersecretary of state for arts, cultural support, bilingualism, education, and citizenship (1968-73). In August 1973 he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. In Leger's view, the office of governorgeneral symbolized the stability of Canadian national life and the permanence of Ca-
nadian institutions. He valued both Canadian cultures and had regard for all aspects of Canadian life. (diane lois way)
LOPEZ MICHELSEN,
ALFONSO On Aug.
7,
1974,
after
an overwhelming
electoral victory as standard-bearer of the
Liberal Party, Alfonso Lopez Michelsen was inaugurated president of Colombia. It was the first time in 16 years that Colombia had departed from the Frente Nacional arrangement, in which, by agreement, the Liberals and Conservatives alternated in the presidency a system adopted to end the political violence between the two factions. Lopez, a lawyer who was considered a leftist radical in his youth, was the son of the reformer Alfonso Lopez Pumarejo, one of the greatest presidents Colombia had had in this century. In the April 21. 1974, national election, Lopez ran up a margin of more than a million votes above his nearest rival, Alvaro Gomez Hurtado of the Conservative Party. Maria Eugenia Rojas de Moreno Diaz, leader of the populist National Popular Alliance and daughter of the former dictator Gen. Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, ran a
—
poor
third.
Once an open radical who advocated relations with Cuba when that was far from popular in the rest of Latin America, Lopez
made
his peace with the orthodox Liberals 1967 and became a state governor and then foreign minister from 1967 to 1970. By the time he became president, Colombia in
was
in
the forefront of the political battle Cuba to full membership in the
to restore
Organization of American States.
Born in Bogota on June 30, 1913, Lopez was educated at the Lycee Pascal in Paris, the University of Chile, and at the Georgetown University School of Foreign Service Washington, D.C. He taught administralaw at Bogota National University and became immersed in politics at an early age. In 1962 he was defeated in his first bid for his country's presidency but was elected
in
tive
a senator, opposing the Liberal-Conservative coalition.
Even though the Frente Nacional arrangement ended formally with Lopez' election, the system of parity between the Liberals and Conservatives was to continue for four more years in regard to the appointments
127
Biography
of governors, mayors,
and Cabinet ministers.
Then Colombia was scheduled
to return to freewheeling partisan politics amid hopes that there would be no repetition of the Liberal -versus-Conservative violence that took some 200,000 lives from 1948 until 1957 when the Frente Nacional was first established. (jeremiah a. o'leary)
McGIBBON, PAULINE MILLS On
April 10, 1974. Pauline McGibbon was as the 22nd lieutenant governor of Ontario, the first woman to hold a viceregal post in Canada. As a lover of the theatre, she had an appreciation for the ceremony of her office, which included a horse-drawn carriage to ride to the opening of the legislature where, as representative of Queen Elizabeth II in Ontario, she would read the speech from the throne.
installed
She did not intend to appear in a uniform, but had she decided to wear one, she would have had ample medals for it. An officer of the
Order of Canada and a
Dame
of the Order of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem, she had received the Canadian Drama Award for outstanding service to theatre (1957), the Canadian Centennial Medal (1967), and Toronto's Civic Award of Merit (1967). Coming from "a generation of women who didn't take up professional careers," Mrs. McGibbon went into volunteer work. Without children, she had no chance of election to the school board, so she made a career of service to education and the arts, working through a seemingly limitless list of organizations and offices: national president of the Imperial Order of the Daughters of the Empire (1963-65), first president of the national Children's Film Library, chairman of the board of the National Theatre School of Canada (1956-68), vice-president of the
Canadian Conference on the Arts, director of the Canadian Association for the Mentally Retarded. In 1971 she became the first
woman
chancellor
of
the
University
of
Toronto; she had received her B.A. from the university's Victoria College in
1933. Her first speaking engagement as lieutenant governor was in Sarnia, Ont., where she was born Pauline Emily Mills on Oct. 10, 1910. She had been married since 1935 to another Sarnia native. Donald W. McGibbon. the treasurer of Imperial Oil Ltd, Mrs. McGibbon believed her appointment could not have happened ten years earlier, before the women's movement had changed community attitudes. Viewing her post as principally one of public relations, she looked forward to touring the province and encouraging those who were trying to improve the quality of life, (diane lois way)
MACHEL, SAMORA MOISES When
the Portuguese revolution in April 1974 heralded the imminent end of Portugal's long era of colonialism in Africa, Samora Machel became the foremost contender for the post of first president of Mozambique, which by agreement with the new Portuguese government was to achieve full independence the following year. As military commander of the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (Frcljmo), established in 1962 under the leadership of
Eduardo Mondlane, Machel became a memof the triumvirate formed following Mondlane's assassination in 1969. In 1970 he was elected Frelimo's president. Machel was born in Gaza, southern Mozambique, in October 1933. When his eldest brother was killed, in an accident in the ber
— izs
tr^
Biography
South African mines (for which $2S compensation was paid), his parents could not afford to l
i
I
insufficient to enable the white population of 273.000
to contain a black population of
5.8 million indefi-
South Africa remained the dominant military an army of 34,500, some of whom were operating against African guerrillas in the Caprivi Strip in Namibia (South West Africa). Elsewhere in Africa, the dominance of the military in pol-
nitely.
power
itics
in Africa, with
continued. In Ethiopia,
was deposed by See also
his
Space Exploration.
[SJS.B.S.c.ii;
Emperor Haile
Selassie
army. (See Ethiopia.) (ROBERT J. ranger)
544.B.S-6; 736J
.
•
225
Demography
Demography Birth
Statistics.
that both the
Provisional
number
statistics
indicated
of live births and the birthrate
continued to decline in 1973 and the first eight months of 1974, although the rate of decline slowed markedly. The number of births and the birthrate per 1,000 population fell 4% from 1972 to 1973, in the U.S.
compared with a 10% decrease between 1971 and 1972, and the decrease for the first eight months of 1974 was only 1% below 1973. These figures, plus the leveling off of the seasonally adjusted fertility rate
and fertility about 1960 had stopped,
since late 1973, suggested that the birth rate declines in process since at least for the time being.
The crude per 1,000
and the fertility rate (births 15^4 years) were 15 and 69.3, compared with 15.6 and 73.4 in eight months of 1974 the birthrate,
birthrate
women
aged
respectively, in 1973,
1972. For the 14.7,
and the
first
fertility rate, 67.1,
were slightly below
the rates for the corresponding period in 1973. This
Table
I.
Life
Expectancy at
In Years, for Selected
Country Africo
Period
Birth,
Countries Mole
In other countries where birth registration was con90% or more complete, UN reports in-
226
Demography
sidered to be
dicated that the birthrate declined in 28 countries between 1972 and 1973 and increased in only 4. In the early
months of 1974,
showed
21 reporting countries
lower rates than for the corresponding periods in 1973, 6 reported increases, and 1, no change. Thus the pattern of a falling birthrate observed for the U.S. also held for most other reporting countries. The most recent estimates for countries with incomplete
UN
showed that birthrates around the world ranged from about 11 per 1,000 population to over 50.
registration
The
was now the most dynamic factor
birthrate
affecting rates of population increase in
the world. well
The
below 10
all
parts of
rate of natural increase ranged in the
from
U.S. and most European coun-
over 30 in many countries of Africa, South America, and Asia. The recent rates for some of the were Egypt 21.7; Nigeria 24.7; the U.S. 6.2; China 17.8; India 26.1; Japan 12.7; Pakitries to
largest countries
stan 32.5; and the U.S.S.R. 9.5.
Death Statistics. The provisional crude death rate the U.S. in 1973 was 9.4 per 1,000 population, unchanged from 1972. However, the rate for the first eight months of 1974, at 9.2, was substantially lower in
than the rate of 9.5 for the corresponding period in 1973. Although the crude rate did not change, certain age-sex-colour-specific rates reached
new lows
for the
in 1973: for white males 35^4, 45-54, 55-64, and 65-74 years of age; for all other males aged 6574; for white females aged 65-74; and for all other females aged 15-24, 25-34, 45-54, and 55-64. The most recent available age-adjusted U.S. death rates were for 1971. Although the rates for all sexrace groups had declined in the past few years, they continued to show substantial differences. The rate for males was 9.1 and for females, 5.3; for white persons the rate was 6.7 and for all others, 10. By major causes of death the rates were much higher for males than for females, except for diabetes, and much lower
U.S.
for whites than for all other races except for arteriosclerosis,
suicide,
and bronchitis, emphysema, and
asthma. The ranking of the ten leading causes of death in the U.S. in 1973 is shown below. The only change from 1972 involved cirrhosis of the liver and certain causes of mortality in early infancy, which reversed rank orders. The rate for cirrhosis of the liver was the highest ever recorded in the U.S.
The
rate for dia-
betes declined significantly
from
population in 1972 to 17.4
1973. For the
months of 1974, the
in
18.8
per
100,000
first
seven
rates for accidents, influenza and pneumonia, and bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma fell significantly.
of unmarried
women
15 years and over and 15 to 44
years, rather than total population,
of the marriage rate
had been falHng temporary halt in the rise was evident, despite the continu-
ing increase in the
number
since 1969.
Thus
at least a
of persons entering the
marriageable ages. Statistics available for 1971 rate of
marriage occurred
showed that the highest the age period 20-24
in
was true for both
years. This
marriages and reThe rates of remarriage of previously divorced women and men were much higher than for those previously widowed. For example, among previously divorced men and women aged 25-44, the remarriage rates were 338.4 and 176.1, respectively. first
marriages.
For previously widowed men and women in this age group, the corresponding rates were 201.3 and 70.4. Among countries where reporting was at least 90% complete, the marriage rate rose from 1972 to 1973 in 10 countries and fell in 17, with no change in one country. Thirteen countries showed higher rates for
months of 1974 and 12 reported lower rates, compared with the corresponding months of 1973. Marriage and divorce statistics were available for even fewer countries than other vital statistics, and were also less complete. Marriage rates were also afthe early
as
fected by the frequency of common-law marriages, which were not included in official statistics, and by differences in the age composition of the populations.
Both the number and rate of divorces and annulments in the U.S. continued to increase, a trend that began about 1958. After reaching a peak of 4.3 divorces per 1,000 in 1946, the crude rate had declined to 2.1 in 1958. In 1973 it rose to 4.4, 10% above the rate for 1972 and the highest rate in U.S. history. Data for the first eight months of 1974 indicated that the increase continued, from 4.3 in 1973 to 4.5. Latest detailed divorce statistics for the U.S. indicated that the median duration of marriages terminated by divorce or annulment in 1971 was 6.7 years.
Median duration of marriages ended by divorce had dechned steadily since 1963, when it was 7.5 years. The average number of minor children affected was 1.2
per divorce in 1971, representing a slight decline
from the
1.3
average that prevailed during most of
the 1960s.
Among liability,
countries reporting divorces with the U.S. consistently
Next highest
some
had the highest
re-
rate.
2.6. HunGermany, and Sweden also had higher than average divorce rates. Divorce was not recognized, was infrequent, or was not reported in most countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, The general trend of the divorce rate in most reporting countries had been upward for a decade.
in
1972 was the U.S.S.R. with
gary, Czechoslovakia, East
j
(ROBERT See also Populations [338.F.5.b; S2S.A;
D.
grove)
and Areas.
10/36.C.S.dl
Denmark A
constitutional monarchy of north central Europe lying between the North and Baltic seas,
Denmark
includes
the
Jutland Peninsula and 100 inhabited islands in the Kattegat
and Skagerrak straits. Area (excluding Faeroe Islands and Greenland): 16,629 sq.mi. (43,070 sq.km.). Pop. (1973 est.) 5,007,500. Cap. and largest city: Copen:
hagen (pop., 1973 est., 767,967). Language: Danish. Religion predominantly Lutheran. Queen, Margrethe II; prime minister in 1974, Poul Hartling. The chronic political and economic instability that had plagued Denmark for years continued to be a problem in 1974. During the summer a marked rise :
unemployment became apparent, with repercussions on the atmosphere in the business com-
in the level of
munity. Inflationary price
which had been a life for a decade, were widely blamed on the country's system of automatic wage adjustments based on the consumer price index. Moreover, for several years Denmark had held the European record for high levels of interest as well as taxation. Almost 50% of the country's gross national product was being swallowed by the enormous public sector, and ordinary mortgage bonds bore an effective interest rate of up to 18% per year. In spite of all this, Danish exports had increased steadily from year to year. However, imports had risen even more rapidly, and invisible earnings were insufficient to prevent an ever growing deficit. The balance of payments position continued to deteriorate, and the accumulated foreign debt had reached a total of almost 30 biUion kroner. Moreover, Denmark was almost entirely dependent on imports to meet its energy requirements, the Danish sector of the North Sea oil fields providing no more than about 1.5% of the country's needs. It was estimated that developments in the world energy situation would lead to a rise in Denmark's "normal" balance of payments deficit from about 3 billion kroner to almost 8 billion kroner in 1974. rises,
feature of Danish economic
Lis Helbo,
22 years
and pregnant, a sergeant Danisli
in
is
old
also
the modern
Army.
Given permission by the authorities to
wear
civilian clothing,
she continued to perform her military duties, as in this inspection of troops near Copenhagen.
was brought
lation
Dependent States
in
by the new government.
A
pro-
posal to limit the automatic wage system by giving;
DENMARK Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 395,289, teach-
wage earners tax-free compensation instead
ers 47,729; secondary, pupils 386,246, teachers 52,2 72; vocational, pupils 70,064, teachers 4.485; teacher train-
gain the necessary support, but after laborious negotiations a "cost-limiting subsidy"
19,839, teachers 1.513; higher (including universities), students 93,175. teaching staff
ing, pupils
4 main
that allowed employers to partially of the price increases that would otherwise have resulted. Opinions on the effectiveness of the scheme differed. Prices continued to rise, but many claimed
S.S03.
Finance. Monetary unit: Danish krone, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a free rate of 6.24 kroner to U.S. $1 (14.43 £1 sterling). Gold, SDKs, and foreign exkroner change, central bank; (June 1974) U.S. $716 million; (June 1973) U.S. $1,054,800,000. Budget (1973-74 49,est.): revenue 53.5 billion kroner; expenditure 470,000,000 kroner. Gross national product: (1972) 127,870,000,000 (1971) kroner; 145,390,000.000 (Feb. 1974) 39.1 billion kroner. Money supply: kroner- (Feb. 1973) 37,300,000,000 kroner. Cost of 100): (April 1974) 137; (April 1973) living (1970
=
increases
would have been even greater without
the
new system.
A
form of compulsory saving was introduced whereby taxpayers with incomes above a certain amount were obliged to deposit a stated sum in a bank or savings bank for a set period of years. In
=
120.
May
Trade. (1973) Imports 46,243,000,000 kroner; exports 37,548,000,000 kroner. Import sources: EEC 46% (West Germany 20%, U.K. 11%. The Netherlands 5%); Sweden 16%; U.S. 6%; Norway 5%. Export destinations: EEC 45% (U.K. 19%, West Germany 13%, Italy 5%); Sweden 14%; U.S. 7%; Norway 7%. Main exports; machinery 20%; meat and meat products 18%; chemicals 6%; ships and boats
Foreign
a
number
of increases in indirect taxation were
introduced, to the accompaniment of widespread protests
and
strikes. Building activity
stringent credit policy
was
was cut back, and
a
applied. Further proposals
income taxes, with the prerequisite of substantial economies
aimed
dairy products 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1972) 64,300 km. (including 2 70 km. expressways). Motor vehicles in use (1972): passenger 1.228,900; commercial 173,300. Railways: state (1972) 1,999 km.; private (1970) 538 km.; traffic (1971-72) 3.723.000,000 passenger-km., freight 1,907,000,000 net ton-km. Air
5%;
at a considerable reduction in direct
in the public sector.
A to
September
special parliamentary session called in
deal with the
matic.
new proposals proved
The government survived no
highly dra-
less
than four
no-confidence motions proposed by different party
(including Danish part of international operations of Scandinavian Airlines System; 1972): 1,918,000,000 passenger-km.; freight 86.4 million net tonkm. Shipping (1973): merchant vessels 100 gross tons traffic
groupings. Although the proposals ultimately passed,
with a government resting on only 22 seats and 10 parties represented in the Folketing nothing in the session was ever a foregone conclusion. In December, Hartling called for an election in January 1975 on the
and over 1,362; gross tonnage 4,106,525. Shipping traffic (1972): goods loaded 8,320.000 metric tons, unloaded 32,360,000 metric tons. Telephones (including Faeroe Islands and Greenland; Dec. 1972) 1,918,000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1972) 1,636,000. Television li-
economic policy. was small comfort that many of Denmark's increasing balance of payments deficit, inflation, rising unemployment, and a general atmosphere of instability and disenchantment with Parliament and politicians were shared by other Western states. Denmark's dependence on imports for energy and raw materials, together with one of the highest issue of his
censes (Dec. 1972) 1,411.000.
It
Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; 1972 in parentheses): wheat 520 (S92); barley 5,450 (5,572); oats 460 (637); rye 140 (155); potatoes c. 709 (709); sugar, raw value c. 396 (341); apples (1972) c. 125. (1971) 115; butter (1972) 136, (1971) 124; cheese (1972) 131, (1971) 120; pork c. 745 (765); beef and veal c. 156 (171); fish catch (1972) 1,443, (1971) 1,401. Livestock (in 000; July 1973): cattle c. 2,750; pigs 8,294; sheep c. 57; horses (1972) 48; chickens (1972) c. 16.000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973): cement 2,890; pig iron (1972) 204; crude steel 449; fertilizers (nutrient content; 1972-73) nitrogenous 77, phosphate 97; manufactured gas (cu.m.) 370,000; electricity (net; kw-hr.; 1972) 19.368.000. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over; 1973) 921.-
000 gross
1
failed to
was introduced neutralize some
troubles
—
—
per capita foreign trade totals in the world,
problems exceptionally
difficult to solve
made
and
its
consti-
tuted a source of constant worry to politicians and
(stener aarsdal)
ordinary citizens alike. [972.A.6.a]
tons.
Dissatisfaction continued to be expressed in many quarters with the increasing consumption of resources
Dependent States The major event
in the
dependent
was
tion in public services.
was promised independence
Political instability
Denmark, but had produced
was no new phenomenon
the general election of a
more precarious
for
December 1973
situation than usual.
Democratic minority government, had given supported by way to a Liberal government under Prime Minister Hartling that had only 22 seats in the 179-member Folketing (parliament). Another interesting feature was the growing popularity of the Progress Party founded by Copenhagen tax lawyer Mogens Glistrup, whose trial on charges of tax evasion began in October. Based on the abolition of income tax, a simplified legislature, and drastic cuts in the public sector, the Progress Party was second only to the Social Democrats in terms of parliamentary seats.
The previous
Social
the Socialist People's Party,
Nevertheless, a considerable
amount
of
new
legis-
territories in 1974
the dissolution of Portugal's colonial empire fol-
by the public sector and the concomitant rise in taxation. Despite signs of a marked increase in unemployment, it was widely felt that public expenditure would have to be curtailed, even at the price of a diminu-
lowing the coup in Lisbon on April 25. The independence of Portuguese Guinea was recognized on Mozambique September 10 (see Giiinea-Bissau) ;
in
1975; .'\ngola was ne-
its independence; and similar were being taken with regard to Portugal's
gotiating the terms of
steps
smaller possessions. Elsewhere, the majority of the
dependent territories were fostering independence movements. Grenada became the first of the six states associated with the U.K. to achieve independence (February 7), so encouraging the possible creation of five more nonviable ministates for Commonwealth and UN membership. 'Very few dependent territories were selfsufiicient, but they did not regard that as an obstacle
world's
to at least
nominal independence.
Africa. French Africa. On June 19 the premier of the Territory of the Afars and Issas, .All Aref Bourhan, and the French secretary of state for overseas departements
and
territories, Olivier Stern, signet)
m
terms more internal control French technicians would be ient to the country, and new aid would be forthcominterview, countered Somalia's claims in an Aref, ng. :o the territory by saying that the Somalis represented 10 more than 25% of its population and that the malority of people wished the French to stay for some ime. Aref also said that when the French left the ;erritory would seek the protection of the Organization •f African Unity (OAU). The OAU, however, urged he French president to grant independence to the
Under
accord.
its
Dassed to the territory,
'Somali Coast."
Portuguese Africa. In Angola guerrilla activity was particularly pronounced, but in Mozambique reriminations concerning the alleged Wiriyamu massare led to charges by both the Portuguese and their
lOt
ipponents of acts of cruelty in various parts of the erritory.
The
Mozambique Liberation
forces of the
campaign farther to the iouth, the railway line between Beira and Malawi teritory being a favourite target. In February, Gen. An6nio de Spinola (see Biography), who had been for ive years governor of Portuguese Guinea, published book claiming that a military solution was unattainible and that a political approach was essential. For hese opinions he was dismissed as deputy chief of the [eneral staff in March, but six weeks later a coup in Lisbon overthrew Marcello )y army officers "aetano's government and Spinola was called upon ^ront (Frelimo) carried their
I
lead the military junta that replaced
1
power to a militant resistance movement. undermine their more particularly after the South African [Overnment announced on May 20 the cessation of nilitary cooperation with Mozambique. Talks early n June between Mario Soares {see Biography), the lew Portuguese foreign minister, and Samora Machel {see Biography), representing Frelimo, were adjourned for a month when Machel rejected the idea of
[owever, Frelimo aggression began to
esolve,
jf
a referendum. In July Frelimo started
new
opera-
ions in the province of Zambezia, and labour strikes
ook place. In Angola the white settlers at first responded more iptimistically to news of the Lisbon coup, partly be:ause the independence movement in that territory was less united than in Mozambique and partly because
they believed that
their
role
The Popular Movement
of Angola
f
June
its
in
that
much
would be secure, even after inde-
wealthier territory
pendence.
MPLA)
for the Liberation
remained active, however, and in had
leader, Agostinho Neto, denied that he
agreed to a cease-fire. But two weeks later he announced that the had ceased its military opera-
MPLA
tions
and would take part
in
political
Dependent States
watched the negotiations between the Portuguese government and independence leaders in Guinea-Bissau in May and June. The talks resulted in Portugal's acknowledgment in August of the republic's independence, which was formally proclaimed on Septemthe Cape Verde Isber 10 (see Guinea-Bissau) lands, associated with the Guinea-Bissau independence movement, remained in Portuguese hands with a promise of independence in 1975, a policy also established in regard to Sao Tome and Principe. Almost simultaneously, the Portuguese government announced its program for the independence of Angola. A cease-fire was demanded before formal negotiations could begin, after which a provisional government rep;
resenting
all
the liberation
movements
as well as the
and the white settlers would be set up. The provisional government would formulate an electoral law guaranteeing freedom of expression on the basis of one-man one-vote and propose a scheme for the relationship between the new state and Portugal it would then hold an election for a constituent assembly before the end of a two-year period and the assembly would draft a constitution in chief African ethnic groups
;
preparation for
new
elections.
The National Front for by Holden Roberto,
the Liberation of Angola, led
expressed
its
reservations, and the difficulty of recon-
Angola became apparent. was in Mozambique, however, that the situation In the middle of August riotseemed most explosive. ing Africans destroyed homes and shops along the northern coast and Europeans and Asians fled to take refuge in the town of Nampula. Mario Soares, however, opened discussions with Frelimo leaders in Dar ciling conflicting opinions in
it.
Within the new government there was a difference if opinion about the future of the African territories. Spinola favoured self-determination by stages with referendum in each territory to determine who ihould form the new government and with the hope hat Portugal would retain a federal relationship with he former dependencies. Others, however, advocated mmediate troop withdrawal and complete inde)endence. Frelimo proposed to continue military op;rations and to reject a federal solution, and the white iettlers in Mozambique announced their determinaion to remain in the country and oppose any handing iver
charged with restoring order, and a number of people were expelled from the country or imprisoned. African leaders in both Angola and Mozambique
discussions;
nevertheless, in mid-July fierce fighting broke out in
Luanda between whites and blacks and many were lulled. Portugal ordered that the government of Angola should be taken over by a local military council
It
es Salaam, Tanzania,
on August 16 and,
in spite of a
delay in plans to establish a temporary ruling junta in Mozambique, agreement was reportedly reached on a in June 1975 for the country's independence. This postponement was acceptable to Frelimo because it was anxious to prepare the way for its assumption of power as securely as possible; meanwhile, its lead-
date
were willing to head a provisional government to in September. These developments produced a hostile response from some white settlers, who early in September seized Mozambique's main radio station and broadcast an appeal for independence without Frelimo. Portuguese troops broke up the rebellion within a few days. By agreement reached in Lusaka, Zambia, on September 7, transferring power to Frelimo, independence was agreed for June 25, 1975; in the meantime, a new Mozambique government took office on September 20. It consisted of six Frelimo ministers and three Portuguese. The premier was Joaquim Chissano, welcomed by many Portuguese who regarded him as one of the more moderate Frelimo leaders. South Africa. South Africa stepped up its multinational developments in South West Africa (Namibia), the status of which as Republic of South Africa territor>' was contested by the UN. The republic had set up in 1973 a nominated South West African Advisory Council, which at a meeting in September 1974 endorsed the estabUshment of a constitutional conference of representatives of all racial groups (including European), chosen by the groups themselves, to decide whether South West Africa should be a single selfgoverning territory or a federation of several. In October the South African government reintroduced the
ers
be set up
Training of militiamen in Angola includes defense against simulated attacks
on villages, as in the Cuando-Cubango district
shown
here.
— become independent on February 7; Grenada) earnings for sugar, bananas, and other
the sixth, having see
produce rose, but not suflnciently to rise in the cost of living.
The
offset the steep
island territories of Lee-
wards and Windwards were particularly affected by uncertainty over the debt-ridden Leeward Islands .\ir Transport (LIAT), purchased in 1973 by the Cnun Line, a British package-vacation firm that collapsed in August 1974. In St. Vincent the independent one-man
majority government of James F. Mitchell fell in September following the resignation of Ebenezer T. Joshua and his wife. Ivy. Joshua, the deputy premier
and minister of finance, accused Mitchell of brineing St.
Vincent to the "edge of bankruptcy."
In May elections. Premier John Compton of St. Lucia and his United Workers' Party were returned to power with a three-seat majority, fewer than expected. Seven out of the 17 seats at stake went to the
opposition St. Lucia Labour Party. Black power elements in Dominica were increasingly active, holding
antiwhite and antitourist demonstrations. After tacks on tourists, including one murder.
Deputy
at-
Pre-
mier Patrick John announced that the government would stamp out antiwhite racism. The island's newest hotel closed
An ambush of Portuguese troops in Mozambique produces classic response: disperse
—
tal
none of these measures could be applied easily among the area's nomadic inhabitants. (See Agriculture
AND Food Supplies:
|
I
Special Report.)
I
Investigations by a team of Oxford and Cambridge University scientists into the history- of the Thar, or
i
|
Great Indian Desert, showed that desert conditions) should not be regarded as stable over long periods of
'
Goudie reported the discovery, in Gujarat, eastern Punjab, and Rajasthan, of an extensive serir time. A. S.
in prehistoric times. In
tional authorities concerned,
;
\
pasture management, and encouragement of ara: farming using high-yielding strains of grain, thougii
available to scientists of
sponse, in the form of remedial measures by the na-
'
to help prevent for,
the danger had bi much time and mor had been spent extinguishing the naturally occurn fires that were actually a necessary part of the foriecology. (See Forestry.)
of
nations, but so far re-
;
'
symbol
overstressed, to the point where
sandbanks in coastal waters, types of forest cover, the pattern of lands used for cultivation, or even the extent of land afflicted by exceptional drought. Its information was immediately all
the
of "fossil sand dunes." Excavations revealed burn soils
beneath these, with pottery surviving as evident
human occupation on
become
relatively well-watered land
modem times the dunes had under a hea\'y vegetation of gr.i=" Increased rainfall, now around 2$ •
stabilized
and acacia
trees.
instead of
the
10
in.
considered critical
for
du-
formation, was believed responsible for this amelior tion, although changing agricultural and pastoral pra. tices
A
probably also played a significant part.
problem
in
land conservation was reported
frc-
the Northern Jarrah forests of Western .^ustrali
where a light tree cover of Eucalyptus invited clc.i: ance for productive pastures. The underlying saproli: rock was very saline, and removal of the forest. whi> had its own self-contained soil-water system, led an influx of salty waters that in turn checked ih growth of useful grasses. Similar problems were r ticipated as strip mining for bauxite ores through the state forests, where mineral been granted on an ill-advisedly lavish scaU mining leases provided for restoration of sm '
•
It
,
'
and vegetation, this might present major technical problems over such potentially saline lands. In Ireland and Finland rising world fuel prices gave impetus to the harvesting of peat as an industrial fuel. The world reserve of this remarkable surface fuel, which consists of plant remains that have failed to decay because of prevailing sodden conditions, was
Justice Department, the states of Minnesota, Michi-
287
gan, and Wisconsin, and five environmental groups.
Environment
estimated at 200,000,000,000 tons, fully dried. Allow-
ordered an immediate end to the dumping; and the
was equiva-
plant closed for two days before the order was stayed.
ing for differences in calorific value, this
Some
67,000 tons of ground taconite rock were dis-
charged into the lake daily. Residues had been found in the
Duluth water supply, and the
plaintiffs
claimed
they contained elements similar to those causing can-
among
cer
asbestos workers.
A
U.S. district judge
lent to 100,000,000,000 tons of oil, or all the world's
In June a federal appeals panel ruled that evidence
oil reserves. The Irish State Peat Board, which was already exploiting 130,000 ac. of bogs by highly mechanized methods, decided to extend production by another 40,000 ac. to meet, over-
of
known proven
all,
nearly one-third of the national energy require-
an immediate health hazard was
insufficient
ployers.
The
ruling virtually assured
that Reserve
could continue dumping in the lake during the
mated three and a half
to five years
to
em-
justify closing the plant, one of the area's chief
needed
esti-
to convert
ment. Land conservation was written into the pro-
to disposal
gram.
A substantial bottom layer of peat was left for mixing with the mineral soil below, which was drained to provide extensive areas of permanent pasture. Water Conservation. Floods on several continents
As part of the UN Man and the Biosphere (MAB) program, a symposium held in Delhi, India, highlighted the problems raised by waterweeds in tropical water conservation. By ensuring constant supplies of
demonstrated man's failure to come to terms with the varying incidence of rainfall. In January exceptionally heavy rainstorms struck eastern Australia, with Brisbane recording 25 in. of rain within 72 hours. Freak high tides, associated with Cyclone Wanda, checked normal outflow of rivers to the sea, and vast areas were flooded, rendering thousands of people homeless. In the adjoining state of New South Wales over a million cattle and sheep were drowned, and losses were estimated at U.S. $240 million. Following days of nonstop rain, vast areas of central Australia, normally an arid desert, became a great inland sea.
clear water, often enriched
In January there was also serious flooding in Kufra,
j
a region in southeast
and
in
March
Libya that
is
normally desert,
severe flooding over seven Brazilian
lizers,
on land.
irrigation
by the residues of fertischemes provide ideal habitats for The most serious pest,
rapidly growing vegetation.
the water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes, originated in
South America but had since spread to most tropical countries. This and similar weeds check the desired slow flow of irrigation water, compete with semiaquatic crops such as rice for nutrients, and interfere with navigation, fishing, and bathing. The symposium considered many means of combating these persistent, quick-growing weeds, including chemical herbicides, mechanical clearance, and biological enemies such as insects and fungi. The most effective measures appeared to be the planned, but temporary, drying-out of irrigation canals and the encouragement of weed-
I
states caused
widespread
loss of life. In
August ex-
I
jceptionally
heavy monsoon
rains along the
Himalayan
ranges resulted in exceptional flooding in Pakistan,
and Bangladesh. In the west the Indus burst its banks near Nawabshah, Pak., and overwhelmed (great expanses of low-lying ground that were normally 'protected by extensive embankments linked to irrigation schemes. In the east the tributaries of the Ganges were estimated to have flooded half of the land sur-
jindia,
face of Bangladesh. Similar overflows struck
Burma,
where the Irrawaddy broke its banks, and Thailand and the Philippine Islands were also affected by floods. In East Africa concern was expressed over the risk to water supplies inherent in the large-scale application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides to land that
eating species of
A
fish.
management problem arose in the Palm Coast development in northern Florida, where serious water
the International Telephone and Telegraph Corp. was
sponsoring a program of marshland reclamation
in-
volving 92,000 ac. of swamps. The intention was to drain the area intensively by open canals, which would also serve for landscaping, fishing, and boating.
The
project was opposed by the Florida state authori-
who valued the marshland as a wilderness region and feared pollution of coastal recreation and fishing ties,
waters.
The
increasing prosperity of the oil-rich but arid
states of the Persian
Gulf led
to
unusual developments
jminimal water supplies.
At Abu Dhabi, for example, a U.S. team by James Riley of the University of Arizona set up an Arid Lands Research Centre. One successful project used fresh water, obtained by the desalination of seawater and enriched with chemicals, in large greenhouses. To maintain humidity and lower temperatures, which often reached 100° F outside, the air circulating in the greenhouses was sucked in through curtains of waste water from the desalination plant. Growth in this controlled environment was so rapid that the resulting fresh vegetables and fruit could be marketed at prices competitive with imports. A reduction of rainfall in northern Europe made
Pollution of Lake Superior by iron-ore wastes led to what Russell E. Train, head of the U.S. Environmen-
of critical importance.
A
around Lake Victoria, a large but shallow body whoseshores are shared by Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. Rising
jdrained
toward inland lakes.
world prices
made
it
critical area lay
profitable for peasant farmers to
ibuy expensive imported chemicals to raise crop yields.
Residues inevitably went downstream to the lake, where they threatened the valuable fishing industry.
The
persistent insecticide
to protect the ie.^s
toxic
DDT,
which had been used
cotton crop, was being superseded by
compounds such
as endosulfan, which could
be applied through ultra-low- volume sprayers needing
in irrigation.
led
the planning of future freshwater supplies a matter
j
Protection Agency, called a "classic confrontation" {between economic and environmental interests. After
jtal
ithree
years of effort by the federal government had Reserve Mining Co. from discharg-
pailed to stop the
ing waste from Jake, suit
its
Silver Bay, Minn., plant into the
was brought against the company by the
The British Water Resources Board published its long-term strategy in January. In the U.S. the Environmental Protection Agency or-
dered a nationwide study of drinking water after traces of organic chemicals identified as possibly carcinogenic were found in the New Orleans, La., water (HERBERT L. EDLIN) supply.
Xakuru town would not foul the 300 young Kenyans, organized by the International Student Movement, removed the town rubbish dump from the lake neighbourhood. In May the Wildlife Conservation Organization of Ethiopia arranged to move as many Swayne's hartebeest (Alcelaplius buselaphus swaynei) as possible from Sankalle in the central plains, when they were endangered by pastorahsts and mechanized farming, to Awash national park and to Xechisar, where a n.i tional park was proposed. Ninety hartebeest wer moved to Awash and 120 to Xechisar. The operatiu was completed with only seven casualties. An increase to 200 of the walia ibex (Capra ibex walie) in Ethiopia's Semien national park was retreated sewage from
lake w'ater. In
May
ported, chiefly as a result of better control of poaching.
From Arabia came
{Oryx an electrode ciiamber is subjected Fish
in
to various pollutants
that cause
it
to "cough,"
Wildlife. Anxiety over the continued existence of
and
birds of prey
efforts to assure their survival con-
300 eagles, mostly golden eagles, be electrocuted yearly by power trans-
tinued. In the U.S.
a normal gill-clearing process to remove debris that has settled on the gills. A polygraph
were said to
indicates the rate
transferred from Minnesota and the
coughing. Such fish might be used as ''watchdogs" to monitor of
the
the pollution levels of lakes and streams.
mission
lines.
In Maine the only bald eagle nest con-
tained a single addled egg, but two fertile eggs were
In southern France the
young
raised.
Hawk
though
reports that the Arabian ory.t
had become so reduced by hunting
survival as a wild animal was unlikely,
Owen warned that all spectaci were in danger from collectors and lli and that even in Great Britain 20 the 56 resident species were threatened. The break u
Society (FPS), D. F. lar butterflies
butterfly trade,
i
Great Britain the osprey restoration project of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was again successful, with ten pairs raising 21 young. Increased efforts were made to bring the traffic in captive wild birds under control. On May 4 customs officials at London Airport intercepted an illegal consignment from Thailand of five black-winged kites {Elanus caeruleus) and five shikra hawks [Astur
that he
One
kite
and two shikras died but the
August the International Council for Bird Preservation, at its world conference in Canberra, Austr., drew attention to the "massive and widespread abuses to wild birds and their populations" from the traffic in captured birds. All governments especially those of Thailand, Singapore, and Great Britain (on behalf of Hong Kong) were urged to take prompt and effective measures to reduce this traffic, and to ratify the Washington Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. By October, 47 nations had signed the convention, but only the U.S., Nigeria, Switzerland, Togo, and Tunisia had ratified it.
—
—
It
to the arrest of Charles G. Sibley, a respected profes-
sor of ornithology at Yale University,
had purchased the
illegally
who
claimed
gathered eggs
loi
research purposes.
Scant help for the world's dwindling whale stock could be found in the decisions of the 26th session ui the International Whaling Commission, held in LonJune. For the first time, geographic consideraand the size of whales killed were taken intci account in fixing annual quotas formerly numberhad been the sole criterion but the ten-year moratorium on commercial whaling, considered urgenth necessary at the 1972 Stockholm conference, was
don
in
tions
—
—
again rejected. In September the International Union for Const vation of Nature
(lUCN)
called for drastic
i
measun
against elephant poaching and illegal traffic in
ivor;.
which together threatened the survival of the Afric:. elephant. The imposition of minimal penalties, th. subornation of those charged with enforcing controls and the high price of ivory were blamed. With llu-
from the FPS, lUCN had sent Paul Leyhausen, chairman of the cat group of its Survi\ Service Commission, to the small island of Iriom'i aid of a grant
Ryukyus, Japan, to investigate the situatiui. newly discovered Iriomote cat, Leyhausen found urgent need for protection of the cat and alsi reported a dwarf pig, either a new species or a new in the
In Queensland, Austr., the brindled rat-tail wallaby (Onychogalea fraenata), long thought to be extinct, was rediscovered. Five species of fish new to science were reported when a mobile barge oil rig was brought to the surface off the northwest coast of Australia. On May 16 the Bia national park, formerly part of the Bia South forest reserve, was established in Ghana
of
and black and white colobus monkeys, chimpanzee, giant forest hog, Red River hog, elephant, and a wealth of birds. Lake Nakuru national park in Kenya was enlarged from 15,000 to over 50,000 ac. With the assistance of a donation of more than $400,000 from the World Wildlife Fund, the Kenya national parks administration had bought large tracts around the lake inhabited by dcfassa waterbuck, Bohor and Chanler's reedbuck, leopard, black rhinoceros, black and white colobus monkeys, and rock hyrax. The West German government provided funds for a sewage farm so that un-
Urban
to protect the olive, red,
al-
survival in captivity seemed assured. In an Oryx, the journal of the Fauna Preservati"[
its
article in
of a British ring of traffickers in rare birds' eggs
bandius).
Episcopal Church: Religion
leiicoryx)
its
Trust reported that helicopter training flights prevented the nesting of golden, short-tailed, and bonelli eagles in gorges. In
others were returned to Thailand and released. In
see
that
the
subspecies of the wild boar (Stis scrofa). Subsequent!) was declared a national park.
half of Iriomote
(C. L. BOYLF.
See
also Agriculture and Food Supplies; Cities Affairs; Energy; Fisheries; Life Sciences.
[3S5.D; S34.C.2.a;
anc
724.A]
Encyci.op.cdia Britannica Films. The House of Man Pari II— Our Crowded Environment (1969); Problems f Conservation Forest and Range (1969); Problems of Co, servation— Minerals (1969); Problems ol Conservation Water (1969); The Garbage Explosion (1970); Problems Conservation Our Natural Resources (1970); Problems Conservation Soil ( 1970) Problems ol Conservation II lije (1970); A Field Becomes a Town (1970); The Agini Lakes (1971); Turn off Pollution (1971); Poison Phi>«j
Budget recoipli Budgal oulloyt Acluol lurplui or daflcit
{—
I
budgetary decisions. The president's budget message to Congress was only a set of requests that were subject to a vortex of political forces in the House and Senate. Congress itself lacked integrated control over
made
the various appropriations bills that
their
way
through its standing committees, with consequences that were sometimes surprising. In June, however. Congress took a giant step toward a more efficient way of processing the budget. It passed a bill creating
both the House and the Senate to oversee expenditures and revenues as a whole. It also established a budget office to provide
new budget committees
with the sort of expert knowledge that the executive branch of the government has in the OSice of Management and Budget. It changed the starting
from July 1 to beginning in 1976 and set up a procedure
date of the government's fiscal year 1
two houses could veto impoundments of funds by the president. The president would have to submit his budget message to Congress by February 15 rather than January 20. Japan. The chief concern of economic policy in Japan in 1974 was inflation. The upward spiral began in 1972 and was exacerbated by the rise in oil prices under which
late in
either of the
1973. In presenting the fiscal
to the Diet, Minister of
1974 budget
Finance Takeo Fukuda said
would be "a year of
that 1974
for Japan."
trial
The
fiscal 1974 (April 1, 1974-March 31, 1975) heavy restraints on government spending. Major public works programs were curtailed, and the scale of projects for government-owned railways and telecommunications was trimmed. On the other hand, expenditures on social security programs were to increase, since these merely redistributed income without generating new demand for goods. This restrictive budget was accompanied by a tight monetary policy.
budget for called for
Changes were also made in the tax structure to reduce the burden on wage and salary workers. The personal income tax was reduced, while the corporation income tax and certain excise taxes were increased. The effect of these policies was to reduce domestic demand for goods while stepping up exports particularly to less developed and Communist countries. The formula did not succeed in overcoming Japan's inflation, although it did produce a recession with
—
rising
unemployment
tries.
Particularly hard hit were the electrical, con-
struction,
the
GNP
and textile would show
as in other industrialized coun-
industries. It little
for the first time since
ernment it
means escaped
was expected that
or no real increase in 1974,
World War
about compiling
II.
But
as the gov-
7%
was low com-
other countries. trade surplus of
GNP, The
West Germany reported a record
DM.
25.2 billion, or nearly
for the first six
3%
of the
months of 1974. some neighbouring
finance minister criticized
West Germany to They complained, he said, that
countries for their efforts to get
trade surplus.
cut
its
the
German export
drive
was cutting
into their
mar-
kets abroad. Apel countered that these countries were
not losing their markets because of Bonn's policy but because of their
own
inflationary policies,
which were running up the prices of
The government's restrictive money supply actually shrank
—
stability
their exports.
financial
policy
— the
second quarter growing unem-
in the
had admittedly led to ployment, which was most severe in the construction industry. Overall, however, unemployment stood at
of the year
only about 2.3% of the labour force. The 1974 budget was expected to be in deficit by to $5 billion. A tax cut due to take effect January 1 would raise the deficit to nearly $5 billion in 1975, but would add more than $5 billion to total purchasing power. It was designed to offset the effects of inflation on persons in the lower- and middle-income brackets and give stimulus to the domestic economy, which had
$4
not shared in the prosperity of the export industries.
Toward
the end of the year, as
unemployment con-
tinued to mount, the government determined on a
more expansionary policy and the budget deficit for 1975 was reestimated at nearly $10 billion. United Kingdom. The critical state of Britain's economy in 1974 caused much uncertainty among economic policymakers. Like other Western countries, the U.K. was faced with two dangers runaway inflation on the one hand and rising unemployment on the other. A Labour government took ofiice in March after winning a narrow victory over the Conservatives. A second election in October kept Labour in office by another narrow margin. These economic and political uncertainties were reflected in the three successive budgets introduced in March, July, and November. The first budget was based on estimates that supplies of most goods would be short because of the slowdown in the first part of the year, when industry was put on :
a three-day
workweek
in
response to the
oil crisis.
The
1975,
chancellor of the Exchequer, concerned at the danger
continued to regard inflation as the main threat.
of inflation, brought in a budget intended to restrain
set
The new
its
budget for
inflation, the rate of
pared with the double-digit inflation in other industrial countries. In contrast to the trade deficits of most
in
itself
October
Introducing the draft budget for 1975, Apel said government intended to continue past antiinflationary policies. While the country had by no that the
fiscal
minister, Masayoshi Ohira, anSeptember that the next budget would larger than the 1974 budget in monetary terms. Since the general price level would have increased by perhaps more than 20% the predominant view among Japanese economists was that this would hold the nation's real economic growth rate to a low
demand.
level in fiscal 1975.
and raised social insurance benefits. The benefits to consumers were somewhat offset by big price increases
finance
It
increased taxes on various consumer goods,
nounced
in
including tobacco, gasoline, and beverages; raised in-
be about
20%
come
,
West Germany. The
vicissitudes of
oil,
inflation,
and unemployment fell lightly upon the West German economy. In his budget speech on September 18 Finance Minister Hans Apel boasted to the Bundestag that
"we
are the country with the lowest rate of price
increase, with the fewest days lost in strikes, with the
highest currency reserves, with one of the world's best
systems of social security, with one of the highest wage levels in the Western world, and at the same time with a high level of employment."
taxes on higher-income groups; and increased
the tax burden on corporations.
At the same time the budget sought to hold down the cost of living so as not to trigger off a round of wage increases. this
end
it
Toward
increased subsidies to food and housing
for nationalized industries
(30%
in electricity,
25%
15% for rail freight, and up to 20% in telecommunications). Companies in the private sector, however, were given little opportunity to raise their prices under the tight system of price controls. In July the government announced a new budget, this one intended to stimulate the economy rather than to deflate it. The major danger now was seen as unemployment rather than inflation. The new budget in steel,
Government Finance
332
Greece
canceled out
much
was designed
It
of the effect of the previous one.
to stimulate
demand and
to lighten
the tax burden on corporations so as to encourage
business expansion. It reduced sales and excise taxes
by about as much as the March budget had increased them. Large employers of labour in regions of high
unemployment were given special tax relief. Still a third budget was announced in mid-November, a month after the new election had kept the Labour government in power. This budget was largely neutral as between deflating demand on the one hand and stimulating it on the other. What it did was to shift resources
in Parliament and he formed a new government. Th. new budget, presented in November, repeated th main proposals of the May budget but reduced tht federal lax burden on the oil and mining industries while increasing the cut in personal income taxes The aim was to deal with inflation and slower economic growth through tax cuts, restricted govern ment expenditure, and by giving stimulus to privar
capital investment.
(francis
s.
pierce
See also Economics; Economy, World; Exchange and Payments, International; Taxation.
[S34.G; S3S.B.1 and 4; 543. B]
from the personal consumption of the
public to business. Chancellor of the Exchequer Denis
Healey (see Biography) told Parliament that he hoped to increase the annual rate of economic growth by 2% between the second half of 1974 and the first half of 1975. One effect of the budget was to increase
the Balkan Peninsula. Area:
tionalized industries, amounting to $2.4 billion a year, were to be eliminated gradually. In addition, there would be increases in local tax rates. Business firms were given some relief from strict price controls. The hoped-for cut in the corporation tax was not forthcoming, but companies were required to pay less tax on inventory profits. The government hoped that the trade unions would adhere to the so-called social contract and forbear pressing for higher wages. (See Industrial Relations.) France. The government of Pres. Valery Giscard d'Estaing, which took office in May, addressed itself to a chronic inflation that seemed to be growing worse. In the first quarter of 1974 the general price level had risen at an annual rate of well over 10%. In June the government announced a series of anti-inflationary measures that differed from previous ones in being directed at business expansion. Earlier measures had
50,944 sq.mi. (131,944 sq.km.). of which the mainland
sought to reduce demand without discouraging business investment, in line with the policy of fostering a high rate of economic growth. To that end efforts had
been made to slow down the growth of the money supply and to control bank credit while making funds available for long-term capital expansion.
The measures introduced
in
June included an
18%
increase in corporation taxes, tighter credit controls,
and lower tax write-offs on investments. Personal income taxes were also raised at the highest levels. The new taxes were expected to bring increased revenues of Fr. 8 billion. An additional Fr. 1 billion was to be found by trimming government expenditures for the year (on items other than public works).
Canada.
became a major political issue in consumer price index in June standing
Inflation
1974, with the
11.4% above
the level of a year earlier. In
Liberal government of Prime Minister Pierre fell
when
ing
March
May
the
Trudeau
parliamentary opposition passed a motion of no confidence in the government's budget policies. The proposed budget for the fiscal year endcontrols
his
1975, had rejected
31,
and certain
fiscal
wage and price measures demanded by the
opposition parties. It had proposed a reduction of
personal income taxes together with a 10% surtax on corporation income, higher excise taxes, a removal of the
12%
sales tax
on clothing, and abolition of
taxes on machinery, bicycles, and buses.
centre
New Democrats
ment United Kingdom
—the
The
left-of-
joined with the right-of-centre
Progressive Conservatives to bring
tee
republic of Europe. Greece
occupies the southern part of
subsidies for the na-
The
the cost of living slightly.
Great Britain:
Greece A
down
the govern-
lime that a Canadian government had
first
fallen in a vote
on
its
budget. In national elections
held in July, Trudeau's party
won
a large majority
accounts
for 41,227 sq.mi. Pop. (1972 est.): 8,889.000. Cap. and largest city: Athens (pop., 1971, 867,000). Language: Greek. Rt ligion: Orthodox. Presidents in 1974, Phaidon Giziki,
and, from
December
18 (ad interim), Michael Stas-
sinopoulos; prime ministers, Adamantios .\ndroutso-
poulos and, from July 24, Konstantinos Karamanlis. For Greece 1974 was a momentous year, culminating in the restoration of democracy, the free elections since
first
fully
1964, and popular rejection of
the former monarchy.
The New Junta. The downfall on Nov.
25, 1973,
of Georgios Papadopoulos, toppled by military police chief
Brig.
Gen. Demetrios loannidis and his new
junta, generated a curious climate of euphoria
During
among
optimism government under Adamantios Androutsopoulos, who had served Papadopoulos as minister of finance and of interior, Androutsopoulos' first public statement dispelled hope of political evolution, however. Nonconformist newspapers were shut down and, though censorship was officially lifted, editors received daily orders from a military police major. Promises that hundreds arthe people of Greece.
loannidis
pieced
together
this spell of
a
rested after the revolt at the National Technical Uni-
versity of Athens would be freed were belied
and the notorious concentration Yiaros Island was reopened. arrests,
by
fresh
camp on
Konstantinos Karamanlis tal(es tiie oath of office as prime minister of Greece, replacing tiie military regime. Gen. Phaidon Gizil'ing to Europe for players. Soviet players were not permitted to go to another country, but the North Americans raided the national teams of Sweden, Finland, and Czechoslovakia. The Toronto Maple Leafs of the NHL recruited Borje Salming, one of Sweden's leading defensemen. In his rookie NHL season, Salming ranked among the four or five best rear guards. The Toronto Toros of the encouraged two impressive players, Vaclav Nedomansky and Richard Farda, to defect from the Czechoslovak national team, and the Winnipeg Jets of the began the 1974-75 season with four Swedes and two Finns in their lineup. The Philadelphia Flyers won the Stanley Cup to become the first so-called expansion team to capture wins, three losses,
WHA
WHA
WHA
Table
I.
NHL
Final Slandingi,
Won EAST DIVISION
Loll
Tie
1973/74
Table
III.
World Amateur
Hockey Championships
Ice
Goals
Woo
lost
3 4
Finland
9 7 5 4
4
Poland
1
7
1
8
GBOUP A U.S.S.R.
Ciechoslovokio
Sw«den
EasI
the
Germany
major team prize
in the
Tied Gools Qgoinsl
64
18
57
3 2
38 34 22
19 34 39 64
1
21
71
1
1
NHL. The
Pis.
18
U 11
10 4 3
Flyers, led
by
combative Bobby Clarke at centre and stingy Bernie Parent in the goal, beat the Boston Bruins four games to two in the final round. Philadelphia had been added to the
NHL
in 1967.
The Kansas City Scouts and tals
joined the
membership
NHL
the
Washington Capi-
in 1974, increasing the league's
and causing a radical rearrangement The former East and West alignment
to 18
of the divisions.
was broken up into four divisions
:
the Lester Patrick,
Conn Smythe, the James Norris, and the Charles Adams. Massive realignment also occurred in the WHA. The addition of the Indianapolis Racers and Phoeni.x Roadrunners boosted league membership from 12 the F.
teams to 14. The
WHA
the Eastern, Western,
regrouped in three divisions, and Canadian. franchises
WHA
arch-rivals; in this, although Jiri Holik
opened the
scoring for the Czechoslovakians, the tide soon flowed o relentlessly the other way and the Soviets won 3-1. ,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
Sweden (third) and Finland (fourth) each had a match result reversed for fielding a player who failed drug
one of these reversed results kept
continued to fold in one community and resurface
to pass a
The New Jersey Knights abandoned Cherry Hill, N.J., to become the San Diego Mariners, and the Los Angeles Sharks left California to be reincarnated in Detroit as the Michigan Stags, The Houston Aeros won the Avco Cup, representative of the WH.'\ championship, defeating the Chicago Cougars in the final series four games to none. Gordie Howe, a distinguished right wing for 25 years in the NHL, was a Houston star at the age of 45. Howe came out of retirement to play with his two sons, 19-year-old Mark and 20-year-old Marty. The Hershey Bears defeated the Providence Reds four games to one in the championship series in the American League. In their last season in the Western League, the Phoenix Roadrunners beat the Portland Buckaroos four games to one for the title in that conference. The Dallas Black Hawks made the 4-1
Poland above the bottom team. East Germany, which was relegated to Group B, The three outstanding players of the tournament were Vladislav Tretyak, Soviet goalkeeper, Lars-Erik Sjoberg, Swedish defenseman, and Vaclav Nedomansky, veteran Czecho-
margin unanimous at the minor league professional level, defeating the Oklahoma City Blazers by that result in the Central Pro final. (r. h. beddoes) European and International. Ice hockey at amateur and professional levels in Europe was stimulated in the 1973-74 season by the formation and example of the London Lions, a strong professional club based at Wembley, Eng., financed by the owners of the Detroit Red Wings, and staffed by highly rated Canadian, U.S., and Swedish players. Their 71 matches in nine countries they won Si, lost 12, and tied 6 inspired the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) to create a European League, to start in 1974-75, with
successive year and seemed likely to remain on the
elsewhere.
test;
slovakian forward.
The
teams in Group B, moved up to Group A after winseven games. The order after the U.S. was Yugoslavia, West Germany, Japan, The Netherlands, Romania, Norway, and Austria, the last two being relegated to Group C. Switzerland and Italy gained U.S., leader of the eight
at Ljubljana, Yugos.,
ning
all its
promotion
to
Group B by finishing first and second, Group C, played at Grenoble, France.
respectively, in
Bulgaria finished third, followed by Hungary, France,
China, Australia, and North Korea. Canada, winner of the world
title
sidelines until the
most times, stayed out for a
fifth
championship should be declared
each playing the other twice. After an unimpressive start the U.S.S.R. retained the title, its 11th victory in 12 years. Its early 7-2 defeat by
open to professionals. Djurgarden of Sweden won the international club competition for the Ahearne Cup. Moscow Dynamo was runner-up. (howard bass) Field Hockey. In 1974 The Netherlands added the first women's World Cup to the men's World Cup, which it had won the previous September; Spain won the men's European Cup, defeating both The Netherlands and West Germany; Frankfurt 1880 took the European Club Cup for the fourth year in succession; Pakistan defeated India in the final of the Asian Games, winning the replay (2-0) that followed a 1-1 draw. Although the two world titles were held in Europe, the victory of Pakistan in a seven-nation international tournament at Christchurch, N.Z., from a field that included the world champions was a sign that the Asians, former world leaders, were still a force to be reckoned with. The women's World Cup, the first world championship for women, was held in France at Mandelieu un-
Czechoslovakia (runner-up) looked decisive, but the Soviet players recovered well in their other matches and all hinged on the second encounter between these
tion (FIH). Because of absentee countries the field was not fully representative, but competition was
—
the
e.xpectation
—
that
the
continent's
leading
would enter and amateurs be permitted
to
clubs
compete
with professionals.
The 41st world amateur championships were conby 22 nations during March and April. The leading teams competed for the title in Group A
tested six
at Helsinki, Fin.,
der the auspices of the International
Hockey Federa-
Philadelphia goalie
Boston shot ^^"l^^ ifi Stanley Cup action,
Honduras A
Amerbounded by
republic of Central
ica,
Honduras
is
Nicaragua, El Salvador, Guatemala,
and
the
the
Caribbean Sea, Ocean.
Pacific
Area: 43,277 sq.mi. (112,088 sq.km.). Pop. (1974 est.): 2.653,857. including 90% mestizo. Cap. and largest city: Tegucigalpa (pop., 1974, 303,879). Language: Spanish; some Indian dialects.
Religion:
Roman
Catholic.
President
in
1974, Gen. Oswaldo Lopez .Arellano.
Honduras' most devastating natural calamity
in the
20th century occurred Sept. 19 and 20, 1974, when Hurricane Fifi struck the north coast, killing at least 5,000 persons, damaging or destroying 182 communities through flooding and landslides, and leaving more than 150,000 homeless and many on the verge
The valleys drained by the Aguan, Lean, and Ulua rivers were hardest hit. One town, Choloma, lost 2,800 inhabitants when they were buried by an avalanche of debris that left the community under 12 ft. of mud. Disaster aid was rapidly forthcoming from the International Red Cross and through private efforts in the Americas and Europe, of starvation.
U.S. shot on goal
world ice hockey play. The Americans beat Austria 6-0 in this in
match
to score their
fifth straight victory.
keen among the ten competing nations, the semifinals and final all being decided by scores of 1-0. In the final, The Netherlands did not score its goal against Argentina until very near the end of extra time. The small number of contestants in the tournament was a reminder of the rift between the FIH, the international controlling authority of men's hockey, and the
Women's Hockey Asso-
International Federation of
which 36 national associations and women's sections of national associations were affiliated. The rift centred on the organization of international women's hockey tournaments. ciations, to
The FIH
celebrated
its
50th anniversary with a
ranked as that nation's best performance ever in international competition, though it had been runner-up to Pakistan in the first World Cup tournament at Barcelona in 1971. This time, in Madrid, the Spaniards defeated The Netherlands, the world champions, 1-0 in the semifinals and West Germany, the Olympic champions, by the same score in the final. In the series between the four home countries, Wales had the best record of the four, defeating England, Ireland, and Scotland in the same season for the first time. England defeated Ireland but lost to Scotland and Wales. The championship of the four, however, remained incomplete because the game between Ireland and Scotland was canceled. The England women's team had a mixed season, losing to New Zealand and The Netherlands, beating Scotland and Wales, and drawing with Ireland and the U.S. A branch of hockey achieving widespread growth and popularity was the indoor game, pioneered by
Finance. Monetary unit: lempira, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a par value of 2 lempiras to U.S. $1 (free rate of 4.63 lempiras i\ sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank; (June 1974) IJ.S. $34,030,000; (June 1973) U.S. $44,860,000. Budget (1974 est.) balanced at 329 million lempiras. Gross national
result:
(3)
(1)
in
West Germany;
Switzerland;
1974 with the following (2) The Netherlands;
(4) Belgium;
(5)
Scotland;
(6)
Austria.
After years of patient preparation, the International Hockey Rules Board (men) and the Women's International
and
Food Supplies
Hockey Rules Board finally agreed on a comof rules to come into force at the start of (r. l. Hollands)
mon code
the 1974-75 season.
Holland: lee Netherlands,
The
HONDUR.\S Education. (1972) Primary, pupils 412.0S0, teachers 11.354; secondary (1970), pupils 28.949; vocational (1970), pupils 7,089: teacher training (1970), students 3,801; secondary, vocational, and teacher training, teachers (1968) 2,689; higher (1973), students 9.204,
Championship took place
see Agriculture
Damage to the economy was severe. Some 60% of the banana crop, the nation's leading source of export
match between representative European and Asian teams in Brussels. The weather was unfriendly, the field very wet, and the result a 0-0 tie. Spain's victory in the European Cup in Madrid
West Germany and since practiced increasingly in most European countries. The first European Indoor
Hogs:
but poor roads, inadequate organization, and fuel shortages in Honduras slowed the assistance efforts.
[4S2.B.4.b.lvi]
teaching staff 533.
=
product: (1972) 1,576.000.000 lempiras; (1971) 1,467.000,000 lempiras. Money supply; (May 1974) 240,910,000 lempiras; (May 1973) 218.5 million lempiras. Cost of living (Tegucigalpa; 1970= 100): (June 1974) 128; (June 1973) 114. Foreign Trade. (1973) Imports 524.6 million lempiras; exports 473.5 million lempiras. Import sources (1972): U.S. 45%; Venezuela 8%; Japan 8%; Guatemala 5%. Export destinations (1972): U.S.
51%; West Germany 14%; Canada 9%. Main ex34%; coffee 20%: timber 17%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1972)
ports: bananas
5,700 km. (including 153 km. of Pan-American Highway). Motor vehicles in use (1971): passenger c.
13,800; commercial (including buses) 16,900. Railways (1972) 1,059 km. (mainly for banana plantations). Air traffic (1972): 174.5 million passengetkm.; freight 3.2 million net ton-km. Shipping (1973): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 57; gross tonnage 67.274. Telephones (Jan. 1973) 16,000. Radio
(Dec. 1972) 150,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1971) 25.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; 1972 in parentheses): corn c. 360 (c. 290); coffee c. 42 (c. 47); sorghum c. 42 (c. 40); sugar, raw value c. 90 (96); dry beans c. 58 (c. 32); bananas (1972) c. 1,366. (1971) c. 1,500; oranges (1972) c. 52, (1971) c. 50; cotton, lint (1972) c. 5, (1971) c. 2; beef and veal c. 43 (c. 41); timber (cu.m.; 1972) 4,400, (1971) 4.300. Livestock (in 000: 1972-73): cattle c. 1,628; pigs c. 740; chickens (1971-72) c. 7,300. Industry. Production (in 000; metric Ions; 1972): petroleum products 599; silver O.ll; gold (troy oi.; 1970) 2.5: lead ore (metal content; 19711 16; line ore (metal content; 1971) 20.8; electricity (eicluding most industrial production; kw-br.) 333,000. receivers
367
Horse Racing
Devastating effect of September's hurricane
Central America included inland scenes such as this in Honduras. The buildings of this town were either destroyed or buried in mud by the floodwaters. in
revenue, and
40%
half of the rice
of the cattle were lost. More than and corn, both staple items in the
Honduran diet, also were destroyed. The effect of Fifi on the economy would be felt into 1975, when exports were expected to decline by at least 23% and imports to rise by 10%, The blow fell on an already troubled economy that had never completely recovered from the effects of the war with El Salvador in 1969. That dispute remained unresolved, despite continuing efforts to restore diplomatic relations and reopen the border shared by the two nations. Until Honduras and El
Honduras imposed only
a 50 cent crate charge on
April 25, the Standard Fruit and Steamship Co. halted
and destroyed crates of bananas. In May the company did resume exports, but at one-third of normal output and with the exports going to new markets where the tax did not apply. (See Panama.) (allen d. bushong)
exports, cut production,
[974.B.l.b]
Horse Racing
Salvador resolved their differences, the strength of the Central American Common Market, from which
Thoroughbred Racing. United
Honduras withdrew in 1971, remained diluted. In January President Lopez announced a 15-year national development plan calling for cooperative agricultural communities to replace very large and very small landholdings, government support for collective bargaining, a minimum wage scale, gradual nationalization of the nation's forest resources (the most extensive in Central America), and an end to lucrative
highlighted the U.S. Thoroughbred racing season in
mining concessions
to foreign
companies. Investment
new industries, with carefully controlled government incentives, was an additional feature. The national development plan was highly popular among peasants and industrial workers. Landowners and some businesses had an opposite reaction, and there was even a threat on President Lopez' life. The in
agrarian reform segment of the plan, though drastic
by Central American standards, was mild. There was no proposal to expropriate holdings above a certain size; only idle or badly farmed land would be appropriated and redistributed, and the owners would be compensated with 20- to 30-year bonds. As the third largest exporter of bananas in the Western Hemisphere (after Ecuador and Costa Rica), Honduras joined a new union of banana-exporting nations. In
March
the union decided to impose an ex-
port tax of up to $1 per 40-lb. crate
on the producing companies. The companies retaliated, and though
States.
The
exploits
of Ruffian, Foolish Pleasure, Forego, and Chris Evert filly, and Foolish Pleawere undefeated. Forego, a competed in 13 consecutive of them. Chris Evert dominated
1974. Ruffian, a two-year-old sure, a two-year-old colt,
four-year-old stakes and
gelding,
won
eight
the three-year-old
filly division.
Locust Hill Farm's Ruffian, larger than 16 hands and daughter of Reviewer-Shenanigans, by Native Dancer, generated tremendous excitement with her sheer speed. She won by 15 lengths in her debut at Belmont Park late in May, equaling the 5^-furlong track record of 1 min. 3 sec. The Kentucky-bred filly won the Fashion Stakes in identical time and then swept to victory in three other stakes the Astoria, Sorority, and Spinaway before a hairline fracture of a phalanx bone in the right hind ankle sidelined her early in October after she had earned $134,073. Only one more race, the Selima Stakes at Laurel, had been under consideration for Rufifian, although many horsemen had been prodding trainer Frank Y. Whiteley, Jr., to start her against colts. Whiteley responded that he might do so in 1975.
—
—
Ruffian won her five races by an average margin of more than nine lengths and usually without being unHonduras, British: j J T c c 1 » u duly urged. In lu the Spmaway, her final start, she ran ^^^ Dependent States •
I.
1
1
min. 8J sec.) ever recorded by a two-year-old at Saratoga. the fastest six furlongs
{
1
none Kongsee
Dependent States
368
Horse Racing
John L. Greer's Foolish Pleasure CWhat A PleasureFool-Me-Not, by Tom Fool) launched his career with a victory at Hialeah early in April.
He
then
won
six
consecutive stakes, including the season-ending onemile
Champagne
ning margin was
at
Belmont Park
six lengths.
in
which
his win-
Foolish Pleasure also
annexed the Dover, Tremont, Sapling, Hopeful, and Cowdin stakes while competing at six race tracks.
Completely dominating his division, he was at his best at the end of his campaign. A Florida-bred colt, Foolish Pleasure amassed earnings of $284,595. Lazy F Ranch's Forego, which in time might be ranked with or above such predecessor geldings as Exterminator. Armed, and Kelso, was as versatile as he was huge. Carrying high weights all season, he won at distances varying from seven furlongs to two miles. Even in defeat he was not disgraced. The Kentuckybred son of Forli-Lady Golconda, by Hasty Road, outranked only by Secretariat during his three-year season in 1973. started 1974 by defeating persistent rival True Knight three consecutive times in Florida,
in the
Ruffian, Foolish Pleasure, Forego, and Chris Evert were crowned champions in their respective divisions conducted by the Daily Racing Form, National Turf Writers Association, and the Thoroughbred Racing Association. Forego won the ultimate honour as horse of the year and also was in the coordinated poll
named
the best sprinter.
Other award winners were: Darby Dan Farm's homebred Kentucky colt Little Current in the threeyear-old colt or gelding division; H. T. Mangurian, Jr.'s Florida-bred Desert Vixen, older filly or mare;
N. B. Hunt's homebred Kentucky
filly,
the four-year-
old Dahlia, grass horse; and Mrs. F. A. Clark's eight-
year-old
Chilean-bred
Gran Kan, steeplechaser or
hurdler. Laffit Pincay, Jr.,
was voted champion jockey
for
the second consecutive year, while other honours were
won by
apprentice jockey Chris McCarron, trainer
in the
Sherrill
Ward, and owner Dan Lasater, whose horses
caps. Forego
earned the most money for the second consecutive season. The 19-year-old McCarron. who had never ridden in a horse race until January 29, rode 547 winners in 1974, a new one-year record. There were several contenders in the three-year-old division, and Little Current gained the title chiefly through seven-length triumphs in the Preakness and
Donn, Gulfstream Park, and Widener handiwas then sent north by trainer Sherrill Ward and competed solely on New York tracks the remainder of the year. Forego won his first start in New York, the sevenfurlong Carter Handicap, and he was first in the Brooklyn Handicap at lA mi. three races later. He buffered three defeats and then finished the season by winning the H-mi. Woodward, the seven-furlong Vos-
burgh, and the 2-mi. Jockey Club Gold count for 1974 earnings of $545,086.
Cup
to ac-
Carl Rosen's Chris Carmie, by T. 'V. Lark)
won
only seven times,
stakes, but her average earn-
all in
Evert
(Swoon's
Son-Miss
four races while starting
was more than $75,000. The major reason for the high average was her victory over Miss ing per start
Musket in a $350,000 winner-take-all match race at Hollywood Park in July. Chris Evert, a slight underdog, took the lead at the break and then gradually pulled away to a 50-length decision over her floundering rival, negotiating the li mi. in 2 min. 2 sec. Chris Evert earlier had won the Triple Crown for her division, taking one half of the split Acorn Stakes, Miguel Rivera boots home Lillie Current to win the Belmont Stakes by seven lengths.
completed her season by racing against colts Travers and finishing a respectable third to Holding Pattern and Little Current.
later she
and the Mother Goose and Coaching Club American Oaks. She was defeated narrowly by Quaze Quilt in the Alabama at Saratoga early in .\ugust, and a week
Belmont Stakes. Cannonade scored
in the
Kentucky
Derby, a trouble-racked race that drew a record 23 starters. Other prominent three-year-olds were Agitate. Holding Pattern, and Stonewalk. Little Current was retired late in summer after suffering a leg injury. Desert Vixen, champion three-year-old filly of 1973, was slow to reach her best form. Her most important victories came in the Beldame and Matchmaker. Making her first start on turf, she lost narrowly to Admetus in the Washington (D.C.) International after setting the pace.
Dahlia, a 3-5 favourite, finished third in the International
Man
o'
after winning two other turf classics,
War and
the Canadian International
the
Cham-
pionship Stakes. These were Dahlia's only races in the U.S. after winning three of seven starts in the U.K.
and France. Canada. In
(joseph
c.
agrella)
1974 racing season replete with outstanding performances, some of the brightest stars a
emerged from the two-year-old vesque's
homebred L'Enjoleur,
division.
J.-L.
Le-
champions stakes in Can-
a son of
Buckpasser and Fanfreluche. won six ada and the prestigious Laurel Futurity in the U.S. to establish himself as one of the best juvenile runners in Canadian history. At sprint distances, however, W. P. Gilbride's Greek Answer was almost invincible. The colt's blazing speed carried him to victory in three Canadian stakes and in the rich ArlingtonWashington Futurity at Chicago. Stafford Farm's Royal Selari won two stakes in a brief but impressive spring campaign that marked him as a top prospect for the Canadian three-year-old classics in 1975. In Western Canada. Elmbrook Stable's Western Dangler established all-time .Mberta records for two-year-olds,
winning
five
consecutive stakes.
Outstanding among a
fine
crop of two-year-old
was Jim Dandy Stable's Ruthie's Run, by Outing Class. Slow to develop, she recorded four straight victories in the month of September, three of them in major stakes events. For the second consecutive year, the classic Queen's fillies
was won by a Stafford Farm Amber Herod splashed through a
Plate for three-year-olds colour-bearer.
sloppy track to victory in the 115th edition of the Plate, which carried a record purse of $148,525.
Amber Herod won
three stakes over the season but
had several strong
rivals
for divisional honours. A.
Minshall's western-bred Rushton's third in the Queen's Plate but
won
Corsair finished
the next leg of the
Canadian Triple Crown, the Prince of Wales Stakes at Fort Erie, and also captured top money in the Manitoba Derby at Winnipeg's Assiniboia rich
Downs. The final Triple Crown event, the Breeders' Stakes at Woodbine, went to Gardiner Farm's HayJig, a late-blooming son of Bolero. Jack Diamond's homebred Battling Craig compiled an outstanding stakes-winning record in western Canada and the United States, but in the British Columbia Derby at his home track, Vancouver's Exhibition Park, he was upset by an Eastern invader, Kinghaven Farm's Norland. Norland also won the Quebec Derby. Other contenders for the national three-year-old championship included G. C. Hendrie's Native Aid, the Queen's Plate runner-up and winner of two other stakes, and the TV Stable's Canadian Derby winner, Progressive Hope. In the latter part of the season, T. A. Morton's Lost Majorette rose to prominence among threeyear-old fillies with two major stakes victories and
maker's
also defeated
many
of the top three-year-old males.
D. Banks's Trudie Tudor, a Canadian champion at two in 1973, won four stakes events for fillies, including the prestigious Canadian Oaks at Woodbine. In the handicap division. Gardiner Farm had two Earlier,
leading performers, U.S.-bred Carney's Point, winner of two major turf events, and homebred Henry Tudor, winner of four stakes prizes in Canada and another in the U.S. Sam-Son Farm's U.S.-bred Selari Spirit used front-running tactics to capture four addedmoney distance events, and veteran homebred Fabe Count was a multiple stakes winner again for the Parkview Stable.
The $125,000 added Canadian International Championship, a triumphant finale to the great Secretariat's
career in 1973, in
1974.
was a showcase
for
champions again
The smashing winner of the one-mile-andturf event at Woodbine was Nelson
five-furlong
Bunker Hunt's magnificent four-year-old filly Dahlia. In adding the Championship to her record of major on both sides of the Atlantic, Dahlia deSnow Knight, 1974 winner Derby at Epsom, and other leading turf performers from France, West Germany, Chile, the United States, and Canada. victories
feated Windfields Farm's of the historic English
(eric
a.
astrom)
Europe and Australia, The undisputed hero of the 1973-74 National Hunt racing season in Britain was N. Le Mare's nine-year-old gelding. Red Rum. Trained by D. McCain and ridden by Brian Fletcher, he won the Grand National Steeplechase for the second year
maximum weight of 168 23 lb. more than he carried in 1973 and beating L'Escargot by sever\ lengths. Three weeks later he in succession, carrying the lb.
—
won
the Scottish
—
bury was won by Red Candle by a length from Red Rum, and the Whitbread Gold Cup Steeplechase by The Dikler. Proud Tarquin finished first in the Whitbread, but an objection against him for hampering The Dikler was sustained. R. Barry was National Hunt champion jockey. At the end of 1974 a scandal broke in France over the fixing of a 1973 hurdle race at Auteuil, carrying the large tierce betting pool, by a number of jockeys in the race who, it was alleged, had been bribed or intimidated by a racing mafia. Some arrests were made. On the flat in 1974, as in 1973, the fillies were distinctly
the colts.
Daniel Wildenstein's
four-year-olds trained and principally raced in France, were outstanding, the former superior to any other horse in Europe. Trained by Argentine-born Angel Penna and ridden by Y. Saint-Martin, Allez France won Europe's richest race, the Prix de I'Arc de Triomphe at Longchamp, from Comtesse de Loir; her other 1974 victories included the Prix Ganay, from Tennyson, and the Prix d'Harcourt. In three seasons Allez France won more than $1 million in stakes, a European record. Trained by M. Zilber, Dahlia, though always defeated by Allez France, was her nearest rival. She won the Grand Prix de SaintCloud from On My Way and, ridden by L. Piggott, won the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes at Ascot from Highclere (becoming the first horse to win the race twice since its inception in 1951). Dahlia also won the Benson and Hedges Gold Cup at York, and later went to the U.S., where she won the Man o' War Stakes, and to Canada, where she won the Canadian International Championship Stakes in record time.
Her
season's earnings of $1,206,705 surpassed
those of Allez France.
Grand National from Proud Tarquin
and became the only horse to win both races in the same season. At Cheltenham the Champion Hurdle was won by Lanzarote from Comedy of Errors; Pendil, the favourite, was brought down in the Gold Cup Steeplechase, which was won by the Irish horse Captain Christy from the previous year's winner, The Dikler. The Hennessy Gold Cup Steeplechase at New-
better than
AUez France and Nelson Bunker Hunt's Dahlia, both
In England, Queen Elizabeth
II's filly Highclere,
trained by W. Hem and ridden by J. Mercer, won the One Thousand Guineas from Polygamy and later
traveled to France to win the Prix de Diane (Oaks).
Polygamy won the Oaks from Furioso, just as she
on
to
a race in which
under her was making her challenge. Dibidale went win the Irish Oaks easily; then, after winning
Dibidale's
saddle unfortunately
slipped
Captain Christy clears J[;^ the
nh'i/»nhL'°Kn]H i Cheltenham Gold Cup.
370
Horse Racing
the Yorkshire Oaks, she jarred herself while training
Arc de Triomphe and had to be retired. The French colt Nonoaico won the Two Thousand Guineas in style; Snow Knight, trained by P. Nelson and for the
ridden by B. Taylor,
won
a
disappointing
Derby
(from Imperial Prince) and nothing else of imporwon the St. Leger for Lady Beaverbrook. Surprise of the classic season was the failure of Irish trainer Vincent O'Brien's Apalachee and Cellini, who had both been brilliant as two-year-olds. Giacometti also disappointed his trainer, H. Price, but was nevertheless second in the Two Thousand Guineas, third in the Derby, second in the St. Leger, tance. Bustino
and won the Champion Stakes. The French equivalents of the Two Thousand and One Thousand Guineas were won by Moulines from Mississipian and by Dumka from Hippodamia, respectively; the French Derby went to the outsider Caracolero, who beat the favourite. Marcel Boussac's Dankaro, winner of the Prix Lupin and the Prix Greffulhe; and the Prix Royal Oak (St. Leger was won by Busiris. Recupere won the Prix du Cadran, the French equivalent of the Ascot Gold Cup, from Lassalle, the previous year's winner. Sagaro won the Grand Prix de Paris from Bustino, and the Prix Vermeille went to Paulista, from Comtesse de Loir. The Irish Two Thousand and One Thousand Guineas were won by Furry Glen from Pitcaim and Gaily (trained by Hern) from Northern Gem; English Prince won the Irish Derby from Imperial Prince, and Mistigri the Irish St. Leger from Richard Grenville. Wohlgemuth won the ItaUan Derby, but the French colt Ribccourt won the Gran Premio d'ltalia from Wohlgemuth. Marduk won the German Derby and 1
St.
The Melbourne Cup was won by Think Big from Leilani and Captain Peri. Scale and Dayana.
(r. m.
Harness Racing. In two
liberation
)
superior
females,
the
five-year-old
mare Delmonica Hanover and three-year-old Handle With Care, humbled male oppoand scored the major triumphs of North Ameri-
trotting
pacing sition
filly
can harness racing
in
1974.
Delmonica Hanover, owned by W. Arnold Hanger and Delvin Miller and trained by Miller, defeated Europe's
best
trotting
horses
with
a
spectacular
stretch rush in the grueling 2,600-m. Prix d'Amerique
Vincennes in Paris in late January. She then returned to win the $200,000 Roosevelt International at li mi. for the second straight year at Roosevelt Race-
at
way in New York in July, was sold at auction for a record $300,000 in mid-November, and capped her most successful season by receiving harness horse of the year honours from the U.S. Trotting Association and the U.S. Harness Writers' Association. Delmonica Hanover ended the year with lifetime earnings of $709,799, making her the richest harness horse currently racing.
Though it is not unusual for a mare to hold supremacy among trotters, females almost never are dominant in pacing, and for a three-year-old filly to defeat the best older male pacers in the sport is a racing rarity. Handle With Care, which had won 17 races against
fillies
without defeat as a two-year-old,
stretched that unbeaten skein to 24 before losing to
Time but then resumed winning ways and concluded her season by winning the $59,165 Western Pace at Hollywood Park in Caliarch-rival Joanna's
fornia in world record time.
Leger.
coodwi.s
a year of worldwide feminine
Her mile
in
1
min. 54f
The duke of Norfolk's three-year-old Ragstone won the Ascot Gold Cup from Proverb and Lassalle
sec.
(the 1973 winner), but Proverb went on to win the
ord set by Albatross when that champion was a four-
Goodwood Cup and
the Doncaster Cup.
Buoy won
was the
fastest ever
by a
filly
or mare, and only
one-fifth of a second slower than the world race rec-
year-old.
Handle With Care also paced the third by a Standardbred, a 1 min.
the Yorkshire Cup, the Coronation Cup, from Dahlia,
fastest mile in history
Epsom, and the Princess of Wales's Stakes at Newmarket and was then sent to Australia. Boldboy won the Lockinge Stakes, Coup de Feu the Eclipse Stakes, and Ace of Aces the Sussex Stakes. Among the sprinters, Blue Cashmere beat Rapid River and Saritamer in a fine race for the Nunthorpe Stakes. Saritamer won the Cork and Orrery Stakes at Royal Ascot, the
54| sec. at Lexington, Ky., in a time
at
Newmarket July Cup, and Leading two-year-old
Ascot's
colts in
Diadem
Stakes.
England were Grundy
(Champagne Stakes); R. Tikkoo's
Irish colt Steel
Heart (Gimcrack Stakes, Middle Park Stakes, and Dewhurst Stakes), whose Irish trainer, D. Weld, was making a name for himself; Red Cross; and Auction Ring. Among the fillies Cry of Truth (Lowther Stakes and Cheveley Park Stakes) was the best, and Highest Trump and Roussalka ran well. In France the Prix Morny and the Prix Robert Papin were won by Broadway Dancer and Sky Commander, respectively; the Grand Criterium was won by Dandy Lute. P. Eddery was champion jockey in England. Women jockeys competed for the first time against male amateurs, with success. The trainers P. Walwyn (96 races won and £206,783 in stakes) and Hern (53 races won in England and £201,850 in stakes, with four classics in England, France, and Ireland) had
Not unexpectedly, bloodstock sales Newmarket slumped badly from the levels of
their best seasons. at
October.
when fornia.
the
filly
established her world
Young Haughton
ican Pacing Classic at
also
won
mark
in
Cali-
the $113,350 .Amer-
Hollywood Park with Keystone
Smartie for his third $100,000 race, a feat never before accomplished by a driver of his age. Earlier in the season, he had won the $150,000 Prix d'fiti at Blue Bonnets Raceway in Montreal with the threeyear-old pacer Amibro Omaha and later won the $117,095 Colonial Trot at Liberty Bell Park in Philadelphia with the three-year-old colt Keystone Gabriel, While young Haughton was winning that trio of $100,000 events, his father was driving the winners of five others, an unprecedented accomplishment for one
The elder Haughton drove Christopher T. to victory in the $160,150 Hambletonian, harness racing's premier event for three-yeardriver and for a stable.
won the $104,350 Adios, $132,630 Little Brown Jug, $151,043 Messenger, and $100,000 Shapiro, all with .Xrmbro Omaha. Owned by J. Elgin Armstrong, Armbro Omaha was voted threeold trotters, and also
year-old pacer of the year and was the richest Stan-
previous years.
In Australia the six-year-old Battle Heights
trial in
She finished the season with 19 victories in 24 starts and seasonal earnings of $226,274. Handle With Care was trained and driven in most of her races by 51-year-old Bill Haughton, the world's leading money-winning harness race driver, but Haughlon's 20-year-old son, Peter, was in the sulky
won
the 2-mi.
New
Zealand horse
Sydney Cup from Grand
dardbred money-winner of 1974 with $336,644 earnings.
in
Although Christopher T. giving Bill
Haughton
won
the Hambletonian,
his first victory in that classic,
emerge as the three-year-old trotting champion. That honour went to Dream of Glory, a had not been nominated for most of the imcolt that the colt did not
portant stakes races in the three-year-old division.
Without him, wide-open competition flourished. Surge Hanover won the $112,380 Dexter Cup at Roosevelt Raceway; Buckeye Count the $63,665 Vernon Downs Gold Cup; Golden Sovereign the $34,018 Review Futurity in Springfield, 111.; Anvil the $51,855 HorseFuturity in Indianapolis; Spitfire Hanover the Waymaker the $100,000
man
$125,822 Yonkers Trot; and Kentucky Futurity (Nevele
won
Party also
Dream
Diamond and Dancing
When
miles in that four-heat battle).
of Glory raced he usually won, and his vic-
$31,716 Old Oaken Bucket at Delaware, 0., and the $50,000 Leland Stanford and Trot Pacific at Hollywood Park. $51,700 included
tories
the
The two-year-old pacing division produced four champions of exceptional class, two colts and two fillies. The colts, the two fastest in the history of the sport, were Alert Bret and Nero. Nero was unbeaten in his first 11 races and had defeated Alert Bret three times before their meeting in the $53,790 InternaStallion Stake at Lexington, Ky., in October.
tional
The
race produced the fastest mile in history
two-year-old,
1
Nero
battling
stretch duel.
The
standout pacing
Stockings and Tarport Hap. Tarport races (20 oi 26) and
were Silk
fillies
Hap won more
more money ($150,051,
for a two-year-old pacing filly)
a record
than Silk Stockings,
but the latter had a faster time for the mile,
58j
sec. to
1
by a
min. 55f sec, with Alert Bret outa memorable final quarter-mile
in
1
min.
min. 58| sec. for Tarport Hap.
Bonefish was voted best two-year-old trotting colt of the year, with Meadow Bright earning that honour
anjong
fillies
Exclusive
among
dominant late in the bone and was forced into retirement. San Juan had shown the best form
after Edith Lobell,
season, broke a
Way and
the trotting
fillies
earlier in the year.
Colonial Charm, a four-year-old trotting mare from new world record of 1 min. 56-^
Castleton Farm, set a
Lexington, Ky., fastest trotting mile ever by and Savoir won the $108,000 American
sec. at
a
or mare,
filly
Trotting Classic
in
California to push his career bank-
$688,806, best
roll to
among
older trotting horses.
Pacer of the year was Armbro Nesbit, which won 16 races (11 of them 1-mi. victories in two minutes
and $312,279 for owner Duncan MacDonald and trainer-driver Joe O'Brien. The horse was retired to stallion duty at Hanover Shoe Farm at the end of the season. Sir Dalrae won two of the three $50,000 legs of Harness Tracks of America's United States Pacing Championship, while the two richest or faster)
races for older pacers, the $96,563 Roosevelt Realization and $101,598 American National Maturity, both were won by Otaro Hanover, guided by 34-year-old
driver
Herve Filion. was the leading money-winning driver for the and leading race-winning driver
Filion
straight year
fifth
for the seventh straight year, establishing an all-time
record of
mounts driver
in in
Germany,
more than $3
won by
Hans Fromming
history,
after
to drive
more than 5,000 career
Filion also broke his
wins
million in purses
his
1974 and becoming only the second harness
in a single
own
of
West
victories.
previous world record for
season with 631.
Despite a faltering national and world economy, the
market for
trotters
and pacers remained strong.
sport's two major auction sales, in Harrisburg, A long shot at 50-1 odds, ""'^ and Lexington, Ky., produced record grosses of h""™ to"the'paEr' 1,350,900, respectively. $7,857,400 and inning the Epsom (STANLEY F. BERGSTEIN) Derby. Originally purchased for less than £6,000 In New Zealand in 1974 Maurice Holmes in his (314,400), Snow Knight final season as a reinsman won the drivers' champion- is now worth £1 million
The Pa.,
'
'
'
ship for the 17th time in his 49 years in competition.
The New Zealand Cup and the Auckland Cup were won by Arapaho; the Dominion Trotting Handicap went to Philemon; and Koarakau took the New Zealand Derby. Find of the year was the two-year-old pacer Noodlum, which scored 11 consecutive wins
and was being hailed as the equal of the legendary Cardigan Bay. In Australia the Inter-Dominion Championships final, marred by a string of accidents, was won by the top-class pacer Hondo Grattan for the second year in succession. Brilliant two-year-old John Oliver won the Breeders' Plate, Youthful Stakes, and Sapling Stakes at Harold Park, Sydney, but was defeated in the final of the Challenge Stakes by Abercorn Kid. Top money winner Welcome Advice broke the Queensland record with a 1-min. S8|-sec. time trial at Albion Park and retired to stud. Champion four-year-old Paleface Adios won the Futurity Stakes, Lord Mayor's Cup, and Four- Year-Old Championship in Sydney, earning more than $100,000. Monara took his earnings past $100,000 in winning the Hunter Cup in Melbourne, where Maori's Wonder won the Trotters' Derby. Star event of the year in Europe was the World Driving Championship, in which drivers from Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the U.S., and most European countries drove in a series of 20 races in various countries. Joe Marsh, Jr., from the U.S. captured eight races to win the championship, with Kevin Brooke from Australia second. Marsh was the first U.S. driver to win the title. In Italy the Premio Nazionale for three-year-olds, raced in Milan, went to Andraz, which set a European record of 2 min. S sec. for 2,100 m.; the Premio Duomo in Florence for aged trotters was won by Top Hanover. Medoc easily
won the $30,000 Derby The Premio della Fiera
for four-year-olds in Trieste. in
Milan went
to
Timothy T.
In France, the Prix d'Amerique of 1974 drew 18 starters in the richest harness race ever ($250,000) and was won in the last stride by Roosevelt International winner Delmonica Hanover. At Vincennes
Rene Palliere for aged champion French "saddle"
the Prix
the
trotters
trotter
was won by Bellino
II,
($2.4 million) at stud.
372
Housing
Timothy T., The Prix de Paris was taken by Italian-owned Timothy T. The Finnish "Great Mastership" for aged trotters beating harness horses of the calibre of Castar, and Axius.
went to the Swedish-bred Damokles. Soviet-bred Titan won the final of the Finnish Trotting Championship. The Trotting Derby at Helsinki was won by the Swedish-bred filly Butch Girl. Grain won the Swedish Derby, for four-year-olds; the International Elite Trot was won by U.S. -bred Timothy T. to bring his earnings past $140,000. In Norway, the Grand Prix for international horses over three heats saw Pimpernel II declared the winner. In Denmark, the Petit Prix was won by the U.S. import Chaco S., while O'Man defeated the Danish Championship winner Osman Bobo in winning "The Grand." The season's
Scandinavian Championship, raced in Copenhagen, was won by Air France (Sweden). The Moscow Hippodrome in 1974 was the scene of a series of match races between teams from Moscow and Helsinki. Races were won by Mynttorg (Fin.), Pavlin (U.S.S.R.), the U.S. trotter Uncle Sam, and the Soviet-bred Othello. The championship was awarded (noel Simpson) to Othello.
housing production and the costs to consumers by increased government intervention. The housing problems of the poorer and less developed countries bilize
remained unchanged. They involved, fundamentally, make some inroads on tremendous housing shortages; providing a minimum standard of accommodation for stretching scarce resources in an attempt to
at least a section of the population
the continuing
and ever increasing
;
and coping with from rural
flight
areas to the cities and the consequent unplanned and
seemingly unstoppable growth of urban shantytownj that defied even the most basic concepts of public health.
Construction Performance. Table II records the achievements of 30 countries in housing construction during 1972-74. It should be noted that because of
and methods of
differences in definition
statistical
compilation, international comparisons serve at best
only as a guide.
The
table
formance in
in
shows average monthly construction perthe first part of 1974, the same period
1973, and for the whole of 1973 and 1972.
The
most meaningful comparison for the 1974 data is with that for the same period in 1973 rather than the whole of that year because there frequently are
[4S2.B.4.h.xvii]
seasonal variations during a year in monthly per-
On
formances.
Housing The housing
many Western
rising costs of dwellings in
countries in
and materials, serious de-
housing production, bankruptcies
in
the
building industries, shortages of mortgage finance, and increasing homelessncss, were entirely the results of
and economic insecurity. Rather, the economic situation exacerbated an inbuilt tendency toward imbalance and instability in many housing markets. In 1973 the cost of houses already was rapidly escalating with a consequent rise in real homeinflation
lessncss in a
more countries
suffered a
with the same period situation in
1974 was a matter of grave social and political concern, as the effects of the energy crisis and continuing world inflation made themselves felt in housing markets. However, it was not true, as was sometimes said, that the difliculties in the field of housing, such as clines
this basis,
decrease in housing construction in 1974 as compared
number of
industrialized countries, well
before world inflation reached
its
1974
levels.
In general, the countries that suffered most from the "housing crisis" were
those with a poorly de-
veloped public sector to their housing programs; countries with significant public sectors were able to sta-
in 1973 than improved performance (17 decreased and 13 increased).
Some very
their
of the reductions in housing construction were
Turkey's housing output in the first part 52% lower than in early 1973; for Czechoslovakia the reduction was 51%; for Japan 34%; large.
of 1974 was
and
for the U.S.
SI'^'c.
Of
the countries that
managed
to increase housing output in the first part of 1974,
Ireland achieved the largest increase (57%), followed by Yugoslavia (40%) and South Korea (26%). Relative achievements as between different countries are better shown by figures in Table I. Marriage
do not provide precise measures
figures in themselves
of housing need or
demand, but they do give some
new household formation and, therefore, the demand for separate dwellings. The ratio of housing construction to marriage rate thus gives a rough indication of the extent to which potential demand is being met. The Housing Crisis. .\s a consequence of the general economic conditions, some U.S. exixrts were predicting the worst housing crisis since the 1930s depression. It w-as a situation repeated, although perhaps indication of the potential rate of
not in such an extreme form, in many other countries. There were several aspects to the crisis and its manifestations varied as between countries, but certain features were common. Inflation affected housing directly in a number of countries, as evidenced by soaring house prices, repair and maintenance costs, and costs of building materials. In the U.S. the median price of a
$35,500
in
June 1974, double the
new house
rose to
figure in 1963
and
34% higher than five years earlier. Prices rose comparably in a number of European countries, notably France and first
Italy,
and
marked
house prices in the over the last quarter
in .Australia
quarter of 1974 were up
of 1973. In
5%
contrast, after the steep rises in off and in During the course
1972 and 1973, prices in the U.K. leveled Horticulture: see
Gardening
some areas
fell
significantly in 1974.
of the year, however, this Hospitals:
Health and Disease
see
prices began to creep
downward trend ceased and
up again.
Allied to the steep increases in the costs of houses
Table
1.
Average Monthly Housing Conslruclion
in
TabU
II.
Heutlns Conttrvcflon
In
Early 1974, Corr
Committee. However, Nyers, Aczel, and Feher remained in the 13-member Politburo. Speaking on March 28 at Nyiregyhaza, Kadar himself commented on this "regrouping of cadres": they were unavoidable, since the new party congress would assemble the following spring and preparations for a congress always raised cadre problems, but work for the party's good was the criterion. Alluding to foreign Central
relations, Kadar went on: "Hungarian foreign policy cannot be ambiguous. We must speak the same language in Budapest, in New York, and in Moscow, We stand by the U.S.S.R."
Kadar to
the
Hungarian-Vatican relations, conducted between Hungary and the
also referred to
talks
Vatican for several years, and to the Vatican's decision concerning the archbishopric of Esztergom. "I
who suppose that Pope Paul VI deprived Mindszenty of the archbishopric of Esztergom on pressure from us overestimate our influence and underestimate the Vatican." Jozsef
A party and government delegation from Hungary, by Kadar, paid an official visit to the U.S.S.R. September 25-30. Kadar also visited Prague in April and met Leonid I. Brezhnev, general secretary of the Communist Party of the U.S.S.R., in the Crimea at
IS-year refuge in the U.S. embassy in Budapest, where he had fled during the 1956 revolution, and to go abroad, but he had refused to resign as archbishop of Esztergom and primate of Hungary because the Hungarian government declined to clear to leave his
him of the
which he had been senimprisonment in 1949. However, both the Holy See and the Hungarian Bishops' Conference wished to restore church administration in Hungary to normality. Therefore, on Jan. 30, 1974, Pope Paul VI wrote to Cardinal Mindszenty, who was residing in Vienna, to inform him of the measures he had decided to adopt. On February 5 Vatican Radio announced that the primatial see of Esztergom had been declared vacant and that Msgr. Laszlo Lekai, apostolic administrator of the diocese of Veszprem, had tenced to
false charges for
life
been appointed apostolic administrator of the archdiocese of Esztergom.
Iceland
the beginning of August. In April President Tito of Yugoslavia visited Budapest. Premier Fock paid a visit to East Berlin in February, and Piotr
Jaroszewicz, the Polish premier, arrived in Budapest in August.
In October the internationally known writer Gyorgy Konrad, the sociologist Ivan Szelenyi, and the poet Tamas Szentjoby were arrested and charged with subversive activity.
The
arrests caused a
wave
of foreign
and on October 28 the three were released and offered the chance to emigrate. protests
think," said Kadar, "that those
Cardinal Mindszenty had agreed in September 1971
375
led
(k. m.
smogorzewski)
[972.B.2.b]
Iceland is an island republic in the North Atlantic Ocean, near the Arctic Circle. Area: 39,769 sq.mi. (103,000 sq.km.l. Pop. (1973 est.): 213,499. Cap. and largest city: Reykjavik (pop., 1973 est., 84,333), Language: Icelandic. Religion: 98% Lutheran. President in 1974, Kristjan Eldjarn; prime ministers, Olafur Johannesson and, from August 28, Geir Hall-
Iceland
grimsson.
Early
1974 the three-year-old coalition of leftist Prime Minister Johannesson began to mainly over economic issues. On May 9 Parliament was dissolved, fully one year before its four-year term ran out, and a new election in
parties under
show
signs of discord,
was called for June 30. The election produced gains for the Independence Party, which received 42.7% of the vote and 25 out of 50 seats in the legislature. On August 28 a new coalition government was formed Iceland
lies astride the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and is thus subject to volcanism as well as sea-floor spreading processes.
The
rift
shown here,
northeast of Reykjavik, is proof of this activity. Laser measuring devices have indicated a widening of one to two inches during the last few years.
Hurricanes: iee Disasters;
Earth Sciences Hydroelectric Power: sec Energy; Engineering Projects Ice
Hockey:
see
Hockey
376
Ice Skating
under the premiership of Independence Party leader Geir Hallgrimsson. Negotiations begun in 1973 to revise Iceland's 1951 defense pact with the U.S. and move U.S. troops out of Iceland were formally terminated in October. The new regime decided that the U.S. -operated NATO base at Keflavik would remain open. The "cod war" with Great Britain ended in November 1973, but no settlement was reached with West
produced by the station would be used by a ferrosilicon plant to be constructed in 1975 and jointly owned by the Icelandic government and Union Carbide Corp. of the U.S. (bjorn matthUsson)
Germany over
The growing appeal 1974 by an increase
fishing rights within the claimed fishing
zone of 50 mi. In July 1974 Iceland rejected a judgment by the Internationa! Court of Justice that favoured the U.K. and West Germany. (See Law.) Skirmishes between Icelandic coast guard boats and West German trawlers continued on a reduced scale. In September and October Iceland stepped up its efforts to pressure
German
vessels out of the 50-mi.
zone while at the same time renewing active negotiations with Bonn. West Germany barred Icelandic
from its ports in November. Although 1973 was a prosperous year for the Iceeconomy (national income in real terms in-
fishing vessels
landic
creasing by some 9.5% despite the loss of productive capacity due to the volcanic eruption at Heimaey), matters took a turn for the worse in 1974. Export prices, mainly for fish meal and oil, declined from their high 1973 level
whereas import prices rose. The
balance of payments, therefore, became unfavourable
income leveled off. Meanwhile, the forces of world inflation combined with heavy cost increases at home produced an inflation rate exceeding 369r. The krona was twice devalued (initially by 4% and then by 17%). Construction of a 150-Mw. power station at Sigalda in the southwest continued in 1974 and was scheduled and
real national
for completion in 1976.
A
portion of the electricity
[972.A.6.d.ii)
Ice Skating
trend, the growing rinks,
of ice skating was reflected in of television coverage. Another
demand
was prompted by a
erating costs could be
swimming pool and an
for municipally
owned
realization that overall op-
much reduced by ice rink in
putting a
adjacent buildings
and designing a common power plant for the two. Prominent among several new rinks in warm-climate countries was South .\frica's first truly internationalsized rink, opened on July 4 in Johannesburg. The popularity of ice dancing was recognized by the conferring of Olympic status on this branch of ice skating, to take effect from 1976. Technical progress was demonstrated by Gordon McKellen of the U.S. durtraining, when he became the first person to achieve a triple axel jump, requiring three and a half midair rotations.
ing
New singles champions emerged when 22 nations were represented by 128 skaters in the world ice figure and dance championships in Munich, W.Ger., on March 5-9. Jan Hoffmann of Dresden, E.Ger., took the undefended men's title with three great triple leaps Lutz, Salchow. and toe loop but really owed
—
—
his victory to a vital lead in the figures.
Sergei
Volkov narrowly
finished
Toller Cranston of Canada, free skater, producing
two
The
triple
U.S.S.R.'s
second ahead of
who was by
far the best
Salchows
in a su-
perbly original performance and receiving two welldeser\'ed sixes for artistic presentation.
ICELAND Education. (1971-72) Primary, pupils 27.727, teach1,153; secondary, pupils 18,753, teachers 974; vocational, pupils 13,897, teachers 259; teacher training, students 701, teachers 39; higher (at Reykjavik University), students 2,000, teachinu staff 123. Finance. Monetary unit: krona, with (Sept. 16. 1974) a free rate of 119 kronur to U.S. $1 (free rate £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign of 274 krdnur exchange, central bank: (June 1974) U.S. $64.7 million; (June 1973) U.S. $86.3 million. Budget (1973 ers
=
revenue
est.):
21,970,000,000
kronur;
expenditure
21,4 57.000,000 kronur. Gross national product: (1972) 66,270,000,000 kronur; (1971) 53,210,000,000 krdnur. Money supply: (June 1974) 12.563.000.000 krinur; (June 1973) 9.548.000.000 kronur. Cost of living (Reykjavik; 1970=100): (May 1974) 199; (May 1973) 138.
Foreign kronur;
Trade. exports
(1973) Imports 31.859,000.000 kr6nur. Import 26.039.000.000
11%; West Germany 11%; Norn-.ay 10%; Denmark 9%: Sweden 8%; U.S. 7%; The Netherlands 7%; U.S.S.R. 6%. Export destinations: U.S. 27%; West Germany 12%; U.K. 11%: Denmark 8%; Switzerland 5%; Portugal 5%. Main exports: fish 56%: aluminum 17%; fish meal 14%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) sources:
U.K.
11.137 km. Motor vehicles in use (1972): passenger 50.595; commercial 5.857. There are no railways. Air traffic (1973): 1.982.000,000 passcnger-km.; freight 30.058,000 net ton-km. Shipping (1973): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 325: gross tonnage 142.777. Telephones (Dec. 1972) 78.000. Radio licenses (Dec. 1972) 65.000. Television licenses (Dec. 1972 46.000. Aericulture. Production (in 000; metric Jons; 1972; 1971 in parentheses): potatoes c. 11 (11); hay (1971) e. 410. (1970) 289; milk c. 125 (122); mutton and lamb f, 12 (11): fish catch 726 (6851. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1972): cattle 65; sheep 829; horses 39; 1
poultry 200, Industry. Production (in 000): electricity (public only; kw-hr.; 1973) 2,278,000; aluminum (metric tons; 1971) 41,
suiiply
Nine judges voted 6-3 to award the vacant women's crown to Christine Errath, a stocky East German from Berlin. Thanks to her earlier advantage in the figures, she was able to thwart a last-ditch stand by Dorothy Hamill, the U.S. runner-up, who outpointed the new champion in the free skating and scored a six for artistic presentation. Dianne de Leeuw, the U.S.domiciled Dutch skater, finished third. In the pairs competition
once-revered six mark
mockery was made of
—meant
the
to denote perfection one judge gave it for technical merit to Aleksandr Zaitsev and Irina Rodnina (see Biog-
—when raphy)
of
cisively
retained
the
U.S.S.R.; the
title
the
Moscow
but
made
couple de-
three
blatant
was Miss Rodnina's sixth successive pairs title, a record; she had been partnered the first four times by Aleksey Ulanov. the latter on this occasion a worthy runner-up with his wife. Ludmila Smirnova. Third were Wolf Ostereich and Romy Kermer of East Germany. Perhaps inspired by the news of the forthcoming Olympic status of their event. .Meksandr Gorshkov and Ludmila Pakhomova gained a record fifth sucerrors. It
cessive ice dance victory. Skating with admirable co-
hesion and slick changes of tempo, the Soviet couple
reached new heights in the best performance of their careers, scoring seven sixes for artistic presentation
and another for technical merit. Only Glyn Watts and Hilary Green, the British runners-up. seemed to be in a comparable class, comfortably ahead of the thirdplace Genadi Karponosov and Natalya Linicuk of the U.S.S.R.
377
Income, National
Irina Rodnina
and Aleksandr Zaitsev perform in Munich where
Moscow couple captured the world
the
figure skating title for pairs.
It
marked
Miss Rodnina's sixth successive victory in
Sten Stensen of Norway took the overall title in the men's world ice speed championship at Inzell, W.Ger., on Febrtiary 9-10. He won both the longdistance events, 5,000 m. and 10,000 m. Harm Kuipers The Netherlands and Goran Claesson of Sweden were second and third overall, but neither won an individual event. Hans van Helden, another Dutchman, took the 1,500 m., and Masaki Suzuki of Japan of
the 500-m. sprint. Many brows were raised by performance of Colin Coates of Australia, whose fourth place in the 10,000 m. was a remarkable feat for a skater from a country with no speed rink. In the women's world speed championship at Heerenveen, Neth., on February 23-24, Atje KeulenDeelstra of The Netherlands won the overall title for a third successive year and equaled the record
won the
total of
four victories attained nine years previously
by Inga Voronina of the U.S.S.R. Deelstra was
first in
Mrs.
Keulen-
three of the four events. Sheila
Young
of the U.S. won the 500 m., but Tatjana Averina and Nina Statkevich, both of the U.S.S.R., took second and third overall places. Separate world
men and women were won by Per Bj0rang of Norway and Leah Poulos of the U.S. at Innsbruck, Aus., on February 16-17. Two women's world records were improved in April, both by Miss Averina at Medeo, U.S.S.R. She set a new time of 1 min. 25.4 sec. for the 1,000 m. (a distance to be added to the next Olympic men's schedule) and lowered the 1, 500-m. mark to 2 min, 14 sec. (HOWARD bass) sprint titles for
[4S2.B.4.g]
Income, National The world economy growth of output
1973 continued its rapid terms (that is, after allowing
in
in real
for price changes), following the rapid expansion of
The
growth in both years was well above the trend of the decade 1960-70. For the countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the other developed nations, with the exception of Malta and South Africa, the rate of growth was about 5.8% in 1972 and 6.2% in 1973. However, in 1974, under the impact of the international payments crisis created by oil price rises and the adoption of deflationary policies by governments concerned primarily with inflation, the OECD countries barely grew at all, the overall rate being only 0.25%. The OECD also forecast continued slow growth with only 0.5% increase in 1975. The record of growth of gross domestic product (GDP) in recent years is given in Table I for individual countries. The figure for the most recent years 1972.
rate of
should be regarded as provisional. The 1974 figures are taken from OECD Economic Outlook for De-
cember 1974 and are based on the latest available evidence. Similar estimates by the European Commission published in the autumn of 1974 in The Economic Situation in the Community suggested a GDP growth rate of
in 1974 for the enlarged Common Margrowth of 5.5% in 1973 and 3.7% in compares with OECD estimates of 2.5% 1974, 5.5% in 1973, and 4% in 1972 for the
2.7%
ket, following
1972;
growth nine
this
in
EEC
countries.
The world
recession of 1974
was most marked
in
the major economies of Japan, the United States, and
Kingdom, where output fell West Germany's growth was cut back the United
in real terms. to
about 1%.
However, Canada, France, and Italy were each able to grow by between 4 and 5%, and some of the middle ranking countries (in terms of total output) were also able to expand to some extent. The EEC report referred to above had similar estimates for Common Market countries, and included an estimate of 4.5% growth for Luxembourg in 1974. OECD figures on a calendar year basis suggest about 2.2% growth in
the event.
378
Income National
New
followinR growth rates of 5.6 and 5.3%. respectively,
U.S. dollars, on both a total and a per capita basis. The concept of is designed to measure the value of
These figures thus differ from those in Table which are for financial years. For the less developed countries as a whole the
domestic production; it is the sum of all domestic current expenditures by consumers and public authorities, investment expenditures, plus exports of
was of continued growth. The Inter-American Development Bank in its report Economic and Social Progress in Latin America estimated that the Latin American countries grew by 5.8% in 1973, 6.7% in 1972, and 6.2% in 1971 following an average growth rate of 5.5% in the years 1961-70.
goods and services, less imports of goods and services. The concept of national income is related to GDP. GDP plus the net factor income from abroad (payments such as interest and dividends arising in one country and paid to residents of another country) is called gross national product (CSP). National income is GNP minus an allowance for the depreciation
Australia and
3.8% growth
in
Zealand in 1974,
in 1973. I,
general picture in 1973
However, the effect of the recession in the industrial countries and of higher import bills for oil and for other products, including manufactured goods, was likely to have created severe economic difficulties for a
number
Among Brazil,
of less developed countries in 1974. the
individual
less
developed
countries,
Ecuador, South Korea, and the Philippines
GDP
of the country's stock of fixed capital during the year.
Defined
in these
ways,
GDP. GNP. and
national in-
are said to be measured in terms of market
come prices.
The
table includes all countries that
income of $1
tional
The
billion or
more
had a na-
in 1970.
national figures are converted to U.S. dollars
Two
important qualifica-
achieved growth rates of 10% or more in 1973. The higher prices that it charged for its oil in 1973 created
at current exchange rates.
ii% in Iran. The growth rate fell to or below in Ethiopia, Morocco, Tunisia, Zambia, Uruguay, Syria, and Burma. Table II shows for more than 90 countries the latest available figures for gross domestic product and national income, converted from national currencies to
use of current exchange rates determined for foreign
a growth rate of
2%
t
tions
must be made about
this procedure. First, the
may not adequately purchasing power of the
trade and payments purposes reflect
differences
in
the
various national currencies. For most countries the
exchange rates used are the "trade conversion factors" published
by
the
IMF
in
International Financial
Statistics.
They
are averages of the effective exchange
rates for international trading.
using such exchange ratPS
is
The
general effect of
probably to make the
GDP
recorded gaps in levels of national income and less developed and the industrial coun-
between the
somewhat greater than they would be if the data were available to make more refined calculations. The tries
second qualification is that the figures in national currencies are themselves estimated in a variety of ways,
and there are differences accounting used
among
in the
systems of national
various countries. Although
have been rounded to the nearest $10 to avoid a spurious appearance of accuracy, it is still unwise to place much reliance on small differences between countries. The net effect of the devaluations and currency floats of recent years was to reduce the size of GDP and national income for the U.S. and U.K. in relation to most other countries. On these calculations the U.S. economy was approximately three times the size of Japan's economy and between seven and eight times larger than that of the United Kingdom. Comparisons between Eastern European and other countries are difficult because the former exclude from national income accounts certain "unproductive services," such as public administration and personal and professional services. If such items were included, the growth rates in those countries would probably be somewhat lower than those recorded in Table I. Growth in Czechoslovakia and East Germany in 1973 the per capita figures given
;••-
:
:
380
India
planned economics. One international source provided estimates for 1971 of gross national product (GNP) per capita for both groups of countries. The qualifications expressed about the estimates in Table II apply with even stronger force to the estimates shown in Table III. The estimates of total GNP were obtained by multiplying the GNP per capita figures by the population figures given in the same source.
They
suggest that total output in the U.S.S.R. was less than
one third of U.S. output and that East Germany had a per capita output similar to that of the United Kingdom, (m. f. fuller) See also Economy, World.
W
[S34.D.3.a]
solved.
Chimanbhai Patel was expelled from the Conand formed his own parly.
gress Party
Gujarat quickly returned to normal, but student trouble then flared up in Bihar. Jaya Prakash Narayan, veteran leader of the Sarvodaya movement (a branch of the movement begun by Mohandas Gandhi), took charge of the agitation. He advocated the overhaul of the country's parliamentary system in order to eliminate the power of money in elections as his larger
aim and the removal of the Abdul Gha-
foor ministry and dissolution of the state legislature
immediate objective. He formed citizens' committees and preached boycott of the legislature, government offices, and colleges, and nonpayment of as his
Most opposition parties (with the marked Communist Party of India) backed movement, but only about 40 of the 3 8 legislators of the slate resigned during the first six months of the movement. There were repeated clashes between crowds and authority, and charges and countercharges revenue.
exception of the the
India A
and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. India is situated on a peninsula extending into the Indian Ocean «-ith the Arabian Sea to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east. It is bounded (east to west) by Burma, Bangladesh, China, Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal, and Pakifederal republic of southern Asia
stan; Sri
Lanka
Ocean.
Indian
lies
just off its southern tip in the
Area:
1,266,602
(3,2SO,4S3
sq.mi.
sq.km.), including the Pakistani-controlled section of
Jammu
and Kashmir. Pop. (1974 est.): 5S6.056.000; Indo-Aryans and Dravidians are dominant, with Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australoid admixtures. Cap.
New
Delhi (pop., 1971,301,801). Largest
cutta
(metro, pop.,
1971,
cities: Cal-
and Greater
7,031,382)
Bombay
(metro, pop., 1971, 5,970,575). Language: Hindi and English (official). Religion (1971): Hindu
82.7%; Muslim 11.2%; Christian 2.6%; Sikh 1.9%; Buddhist 0.7%; others 0.9%. Presidents in 1974, Varahagiri Venkata Giri and, from August 24, Fakh-
AH Ahmed; prime
ruddin
Mrs.
minister,
Indira
Gandhi. In 1974 India accomplished sion, but
it
was also
hardship, political
its first
nuclear explo-
mounting economic and Jaya Prakash Na-
a year of
tension,
rayan's agitation in Bihar.
Domestic
Affairs. Elections
were held
in
February
to legislative assemblies in four states, Uttar Pradesh,
Orissa, Nagaland,
and Manipur, and
union territory, Pondicherry. The ruling Congress Party just managed to secure an absolute majority in Uttar Pradesh and formed a government under the chief ministership of H. N. Bahuguna. In Orissa the Congress formed a minority government with Mrs. Nandini Satpathy as chief minister. In Nagaland the United Democratic Front obtained a majority, and a Cabinet headed by T. Vizol took office. In Manipur a non-Congress coalition under the leadership of Mo-
hammed Alimuddin assumed the
the
office.
a
In Pondicherry
Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and Communist Party formed a coalition; it resigned
three weeks later, and president's rule was reimposed on the territory. Early in January, students in Gujarat went on strike
demanding lower food prices
in
hostels.
The
into an antigovemment were subjected to gherao (physical surrounding, a form of political pressure that had become increasingly common in India), and their resignation from the State Assembly was demanded. On February 9 the chief minister, Chimanbhai Patel, resigned, and the state was placed under
action
quickly
movement.
escalated
Legislators
president's rule.
A month
later the
Assembly was
dis-
1
of preplanned
mob
violence and police vindicliveness.
\
meeting between Mrs. Gandhi and Narayan on November 1 was unproductive. Three days later Narayan was injured in a demonstration in Patna. Another challenge to the government was a strike
on the national railway system in May. Officials claimed that only 8% of the 1.7 million railway workers were involved, but before it collapsed after 20 days the strike imposed additional strain on the economy. To the opposition, the strike was an opportunity to accuse the government of being antilabour. The sessions of Parliament were acrimonious throughout most of the year, and charges of corruption were leveled against the government as a whole and also against individual ministers. But two motions of no confidence were defeated, the first on May 10 by voice vote and the second on July 25 by 294 votes to 61. Seven opposition parties, led by the Swatantra Party, the Bharatiya Kranti Dal. and the Samyukta Socialist Party, formed a new party, the Bharatiya Lok Dal, under the chairmanship of Charan Singh from Uttar Pradesh. Some of the opposition parties had made a determined bid to challenge the Congress Party at the time of the presidential election by fielding a candidate, Tridib Kumar Chaudhuri, to oppose the official nominee, Fakhruddin .Mi .^hmed. However,
Ahmed
(see
Biocraphv) won by a
large margin, se-
curing 765. 5S7 votes of the electoral college against
Chaudhuri's 139,196. Ahmed took over from V. V. Giri on August 24. B. D. Jatti was elected vice-president to succeed G. S. Pathak. Earlier, the government had sought the Supreme Court's opinion as to whether
body that was affected by the dissolution of the Gujarat Assembly. The court, in a judgment on June 5, held that the election of a new president must be held before the expiration of the term of the incumbent president even if a state assembly or assemblies had been dissolved, as in the case of Gujarat. Mrs. Gandhi's supremacy in party and government remained unchallenged. In January she inducted K, Brahmananda Reddy and K. D. Malaviya into the central Cabinet. In Oclober, to fill the place vacated by Ahmed and to redeploy ministerial talent to meet the economic crisis, she made far-reaching changes in the the validity of the electoral college as the
elects the president
Council of Ministers. All three members of the inner Cabinet were moved: Jagjivan Ram from defense to Swaran Singh from external affairs to defense, and Y. B. Chavan from finance to external
agriculture,
affairs.
C.
Subramaniam was assigned
finance;
K.
Brahmananda Reddy home affairs; and U. S. Dikshit was named minister without portfolio. The president of the Congress Party, S, D. Sharma, was also given the Cabinet berth for communications, and the petroleum and chemicals minister, D. K. Barooah, resigned from the Cabinet to head the party, An amendment of the constitution was undertaken to provide representation to Sikkim, as state, in
an associate
Dependent amendment bills
both houses of Parliament. (See
States.)
Two
other constitutional
were passed. The 33rd Amendment Act was intended to prevent resignation from a legislature under duress, and was a reaction to the agitations in Gujarat and Bihar. The 34th Amendment Act was designed to protect land tenure legislation in several states.
An lar
event criticized vehemently abroad but popu-
within the country was an underground nuclear
May 18 by scientists of InAtomic Energy Commission in the Rajasthan The commission's chairman, H. N. Sethna, said that it was a wholly contained explosion in the range of 10-15 kilotons and took place at a depth of 100 m.
was the endeavour Sheikh
Mohammad
The Economy. The monsoon ratic.
Rains were 20
to
59%
of 1974 proved erbelow normal over large
West Bengal, southern Bihar, Haryana, and Punjab. Kerala and northern Bihar were subjected to severe floods. Consequently, a shortage of seven million tons in the
summer bility of
desert.
restricted
crop of food grains was feared. The possiimporting large quantities of grain was also
owing
of scarcity
to high
world
many growers
prices. In the climate
held onto their stocks, and
there was also a considerable
amount of clandestine
announcement declared that the experiment was "a
trading. In Orissa and West Bengal low stocks of grain and lack of purchasing power led to famine conditions
part of the research in peaceful uses of nuclear ex-
in rural areas.
ft.)
an
using
implosion
device.
official
plosives," particularly for mining and earth moving, and that India had no intention of producing nuclear weapons. Canada, which had assisted India in the construction of nuclear reactors, responded with particular sharpness to this development. India maintained that all the plutonium used in the explosion had been produced within the country by Indian scientists and that the expenditure on nuclear explosion research
amounted
An
v-(6^'"'
The government adopted a series of measures to money supply, curtail expenditure, and raise
curb
more revenue. The annual budget
of the union government, presented on February 2S, imposed new levies of Rs. 1,860.000.000 to take the revenue earnings for 1974-75 to an estimated Rs. 56,410.000,000 as against an expenditure of Rs. 54,080,000,000. With
of the national budget.
capital receipts of Rs. 30,990,000,000 and capital exJ-, 5 1 c^i^ nnn AAA Ti J c -t c penditures of T> Rs. 34,570,000,000, an overall deficit of
development that aroused great interest
Rs. 1,250,000,000 was expected, as compared with a
than
to less
internal
0.1%
India
parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Orissa,
dia's
The
who
assailed the ordinance.
explosion carried out on
(330
381
an understanding with
to reach
Abdullah, the Kashmir leader
had been removed from that state's chief ministership in 1953. Negotiations were still in progress at the year's end. Following a judgment by the Supreme Court on an election petition, an ordinance was issued on October 19 to clarify that under the Representation of the People Act election expenses incurred by a political party would not be deemed as an expenditure incurred by a candidate. Opposition leaders
1-
,
was Crippled 35 ^^^ million rail '"'I'a
workers went on
;
r
.".
.'^
- in the South China Sea extended to the N'atuna Islands.
During the summer, Indonesia announced the
dis-
covery of offshore oil deposits in the Natunas. A completely unanticipated problem developed when the dictatorship of Marcello Caetano in Portugal was overthrown in April and the new Lisbon government announced plans to give Portuguese overseas territories the right of self-determination.
These
ter-
antagonism being Prime Minister Tanalca of Japan wtio was visiting
critics at
Portuguese Timor (the eastern half of the island of Timor; the western half is Indonesian). Jakarta announced that it would respect the decision of the 600.000 people of Portuguese Timor, who were scheduled to vote on their future in 1975. But there was a feeling among observers that Indonesia might absorb this last Portuguese possession in Southeast Asia rather than face the prospect of a tiny, independent Timor with a substantial Chinese minority that might inject an element of instability
of domestic political turmoil.
into the area.
Indonesia at the time.
steel
[976.C.1]
to
Riots erupted in
disturbing to the country's leadership, underscoring in
Jal\ Westinghouse Electric Corp. Chairman Donald C. Burnham envisaged increased opportunities for the electrical industry. But, plagued by high interest rates and dwindling credit resources, U.S. utilities delayed the construction of many nuclear power reactors and even abandoned plans for others. In October, the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission reported that the 102,000 Mw. of nuclear capacity planned for 1980 had dropped to 85,000 Mw. The role of government finance in the expansion of nuclear power would clearly be large, and much
would depend on the
willingness of the oil
producers to invest on a long-term basis in capital markets. In Britain the
Department
of Industry's
survey of investment intentions in September showed that electrical manufacturers' capital expenditure would rise by 5% between 1973 and 1974. Only a year previously the forecast for the same period had been 15%. Also in September, Westinghouse Electric sought to renegotiate long-term contracts with utilities for generators, transformers, and circuit breakers. Price increases of 6-8% were being asked. At the same time, the management of Brown Boveri's West German group indicated that it was not too optimistic about the future performance of the company because of delays in contracts for power station equipment. The General Electric Co. in Britain increased sales in 1973 by more than 10% but said that the proceeds in real terms had gone to the government through increased taxation and that neither the employees nor the stockholders had benefited from the improved productivity and profits. In West Germany sales by Siemens in 1973 rose only
2%, but an improvement, mainly from exwas predicted for 1974. Business ia West Germany was tending to stagnate, the company said. Net earnings were 2.8% of sales, but the board aimed to raise this to ports,
5%
"in closer alignment with our internaBritish Insulated Callenders Cables* net earnings in 1973 were 7% of sales, but finance charges were 50% higher, due partly to higher copper costs. In Sweden, Allmanna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget (ASEA) reported net earningi in 1973 of of sales and said that it planned to concentrate on technical improvements to plant control systems in order to tional competitors."
t%
reduce electrical power consumption. The
company
also
announced that
to balance material and against energ>- savings.
it
would
try
production costs
Three principles of energ>' conservation, which would lead to different research and development goals than those based on commercial criteria, were enunciated by Chauncey Starr of the U.S. Electric Power Research Institute. First, built-in obsolescence of products should be eliminated; second, materials requiring considerable energy for their production should be used in such a
way that they could be reused for further applications; and third, industrial processes should be integrated to minimize waste in reheating, and process plants should be located close to their market areas. A new electric motor, one-third the size and weight of prexious designs, was developed for use in domestic appliances by Philips in The Netherlands. Ceramic ferrite permanent magnets were used in place of copper field windings. Other examples of designs based on material conservation principles were under development in industrial laboratories around the world. Product design changes were also being brought about in the countries of the European Economic Communitv following publication of the EEC Commission's Low Voltage Directive. The object of this directive was the removal of trade barriers by ensuring standardization of safety regulations for all electrical
equipment designed for operabelow 1.000 v. New safety
tion at voltages
standards were being adopted in all nine member countries, and approval schemes by recognized testing houses were being set up for domestic appliances and portable tools. Although European proposals for a new design of plug and socket to connect domestic appliances and portable tools to the electricity supply were likely to lead to the publication shortly of an international standard, the design would in practice be confined to Europe. Domestic wiring installations in the U.S. were usually designed for 125 v., and it seemed unlikely that a changeover to 230240 v. would be made in the foreseeable future. The "Europlug" would be rated at 16 amp. 250 v. and would be unfusod. In regard to public electricity supply networks, the major product development in recent years had been metal-clad switchgear using sulfurhcxafluoridc gas for insulation and arc interruption during switching operations. From the time this equipment was first seriously considered in the latt 1950s, commercial development was rapi^ particularly in France and West Germany, Many utilities were adopting the design ia
Europe and
the
US,, and those manufac-
turers able to offer such equipment could look forward to increasing commercial sufr (t. c. j. cocl^ cess in world markets.
[732.C.6:
10/37. B.S.d]
GLASS Shortages, rising costs, and inflation assailtd the glass industries in 1974, at least in tbi
developed countries. In three significant there areas -soda ash, fuel oil, and wages were fluctuations that significantly affected productive capacity and costs. (Soda ash, with sand and limestone, is one of the basic raw materials for glass manufacture.) The year began with an upsurge in demand for glass products in most Western countries. Suppliers of raw materials were able to cope with the resultant pressure except for soda ash manufacturers, who oper-
—
—
ate a capital-intensive catalytic process as opposed to the basically extractive processes of the sand and limestone producers. In the U.S. major producers had to close down two plants when the Environmental Protection Agency maintained that effluent was polluting rivers with sodium nitrate. In the U.K. the three-day week and, later, some labour problems caused shortages. In Europe
supply lagged behind demand. More serious was the rapid rise in the cost of fuel oil, which, with natural gas, is one of the two principal means of obtaining the energy to melt glass. This caused glass manufacturers to examine their processes
whether a more effective use of energy might be made. Finally, the rate of inflation affected wage rates. There were no major strikes, but the glass industries had to concede wage payments at a rate consistent with rises in the cost of
more
closely to see
living.
Glass-container manufacturers continued to be subjected to pressures from governments and environmental agencies. In Norway there was a move toward banning non-
and many container makers showed interest in setting up systems returnable containers,
for returning used containers for remelting.
Energy conservation could create demand in the flat-glass industries, due to demand for double glazing, and in the glass-fibre sectors, for
insulation.
In
the
latter
field,
Saint-
Gobain-Pont-a-Mousson of France announced a new process that could help in both energy conservation and the secondary use of waste glass.
Czechoslovakian
glass
technologists
an-
nounced a breakthrough in the speed of manufacturing sheet glass by the Fourcault process by electrical boosting. To what extent this might affect the traditional methods of manufacturing flat glass in the face of the spread of the float process was a matter of interest to all manufacturers in this field. One area of dispute was Scandinavia, where the U.K. patent holders of float glass, Pilkington Brothers Ltd., were interested in setting up a plant and invited sheet-glass manufacturers to join the project. Other investment plans totaling £150 million were deferred by Pilkington in October pending "changes in taxation and price control." In Poland, where investment had been low for several years, 18 new glass and ceramic plants were to be completed over two years. The only two producers of container glass in Belgium, Verlica-Momignies and Bouteilleries Beiges Reunies, were discussing closer cooperation to create a unit large enough to meet foreign competition. From the safety point of view, some countries favoured toughened glass for car windscreens (windshields), while others preferred glass. The U.K. company Triplex announced a development that appeared to combine the best of both processes in a lami-
laminated
nated shield that shattered into blunt particles, as in toughened glass, rather than large splinters. (cyril weeden) [724.C.5.a; 733.A.4.a.vii]
IRON AND STEEL For a considerable time the fortunes of the world steel industry had followed a well-
pattern. Demand, and consequently prices and profitability, fluctuated with the cycles to which the steel industry is particularly subject, yielding, for various
established
reasons, a generally insufficient financial return over the cycle. In contrast, a number of significant new developments of an economic character took place in 1974: some were already emerging early in 1973, while
others were unheralded. The first such feature was the energy crisis, which began near the end of 1973. The initial impact was severe in physical terms and created great uncertainty and loss of confidence, particularly in the steel industries of those countries whose economies were most dependent on oil imports, most notably Japan. Later, as the initial crisis passed, the chief effects were seen to be in the sharp boost given to inflationary trends generally and especially to the cost of all imported energy sources. A second major development was that the general inflation that was a feature of 1973
became more marked. The energy crisis stimulated substantial increases in domestic, and even more in imported, coking coal iron ore prices rose significantly; scrap became acutely short and expensive in many areas, a development exacerbated by the decision of the U.S. authorities in mid1973 to restrict scrap exports; and labour costs rose by varying extents but everywhere prices;
substantially. The third feature of the year
was
the steel
many major producing areas. This was not, as had most commonly been the case in the past, a consequence of boom outrunning existing capacity. demand Rather, physical shortages of raw materials, and in some cases labour and technical problems, held steel production significantly below the levels that the industry should have been capable of producing from its installed capacity. Thus, steel output was likely to rise shortage in
worldwide from its 1973 level of 695 million metric tons to about 710 million metric tons in 1974, whereas it seemed certain that considerably more steel, perhaps over 720 million metric tons, could have been absorbed if available. Similarly, although there was clear evidence
was now over
mand growth
that the current steel cycle the peak, and the rate of decould be expected to decline
1975, continuing supply problems were Hkely to maintain the industry in a stronger position in the world market than had been experienced at a similar stage in past cycles. A fourth important development was the tentative indication of a wider general understanding that continuing inadequacy of in
profit in steel
would
result in serious long-
term shortages through insufficient investment, and consequently in high prices on the world market. The result, therefore, might be that the current cyclical improvement in steel profits would be maintained to a greater extent than had been the case for
some
time.
In many respects, the steel situation in the U.S. typified the world steel picture in 1974. Economic activity declined somewhat from the exceptional levels attained in 1973; this
was
the
case
especially
in
the
consumer
goods and housing sectors. On the other hand, the investment sector continued strong, and although overall estimated steel consumption was expected to decline by about 4% from 1973, the tight world market and consequent high prices attracted increased U.S. exports and tended to reduce imports. The voluntary restraint agreements first undertaken by the Japanese and EEC producers in 1969 and renewed for three years in 1972 remained theoretically in force. They had no effective impact, however, because world steel market and international
Industrial Production
and Technology currency considerations continued to render the U.S. relatively unattractive to imports. It appeared virtually certain that the agreements would not be renewed beyond the expiration date of January 1975. At the same time, the U.S. steel industry experienced certain production limitations during the year, largely for technical reasons, so that steel shortages continued in the domestic market. A three-week coal strike late in the year caused temporary production cutbacks at some steel mills. Substantial price increases following the relaxation of price controls in the spring created a more favourable profit climate for most U.S. steel companies, and investment, which had been languishing for three years and required an increase if serious shortages were to be avoided later in the decade, turned sharply upward. Expenditure in 1974 was estimated to be about 45% higher than in 1973 (including inflation). By the standards of the Japanese steel industry, 1974 was a difficult year. The oil crisis
made
a great impact initially,
and
re-
cumulaapproximately 6% in domestic steel consumption during the year. The strong world steel market strictive national
economic
policies
tively resulted in a decline of
made possible a substantial increase in exports, especially to less developed countries, but the industry experienced difficulties with supplies of necessary raw materials. Overall, was probable that steel production would do no more than equal the 1973 level (119 milhon metric tons) and might even fall slightly below this. Some revival of domestic it
demand
in
1975 was likely to result in a steel output at a
resumption of growth in moderate rate.
of the European Commuindustries varied substantially
The experience nity
steel
from one country to another. Domestic consumption in the original six member states rose modestly (by about 2%), but within this group Italian demand grew quite strongly while that in West Germany fell slightly. In the latter part of the
orders
declined
significantly.
year
new
But exports
were strong, and raw material shortages and labour difficulties tended to restrict production; therefore, the market remained fairly tight and prices were held at generally profitable levels, despite substantial cost increases. Steel output in the six countries was likely to rise by about 10% over the year. The U.K. position differed in important respects. A coal strike during the early part of the year, followed by continuing coking coal and scrap shortages, technical problems at the factories, and to some extent industrial disputes in the steel industry, restricted output. Production was Hkely to be about 23 million metric tons in 1974 against 26.6 milhon metric tons in 1973. On the other"
domestic consumption fell only the balance being supplied from producers' stocks, sharp reduction of exports (which were restricted by license early in the year), and substantially increased imports. The U.K. was hkely, most unusually, to be a net importer of steel in 1974. Certain products were in short supply for much of the year, and producers were therefore able to raise prices and to operate profitably. The Soviet countries made an unusually strong impact on the world steel market in 1974. Although their production continued to increase by about 3% annually, consumption developed at a faster rate than usual so that imports from the West expanded hand,
slightly,
TabI* IV. World Produ
build 12 of the units, while the 13th was to be the first boiling water reactor (BWR) built by the Compagnie Generale d'jfelectricite Alsthom Group under a General Elec-
Co. license. In Britain, despite considerable pressure in favour of U.S. -designed Westinghouse PWRs and the Canadian Candu system, the government decided to base its nuclear program on the British-designed steam generating heavy water reactor (SGHWR) system. Only 4,000 Mw. of capacity was scheduled to be built over the next three tric
years.
As the
political situation within the U.S.
government completed plans for dismembering the all-powerful Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), which had been under attack for favouring industry at public expense. Research functions were to be handed to the newly created Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA), and a Nuclear Regulatory Commission was to take responsibility for regulatory activities. The long-awaited Rasmussen report was published during the year. It stabilized, the
concluded that the quences of a severe far less serious than led by Ralph Nader,
worst possible consenuclear accident were the antinuclear lobby,
had
forecast. Several smaller industrial and less devel-
oped countries planned
to
extend their nu-
clear capacity, including Sweden, Belgium, The Netherlands, Egypt, and Iran. France was to supply Iran with five 1,000-Mw. reactors, and Israel was reported to be making similar arrangements. The UN's International Atomic Energy Agency estimated that
the less developed nations could absorb approximately 60,000 Mw. of nuclear capacity, but that reactors would have to be smaller than 500 Mw. Technological development of
such systems was, however, held back by the general economic situation. India, having long wanted nuclear explosives for use in canal digging, for underground gasification, and for other peaceful purposes, created a political storm by exploding its first nuclear device. Almost at once, Canada, the U.S., the U.S.S.R., and the U.K. suspended nuclear aid to India, whose actions resulted in a resurgence of
worldwide fears of the wider availability of weapons and thereby lent force to the arguments of the antinuclear lobbies. During 1974, attention focused on the nuclear fuel cycle and on the supply situation for uranium. The price of uranium ore doubled during the year, from $10 to $20 per pound, but did not generate the needed investment in exploration. Canada and AustraHa limited both exports of, and exploration for, the ore in the hopes of recouping greater financial returns later, and both planned to establish processing industries in anticipation of exporting the completed fuel nuclear
rather than the cheaper ore. In the U.S., a
government-backed attempt to interest private industry in uranium enrichment failed, but Canada, Australia, and Japan started discussions on enrichment with the U.S. France, through Eurodif, was already committed to building a large enrichment plant. Urenco-Centec began to accept enrichment services contracts, but its members, the U.K., The Netherlands, and West Germany, resolved to take more independent control of
own shares of the project, thereby illustrating the continuing difficulties of maintaining international cooperation on nuclear their
matters once projects reached the commercial stage. The fuel reprocessing industry suffered a considerable setback when a General Electric Co. plant for that purpose, due to begin operating during the year, was judged unworkable; full-scale modifications or dismantling the plant were advised.
393
Nuclear propulsion of ships attracted increasing interest during the year, and there were several projects under development. In Japan, however, local fishermen stopped the prototype NS "Mutsu" from leaving port, and when the ship finally reached the sea and started its reactor, neutron radiation was discovered, causing extreme embarrass-
ment and many problems Development of new
for the authorities. uses of radiation
and sophisticated instrumentation continued to expand, and new applications for radionuclides (isotopes of elements that are unstable and undergo radioactive decay) were found in environmental monitoring, research into human metabolism, and treatment of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Several countries ordered irradiation units for sterilization and for food preservation, and Switzerland planned to use a unit for sewage treatment. Computer imaging techniques based on radioactive tracers made further (richard w. kovan)
strides.
Industrial Production
and Technology expected to be some
current
During 1973 high-quality waterborne had become available for application by all the widely used industrial coatings
methods, including spraying, dipping, flow coating,
and electrodeposition. Only
in spe-
cialized areas such as primer-surfacers
solvent-based materials
were
supreme. (LIONEL BILEFIELD)
still
[732.D.7]
PAPER AND PULP World production
of paper
and paperboard
again rose sharply in 1973. Output totaled million metric tons, or 7.6% more
some 155 than in
[721.B.9]
120% above
levels.
1972,
and would have been
still
higher except for prolonged strikes in North
PAINTS AND VARNISHES The foreboding
that had afflicted the paint and varnish industry at the outset of 1973 way in 1974 to alarm that in some cases approached panic. Since many of its raw materials are derived from petroleum, the industry had soon felt the effects of oil shortages and of steeply higher costs. These were only partly recouped by price increases, which were estimated at some 15% for the European paint industry as a whole. The industry also suffered from other
gave
shortages. Failures of oilseed crops led to reduced availability and higher prices of natural drying oils. High demand for titanium dioxide, the main white pigment, coincided with reduced output due to pollution restrictions and insufficient capacity. It was generally agreed that prices had to rise to
encourage
adequate
investment
in
new
plant to meet anticipated demand later in the decade. Despite the difficulties, paint output in 1973 showed a healthy increase throughout Europe, ranging from a 13% gain in Switzerland to about 4% in France and The Netherlands. U.K. production expanded by
12.6% in tonnage and some 17% in value, compared with a growth of only 5% in
GNP,
but the introduction of the valueto have distorted the picture. Thus, decorative paint sales were up 10-12% by volume, against 5-7% for industrial coatings. U.K. paint exports rose to a record £23.8 million, compared with record imports of £7.5 million. In other areas the paint industry also reflected movements in and general industrial activity. Thus production in the U.S. showed only moderate gains in volume and value. In Australia the second half of 1973 was a boom period, and statistics for the whole year were expected to exceed the 5.9% growth noted in the first half. Emulsions continued to gain popularity among household and do-it-yourself users. Factors contributing to this growth were
added tax was thought
GNP
convenience and an acceptable finish. Published statistics also showed sharp increases in sales of thinners and bituminous coatings. Leading experts beUeved that waterborne paints were establishing a dominant position for the future. In the U.S., for example, the total output of industrial finishes rose 23% between 1970 and 1972, from 399 million to 485 million gal., while production of waterborne coatings grew from 34 million to 73 million gal., or over 110%, in the same period. Estimates for 1975 indicated that solvent-based stoving finishes would be 23% below 1973, while waterborne materials were
America. The volume increase was the largest ever recorded and also exceeded the longterm average growth rate, which had been running at about 5% per year. This reflected rapid economic expansion in all of the chief paper-using regions, especially North America, Europe, and Japan. The situation contrasted sharply with the earlier part of the decade. Throughout 1970, 1971, and part of 1972, there was a sizable excess of world capacity for manufacturing many pulp and paper products. As a consequence, the industry in the leading producing nations suffered severe declines in production
Semispherical balls are used to trap odours this Japanese industrial waste pond.
from
ducers of pharmaceuticals during 1974. For example, there were shortages of cortisone, some steroids (key ingredients in oral conand even jelly, traceptives), petroleum
Industrial Production
and Technology
opium and earnings, and incentive to invest in new mills and new paper machines was greatly reduced. So rapid in
was the turnaround, beginning mid-1972, that shortages of some prod-
ucts, especially
chemical
wood
pulp, devel-
oped in world markets and continued throughout 1973 and most of 1974. Toward the end of 1974, however, as the economics some of many industrial countries slowed
—
—
appeared likely that it to recession pace supply and demand in paper and paperboard would achieve a reasonable balance, at least for a time. Meanwhile, expansion plans in the paper industry were being accelerated somewhat, ref^ponsc to improved earnings and the favourable long-term outlook. generally Nevertheless, rapidly rising capital costs, high interest rates, and some uncertainty about the shorter-term outlook were causing many companies to follow fairly conservain
tive
investment
policies.
In the U.S., the world's largest producer, was estimated that manufacturing capacity for paper and paperboard would increase by an average of 2.7% annually during the three years 1973-76, compared with an averannually in the preceding 20age of year period. Similarly, in Canada, the second largest producer, a 3.27c growth rate was forecast for 1973-76, compared with an actual 3.8% annually during the previous it
4%
20 years. VVorld production of paper and paperin 1973 was di\ided approximately as follows-. North America 69 million metric tons (66 million in 1972) Europe 52 million Asia 27 million (24 million) (48 million) Latin America 4.7 million (4.2 million) and Africa 1.2 million (1 milUon). World trade in pulp, paper, and paperboard amounted to over 40 million tons during the year. The largest exporter was Canada, with more than one-third of the total. Many countries were largely self-sufficient
board
;
;
;
;
production of paper and paperboard but required substantial imports of wood pulp. Thus the world pulp shortages that arose in 1973 and 1974 were of serious concern, especially in regions with steadily rising cellulose fibre deficits, such as the EEC and Japan. This kindled greater interest than ever before in obtaining more pulp from recycled paper and paperboard, and also in investing in pulp mills in such forest-rich regions as North America and Latin Amer-
in
Particularly striking was the interest shown in Brazil by many multinational pulp and paper companies. Several large new
ica.
pulp mills were under construction there, and it was expected that Brazil would become one of the world's leading pulp exporters over the next decade. World pulp and paper prices rose considerably in 1973 and 1974 after a decade of relative stability. Return on investment, which in Canada, for example, declined to
2%
some in 1971, had risen to far healthier levels by late 1974. However, in the face of rapid inflation, it seemed unlikely that there would be a return to the overexpansion that had occurred periodically in the past.
(GORDON MtNNES) [732.D.3]
PHARMACEUTICALS situation and concurrently developing shortages of a few selected raw materials created some concern among pro-
The energy
— giving
Turkey
its
justification
for
resuming cultivation of the opium poppy. significant were shortages of petroleum-based raw materials and packaging components, ranging from alcohol to packaging films and plastic bottles. Petroleum feedstocks are also used to make aspirin, sulfa drugs, antihistamines, and vitamins, and the rising price of oil accounted in part
More
for
5-10%
increases in the prices of these
drugs by midyear. On the whole, however, these problems did not seriously affect a robust industry that had experienced a 10-12% growth in sales for several years. According to the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association, worldwide sales of prescription drugs exceeded $9 billion in 1973, ll7o more than in the preceding year. Though 1973 figures were not yet available, in 1972 the prescription drug industry employed 257,000 persons, 144,000 of whom were in the U.S. More than one-quarter of total sales consisted of products for the central nervous system, including tranquilizers, amphetamines, and barbiturates. Antiinfcctives, of which antibiotics constituted the major portion, and those drugs used to combat neoplaiims and endocrine disorders constituted the next two largest product categories. Downward price pressures were brought to bear against pharmaceutical producers in several countries. The governments"of Britain and West Germany exercised legal measures to drive down the prices of Librium
and Valium, two tranquilizers produced by Hoffmann-La Roche, Inc., of Switzerland. In the U.S. more subtle pressures resulted from the expiration of patents on important antibiotics and tranquilizers; much publicized Senate hearings on drug pricing, promotion, and testing procedures and poUcies; and a rise in so-called third party prescription payment plans, especially those administered by unions, community and regional health plans, and Medicare. "There were also efforts at the state level to
permit prescrip-
tion drug price advertising and to force the designation of drugs in prescriptions by generic name. Nevertheless, drug industry profits continued to be relatively high. Research and development expenditures
among drug companies probably exceeded $800 million ous year.
in 1973,
The
figure
11% above is
the prevideceptive,
somewhat R and D expendi-
however. Compared with
tures in the 19S0s, it would hint at the possibility of a flood of new drugs in the next decade. In reality, a large part of it went for the vastly increased cost of assembling the therapeutic data now being required for every new drug and, to a lesser degree, for checking out adverse reactions to drugs already on the market. Also, new drugs were becoming more difficult to discover, since most of the "easy" therapeutic categories had been heavily investigated during the (donald a. davis) preceding 20 years.
—
[73.'.D.4j
PLASTICS Worldwide, the plastics industry began 1974 in bad shape. This was readily understandable in view of its almost total dependence on petrochemical (i.e., oil-derived) raw materials. These were in short supply to varying degrees even before the Middle East war of October 1973, due to the combined effects of low investment in additional refinery capacity and an unexpectedly rapid increase in demand. There was also a tendency to give priority to gasoUne (petrol) and other
fuel uses for crude oil rather than to chemicals, although petrochemicals account for
only
5-7%
of
oil.
When the Middle East oil producers restricted output, placed a complete embargo on exports to certain markets, and began massively increasing prices for crude, world plastics markets with those for the rest of were reduced to near the chemical industry chaos. With restricted petrochemicals output and hoarding by speculators, acute scarcities developed and prices rocketed. In the case of styrene, admittedly the worst example, the
—
—
regular price in Europe rose by around 500% in some 18 months, up to the spring o( 1974. Prices asked on the black market increased as much as tenfold. In most areas demand for plastics materials by processors continued at a high level throughout the first half of the year, but the supply position progressively stabilized, and the black market generally collapsed during the summer. In the second half of 1974 t more general downturn of business became apparent, with processors reducing inventories. This had the effect of somewhat alleviating the feedstock problem for the time being, although many materials such as nylon remained in short supply. Assuming no further complications in crude oil supply, the prospects were that the level of economic activity in most industrialized countries would recover by the end of 1975 or early 1976. This, together with nat-
growth
ural likely
to
in
result
demand, seemed reemergcnce of an
plastics in
the
material supply problem, since iiot enough additional petrochemicals capacity would be completed by then. A stable balance between supply and demand was unlikely much before the end of 1977. With the increase in crude oil prices, costs of plastics naturally followed suit. This gave rise to much speculation about the future competitiveness of plastics as against other basic materials, such as metals, wood, and paper. .\ study carried out in the U.K. by Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. revealed that a 300% increase in crude oil prices resulted, for instance, in rises of 200% for ethylene and 100% for polyethylene molding materials, but only 30% for polyethylene acute
bags and
40%
were
ures
for extruded pipe. These 6gtypical for the large-tonnage
commodity thermoplastics. The ICI report concluded that price increases for
articles
these plastics were of the same order as those for articles made from competing materials; that to make articles from plastics required, in general, less energy than
made from
to
make them from
traditional
materials,
even allowing for the oil used for feedstock; and that the long-term growth prospects such thermoplastics, especially polypropylene, were if anything improved by for
the increases in oil prices. all these areas, greater attention
In being
paid
to
improved
was
flame-retardant
properties to meet higher standards imposed by regulatory bodies. Research into these problems was tending to concentrate on the development of new polymer systems rather
than on the traditional approach through additives. Other work concerned improved plastics-forming methods, with renewed interest in rotational molding and structursl foams. Higher prices meant more attention to recycling, filled materials, and better process control.
An acute environmental problem arose in 1974 as a result of allegations that contact with vinyl chloride monomer could cause • rare
form of
liver cancer. {Set
Health AMV
Disease.) With the U.S. taking the lea^ extremely severe limitations on the permi^ sible atmospheric concentration of vinjn chloride in manufacturing locations wei«
Although the evidence related only monomer, a cloud was also cast on polyvinyl chloride (PVC), causing tremors throughout the whole of the huge industry concerned with the manufacture and use of this, the largest-tonnage plastic of all. This was particularly true since a considerable proportion of PVC applications involved contact with food, beverages, or potable water, and there was a suggestion that unreacted monomer might be present in some issued.
to the
cases as a residue. Whatever the outcome, it was certain that increasingly stringent stan-
dards would be required of food-grade plasinvolving exhaustive and expensive tics, testing.
Final estimates for world plastics production in 1973 by European Plastics News put the total at 43.3 million metric tons (West-
Arnold Grunwald Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, III., demonstrates a portable machine of his invention that can translate data on a magnetic tape into Braille. A blind person would "read" by touching an endless plastic belt on which the Braille is stamped. of the
ern Europe 16.5 million tons; Eastern Europe 5.1 million tons; U.S. 13.2 million tons; Japan 6.S million tons; remainder of the world 2 million tons). Industry performance in 1974 was unusually difficult to predict before the appearance of firm statistics, but some expansion did take place. U.S. plastics production in the first half of the year rose compared with the same period by about (robin c. penfold) in 1973.
4%
PRINTING Severe paper shortages continued to harass the printing and publishing industries in 1974, and there were further heavy increases in the prices of all types of paper. Careful preplanning and cost control became meaningless as publishers and print buyers faced ever rising costs and wages and severe increases in postal and freight charges.
Web
offset lost its
supremacy. Mass
cir-
and mail order producers looked afresh at gravure, with its ability to give high-fidelity colour reproduction on cheap, lightweight papers, and at letterpress culation magazine
rotary printing. Gravure still suffered from the mystique of being difficult to master, but
The Netherlands a large-scale reproduction operation trained out-of-work coal miners to become skilled craftsmen. In West Germany, compact electronic cylinder engraving machines were introduced by Dr.Ing. Rudolf Hell. Graphicart and Daetwyler of Switzerland and West Germany's Langbein-Pfannhauser, THM, Walter of Munich, and Saueressig produced sophisticated, fully automatic, cylinder processing systems. in
photopolymer plates became commonplace in newspaper and book production. Letterfiex of the U.S. began manufacture in Britain and recorded many In
letterpress,
new users worldwide, including the Asahi Shimbun newspapers of Japan, home of its main plate competitors, APR and Napp. DuPont introduced a photopolymer plate for flexographic printing and, in West Germany, BASF Nyloprint announced a similar
development.
The move became
a
colour scanners. Linoscan was first with simultaneous scanning of several colours. In France, Logabax introduced a directscreening four-colour photographic colour separation system, bringing scanner-like automation to this method of reproduction. A more modest system was introduced by Vanits
t732.D.S]
to electronic colour scanners with the Japanese printing
tide,
industry an enthusiastic convert. Crosfield Electronics and Sun Graphic Systems in the U.S. sold Magnascan 460 scanners to the
Far East in batches of 20. With Spain's printing industry expected to become a ma-
European growth sector, Hauser y Menet Madrid installed three Magnascan units alongside two existing Chromagraph-Hell jor in
In response to a long-standing need of the printing industry, new blackand-white electronic scanning systems were announced by Crosfield in Britain and Hell scanners.
West Germany; the latter made a specialjpurpose scanner for black-and-white, and the British company offered attachments ;in
that extended the range of applications of
In
nier.
West Germany, Klimsch
offered
complete automation by electronics on large reproduction cameras. In Paris, at the International Paper Printing and Graphic Arts Industries Exhibition
(TPG),
the
major European printing show,
Konig & Bauer achieved the coup of the year in sheet-fed printing with the introduction of Rapida III. Using a novel sheetlaying drum system, the offset two-colour machine could print 15,000-plus sheets per hour. Four-colour versions were promised. Solna Offset of Sweden offered the Model 164 machine for single-button control, relieving the operator of the need to handle several sequential operations in press control an advantage wherever skilled labour
—
was
scarce.
In Scotland, Wm. Collins & Sons, producers of over 70 million books a year, laid claim to the title of the world's largest bookproduction unit and installed a second Roland 800 and an American Cameron book printing press that could print and deliver complete books in a single operation. By mid-1974, 14 such presses had sold worldwide. Swedish printers set new records in low manning for printing machines. At Sola Allchanda, only two men controlled a sixunit Solna web offset press. Transfer printing became big business. Strachan & Henshaw in Britain, anticipating
demand
for several hundred presses a year, extra-wide presses, and Cobden Chadwick, also of Britain, Windmoller & Hblscher of West Germany, and several U.S. companies followed suit. The Far East became a major market for transfer printing on substrata, for transfer to textiles and
designed
other materials. Phototypesetting consolidated gains of previous years. Linotron 303 was launched as a lower priced system of cathode-raytube (CRT) photosetting. The Monotype
Corp. broke with its own tradition by introducing the 400/8 phototypesetter, operated from 8-level tape instead of the 51-channel
Monotype
spool.
From
the
U.S.,
Photon
reported a growing number of European installations of the APS-4 CRT system. At the Scottish Daily Record, phototypesetting and
web
offset
largest
combined
web
to
produce the world's
offset daily.
Electronic editing systems, once considered an expensive gimmick, were adopted by newspapers, particularly in the U.S., where the world's first all-electronic newsroom was installed at
Davenport,
la.
The two major
U.S. news agencies, AP and UPI, placed editing multimillion-dollar orders for and correction systems. The Nieuwe Rot-
CRT
terdamse Courani in The Netherlands and the Baltimore (Md.) Sun became the first large newspapers with completely electronic text and advertising handling. The use of the Krantz computer editing system was pioneered by WAZ of West Germany. Gannett Newspapers in the U.S. was pioneering laser engraving of printing plates directly from film or pasteup. By using a combination of the Pagitron system of Optronics Inc. with the Laserplate of Lasergraphics Inc., both U.S. companies, the pho-
tographic stages in typesetting, reproduction,
and platemaking could be completely bypassed. The combination made it possible to electronically scan pictures (in black and white), electronically generate letter images,
and assemble both according to a layout sketch on a display screen. Once the page imposition was displayed, a pushbutton activated the laser beam, which engraved printing plates or exposed coatings on the plates. (W. PINCUS jaspert) [73S.E.3-4]
RUBBER Shortages of materials plagued the rubber industry during 1974. In addition to petrochemical-based materials, many other chemicals, fillers, and miscellaneous materials used in rubber manufacture were scarce, although some so-called shortages were later found to be the result of maldistribution. The need to find substitutes resulted in some innovations in rubber compound formulation. Prices of raw materials based on petroleum reflected increases in the price of crude oil, Prices of other materials also rose drastically as a result of higher labour costs and price increases reflecting the supply and demand situation. The oil crisis affected the rubber industry in other ways. The marked increase in sales of small cars could have some effect on rubber consumption, since they use smaller tires that require considerably less rubber. This was further compounded by the trend toward fewer miles of driving.
Industrial Production
and Technology
Tabl> VI. Nolura
Japan, abandoned fixed price contracts, and yards with a heavy investment in building docks for 700,000-tonners were becoming anxious as orders for vessels over 400,000 tons became harder to obtain. The possibihty of the Suez Canal reopening in 1975, plus the slowing down in the rate of
in
increase in world oil consumption, caused owners to pause in their rush to order very large and ultralarge crude carriers, and in many cases orders were modified or changed.
Despite their high cost (currently about $16 million for a 25,000-tonner), the products carriers were becoming popular, and the average size on order rose from 25,000 to 50,000 tons dw. Demand for these vessels might be expected to increase as more refineries were built by the Arab oil-producing countries.
In September a Spanish consulting and engineering company, Sener, started work on a new shipyard designed for the production of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and liquefied petroleum gas carriers of up to 130,000-cu.m. capacity. The shipyard, known as Crinavias, would produce approximately four vessels a year, each valued at about $104 million. The new Setenave shipyard in Portugal, part of the Lisnave group, was in production on a site only 30 mi. S of Lisnave's own giant repair yard at Lisbon. Malta was chosen by China as the site of a new building dock for 400,000-tonners. After years in the doldrums, the larger private U.S. shipyards enjoyed an unprecedented peacetime boom. Orders for 55 vessels were placed with U.S. yards, and 16 ships were converted to modern container vessels. The energy crisis and the U.S. Project Independence would ensure a steady flow of orders for offshore drilling rigs and tankers, critical shortage of skilled manpower
but a
was
a problem. French shipyards remained among the major builders of LNG carriers, but they were also moving into the 500,000-ton
tanker class. After a surge of large tanker building, Dutch shipyards concentrated on smaller vessels of all types, particularly supply vessels for oil rigs. Shipyards that had specialized in dredging vessels for several years were now producing drillships and pipe-laying barges. All Scandinavian and Finnish yards were
Kockums of Sweden added a second gantry crane that could lift 1,500ton steel sections, and the Uddevalla yard was being expanded to build 485,000-tonfully occupied.
1974 U.K. yards had orders (excluding naval work) worth over £1,300
ners.
Early
million
in
and work
over 7 million
hand was running at tons gross. The U.K. industry in
was in its best position for many years, but was being threatened with outright nationalization by the Labour government. (w. D. ewart) [734.E.7]
TEXTILE INDUSTRY For
textile industries around the world, 1974 was far from being a happy year. Protracted labour disputes in much of British industry had an adverse effect on the textile raw materials situation, causing production and distribution problems in home and overseas markets. Unprecedented increases in the prices of oil products were added to political and economic uncertainties. Escalating prices for finished products quickly led to falling demand, reflected in reduced sales of yarns
cloths. By the end of the year, some spinning and weaving plants were working short-time. With a similar situation in most textile-producing countries, the im-
and
British
mediate future was uncertain. Despite these difficulties, there were no-
table advances in machinery and accessory development. In Britain research centred on spin-texturing man-made filament yarns and on crimping properties of bicomponent fibres. A Yorkshire firm's new industrial fabric rapier looms were said to eliminate weft
waste completely. A ten-spindle, 2,000-rpm, fully automatic machine converted yarns into skeins of various sizes, and a new yarn breakage detector operated equally well on slow or fast moving yarns of coarse or fine denier.
West German firms produced
a shuttleless
double-piush loom with double-lift jacquard, new designs for dye centres, an improved dye cone for synthetic yarns, an open-end spinning machine for man-made fibres in medium staple lengths, and an electronically controlled, single-bed, large-diameter circular knitting machine to produce imitation fur and other plush-type fabrics. One Swiss firm brought out a new openwidth machine for tensionless washing-off treatment of woven and printed cottons and synthetics. Another produced a new openwidth washing machine to handle cloths up to two metres wide. A high-speed multicolour needle loom for narrow fabrics utilized full-width or sectional warps, or individual bobbins. A multihead automatic embroidery machine incorporated a device allowing infinite length of stitch. A French company's new colour coordinator could create over 100,000 variations in tone. A U.S. specialized contract carpet yarn program offered considerable scope and flexibility in carpet yarns. A Dutch firm's extension to a rotary screen printing machine would print transfer paper. Experts from ten countries attended a symposium in Budapest, Hung., on modern sizing materials, sizing technology and equipment, and problems of desizing. European flax fibre research organizations met in Paris. The European Disposables Association became the European Disposables and Non(Alfred dawber) Wovens Association. Natural Fibres. Cotton. Although world production in the 1973-74 season declined marginally, from 60 million to 59.6 million bales, an increase in opening stocks raised the
volume of global supplies to 81.7 million bales, the highest in eight years. During total
cotton prices rose to unprecedented heights. At the peak in January 1974, average quotation was nearly three
the season the
times the low point in September 1972. To some extent the higher prices reflected rising consumption as well as near-record levels of international trade. Consumption had increased steadily for a decade, and in
1973-74 it rose by more than 1.5 milHon bales over the previous season. Most of the gains were in Asia, notably Taiwan and Korea, but stock rebuilding also occurred because of sharp increases in output in the two previous seasons. A fall of 3.5% in world planted acreage was almost offset by record yields averaging per ac. Notable increases in producwere achieved in the Communist counCentral America, Syria, and the Sudan. Serious floods in growing areas in the U.S. depleted the crop despite near-record yields, while significant gains were made in the So-
355
lb.
tivity tries,
viet
Union and China
as a result of
improved
harvesting methods. World stocks at the beginning of the 1973-74 season showed the first significant increase since 1968-69, when former heavy surpluses had been liquidated. The initial carry-over was equivalent to about 4.5 months' consumption, compared with the very low level a year earlier when stocks were sufficient to meet only about 4.2 months' requirements. The Liverpool index of average values
industrial Production
and Technology
began the 1973-74 season at nearly 70 cents a pound. Sharp advances were posted in subsequent months, with a new peak of 91^ cents registered in mid-January. Subsequent movements were invariably downward; 70 cents was quoted in April, 60 cents at the end of August, and 53^ cents in mid-October. Little if any increase in output was forecast for 1974-75, as the predicted expansion in planted acreage failed to materialize because of unfavourable weather conditions. Growers were discouraged by the decline in
and higher production costs. Harvestwas also affected by shortages of important agricultural chemicals. Continuation of the high rate of consumption growth seemed unlikely as most countries reported economic stagnation, surging inflation, and financial difficulties. In the less developed areas of Asia, South America, and Africa, the rising trend in aggregate cotton consumption was expected to persist but at a considerably reduced rate. (ARTHUR TATTERSALL) Silk. The future of the world's silk trade continued to appear uncertain in 1974. In early 1973 China had raised its raw silk prices
ing
prices
by some 80%
in
two
steps,
and buy-
ing had virtually ceased. This situation continued until August 1973, when the Chinese lowered prices by 10%. This arbitrary move had the result of snuffing all confidence, and the first reaction of Western manufacturers was to switch to other fibres. In earlier years the defection of Western consumers might not have influenced the
market unduly, since Japan had been anxious to lay hands on any available silk to satisfy the booming domestic market. But credit measures in Japan were proving effective, and by October 1973 there were indications of resistance in the demand for kimonos. This was followed by the shock of Arab oil prices, and by the turn of the year both cocoon farmers and reelers viewed the future anxiously. In January 1974 Japanese reelers put up a large sum of money to take surplus silk off the market, and in February a voluntary ten-day shutdown of all filatures was implemented, despite protests by the government. A ban on raw silk imports was called for, but was opposed by the government as being contrary to the pohcy of trade Hberali-
zation and likely to provoke retaliation. Meanwhile, with the cocoon crop drawing nearer, the farmers maintained unremitting pressure on the government both to raise the authority of the semi-official Raw Silk Corporation for the purchase of silk from 30,000 to 60.000 bales and to limit imports. However, it was not until July 1974, when stocks had risen to 56,000 bales, that the government acted. It was then announced that as from August 1 the Raw Silk Corporation would be granted exclusivity for raw silk imports for a period of ten months, while its authority to purchase on the home market would be increased to 50,000 bales.
Meanwhile, the Chinese reduced prices by in November 1973 and then held firm June 1974, when they announced a further 19% reduction. It was thought that this latter drop had been planned for March, but that the Chinese were persuaded by Japanese farmers to hold their hand until cocoon prices had been fixed in Japan, In the fall of 1974 silk stocks were high, demand was dwindling, and the next move was awaited with some trepidation. (PETER W. GADDUM)
17%
until
Industrial Production
and Technology BoominK wool prices in 1972-73 had reached a peak in March 1973. Merino M'ool.
prices then fell sharply, bul a relatively high indecisive price trend was maintained until the closing months of the year. Con-
and
tinued
demand from wool-consuming coun-
tries clearly played a vital part in preventing a price slump. Another important factor was the more general boom in all commodity prices, culminating in the extreme rise in the price of oil and associated products, which
meant that synthetic fibres became substantially more expensive. The price for 64s (21-micron) merino wool quoted by the Australian Wool Corporation (AWC) at the beginning of 1974 was 390 cents (Australian) per kilogram (clean basis), compared with the 1973 peak was of 590 cents. By July 1974 the buying more than half the offering to maintain its promised fioor price level, based on 300 cents for this quality. The subsequent
AWC
reluctance to buy wool stemmed partly from the price selected in Australia as a "floor,"
but primarily from a developing recession
in
main consuming countries, particularly Japan, whose demand for wool in 1972-73 had appeared almost insatiable. By mid-1974 the picture was one of high stocks of semimanufactures and fully manufactured textiles in the consuming countries, financial pressures making stock reduction the policy at every stage of manufacture and distribution, and general forecasts of a serious world the
trade recession.
Wool-growing countries were thus faced with urgent marketing decisions. The had barely enough money to maintain its floor price for a matter of weeks after the scheduled opening of the 1974-75 selling season in August, assuming that substantial support would be required. The opening was postponed. Eventually government financial support was promised, but only at a floor price of 250 cents per kilogram for 21-micron
AWC
wool (clean
basis) as a basis for the clip. After purchasing S6% of the offering in held the first eight weeks of selling, the
AWC
total stocks of 635,000 bales costing
A$135
about
The
intention to maintain the floor with government aid throughout the season was reaffirmed at this stage. South Africa and New Zealand followed similar million.
marketing
policies
with
less publicity.
The year, therefore, saw a decisive move toward controlled marketing, with government financial backing either promised or probable in an emergency. Inadequate de-
mand from consuming putting
these
policies
countries was under severe
still
test
toward year's end. For woolgrowers there was slight consolation in signs of a small shift in demand back to virgin wool, primarily at
the expense of
man-made
fibres.
How-
ever, with demand for all textile fibres low and recession looming, 1974 ended on a gloomy and anxious note.
(H. M. F. mam.f.tt) Fibres. In 1974 man-made fiproducers were confronted with the
Man-Made bre
most serious recession since World War II, as shortages and high prices at the beginning of the year gave way to excess capacity and considerable pressure on prices. Faced with greatly increased raw material costs arising from the oil crisis, fibre producers cut back preference to price cutting. By year's end it was estimated that throughout
output
in
Western Europe producers were running at only about 55% of capacity. Despite this, new factories were planned in most devel-
oped countries, although building programs in some less developed countries were slowed It was expected that polyester and polyamide (nylon) would emerge as the more expensive fibres, since they were based on somewhat more complex chemicals and produced by more involved processes than the acrylics and polypropylene. Polypropylene already showed signs of gaining ground and was even being used by some carpet manufacturers as a direct replacement for wool. Acrylics were severely affected by the recession, but the situation was unlikely to continue indefinitely since this class of fibre is inherently cheaper than the polyesters. In polyester fibres there was a clear trend toward the use of textured filament yarns in both warp and weft for a wide range of woven fabrics. A hindrance to the wider use of this type of product had been the glitter that prevented it from being widely accepted for menswear. Now fibre producers were marketing octalobal and pcntalobal crosssection fibres that, when woven, could hardly be distinguished in appearance from worsted-spun yarns. Texturizing is mainly performed by false twisting yarns, and it appeared that friction twisting had taken this process to its final
economic
limits.
There was a renewed interyarns minimum weight. high-speed process
est in air-tcxturizing filament synthetic
to
produce bulky yarns of
It
was a
fairly simple,
capable of producing a variety of
The development
effects.
Britain of epilropic fibre as a solution to the problem of static generation was a major technological step. Epitropic fibre is defined as a fibre whose surface contains partially or wholly embedded particles that modify one or more of the fibre's properties. Initial development was based on using carbon particles to make fibres electrically conductive so that, when they were incorporated in all-synthetic materials, static charges would be effectively in
(peter lennox-kerr)
grounded. [732.C.1; 732. D. 9]
TOBACCO Output of tobacco products in 1973 was estimated to have increased by about 6%, which compared well with the average increase of recent years. But because of the development of techniques designed to economize on leaf tobacco usage, the rate of leaf utilization was not matching the product rate, particularly when that of cigarettes was measured by units rather than by weight. In Western Europe, for example, it was estimated that while in recent years the
growth
mand
for leaf tobacco would inevitably be affected should the synthetics find widespread acceptance; in the U.S. tests, a preference for products containing 70% tobacco
and 30% synthetic was observed. World production of leaf tobacco in 1973 was estimated to have increased by 3% to 10.5
billion
The
crop.
lb.,
equaling the
1967
owed more
increase
record
to
better
weather than to any increase in the area harvested, which only expanded by 1%. Provided no threat from the weather developed, early indications were that this growth rate would be improved in 1974 with an additional increase of about 5%. Such an in-
would help considerably to case the supply situation that had developed over recent years for flue-cured. Hurley, and oriental leaf. In 1973 world tobacco stocks dropped to probably the lowest level for i generation though the improved leaf production in 1973-74 should arrest this deand for this reason, as well as because cline crease tight
—
—
of worldwide inflationary pressures, the cost of tobacco continued to increase. Increases in both domestic consumption and exports led to a record 644 billion cigarettes being produced in the U.S. in 1973, 7}as-
toral nostalgia, Jennifer Johnston's nostalgia this time
taking her as far back as the world of
which was
in fact the
world of Susan
World War
I
Hill's previous
novel.
seemed to handle form more confidently, one male English showed no slackening of confidence
If feminine sensibilities generally
the novel
novelist at least
or vitality:
the fecund
Anthony Burgess published
two novels within the space of three months. Tht Clockwork Testament, subtitled "Enderby's End," wrote off his old poet hero in a blaze of inglorious picaresque adventures in New York and environs where he had been reduced to teaching creative writing to fund the finishing of his epic f)oem. "That much abused creature of earth and air," wrote Norman Shrapnel, "goes out with spirit, firing from every aperture" and enabling his creator to settle a scon or two in the matter of the filming of A Clockwdrk Orange and its consequences. Napoleon Symphony, one of his historical novels, provided a characteristically rich set of variations on Napoleon's life and
—
Iris Murdoch, whose new novel, "The Sacred and Profane Love IVIachine," appeared In 1974.
loves, using Beethoven's "Eroica" for structure rather
as
Joyce used
Homer
for Ulysses.
Lawrence Durrell's Monsieur was Alexandria r^ with many of the themes of his novel quartet
visited,
111
lij
Avignon and Venice (lustime and space, jugand history, and mounting a considerable defense of the Templars and their heresy. Surfeited so sumptuously, most critics com-
echoed and transposed
to
ciously described), dissolving
gling with sex, theology,
plained wistfully of indigestion.
who
but
No
thinness here;
could afford such prose in these inflationary
times? The wordman's book of the year, however, was surely The Terrors of Dr. Treviles, which showed Peter Redgrove continuing the attempt of his poems and his previous novel to make a one-man surrealist revival in England. Not strictly one man, however, since this fantastical romance was written with Penelope Shuttle, who also produced a book of poems with him; and the surrealism was of a peculiarly English kind, dreaming densely of Blake and Celtic mythologies. John Fowles, an easier and more fashionable writer, grouped a collection of novellas around his own translation of the 12th-century Celtic romance called Eliduc, which was key to the title story. The Ebony Tower, an account of a visit to the strange Breton menage of an old expatriate English painter done with a characteristically teasing shimmer of unresolved sexuality. to
be the
form
still the best "English English" Ending Up, about two retired homosexual staff officers in which the crusty fun was occluded by shudders of a timor mortis that the author plainly did not have under control. One had to turn to his far from geriatric spiritual great-uncle P. G. Wodehouse and Aunts Are Not Gentlemen for reassurance
in
comic writer of
his generation, offered, in
a geriatric farce
as assured as ever. C. P.
Snow added to the fascinamoney (In Their
dying the taboo subject of
tion with
Wisdom), deploying formidable
expertise about ex-
pensive surgery, the avoidance of death duties, and other matters of urgent interest to senior citizens of 9 the British upper classes. In Holiday, a study of a i man cast adrift by the traumas of bereavement and a g broken marriage, Stanley Middleton another traditional realist but with imaginative skills strong and patient enough to keep the form alive produced scenes from modern provincial life that earned him a fl salute as the Gissing of our time and a half share of the prestigious Booker Prize. The other half went to Nadine Gordimer for The Conservationist, an intrilicate study of her native South Africa and of its in-
—
—
it
habitants.
Among
the
younger writers were two excellent and unusual kind. Ian Cochrane's
realists of a similar
Gone
in the
tion prize)
Head (runner-up for The Guardian'^ ficand David Cook's Happy Endings both
achieved not description but a tense enactment of the life
of a deprived and
damaged
British society, Coch-
rane especially, using the eyes and language of an >
boy on a council estate in a raw Ulster jtown with a quiet skill that, as Robert Nye observed, adolescent
an observing of life that does words." Intelligent comedy seems
'gives articulation to
aot
often
find
but David Pownall's The an almost Marxian romp
liarder for this generation,
Raining
Tree
War was
improbable social reality of certain secions of post-colonial Africa, and Tom Sharpe, who :onjured dark hilarity from South Africa's nightmares n earlier novels, was almost as funny about the ribal rites of a far from impossible Oxbridge college n Porterhouse Blue.
'.hrough the
J.
motorway
junction, and Maclnnes projecting the development of a fancy sort of English fascism in Out of the Garden (too sentimentally and explicitly for the good of his fiction, though his excellent track
record as a short-range social prophet inspired uneasiness). Probably the best historical novel of the year was the ambitious study of St. Joan by the Australian Thomas Keneally. Blood Red, Sister Rose,
and there were excellent collections of stories by V. S. Pritchett (The Camberwell Beauty) and George
Mackay Brown (Hawkfall). The strenuous halfdozen from Patrick White in The Cockatoos mostly suggested that his heavyweight talent needed more room than this form affords. The year saw the recovery from French of Beckett's early novel Mercier and Canwr and the Texts for Nothing, deeply Irish and refreshingly robust after the bleached bones of the latest prose fragments; also Joyce Gary's unfinished novel Cock Jarvis, dangling strangely in the hiatus in reputation
that
There were weeks when death appeared
fashionable subject of a rather deadly year. Kingsley
Amis, when
dangerous psychosocial properties, Ballard, in Concrete Island, marooning a crashed Jaguar and its driver for 24 chapters in the interstices of a vast
G. Ballard and Colin Maclnnes speculated in
had followed
death;
his
and Challenge, Vita
Sackville-West's long-suppressed novel about her love
with Violet Keppel, with its faint echoes of Orlando. Three of the wayward fictions of W. B. Yeats's painter brother Jack were reissued. The Charmed Life the most rapt and haunting of them; affair
and Macmillan & Co. produced the first volumes of an excellent New Wessex edition of Thomas Hardy. Biography, History, Letters. There was a modest Romantic Revival: not just a coinciding of the 150th anniversary of Byron's death and attendant publications with new biographies of Shelley and Mary Wollstonecraft and an excellent book on Keats, but a kind of fashionable response to flecting
boredom with
some of these
things, re-
the modern, skepticism about
the superficial rationality of creaking social arrangements, and movement toward feeling for mindless-
some would have said). The Romantics apart, neoromanticism reached some sort of climax with the Conundrum, in which the writer now called Jan Morris related how she had been struggling to get out of her alter ego, the journalist and traveler, husband and father James Morris, through all his charmed and eventful life; and how eventually he had done the gallant thing and brought her somewhat into being with the help of hormone pills and a Casablanca surgeon's knife. Not least because it had happened to a writer gifted enough to be able to tell it well, it was an extraordinary story, full of incidental insights for example into the bisexual tone of such English institutions as public schools and smart cavalry regiments. What some critics found improbable was the author's sheer ineffability. "Jan ends by savouring the possibility of 'transcending' both sexes in a manner yet to be devised. Some people are never satisfied," wrote the TLS reviewer in a piece headed "Mr. Morris Changes Trains," the last of the ancien ness,
publication of
:
regime's notorious puns. Claire Tomalin's The Life and Death of Mary Wollstonecraft gave a clear and thoughtful account of a
woman who was
thought improperly to play a man's mind and action, and of her loves and milieux, among the radical dissenters of London and the revolutionaries of Paris. Shelley The Pursuit, by the young poet and critic Richard Holmes, told that extraordinary story in great detail in a huge book "the fullest connected part by her fierce independence of
—
—
Lawrence
Durrell,
whose
novel "Monsieur,"
published
in
1974 and
in Avignon and Venice, echoed themes of his earlier "Alexandria
Quartet."
set
452
Literature
account we yet have of Shelley's writing and publishing history." thought Raymond Williams, and particularly good on what another critic, Kathleen Raine, put down as "student politics"; giving us a chance to see Shelley much plainer than before. Christopher Ricks's Keats and Embarrassment, far from plain, was a highly ingenious argument, with Matthew Arnold and others, atiout the integrity of Keats's
sensuousness. together with a sympathetic account of the letters, of the poet's own physical embarrassments and his exemplariness in coping with them. There was a plurality of books about Byron, that "plural
person" as Doris Langley Moore called him in one of Accounts the more useful of them. Lord Byron Rendered, which contributed biographical shading
—
from a study of his bills. Douglas Day's Malcolm Louiry was the first full biography of the author of Under tlie Volcano, a reading persuasive enough to leave a smaller margin of doubt that Lowry mattered. Malcolm Lowry: His Art and Early Life was a shorter, personal account by
experience.
The
work by professional
finest
historians
to be found in J. C. Beaglehole's masteriy Life of Capt. James Cook, in John Rosselli's study of the political education of a Liberal imperialist, Lord Wil-
was
liam Bentinck, and
in
Norman Hampson's Robes-
pierre, eccentrically but effectively cast as
argument
—
between four friends a historian, a civil servant, a parson, and a Communist. Arthur Koestler. whose work helped to defrost science, produced a collection of recent essays on American psychiatry, Wittgenstein, intuition, ESP, and other frontier topics in The Heel of Achilles. Geoffrey Moorhouse's account of his camel journey across the "empty quarter" The Pearful Void, was outstanding among a quest books (another thin category)
—
author's
own psychic
west-east of Africa, the travel into
the
interior to confront his fear,
and
a fascinating trip on both levels. Piers Paul Read's .4live was an account of the Uruguayan rugby players
who survived companions
Andes by eating
a plane crash in the
killed in the landing, well-written but a
Muriel Bradbrook, the Shakespearean scholar, who came from the same posh suburb of Liverpool as Lowry and was a contemporary at Cambridge. Ian Gregor wrote an excellent study of Hardy's major fiction in The Great Web, and Margaret Drabble's
mite uncrirical about the "sacrificial" character of the
persuade people who
of England, should have come to an end, but with Staffordshire and Oxfordshire the last two counties
Arnold Bennett seemed
likely to
were happy to read her to read him. A. L. Rowse's claim in 1973 to have discovered a palpable and historical "dark lady" was toned down somewhat when he produced his very readable account of the casebook of her "consultant," the astrologer Simon Forman, in Simon porman: Sex and Society in Shakespeare's Age. It did give new and interesting details of "sex and society in Shakespeare's age," as the prithee-come-hither subtitle put it; but as John Buxton wrote, "as so often we come tantalizingly close to
Shakespeare without standing in
his
presence."
tragedy.
the achievement of a glorious work. It
Finally,
was hard
to believe that, after a quarter of a century,
that great enterprise, Sir Nikolaus Pevsner's Buildings
were done, and our aesthetical modern Domesday (w. l. webb) Book was complete. Poetry. Following the trend of recent years, 1974 produced an extraordinary number of competent, if not always exciting, first collections; and once again it was the little "shoestring" presses rather than the large
publishing organizations
that
introduced
the
to a wider public. As in previous years pamphlet publishers, engaged in a constant struggle with the problems of inflation, continued to exercise an influence upon British poetry far out of
new poets these
It was not a notable year for biography. The Bloomsbury boom mercifully subsided not much more to take account of than the second volume of the memoirs of Lady OttoUne Morrell, Ottoline at
proportion to the resources available to them. One of the most impressive of the new poets was Robin Hamilton, whose Poems justifiably won him a Gregory Award during the year. Hamilton's concern
Garsington, giving her account of her affair with Bertrand Russell and a rather sad and touching selfThat Sargent among modem biographers,
with the past and his interest in classical themes and characters as a means of coping with intractable material allowed him not only to project himself imaginatively but also to maintain a stricter control over
:
portrait.
Michael Holroyd, had moved on to Augustus John with a first volume for which Geoffrey Grigson accused him of knowing that John was an inferior painter and yet of carrying on as if he had been important.
Kenneth Clark reviewed
it
more
tolerantly,
with a highly vulnerable autobiography out in the same season {Another Part of the Wood, full of proper names and the highest vulgarization; not innocent of malice nor of a sad selfas befitted a
man
awareness; but invaluable on the art politics of his time). Sybille Bedford completed her biography of Aldous Huxley and Graham Greene refurbished an early unpublished study of the Restoration rake and poet in Lord Rochester's land
Monkey,
incidentally claim-
an early colony of Greene-
London as — "sinner with an uneasy conscience ... a perfect
ing Restoration
Greene hero," as Martin Dodsworth observed. Among the less public memoirs, David Thomson's Woodbrook was an elegaic and moving meditation on his personal history, as an awkward young man in love with the girl he was tutoring in a shabby Big House in West Cork in the 1930s, and on the rough history of the Anglo-Irish class from which she came: a
book that would mark some readers
like personal
both diction and emotion. In High Places Joan Murray Simpson celebrated the "high places" of spiritual experience and the "blessedness at the heart of things," as well as her love of geographic heights ID
various parts of Europe. Other
first
collections were
Ravenswood by Richard Ryan, A Fire by the Set by Alasdair Clayre, and Cape Drives by the young South African Christopher Hope. Nevertheless, 1974 was more likely to be remembered for a number of very significant books by wellknown poets. First, the posthumous poems of W. H. Auden appeared under the title Thank You, Fogappropriate title as the collection showed Auden's last phase to have been one of relaxed thanksgiving. Tk$'^ Sleeping Lord and Other Fragments by David Joi
—a
combination of legend, history, philosophy,
—
renewed the problei indictment of modern society of assessing Jones's achievement, as the title and author's notes indicated that these "fragments" mi| eventually form part of a greater work and providi vital link between his earlier In Parenthesis and Tl
Anathcmata. Most important of
all
was
the publication of Philip
High Windows, which some
Larkin's fourth volume,
critics welcomed as the "book of a decade." Although Larkin had always firmly rejected the argument that a poet's work should show signs of development over
was indisputable evidence of
a period, there
development
his
this highly praised collection;
in
own in
it
seemed to be countered by a determination to find meaning and purpose in human survival and to celebrate the rituals and customs by Larkin's earlier defeatism
which we attempt to limit death's power.
Although
Jon
in
Silkin's
The
Principle of
Water
such characteristic themes as the 12th-century massacre of the
Jews
York were reworked,
at
a group of
I
;
I
j
i
j
_
;
I
it
became -difficult
to distinguish be-
tween author and subject. The Sea-Bell and Other Poems by Susanne Knowles was perhaps the most
>
curious collection in several years, but
I
choice of subject tended to be
j
—dung
|tional
somewhat unconven-
globe artichokes,
beetles,
the poet's
if
left-handed
whelks, parasites living in the tears of hippopotamuses
i
New Journalism with its lens turned inward on the reporter himself to the new assertiveness of homosexuals and other increasingly proud raphy, from the
minorities.
No
writer, not
even Mailer or Lowell, contributed
more to the confessional climate than Philip Roth. Thanks to Portnoy's Complaint a good slice of the year's fiction seemed to come verbatim from the writer's
own hours on the couch. In his new book, Man, which deals with the operatically
unhappy marriage of
self so closely that
I
I
—her witty attention
and her deployment of fascinatingly useless information marked her as an individual poet of remarkable craftsmanship. to detail
Literature
confessional poetry to the pervasiveness of pornog-
My
was a balanced selection from two of his earlier books, though surprisingly enough it included nothing from Root and Branch (1969), the best of the three. Stallworthy's latest poems. Hand in Hand, exhibited the poet's lyrical powers and his gift for manipulating sensuous imagery against a background of ordinary life, in a sequence describing a love affair. .Anthony Thwaite's New Confessions added considerably to the growing reputation of its author. Reminiscent of Geoffrey Hill's Mercian Hymns in conception, this collection of poems and prose pieces was based upon St. Augustine, although throughout the volume Thwaite used the commentary on the life and times of the 4th-century bishop of Hippo to contemplate his own experience, at times identifying him-
j
in society
their privates or spilling their guts,
to
People" enabled him to express his sensitivities in a striking new way. Jon Stallworthy's The Apple Barrel
I
Everywhere
Shetland
poems also demonstrated the poet's abihty capture both the outlook and the life-style of the Shetland islanders, and his long verse play "The
453
was one of the big losers. and the arts people were baring from the vogue of
of values, privacy
tion
I
Life as a
a successful
young
returned to the quasi-autobiographical
writer,
mode
Roth
of Port-
noy and Goodbye, Columbus. Peter Tamopol,
the
protagonist-monologist of Roth's new novel, is a cunning sophist and casuist, a narcissist, tireless selfjustifier,
He is also, of course, man already too recogniz-
and wily paranoiac.
Roth recording
his life as a
—
manque the Jewish boy was such a nuisance in the puband trouble in his
able as that of the mensch
from lic
New Jersey who
library that he
20s and
is
now
Tstill)
Spielvogel. Standing ing,
Tamopol
into marriage
fell
in expensive analysis with Dr.
amid the
ruins of his
own mak-
eloquently denounces fate, the world,
unman him; yet he manages, in with himself and the world, somewin them all, a triumphant witness to his own dismemberment. At one point, he imagines his wife (a castrating Clytemnestra) suggesting that he call the universal plot to
his endless quarrels
how
to
book "My Martyrdom as a Man." If Mailer's The Prisoner of Sex was a self-serving attack on women's lib. Life as a Man was an unpolemical mirror image of its literature, a casebook of male rage and his
My
resentment, a contribution to the literature of intersexual victimization. So, in the face of such despair, whatever its provenance, what's so funny? A good deal, beginning with despair itself and the voice that is its funnel to
Among
the collected editions that helped to make Poems of Andrew Young, Selected Poems, 1946-1963 Thomas, Selected Poems, 1967-1973 by John
1974 a memorable year were the Complete the late
by R. S. Pudney, and In the Trojan Ditch, which contained the
poems and selected translations of C. H. Other volumes of note were My Daughters, by Karen Gershon, The Weil-Wishers by Edward Lucie-Smith, High Island by Richard Murphy, Notebooks of Robinson Crusoe by Iain jCrichton Smith, and The Faber Book of Irish Verse edited by John Montague. (howard sergeant) collected Sisson.
My
Sisters
United States.
'
l'i74
Fiction. It finally
became
clear in
that the struggle against the extremes of natural-
ism and symbolism, or
been largely won. confessional reality.
raw and
The novel
power without
rarefied fiction,
could
now
had
afford a greater
losing its hold on artistic
Thus, trends emergent for a decade began to novel of confession and sexwoman both clari-
solidify, as the existential
ressentiment and the novel as
ual ified.
The confessional novel did not embody any philosophy
;
rather,
it
passionately rendered the growing
sense of alienation in the U.S. Its solitary hero found I
his
values in extreme victimization or else gave him-
|self to
'so
the void.
Never
in history
driven to expose themselves
—
had Americans been in the recent evalua-
a
,ij_
Philip Roth's novel,
"My
new
Life as a
Man,"
continued the confessional
mode
of erotic
anthropology of his "Portnoy's Complaint."
— confessional "I" who tells this story spends two years and $10,000 discussing her problems with Gould's Dr. S. Conrad Foxx her problems Spielvogel mainly being her preference for her own grossly masochistic fantasies to the real thing she would let her diaphragm "expire with her driver's license." Fear of Flying was another wayward confessional entertainment by another chafed spirit. Erica Jong.
454
Literature
— —
—
Her heroine, Isadora Zelda, is one of those Marjorie Momingstars who become neurotic Jewish-American princesses or prom queens full of not only their mothers' aspirations but their own fears fflying) and guilts (random sex). The truth's revealed: Freudian psychologists
make
better lovers than Laingians.
Sue Kaufman's Falling Bodies, the fifth novel by the author of Diary of a Mad Housewife, was yet another story about the plight of the passive, harassed, neurotic housewife no feminist tract, but a mocking
—
portrayal of female ineffectuality. All of Kaufman's
studs Terkel, whose 1974 best-seller, "Working/'
housewives are pretty much the same and so is their urbanized and unencumbered life they have yet to pick up any appliance heavier than the Water Pik. Thus Emma Sohier, who has had a bad year, which included her long hospitalization from some fever of unknown origin leaving her unnerved by fugue states
—
was
a synthesis of transcribed recordings of
some 100 Americans walks of
life
in all
talking
about their daily work.
—
and the tension between the two the more upon its exalted status most wretched the world has ever known, the more the voice, pitched to a scream, an unending gescfirei, the voice of a depraved saint ... the more the voice undercuts and nullifies the literary despair it claims as uniquely its own. This, then, baldly basted the world
;
hysterically the despair insists
as the
together,
is
Roth's very all
of Jewish intel-
worked and reworked from
lectual slapstick,
sources and
own kind
earlier
going back to that primal motherlode
of neurosis that has led
him through other areas
of
"erotic anthropology." Like Rousseau's Confessions
and
its
modern progeny.
ing us to
part of
view the its
finally like
man
My
Life
is
reckless in invit-
rather than the writer; that
is
appeal. For all its egotism, My Life is Portnoy a vulnerable and affecting work,
which ends with the hero in "sexual quarantine" waiting only "to be weaned from the other sex forever." Surprising in the light of his ambivalent, even degrading attitudes toward women. Roth's fiction had the most visible influence on the emerging new women writers, who were just getting into the confessional swing w-hen Portnoy appeared. They had more barriers to breach, especially in writing about sex, and though a number of women some very movingly hewed to the lugubrious line as if they had invented it, some of the recent best like Erica Jong and Sue Kaufman developed a style of exuberant comic recollection enabling them not only to talk about sex but to tell it straight while eluding the trap of ax-grinding and moralizing. Whatever their flaws, Jong's Fear of Flying and Lois Gould's Final Analysis created a fresh voice that made us want to laugh. You could almost put them in the same dormitory room if you thought about it Lois Gould, Erica as they let their hair down Jong, and Sue Kaufman and raise their consciousness; they had a good deal in common, writing about fashionable young women of talent and worldly experience that they do not know quite how to apply. And all of them managed to make it seem as inanimate and indispensable as their last pair of panty hose. The heroine of Final Atuilysis,
—
—
Lois Gould's third novel,
shoved
is
—
another neglected
who whispers and weighs under 110 lb. The
to the side of the king-sized bed,
audibly, cries a
lot,
woman
involving falling bodies, returns home to a son who burns bedsheets and to a husband whose hypochondriasis has reached unnatural proportions. Something Happened, Joseph Heller's long-awaited second novel after Catch-22, was a major confessional
work, a representation of the underachieved contemporary man booby-trapped all the way from his harassment at home to the office where he is making his
to
way up over someone else's body. Perhaps closest one of Roth's middle-aged self-made victims, full more guilts than any man should
of lapsed hopes and
have to assume, Bob Slocum, Heller's hero, is seen always on the verge of something ominously imminent suicide, failure, death while having experienced a string of little satisfactions, "jobs, love af-
—
—
and fornications." Slocum figures negatively as husband of a wife who now drinks too much even if she has become more amatory in the process, father of a daughter who challenges and undermines him, and nonfather of a son who is retarded and of whom he prefers not to think at all. Obviously there was none of the rogue absurdism or imaginative ver%'e of Catch-22, though the work was touted as a masterpiece by critics who panned the first novel; indeed,! the work is unrelievedly pessimistic to the degree that Slocum is symptomatic of this age beleaguered all the way from his bad teeth to his rotten conscience. fairs,
—
The novel
is
a textbook in classical psychoanalysis,
taking the hero through a "talking cure" which
is
essentially an interior dialogue, as private as the con-
fession box.
And
its
most confessions, is smothered in angst and high
tone, like
lugubrious and realistic, seriousness.
Standing somewhat apart
from the confessionti
trend, a few novels of fantasy (and fewer of paranoid
surrealism! achieved prominence. tasy of
is
The novel
of fan-
often an intimate of chaos, a strange mutation
comedy and authors drawn ;
to that
form are often
geomancers of language, players, and parodists to the bone. Their Nabokovian ironies do not always concetl their desperation, their disgust with reality, or their
obsession with death.
The most somber entry was Long Distance by Penelope Mortimer, an original, distinguished, puzzling novel inhabited by an unnamed woman in a greet
who is doomed to repeat remembered who will be doomed to delete experience that might betray any independence of spirit or show of feeling. She escapes everything but memory; as it was with Sartre's No
of academia,
Exit, so here.
of popular cultish mythology.
white mansion (asylum?) experience
until
it
—
is
William Kotzwinkle's The Fan
Man
lyric genius, detailing the fantastic
and
The overblown images from which we all have manufactured our own paranoid visions of the true connections of American society is the subject of Richard Condon's llth novel. Winter Kills, a tour de force depicting an assassination of a president and its ineffectual avenger. The intricacies of its style and construction,
many
cauterizing so
its
masochistic pleasure
in
national wounds, spring finally
from Condon's feeling of optimism
in
darkness that
only healing satire can truly bring.
A
major work of black American fiction was // Beale Street Could Talk, James Baldwin's fifth novel,
New York
a first-person suspense narrative with a street love story into
young black
lingers
the bargain.
in
jail
The problem:
a
falsely accused of rape
while his pregnant lover carries the legal ball and the
Also notable was Richard Brautigan's The HawkUne Monster, a humorous "Gothic Western" by a cracker-barrel surrealist who writes as if he had wandered into a field of ripe cannabis with a pack of Zig Zag papers in his pocket. Leading the popular field was Centennial, another big James Michener novel, more didactic than fictive, book.
sprawling, vast as the
Donald Barthelme's Guilty Pleasures
scored with virtuoso literary legerdemain on themes
crisis, of things steadily becoming shabshock waves arriving so regularly that many have already forgotten what it felt like to stand on steady ground, the year's historians and social critics were read as much for their quality of truth as for their quality of fantasy truth being, as Jane Austen once remarked, very excusable in a historian. Possessing greatest power and immediacy, the genre known modishly as New Journalism cut across tra-
,
inner-city spheres.
especially
angst. Finally,
History, Biography, and Belles Lettres. In a year of
carries
Colorado-Wyoming country it some of its charac-
describes, loose as the morals of
ters, and as interminable as the millions of years of geologic time and human history it encompasses. In more charitable times. Centennial would have been
Literature
professionals entrapped in suburban garden-variety
was a work of
around a ziggurat of garbage. Toting his hot-dog umbrella and his Chinese moon-lute. Horse scuttles through the city to have his mystic vision in Van Cortlandt Park. Kotzwinkle makes it all sing, recycling the hum of the humus so that it becomes a new kind of music of the lives atop, within,
455
awesomely serious
light-pawed jour-
neys of that "hippest of the Hip," Horse Badortie,=
who
unlike her
totally
canon, and The Goddess, with her familiar alienated
ouster and bier, of
—
ditional
intellectual
disciplines,
compounding biog-
raphy and analysis, anecdote and polemic to reveal the inner stresses of America that permitted both author and reader to create a place for themselves, as persons, in the midst of current complexities.
The big story was broken by Carl Bernstein and Robert (""Bob") Woodward's All the President's Men, accomplished by old-fashioned seat-of-the-pants reporting in other words, lots of intuition and a thick stack of telephone numbers. The real drarpa, and
—
there was plenty of
it,
lay in their private-eye tactics.
The centrepiece of their own covert operation was an unnamed high government source they called Deep Throat, with
whom Woodward
arranged secret meet-
by positioning the potted palm on his balcony and through codes scribbled in the morning newspaper. Woodward's wee-hours meetings with Deep Throat in an underground parking garage were pure cinema. Then. too. they amassed enough seamy detail to fascinate even the most avid Watergate wallower, breaking Gordian knots of deception that leave the reader giggling with exasperation. As the scandal went public and out of their hands, Bernstein and Woodward seemed as stunned as the rest of us at where their search for the truth had led. Their city editor, Barry Sussman of the Washington Post, realized it way back at the beginning "We've never had a story like this. ings
—
Just never."
hailed as "an epic labour." In the mass-cult market,
Benchley's Jaws and Gore Vidal's Myron rounded out the pop-fiction entries. The first featured a man-eating shark haunting the beaches of Long Island, forcing men to come to piscatorial terms with themselves. The second, another of Vidal's transsexual delicacies, resurrected Myra Breckenridge or rather altered her 25 years later as Myron with a "reconstructed rehnquist between his legs." Five major short-story collections outwitted the Peter
1'
mortality
Changes
the
of
genre.
Enormous
Grace Paley's
Last Minute found a vocation in glorinow vanished and slightly fabuSecond Avenue. Despite Paley's dazzling style, at the
fying the accents of a
I
,lous this
was a book of
losses
and
failures that
added up
one of the most depressing works of fiction in the decade, hardly a time noted for the prevalence of upbeat writing. Tennessee Williams' Eight Mortal to
last
Ladies Possessed discovered Williams playing with the
word "possessed," implying that
mad because they hope They
try to
to
own
his
ladies are
mysteries of the body.
dominate others, but find that they,
turn, are slaves to the forces of
nature
—
to
in
mortality
Joyce Carol Gates continued her prolificacy with two collections The Hungry Ghosts, seven satiric, allusive comedies on the subject of the foibles
itself.
James
A. Michener's novel "Centennial," a massive
epic of the Colorado-
Wyoming country through the ages, was one of 1974's best-sellers.
1
456
Literature
The major biography
A number of notable Watergate-related studies also appeared. The American Condition by Richard Goodwin, one of the leading apparats in U.S. politics today,
controversial Ladies and
focused polemically on the problem of freedom
worth the wait
—
its
abstract, philosophical, political as jvell as historical
dimensions, and
contemporary America.
relation to
its
He
displayed with great effectiveness the "condition" of America that has produced the very opposite of freedom through the bureaucratic and economic forms it
has allowed to develop. The thesis of noted intelMichael Novak's Choosing Our King: Power-
lectual
was that politics is one of America's secular religions; and the president by embodying the attributes of priest, prophet, and king its most central and operative symbol. On the right, William Buckley produced a short, libertarian, antistatist tract called Four Reforms, namely: cut welfare for states whose per capita income is above the national average replace the graduated income tax with a fiat 15% tax on personal income; introduce aid to parochial schools; and abolish
ful
—
Symbols
in Presidential Politics
—
;
Amendment. More belligerently argued, Ben Wattenberg's The Real America was a gloss on almost everything in sight as well as a triple-edged the Fifth
govern the country; the social benefits than
thesis: liberals are unable to
more prosperity and
U.S. offers
ever before isn't
so
a
is
More
in
history;
its
demagogue, an
and anyone who says
elitist,
traditional history
it
or a fool.
was The European Dis-
covery of America: The Southern Voyages, complet-
"Whig" historian Adm. Samuel Eliot Morison's monumental study of the Spanish and English explorers who discovered both coasts of the Americas. The author focuses mainly on the voyaging brilliant
ing, especially
and how
of
gathered from
Columbus, Magellan, and Drake, and persistent mariners" the nations of Western Europe set
"robust
these all
out on voyages that laid foundations for four great empires "with no other motive power than sail and oar." Morison's in his
humaneness was especially revealed
depiction of
Columbus
as a spiritually zealous
dreamer in search of the Indies, whose strongest epithet was "May God take you." Other important nonfiction works included Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman's Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery, which promised to generate years of controversy, arguing that Southern slaveholders were shrewd, enterprising capitalists, driven by the profit motive to create a system of bonded labour that was both more efficient and more human than "traditional historians had suspected." Studs Terkel's Working printed the spoken words of sustained pain and frustration in a collection of over 100 portraits of people thinking about their work.
Most
of the portraits are enclosed in
human
skin, and these people sigh and rage into one's Obviously conceived as an integrated human document, it was probably not conceived to be what it also is a devastating rebuke to social science research on this topic. Political scientist Thomas Cottle's Black Children, White Dreams was a successful humanistic ears.
:
exploration of young people's views of the political process showing that "paying attention" can build the reciprocity
of
concerns
basic
to
political
change.
The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, by Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks, was a commendable, albeit sensational, contribution to the Finally,
literature of dirty business,
closures on tions,
and
CIA
its
structure,
making its
instructive dis-
proprietary corpora-
clandestine services.
Five years
in
1974 was Albert Goldman's Gentlemen Lenny Bruce 1 was well
in
—
the writing, this biography
—a spectacular achievement,
brilliant,
depressingly hilarious, and outrageously proper.
The
oxymoronic character of the book reflected the contradictory elements of Bruce himself, that cruel-kind, villainous-heroic child-man who became the most savage scatological social satirist and stand-up comic of his day, whose attempts to destroy society's sham drove him, finally, to overdose for our sins. Robert Caro's The Power Broker: Robert Moses
and the Fall of New York was a remorseless 600.000word demolition biography of the pharaoh of New
York City who created
history's largest vista of public works, of parks and beaches, roads and bridges, based entirely around the automobile. Caro's artfully compiled detail ensured that The Power Broker would be acclaimed as the definitive monument to
Moses, as well as a key study of the web of political and against, Moses' career. Kissinger, by two noted CBS correspondents, Marvin and Bernard Kalb. was the most detailed study to date of the man whom a 1974 Harris Poll found to be the nation's most admired man. It was also the most detailed analysis yet of U.S. diplomacy
figures connected with,
in the post
cold-war era; worshipful, gravely flawed,
and indispensable. Moreover, it contained a "dirty little secret" that it was Richard Nixon, not Henry Kissinger, who was the main architect and concep-
—
tualizer of U.S. foreign policy.
Watergate bookshelf became filled during the was also crowded on the island of Lesbos. One imagines Sappho's shade bewildered by the plethora of prophetesses announcing the establishment of the If the
year,
it
post-male,
post-heroic
Her
world.
chief
disciple
(among many) was Kate
Millett. author of Sexual 545-page autobiography. Flying, was a leviathan of self-justification, an unflinching record of her uneasy struggle to practice what she preaches in the trying circumstances of her sudden fame. Celebrating a kind of exaltatio ad absurduM Politics. Millett's
of once revolutionary sexual goals. Millett's sexuality, finally,
is
a heightening of a
homo-
deeper sense
of inferiority, of not belonging. More entertaining and saner were William 0. Douglas' Go East, Young Man, a creditable volume one of the auto-
biography of the longest sitting justice in the history of the Supreme Court (since 1939V. and .-1 Writer's a memoir welcomed Capital by Louis Auchincloss
—
by admirers of Auchincloss' fiction, containing at least one memorable portrait, that of Endicott Peabody, his
master at Groton.
The high
point in belles lettres was the publication
volume of The Diary of Anais Nin, product of considerable genius and breathtaking tenacity. The great diary proceeded, taking on more of of the fifth
the shape of a living machine of words that assaults and defends as much as it reflects and mediates. More and more often, the exquisitely painted masks slipped askew and the diary as artifice as a stage for self-
—
dramatization rather than as a tool for self-realization its exasperating limitations. After searching so long (1947-55) with Maxwell Geismar, Mal-
— revealed
colm Cowley, James Laughlin, and others for interior and exterior confirmation of her artistic identity, Nin rejected psychedelic and narcotic shortcuts and tr' umphantly yet tremulously proclaimed "I will not I a tourist in the world of images."
Poetry. If America exists,
it
was
still
being
dis-
;
her.
own imaginative landscapes, Galway Kinnell's The Avenue Bearing the Initial oj Christ into the New World appeared, a collection by one of the most powerful and moving poets of his generation, and containing some of the finest lyric poetry in contemporary American literature. Kinnell's is an elemental poetry of dark woods and snow; of love wind, fire, and stars. His subjects are perennial illumined and made more precious by the omnipresence of death. The remarkable title of this volume
ward and recounted the town's reactions at the retirement of the local doctor and the surprises caused by the arrival of his successor. In Yesterdays Harold Sonny Ladoo. who died suddenly, told, with a fine
—
it
sense of the comic and ironic in
human
relations, of a
West Indian trying to finance a Hindu mission to Canada. Matt Cohen's The Disinherited dealt with a family
struggling
against
disintegration
father battles against imminent death.
while
Among
the
other
poem
works of new writers were The Lark in the Clear Air by Dennis T. Patrick Sears, the tale of an orphaned adolescent
own
develop America's "ecological conscience," Snyder's
observant poems about fishing, Boletus mushrooms, and night herons who "nest in the cypress/ by the San Francisco/ stationary boilers/ with the high smoke strike sharply.
women were Swinburnean dolorousness
Well-received volumes by younger Cruelty by Ai, a
work
of
murder, suicide, sexual violence, simple lust, whoredom, and child-beating occur with utmost flatness is everyone's because it is nature's; Jill Hoffman's Mink Coat, containing many mature urban lyrics by a sensual woman, well acquainted with her
the cruelty
own body, fond of clothing and ornament, and one masterpiece, "Rendezvous," about leaving the in
Munro's Something I've Been Meaning to You, a group of short stories, reaffirmed the
Alice Tell
craftsmanship so evident in her earlier award-winning collection. Other welcome contributors to the growing field of short-story writers were Clark Blaise, whose Tribal Justice
underlines
the
myriad problems of
widely varied ethnic and religious backgrounds in North America, and novelist Rudy Wiebe, whose first collection of stories, Where Is that Voice Coming
From?
,
delineated the isolation, fears, and occasional
joys of adult and child
in
today's complex society.
experiences of Canadians during two disruptive his-
which he redefines as the alternative to the bankrui.it cy of materialistic society. Continuing his efforts
husband
a tumul-
hypnotic and rhythmic zones of "perplex-
its
—
(lyric
among
History and Biography. Barry Broadfoot. a skilled
creating
Buddhism underlay Gary Snyder's Turtle Island values Snyder calls "archaic" and "primitive," and
"
Smith's Lord Nelson Tavern,
interviewer w-ith a fine sense for detail, recorded the
—an
.\merican Indian pantheism and the nonegoism of
st.ick
Ray
tuous troupe of characters.
un-
abstractions,
its
ing multeity."
to
seeks to live with his eccentric, brawl-
the starting point of the relationships
intergalactic roller coaster into
deeper into sorts of
who
ing great-uncle, and
The Death Notebooks was Anne Sexton's seventh and last volume of verse, in which the brooding preoccupation with death of one of the country's best and most professional poets came fully to the surface. In these poems. Sexton looks in many places for God, finding him in excremental visions of death and apocalypse while "trying on" her "black necessary trousseau." Two months after this volume appeared. Miss Sexton was a suicide at age 45. Sphere: The Form oj a Motion by A. R. Ammons was a major achievement. This long poem of 155 sections by a former National Book Award winner was punctuated only by colons that thrust the eye forward,
all
j
critics as a
City's
fathomable logic
I
by
novels. In
New York
which Kinnell, in 1960, celebrated teeming Avenue C.
.
hailed
derives from the no less remarkable life-charged in
I
work Sawbones Memorial was worthy successor to his earlier Ross returned to the Prairie town of Up-
Sinclair Ross's
covered this season. Its poets, so disparate in vision and means, continued to survey parcels of the difficult terrain, transforming them to the contours of their
bed
at night to
nurse a child; and Judith filled with screams
KroU's In the Temperate Zone,
cowboys and and persuasive visions of her own death as a wobbling like a gyroscope. (FREDERICK S. PLOTKIN) Canada. The demands of Canadians for stories based on their own experiences gave rise in 1974 to many outstanding works. Margaret Laurence in The
and mutters, the war of the sexes,
torical periods. In Ten Lost Years: 1929-1939 the anonymous survivors of Canada's worst economic
Depression decade with pride, bitterand humour. In Six War Years: 1939-1945 the but exuberant memories of Canadians who served on the home front and overseas are recounted. Using contemporary photographs and personal accounts, Heather Robertson drew an authentic picture of the harsh but rewarding experiences of the homesteaders who settled the Canadian prairies from 1880 to 1914 in Salt of the Earth. Robert Craig Brown and Ramsey Cook in Canada, 1896-1921 added to the Canadian Centenary Series and gave a perceptive synthesis of the dramatic changes in Canadian life during the Borden and Laurier regimes. Canada Before Confederation by R. C. Harris and John Warkentin gives the imprint of man on the land in an unusual and often provocative treatment of the historical geography of pre-Confederation Canada. Terry Copp in The Anatomy of Poverty reflected the wretched lot of the working poor in Montreal in the period 18971929. Abraham Rotstein edited Getting It Back: A Program for Canadian Independence, a collection of crisis recall the
ness,
grim
Indians,
essays that included suggestions for solutions to the
blind cancer
problems of U.S. domination in many areas of Canada's economic and cultural life. Charles Taylor in Snow Job: Canada, the United States and Viet Nam revealed Canada as a willing accomplice of the U.S. during every stage of the war in Vietnam in the period 1954-73. Jeremy Manthorpe's The Power and the Tories was a witty and penetrating study of Ontario politics from 1943 to the present. In Not Bloody Likely, the Shaw Festival, 19631973 Brian Doherty, the founding father of the Shaw Festival at Niagara-on-the-Lake. provided a well-
how Morag Gunn at 47, a stage in her when she must come to terms with past and
Diviners told life
toward indeis haunted by images of her own past and successes. Crackpot by Adele Wise-
future, observes her daughter's struggle
pendence and struggles
man was a tribute to the indomitable nature of the human spirit. In an environment of ridicule and rejection, fat, whoring Hoda develops into a creature more noble in her suffering than those who sneer at
documented history of the events that turned a small town into an active international cultural centre. Paul Duval's High Realism in Canada presented a crisp
457
Literature
458
Literature
and clear view of Canadian painting. The focus was on a small but representative number of artists from the 1 9th century to the present day who painted in the realist tradition, William Kurclek's A Prairie Boy's IVinter was more than a nostalgic Canadian
Brion's La Fete de la Tour des Ames moved subtly from reality to fantasy with a marked strain of black humour. Les Hommes proteges by Robert Merle
technique
With Au Plaisir de Dieu, Jean d'Ormesson almost achieved a masterpiece, embedding into history the story of one century in the life of an aristocratic
story
pictures.
in
Kurclek's
primitive
speaks directly to emotions transcending his Ukrainian immigrant background. Florence Bird wrote Anne Francis: An Autobiog-
postulated a science fiction fantasy of the U.S. in which the country is ruled by women.
raphy, showing her combination of marriage and her
family gradually disintegrating as its way of life is eroded by modern times. The book showed a remark-
career as journalist, news commentator, and chairman
able awareness and psychological insight into a milieu
of the Royal
Commission on the Status of Women in Catholic J, Boyle's Memories of a
Canada. Harry
Boyhood contained
Ontario during the Depression. Wilfred Pelletier in No Foreign Land: The Biography of a Northern American Indian looked tales of rural
back to his childhood on Manitoulin Island, his attempts at a business career, and his encounters with racism in Toronto. Poetry and Drama. In 1974 over 200 new volumes of poetry appeared in English Canada with work by new writers predominating. George Bowering presented poems that he wrote after his 30th birthday, In the Flesh, demonstrating his sure command of the
Poems of A. M. Miriam Wadding-
English language. In The Collected Klein, compiled and introduced by ton, in
one
is
reawakened
expressing
humour, and
to the late lawyer-poet's skill
pride,
his
frustrations,
love. Clear, often brutal
the harsh realities of
life
in
anger,
quiet
images mirror
Patrick Lane's Beware
was a member. Michel Robida's Le Dejeuner de Trieste also dealt with the life and times of a great family, but this time a bourgeois family at the time of World War II. Kleber of which the author himself
Haedens' Adios, which won the French Academy's Grand Prix du Roman, dealt with a family of petty officials, the story beginning with great verve ia Senegal but gradually becoming lost in a web of amorous entanglements. The historical novel seemed to be undergoing a real
number of works evoking the and atmosphere of bygone days. Michel Peyramaure's L'Oeil arrache was set in Limousin in Merovingian times while Jean-Marie Fonteneau's Phenix consisted of a series of stories inspired by such themes as biblical Arabia. Pompeii, and 11th-century Corsica. Andrce Chedid's Nefertiti et le reve d'Akhnaton and Michel Larneuil's Le Dieu assassine both renaissance with a
passions
same ancient Eg\"ptian
dealt with the
figures, while
the
Herbert Le Porrier's Le Medecin de Cordoue revived
in
the figure of
Months of Fire. Not a prolific poet, P. K. Page, Poems Selected and New, selected her dominant themes childhood, nature, and love with the same
—
—
concern she accorded each carefully chosen word.
In her first volume of verse, Woman Reading in the Bath, Annie Szumigalski fulfilled the promise of talent shown in her early work. Sharon Pollock's dramatic work Walsh dealt with the aftermath of the massacre of General Custer and his army at Little Big Horn as it affected Canada. The title
character
is
a
Mounted
Police officer
who
at-
tempted to deal fairly with the refugee Sioux Indians and was, in the end, destroyed by the bureaucracy he
Red Emma wrote a lively and joyous musical play built around the life of challenged. Carol Bolt in
Emma
Goldman. David French's Of the Fields, Lately was a sequel to the highly praised Leaving Home, featuring once again the Mercers, a family of
New-
foundlanders trying to cope with a faster, more imlife in the Toronto of 1960. James Reaney in and Stones, Part 1 gave a dramatic account of the Donnelly clan's infamous vendettas. (h. C. CAMPBELL)
personal Sticks
FRENCH France. Fiction. Paul Morand's Les £carts amoureux was a set of three stories whose subjects seemed to have more to do with cruelty than with love, inspired by historical events and executed in a concise, polished style. Jean Mistler's L'Ami dcs pauvres, also a series of three tales, dealt with the inadequacies of con-
temporary society, one of the
tales being inspired
by
a real-life theft from the Louvre. Marcel Schneider's Diji la neige was a flight into the realm of fantasy in
which the author sought to endow fantasy with reality. The work was preceded by a Discours dii fantastiqtie and, in awarding it the Grand Prix de la Nouvelle, the French Academy also set its seal of approval upon the genre of fantasy. Tenderness merged with atrocity in Reni Barjavel's Le Prince blessi, while Marcel
Moses Maimonides whose science
blos-
in Egypt. In Porporino ou les mysteres de Naples Dominique Fernandez revived 18th-century
somed
Naples, dealing particularly with the castrati. The
book was awarded
the Prix Medicis.
The jury's choice for the coveted Prix Goncourt fell work in total reaction to the poetico-pornographic
to a
La Dentclliire was an evocation, handled with modesty and restraint, of a love affair between a young country squire and a humble lace-maker who is seduced and abandoned. The whole was written in a concise, polished style worthy of the 19th-century novelists, as was Le Voyage a I'etranger by the Swiss-bom writer Georges Borgeaud, which dealt with the restrained and platonic style currently in vogue. Pascal Laine's
passion of a tutor
in a
noble family for a beautiful
The same reserve characterized Pierre Kyria's two novels. La Mart blanche and Mademoiselle Sarah,
visitor.
while the Belgian Pierre Mertens' much-discussed Lei bons offices dealt with a clerical career complicated by romantic attachments. Yves Navarre's Le Coeur qid
was a savage critique of the bourgeoisie, while two able writers dealt with the subject of lesbianism: Jeanne Galzy in La Cavaliire and Ir^ne Monesi in cogtie
V Amour et
le
didain.
In L'Impricateur Rene-'Victor Pilhes combined realism and diabolical fantasy in his treatment of the subject of multinational corporations, bringing him
both public acclaim and the Prix Femina. Pierre- Jean Remy published several works in the course of the year, the most important both in quality and in mag» nitude being his Mcmoires secrets pour servir i I'histoire
de ce sihle, a strange and captivating woA its composition.
despite the fragmented form of
Patrick Grainville's L'Abime dealt with a group of old
men
in a
home
for the aged, one of
ing neither sexual vigour nor lucidity
for
whom
—
lack-
—dominates
tbfl
Ren^ Mauries won the Prix Interallii Le Cap de la gitane, a work inspired by his own
rest.
Journalist
and by a serious accident, liberally seasoned bawdy humour. Jean Roudaut's Les Prisons was
reporting
with
a novel written in a style close to
that of Michel
writers, with a particularly brilliant essay
on
Hugo. In Mes contrepoisons Rene fitiemble stigmatized contemporary society in a vivid, bold style and with an aggressiveness that was typical of almost all the essayists. In Le Discours contre la methode a new
posthumous Cornets, covering the period of his captivity from 1914 to 1917, showed the same high moral
fectibility of
tone in describing the author's experience of the con-
pamphlet
between conjugal love and love for another
woman and in conflict
religious faith. Also in the spirit of a soul
was Julien Green's
Jeiinesse, dealing with
Henry de Montherlant's Le Fichier parisien retained a skeptithe guilty loves of his adolescence, while
cal, witty, disdainful, and highly polished style. The well-known painter Michel Ciry lamented the vanishing of Western humanism in Le Buisson ardent in much the same spirit as J. de Bourbon-Busset's Complices. For Le Temps immobile, "the work of his life," Claude Mauriac delved into his past to group his thoughts around the feeling and atmosphere of his
family, in particular his father. Jacques Chastenet's
Quatre jois vingt ans
fitted the exploits of
a soldier,
diplomat, writer, and journalist into the wider context of history, bringing in
modern nirs
many
of the great figures of
times, while Marguerite Yourcenar's Souve-
pieux was a masterful re-creation of the author's
very conformist atmosphere, in Liege, of her family and of her marriage. In La childhood
in
the
Perpetuite Maurice Genevoix limited himself to a description, with unfailing role of
permanent secretary
humour, of the delicate to the French Academy.
In La Boite a couleurs Andre Roussin evoked a carefree childhood in Marseilles, full of humorous incident though to a lesser degree than the author's theatrical works, while in
Armand Salacrou
La
progressed
Salle des pas perdus
beyond
a
childhood
coloured with comical escapades as far as the author's
dramatic successes. Robert Debre, famous physician and father of the former French minister of defense Michel Debre, achieved great success with a de-
first
account of his brilliant career in L'Honneur de vivre. In Printemps gris Willy de Spens re-created his tailed
childhood
among
castigated in
the landed gentry
the process, while
who were
wittily
short-story writer
Roger Vrigny looked for the quality of life and the joys of the heart in the period from 1946 to 1963 Ponrquoi cette joie. In Robert LaSont £diteur
jwith
(Robert Laffont described the not always easy stages of his career, revealing the underside of the profession
with biting humour.
The pretext
Andre Malraux's La Tete d'obsiAntimemoires was the work of although in fact the book was a superbly for
idienne, a sequel to
Picasso,
,
and his about universal art as reflected through the painter. Lazare was a description of the same author's own journey to the frontiers of death. Julien Gracq's Lettrines was a collection of sparkling reflections on art and literature, while in Repertoire IV Michel Butor gave free rein to his imagination and astonishing depth of culture to take the reader back to the iwellsprings of modern art and literature, from the Flemish school to contemporary painting, from Villon
[written presentation of the author himself ifeelings
459
Literature
'Victor
Butor, to whom he devoted a remarkable essay, while Les Meurtrieres by Frantz-Andre Burguet, an adept of antiliterature, was inspired by a real-life incident. Nonaction. The year brought an unprecedented spate of memoirs and autobiographical journals by eminent people, most of them members of the French Academy. In Jean Guitton's £crire comme on se souvient matters of the mind and spirit took precedence over external events, while Jacques Riviere's
flict
i
to Barthes. Claude Roy's Les Soleils du romantisme brought together nine of the movement's greatest
member
of the French Academy, Robert Aron, made Descartes indirectly responsible for the triumph of technocracy in modern times, while in Ce que je crois Louis Pauwels provided a savage indictment of materialism, reaffirming his faith in the soul
and the per-
man. Georges Suffert's Les Intellectuels en chaise longue was a cutting, almost Voltairian directed against obscurantist, so-called progressive armchair intellectuals; in the same spirit but with even greater virulence Jean Cau denounced egalitarianism as "trash" in
La Grande
prostituee.
With
less savagery, but with vigour and quiet humour, Frangois de Closets' Le Bonheur en plus was an attack on the invasion by technology.
In L'Irriguliere ou
Mon
Itineraire
monde Charles-Roux produced an
Chanel Ed-
astonishing biog-
raphy of the great couturiere. No one could have written a more accomplished Frederic Chopin than musician and first-rate critic (under the pseudonym of Clarendon) Bernard Gavoty, while Maurice P. Gautier provided a monumental study in Captain Frederick Marryat. Despite the closeness of the biographer to his subject, Francis Jeanson's Sartre dans sa vie succeeded in remaining objective while providing a large
number
of revealing details.
The
Prix des
Ambassadeurs went to Andre Castelot for his masterful Napoleon III while the due de Castries provided an interesting study in La Fayette and Georges Poisson in Monsieur de Saint-Simon. Pierre Chevallier, one of the country's most learned teachers and scholars of freemasonry, published his ,
very full Histoire de la jranc-mafonnerie jran^aise, going back to the original sources of the movement in
England. The Bourse Goncourt du Recit His-
awarded for the first time, went to Georges Bordonove for Le Naufrage de la Mcduse, a thrilling reconstruction from historical documents of the maritime tragedy immortalized by the painter Theodore Gericault. In a much lighter vein Notre Patrie gauloise torique,
Pascal La7nS's novel
"?" ""^ igy/'p"?^'!!^'^^"
France's most prestigious prize for works of fiction.
460
Literature
was perhaps Gaston Bonheur's best production so far, providing an erudite and humorous account of five centuries of French history from Vercingetorix to Clovis. Alain Decaux finished his learned and entertaining Hisloire des Fra'ifaises, while Pierre Gaxotte,
monarchy and his contempt for republicanism, nevertheless succeeded in re-editing and completing his Histoire des Frani;ais true to his admiration for the
without sectarian intrusions. Poetry. Jean Lebrau's Singles conveyed a sense of wonder and a touching experience for the reader, recalling the work of Charles Guerin, a poet who died
very young but the centenary of whose birth had just been celebrated with enthusiasm the latter's Pohties choisis showed brilliance of style while seeming al;
ways
to spring directly
from the
heart. Pierre
Em-
manuel, who had been described as a "dreamer of geneses" on a number of occasions, justified the scription with Sophia, a vast poem in which he turned to original sources and to the symbol of eternal wife-mother. In direct opposition to flowing richness of
almost
cinct,
antipoetry, of
Emmanuel's verse was the
mathematical
Eugene
language,
dere-
the
the suc-
approaching
Guillevic's Encochcs. Patrice
de La Tour du Pin continued his own spiritual journey with Psaumes de tons mes temps, one of the high points of contemporary religious poetry imbued with the rich flowing rhythms of the Psalms. Jean-Claude Renard's Le Dieu de nuit, which won the Prix Max Jacob, with its metaphysical and liturgical content provided rather more arduous reading. Robert Mallet's Qiiand le miroir s'etonne expressed the fears and uncertainties of the present century in the style of 16th-century rondeaux, while Pierre Menanteau's its inspiration from the toi Maurice Courant's
Capitate du souvenir derived different quarters of Paris.
que
le
vent glace was in the polished style of Valery,
Michel Beguey's Par des chemins secrets showed a more vigorous tone and made use of blank verse and elegiac forms. In Le FloriUge poetique Claude Fourcade illuminated his connection with the 19th-century poet Gerard de Nerval through his own personality while the Belgian Andree Sodenkamp produced the subtle and spellbinding La Fete dcbout. Pierre Seghers' La Resistance et ses poetes scanned the field of French resistance to the World War II German occupation through some of France's greatest Aragon, filuard, and others of similar stature. poets Works by two other major poets of the past also appeared: College, consisting of memoirs in prose by Jean Follain, and Mystique, impressions and meditations by Joe Bousquet. The French Academy's Grand Prix de la Poesie went to that master of sur(annie brierre) realism, Philippe Soupault. Canada. (Quebec). Formerly considered to be marginal literature, by 1974 French-Canadian, or while
—
"quebccoise," literature occupied a formidable place
framework of worldwide French literature. During 1974 the novel developed at a faster rate than poetry, in both quantity and quality. Among new published novels were Neige noire, by Hubert Aquin, which pursues and recaptures with spirit the experience of his previous novels; La Fuite immobile, by Gilles Archambault, a story about a man between life and death; Don Quichotte de la Dimanche, by Victor-Levy Beaulieu, where dream and reality join
in the
together more effectively than in other novels with the same theme French Kiss, which revealed the talents of Nicole Brossard; Moi, mon corps, mon dme, by Roger Fournier, the story of a young and lonely preg;
nant woman; Andr^ Langevin's Une chaine dans le pare; a detective novel entitled L'^pouvanlail, by
Andre Major, written in a tough style but with sympathetic characters; Johnny Bungalow, in which Paul ViUeneuve paints a genial picture of life in Quebec; and L'Enfirouapi, by Yves Beaulieu, which evokes the atmosphere of events of October 1970. In poetry, the greats (Gaston Miron, Jacques and the others) were quiet. On the other hand, younger poets published a number of works but, with the exception of Michel Gameau, author of Moments, none of them seemed to take over the genre. Remi-Paul Forgues's Poemes du vent et des ombres, poems written between 1942 and 1954, was reissued and a publication called En tons lieux for French foreign-speaking poets was founded. Brault, Rina Lasnier,
In the theatre
field,
Paris favourably received the
production of Les Belles soeurs by Michel Tremblay. Hosanna from the same writer was staged in New York City. Marcel Dube wrote a comedy, Le Testament or L'lmpromptu de Quebec. The National Theater performed a play by Claude Gauvreau, La Charge de I'origitml epormiabk. The Jean Duceppe Company had an immense success with Charbonneau et le Chef and Lemeac House republished the Theatre de Cremazie. (robert saint-amour)
GERMAN Compared with the previous 12 months, 1974 was a lean year for German literature, and a number of established authors
Nobel
Prize,
proved disappointing, Heinrich
work since receiving the 1972 Die verlorene Ehre der Katharine Blum,
Boll produced his
first
again a best-seller, which lampooned the reporting methods of the Axel Springer press successfully
enough to drive the best-seller lists from Springer's Welt am Sonntag. Sloppily written, this minor novel lived purely on its author's indignation. Rolf Hochhuth too managed to please the public and enrage the critics with his comedy Lysistrate und die NATO; Swiss novelist Adolf Muschg, whose "Albissere Grund," published in 1974, satirized attitudes toward foreign workers in Switzerland.
interesting than the play
more
was the
long,
appended
essay on women's emancipation. Peter Handke's Die Unverniinjtigen sterben aus, a play about capitalists,
marked forms
turning to
author's
its
drama, with
of
more conventional
recognizable
characters
in
recognizable social situations. Although it read well, the long monologues lacked dramatic tension and it failure on the stage. Even the third volume of Johnson's Jahrestage seemed to lack the vigour
was a
Uwe
of the earlier parts, although this could be attributed
gloom of
to the
its
subject matter. Covering the pe-
riod April-June 1968, it included the assassination of Robert Kennedy and increasing tension in Czechoslovakia and, on the more distant time level, the immediate postwar years. One author to consolidate his reputation was the Swiss Adolf Muschg, whose many-layered novel Albissers Gntnd presented in detective-story form a psychological study of a left-wing teacher, a satire on the relation between the Swiss and their foreign workers, and a variation on the Faust legend. Hubert Fichte's much-discussed Versuch iiber die Pubertal was more private in theme; adolescence appeared to be equated with homosexuality and concrete reminiscences of postwar Hamburg were interspersed with accounts of South American tribal rituals in a novel of undoubted, if at times repulsive, poetic power.
Alfred Andersch's novel Winterspelt was an impressive montage of the fictitious attempts of a German
major to desert with his battalion to the Americans and extracts from historical documents of the closing years of World War II. Minor masterpieces included Jean Amery's Lejeii, an "essayistic" novel attacking the contemporary tabula rasa mentality and pleading cause of the "aesthetics of decay"; also Eva Lampenfieber, a beautifully presented study
the
Zeller's
of family tensions.
When
robbery with violence caused the spectre of anarchist terror to be frequently invoked in the press and on television, crime understandably loomed large in
the imagination
lampoon was about
even of serious authors. Boll's trial
by the media.
A
more
care-
between media and violence was Martin Gregor-Dellin's novel Fdhn: an actual incident, a bank robbery with hostages, genfully reasoned study of the relation
erated a study of
all
—
the factors involved, not least
and meteorological of the city of Munich. Hans Hellmut Kirst's Alles hat seinen Preis, however, with a similar topic and setting, remained on the superficial level of the
being the climate
More
thriller.
intellectual
reputable entertainment of this kind
Hans Herlin's Freunde, which, for melodramatic story, showed some 1 awareness of social and moral problems. More slight, but perhaps more profound, were works by W. E. Richartz and Burkhard Driest. The former's Nojace was an amusing tale of a man who so lacks identity that the victims of his bank holdups cannot recognize him two minutes later. Driest's Die Verrohung des Franz Blum was ostensibly a documentation of life in prison, but in fact an allegory of capitalist society. was all
to be
its
found
in
basically
!
An unusual number
of eccentricities appeared, usu-
"roman," a term that appeared now to meaning in German. Oddest of these was 'Michael Vetter's Handbeiaegimgen, which consisted, ally labeled
have
little
Ihterally, of
nothing but carefully executed abstract
"doodles." Almost as unexpected, in the context of
German
literature, was H. J. Stammel's Die Stunde des Cowboys, an account in "novel" form of cowboy life in the Texas Panhandle at the end of the 19th
century, underpinned affected
by
—even popular —with numerous
literature
the fashion
extracts
was from
contemporary documents. Equally eccentric, but in more traditional way, was Urs Widmer's fantastic Die Forschungsreise, a witty parody of adventure stories and at the same time a satire on contemporary overcivilization. Mario Szenessy's Der Hellseker seemed to have Uri Geller as godfather, its picaresque hero being gifted with extrasensory perception and a
psychokinetic powers; unfortunately ginning, reminiscent of
its
excellent be-
Thomas Mann's Krull, was more consistently enter-
not sustained. Briefer and
taining was Renate Rasp's Chinchilla; ostensibly a handbook for the prospective prostitute, its insistence
throughout on the purely commercial basis of the trade made it clear that the commercial basis of life in general was under attack. Outstanding in the realm of short prose works was Marie-Luise Kaschnitz's last publication, Orte. A collection of brief reminiscences and meditations, it was widely held to represent the pinnacle of its author's career. Dieter Wellershoff published for the first time some short stories, Doppclt belichtetes Seestiick, a collection that also included poems, radio plays, and Hysteria, a scenario for a "multimedia opera." Of more direct social import was Leonie Ossowski's impressive Mannheimer Erzdhlungen, glimpses of the lives of deprived adolescents on probation or in borstals.
Lyric poetry was well represented by collections from Jijrgen Becker and Erich Fried. Becker's Das Ende der Landschajtsmalerei succeeded in regretting the rape of the countryside in the name of progress
without falling into the trap of yearning for the "good old days." His basic skepticism was shared by Fried,
whose Gegengijt was dominated by the concept of "doubt," doubting political commitment but also', in the concluding cycle, doubting language itself.
indefatigable
Hermann Kesten,
brought out his
Memoirs
first set
at
the age
of
The 74,
of poems, Ich bin der ich bin.
in the literary field
included
Max
Frisch's
Dienstbuchlein on his military service 30 years earlier in Switzerland, and Hilde Domin's Von der Natur nicht vorgesehen; in the journalistic, Otto Rombach's ,
Vorwarts, rnckwarts, meine Spur and Josef Eberle's Morgen; in the political, the conservative
Aller Tage
Gerhard Storz's Im Lauj der Jahre and, notably, former West German chancellor Willy Brandt's Dber den Tag hinaus. In E^st Germany important novels appeared by Stefan Heym and Erik Neutsch. The former's Laspresented the Social Democrat leader in his last year as a subservient opportunist, an interpretation that provoked criticism even in official party ranks. Neutsch's Auj der Suche nach Gatt continued a line salle
of works published in both
West and East of
in
which
investigation
is
the
subject
rather than analysis;
this
story of a Communist's
the
central
failure to
and
figure
keep pace with ideological developments
his later rehabilitation held the attention in spite
of the woodenness of the subsidiary characters. Lit-
erary Germany lost one of its few remaining links with the 1920s through the death in July of Erich Kastner (see Obituaries). (j. h. reid)
ITALIAN Does anything ever happen in Italy today worth writing novels about? Or are Italian novelists becoming incapable of responding to what actually goes on in their country? The best-selling novels of 1974 ap-
461
Literature
462
have been lost. Perhaps the answer was found in an aphorism spoken, on the subject of incomprehensible writing, by the archaeologist's daughter in Umana avvcntura by Alberto Bevilacqua "It is a sign of the
Literature
:
highest civilization to be able to face nothingness."
Of course,
it
is
very bad criticism to ask questions
about characters that are not relevant to the events in the novel, but it may be permissible when the novel is without events did Bevilacqua's neurotic archaeologist ever do a stroke of work? and how could he :
financially afford
know.
It
was a
his
One would
neurosis?
like
to
relief to read, after all this, the remi-
niscences of a hard-working and down-to-earth pub-
Valentino Bompiani, whose Via privata ought become prescribed reading for all reviewers of
lisher,
to
Italian books.
For sheer fantasy one should turn
to
Italo Calvino's // castello dei destini incrociati, a narrative structure generated by the various possible Italian publisher
readings of two square arrangements of tarot cards;
and
and
author Valentino BompianI published his own memoirs, "Via Privata," In 1974.
to
stories
peared to be either about manic-depressive characters their fantasy worlds, or about old memories and history. Roberto Calasso combined both in
and
past
L'impuro
jolle, a sort of
commentary
to the
memoirs
of Senate President Schreber, the son of a notorious
and nefarious 19th-century German educationist and the subject of one of Sigmund Freud's studies. The book was an imaginative attempt to merge fact and fantasy into a sort of poetic metahistory. Another nonnovel was Francesco Leonetti's Irati e sereni, a discursive literarj' metaphor of the emotional and ideological climate in
the northern Italian left be-
tween 1957 and 1970. Arrigo Benedetti's Rosso al vento was set in 1945. Its protagonist, Rinaldo, travels from Rome to Milan through a countrj- ravaged by war and civil strife, awaiting a great conclusive battle that will never be fought. Perhaps Benedetti meant that the final confrontation between reaction and social progress out of which a new Italy might have been born never took place, but he never openly says so. La morte del fiume by Guglielmo Petroni was a remembrance of life in the town of Lucca when the protagonist was a young man. The most ambitious of this crop of memory novels was La Storia by Elsa Morante, a slice of Italian history between 1941 and 1947 seen mostly through the eyes of a child, born of a half-Jewish schoolmistress raped by a German soldier. The book was intended to reveal to uncultivated readers, perhaps even to the illiterate proletarians, that history, the cruel machine that first exploits and then crushes them, is "a scandal that has lasted for ten thousand years." It disappointed in many ways, being an un-
Parsifal, a
collection of cruel
and macabre
by Rodolfo Wilcock.
Carlo Cassola's latest novel, Gisella, probably did not appeal to Liliana Caruso and Bibi Tomasi who, in their essays / padri delta falloctiltura, sharply criticized him and other prominent Italian writers like Alberto Moravia, Leonardo Sciascia, and Giorgio Bassani for their alleged male chauvinism. To the growing body of serious and intellectually challenging feminist writing Armanda Guiducci contributed an absorbing self-analysis, La mela e il serpenle. There was not only wit and elegance but a great deal of corrosive truth in Giorgio Manganelli's collected articles
on Italian
life
and customs, Lunario dell'orjano
by Giovanni Mariotti, was a delicate but emotional treatment of the mother myth, halfway
sannita. A,
between prose and poetry. Sergio Solmi brought out his collected poems iPocsie complete) written between 1924 and 1972, a moving testimonial of sober classicism untainted by fleeting fashion and the passing of time. Most of the words included in Cesare Lanza's Mcrcabiil, on the other hand, would be out of date by the end of the decade: the book was a glossary of Italian teenage slang, linguists
and semanticists.
full
of interest for
(Giovanni carsanica)
JAPANESE
vulgarity.
In Japan 1974 was a remarkable year for its variety and scope in fiction writing. There were two impressive "religious" novels by Shusaku Endo and Kunio Ogawa, a modernistic tour de force by Kobo Abe. two ambitious bouts with contemporary violence by Kenzaburo Ooe and Mitsuharu Inouc, and an anaK-tical evocation of a militaristic boyhood during the Pacific war by Otohiko Kaga. Shusaku Endo. whose Chinmoku (1966) had been translated into English as Silence and favourably received by both English and U.S. reviewers, wrote Sliikai no Hotori ("By the Dead Sea"'), which had a contemporary setting in contrast with that of 17thcentury feudal Japan in Silence. Endo, a sensitive
dler with his
storyteller,
digested mixture of traditional literary rhetoric, stale sentimentality, and vernacular Furthermore, the author's babbling todhumanized pets and inadequate mother were weak props to stage convincingly all the drama of recent world history. Only a few good patches here and there recalled how exciting Elsa Morante's writing used to be. Paolo Volponi's Corporate displayed a cliches,
novelettish
greater stylistic unity, besides
and yet
it
was
difficult
to
many
gauge
striking pages;
its
purpose.
The
fantasy world of Volponi's earlier novels was an effective
and powerful way of indirectly portraying a
eased reality
:
here
all
dis-
contact with reality seemed to
deftly
temporary Japanese evocations
of
juxtaposed
the
story
of a
con-
visitor to Israel with the episodic
ancient
biblical
characters.
Kunio
Ogawa was a Roman Catholic convert, like Endo, but Ogawa's Aru Seisho t"A Holy Book") was rather different in tone and technique. This novel was directly concerned with the evocation of the biblical setting and atmosphere, and fabulistic in tone. However, it was deceptively simple, and there was something ambiguous about the whole story.
The
part appears to be a story of naive faith
first
and devotion, but in the second and third parts the story becomes entangled and vague. Religious devotion and political action are intermingled and it is not certain whether the Judas-like character in this novel is really Judas or not. Kobo Abe, whose important novels have been translated into several foreign languages, including Russian, is an avant-garde type of novelist and his new novel has a strange, surrealistic title, Hako-Otoko {Box Man). The central character, who remains
anonymous throughout
the book, decides to hide him-
and continues
self in a box,
a "Box
Man" by
his
this decision of his?
own
Was
it. He became What could it mean, man of independence
to live in
choice.
he a
Did Abe intend to sugany affirmative significance in his preoccupation with closed space, his refusal to belong to any organization or community? In Kenzaburo Ooe's Kozui wa Waga Tamashii ni oyobi ("Deluge Rising to My Breast") and Mitsuharu Inoue's Kokoro Yasashiki Hangyakushatachi ("Tender Hearted Rebels") the titles were symptomatic. An eschatological mood and forebodings of a "Deluge" permeated Ooe's novel, and the keynote of Inoue's novel was bitter disillusionment and revolt. But both novels were deeply concerned with violence in contemporary society. Otohiko Kaga's Kaerazaru Nalsu ("Summer of No Return") described the fanatic responses of the young military cadets to the defeat of Japan in 194S. or merely a futile escapist?
gest
An
impressive contribution by a senior novelist was Kosaku Takaii's Haijin Nakama ("A Group of Haiku Poets") a brilliant masterpiece. Though Takaii was already in his late 70s, this autobiographi-
—
cal
novel
local tive
vigorous and vivid in
is
community
its
description of
Meiji Period and in the sensievocation of his first love affair with a geisha. (SHOICHI SAEKl) in the
JEWISH Hebrew. Hebrew
literature
in
Israel
during
1974
continued to demonstrate strength and versatility. The October 1973 war and its aftermath did not stop the presses
—
all
genres of fiction and nonfiction were
published, including volumes of topical interest.
Hamoderni, both interpreting mainly Hebrew fiction. B. Y. Michaly's essays Massa u-Puhnus were more controversial in tone. A study of the Hebrew works of
I.
L. Peretz, including a selection of his writings,
was Y. Friedlander's Havaya ve-Chavaya. E. Schweid dealt with the loneliness and isolation of the contemporary Jew in ha-Yehudi Haboded veha-Y ahadut. Poetry as usual dominated the scene, older and younger poets of different schools being represented. Thus A. Shlonsky's Sejer ha-Sulamot was the swan song of a leading Hebrew modernist. N. Alterman was another late distinguished poet whose volume Regayim was published. Selections by so-called forgotten poets were Y. Lemer's Shirim and N. Stem's Bain Arpilim. More contemporary in style and method were N. Sach's Mivhar, T. Carmi's Hitnatzlut haMechaber, M. Wieseltier's Kach, and H. Schimmel's Shirai Malon Zion. It is noteworthy that T. Carmi and H. Schimmel were American-born. However, in the U.S. itself Hebrew literary activity was almost (gabriel preil) Yiddish books of poetry and fiction are always numerous and 1974 was no exception. A high point in poetry was the issuance in Tel Aviv of Joseph and Eleanor Mlotek's Pearls from Yiddish Poetry; the book was an outgrowth of a poetry page printed in Sunday issues of the New York Jewish Daily Forward. The published individual collections of verse included Pinche Berman's Love, Eliezer at a standstill.
Yiddish.
New
Greenberg's Memorabilia, two books by Meir Charatz, Heaven and Earth and In Strange Paradise, Rachel Kramf's Clouds Wish to Cry, and Shifrah Kholodenko's The Word. To their previous collections of verse new titles were added by Saul Maltz {Poems of My Profound Belief), Abraham Sutzkever {The Fidlerose), Malka H. Tuzman {Under Your Mark), Freed Weininger {In the Wide Outside), Hillel
Window to Heaven), Isaac Yanosovich {The Other Side of Wonder), and Hersh Leib Young the Astral Spheres). Moshe Brodersohn's The {In Last Song and Roza Nevadovska's Poems of Mine were published posthumously. An important event was the publication of the first volume of the Collected Dramas by the late poet Aaron Zeitlin. Shargel {A
Notable Yiddish novels included Lily Berger's
Two
did A. Oz's selected stories,
Storms, Eliyahu Kaplan's Incarnations of a Pioneer, Leibl Kh. Shimoni's In the Crucible, published shortly after the author's demise, and Eli Schechtman's tetralogy, Eve. In the short-story category belong H. Ayalti's The Man from De Mille, Eliezer Cooper-
Anashim Aclierini, and Y. Kaniuk's Mot ha-Ir. In a more realistic vein was the rambling novel by 'Vonat
man's From World to World, Zvi Eisenman's Between Borders, Zami Feder's Closed Fists, Chaim
and Alexander Sando, Tendu, while M. Kapeliuk, in Sippuro shel Jamshee, portrayed the interplay of attitudes between Israelis and Arabs. S. H. Bergman's ha-FHosophia Hadialogit was a
Goldberg's Too Much in One Week, Chaim Grade's Synagogue and Street, and B. Shlevin's Under the Stars of the Negev. To the fields of the philosophical essay and literary criticism were added Abraham Golomb's To the Depths of Jewish Thought, Noah Griss's From Light to Darkness, about the novelist Isaiah Spiegel, Yudel Mark's analytical study Abraham Sutzkever' s Poetic Road, the Essays by Gittel Meisel, and Abraham Yerushalmi's The Bankruptcy of the Isms.
any "surprises," and the was relatively limited. Nevertheless, M. Shamir's Yonah me-Hatzer Zara, an ambitious novel on Jewish life in Israel and abroad, Fiction did not produce
number
of volumes published
proved of
interest, as
study embracing Kierkegaard and Buber. Trenchant essays by N. Rotenstreich were published in Zeman u-M ashmout Archaeologically instructive was B. Mazar's Kanaan ve-Ysrael, a work on Palestine in .
Bronze Period. E. Elath in Shivat Zion ve-Arav contributed a weighty disquisition on Zionthe so-called
ism and Arabisra. Autobiographical documents were the volumes by Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin
Biography) and Foreign Minister Yigal AUon, both entitled Bet Avi. Sh. Lachover's and G. Kressel's bibliography, Kitvai Zalman Shazar, of the writings of the late president of Israel, appeared. Volumes of {see
literary criticism terialistit
and
were H. Barzel's Sipporet Ivrit MaB. Yaffe's Makbilol ba-Sippur
A.
Great importance is attached to printing reminiscences or unpublished works by deceased authors, and to the publication of historic or literary documents in general. These categories were enriched by Harry Lang's Four Generations, Chaim Ehrenreich's Remaining Words, and Isaac Rimon's Correspondences from Israel {1946-1968). Quite substantial was the number of collective volumes devoted to the
463
Literature
— ^* Literature
a
A Farsa da Boa
Preguifa, following the emi-
history of various Jewish communities. Outstanding
tributed
among them were
nently "northeastern" trend of his works. Novels pre-
Leizer Ran's two-volume illustrated Jerusalem of Lithuania, by which is meant the city of Vilno, and The Golden Book of Argentinian leiury by Wolf Bressler and Moshe Knapheiss.
(moshe stakkman)
PORTUGUESE Portugal. The April revolution marked 1974 as potentially the most significant year in the past half century for Portuguese literature; in the circumstances no literary survey could ignore the work that, without fall
pretensions
literar>'
The
e o
six
—
Gen. Antonio de Spinola's Fuluro (see Biography).
of the 4S-year tyranny
Portugal
precipitated the
itself,
to the liberation, marked by saw little most important work by an estab-
months prior
increasing repression and discouragement,
new
writing, the
lished
being
poet
Conhcfo
Sal.
collected
poems
.
.
expatriate Jorge de Sena's Publication of Herberto Helder's
the .
sented
included
As Menincs by Lygia
Fagundes
whose works as
storyteller were being repubNelida Piiion's Tebas do Meu Corafao was a thorough and ambitious novel, perhaps influenced by Gabriel Garcia Marquez. Clarice Lispector was present again with Onde Esliveste De Nolle f and Via Crucis do Corpo. Waldomiro Autran Dourado, whose Risco do Bordado was rather successful in book 1971, saw his Os Sinos da Agonia published. Although
Telles, lished.
book is concentrated Ouro Preto during the 18lh century,
the action described in this
the city of
in it
cannot be classified as a historical novel. From Fausto Beijo Antes do Sonho and Cunha came the novel the essay Caminhos Reals, Viagens Imagindrias commentary on the novels of Macbado de Assis. Helgio Trindade produced a serious and objective
—
essay on
fascism called Integralismo,
Brasilelro na
Decada de
30.
Quem Matou
Fascismo Vargas was
was completed, and Fiama
written with the passionate talent of Carlos Heitor
Brandao also published her collected verse, with additions. There was new poetry from Fernando Eche(A Base e o Timbre), Egito Goncjalves (Destrui(do: Dots Pontes), and Pedro Tamen {Os 42
Cony. Edgar Carone presented A Republica Nova, 1930-1937. Itinerdrios was an interesting arrival, in which Alphonsus de Guimaraens Filho presented the letters he received from Mario de Andrade and Manuel Bandeira. The first two volumes of Pontes de Miranda's Dez Anos de Pareceres were published collection of juridical opinions planned for ten volumes. Mario da Silva Brito entertained with Conversa Vai, Conversa Vem. Jose Guilherme Merquior produced Formalismo e Tradifdo Modcrna, dealing with the problem of the arts in a cultural crisis. Memoirs included Travessia by Hermes Lima, Elos de Vtna Corrente by Laura Rodrigo Otavio, and Noel Sutels: Memorias e Depoimentos by Noel Nutels. Part of a writer's diary was published in A Velha Chama by Ascendino Leite, Alceu Amoroso Lima contributed two books Em Busca da Liberdade and Os Direilos (anton'io carlos villaqa) do Homem.
to date
varria
Sonetos).
The most
work of
interesting
fiction
to
appear
Mario
since the revolution (though written earlier),
Verdo Assim, was a palimpsest, in which a summer in the life of a group of young people of the alta burguesia at the beach is superimposed on the playing time of a record of Prokofiev, key Urn
Claudio's
passages of which are constantly repeated. The discontinuous, fragmentarj', "replayable" nature of
memory
(and, implicitly, of
all
experience) forms the
basis of the work.
new
Bernardo San45 Anas de Idade, would before April (like most serious contemporary drama) have been consigned, if not to
The only
significant
play,
tareno's angry "deposition" Portugues, Escritor,
The current antiliterary work to the advantage of the theatre, as the genre most easily "taken to the people" and oblivion, at least to silence.
climate might
so least open to charges of elitism. A cultural mission, including Santareno, the dramatist L. F. Rebelo, and
the fringe theatre
company
A Comuna,
visited
War-
—
RUSSIAN Soviet Literature. Many works published in 1974 exemplified the tendency of recent years toward broad socio-historical interpretations of life, deep socioethical studies of human lives and characters, and broad epic canvases in which the narrative advances
Meanwhile, an un-
on several planes simultaneously. Typical of the nu-
expected and no doubt temporary negative consequence of freedom was not the spate of "socialist realism" some might have feared but a wholesale
merous novels and novellas centred on events of historical significance were Vasily Smirnov's epic Dis-
saw and Moscow
in
the
fall.
trahison des clercs, lamentably presided over
veteran
Gomes
Ferreira,
who abjured
by
the
poetr>' as a bird
when caged. Although writers who had based their style on censor-proof allusiveness and their themes on protest would now have to do some retooling (and others, given the benefit of the doubt on the assumption they could do better if allowed to, might have their bluff called), such betrayal of the Logos could hardly prosper in a society which for almost 900 years had expressed itself prithat sings sweetest
marily
in
(Stephen reckert)
poetry.
Brazil. The year 1974 was not one of great effervescence for Brazilian literature. There was the publication
Sinai Ledo Ivo, commemorate the tenth anniversary among the newcomers were
of the poetic works of
Semajdrico,
to
of his death. Outstanding
Passatempo, and Geraldo do Sele-Estrelo. Stella Leonardos reappeared with two books of poems; Amanhecencia and Romanfdrio. Ariano Suassuna conFrancisco Carneiro,
Alvim,
with
with
Na Busca
covery of the World, a chronicle of life in a Russian on the Upper Volga in the troubled summer 1917, and P. Proskurin's Destiny, ranging over
village
of
whole decades of the Soviet state's existence. Among works in a variety of historical genres were Shemetov's historical biographical novel The Breakthrough: The Story of Aleksandr Radischev A.
and
L. Dugin's novellas about Pushkin,
published
in the periodical
Novy
The Lycie,
Many writers World War II,
Mir.
turned to the grim, heroic time of
often making use of documentary material, for example B. Polevoi's Those Four Years: From the Notebook of a War Correspondent. There was a stirring sense of tradition from father to children in both war and work in V. Roslyakov's novel The Last War, E. Nosov's The Bridge, and F. Taurin's No Other
Way. The
and technical progress on was the theme of novelists such as V. Kozhevnikov, S. Safronov. and Y. Rytcontemporary man was The ethical world of kheu. effect of scientific
the lives of Soviet workers
465
Literature
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
in exile.
December 1974 the writer traveled to Stockholm to collect his 1970
In
Nobel Prize for Literature.
treated
by V. Shukshin
in
Viewpoint: Novella-Fairy
In portrayals of the
life
of country folk there
was
a marked shift from the lyrical narrative of the late 19SOs and early 1960s to socio-historical analysis on several
was
F.
levels
simultaneously.
Abramov's
far as his
main tasks as a writer were concerned,
his
passion for work and the fact that his wife was able
Tale (see Obituaries).
An example
of
this
trilogy Pryasliny, a chronicle of the
to bring out his research material
when she joined
in Switzerland meant that he was able to get on with the two parallel projects, Tolstoyan in scale and aspiration, in which he had been reviewing Russia's
him
The second volume of The Gulag Archipelago, dealing with the actual ad-
sufferings in the 20th century.
of a northern Russian village in the difficult war and postwar years. There were interesting reflections on the lives of country people in S. Krutilin's Broom:
ministration of the prison camps, was published in
Novellas.
interconnected second and third novels in the his-
life
Recent poetry had much
to say
about the past and
present of the Soviet Union, the fraternal
common-
wealth of the Soviet peoples, and love of one's native countryside. This was reflected in the tions into
many
transla-
Russian from some of the more than 70
languages spoken by various peoples and nationalities of the Soviet Union. Among them were M. Bazhan's The Spark, from Utnan Recollections (1973, trans-
We
Are Children and R. of One Mother (1973, from Belorussian) Brotherhood Margiani's From the Book of (1973, from Georgian). M. Kanoatov turned to World War II in his The Voice of Stalingrad (1973, from Tajik), as did M. Lukonin in his volume Frontline Verse, S. Orlov in Loyalty (1973), and B. Istru in Pain of a Shadow (1973, from Moldavian). The thoughts and
lated
from Ukrainian)
;
P. Brovka's
;
feelings of Soviet
man
trying to interpret the laws
and understand his role in the creation of the new life were expressed by L. (novosti) Tatyanichev in The Honey Season. Expatriate Russian Literature. The exiling of Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn (see Biography) on Feb. 13, 1974, was a significant event in the history of Russian culture, and not just in the chronicles of the current Soviet counterculture. For the Soviet Union, said Andrey Sakharov, the distinguished physicist and the chief leader of political dissent remaining in Moscow, the expulsion was a signal of moral defeat. But for Solzhenitsyn himself it was in every sense a turning point, and speculation centred at once upon the extent to which, uprooted from Russian soil and of the development of life
removed from danger, he would lose his peculiar moral authority, the ready attention of the Western press, and so his political leverage on the Soviet leadership over their handling of internal dissent. So
Paris in the
autumn
as he
was working on the closely
sequence that began with August 1914. The direction and influence of his work as polemicist and pamphleteer on current political events was torical
more problematical, however. In his last years in the Soviet Union he had been spurred on partly by official harassment, but also by a fear that detente amounted an appeasement which would confirm the Soviet its history and emascuWestern opinion. This led him to condemn Western liberals who spoke against oppressive right-wing regimes and against Soviet injustices in what he thought was too evenhanded a manner, and to
system, indirectly legitimizing lating critical
to
indicate
(especially in
his
Letter to the Soviet
Leaders, published in Paris shortly after his arrival
world view that was not only more conservative, nationalist, and pessimistic than that of Western liberals in general but also much to the right of the views of Sakharov, Roy Medvedev, and other
in Switzerland) a
Soviet dissidents.
Thus
the year
made
clearer a division in Russia's
counterculture remarkably like that which occurred
among
Prussian intellectuals in the mid-19th century, with Solzhenitsyn leading the reborn "Slavophiles"
like
a latterday
Dostoevsky and the more or less Medvedev and Sakharov as the
revisionist Marxists
chief "Westernizers."
Another symptom
of disarray, or alternatively of
life, was by the appearance of the second book of memoirs, Hope Abandoned, by Nadezhda Mandelstam, the formidable widow of one of Russia's great modern poets, Osip Mandelstam. Conformism in official Soviet culture is reinforced by
returning normality in Sox'iet intellectual the subterranean uproar caused
a
traditional
conservatism that idealizes the
and makes for a rather hagiographical
artist
style in literary
466
Literature
Mrs. Mandelstam's books, with their naming names and contemptuous intolerance of the frailty most of the generation of writers who failed to prevent her husband's disappearance in the camps on the eve of World War II, swept through this cozy atmosphere in a cold and accusing blast. Even an English critic called Hope Abandoned a "hair-
novel with a message was Henrik Stangerup's ville vcere skyldig (1973).
history.
tastic
of
Manden, der
A
of
unsentimental book," but in Moscow its underground circulation provoked not only verbal raisingly
recriminations but also a long, outraged letter (sent
out for publication abroad by Mrs. Mandelstam herfrom another elderly and respected liberal writer, the novelist V. A. Kaverin, accusing her of
self)
self-aggrandizement and "outright abuse ... or mocking pity" of talented and honourable writers. Critics less intimately involved in the family quarrels, however, were confirmed in their belief that these
mem-
real addition to Russian literature. other internecine quarrel of the year, in which one Russian Nobel Prize winner (Solzhenitsyn) sponsored research designed to show that another fM. A. oirs
were a
The
Sholokhov) was a literary fraud, was set off in the pages of the London Times Literary Supplement and proved to be rather a damp squib (although it evoked a long refutation from Izvestia). reviving old suspicions but throwing little real light on the problems posed by the great unevenness of The Quiet Don, the vast novel on which Sholokhov's reputation uneasily (w.
rests.
L.
WEBB)
weightier look at the world and the prospect fac-
it was to be found in Villy Sorensen's highly intelVden mat og med (1973), for which he was awarded the Nordic Council's literature prize. In December 1973 he shared the Danish critics' prize with Aage Dons, whose novel Nfidsledl i mtlen won him great acclaim. Sven-Age Madsen's Jakkeli Vandring showed different sides of human nature by
ing
lectual
letting seven different "authors" write their impres-
same person. Likewise experimental was Henrik Bjelke's Saturn, a long, fantastic novel filled with myth and mysticism. Among the numerous memoirs that appeared in 1974 was Danish Prime Minister Poul Hartling's Fra 17 ar i dansk politik, while Ole Bjarn Kraft made his contribution in Frem mod nye lider. In her Notater om Karen Blixen Clara Svendsen told of Karen Blixen as she was in everyday life, while her brother, Thomas Dinesen, wrote of his sister's youth sions of the
in
Tanne. Min s0sler Karen Blixen. Klaus Rifbjerg made his usual large contribution,
including Sovimer, a collection of short stories ranging from the comic to the brutal and Du skal ikke
vmre ked aj det, Amalia, which attacked the
press.
(w. GLVN JONES
Norwegian. Jens Bj^meboe carried his threevolume saga of the white man's atrocities through the ages to a brilliant conclusion with the novel Stillheten,
SCANDINAVIAN
in the
was dominated by social preoccupations and memoirs. Tage Skou-Hansen's Medloberen (1973) drew a somewhat intricate analogy between a football team and life itself to show how the pressure to conform exerts itself even on the most idealistic. Also an analogy of life was Leif Panduro's Den ubetcenksomme elsker (1973), a love story about a doctor and a schizophrenic girl. Christian Kampmann's Visse Hensyn (1973) was the first part of a trilogy, tracing a family from the 19SOs to the present day and indicating the social and political Danish. Danish
changes satirical,
that
literature
have
picture of
taken
place.
Another,
bitingly
modern Denmark came from
Willy-August Linnemann's Lovgiveren. Still with a social purpose but more akin to a thriller was Anders Bodelsen's Bevisets stilling. His Alt hvad du ensker dig was superficially a fairy tale about a woman who receives supernatural powers, but essentially a study of human limitations and responsibility. Another fan-
main devoted
to the brutal Spanish destruction
of the Aztec and Inca civilizations and to the bestialities of
the
Vietnam war.
A
sailing ship
doomed
to
destruction formed the framework of Haiene, a tough
novel of the sea by the same author.
A
typical man's
world was also the setting for Kare Holt's outstanding and controversial documentary novel Kapplfipet, an intense and unflattering report on Roald Amundsen and his race with Capt. R. F. Scott to be the first man at the South Pole. A collection of texts by Cora Sandel, Barnet som elsket vcier. pointed out what a fastidious master of prose Norway lost at Sandel's death in April 1974 {see Obiti'aries). Johan Borgen's
Eksempler combined psychological analysis of the final stages of the breakup of a marriage with sagacious sidelights on the contemporary human situation in general. A virtuoso mixture of facts and fiction characterized Jens Erik Nermann's entertaining thriller Rakett mot Murmansk. The conflict between heathen lust for power and the milder Christian morality was at the centre of Vera Henriksen's play Sverdet, with St. Olav as the main protagonist. A plea for the right to free abortion was put forward by Tove Nilsen in the novel Aldri la dem kle deg forsvarsl0st naken, while ideas of women's liberation in general were discussed in Bj0rg Vik's play
To akter for fern kvinner. Refreshing self-irony seasoned the philosophizing of Stein Mehren's novel Titanene. Historical in content but with contemporary overtones was Bergljot Hobjek Haff's novel Heksen, centred round a social outsider, a witch living around a.d. 1500. Life in a farming community in southern Norway during the first two decades of the 20th century was depicted by Knut Hauge in the of a series of historical novels,
Wider Willy-August Ltnnemann satirized contemporary Danish society in his novel "Lovgiveren," published In 1974.
in
Spclcmannen
scope and covering the
first
fifth
Siljufleyt.
half of the
same
century was a fascinating collection of autobiographical childhood reminiscences by 17 prominent Norwegians published by Gyldendal Norsk Forlag under the
title
Det
Jfirste lialvsekel.
An amusing
literary curiosity
was a play by Peter
Hos doktor Wangel, peopled by Ibsen pseudonym lb Henriksen. Vindharpe confirmed Hans B0rli's central Wessel Zapffe,
characters and published under the
Norwegian poetry. Outstanding also were poems by Andre Bjerke, Med alle mine fiigler, and by Sigmund Skard, Dikt i utval. Two widows provided revealing close-ups of their late husbands, Suzanne Bull in Ni dr. Mitt liv med Olaf Bull, and Halldis Moren Vesaas in / Midtb0s position in selected
bakkar, covering the larjei Vesaas.
15 years of her marriage to event in literary scholarship
first
A major
was the launching of a new history of Norwegian literature in six volumes, Norges Utteraturhistorie,
by Edvard Beyer. Johan
sdited
drew a warm
Riis
one of the leading classics in Alexander L. Kielland. Mannen bak dikteren. portrait of
(TORBJ0RN ST0VERUD)
Swedish. The death
in July 1974 of Piir Lagerkvist
(see Obituaries), winner of the 1951 Literature,
was followed
later
in
Nobel Prize for year by the
the
iward of the 1974 prize jointly to two septuagenarian Swedish writers who were internationally less well known: Harry Martinson (whose poems Tuvor appeared in 1973) and Eyvind Johnson, whose latest novel, Ndgra steg mot tystnaden, was typical in its complex structure and dreams of love. The death occurred also of OUe Hedberg, after the appearance of his novel Tank att ha hela livet jramfor sig. Many books dealt with prison life: Kennet Ahl's Grundbulten, Inge Ihsgren's Sociopaten, and a compilation by 17 prisoners, Vdrdad och fin, were all based on personal experience behind bars. Journalist Peter Bratt, sentenced for revealing military secrets, .
.
.
wrote / fdngelse in solitary confinement. The bestseller
critical
their
books printed
in
Mexico because of
their coun-
censorship. The third revenant, Jose Manuel Caballero Bonald, back from the land of lexicography, try's
where he worked on the Spanish Academy's
historical
dictionary, published an exotic novel appropriately
and poetically
titled
.igata ojo de goto; after the
author's 13 years of novelistic silence, his book
made
great realistic noise: it won the Premio Barral, amid great controversy, and he ended by renouncing this prestigious prize. The noncommercial Premio de la Critica went to Corpus Varga for his novel Los galgos verdugos; while the prize for poetry went to Carlos Bousono for his Las monedas contra la losa. A masterful edition of a most readable classic was that of the Glosas de sabiduria by Don Sem Tob, rabbi of Carrion (born c. 1300), edited by Agustin Garcia Calvo, whose arrangement of the text was based on a study of the four known manuscripts. For a
complete reading facility he provided a running paraphrase in modern Spanish (of surprising similarity to the original) clarified so as to
make
evident that the
treatise dealt with the logic of contradiction
and moral
doubt, and he also furnished a highly useful com-
published Polismordarcn, continuing their examination of police and criminals. imagination was abundant in Artur
mentary and introduction. Another "Jewish" writer of a later date in Spain's racial evolution, from a family of converts who left Spain on the Expulsion, but who was and remained a priest in Italy, provided the theme for a model of lively scholarship, a beautifully proportioned and racy study. La genesis artistica de la lozana andaluza: El realismo literario de Francisco Delicado by Jose A. Hernandez Ortiz, with a prologue by Juan Goytisolo. Delicado's classic, Retrato de la lozana andaluza, was an erotic account of contemporary life and morals mostly among young picaros; Hernandez Ortiz did
Historical
Lundkvist's study of the painter Goya, Livsdlskare, svart-malare, a
compound
of biography, art criticism,
and novel. In Furstarna Ivar Lo- Johansson published historical short stories dealing with Swedish royalty ("it is only democratic after all the commoners I have written about"). Recent history provided the background to Die Soderstrbm's Vdgen till Norholm, whose wartime characters included the Norwegian .
.
.
Knut Hamsun, while the main character was a Swedish journalist with personal problems of loyalty and treachery. Sven Delblanc's Vinteride was set in 1939-41; a village in neutral Sweden observes the war at a distance, yet has plenty of its own human problems, as the masterly narration makes clear. Per Olov Enquist believed that the spirit of revolt from around 1968 had been replaced by loyalty to the oppressors or political apathy, and in Berattelser jran de instdllda upprorens tid he illustrated this contention writer
in stories set in West Germany and the U.S. Two powerful novels exploring human relationships were Polish-born Rita Tornborg's Hansson och Goldman
M
and Per Gunnar Evander's andagarna med Fanny. G. Harding and R. Aggestam published an anthology modern poetry, Tjugo unga poeter, Tomas Transtromer a long poem, Ostersjoar, Lars Forssell poems entitled Det mojliga, and the prolific Lars Noren Dagliga och nattliga dikter. Reidar Ekner's Efter flera tusen rad was a poem about his eight-year-old daughter as she lay dying of cancer. Astonishingly, this small book spoke of the unspeakable with beauty and hope. (karin petherick) of
of Spanish literature by Hispanic-American writers. The year was marked by reappearances of writers who had come to the fore in the late IQSOs and had scarcely been heard of since. Two of them, Jesus Lopez Pacheco with his La hoja de parra and Luis Goytisolo Gay with Recuento, had
the invasion of the field
team of Maj Sjbvall and Per
detective-story
Wahloij
SPANISH Spain. The Spanish novel continued defunct in Inrpe measure during 1974. There was no new point of drparture and no spectacular fireworks. The first of the year yielded an experimentalist first novel, Cuando 900 mil Mach aprox, by Mariano Antolin-Rato, and the critics welcomed it as some kind of response to
loving justice to his
gamy
subject.
another study of one of the Spanish classics by a writer of Jewish background was devoted to and titled Fray Luis de Leon, that descendant of Jews, Still
Christian monk, translator of the Song of Solomon,
and glorious synthesizer of Spanish language, history, and music; the compiler of the book (for it included an anthology of the work of Fray Luis as well as an account of his life and a lyrical appreciation of his work) was Alberto Barasoain, who showed himself possessed of a truly musical ear, something almost totally absent in contemporary Spanish criticism. A profoundly witty book by the controversial and unique Jose Bergamin was a collect-ion of varied pieces titled La importancia del demonio; its poetic analysis of the "suicidally intense" Spanish gaze, with "eyes that touch" its object but end by seeing nothing, was alone worth its appearance. One of the more subtle nongenre books of the year was a collection of studies and rare views of 20thcentury writers by E. F. Granell under the title of La leyenda de Lorca y otros escritos. A telling com-
Swedish authors Eyvind Jolinson (top) and Harry Martinson, jointly awarded the 1974 Nobel Prize for Literature.
— 468
Literature
—
mentary on the contradictory nature of Spanish censorship was the appearance during the year of no less than three editions of a book long unavailable, the Giiia espiritual of the heretical Miguel de Molinos,
not printed
Spain since 1955, a year before the
in
Civil War, Perhaps the most readily available edition was the one by Claudio Lendinez; another edition was supplied by the poet Jose Angel Valente. Camilo
Jose Ccla's Oficio de liniebtas 5. which appeared at the turn of the year and whose epigraph was Miguel
de Unamuno's "Literature is nought but death," was most alive, in a seventh edition by the end of 1974. An outstanding book of verse was Vicente Aleixandre's Dialogos del co?wcimicnlo.
(ANTHONY KERRIGAN) Latin-America. The year 1974 belonged, properly speaking, to the illustrious dead.
Pablo Xeruda
in
The deaths
of Chile's
September 1973. of Miguel kngel
Asturias in June 1974 (both Nobel Prize winners), and the shocking accidental death of the poet and novelist
Rosario
ambassador
to
(who was Mexican removed from the literary
Castellanos
Israel)
who represented
scene three writers
"social" litera-
(See Obituaries.) Neruda, of course, cannot be reduced to any simplistic category-. Astonishingly, his posthumous works continued to pour out, ture at
its best.
almost as if he were writing from his grave. Seven of books appeared La rosa separada, Jardin his de invierno. Dejectos escogidos, 2000 El corazdn amarillo, Libra de las pregimtas, Elegia, and El mar y las campanas. At least one critic believed them to be the best poetPv' Neruda ever wrote. They included the astonishing "Animal de luz," a clear-eyed vision of
own disappearance from the world. In these poems, Neruda faced his own death without self-pity but with a certain caustic wit reminiscent of Picasso. Like Picasso, Neruda kept his amazing creative gifts intact to the end of his life, though the vitalism by which he had always lived proved a tenuous bulwark against death. Both these artists expressed each stage of their lives with verve and candour and met old age with a certain resentment (as well as with resigna-
his
tion)
as
they
sensed
the
decline
of
their
bodily
powers. As he grew older, Neruda tended to look backward more and more, reliving certain privileged moments of experience his childhood, the East, the Spanish Civil War. Neruda's widow. Matilde Urrutia. and the Vene-
—
M. Caballero Bonald,
organizers' attention to the international scene
hurt local Colombian feeling, with the result that Co-
lombian writers, headed by the veteran Leon de
was not a great year for literary prizes, though Mexico announced its intention to institute an .Mfonso Reyes prize with a jury consisting of internationally famous critics. Spain, too, appeared to be planning a "Nobel" prize for the Spanish-speaking world. The annual Casa de las .\mericas Prize went to Uruguayan Alfredo Gravina, for a collection of short stories, and the Despegues to the Peruvian Marcos It
Llauria for the novel
En
despues de mil
otot'w.
Allende Gossens.
It
was natural for the Chilean theme
appear in hundreds of books, from poems and compilations of documents such as El libro negro de to
represidn en Chile to novels such as Salvador Allende by Enrique Lafourcade. To this genre belongs the newly exiled Chilean Jorge Edwards, who pub-
la
wards'
Isla
Negra (1964).
pointed out
in the
Donald Walsh
in
New
York Review oj Books and
Hispania, these works are not valid
English language and elementary errors make it impossible for those unable to read his works in the original to reach a closeness with the real Neruda. Miguel Angel .\sturias was never the prolific writer that Neruda was, though he too went through a period of great creativity just before his death and was app.ircntly working on a novel, Dos veces bastardo. Like \'ienies de dolores (1972), it described the Guatemalan middle classes in 1954, on the eve of the overthrow of Arbenz. Rosario Castellanos will be best remembered for her Chiapas novels. She was also an
as legible poetry in the
aiios.
Everv'thing changed in Latin .\merica after the 1973 military coup that overthrew Chilean Pres. Salvador
memoirs, Confieso que he vivido. Unfortunately, they add little to what he told us in his autobiographical English translations of Neruda were increased with Residence on Earth, Extravagaria, and a selection of poems from Five Decades, but as Michael Wood
Greiff,
signed a protest before the conference opened.
lished his diary of experiences in
poems Memorial de
controversial winner of the Spanish literary prize, the Premio Barral.
The
Miguel Otero Silva completed the manuscript, with some of Neruda's loose texts, of his
zuelan novelist
J.
woman of wit and intelligence who would certainly have made a far bigger contribution had she not died tragically at the early age of 48. The disappearance of these three marked the end of an era of socially conscious literature. All of their works antedated the new novel with its emphasis on the creative participation of the reader. In fact, however, the new novel had itself become repetitive and few really interesting novels appeared in the course of the year. The reason was not the lack of talent but rather the questioning of the genre itself, which has always been associated with a privileged public. More and more of the young talent was looking beyond traditional genres to newer forms or to kinds of art that were not tainted with the original sin of elitism. Symptomatic of this was the interest in popular song, in theatre, and in cinema collectives. Behind this interest, there was still a social concern, but it was being expressed rather differently from the generation of Neruda and .Asturias. The concern stemmed, first of all, from a growing realization of the power of the mass media in shaping opinion: hence the spate of articles in literary magazines on comic strips, on popular love stories or television soap operas. Equally symptomatic of this suspicion of cultural elitism was the Call (Colombia) conference on the novel held by the magazine La nueva narrativa hispanoamericana. active feminist, a
Persona
country
non
grata.
Cuba and
Published
in his
own
from
Ed-
new residence in Spain, the work could not have appeared at a more inopportune time. When the found an urgent cause for unity. EdCuba) gave view of the causes of the break between a considerable group of writers on the Latin-.\merican intellectual left
wards
(
.MIende's former representative to
his personal
continent and their
Cuban
friends as a result of the
1971 imprisonment and subsequent self-criticism of
Cuban poet Heberto Padilla. Of all Chilean exiles the most literarily active was Dorfman, who [jublished two books of essays and the most interesting experimental novel of the the
Ariel
year, that
Moros en la casta, a magnificent tour de force contained close to 20 novels within the novel.
Through
its
exploration of the limits and possibilities
of the genre, of
how
Moros en
la
costa
was
also a testimony
the Chilean intellectuals answered the chal-
lenge of creating a
new
culture.
The
central idea of
the other two books. Inocencia y neocolonialismo: ensayos qiiemados en Chile and Superman y sus
469
amigos del alma, was the denunciation of the values and interests of the U.S. imposed through "pop culture": from comics and TV series to the Reader's Digest. Superman contained a second part, by Manuel Jofre, which described how comics used their penetrative force in the construction of sociahsm in Chile.
Literature
Uruguayan novelist Juan Carlos Onetti was the most talked about Latin-American writer, not so much for his excellent short novel La nmerte y la niiia as for the prison term to which he was sentenced by the Uruguayan government. His offense, along with some of his collaborators on the weekly newspaper Marcha, was to award a prize to the short story El giiardaespaldas by Nelson Marra. which attacked police torture and defended the Tupamaro guerrillas. among them Fiction. Most of the major writers Juan Rulfo, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Fernando were reported to have Alegria, and Carlos Fuentes
—
—
novels in progress, while comparatively little new talent emerged. The spate of translations in France
and the U.S. gave an illusory impression that the boom that characterized the Latin-American novel of the mid-1960s went on unabated. Manuel Puig's The Buenos Aires Afair was received with acclaim when it appeared in the U.S. in 1974 and it was speedily followed by Gregory Rabassa's translation of Paradise, a dense novel by the Cuban poet Jose Lezama Lima. In Latin America itself, the novels that attracted most attention were by writers of the older generation. Ernesto Sabato's Abaddon, el eiterminador, a novel set in the turbulent year 1972, combined autobiographical elements with Sabato's own private mythology, which readers of his Sobre heroes y tumbas will recognize. Alejo Carpentier's novel El recurso del metodo was a major work by this writer has a histhe period just before and during
and, like several of his previous novels, torical
setting
World War
—
who belonged
well-educated dictator general-president
tells
first
person the story of and to none. A
to all places
who loves French things, the how he gained power, over-
threw the greedy military, did business, sold his country to foreign interests, and was finally overthrown by an alliance of the people and the students. In spite of his excellent prose, El recurso del metodo (a deliberate echo of Descartes' Discourse on Method) sometimes gave the impression that
it
was written from a
European point of view, which sees the Latin-American chaos as a spectacle and not as a tragedy. This objection was not valid in respect to Yo, el Supremo by Augusto Roa Bastos, a biography of Doctor Francia, a dictator who ruled Paraguay from 1S14 to 1840, literally isolated it from the rest of the world, and in his eagerness to be honest and effective became a despot who made paranoia and terror the nourishment of power. Unwittingly this historical novel became one of the most timely books of 1974. If
the novel
flagged,
the
short story flourished.
Jorge Luis Borges was largely responsible for making the story into an art form that was something more than the by-product of the novelist, though he himself
had not produced much original work for some time. Several well-known novelists published collections of In Octaedro, a collection of eight stories, Julio Cortazar demonstrated the timeliness of the genre stories.
and added to his credit two brief masterpieces: "Lugar llamado Kindberg" and "Los pasos en las huellas." Peruvian Alfredo Bryce Echenique, whose outstanding novel Un mundo para Julius put him in
poems appeared
posthumously
the front rank of Latin-American writers, brought out
La
a collection of stories,
of upper-class
Lima
life,
magazine
lively
A
satirist
published in Buenos Aires, pages to new talent, pub-
Crisis,
consistently gave over lishing tine,
jelicidad, ja, ja.
he portrayed the absurdity of the moments of social change. The
aristocracy at
anthologies
its
and Uruguayan
by Peruvian, Argen-
stories
of
writers.
pressive selection of 13 the February 1974 issue,
It
presented an im-
young Argentine writers in the best known of whom was
Hector Libertella, recent winner of the Monte Avila
I.
Carpentier narrated in the a tyrant
it
Chilean poet Pablo Neruda, 1971 Nobel Prize winner, wliose last
prize in Caracas, 'Venezuela.
In Mexico an outstanding collection of stories was pubhshed by Jose Revueltas. Revueltas, one of the new novel, is an important and neglected writer who recently spent some time in prison, reflected in some of the stories of an experience Material de los sueiios. A political writer whose poli-
pioneers of the
tics are
not external or rhetorical, Revueltas writes lived experiences. One of the outstand-
from deeply
was about a comcriminal and a political offender, locked together mutual hatred and in a prison cell. In this and in stories set in the hospital, Revueltas built up an overpowering sense of claustrophobia. The neglect of Revueltas outside Mexico was symptomatic of the whimsical manner in which Latining stories in Material de los sueiios
mon in
American America.
literature
Two
translators. is
was promoted
outside
Latin
aspects are particularly overlooked by
The
first is
called testimonio
the strong emphasis on what
(that
is,
the direct recording of
and the second is the presence of humour. Redoble para Rancas, published several years earlier by the Peruvian writer Manuel Scorza, was the prototype of the testimonio. Events in Chile and Argentina produced a spate of these works during the year and Scorza himself was at work on a massive series of books, which he called "ballads," based on the struggles of the Indian communes. Humourists, on the other hand, were slow to publish, though the works of writers like Carlos del Parral of Argentina and Augusto Monterroso of Mexico appeared often in magazines and newspapers. reality)
in
1974.
470
Luxembourg
poetry was
dominated by and especially Octavio Paz. whose international reputation was secured by the publication of the majority of his work in Europe Poetry.
Like
fiction,
writers of the older generation,
and the U.S.
A
collection of his essays, Alternating
Current, translated by Helen R. Lane and published in 1973, received an extensive notice in the New York
Review of Books, and
a collection of translations
and
work and first published by Books Abroad came out in book form. Edited by Ivar Ivask, The Perpetual Present included photographs and an ample bibliography. Paz himself did not publish any original work but brought out a collection of articles dedicated to his
his translations of other poets in Versiones
sioncs.
An
terest, this
y diver-
astonishing display of Paz's range of in-
poems by Donne and cummings and William
included versions of
Marvell, by Nerval, by e. e. Carlos Williams, by the Portuguese poet Fernando Pessoa. and even versions from Swedish and Chinese.
the reader not to look at these poems in an academic light and indeed, as with his criticism, he has a power of incorporating the work of others into
He begged
his
own
universe, so that Marvell, for instance,
comes
out sounding more like Paz than one would have thought possible. A lesser-known contemporary of
Paz
in
Mexico was Efrain Huerta, a
poet
who
short
poems with
published a
Among younger The Argentine writer Julio Cortazar, the French translation of whose novel
"El iibro de Manuel" won France's 1974 Prix Medicis for foreign authors.
new
the title
truly original
collection of about
100
Los erdtieos y otros poemas.
poets of Mexico, Jaime Reyes, David
Huerta, Jose Joaquin Blanco, and Raul Garduiio showed impressive talent though they were as yet
Paraguay is not often mentioned in articles on Latin-American literature, but Elvio Romero, Paraguay's best-known poet, continued to be popular and a second edition of his Aniologia poetica 1947-73 was published by Losada. In Argentina a good deal of poetry was published, notably in the magazine Crisis, though it was hard to distinguish any particular trend. An issue dedicated to Peru in April included poems by Antonio Cisneros, Mirko Lauer, Marco Martos, and Enrique Verastegui, though none of these brought out
Quinta estacidn, which included all of his published poetry. Unfortunately, it was poorly edited, without dates, notes, or bibliography. This was particularly distressing because Cardoza y Aragon was one of the most interesting unknowns in Latin America. A surrealist early in life whose avant-garde Luna-park appeared as early as 1923, an art critic and distinguished essayist whose work somehow never attracted much attention, by rights he should have ranked with Carlos Pellicer or Xavier Villaurrutia. Perhaps because he was Guatemalan he never seemed to receive critical notice. This was certainly not the case with Ernesto Cardenal, the Xicaraguan poet whose work was increasingly being translated and published in Europe and North America. During the year his Homage to the American Indians appeared in translation, and an edition of his
poems
in
English was scheduled for
publication in London. Vallejo, the most difficult of poets to translate, was tackled by David Smith, who
published the whole of Trike in translation. J. M. Cohen brought out a translation of Fuera del juego, the controversial selection of poems by the Cuban poet Padilla. The English title is Sent off the Field.
Lumber: S'-i
(JEAN franco; SALVADOR BARROS')
Forestry
Lutherans: see
Religion
—
Luxembourg A
'i
monarchy, ,^"^ the Benelux country of Luxembourg is bounded on the east by West Germany, on the south by France, and on the west and north by Belgium. Area: 999 sq.mi. (2,586 sq.km.). Pop. (1973 est.): 352.700. Cap. and largest city: Luxembourg (pop., 1973 est., 79,000). Language: French, German, Luxconstitutional
embourgian. Religion: Roman Catholic 97%. Grand duke, Jean;' prime ministers in 1974, Pierre Werner and, from June 15, Gaston Thorn. Prime Minister Werner submitted his resignation on May 2 7. the day after his ruling Christian Social Party
had suffered an unexpected defeat tions. Three main factors appeared
i
I
:
I
\
in national electo
have contrib-
t. 16. 1974) a nominal free rale of £1 sterling). Budget MRs. 7.30 to U.S. $1 (MRs. 17 (1972) expenditure MRs. 22.6 million. Foreign trade (1971): imports .MRs. 20,540,000; exports MRs. 25,Lanka. Main exports with Sri 520,000. Trade mainly (metric tons; 1972): fish 5,880; copra 16; shells 14.
=
higher,
92;
students
731,
Finance. Monetary unit: Mali franc, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a free rale of MFr. 4S1 to L'.S. |l (MFr. 1.113 ~ i\ sterling). Gold, SDRs. and foreign exchange; (Nov. 1973) US. $4.2 million; (Nov. 1972) U.S. $4.1 million. Budget (1974 est.) balanced at
MFr. 29
billion.
Foreign Trade. (1972-73) Imports MFr. 40.9 bilexports MFr. 17,960,000,000. Import sources: c. 57%; Ivory Coast c. 15%: US. 7%; West Germany c. 6%; Belgium-Luxembourg c. S%. Export destinations: France c. 47%; Upper Volta 11%; Japan c. 8%; West Germany c. 7%; U.K. c. 7%; lion;
and trade" and cooperation in tourism, aviation, and shipping. This was seen as a hopeful sign of normalization after two years of strained relations over trade and commerce. It was agreed that a high-frequencyradio link should be established between Male and
France
c. 6%. Main exports: cotton 39%: peanuts 7%. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; 1972 in parentheses): millet and sorghum c. 600 (c. 600): rice (1972) c. 150, (1971) c. 170; corn (1972) c. 60, (1971) c. 80; peanuts c. 100 (c. 100); sweet potatoes (1972) c. 71. (1971) c. 71; cassava (1972) C. 160, (1971) c. 160; cotton, lint c. IS (26); beef and veal (1972) c. 49, (1971) c. 50; mutton and lamb (1972) c. 34, (1971) c. 36. Livestock (in 000; 197273): cattle c. 3,700; sheep c. 3,900; horses c. 170;
Ghana
Colombo. In Addu Atoll, Gan Island continued to serve as a
Royal Air Force staging post to Singapore and Hong Kong. It was ser\^ed by 600 RAF personnel, with an additional 50 at Hittadu radio station, and 100 Pakistanis. About 1,000 Maldivians sailed in as day workers from neighbouring islands, for which the RAF provided medical and educational services. The Navy, Army, and Air Force Institutes (NAAFI, supplying goods to service personnel), managed by two Europeans and 37 Singhalese and enjoying an annual turnover of about £1 million, were further licensed to trade with 43 Maldivian vessels. In December the Labour government announced that British personnel on Gan would be withdrawn as part of its program of reduc-
ment to found a joint Libya-Mali bank, to assist development projects in Mali, was signed in Tripoli on September 4. Colonel Traore announced on September 21 that MFr. 386 billion ($772 million) had been
(molly Mortimer)
raised for investment in the next five-year develop-
ing defense expenditure.
asses
c.
460.
In May, Mali reached agreement with Mauritania
and Senegal on a
joint
development project for the
Senegal River basin. tSee Mauritania.)
An
agree-
ment
plan, the lion's share going to agriculture, communications, tourism, mining development, and water and energy resources. (r. m. coodwin)
Mali
[978.E.4.b.ii]
A
West Africa, Mali is bordered by AlUpper Volta, Ivory Coast, Guinea, Sene-
republic of
geria, Niger,
and Mauritania. Area: 478,822 sq.mi. (1,240,142 1973 est. 5,375,400. Cap. and largest Bamako (pop., 1970 est., 196,800). Language: French (official); Hamito-Semitic and various tribal
gal,
sq.km.). Pop.
(
1
Muslim 65%; animist 30%. Head of military government in 1974, Col. Moussa Traore. Drought and famine in the Sahel region continued into 1974 isee Agriculture and Food Supplies: Special Report and ravaged Mah. Tuareg tribes in dialects. Religion:
i
the region emigrated not only southward but also north into southern Algeria. The Mali administration was accused of not taking the crisis seriously enough. Sidi Coulibaly, minister of production, denied this but admitted that 1,835,000 of the country's population
were affected. Improvement in the transportation of emergency food supplies was reported in the second half of the year.
A June
referendum on a new constitution was held on 2,
with
99%
voter approval.
stitution's provisions
Among
the con-
were confirmation of the
rule
by
decree of the Military Committee for National Liberation
(which had seized power in November 1968) for
an additional period of
five years; the president of the
republic and head of government would be elected universal suffrage for a
terms; persons
Nov.
19, 1968,
who had
Malta
:
city:
maximum
of
by two five-year
held political office before
would be excluded from public
Six years after the coup, former president
Keita, his wife, and 32 other persons were
office.
Modibo still
held
under house arrest. Further arrests were made in June in connection with the appearance of a leaflet calling for a negative vote in the referendum.
An
island in the Mediterranean Sea. between Sicily and Tunisia. Malta is a republic and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. Area: 122 sq.mi. (316 sq.km.), including Malta, Gozo. and Comino. Pop. (1973 est.): 298.200. Cap.: Valletta (pop.. 1973 est.. 14.150). Largest city: Sliema (pop.. 1973 est., 20.120). Language: Maltese and English. Religion: mainly Roman
Catholic.
Queen
until
Dec.
governor-general and, from
13,
1974, Elizabeth II;
December
13, president.
Anthony Mamo; prime minister, Dom Mintoff. During 1974 active steps were taken by the government to draw up a new constitution for Malta. Discussions on the proposed amendments were held with the opposition, and government spokesmen reaffirmed that, if no agreement were reached, the constitution would be amended by a simple majority, even where two-thirds majority in Parliament was required. On December 13, following passage by the House of Representatives of three bills amending the 1954 constitution, Malta was declared a republic. Sir Anthony Mamo, the governor-general, was sworn in as the &nt president. Malta thus became the 19th republic in tlM Sir
Commonwealth
of Nations.
As a result of talks with the U.K., Malta agreed June to resume repayments of outstanding British Exchequer loans, suspended in 1972. Britain undertook to give Malta £1 million of technical assistance.
in
Marketing and Merchandising
In July a European Economic Community commission discussed with the government the latter's request for a revision of the 1970 association agreement, in-
vised by Chinese technicians, and a
In
itself in difficulties.
ernment as inadequate.
equity.
In November 1973 a national shipping line (Sea Malta) was set up; five months later Air Malta started operating under its own insignia. In April a
penditure in 1974-75 of
toward the government of M£12.5 million built up by the dry docks over the years was completely written off by the government to enable the dry docks to operate successfully. Work was started
cession, against
on the building of a 300,000-ton tanker dock, super-
shipbuilding
December 1973 the National Bank group found The government moved in, conBank of Valletta with an authorized capi-
tended to include preferential treatment for agricultural products exported to the EEC. Concessions subsequently offered were refused by the Malta gov-
liability
new
complex was planned.
stituted the tal
of
M£6
million in March, and took up
The government budgeted
tourism had registered a
60%
of the
for a record ex-
Mi59
million.
33%
increase over the
By September same
period in 1973. Texaco Malta Inc. was given the con-
payment
of
south of Malta.
$10 million, to drill for oil (albert ganado)
Marketing and Merchandising The merchandising scene
in Europe was dominated government anti-inflation measures, and and the continuing development of largescale units became of secondary importance. Inflation and recession were dominant factors in marketing and merchandising in North America.
by
M.\LTA Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 37.348, teach1.820; secondary, pupils 25,912, teachers 1,592; vocational, pupils 3,886. teachers 191; higher (including Royal University of Malta), students 1,488, teaching staff 346. Finance. Monetary unit: Maltese pound, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a free rate of M£0.39 to U.S. $1 (M£0.90 £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, official: (June 1974) U.S. $351.7 million; (June 1973) U.S. $312.9 million. Budget (1973-74 est.) balanced ers
=
M£SO,733.000. Foreign Trade. (1973) Imports M£88,098,000; M£35,960,000. Import sources; U.K. 28%; Ii:ily 16%; West Germany 9%; France 6%; U.S. ; The Netherlands 6%. Export destinations; U.K. ^.; Italy 12%; West Germany 10%; Belgium-Luxiibourg 8%; France 5%. Main exports; clothing 7';,; textile yarns and fabrics 12%; machinery 9%; rubber products 6%; plumbing fittings 5%. Tourism M72); 149,900 visitors; gross receipts U.S. $20 mil-
inflation,
shortages,
Inflation. In the United States the effects of inflation
and recession on
retail sales
began
in the last third of the year. Earlier, sales
steadily to reach their peak of
to
be
felt
advanced
more than $46.5
bil-
at
ivports :
I
(
linn
Transport and Communications. Roads (1971) Motor vehicles in use (1972): passenger
This was a gain of 11% over July and was 11.7% above the corresponding period of 1973. September, October, and November all registered declines, however, with the November total approximately $45.1 billion. This was only 5% above lion in August.
the figure for November 1973 and was more than by the 12% rise in consumer prices over the same period. Much of this decline was attributed to offset
1,J39 km.
the considerable decrease in automobile sales. Retail
-17,^00; commercial (including buses) 11,400. There n.r no railways. Air traffic (1973); 181 million pas-
stores
nnser-km.; freight 2,560,000 net ton-km. Shipping l''73); merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 24; loss tonnage 11.022. Ships entered (1972) vessels loialing 1,663.000 net registered tons; goods loaded 1073) 94,000 metric tons, unloaded 941,000 metric ;!=. Telephones (Dec. 1972) 45,000. Radio licenses lice. 1972) 124,000. Television licenses (Dec. 1972)
than expected but unusually late. Many stores featured pre-Christmas sales. Every country felt the impact of both Middle East oil policies and supply shortages in the world commodity markets. In the U.K., where the increase in
"7.000.
the cost of living approached
I
'
•
*j«'ts?a5f''s>:'A»«;s^'.-;
-'' do-
life.
—a simplistic fable about the attempt tame wolf confirm the rumours, a new —did not
Production and
directors continued to
Benegal's
fantasy
directed by
Motor Industry;
Shyam
at the Berlin
backs the terrors of the 1930s. The film was explicit enough to cause protests and demonstrations on its first showings in Spain. Jaime de Arminan's El Amor del Capildn Brando, the Spanish entry at the Berlin Festival, gave a cruel view of the pressures of provincial life through the story of a 13-year-old's heroic
Eastern Europe. U.S.S.R. The Soviet Union, as some years past, made little impact on the international film scene, despite persistent rumours of the significant work being produced, not in the metropolitan centres of Leningrad and Moscow, but in the studios of the republics. Though The Ferocious One,
sir Industrial
India.
Another film that dealt intelligently and sensitively with the social problems arising from sur\'iving customs of the caste system and marriage arrangements was Awtar Krishna Kaul's 27 Down BombayVaranasi Express. Kaul was drowned only a few weeks before the film's European premiere at the Locarno Festival. Hong Kong. The cinema of Hong Kong, after many
for
Motorboating: Motor Sports
new
India. Promising
stories,
and "problem" pictures condemning drugs and teen-
turns to the town of his youth and relives in flash-
irt:
—
the international festivals of 1974. with the exception
Masaki Kobayashi's Kaseki, a marathon (3 hours 40 minutes) account of a man dying of cancer who discovers new artistic and sentimental pleasures in the course of a farewell trip to Europe. of
—
panel discussions, and straightforward messages. Relieved of the chore of such routine production, film-
makers were able ducing other
to
become more
creative in pro-
films.
A
fourth development related to the nontheatrical film was the surge of films being made by young people. Children as young as fifth graders were making
prize-winning
animation
films.
young
As
people
moved through high school and college, a growing number were going into the business for themselves. By late 1974 the number of film production companies in the U.S. exceeded 3,000. The number of nontheatrical films released in 1973 hit
an all-time high mark of 17,230
with 15,770
in
$638
million.
2%,
compared amount spent
titles,
1972. In contrast, the
for the 1973 productions dipped
to
an estimated
Business and industry accounted for
11,530
titles,
more than
three times as
many
the 3,470 feature films produced worldwide.
titles
Ten
as
per-
cent, or 1,740, of the nontheatrical films were sponsored by federal, state, and local government agencies,
the last two showing an increase.
One
film
on safe
by the California State Highway Department, License to Kill, was picked as the top in-plant production of 1974 in two contests. Venice's Grand Prix was won in 1974 by an industrial film from St. Paul, Minn., Portrait of a Railroad. Producer for Burlington Northern Railroad was driving
Francis Thompson of New York. A classroom film. Space Filling Curves, by Education Development Center of Newton, Mass., took top prizes in two scientific events at Sydney, Austr., and Padua, Italy. A sensitive film about two little brothers, one blind
and one sighted, was selected for the blue ribbon by the American Film Festival in New York, the premier educational film event in the world.
(THOMAS WALKER HOPE) See also Photography; Television
[623;
motorcycle racer Mike Hailwood of the U.K., driving a McLaren M23. The winner made best lap, at a speed of 189.02 kph.
The
flat-12-cylinder Ferraris
came
into their
501
Motor SportS
own
Jarama, Spain, where the first two places in the two-hour Spanish Grand Prix went to them. Lauda led Regazzoni home, at 142.396 kph, having set a new lap record of 151.621 kph on his 47th circuit; Fittiat
paldi finished third. In the Belgian
Grand
Prix, held
over 85 laps of the 3.724-km. autodrome at Nivelles in May, Fittipaldi won, at 182.019 kph, from Lauda's Ferrari and the Tyrrell 007 of Scheckter. Hulme's
McLaren lapped fastest, at 188.001 kph. Before the month was over the teams moved to the classic realroad circuit at Monaco, somewhat altered since 1972 and now measuring 24 km. to the lap. Of the 25 starters Ronnie Peterson of Sweden raised Lotus
hopes by doing the quickest lap, on his 72/R8, at 134.252 kph, and going on to victory at 129.540 kph for the 78 laps. Second place was gained by Scheckter
and the Frenchman Jean-Pierre Jarier, Shadow DN3, was third. In the Swedish Grand Prix at Anderstorp the Tyrrell 007s made a fine showing, finishing first and second. Scheckter, who averaged 162.723 kph, was for Tyrrell,
and Radio.
driving a
73S.G.2]
Encyclop-cdia Britannica Films. Growing (1969) film; Practical Filmmaking (1972),
—
computer-animated
by his French teammate, Hunt of Great Britain was Lord Hesketh. The frailty of the modern racing car became apparent in this event as evidenced by the number of suspension breakages; 12 cars finthe winning driver, followed
Patrick Depailler. James
Motor Sports
third for
Automobiles. The 1974 season of Formula One Grand Prix motor racing opened in January in Buenos Aires, Arg., over 316.3 km. (53 laps). It looked as if Carlos Reutemann of Argentina would win in a Brabham BT44/1 as he was leading near the end. But his engine developed problems, and it was the veteran Denis Hulme of
New
Zealand who finished
Team McLaren, ahead
of Austrian Niki
first
for
Lauda and
Gianclaudio ("Clay") Regazzoni of Switzerland in Ferraris. The winning McLaren was an M21/6,
which averaged 1S7.874 kph, but the fastest lap had been made by Regazzoni, at 191.664 kph (1 kph = 0.62 mph). At the end of January the tour moved to Brazil for the Grand Prix at Interlagos, Sao Paulo, over 254.7 km. There, Emerson Fittipaldi of Brazil, who had forsaken Lotus, for whom he drove in 1973, to drive for the Texaco-Marlboro McLaren team, returned to form and won at 180.623 kph. He was followed home by Regazzoni in second place with a Ferrari, a combination that again
made
fastest race lap, at 183.52
kph. Jackie Ickx of Belgium finished third in a Lotus
John Player team. Throughout the remainder of the Grand Prix season Fittipaldi showed a clever recognition of the pace required to win the world championship, apparently extending himself fully only when this was called for. In the Grand Prix Premio Presidente Medici, held for the purpose of inaugurating the new autodrome at Brasilia, Fittipaldi vanquished Jody Scheckter of South Africa in a Tyrrell and an Iso-Marlborough, at a speed of 174.337 kph for the 219 km. Before another world championship race was run, there was an interesting interlude on a wet day at Brands Hatch near London, when the Race of Champions for both Formula One and Formula 5000 cars was held. It was won by Ickx in the Fl Lotus 72, while second place went to Lauda in the Fl Ferrari 312B. The next major race was at Kyalami in South Africa at the end of March, where Reutemann won, 72 of the
his
Brabham averaging
187.07 kph, to hold
Pierre Beltoise of France in a
BRM
off
Jean-
P201 and
ex-
ished out of 26 starters.
At Zandvoort for the 75-lap, 316.9S-km. Dutch Grand Prix in June, the Ferraris were in fighting form, Lauda winning at 184.628 kph from his teammate Regazzoni. with Fittipaldi third. Peterson had the fastest lap. The French Grand Prix was held over 80 laps of the small 3.289-km. Dijon-Premois circuit Peterson deservedly winning for Lotus. He averaged 192.721 kph for the 263.12 km. of the race, followed in by the two Ferraris of Lauda and Regazzoni. The British Grand Prix, over the unduin early July,
lating 4.26-km. course at
by mismanagement
at
Brands Hatch, was marred Lauda seemed to
the finish.
have victory in his grasp, when a tire on his Ferrari's right rear wheel deflated. He came in to change it and was unable to get out of the pits road, which was blocked. Scheckter won for Tyrrell, at 186.25 kph, „ Jacl
it
of eight Soviet
force. Italy's Carlo Bonomi won the world offshore powerboat racing championship for the second year in a row, driving "Dry Martini," a Cigarette hull with Kiekhaefer Aeromarine power. Art Norris of Detroit
won
the U.S. offshore inboard championship, and Juan Fernandez of the Bahamas won the outboard title. (JIM MARTENHOFF) [452.B.4.a,ii]
U.S.S.R.
Eight Soviet women died in a storm on the peak August.
in
Mountaineering In 1974 in the Himalayas there was again
much
activ-
and a concentration on routes of considerable The Nepalese government showed was determined to see that the rules it laid down
for foreign mountaineering expeditions to peaks of
women
there in August),
climbers died
in
a blizzar
and U.S. climbers made the
asccnt of the north face of the 19th Parly
Peak. In the Hindu
Koh-i-Bandaka
Zom
in
Kush new
(ir-
Congn-
ascents took place on
1973, and on
new peaks
of Langa
in 1974.
monsoon in 1973. West Germans were successful After the
in the
Himalayas
in the first
Dhaulagiri III and the Japanese in a
new
ascent
the oi
route on
Kanjiroba. Other Japanese attempts on Kangbachcn and Piutha Hiunchuli. a Spanish one on Manaslu, and an Italian one on Annapurna failed, the second an' fourth of these each losing several members avalanche accidents. Successful new ascents bcfon the monsoon in 1974 were the very difficult Changali
bang
(British),
Annapurna
I
(Spaniards,
north
(Austrians), Peak 22270 on Nand.i Sanctuary inner rim (Indians), Kanjiro!' (south face and east ridge, Japanese), and LamjuiHimal (British). Defeats were Manaslu (by women's party, one of whom was killed); Jannii. Gangapurna. and Tukuche by Japanese expeditions; and Kangbachen (Polish). British parties failed on ridge), Shartse
Devi
..
IV (with three deaths) and Nampa; Spanon Everest; Austrians on Malcalu; Americans on Paiju Peak; and Italians on Himalchuli. West Germans were called off Annapurna II because of an Dhaulagiri
iards
irregular ascent of Annapurna IV; and Japanese failed on Annapurna South, Churen Himal, Peak 29, Yalung Kang, the Ogre, and Broad Peak. In New Zealand during the winter of 1973 the Sheila face of Cook and the south face of Aspiring were climbed, and in summer 1973-74 ascents were made on major faces in the Darran range and other outlying areas. On Ruwenzori, Uganda, new routes were made in 1974 on Baker and the Speke Glacier, In Greenland there were new ascents in 1973 in Jamesonland and the Angmagssalik areas by British, West German, and Spanish expeditions. In Alaska and the Yukon in 1973 important new chmbs were made on Fairweather and Redoubt, and in 1974 on Logan, Dickey, and the Moose's Tooth. A major new ascent in 1974 was the north face of North Twin. Among the major new climbs in the Andes in 1973-74 was Nevado Veronica north face (Poles). (john neill)
Modern
Art, where the board of directors accepted a complex offer by Norton Simon, an industrialist and well-known art collector. Simon offered to give the museum almost $1 million and to continue to underwrite its debts, in exchange for 75% of its floor space for the display of his own vast collections, valued at hundreds of millions of dollars. "Modem" was then dropped from the museum's title, and several forthcoming exhibitions of recent art were canceled. Critics
move pointed to Simon's well-known antipathy toward modern art and lamented the loss of a viable showcase for its display. During 1974, UNESCO and ICOM continued to promote the development of museums. ICOM's tenth General Conference, held in Copenhagen in June, had as its theme "the role of museums in the modern world." UNESCO's General Conference in November adopted a museum program that included seminars on of the
"the adaptation of museums to the needs of the modern world," one of them, for Asian countries, to be held in Tokyo/Kyoto in October 1975, and the other, for African countries, to be organized in 1976. lar
[4S2.B.s.d]
505
Museums
A
simi-
meeting was expected to take place in Latin Amer-
ica in 1977.
Museums (
ment
Museums The museum world reflected society's general concern during the year with acts of political terrorism. Al-
Saint-Maximin (France) in May 1973, set up a special international committee. Meanwhile, UNESCO, in collaboration with the Belgian government, organized in Brussels in November 1973 an international meeting of experts on theft, vandalism, and
available
museums
dent
Picasso's "Guernica"
the
— when
Museum
thefts
Great
of
suffered only one
Modern Art
of significant
Britain
art
in
major
inci-
was spray-painted
New
—
'York City
works for ransom
haunted the security
staffs
of
in
U.S.
museums.
UNESCO and the International Council of Museums (ICOM) were giving particular attention to museum security. After holding a seminar on this subject at I
j
and international measures in favour Museums of the environment
were appearing or being planned. In November 1974 museum or rather group of museums at Le Creusot-Montceau-les-Mines in France. It called itself an "eco-museum" and was intended to reveal and stimulate the total life of the community. Museums in the U.S. were approached from two directions with pleas for resources and action. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, received $1 million from the Andrew W, Mellon Foundation to establish the Mellon Fund, income from which would be used to encourage the use of museum resources by scholars. The National Endowment for the Arts helped fund the Council on Museums and Education in the Visual Arts; the yearlong study undertaken by this group would make
though U.S. at the
j
held a special relationship to the enact-
of national
the environment.
of
ICOM
traffic in
illicit
works of
art.
1974 another international meeting held by in
Paris
was devoted
—due market values of works —was handicapping museums protection
which art
In July
UNESCO
to insurance, the high cost of
inflated
to
in the
their holdings
and especially
of
—was inaugurated
tion
was especially severe in Italy, where major museums in Milan and Turin were closed for several months. Even before the financial, crises in the U.S. began to affect the
museum
the country
had begun
the year several large
world,
museum workers
efforts at unionization.
museum
staffs,
across
Chicago and the Brooklyn Museum of Art, moved in that direction. Equally significant was the formation of the Museum Workers Association of New York City, which brought together the personnel from 15 different museums: the natural history, art, craft, and historical museums were represented. The effort was made in order to exchange news and to promote the welfare of the workers and the museums themselves. The financial problems of the U,S. museum were highlighted at the Pasadena (Calif.) Museum of the Art Institute of
the
educational
areas
in
would be able to handle the problems of the many museums too small to afford their own conservation staffs were being planned. The Nalaboratories that
tional Endowment for the Arts continued to distribute federal grants for conservation projects, and the establishment of a National Institute for Conserva-
tion
was under consideration.
The survey sponsored by the National Endowment Museums USA, appeared as the first
During
such as those of
of
Conservation continued to be a prime concern of museums. Late in 1973 the National ConservaAdvisory was founded, and in 1974 new regional
U.S,
situation
studies
education.
of
temporary or traveling exhibitions and loans. Financial problems caused by rising costs and, in some cases, reduced income plagued many museums
The
case
which museums were operating, and also would further the development of concepts in visual arts
in the organization of
during the year.
—
a remarkable
for the Arts,
survey of its kind conducted within the U.S, Based on studies of 1,821 museums in 1971-72, it contained information on which museum officials could base their future planning. For example, it was found that 30S million people had visited those museums in
that year;
facilities,
36%
of the
and
services,
staff
museums had since
Motor Vehicles; sc€ Disasters;
Industrial Production
and Technology;
cut back
Motor Sports;
1966 because of
Transportation
and 37% of the museums charged admission. Total income of the museums in 1971-72 financial pressures;
was $513
million,
63%
vate sector. The U.S.
of which
came from
museum work
the pri-
force in 1971-72
Municipal Government: see Cities
Affairs
and Urban
Museum was to be replaced by an ultramodern institution for which an impressive building was designed by a Dani'*> architect, also provided by UNESCO. Acquisitions. In the US,. B, Gerald Cantor d nalcd the world's largest private collection of Rodin sculpture to several museums: 10 works to the MuSahara. In Afghanistan the old Kabul
seum
Modern Art
of
to the
in
New
Los Angeles County
'York City, 29 sculptures
Museum
of .Art,
New York
and 88
museum. In
other works to the Stanford University
John D. Rockefeller III presented 300 Oriental works to the Asia Society, a museum that he himself had founded in 1956. The well-known photographer Eliot Elisoion bequeathed 600 .African sculptures and a 50,000-photo archive on .African art to the Museum of African .Art in Washington, DC. The General Ser\'ices .Administration, which had been collecting the works for several years, presented 200 pieces produced for the WP.A (Works Progress .Administration and the U.S. Treasury durCity,
i
ing the depression of the 1930s to the National ColSculpture by Alexander Calder,
stands
"Two in
Discs,"
front
of the Joseph H. Hirshhorn
Museum and Sculpture Garden, which opened in Washington, D.C., in
October.
relied heavily
upon volunteers: 64,200. or 57% of the
lection of Fine Arts of the Smithsonian Institution.
of more than 112,000, were nonpaid workers; 30,400 were full-time paid and 18,700, part-time paid. In the area of education the guided tour for children was the most popular activity; only 7% of the mu-
The Minneapolis
seums never offered such
The Cleveland Museum
total
tours.
New Facilities. The two newest slates of the U.S. were among those announcing new museum building activity. In Hilo, Hawaii, the Lyman House Memorial Museum was to be built; the city of .Anchorage, Alaska, raised a $1.2 million bond issue to fund a new wing for the Historical and Fine .\rts Museum. The Minneapolis Institute of Arts completed a large $26 million addition to its complex of school, theatre, and museum,
the first U.S,
buildings by the renowned
Japanese architect Kenzo Tange. In Baltimore the $4 million wing at the Walters Art Gallery doubled that museum's e.\hibition area and would permit it to display
been
more
of the
80%
in storage since the
1931.
of
its
collection that
museum became
The Pennsylvania Academy
of
had
public in
Fine Art, in
major collections of American art, announced a $6 million renovawould keep its building closed until Febru-
Philadelphia, one of the nations early
tion that
ary 1976,
With the opening of Purchase, N,Y., the
seum sity
facility
system
opened
its
New York
became
in first
State University's
the largest of
the U,S,
Museum
the Neuberger
any
mu-
state univer-
The University
major museum
at
facility,
of Chicago
the Smart
Gallery, In Washington, D,C., the Joseph H. Hirsh-
horn
Museum opened
with 4,000 paintings and 2,000
sculptures, hou.sed in a four-story, $16 million cy-
from the
which comprised the largest single gift ever made by an individual American, Hirshhorn had given $1 million toward the building's construction. The Romisch-germanisches Museum at Cologne in West Germany was completely reorganized. In France the Chagall Museum at Nice was in a new building. The Ethnographical Museum of Warsaw and a new Art Museum were inaugurated during the year in lindrical building;
aside
Barcelona opened. Two museums were
still in
Museum
the planning stage.
of
The
Museum of African Art at Dakar (Senegal), which was being designed and organized with the help of experts provided by UNESCO, was to become one of the most important museums in Africa south of the
art.
100 paintings and
200
prints of the last great flowering of Japanese art.
Two "St.
U.S.
museums acquired
rare old maslerworks.
of Art obtained a painting,
Catherine of .Ale.tandria," by the mysterious German artist Matthias Griinewald. The
16th-century
work, from a private German collection, was one of only two Griinewald works in the U.S.; its coming to light especially excited scholars since
it
is
part of a
larger altarpiece thought to have been lost at sea in
17th century.
the
The National Gallery
of
.Art
in
Washington. DC, after many years of negotiations with a private source in France, acquired a painting by the 17th-century French artist Georges de la Tour, "The Repentant Magdalene." Only about 40 paintings of this master survive, thus accounting for a purchase price reputed to have been almost $2.5 million. The Los Angeles County Museum of Art acquired "The Holy Family" by Fra Bartolommeo. In Canada. Henry Moore presented more than 200 of his works to the .Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto.
The
gift, including 18 bronzes, 41 plaster casts, and numerous graphic works, coincided with the opening of a new building facility by the museum. Also, after
four years of negotiation, the National
Man
Museum
of
Ottawa, Ont., acquired the .Arthur Speyer, Jr., of Canadian Indian artifacts predating 1850. Canada had recently created an Emergency Purchase Fund so that museums could respond at
collection
quickly to preserve works of art representing the nation's cultural heritage.
Among
art works,
Poland, while in Spain the Ethnographical
Institute of Art received the Gale
Ukiyo-e
of
Collection
the outstanding acquisitions of the year
ifi
Europe were Edgar Degas's "La Repasseuse." by the Bayerische Staatsgcmaldcsammlungen in Munich;
Amedeo
Modigliani's drawing "Tete de profil,
Musee Nationale
"
given
Moderne; t by London's Victoria and .Albert Museum; and a 1958 work by the Hungarian painter \ictor \'asarely, by the Scotto
the French
Bodhi.sattva Maitrcya
tish
Gandara
National Gallery of
The
UNESCO
Modern
d'.Art
statue,
Art.
General Conference,
in
November
1974, passed a resolution calling for "the return of cultural property to countries that have been victims
of de facto expropriation,
"
including countries occu-
pied in war and those that had been colonized. By the year's end the effect of such claims on present and past
museum
acquisitions could not yet be foreseen.
that established acquisition policies involving codes of
Symphonic Music. The New York Philharmonic, under Boulez, continued its exploration of the less hackneyed paths of music. Its 1973-74 season included performances of Schumann's Sce?ies from Goethe's "Faust," Mahler's Eighth Symphony, Aaron
New York
Copland's Connotations, and the premiere of Aribert
Association of Art Dealers, the American Committee
Reimann's Cycle for Baritone, with Dietrich FischerDieskau as soloist. Other New York premieres during
There was a growing movement for establishing
museum
codes of ethics of ensure that the real origin
of acquired works of art quisition
ethics
is
legal.
known and
is
Examples
that the ac-
in the U.S. of institutions
were the Arizona State Museum, the
for South Asian Art, the Field
Museum
of Natural
History (Chicago), and the Smithsonian Institution. ICOM began preparing a new international code of ethics. ( JOSHUA b. kind; conrad wise) See also Art Exhibitions; Art Sales.
[eU.D.l.b]
the year included Alberto Ginastera's Serenata
Music
for
baritone, cello, and instrumental ensemble, performed
by the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center; Toru Takemitsu's Far Away for piano, by MarieFran^oise Bacquet at the Alice Tully Hall; Luigi Dallapiccola's Commiato, by Musica Aeterna; Marvin David Levy's hi Memoriam W. H. Auden, by Paul Sperry and the St. Paul Chamber Orchestra; and Ben Johnston's fourth quartet, by the Fine Arts Quartet. Sir Michael Tippett visited the U.S., and
—
Music centenaries of the births of Arnold Schoenberg and Charles Ives occurred in 1974. Both events were celebrated widely throughout the musical world with
The
appropriate revaluations of their work as composers, their
influence,
and, in
portance as a teacher.
Schoenberg's case, his im-
To mark
the occasion, the Uni-
versity of Southern California established an Arnold
Schoenberg Institute and held a centennial celebration from September 12 to 15. At Vienna, in June, the Schoenberg Society held an international congress attended by Schoenberg scholars from all over the world. The society also bought the composer's house in Modling, Aus., which was to become a museum. At the end of 1973 all Schoenberg's chamber works had been played at concerts in the Queen Elizabeth Hall by the London Sinfonietta conducted by David Atherton. A set of recordings of the chamber works by the same performers was issued during 1974. Schoenberg works were featured in the programs of most major symphony orchestras. His unfinished opera Moses und Aran was given a new production by the Hamburg State Opera on March 30, and the same production was taken to the Israel Festival in July.
The Charles Ives Centennial Festival-Conference took place at New York City and New Haven, Conn., October 17-21; it included lectures, symposia, recitals, and concerts. Earlier in the month, a "MiniFestival Around Charles Ives" was held in New York City, The New York Philharmonic under its conductor, Pierre Boulez, gave, among other works, the Fourth Symphony and Decoration Day, and the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center, directed by Charles Wadsworth, presented many of the smaller works. The Charles Ives Centennial Festival in Miami, Fla., held later in the year and scheduled to extend into 1975, included nearly all the composer's main works. His orchestral music was also featured in the English Bach Festival at London and Oxford in April, and an exhibition of memorabilia was held at the Queen Elizabeth Hall, London, as part of South Bank Summer Music in August. The year also marked the centenary of the birth of Gustav Hoist, which was quite widely noted in England by performances of his music, several of them directed by his daughter Imogen. Hans Conrad Fischer made an interesting film to mark the 150th anniversary of Anton Bruckner's birth; Bruckner's music was featured in the world's musical capitals, most notably in Vienna, where all his symphonies were included during the summer festival in that city. Even the 125th anniversary of Chopin's death was observed in many recitals of his music in London and elsewhere.
conducted his music
in
various cities during Febru-
ary and March.
The University
of Illinois in Urbana presented an American Music Festival from January 30 to February 4. Works included the first performance of George Crumb's Ancient Voices of Children and a revival of George F. Bristow's Rip Van Winkle, one of the earliest American operas.
The Chicago Symphony Orchestra visited 12 Eurocities. The Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra made a similar tour, taking with them Gerhard Samuel's Requiem for Survivors, subtitled "And suddenly pean
evening," based on the theme from the Lacrimosa of Mozart's Requiem. This new work had been premiered on March 14 in Los Angeles. The Cleveland (0.) Orchestra under its conductor, Lorin Maazel, toured Japan in May. Richard Rodney Bennett's Concerto for Orchestra was given its first performance by the Denver (Colo.) Symphony Orchestra on February 25. The 25th season of the Aspen (Colo.) Music Festival, June 28-August 25, had as its theme "Masterpieces of the 20th Century"; it also included a Schoenberg conference. A Charles Ruggles Festival was held at Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minn., between March and June. At Baton Rouge, La., the local symphony orchestra gave the first performance of it's
Tito Gobbi sings role in Verdi's "Falslaff" at London's Royal Opera House
tlie title
in
June.
Peter Jona
Kom's
violin concerto, with Zina Schiff
as soloist, on January 16.
The Hollywood Bowl Sum-
Festival, July 9-Septcmber 14, included three marathon evenings and a visit from the London Symphony Orchestra under its principal conductor, Andri Previn. In London two important premieres of works by Hans Werner Henze were given during the year. On January 4 in the Queen Elizabeth Hall, his Voices, 22 songs for mezzo, tenor, and IS players, was given by Rose Taylor, Paul Sperry, and the London Sinfonietta under the composer's baton. On October 20 his Tristan was performed by Colin Davis and the London Symphony. Both had political as well as musical connotations. A new work by Harrison Birtwistle. Imaginary Landscape, was given by the BBC Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Boulez, at the Festival Hall on January 16. The Proms in August and September had three premieres: Robin Holloway's Domination of Black, a large orchestral work inspired by Schumann; Martin Dalby's viola concerto; and Malcolm Williamson's Hammarskjiild Portrait, a setting of the Swedish diplomat's diaries, sung with great fervour by Elisabeth Soderstrom, who had an annus mirabilis. (See Opera, below.) The English Bach Festival was distinguished by visits from Maurizio Kagel and Gyorgy Ligeti, who introduced programs of their ow'n music. At South Bank Summer Music, Aribert Reimann's Tenebrae was given its first performance by the baritone Barry McDaniel with the composer at the piano. This chamber music festival was notable for some outstanding performances by the Cleveland Quartet, one of the leading young groups of the day, and by Barry
mer
Tuckwell's
Mstislav
fine
horn playing. having
Rostropovich,
Britten's third cello suite, written especially for him.
In
London and elsewhere he appeared as conductor as was appointed principal
well as cellist. Antal Dorati
conductor of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, to take effect from 1975.
With
financial stringency the order of the
Britain, the future of the
London orchestras
day
in
in their
form again came under review. It was genagreed that the four main orchestras could not
existing erally
continue their currently exhausting schedules without
The London Symphony
increased Arts Council grants.
continued to prosper under Previn. as did the London
Philharmonic under Bernard Haitink. whose Mahler and Bruckner were again notable. The New Philharmonia was feeling its way under its new principal conductor. Riccardo Muti. Its associate conductor, Andrew Davis, was appointed chief conductor of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra. On June 17 and 18 the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra under Herbert von Karajan made an exciting visit to the Festival Hall to give the four Brahms symphonies. Outside London, the Halle Orchestra, which had been in the doldrums for some time, began to prosper under its new principal conductor. James Loughran. Standards were also relatively high in the case of the Scottish National and the Bournemouth Symphony orchestras, the latter under its new principal conductor. Paavo Berglund from Finland. The English Chamber Orchestra again toured successfully under Raymond Leppard and Daniel Barenboim. Of the
Bournemouth Sinfoniwas perhaps the most consistently successful. Leppard was also bringing new life to the BBC Northern Symphony Orchestra. The Leeds Triennial other chamber orchestras, the etta
Festival in .^pril revived Peter Racine Fricker's choral left
the
Soviet
Union for the time being, returned to the Western European concert platform in September. On December 21, at the Mailings, Snape (near Aldeburgh, Eng.), he gave the first performance of Benjamin
work
.-1
oj Judgment, while the Cardiff and
\'ision
Llandaff festivals in the
summer
featured several
new
works, mostly by Welsh composers. The City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra revived Elgar's oratorio
The Apostles, conducted by
apostle. Sir
Elgar's
own
Adrian Boult.
At the Contemporary Arts Festival
in
La Rochelle,
France (previously held in Royan). June 2S-July 7, Karlheinz Slockhausen's outlandish new work Hcrbstmusik had its first performance. Barenboim was appointed chief conductor of the Orchestre de Paris in .^t the Holland Festival John Ta\cner's large-scale work Ultimas Ritas had its first performance on June 22 at Haarlem; the performance was recorded simultaneously for BBC Television. In Portugal. Iannis Xenakis was featured at the Lisbon Festival in June, and his new work
succession to Sir Georg Solti.
Cendris was given there. It called for a large choir and orchestra used experimentally. An International
W>-Hr .^«MiM>
World's oldest song, dating from the 2nd millennium B.C., is inscribed in cuneiform signs of the Hurrian language (far right) on a tablet unearthed on the coast of Syria. (Right) Richard Crocker, professor of music at the University of California,
plays a reproduction of the lyre for which
the song was written.
iS-» .
•
nr-
m-
1
n
-^i^f' 5'V.K'
.w
«|
\
(
-r'v
y^ mi-ftrr •»>
.1
*-,
Wa
Congress on New Musical Notation was held at Ghent, Belg., October 22-25. The year saw the deaths of the composer Darius Milhaud, the conductor Josef Krips, and the violinist David Oistrakh isee Obituaries). Arthur Rubinstein
My
first volume of his autobiography, Early Years, reaching only his 2Sth year but running to 500 pages. Henri-Louis de la Grange published the first volume of his huge and exhaustive biography of Mahler. Opera. United States. At the Metropolitan the
published the
long-drawn-out production of Wagner's Ring cycle finally neared completion with Gotterdammerung opening on March 8, conducted by Rafael Kubelik,
who soon afterward
resigned as musical director of
the house. His chief assistant,
charge of a
new and
James Levine, was
by John Dexter, who formed association with the Met. The cast included
Montserrat Caballe as Elena. Earlier in the season Joan Sutherland appeared in all four soprano roles of Les Contcs d'Hoffmaiin. The final new production of the season was a double bill consisting of Bartok's Bluebeard's Castle and Puccini's Gianni Schicchi. Death in Venice, produced by Colin Graham, was the first new production (October 18) of the 1974-75 season, followed by Jenufa (November 15) and the original version of Boris Godiinov with Martti Talvela in the title role (December 16). In November, Anthony A. Bliss, formerly president of the Metropolitan Opera Association, was named executive director of the company, a newly created post that placed him above the general manager, Schuyler G. Chapin. The opening new production at the New York City Opera was Manon Lescaut (September 8), followed by Die Fledermaus (September 18) and Vn ballo in maschcra (October 29). At the San Francisco Opera, Leontyne Price sang her first Manon Lescaut in Puccini's opera (September 13). The season also included an outstanding Parsifal (September 14), with Kurt Moll as Gurnemanz, and Joan Sutherland in a revival of Massenet's rarely heard Esclarmonde (October 23), conducted by Richard Bonynge. At Chicago a special Verdi Congress was held during September. The Chicago Lyric Opera produced Simon Boccanegra to run concurrently with the congress, starting on September 20. Peter Grimes, a local "first," followed on September 30; Falstaff on October 18 with Geraint Evans as producer and singing the title role; Don Pasqiiale on November 2 and Gotterdammerung, completing the company's Ring cycle, on November 27. At Houston, Tex., on March 5, Thomas Pasatieri's The Seagull had its premiere with Richard Stillwell as Constantin, Frederike von Stade as Nina, and John Reardon as Trigorin. Luchino Visconti's production of Manon Lescaut came from Spoleto, Italy, to the Cincinnati (0.) summer season on July 17, and ;
Norman
Treigle sang Boris
Godunov
new
in a
pro-
duction of Mussorgsky's opera, in English, on July 24.
The summer season
Santa Fe, N.M., included Berg's Lulu, conducted by the talented John Mauceri, and Cavalli's L'Egisto, with Raymond Leppard in charge of his
own
at
edition of the work.
Society of Washington
(D.C.) opened
The Opera its
1974-75
season with L'incoronazione di Poppca on October
Die Walkiire followed on December that fine
Great
Wotan
9,
1 1
produced by
of the 1950s, George London.
Britain.
A new La Boheme
Covent Garden repertory on February
entered 6,
November
the
staged by
Boris
22.
Christoff
celebrated his
Godunov
anniversary in the part of Boris
Garden on November
The
in
highly successful production of
/ vcspri siciliani, staged a close
John Copley and conducted by Silvio Varviso, with Katia Ricciarelli as a moving Mimi and Placido Domingo an ardent Rodolfo. But the event of the 1973-74 season was the production, the first at the Royal Opera House in the 20th century, of La clemenza di Tito on April 22. There were outstanding revivals of Don Pasqiiale, Der Roscnkavalier, and Jenufa. The 1974-75 season opened on September 30 with a controversial and exciting production of Das Rheingold by Gotz Friedrich, conducted at a snail's pace by Colin Davis. Die Walkiire followed the next evening and Faust, produced by John Copley, on at
25th
Covent
19,
Opera (which became the EnOpera on August 1) tried its luck with
Sadler's Wells
glish National
new opera, Gordon Crosse's The Story of Vasco, on March 13 and lost. The company was more successful with new productions of those old favourites Manon a
(January 24) and
Madam
Butterfly (February 28).
new production was Don some "new" music discovered by musicologist Andrew Porter in the Paris Opera archives. Henze's The Bas-
The 1974-75
season's
first
Carlos, disappointing despite the inclusion of
sarids, in
its
British premiere
(October 10), fared
work was more in slowdown by the stage staff closed the house for a time in November. The Welsh National Opera gave the first performance of Alun Hoddinott's The Beach of Falesd (March 26) and Scottish Opera, the premiere of Iain Hamilton's highly dramatic The Catiline Conspiracy (March 15). Alexander Goehr's Arden Must Die was given its first British performance by the New Opera Company on April 17, and Opera Rara revived Donizetti's Torquato Tasso for the Camden Festival (February 27). Thea Musgrave's poetic The Voice of Ariadne had its premiere at the Aldeburgh Festival June 11, and for the Hoist centenary a double bill of his Savitri, with Janet Baker in the title role, and The Tale of the Wandering Scholar was given. Alan Bush's Communist-inclined opera Wat Tyler had its British premiere at Sadler's Wells Theatre on June 19. At Glyndebourne, John Cox was responsible for two delightful productions: Richard Strauss's Interbetter, although its success as a
doubt.
A
crippling
mezzo, with Soderstriim outstanding as Christine Storch (alias Pauline Strauss), and Idomeneo, both conducted by John Pritchard. At the Edinburgh Festival in August-September, Scottish Opera presented Gluck's Alceste, with Julia Varady in the title role, and the Royal Opera of Stockholm gave Gotz Friedrich's staging of Jenufa with Sdderstrbm in the name part a memorable production and performance. Birgit Nilsson appeared in the company's production
—
of Elektra.
Austria
New
productions at the Vienna State Opera
included Eugene Onegin at the end of 1973, Janacek's Katya Kabanova (April 19), and La forza del destino
(September 29). At the Salzburg Easter Festival, Karajan produced and conducted Die Meistersinger. At the summer festival he conducted Die Zauberflote, produced by Giorgio Strehler, but the festival's greatest success was Die Frau ohne Schatten, conducted by Karl Bohm, who was celebrating his 80th birthday. Germany. At the Bayreuth West Germany Festival (July-August), August Everding produced Tristan iind Isolde, thrillingly conducted by Carlos (
)
Kleiber, with Caterina Ligendza as a beautiful Isolde. Friedrich's production of Tannliduser, in
its
third year,
509
Music
510
Music
Opening night at the new Opera House in Opryland, U.S.A.,
home
of Nashville's
Grand Ole Opry.
was another satisfying experience, but the Ring badly needed a new staging. At the Munich Festival (July-
West was given (July of Puccini's death.
5) to
at the Spoleto Festival.
both produced by Bohumil new producHerlischka. The tions of La Jorza del destine, Henze's Boulevard Soli-
lulte
Mtiinilles
de
Tiresias,
regular season included
Hamburg Moses imd Aron was given on March 30. (See above.) The 1974-75 season opened with a production by Herlischka of Mussorgsky's Khovantchina. The outstanding new production at Frankfurt was Katya Kabanova (January 31 ). At Cologne Jean-Pierre Ponnelle produced a controversial Die Entjiihrung aus dem Serail (June 2i). with Lucia Popp a splendid Constanze. At Cassel, James Lockhart was the first British conductor to be in charge of a new staging of the Ring in Germany. tude, and Die Walkiire. At
Leipzig (East Germany) continued its new look at Joachim Herz's baroque production of Die Walkiire on February 20. At the State Opera in East Berlin, Ernst Hermann Mayer's Reiter der Nacht was given its premiere in June; it was based on Peter Abrahams' novel The Path of Thunder. Eugene Onegin (May 4) was the major new production in West Berlin at the Deutsche Oper Berlin. Italy. At La Scala, Milan, the major new productions were Salome (January 28), La javorita (January 29) with Fiorenza Cossotto, Die Walkiire (March 11), and, in April, Le nozze di Figaro, conducted by Claudio Abbado, and Jenuja. Productions at the Rome Opera included La Bohime, Rossellini's La Reine morte, Pelleas et Melisande, and Don Carlos. Viviani's Maria Stuart had its premiere at the San Carlo in Naples on April 9. Rossini's rarely heard Matilde de Shabran was revived at Genoa (March 27), while Spontini's Fernand Cortes {January 31) and Donizetti's Maria di Rohan (March 14) were rethe Ring with
vived at Venice.
At the Verona Arena
in July there were productions and Tosca. Sherrill Milncs debut as Rigoletto at the Macerata Festival on July 14, and Grace Bumbry appeared as Carmen. At the Florence Maggio musicale, the 37th in an illustrious series. Spontini's .Agnes von Hohenstaujen was revived on May 9, and La janciulla del
of Aida,
made
Samson
his Italian
et Dalila,
France. tinued on
mark
Roman
August), Michael Geliot produced a new Fidelia; Fischer-Dieskau was seen in a new production of Falslafl; and there was an interesting double bill of Kurt Weill's Miihagomty So'igspid and Poulenc's Les
the SOth anniversary
Polanski produced Lulu
The new regime at the Paris Opera consuccessful way with new productions of
its
Massenet's
U
Don Quichotte January Cosi fan 17). with Margaret Price as a brilliant Elektra (May 30), with Birgit Nilsson; i
)
;
(May
Fiordiligi;
Manon
(July 2), with Ileana Cotrubas; and Les Cotites d'Hoffmann (October 25). At Strasbourg the Opera du Rhin gave the first performance of Claude Prey's Les Liaisons dangcreuses (February 5). The
Aix-en-Provence Festival, revived after a year's break, had little success with La clemenza di Tito and Luisa Miller at the end of July. More enjoyable was a double bill of Pergolesi's La serva padrona and Mozart's
Der Schauspieldirektor, played together! At the Orange Amphitheatre, the mistral disturbed the openair performance of Norma (July 20). On July li Christoff sang the title role in a concert performance of Rossini's Moisc. Leonie Rysanek was magnificent as Salome in Strauss's opera (July 13). Other Countries. In Belgium, Ernst Poettgen produced an updated Fidelia at the Theiktrc de l> Monnaie in Brussels. At Barcelona. Spain. Matite Salvadori's Vinalea was given its first performance (January 19). At the Holland Festival, Giitz Friedrich produced an outrageous version of Le nozzc di Figaro (June 20). and Agostino .^gazzari's Eumelio was given its first performance in recent times (June 21 ). Hans Kox's Dorian Cray had its premiere at .\msterdam on March 30. Jan Cikkir's Coriolanus, had its premiere during the Prague Spring Festival in May. Canadian Opera's new productions in Toronto in September were Bluebeard's Castle, Der fliegenjt Hollander, and L'Heure espagnale. The Opera du Quebec gave Madam Butterfly in Quebec in May and Falstaff in Quebec and Montreal in October. Ottawa's Festival Canada at the end of July included new productions of Le camte Ory and Die Enlfiihrung aus dem Serail. Australian Opera gave the first performance of Passage Jazz. growing
Peter Sculthorpe's long-postponed Rites
(alan blvti (September 27). There were several signs during 1974 of r: tendency, both inside and outside the ja^. world, to acknowledge that the music was now oUI enough to have acquired both a venerable past and
.i
even among the most The Soviet Union, which once made the elementary mistake of confusing jazz with the sordid environment from which it had emerged, had so far relented by 1974 as to invite the Canadian piano virtuoso Oscar Peterson to perform a series of concerts in Moscow, Leningrad, and other major cities. Although Peterson's program was only partially fulfilled, through certain inadequacies in Muscovite piano tuning, the tour was a significant indication of the extent to which jazz had outlived its old image. A different kind of advance, just as important in its own way, was the appearance of the first serious attempt at a day-to-day biography of an important
back to the romanticism of Coleman Hawkins, was yet very different from Hawkins and, indeed, from any other saxophonist. A player with an unusually sweet and resilient tone, he also mastered an entirely original harmonic mode of thought that lent his solos a kind of warped symmetry wholly unlike anything else that had been heard in jazz. Several months after Ellington's death, another occurred that further broke up the texture of the Elling-
jazz musician, in this case the cornetist-pianist-com-
Carney throughout
certain cultural respectability,
bigoted.
poser Leon "Bix" Beiderbecke (1903-31). left a
The
effort
great deal to be desired in the literary sense, but
the thoroughness of the research
and the patent
sin-
cerity of the book's intentions suggested that the age
of the impressionistic-flapdoodle school of jazz literature might be drawing to a close. Also during the year,
the
record-buying public benefited
return of impresario
Norman Granz
to
from the
an active
role.
ton orchestra. In point of service, the saxophonistclarinetist
Harry Howell Carney (1910-74) was the
member of the orchestra, which he had joined 1926. The first jazz musician to establish the prac-
oldest in
saxophone
ticability of the baritone
in a jazz context,
his long association with Ellington provided an incredibly rich and rock-solid tonal base for all Ellington's saxophone voicings. In later years he tended to play fewer solos, but to the end of his life he continued to perform "Sophisticated Lady" at concerts, a famous parlour trick in which he demon-
the technique, rare
strated
being able to breathe
note
—which meant,
in
among
reed players, of
while holding a sustained
naturally, that he could hold
The deaths
Granz had been absent from jazz affairs since the early 1960s. His return, with a new record label, "Pablo," heralded the appearance of new recordings notable for both their catholicity of taste and the bold eclecticism
indefinitely.
of their performers.
chestra indefinitely as an effective working group.
However, all jazz events during the year were dwarfed by the death in May of the most distinguished and sophisticated jazz musician in the history of the music, Edward Kennedy Ellington (see Obituaries). Any attempt to summarize Duke Ellington's life is complicated by the fact that he ran several careers and was several different kinds of musician concurrently, although it was as a bandleader that he became world famous. His fortunes, however, were founded on his songwriting achievements. Items like "Solitude," "Mood Indigo," "Sophisticated Lady," and "Satin Doll" place him high in a tradition of which he was never really a part the Broadway-Tin Pan Alley songwriting world. This prolific melodic gift also manifested itself in literally thousands of
—
brief compositions for his orchestra and, after 1942,
composition of longer, more formal suites in which the integration between orchestral formality and instrumental improvisation achieved a miraculous balance. "Black, Brown and Beige" and "Such Sweet Thunder" probably rank among the best of his works in the
in this field.
As an instrumentalist Ellington was perhaps the most underrated jazz virtuoso of the last 50 years. His piano style, which was originally formed under the tutelage of the great masters of the "Stride" school of piano playing, James P. Johnson and Willie (The Lion) Smith, developed astonishingly along its own lines, becoming harmonically ornate and intensely romantic in mood. His chief instrument, however, was the orchestra he cherished so dearly and preserved so heroically, for it was through the orchestra that he was able to develop his own compositional fantasies. He was probably the first composer to conceive an original instrumental piece in terms, not of the notes that comprised the piece, but of the individual musicians who were to play it. Ellington's death overshadowed the death some nine jdays before of one of his most beloved musicians, the tenor saxophonist Paul Gonsalves (1920-74), who joined the Ellington orchestra in 1950. Gonsalves, a
rhapsodic soloist whose stylistic roots could be traced
511
Music
coming
it
of Gonsalves
and Carney,
own and
following the
so close to Ellington's
death of Johnny Hodges in 1973, underlined the impracticality of the plan to maintain the Ellington or-
(eenny green) Popular. Popular music continued during 1974.
A new
generation for
whom
to
diversify
rock was too
emerged and demanded its own this was supplied by such artists as Gary Glitter, Osmonds, and David Cassidy (although Cassidy was trying to change his image). But the musical style derived from earlier years, and there was a general sophisticated had
pop; the
preoccupation with nostalgia. The rock 'n' roll of the 19S0s was kept alive both by older stars (Bill Haley) and by young groups re-creating it (Showaddywaddy Going even further back, there was a revival )
.
of classic ragtime, particularly the music of Scott Joplin. British
and U.S.
sales charts
showed
a
marked
difference in taste; in the U.S. musicians such as
The
Allman Brothers were best-sellers, whereas Britain preferred Slade and Alvin Stardust.
The high standard
of rock musicianship resulted in
works of symphonic proportions; for example. Yes's "Tales from Topographic Oceans" and "Tubular Bob Dylan plays fiis New York Bells" and "Hergest Ridge" by the young British mu- songs in in February, a stop sician Mike Oldfield. Yes's former keyboard player. on his first concert Rick Wakeman, launched his solo career with an en- tour in eight years. tertaining interpretation of Jules Verne's Journey to the Centre of the Earth. More avant-garde was the music of Henry Cow and Hatfield & The North. It was common practice for top musicians to play on one another's albums; for example, Ringo Starr's "Ringo" involved Harry Nilsson, members of The Band, and all four ex-Beatles. The Beatles' publicized reunion failed to materialize as the separate busied themselves with their Cartney's band Wings
"Band on
the
made
own
members Mcalbum
projects. Paul
a million-selling
Run."
Theatricalism was less rampant, although some groups (The New York Dolls, Wayne County) still attempted to outrage. Audiences weary of excess wer« turning to a simpler style; the good pop song was back in favour, neatly performed by such bands as
The Eagles and, most notably. Steely Dan. This New York group was led by Donald Fagan (singer/keyboards) and Walter Becker (bass), who had been
City
512
Music
staff
songwriters in a record
company and now
pro-
fine numbers as "Do It Again." British exponents of this style included The Sutherland Brothers & Quiver and the new young group Surry Eyed & Laughing. Solo artists shared the rock field with groups. David Bowie came out of "retirement" with a new show,
duced such
two albums, and a television spectacular. New singer/ Leo Sayer. discovered by 1950s star Adam Faith, toured Britain and the U.S. during the winter of 1973-74 to great acclaim. Adam Faith himself returned to singing with an album, "I Survive." The favourite among female singers was Joni Mitchell. Group personnel remained more stable than in rewriter
cent years, but some shifts occurred. Mott the Hoople's original guitarist, Mick Ralphs, joined with and Boz Paul Rogers and Simon Kirke (ex-Free Burrell to form Bad Company. Swiss musician Pat1
Moraz replaced Rick Wakeman in Yes. There was still a thirst for new talent, and promis-
rick
ing acts were heavily promoted. Sparks, an AngloAmerican group led by the Mael brothers, won a
strong following, and the new English group Cockney Rebel met with spectacular success but split when it was at its height. One of the most individual groups
was Gryphon, whose Renaissance-influenced music combined recorders with electric instruments. The European scene was fronted by The Netherlands' Focus and Golden Earring and the German band Tangerine Dream. Interesting music also came from Finland (Tasavallan Presidenlti), France (Magma), and Italy (PFM). From Ireland came Horslips, who combined traditional music with blues. Sweden's Abba won the Eurovision Song Contest
Tamla Motown enjoyed another good year, with Wonder (see Biography), Diana Ross, and Marvin Gaye as its outstanding artists. The company issued an "Anthology" series of historic recordings by such stars as Gaye, the Temptations, and The Miracles. "Philly Soul" was very popular, especially in Britain; favourite artists were The Three Degrees and Barry White. The small U.S. record company TK had an international no. 1 hit with George McCrae's "Rock Your Baby." Perhaps the year's biggest sucStevie
music belonged from Oakland, Calif.
cess in black
to the four Pointer Sis-
traditional music in manner. In the U.S. there was
The most successful pop musical of the year was The Rocky Horror Show, which won the London Evening Standard'^ award as Best Musical of 1973. Commercial radio came to Britain in the autumn of 1973 and gave exposure to a wide variety of pop. Record sales continued to increase despite the vinyl shortage, but a
slump was predicted In July 1974
died in
Defense
the
many
documentary
projects in folk music research
film
made by Harold Cook on
the
Shakers, a small religious sect with a characteristic
document culture and music in an isolated sector of Montana, was undertaken by Sean Malone. In Canada the 1974 medals of the Canadian Music Council were awarded to three outstanding collectors of folk songs:
Helen
Creighton, for her work since 192S in collecting, publishing, and lecturing on the songs and ballads of
Luc Lacourciere, as a teacher and colFrench-Canadian songs and folklore and especially for his development of the Archives de Folklore at the Universite de Laval in Quebec City; and Francois Brossard, an important folksong col-
Nova
lector
Scotia; of
ternational
thrived, led
a children's television series that sparked off a craze.
see
a
lector in
movement
tance to Nashville of such artists as John Denver. Novelty hits included Ray Stevens' "The Streak" and several records by The Wombles, characters from
Abuse
Johnston.
Among was
a highly entertaining
British "electric folk"
a resurgence in country music, rooted in the admit-
j,,.|.-.
Thomas
by Steeleye Span who presented
The
jlr'Drug
in Vienna, Va., August 1-^ Probably the most elaborate, the Smithsonian Institution's eighth Annual Festival of .\merican Folklife, took place in Washington, DC. July 3-14. Folk groups from abroad again participated in the section "Old Ways in the New World" Noteworthy among the summer regional festivals was the 48th Mountain Music Festival of .\sheville. N.C.. founded by Bascomb Lamar Lunsford. Native .\merican dance teams participated in an Alaskan Native Arts Festival organized in March at the University of Alaska by
36th annual gathering
French Canada, associated with Lacourciire. international organizations were paying closer attention to non-European music. Thus, the In-
ters
Namibia: Depet ^'^'^'' P^'if "'( Cambridge University from 1939 to 1968. was l leading interpreter of U.S. history and U.S. affairs to the British through such works as Tka American Political System (1933). V.S.A.: Outline of the Country, Us People and Institutions (1941). An Introduction to American Politics (1954). and America in the Modern World (1960). He also analyzed France and its people in such books as The Development ol Modern France. 1870-1939 (1940) and The French .Vo lion Irom Napoleon to Pitain (1957).
cal scientist (b.
BRDNOWSKI, J(ACOB), British science re searcher and author (b. Poland, Jan. 18. 1908— d. East Hampton. K.Y.. Aug. 22. 1974). produced "The Ascent of Man" (1973). a 13-part BBC television series widely acclaimed for luminously presenting the evolution of civilization and the place of science in human history. He obtained a Ph.D. in mathematics from Cambridge Uni sity (1933) before going to the University of Hull as senior lecturer in mathematics (193442). His government wartime research included the compilation of statistics on the effects ol
bombings on industry and economics. Following a visit to Japan in 1945 he wrote a report called "The Effects of the Atomic Bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki." After statistical research for the Ministry of Works (1946-50). he directed the Coal Research Establishment at the National Coal Board (1950-59) and was director general o( board's Process Development Department (1959-63). developing smokeless fuels. From 1964 he was a senior fellow at the Salk for Biological Studies at San Diego, Calif., and was made director of the Council for
the
Institute
BORGHESE, PRINCE JUNIO VALERIC, nobleman
(b.
Rome.
Italy.
June
6.
Italian
1906— d.
Cadiz, Spain. Aug, 26. 1974), was a militant neo-Fascisl leader known as the "black prince." In World War II he commanded the flotilla that carried out a frogman raid on British warships in
Alexandria Harbour.
Egypt,
and
later
col-
laborated with the Germans against Italian partisans. Proscribed for a period by a tribunal in Rome in 1949. he launched a subversive neoFascist group in 1967.
Biology in Human Affairs in 1970. He broadon science and culture, and published Tht Poefs Delence (1939). William Blake, 175? 1S27: A Man Without a Mask (1944). and William Blake and the Age ol Revolution (1965). His radio play "The Face of Violence" won the Italia Prize in 1951.
cast
BROOK, CLIVE,
British actor (b. London, Eng., d. London. Nov. 17. 1974). made 1. 1887 1920. In first London stage appearance in 1924 he went to Hollywood where his "English" good looks and suave manner earned him a Paramount contract in silent and talking pictures and a succession of leading roles, noubly in Shanghai Express and Cavalcade, He appeared in more than 100 films, made his U.S. stage debut in 19S0, and later turned to television.
—
June his
BOSE, SATYENDRA NATH,
Indian theoretical physicist (b. Calcutta, India. Jan. 1. 1894— d. Calcutta. Feb. 4. 1974). was an expert on quantum mechanics, a branch of mathematical physics that deals with the motion of electrons, protons,
July 13. 1974). was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1948 for his discoveries in cosmic radiation. As a fellow of King's College. Cambridge (1923-33), he worked under Lord Rutherford at the Cavendish Laboratory, where he developed the cloud chamber for the study of the collection of nuclear particles and. in 1933. discovered the positive electron (simultaneously with C. D. Anderson in the U.S.). He was professor of physics, Birkbeck College. University of London (193337). and Langworthy professor of physics. Uni-
neutrons, and other subatomic particles. In 1924 Albert Einstein received a copy of "Planck's Law and Hypothesis of Light Quanta." Bose's analysis of particles in connection with photons, or light quanta. Einstein, impressed with the notion that radiation could be considered a form of gas made up of photons, translated the short monograph into German tor publication. He also believed that the statistical methods worked out by
versity of Manchester (1937-53). During World War II he also served on the Air Defence Committee and then as director of operations research at the Admiralty. At the University of Manchester he created a school of cosmic-ray research and stimulated developments that led to the building of the Jodrcll Bank Experimental Station for
glie;
Radio Astronomy. From 19S3 to 196S he was professor of physics at the Imperial College of Science and Technology. University of London. From 196S to 1970 he was president of the Royal Society. In 1967 he was awarded the Order of Merit and In 1969 was made a life peer.
U.S. actor July 25. 18')4—d. Oinard, 1974). won three Academy as best supporting actor during an act' _ career that lasted half a century and included (b. Lynn, Mass., Calif.. Sept. 21.
McCoys."
BOHLEN, CHARLES EUSTIS, U.S. Clayton. N.V.. Aug. 30. 1904— d.
Jan. 1. 1974). was an acknowledged expert on the Soviet Union. After studying Russian while a member of the U.S. embassy in Paris, he was appointed to the staff of William 1. Bullitt, when the U.S. reopened its embassy in Moscow in 1934. His command of Russian and his extensive
of directors. Her influence in helping shape education was perhaps most in evidence during^ the years it took to plan and write the ISth edition
BRENNAN, WALTER (ANDREW),
Bose could be extended to ordinary atoms under an assumption being developed by Louis de Bronamely, that material particles have both wave and particulate properties. Though the two scientists never met. they collaborated by mail and gave their names to what is known as BoseEinstein statistics. Bose graduated from the University of Calcutta and later taught at the uniDacca (1921-45) and Calcutta versities of (1916: 194 5-56). He was elected a fellow ol the Royal Society in 19S8.
BROWN, IVOR (JOHN CARNEGIE), dramatic
North Bergen, N.J., Nov. 29, 1974), came out
ol
Scottish author, and journalist (b. Penang,
Penang. Malaysia], London. Eng.. April 22,
[now
1974). was a foremost London theatre critic for The Manchester Guardian ( 1919-35). the Satur-
day Review (1923-30). and r/re 04 Jcrter (192954); he was also editor ol The Observer (194248). He served as chairman of the British Drama League (1954-65) and was governor of both the Old Vic and the Royal Shakespeare Theatre.
Among his writings are Shakespeare A Word in Your Ear (1942). Dickens Time ( 1963). and The an autobiography.
Way
ol
My
(1949), in His
World (1954).
BULMAN, OLIVER MEREDITH BOONE,
Brit-
(b. London. Eng.. May 20, Feb. 18. 1974), was a leading authority on Lower Paleozoic rocks and fossiU and, in particular, on graplolites, extinct colonial
ish
BRADDOCK, JAMES JOSEPH, U.S. boxing champion (b. New York, N.Y., Dec. 6, 190S—d.
critic,
Straits Settlements April 25. 1891— d.
paleontologist
1902— d. London.
marine animals of the Ordovician and Silurian During his lifelong study of graptolites, he was associated with the Imperial College of Science and Technology in London and with Cam-
525
periods.
Obituaries 1974
bridge University. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1940 and served as president Society (1962-64).
Parliament from 1953, first as member of the United Party and from 1957 of the National Party. He was made deputy minister for Bantu administration in 1966 and joined B. J. Vorster's Cabinet as minister for community development and public works in 1968. He was appointed ambassador to Italy in 1972 but was compelled to retire in 1973 when it became known that he opposed a total ban on black attendance at the
of the Geological
BURCKHARDT* CARL JACOB,
Swiss diplomat,
Internationalist, and historian (b. Basel, Switz., Sept. 10, 1891— d. Geneva. Switz., March 3, 1974), was the League of Nations high commissioner in the free city of Danzig from 193 7 until
World War
II
broke out
in
September 1939. As
member
of the International Committee of the since 1923, and especially as its president (1944-48), he worked for international cooperation. He was ambassador to France from 1945 to 1949 and wrote a noteworthy biography
a
Red Cross
Nico Malan Opera House
of Cardinal Richelieu.
BUSH, VANNEVAR, U.S. electrical engineer (b. Everett. Mass., March 11. 1890— d, Belmont. Mass., June 28. 1974), developed the differential analyzer, the first electronic analogue computer. In the 1930s, with colleagues from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he built an analogue computer capable of analyzing differential equations containing up to IS independent variables. Among Bush's other accomplishments were a network analyzer that simulated the performance of large electrical networks, and the Rapid Selector, a device using a code and microfilm to facilitate information retrieval. In 1940 Bush was appointed chairman of the National Defense Research Committee. The following year he became director of the newly established Office of Scientific Research and Development, which coordinated research for the war effort and advised the government on scientific
became chairman of the Joint Research and Development Board (1946-47) and served on the Research and Development Board of the National Military Establishment (1947-48). He was also president of the Carnegie matters.
Bush
later
Broadway
civil servant (b. Mont1887 France, May 10, d. Paris, France, Oct. 10. 1974), was general administrator of the Bibliotheque Nationale, France's premier library, from 1930 to 1964. during which time he initiated its reorganization and was largely responsible for the outstanding exhibitions held under its auspices.
morency,
—
CELSING, PETER, Swedish
architect (b. Stockholm, Swed., Jan. 29. 1920— d. Stockholm, March 17. 1974). designed the Sergels Torg cultural centre that rose in the heart of Stockholm in the 1960s. The complex also included a new Parliament building. He taught architecture at the Royal Academy Art School, Stockholm (195458). and was professor of architecture at the
Royal Institute of Technology there (1960-68). His reputation as a sensitive designer of such churches as Harlanda Church, Goteborg. and Gardet Church, Stockholm, was further enhanced by his happy restorations of old buildings, notably Stockholm's Opera and Royal Theatre.
CHADWICK, SIR JAMES,
British experimental physicist (b. Manchester, Eng.. Oct. 20, 1891 d. Cambridge, Eng.. July 24, 1974), received the Nobel Prize- for Physics in 193S for his discovery of the neutron, which led to the development of atomic energy. He investigated gamma-ray emission from radioactive materials under Ernest Rutherford, at the University of Manchester, then went to Berlin to work with H. Geiger. Interned on the outbreak of World War I, he was able to continue research with aid from German scientists. After the war he followed Rutherford to the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University, where during the 1920s they studied the transmutation of elements under alpha-particle bombardment and investigated the nature of the atomic nucleus. In 1932, as a result of direct experiment, he discovered the neutron, which had been predicted by Rutherford. In 1935 he was appointed Lyon Jones professor of physics at the University of Liverpool, where he had a cyclotron set up and after World War II formed a nuclear physics school. During the war he was engaged in developing the uranium bomb, traveling to the U.S. in 1943 as head of the British team. From 1948 to
—
1958 he was master of Gonville and Caius
College, Cambridge. He was elected to the Roval Society in 1927. knighted in 1945, and in 1970 was made a Companion of Honour.
Cape Town.
hit
was
Man
of
La Mancha (196S).
CONDON, EDWARD UHLER, Erskine Hamilton Childers
CHENEBENOIT, ANDRE, French journalist (b. Soissons. France, Jan. 5, 1895— d. Feb. 24, 1974), was editor in chief (1944-66) of the influential Paris newspaper he Monde. A doctor of law, he served in the offices of Raymond Poincare (premier. 1922-24) and of the president of the Senate before joining the newspaper Le Temps in 1924. From 1928 he was chief subeditor of Le Temps until It ceased publication in November 1942. After the liberation of France he gathered former Temps editors into a new team and, with Hubert Beuve-Mery, brought out Le Monde in December 1944; he remained editor in chief until retirement in 1966.
Institution (1939-SS).
CAIN, JULIEN, French
in
U.S. choreographer (b. New Brunswick, N.J., April 27. 1914— d. Los Angeles, Calif., Feb. 17. 1974). had. through his work in films, in nightclubs, and on the Broadway stage, a worldwide influence on the development of show dancing. After training at Denishawn School, he danced professionally and later evolved his distinctive style while training others. His last
COLE, JACK,
CHILDERS, ERSKINE HAMILTON, Irish statesman (b. London, Eng., Dec. 11, 1905— d. Dublin,
—
widely discussed report on unidentified flying objects. Condon received his Ph.D. in physics (1926) from the University of California at Berkeley. During his diversified career he was associate director of Westinghouse Research Laboratories (1937-45), director of the National Bureau of Standards (1945-51). director of research and development at the Corning Glass Works (1951-54), professor of physics at Washington University in St. Louis (1956-63). and professor of astrophysics at the University of Colorado at Boulder (1963-70). Condon was also science adviser to Encyclop-. EnR.. April 5, 1974). was an intellectual whcwe mental agility sometimes exasperated the steadier-treading members of his party and whose unfettered journalism gave pleasure to many. In 1945 he entered Parliament, representing Coventry East until 1974. Grossman was a leftward backbencher when Hugh Gaitskell made him opposition spokesman on pensions (1956. resigned 1960). Under Harold Wilson's leadership he was minister o!
housing and local government (1964-66). then an energetic leader of the House of Commons
(1066-68). and. cial services.
lastly, secretary of state for sothe government fell in 1970
When
Crossman became editor of the New Statesman (where he had earlier worked), later wrote for The Times, and interviewed politicians on the television series "Crosstalk."
ARTHUR
JOHN, U.S. sportswriter (b. DALEY, York. N.Y., July 51. 1904—d. New York, Jan. 3, 1074). was a longtime columnist for the Neui York Times and a great devotee of baseball. He also turned out lively articles on other sports, principally on football, swimming, and track and field. In 1956 Daley won a Pulitzer Prize for "distinguished reporting and commentary." The only other sportswriter ever to win this award was William H. Taylor of the New York Herald-Tribune in 1935.
New
developing
in
Cyprus. Shortly
after Davies arrived in Nicosia, Pres. Makarios was ousted (July IS. 1974). During the hysteria that followed Turkey's invasion of the island. Davies was killed by an assassin's bullet fired into the U.S. embassy from a nearby building.
DAVIS, (DAISIE) ADELLE,
U.S. dietitian (b. Lizton. lod.. Feb. 25, 1904— d. Palos Vcrdes Estates, Calif., May 31, 1974), widely read author and, in recent years, an outspoken gucsl on television talk shows, gained national fame for her criticism of U.S. eating habits and for her advocacy of organic fruits and vegetables, milk, eggs, liver, fish, vitamin pills, and brewer's yeast. She obtained a B.A. degree (1927) in dietetics at the University of California at Berkeley and later earned a master's degree (1939) in biochemistry at the University of Southern California. Although quite aware of modern research on nutrition, Davis was frequently taken to task for "unscientifically" attributing all manner of diseases to improper diets. Her four books, which together sold more than nine million copies, arc: Let's Cook It Right (1947), Let's Have Healthy Children (1951), Let's Eat Right to Keep fit
(1954), and Let's Gel Well (1965).
DEAN, DIZZY (Jay Hanna Dean), U.S. baseplayer (b. Lucas, Ark.. Jan. 16, 1911— d. Reno, Nev.. July 17. 1974), became a modem legend as he clowned his way into the hearts of millions while pitching his way into baseball's Hall of Fame. Spotted as a natural athlete on a Texas sandlot. he was signed by the St. Louis Cardinals in 1930. In 1932, already supremely confident of his blazing fast ball, he won 18 games as a 21-year-old rookie. Two years later his 30 wins, coupled with 19 by his younger brother Paul ("Daf?y"), paced the rowdy Gashouse Gang to a National League pennant. In the World Series that followed, Detroit won 3 games and St. Louis 4. Each of the Deans got ball
two
DANIELOU, JEAN CARDINAL,
French prelate
victories. Dean's future was abruptly altered when a broke his toe in 1937. By continuing to pitch he hurt his arm, was traded to the Chicago Cubs in 1938, and had to retire in 1941. Later he became a play-by-play sportscaster, his outrageous misuse of the English language proving that you don't have to be a grammarian to win the admiration and affection of those who follow baseball.
of the Roman Catholic Church (b. Neuilly-surSeine. France, May 14. 1905 d. Paris, France. May 30, 1974), was a leader of the Catholic left during his early years, an energetic supporter of ecumenism during the 1960s, and a public defender of the pope during the last years of his life. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1929 after graduating from the Sorbonne and was ordained in 193S. Highly regarded for his intellectual qualities and widely admired for his warm-
line drive
heartedness, he attended the second Vatican Counas an "expert" in theology while concurrently holding the position of dean (1962-69) of the Paris Faculty of Theology. In 1970, the year after he was raised to the cardinalate by Pope Paul VI, he was instrumental in getting 100,000 Frenchmen to sign a letter promising fidelity and obedience to the pope, a direct challenge to the Dutch hierarchy who had denounced obligatory celibacy for the clergy. Among Danielou's many writings were Bible el Lilurgie (1951), Thiologie
France, Nov. 1974), won worldwide acclaim as director of such ncorealist films as Shoe-shine (1946), The Bicycle Thief (1949), Miracle in Milan (1951), and Umberto D (1951). He joined an acting company in 192 3 and became a star in Gli uomtni, che mascalzoni! (1932; "Men, What Rascals!"). His first success as a director was Rose scarlatte (1939; "Two Dozen Red Roses"). After the great creative upsurge of the postwar period, De Sica continued to act and direct. His Yesterday. Today and Tomorrow (1964) won an Academy Award as best foreign-language picture of the year and Sophia Loren was awarded an Oscar for her performance in De Sica's Two Women (1961). An-
—
cil
du Judfo-Christianisme (1958), and Pourquoi V&glise? (1972). He was elected to the Acadimie Fran-pru5 in 1960 was followed by communal strife between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. and in 1964 Grivas returned and was appointed commander of the Greek Cypriot National Guard by President Makarios. However, whereas Grivas was still an ardent advocate of enosis, Makarios had rejected it in favour of independence. In 1967 the Greek government recalled Grivas to Athens, but in 1971 he returned secretly to Cyprus to form EOKA B to "prevent a betrayal of enosis."
HABTE-WOLD, AKLILU,
former Ethiopian prime
minister (b. .\ddis Ababa, Eth., 1908— d. Nov. 24, 1974), was a leading figure in the Ethiopian government for many years and Emperor Haile Selassie's principal adviser on foreign affairs. As prime minister from 1961, he had to contend with growing unrest that culminated in his forced resignation in February 1974. He was later arrested and executed by the forces that overthrew the emperor's rule.
HAHN, KURT MATTHIAS ROBERT MARTIN, German-born educationist (b. Berlin, Ger., June 1886- d. Hermannsburg. W.Ger., Dec. 14, 5, 1974), helped Prince Max of Baden to found (1920) Schloss Salem School, near Lake Constance, then founded (1933) Gordonsloun School in Moray, Scot., after he was expelled from Germany by the Nazis. Pupils from all levels o( society, including members of the British royal family, attended Gordonstoun to experience the spartan in-house discipline and the taxing outdoor following an ordinary academic curriculum. After retiring as headmaster in 195.\ Hahn set up about a dozen similar schools in parts of Europe. activities, while
i
HAILES,
GEORGE
PATRICK
BUCHAN-HEPBURN,
THOMAS
1st Bakun, British poll
— d.
1974), was the urbane chief whip of the Conservative Party from 1948 to 1955. He was private secretary t.i Winston Churchill, represented the Toxin li from 1931 to I'imi, (Liverpool) division as and then sat for Beckenham until his elevation to the peerage in 1957. From 1957 until its disolution in 1962 he was governor-general of ihr West Indies Federation, and from 1962 to lo:.; he was chairman of the Historic Buildings Coun:il for England. He was made a Companion of 1962 Ho lician
(b. April
.',
1901
Nov.
5,
MP
HATHAWAY, DAME SIBYL MARY, Sark
(b.
Guernsey.
Channel
Islands,
dar
Ja
1884—d. Sark. Channel Islands, July 14. 1974). was the 2 1st feudal governor of the island of Sark, a dependency of the British crown. She largely maintained Sark's feudal character, with some latter-day adjustments. In 1965 she was made a dame of the British Empire. HEYER,
GEORGETTE
(Mas.
GEOactTTi
Rol^ciEa), British novelist (b. London, Eng., d. London, July 5, 1974). wrou Aug. 16, 1902 popular historical romances, chiefly of the Regency period in England, and some detective stories. Though conventional in plot and character treatment, her novels were well written and well researched, her knowledge of the 1300s and Wellington's armies appearing notably in Ait Imfamous Army and The Spanish Bride.
—
HOBLER, ATHERTON WELLS, U.S. advertising d. executive (b. Chicago. III.. Sept. 2. 1890 Princeton, N.J., Jan. 3, 1974), was founder-chairman of Benton & Bowles, Inc., one of the nation's largest advertising agencies. In 1932 he left Erwin Wasey & Co. to form a corporation with William
—
Benton and Chester Bowles whose agency was already billing $1 million annually. Hobler, whose
was radio and television, produced such popular programs as "The Fred Allen Show" and "Show Boat." as well as daytime serials. special interest
HOFFMAN, PAUL GRAY, U.S. business executive and United Nations administrator (b. Western Springs. 111., April 26, 1891—d. New York. N.Y.. Oct. 8. 1974), began his career as an enterprising automobile dealer in Los Angeles with a special talent for organization and an uncommon gift for gentle persuasion. After a series of rapid promotions he was named president, and chairman, of the Studebaker Corp When he left industry in 1948 to head the Marshall Plan, he became an international figure as he dispensed SIO billion in less than three years to revive the shattered economics of Europe. Hoffman later served as first president of the Ford Foundation (1951-53). was a member of the U.S. later
UN
(1956-57). managing didelegation to the Special Fund (1959-66). and rector of the Development Program (1959head of the 72). He was also a longtime (1937-50) trustee of the University of Chicago and for 31 years a member of the board of directors of Encyclopedia Brilannica, Inc. In 1973 he was awarded the
UN UN
Medal
of
Freedom.
HUNT, H(AROLDSON) L(AFAYETTE), US. oil tycoon (b. Ramsey, 111., Feb. 17. 1889—d. Dallas. Tex.. Nov. 29, 1974), was one of the world's richest businessmen at the lime ol his death. His first successful ventures were the acquisition of profitable oil leases in Arkansas and Louisiana, but it was his shrewd negotiations for oil leases in Rusk County, Tex., that guaranteed his future as a multimillionaire. Following World War II. Hunt Oil Co. explorers found no oil reserves in Pakistan but in Libya brought in on< of the largest oil finds on record. Hunt gradually diversified his investments but kept tight control over everything he owned. He was an ardent propagandist for right-wing causes and. except for a luxurious home in Dallas, was content to liva
Henry William Frederick Albert, duke of Gloucester
simply, driving an old model car and carrying his lunch in a paper bag.
HUNTLEY, CHET (Chester Robert Huntley), U.S. television newscaster (b. Cardwell, Mont., Dec. 10, 1911— d. Bozeman, Mont., March 20, 1974), became one of America's best-known personalities and most respected reporters as coanchorman on the weekday news program "Huntley-Brinkley Report." From October 19S6 to July 1970 Huntley and David Brinkley, a former Washington. D.C., correspondent, sustained one of television's most consistently popular programs by intermixing humour and human interest with incisive reporting on national and international affairs. After nearly 20 years on the West Coast working alternately for all three major networks, Huntley was called to New York City in 1956 and paired with Brinkley to cover the national political conventions for the National Broadcasting Corp. The chance pairing created such enthusiastic viewer response that NBC assigned them to the nightly news. They subsequently shared every significant award open to television newsmen. After their final broadcast, which conGood cluded as always with "Good night, David night. Chat," Huntley returned to Montana to develop a resort called Big Sky of Montana, Inc., after opened three days his death. which
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HUROK, SOL (Solomon
Isaievich
—
performing arts. While still in his 20s he began arranging performances, always searching for artists who evoked excitement in the audience. One of his greatest discoveries and future stars was Marian Anderson, whom he heard singing in Paris in 1935. Under Hurok's aegis she launched her career with a tour of the U.S. (1935-36). In time Hurok sponsored a vast array of artistic performers and distinguished companies, many of them from his native Russia. Through him many Americans came to appreciate the Bolshoi Ballet, the Royal Ballet, the Old Vic. and such stars as Galina Ulanova. Artur Rubinstein. Isaac Stern. Margot Fonteyn, Anna Pavlova, Andres Segovia, Maria Callas, Fyodor Chaliapin, and Isadora
Duncan. In 1969, when S. Hurok Concerts, Inc. was sold to the Transcontinental Investing Corp., Hurok was given control of TIC for an undetermined period of time. His announced intention was to branch out into motion pictures, television, radio, and rock 'n' roll records (utilizing chain and discount stores for mass distribution) in order to reach the younger generation.
HUSAYNI, HAJ AMIN
AL-. Arab leader (b. Beirut, Lebanon. July 4, Jerusalem, 1893 d. 1974), joined the Arab movement in Jerusalem in 1917 to oppose the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. In April 1930 he organized anti-Jewish riots, for which he was sentenced by a British tribunal to ten years' imprisonment. He fled to Transjordan, but returned to Jerusalem under amnesty the following year and was appointed mufti by the high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. He then assumed the title of "grand mufti" and became the leader of the Palestine Arabs. Following the outbreak of
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j
in
November 1973.
JAMIESON, THOMAS,
British international ref-
—
ugee administrator (b. Glasgow. Scot., 1911 d. Geneva, Switz.. Dec. 18, 1974), served from 1959 to 1972 as director of operations of the United Nations High Commission for Refugees. He involved himself in refugee work at the end of World War II and played a major role in caring for such refugees as those in East Asia, the Near East, Europe, Bangladesh, and Africa.
JOHNSON, EARL J., U.S. journalist (b. Winfield. Kan.. April 13, 1900— d. Tucson. Ariz.. Jan. 3, 1974), was for 30 years the imperturbable editor of the worldwide news operations of United Press International and of its antecedent. United Press. Johnson helped train some of the best known newsmen and commentators in the country before retiring in 1965 after a 44-year newspaper JOLIVET, ANDRE, French composer
(b.
Paris,
France, Aug. 8, 1905— d. Dec. 19, 1974), created his own atonal musical language in the tradition of Arnold Schoenberg and Edgard Varese, whose pupil he was. While musical director of the Comedie Frani;aise (1945-59) he wrote a comic opera. Dolorh, ou Lc Miracle de la femme laide (1942; Opera Comique, Paris), and two ballets,
Guignol ct Pandore (1943) and L'lnconnue (1950). both produced at the Paris Opera. From 1966 to 1970 he was professor of composition at the Paris Conservatoire. His interest in primitive ritual and mysticism was reflected in Mana (1935; six piano pieces), Cosmogonie (193S; symphonic orchestral ) and Psyche ( 1946 poem) he also wrote chamber music, symphonies, and pieces for voice and orchestra. ,
JONAS, FRANZ, Austrian statesman (b. Vienna, Aus., Oct. 4, 1S99— d. Vienna, April 2S, 1974), president of Austria at the time of his death, was a typesetter, active in the Social Democratic Party, when arrested for high treason in 1935 alter attending an illegal revolutionary socialist conference; he was later acquitted. He became local council chairman for his Vienna suburb, Floridsdorf, in 1945. was councillor for food distribution in the Vienna city council in 1948, and took charge of a major housing program in December 1949. He succeeded Theodor Korner as mayor and governor of Vienna in 1951, a position he held for 14 years. He concurrently became a member of the upper chamber of the federal
German coup
international centre.
ISMAIL,
AHMED,
Egyptian
field
marshal
(b.
Cairo, Egypt. 1917— d. London, Eng., Dec. 25. 1974), was the Egyptian defense minister and commander in chief when he planned the secret attack across the Suez Canal that surprised Israel on Oct. 6, 1973. and opened the October war. Ismail graduated from the Cairo Military Academy in 1938, saw service with the Allies in the Western Desert during World War II. and fought as a brigade commander in the Arab-Israeli war
taught architecture for
dent of Austria on on April 25, 1971.
He was
May
elected federal presi23, 1965, and reelected
KAHN, LOUIS ISADORE,
U.S.
architect
(b.
Island of Osel, Estonia, Russia, Feb. 20, 1901— New York, N.Y., March 17. 1974), redefined the form and function of architecture and developed a trend-setting style that immediately set him far apart from such other creative U.S. designers as Frank Lloyd Wright. Kahn's daring innovations first attracted wide attention with the completion (1951) of his first major project, the Yale University Art Gallery, which expressed in brick, glass, and harsh unfinished concrete Kahn's insights into the use of natural light and strong, stark, geometrical forms. More startling still were the bare pipes, uncovered ducts, and open storage spaces, which Kahn viewed as an integral part of his architectural design. His other well-known works include the Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth. Tex., the capitol buildings in Dacca, Bangladesh, the Salk Institute in La Jolla, Calif., d.
many
years).
JR., U.S. law professor
(b.
Chicago. III.. Sept. 11, 1914— d. Chicago, Oct. 29, 1974), joined the University of Chicago law school faculty in 1945 and became a highly respected authority on torts, tax laws, and the First
Amendment
guarantees
(which
freedom
of
speech). In 1966 he and Hans Zeisel, a law school colleague, published The American Jury. After analyzing surveys covering more than 3,500 jury trials, the authors concluded that U,S. juries have been unquestionably competent and their value indisputable. The two men earlier collaborated on Delay in the Court (1959), an account of court congestion. Kalven left a partly finished work on legal theories that underlie the American concept of free speech.
;
;
Iraq,
II, Husayni fled from Lebanon to where he played a role in the abortive proof Rashid Ali al-Gailani (AprilJune 1941) and organized a pogrom against the Baghdad Jews. Forced to flee again, he was received in Berlin by Hitler, who authorized him to open the ".^rab Bureau." After the collapse of Germany he was given sanctuary in Egypt, where he became the head of the Palestine Arab Higher Committee created by the Arab League. He led an Arab National Guard unit in the Arab-Israeli war that followed Israel's independence (1948). Husayni was instrumental in the assassination in July 1951 of King Abdullah ibn Hussain of Jordan.
and the Richards Medical Research Laboratories at the LTniversity of Pennsylvania (where Kahn
KALVEN, HARRY,
Parliament in 1951 and of the lower chamber in 1953. Jonas strove to improve the social services of Vienna, which he also hoped to develop into an
World War
f
Prime Minister Aziz Sidky on a visit to Moscow and on his return stifled an attempted coup against the president. That same month he replaced the anti-Soviet Gen, Muhammad Sadek as minister of defense and commander in chief and was promoted to full general. His skill as a strategist and his success in reviving the morale of the Egyptian .^rmy became evident in the October 1973 war. Ismail was made a field marshal
Hubok),
U.S. impresario (b. Pogar [near Kharkov], RusApril 9. 1888 d. New York. N.Y.. March 5, 1974). brought international talent to an appreciative U.S. public for some 60 years. He migrated to the U.S. as a teenager, did odd jobs in Philadelphia, then moved to New York City where he became fully aware of his fascination with the sia,
of 1948. He later trained in Britain, fought the Franco-British-Israeli forces during the Suez operation of 1956, undertook further training in the U.S.S.R., and was a divisional commander in the Six-Day War of 1967. He was made chief of staff in March 1969 but was dismissed by Pres. Gamal Abd-an-Nasser in September, as a scapegoat for successful Israeli raids. Pres. Anwar as-Sadal, however, named him chief of intelligence in September 1970. In October 1972 he accompanied
KING,
ALBERTA
CHRISTINE
WILLIAMS,
mother of the late civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. (b. Atlanta, Ga., Sept. 13, 1903 d. Atlanta. June 30. 1974), was shot and killed in Atlanta's Ebenezer Baptist Church. Mrs. King,
—
wife of the pastor, died while playing the organ during Sunday morning services. The young black assailant began firing wildly after shouting. "I'm tired of all this. I'm going to take over." A deacon was also killed and one other person wounded. Though Mrs. King chose to remain in the background, those who knew her best believed the support she gave her son and husband made her the most important member of the family.
KIRK, NORMAN ERIC, New Zealand statesman (b. Waimate, Canterbury, N.Z., Jan. 6, 1923— d. Wellington, N.Z.. Aug. 31, 1974), was prime minister and minister of foreign affairs from December 1972 until his death. He became an active Labour Party worker in the early 19403, was mayor of Kaiapoi (1953-57), and entered Parliament as member for Lyttleton in 1957. He was elected vice-president of the New Zealand Labour Party (1963) and president (1964-66), and became (1965) the parliamentary party's youngest leader in history. As Labour prime minister and minister of foreign affairs. Kirk was most effective in foreign policy: with Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, he opposed France's nuclear tests in the Pacific Ocean and took the to the International Court of Justice at The Hague, Neth.; after Great Britain entered the European Economic Community in January 1973, he made New Zealand a more independent influence in the Pacific and Southeast Asia, while strengthening links with Australia, Canada, and the United States; he banned racially segregated South African sports teams; and he required Brit-
question
ish
immigrants
to obtain entry permits
KLEIN,
ANNE (Anne
fashion
designer
1922— d. New
from 1974.
Klein Rubinstein),
U.S.
(b. Brooklyn, N.Y., Aug. 3, York, N.Y., March 19, 1974),
Man's Way") and H'jartats sanger (1926; "Songs and an autobiographical novel, Cast has verklighelen (1925; Guest of Reality, 1936). By the early 1930s Lagerkvist was preoccupied with Nazism and gave full vent to bis thoughts on the power and significance of evil Id three principal works: Bodeln (1933; The Hangman. 1936), a prose work, later dramatized, aod two novels, Dvargen (1944; The Dwarf, I94S) and Barabbas (1950), which was translated into more than 30 languages. Other notable writings included Den knutna nat-en (1934; "The Clenched Fist"). Mannen utan sjdl (1936; The Man Without a Soul. 1944). Seger i marker (1939; "Victory over Shadows"). Akasverus dod (I960: Tkt Death of Ahasuerus. 1962), Pilgrim pa havet (1962; Pilgrim at Sea. 1964), and ilariamme (1967; Eng. trans. 1968), published after the death of bis wife. He was elected to the Swedish of the Heart"),
Academy
in
1940.
LESCOT, ELtE,
Charles A. Lindbergh
Haitian lawyer and politician
du Nord, Haiti. Dec. 9. 1883— Boute, Haiti. Oct. 22, 1974). held various
(b. Saint-Louis d.
international acclaim for designing women's clothing that gave casual dress an air of unobtrusive sophistication. Her interests also extended to such accessories as handbags, belts, and jewelry. After establishing (1968) her own manufacturing company, Anne Klein & Co., she marketed her fashions through some 800 outlets in the U.S. She was the only designer to receive the NeimanMarcus .^ward for fashion leadership twice (1959, 1969), and was named to the Coty American Fashion Awards Hall of Fame in 1971. At a special fashion show held in Versailles in November 1973. she was one of only ten designers invited to display their creations.
won
KNOWLANO, WILLIAM executive
June 26.
and
politician
190S— d.
near
FIFE, U.S. newspaper (b. Alameda, Calif.,
Monte
Rio. Calif., Feb.
23, 1974), was one of modern America's most remarkable politicians. At 25 he was California's youngest assemblyman, at 2 7 the youngest member of the state Senate, at 32 chairman of the executive committee of the Republican National Committee, and at 37 the youngest member of the U.S. Senate, having been appointed to lill a vacancy by then Gov. Earl Warren. In 1952 Knowland was nominated by both the Democratic and Republican parties for reelection to the Senate and received nearly four million votes, more than any candidate had ever received from a single state for any office. As Republican floor leader from 1953 to 195S, he became known as an ardent foe of Asian Communism. He retired from politics in 1958 after losing the race for governor of California and with it presumed hopes for the presidency. Knowland then became editor later publisher of the family-owned Oakland
and
Tribune.
63) and the San Francisco Symphony (1963-70), with frequent returns to Covcnt Garden and to the London Philharmonic Orchestra.
KROCK, ARTHUR,
U.S. journalist (b. Glasgow. d. Washington. D.C., April Ky.. Nov. 16. 1886 12, 1974). was from 1932 to 1953 chief correspondent for the New York Times in the nation's capital. He received a Pulitzer Prize in 1935 for general excellence, another in 1938 for an interview with Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, and refused the nomination for a third prize in 1950. Instead, he accepted a Pulitzer special commendation for an interview with Pres. Harry S. Truman. In 1955 he received a fourth Pulitzer honour, a special citation for distinguished correspondence. During his more than 60 years as a journalist, Krock became one of the true titans of the U.S. press, writing front page stories and composing his column, "In the Nation," which generally reflected his conservative views of politics and government. He retired in 1966 after serving in the Timcs's Washington bureau for over 30 years.
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KRUGER, OTTO, U.S. actor (b. 1885— d. Woodland Hills.
6.
Toledo, 0.. Sept. Calif..
Sept.
6,
1974), was an accomplished Broadway actor long before becoming familiar to movie, radio, and television audiences as an amiable villain. Trained in music from childhood, Kruger became a fine pianist, cellist, and violinist but after graduating from Columbia University resumed an acting career that began at age IS. Major stage hits included The Royal Family. Private Lives, Counselor-at-Law, The Moon Is Down, and Laura. Of some 100 films in which he appeared. Saboteur. Magnificent Obsession, Duel in the Sun, High Noon, and The Last Command are among the best remembered.
KNOWLES, THE REV. MICHAEL CLIVE religion David). Nov. 21, 1974),
British historian
(b.
(in
1896— d.
was professor of modern history at Cambridge University from 1954 to 1963 and an acclaimed authority on monasticism. He was in 1922 but his a stricter form of monastic a conflict that ended only relieved of monastic obligations. In 1944 he took up a fellowship at Peterhouse College, Cambridge, and launched a distinguished academic career. His works include The American Civil War (1926). The Monastic Order in En-
ordained a Benedictine priest efforts
to
institute
observance created
when he was
gland (1940). and other books on the history of religion in Europe, to which he brought enormous reserves of classical, medieval, and modern learning. In 1956 he was elected president of the Royal Historical Society. He was also chairman of the British Universities Advisory Committee of Encyclopedia Britannica.
KRIPS, JOSEF, Austrian
orchestral
conductor
(b. Vienna. Aus., April 8, 1902— d. Geneva, Swiiz., Oct. 12, 1974), was best known as an interpreter of the Viennese classics from Mozart to Bruckner. He studied at Vienna under Felix Weingarlncr. Early engagements at Vienna, Dortmund, Ger.. and Karlsruhe, Ger. (where he was musical director of the Staatstheater, 1926-33), led to a return to Vienna and the State Opera, with which he was to remain associated, apart from a break from 1938 to 1945. After World War II he helped restart the Salzburg Festival and conducted at Covont Garden before becoming
conductor of the London Symphony OrflOSO 53). Similar appointments followed with the Buffalo (N.Y.) Symphony (1954-
princifial
chestra
KUZNETSOV, NIKOLAY GERASIMOVICH, Soviet naval officer (b. Medvedki [now in Archangel Oblast], Russia, 1902— d. Moscow, U.S.S.R.. Dec. 8, 1974). was commander in chief of the Soviet Navy during World War 11. During the first two years of the Spanish Civil War he served as adviser to the Republican Fleet and from 1937 commanded the Soviet Pacific Fleet. In 1939 he was appointed people's commissar of the navy and consequently commander in chief of Soviet naval forces. When the Navy Commissariat became part of the newly created Ministry in February 1946, Vice-Admiral of Defense Kuznctsov became first deputy minister of defense and navy minister. In 1947 Stalin removed him from his post. A Navy Ministry was restored in 1950 but after Stalin's death it was again absorbed by the Ministry of Defense. Kuznetsov returned to power as first deputy minister of defense and commander in chief of the Navy, but in February 1956 be was dismissed by Nikita
LAGERKVIST, PAR FABIAN, Swedish
May
and dramatist
to the U.S., before serving as president of Haiti from 1941 to 1946. Though affable of manner,
Lescot ruled by martial law and rigorously controlled the press until overthrown by a military coup that was celebrated with wUd rejoicing throughout the country.
LESLIE.
KENNETH,
Canadian poet
(b.
\;ixjij.
novelist,
Smaland, Swcd.,
2i. 1891— d. Stockholm, Swed., July 11. 1974), was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1951. After studying at the University of Uppsala, he became interested in socialism, avantgarde art, and literature in Paris. His profoundly disturbed reaction to W,orld War I was reflected in such early works as ^Mgcj/ (1916; "Anguish") and Kaos (1919), but his early pessimism was less evident in the 1920s in the tales Del cvifta Iccndct (1920: The Eternal Smile. 1934). the poems Den lyckliges vdg (1921; "The Happy
(b.
Pictou,
Scotia, Nov. 1. 1892— d. Halifax. Nova Scotia. Oct. 7. 1974). was so attuned to nature that his poems describing rural life in Nova Scotta seemed, and often later were, set to music. In 1938 he received the Governor- General's Medal for a collection of verse entitled By Stubborn
Nova
Stars (1938).
LINDBERGH, CHARLES AUGUSTUS, U.S. piod. neer aviator (b. Detroit. Mich., Feb. 4. 1902 Kipabulu, Hawaii. Aug. 26. 1974), was an unstunt-flyer-turned-airmailknown 25-ycar-old pilot when he left New York City for Paris in his single-engine "Spirit of St. Louis." Late at night on May 21, 1927, after 33!i hours in the air, he completed the first solo nonstop flight across the .Atlantic and became an international celebrity. For his daring exploit, the "Lone Eagle" received a $25,000 prize, the Medal of Honor, offers worth millions of dollars, and worldwide acclaim. Two years later Lindbergh married Anne Morrow. They visited many countries together as Lindbergh plotted new air routes for Transcontinental Air TransDort and Pan American Airways. Then, in 1932. iheh 20-month-old son was kidnapped and murdered. The sensationalism that characterized the subsequent arrest of Bruno R. Hauptmann. his trial, conviction, and execution (April 1936), so disturbed the Lindberghs that they moved to Europe in quest of privacy. Before World War II broke out in Europe, Lindbergh was twice (1936. 1938) invited to inspect the German Air Force and was decorated by the Nazi government. Convinced that Germany could not be defeated, he gave public speeches (1940-41) warninK against American involvement. When he was rrbuked by Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Lindbergh resigned his commissitm (April 1941) in the Air Corps Reserves. Once the U.S. was at war. however. Lindbergh quietly made his way to the Pacific war zone as a civilian employee of United Aircraft Corp. and by war't end had flown 50 combat missions. In later years Lindbergh was consultant to Pan American .Airways and was named a brigadier general (1954) in the Air Force Reserves for longtime service to U.S. government agencies. He wrote several books, receiving a Pulitzer PriM (1954) for The Spirit of St. Louis, a recountinf of his famous transatlantic flight.
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LIPPMANN, WALTER,
Khrushchev.
poet,
La
government posts, including that of ambassador
U.S. journalist (b.
New
York. N.V.. Sept. 2i. 1889— d. New York. De& 14, 1974), published millions of words (about 2$ books and 4,000 newspaper articles) and becam* in the process the elder statesman of his profession and one of its most attentively read repre* scntativcs. For the most part he analyzed domestic and world affairs in the light of political philosophy with little concern for current popular emotions. He was thus more an observer of evenld than a crusader for special causes. NoncthelesK he publicly opposed such things as the New Deal and the Vietnam war and expressed his prefeN ences for presidential candidates. But it was moif typical of
him
to expose all the facets of a prob^^
lem and call attention to the dangers of extremes. It was his broad view and perspective that set him apart from most of his contemporaries. Readers sometimes disagreed with what he had to say, but they never dismissed his erudite and carefully reasoned presentations as unworthy of serious consideration. left Harvard University in 1910 one year of graduate studies. In 1914 he co-founded the New Republic and later helped
Lippmann
after
formulate Pres. Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points for peace. From 1921 to 1931 he was with the New York World, then began writing his "To-
day and Tomorrow" column Berald-Tribune.
for the
syndicated
New
York
over the world. Among the numerous awards that he received were two Pulitzer Prizes (1958, 1962), the Medal of Freedom (1964), and three Overseas Press Club awards (1953, 1955, 1959) for interpreting foreign news. later
all
McGEE, FRANK,
U.S. newscaster and television (b. Monroe, La., Sept. 12, 192 l~d. New York, N.Y., April 17, 1974), was known to millions of Americans as the affable host of NBC's award-winning morning program "Today." He was a radio and television reporter from 1950 to 1955 in Oklahoma City, where he wrote his own scripts and shot and edited his own film. As news director (1955-57) of an NBC affiliate in Montgomery. Ala., he provided sensitive coverage of racial disturbances that attracted the attention of
the network's executives. Transferred to Washington, D.C., in 1957, McGee continued his reports on racial problems and became an expert on the U.S. space program and on politics. He was assigned to New York City two years later and
featured on "The Frank McGee Report." When named to the "Today" show in October 1971. McGee was a highly respected journalist who had received among other honours the Peabody Award in
LITVAK, ANATOLE, Russian-bom
Heaven, Too (1940). The Snake Pit (1948). and Sorry. Wrong Number (1948). His film credits, after returning to Europe in 1955, \t\cluded /iMflj/aiia {\9Sb), Goodbye Again (1961), and The Night oj the Generals (1967).
LIU SHAO-CH'I, Chinese Communist statesman (b. Ning-hsiang, Hunan Province, 1898— d. reported Peking. October 1974). was chairman (chief of state) of the People's Republic of China from 1959 until his overthrow in 1966 during the Cultural Revolution. The son of a prosperous peasant, he joined the Chinese Communist Party (Kungch'antang or KCT) in 1921 after being sent by the Comintern agent G. N. Voytinsky to Moscow's University for Toilers of the East. He returned to China as a labour organizer and in 1925 was elected vice-chairman of the All-China Federation of Labour. In 1927 he was elected to the KCT Central Committee and in 1934 became a member of the Politburo. During the Communists' Long March to Yenan he worked in areas under Kuomintang (Nationalist) control. In 1939, two years after the Japanese invasion of China, he was appointed head of the Central China Bureau of the KCT. From 1943 he worked in Yenan as deputy chairman of the People's Revolutionary Military Council. In the central government of the People's Republic of China that was formed in Peking on Oct. i, 1949, Liu was one of six vice-chairmen serving under Chairman Mao Tse-tung. In 1959 the National People's Congress elected Liu chief of state, succeeding Mao who remained KCT chairman. The Sino-Soviet ideological rift, however, brought into the open a long smoldering rivalry between the two. Liu opposed Mao's colleclivist policies and anti-Soviet stance, and Mao viewed Liu as traveling down the "capitalist road." In August 1966, at the 1 1th plenary session of the Central Committee, Mao launched his Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Liu then became the target of a campaign directed against
'
1966 and an
Emmy
pro-Soviet "revisionists." By December 1966 his public appearances ceased but Peking Radio did not announce until 1968 that he had been deprived of all powers and expelled from the KCT. He spent his last years under house arrest in Peking. In October 1974 the Communist newspaper Ta Kung Pao announced that both Liu Shao-ch'i and former defense minister Lin Piao were dead physically as well as politically.
McGUIGAN. JAMES CHARLES CARDINAL, Canadian prelate of the Roman Catholic Church (b. near Hunter River, P.E.I. Nov. 26, 1894— d. Toronto, Ont., April 8. 1974), became the ,
world's youngest archbishop at age 35 on his appointment to Regina, Sask. He was transferred to Toronto in 1934 and elevated to the cardinalthe first Englishate by Pope Pius XII in 1946 Canadian to be so honoured. A quiet, happy man with a reputation for excellent administration, McGuigan converted the Archbishop's Palace into a home for children as part of an effort to care for a large postwar influx into Toronto of Catholics. Though he requested to be relieved of his duties in 1961 because of failing health, he carried on with the help of a coadjutor archbishop until his retirement in April 1971.
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LUNN, SIR ARNOLD, British authority on skiing and author (b. Madras, India, April 18, 1888— d. London, Eng.. June 2. 1974), was a devoted Alpinist. He founded the Alpine Ski Club in 1908 and the Kandahar Ski Club in 1924. organized the world's first downhill ski race, at Montana, Switz., in 1911, invented the slalom ski race, at MiJrren, Switz., in 1922, and made the first ski ascent of the Eiger mountain in 1924. He was more than once president of the Ski Club of Great Britain, represented Great Britain on the Federalion Internationale de Ski (1928-49), and wrote many books on skiing and the Alps (including guidebooks on Switzerland). The son of a Methodist missionary, he eventually turned to Roman Catholicism (Now I See. 1933) and became an energetic Catholic apologist. He was knighted in
1952.
Obituaries 1974
12, 1974), received the Royal Gold Medal for Architecture in 1944 and was knighted in 1954. His accomplishments include the Anglican cathedra! of Guildford, Surrey; St. Saviour's and St. Bede's, two London churches; new buildings for St. John's and Balliol colleges at Oxford, and the Playhouse Theatre; new structures for Trinity and St. John's colleges at Cambridge, and the Festival Theatre; and numerous renovations.
MENON, (VENGALIL KRISHNAN) KRISHNA. (b. Calicut, Malabar. India, 3. 1897— d. New Delhi, India, Oct. 5, 1974). a controversial role in Indian politics, his country's first high commissioner (ambassador) in London (1947-52) and its minister of defense (1957-62). Son of a wealthy lawyer. Menon was educated at home by an English tutor
Indian statesman
May
who played was
at Madras University, where he became pominded and an opponent of British rule. In 1924 he left for England where he graduated from the London School of Economics with a master's degree and also became a barrister. He joined the British Labour Party and served as a
and
litically
MAKONNEN. ENDALKACHEW, former Ethiopian prime minister (b. Addis Ababa, Eth., 1926 d. Ethiopia, Nov. 24, 1974). was educated at Oxford, became an expert on foreign affairs, and served as ambassador to London (a post previously held by his father). In 1961 he returned to .\ddis Ababa as minister of commerce and industry and subsequently became Ethiopia's per-
—
UN
(1966-69) and at the minister of communications, telecommunications, and posts (1969-74). In an atmosphere of widespread discontent and charges of inefficiency and corruption, he was called on to form a government in February 1974, following the forced resignation of the previous prime minister, Aklilu Habte-wold. He succeeded in restoring calm, but his moderate policies did not satisfy army extremists. After five months in office, he was forced to resign, was arrested, and executed.
manent representative
MANNHEIM, HERMANN, German-born British criminologist (b. Berlin. Ger.. Oct. 26. 1889— d. London, Eng.. Jan. 20, 1974). reader In criminology (1946-55) at London University and honorary director (1956-61) of the Criminological Research Unit at the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE), established criminology as an academic study When he migrated from Germany
in in
Britain.
1934
his
reputation in legal studies and judicial practice was already well established. His lectures at the LSE were published as The Dilemma of Penal
Reform (1939) and War and Crime (1941); with Sir
Alexander
Carr-Saunders,
director
of
the
LSE, he wrote Young Offenders (1942). Mannheim's Prediction Methods in Relation to Borstal Training (1955) and Comparative Criminology (two
vol.,
1965) were the products of his
long interest
in
life-
criminology.
MARTIN, FRANK,
{
for his coverage of special
film director
May 21. 1902— d. Paris, (b. Kiev, Russia. France, Dec. 15, 1974), began his career in Germany in 1925, where he worked on G. W. Pabst's The Joyless Street, one of Greta Garbo's early films. After directing Mayerling in France, he moved to Hollywood to direct such pictures as Confessions of a Nazi Spy (1939), All This and
531
host
Swiss composer (b. Geneva, d. Naarden, Neth., Nov. Switz.. Sept. 15. 1890 21, 1974). was best known for his oratorio Le Vin herbi (1942; based on the Tristan legend). In Geneva he helped found the Chamber Music Society, where he played both piano and harpsichord, and later he taught at the JaquesDalcroze Institute there and at Cologne Conservatory. His early work was influenced by Ravel. Faure, and Schoenberg. Later compositions include an opera. Der Sturm (based on Shakesuch concertos as the speare's The Tempest ) Petite Symphonie concertante (1945) for harp, harpsichord, piano, and double string orchestra, and a Requiem (1972). From 1946 Martin lived in The Netherlands.
—
,
councillor of the St. Pancras borough of London (1934-47) while working as a publisher's editor. When India became Independent in 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru appointed him high commissioner to the United Kingdom. From 1952 to 1960 he represented India at the UN; during the debates on Suez and Hungary he was highly critical of Western imperialism while condoning Soviet suppression of the Hungarian uprising. Appointed minister of defense by Nehru in 1957. he was forced to resign in November 1962 following China's victory over India In the Assam border dispute. After Nehru's death in 1964 Menon was without friends In the Congress Party, and left It 1967. Though reelected to the Lok Sabha in
(lower house) in 1969 as an Independent, failed to regain his former influence.
3, 1974). was a leading campaigner for Algerian independence. His activities brought him, from 1929, stretches of imprisonment and exile that ended only with Algeria's achievement of independence in 1962. He spent his last years at Gouvieux, near Chantilly, France.
June
MEYER, KARL FRIEDRICH, Basel, Switz., May 19, 1884
U.S. virologist (b. d. San Francisco, 27. 1974), was responsible for Important viral discoveries applicable to public health and veterinary medicine. In South Africa
—
Calif., April
success in protecting cattle from a deadly tick-borne infection attracted wide attention. He to the U.S. in 1910 and successively isolated the virus of eastern and then western equine encephalitis. During his many years his
moved
MAUFE, SIR EDWARD,
British
Ilkley, Yorkshire, Eng., Dec.
12,
architect
1883—d.
(b.
Dec.
he
MESSALI HADJ, AHMAD, Algerian nationalist (b. Tlemcen. Algeria, 1898— d. Paris, France.
(19IS-S4) with the Hooper Foundation >t the University of California in San Francisco. Meyer solved crucial problems related to typhoid, coccidioidomycosis (valley fever), psittacosis (parrot fever), and leptospirosis (a form of infectious jaundice).
MILHAUD, DARIUS,
French composer (b. Aiid. Geneva, en-Provence, France, Sept. 4, 1892 Switz., June 22, 1974), whose more than 400 works embraced an astonishing diversity of forms, began composing while at the Paris Conservatoire. He accompanied the poet Paul Claudel. appointed French minister to Brazil, to that country in 1916, and acquainted himself with Brazilian folk music ISaudades do Brasil, 1920-21). Back in Paris in 1919, he became one of the group of young French composers known as Les Six. under whose stimulus he wrote scintillating scores for ballets, including Le Boeul sur le toil (composed 1919, performed 1920) and La Crtation du monde (192 J), as well as his orchestral suite (final version 1919) from Claudel's Prolie and Machines Agricole! (1919), tor voice and seven instruments set to a trade catalog. Some of these early works gave
—
cause for scandal with their use of polytonality and strident "unmusical" sounds. Milhaud's ambitious opera Christophe Colomb
(1928) triumphed at the Berlin State Opera in 1930 and was followed by incidental music for plays and films, choral, orchestral, and chamber works, works for children, and his first fully orchestrated symphony (1939). During this period he became crippled with rheumatism, and was eventually confined to a wheelchair. At the beginning of World War II he took up a post as professor of composition at Mills College, Oakland, Calif., which he subsequently visited each year. In 1947 he was appointed professor of composition at the Paris (fonservatoire. and he continued with chorus (1946); Service sacrie (1947); 'adame miroir (1948, ballet); David (I9S3, opera creNo. 12 (1962); Symphony Jerusalem); ated at Pacem in terris (1963, choral symphony on Pope John XXIII's encyclical with special authorization by the Vatican); and Cantata ol Psalms (1967). to compose:
Symphony No.
MILTON, ERNEST,
3,
liturgical,
U.S.-born British actor (b.
San Francisco. Calif., Jan. ID, 1890— d. Northwood, Middlesex, Eng., July 24, 1974), was a diction.
MIRSKY, ALFRED EZRA, US. molecular bioloNew York, N.Y.. Oct. 17. 1900— d. New
gist (b.
York, June 19. 1974), made discoveries that provided totally new insights into biological processes. He graduated from Harvard College and Cambridge University (Ph.D. 1926) before joining the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in 1927. Mirsky and his colleague Arthur Pollister, working with cells from the liver and thymus of calves, isolated chromatin (a genetic material consisting of DNA, histones, and other proteins) at a stage of cell development in which the and histones are not organized into visible chromosomal structures. Mirsky later discovered that histones play a role in controlling the operation of genes. His research also showed that all human and animal cells have the same amount of DN.^ with the exception of the sperm and ovum, which receive the second half of their full complement when united through fertilization. Such discoveries helped lay the foundation of molecular biology.
DNA
MOJICA, JOSE', Mexican tenor (b. Mexico, 1895? d. Lima, Peru, Sept. 20, 1974), began singing professionally as a teenager, was eventually featured at the Chicago Civic Opera, and starred in numerous films shot in Hollywood, Mexico City, and Buenos Aires. In 1942. at the height of a career that had already lasted three decades, he
—
startled the entertainment world by announcing his retirement. After distributing much of his wealth to the poor, he entered a Franciscan mon-
astery in Arequipa. Peru, and was subsequently ordained a priest. Though Mojica sang publicly from time to time to gather money for religious causes, he returned to movies only once to portray
own life. His autobiography, /, A Sinner (1963). sold three million copies in Spanish and
his
was translated into English.
EDWARD
HENRY, British fashion MOLYNEUX, designer (b. London. Eng.. Sept. 5. 1891—d. Monte Carlo, Monaco. March 22, 1974), was one of the most celebrated dress designers in Paris during the 1920s and '30s. The success of his quietly distinctive clothes was due to a clientele comprising some of the world's most elegant women, among them Princess Marina, the duchess of
Kent;
Gertrude
interpreter noted for his fine After acting in the U.S.. he joined the Old Vic Company in London in 1918. and in 1926 married the novelist Naomi Royde-Smith. His many outstanding interpretations included the title role in Luigi Pirandello's Henry IV (1925. 1929). Pope Paul in Henry de Montherlant's Malatesta (19S7), and Shakespeare's major tragic roles.
Dietrich.
MIRO CARDONA, JOSE, Cuban
American Academy
sensitive
politician
Cuba. 190.'?— d. San Juan. P.R., Aug. having supported Fidel Castro's rise was named first prime minister (1959) regime and then Cuban ambassador
(b.
10, 1974), to power, of the new
to Spain. Shortly after arriving in the U.S. as Cuban envoy, he defected. When the disastrous Bay of Pigs invasion occurred in 1961. Mir6 was president of the Cuban Revolutionary Council. At the time of his
Lawrence;
and
Marlene
the Gulf of Tonkin resolution in August 1964. the causes Morse supported most firmly civil rights, farm price subsidies, federal aid to education, and the rights of labour unions. At the time of his death, the man who never made a deal was vigorously campaigning to regain the
Among were
Senate seat he lost
in
1968.
MUNCK, EBBE,
Danish journalist and diplomat (b. Fredcriksberg, Den., Jan. 14, 1905— d. Copenhagen, Den.. May 3. 1974), was a newspaper correspondent in Berlin and London before being transferred successively to Spain and Finland to file war reports. While on a later assignment in Sweden (1940-42) he became a member of the Danish Freedom Council and the chief spokesman for the Danish resistance movement. After being
named
chief liaison officer for the Allies, be ef-
fected the escape of the Danish atomic physicist Niels Bohr to Sweden. Later in life Munck held a series of diplomatic posts in Finland and South-
east Asia.
MOOREHEAD, AGNES ROBERTSON,
—
U.S. ac-
Dec. 6, 1906 d. Rochester. Minn., April 30, 1974), was a highly versatile performer who graduated from the University of Wisconsin with a master's degree in English and public speaking and from Bradley University with a doctorate in literature. She also attended the tress (b. Clinton. Mass..
of Dramatic Arts. On radio, and in motion pictures she re-created a wide range of characters and was nominated for five Academy Awards. Her bestknown television role was as the witch Endora in "Bewitched." The Sinking Nun, her final movie, was released in 1966. She last appeared on Broadtelevision, the stage,
way
in
the musical Gigi.
MORAES, FRANK ROBERT, (b.
Bombay,
India,
Nov.
12.
Indian journalist
1907— d. London,
Eng.. May 2. 1974). was educated at St. Xavier's College. Bombay, and at Oxford University. He joined the Times ol India. Bombay, in 1938, serving as war correspondent in Burma and China (1942-45) and as Delhi correspondent. In 1946
he became editor of the Times of Ceylon but returned to India in 1948 and became editor of the Times ol India (1950-57) before going to the Indian Express, Delhi, as editor in chief.
WAYNE
LYMAN, U.S. politician (b. MORSE, Madison, Wis., Oct. 20, 1900 d. Portland, Ore., July 22, 1974), was for 24 years one of the U.S. Senate's most obstreperous and crusty members. He joined the Senate in 1945 as a Republican from Oregon and in 1952 supported Dwighl D. Eisenhower as his party's candidate for president. But when Richard M. Nixon was named as Eisenhower's running mate, Morse switched allegiance and backed Adlai E. Stevenson during the cam[laign. When Congress reconvened, he announced he was an independent; in 1956 he was reelected as a Democrat. In fiery speeches, replete with "language people can understand," Morse lambasted Democrats and Republicans alike, depending on the issue. He was an early and vocal critic of U.S. military involvement in Vietnam and was one of only two senators to vote against
—
MUNDT, KARL EARL,
U.S. politician (b.
Hum-
June 3. 1900—d. Washington. D.C., Aug. 16. 1974), entered Congress in 1939 as a Republican from South Dakota, then moved into the Senate in 1949. After World War II he gained national prominence as acting chairman of the House Committee on Un-American .Activities, which was involved in the Alger Hiss case and in the Joseph McCarthy hearings. He published countless articles and never hesitated to air his strong anti-Communist views, his concern for conservation, and his support for UNESCO, which he helped create. Though incapacitated by a stroke in November 1969, he refused to resign. The Senate finally broke a long-standing precedent in February 1972 when it stripped him ol responsibilities that had fallen to him by right of seniority. The following November he ran for reelection but was defeated.
boldt. S.D..
SIR LESLIE KNOX, New Zealand diplomat and politician (b. Auckland, N.Z.. Feb. 26, 1001— d. Hamilton. N.Z.. Feb. 13, 1974). was president of the UN General Assembly (195758). After practicing and teaching law in Auckland, he edited the Sew Zealand Herald, the country's largest daily newspaper (1942-51). He then
MUNRO,
became (1952-58) New Zealand's ambassador \a the U.S. and permanent representative to the UN, serving also on the Trusteeship Council and the Security Council. From 1961 to 1963 he was secretary-genera! of the International Commission of Jurists. After returning to New Zealand, he sat in Parliament as a member of the National Parly from 1963 until retirement in 1972. His book, United Nations: Hope lor a Divided World, was
published in 1960. Irish author (b. Limerick, Ire., d. Canterbury, Eng,, Aug. 13. Dec. 3, 1S97 1974), re-created in her novels and plays Victorian middle-class life in Ireland. Her first works were plays. Distinfiusked Villa (1926) and Tlu Bridge (192 7). Then came the novels ir i;*o»i My Cloak (1931), which won the Hawthornden
O'BRIEN, KATE,
—
and the James Tait Black Memorial prizes, The Ante-Room (1934), Mary Lavelle (1936), My Ireland (1962), and Presentation Parlour (1963).
ODRI'A. MANUEL ARTURO, Peruvian army genand political leader (b. Tarma, Peru, 1897 Lima. Peru. Feb. 18, 1974), became chief of army staff in 1946 and minister of the interior and chief of police in January 1947. Incensed by the power of the radical Apra parly, he led a bloodless coup that ousted Pres. Jose Luis Bustamante y Rivero in October 1948. Odria assumed the presidency and was confirmed in office by popular election in 1950. His administration, though often ruthlessly intolerant of opposition, carried out some notable social reforms and fostered considerable economic progress. Odria's candidate for the presidency was defeated in 19S6, as was Odria himself in 1962. eral
d.
the
OISTRAKH, violinist
(b.
DAVID
FYODOROVICH, Soviet 1908— d.
Odessa, Russia, Sept. 30.
Amsterdam, Neth., Oct. 24, 1974), much admired in the West as the foremost exponent of the Russian school of violin playing, was educated at Odessa's Musical and Dramatic Institute and began touring the Soviet Union as a soloist at the age of 18. In 1930 he won first prize at the Ukrainian Violin Competition in Kharkov and in 1935 received the Wieniawski Prize in Warsaw. His first Western concerts were given in Paris and Brussels in 1937. In 1939 he became professor of violin at the Moscow Conservatory. He reappeared in the West at the Florence Festival in 1951, revisited Paris in 1953, and played for the first time in London a year later. In November 1 95 S he performed as a soloist at Carnegie Hall, New York City. Oistrakh occasionally appeared with his son and former pupil Igor, also a gifted violinist.
PACKER, SIR (DOUGLAS) FRANK (HEWSON), Australian communications magnate (b. Sydney, New South Wales, Austr., Dec. 3, 1906— d. Sydney, May !, 1974). was chairman of Australian Consolidated Press and an enthusiastic sportsman who headed the yachting syndicate that unsuccessfully challenged for the America's Cup in 1962 and 1970. His publications included Women's
Weekly, Australia's largest weekly circulation magazine, The Bulletin, a news weekly, and (until they were sold) the Daily Telegraph. Sydney's •circulation morning newspaper, and the Sunday Telegraph. Packer set up Australia's first commercial television station and was president of the Australian Newspapers Conference, president of the Australian Newspaper Council, and a director of Reuters.
PAGNOL, MARCEL PAUL.
French filmmaker
author (b. Aubasne. Bouches-du-Rhone, France. Feb. 28, 1895— d. Paris. France. April 18, 1974), wrote the play Les Marchands de gloire (1925, in collaboration with Paul Nivoix) and Topaze (1928. filmed 1932 and 1950). After the arrival of talking pictures he wrote, produced, and sometimes directed films, including the trilogy
and
(1931). Fanny (1932), and Cisar (1936), which inspired the American musical Fanny, later adapted to film. Pagnol also wrote novels, three volumes of autobiography, and translated Hamlet and some of Shakespeare's other works into French. In 1946 he was elected to the
Marius
Acad^mie Fram^aise.
Juan Domingo Per6n
PALAZZESCHI, ALDO (Aldo Giublani).
Ital(b. Florence, Italy. Feb. 2, 1885 Italy. Aug. 17, 1974), was best known for his novel The Materassi Sisters, a psychological study of the deterioration of two spinsters.
ian
d.
writer
Rome,
For a time he was associated with the Futurist movement, which glorified modern technology and delved into painting, sculpture, and literature of all sorts. Besides novels, he also wrote poetry and short stories and was awarded the Viareggio Prize in 1949.
PARK CHUNG HEE, MADAME (Yook Young Sod), wife of the president of South Korea (b. Okchon, Korea. Nov. 29, 1925— d. Seoul. South Korea, Aug. 15, 1974). was killed by an assassin's bullet apparently intended for her husband,
who
was delivering a Liberation Day speech in the National Theatre. A teenaged girl was also killed. Madame Park was active in social work, assisting charities and such organizations as the Red Cross and Girl Scouts. On occasion, she accompanied her husband on diplomatic visits overseas.
PERON, JUAN DOMINGO,
Argentine chief of state (b. Lobos. Arg., Oct. 8, 1895 d. Buenos Aires. Arg., July 1. 1974), was one of modern Latin America's most remarkable political figures. His rise to power began in 1943 when he and other military officers overthrew Pres. Ramon
—
Castillo. During the next two short-lived regimes, Peron held minor government posts but established a solid political base by initiating desperately needed social reforms to help labourers and
the poor. In October 1945 he was suddenly ousted and imprisoned by those who feared his policies and evident ambitions. A huge demonstration, however, was quickly organized in the capital by Eva ("Evita") Duarte and Peron was released. That night, before a crowd of 300,000. he promised the nation over radio that he would build a strong nation if elected president in the upcoming elections. Within a few days he married Eva and in February 1946 won the election, Peron provided Argentina's "shirtless ones" with low-cost housing, higher wages, and paid vacations. Women for the first time were allowed to vote. Banks and transportation were nationalized, and profits from government controlled exports of meat and other products were used for agricultural and economic development. And Evita Peron (1919-52) became the "little Madonna." whose mere presence among the poor sparked sentiments of religious devotion. However, in carrying out his social programs, Peron was sowing the seeds of deep discontent. He imprisoned opponents, removed judges and teachers, stifled the press, upset the economy with erratic policies, and was unpredictable in foreign affairs. He was easily reelected in 1951, but with inflation rampant, agricultural production down, and foreign reserves depleted, business and industry were nearing revolt. Roman Catholics too became alienated when Peron legalized prostitution and divorce and forbade religious instruction in Catholic schools. In September 1955 he was ousted in a military coup. For 18 years Peron remained in opulent exile (in Spain from I960) while a succession of civilian and military governments tried vainly to bring stability to Argentina. In June 1973 a desperate nation welcomed him back amid wild excitement. Peron assumed the presidency on October 12, but quickly discovered that he could not control the left-wing Peronistas or bring order out of chaos. At his death, he left a badly divided country.
PLESCH, ARPAD, Hungarian-born
Georges Pompidou
fin
racehorse owner (b. Budapest, Hung.. March 2 5, 1889— d. London, Eng., Dec. 16, 1974), was ad(1922-33) of the I. G. Farbenindustrie at Frankfurt am Main, Ger., and a successful financier and investment adviser. He was also a racehorse enthusiast, whose mounts won several notable events, including the Epsom Derby (1971), the Prix du Jockey Club, and Prix de I'Arc de Triomphe. Plesch also assembled a collection of rare plants and an outstanding botanical library at his estate at Beaulieu in the south of France and founded the Centre de Recherches Botaniques at Monte Carlo in 1951.
I
per-
al cha Gen. Charles de Gaulle chose Pompidou as an aide in 1944, even though he had no Resistance record and no political experience. When de Gaulle resigned in January 1946, Pompidou became deputy director general of tourism (1946-49) and was appointed mattre des requetes at the Conseil d'fitat (the highest administrative court), serving from 1946 to 1954. He then joined the bank of Rothschild Freres, later becoming its director gen-
eral
(1956-62).
When de Gaulle returned to power in June 1958 Pompidou became his chej de cabinet and helped draft the constitution of the Fifth Republic. In 1961, while a member of the Constitutional Council, he conducted secret negotiations with the Algerian nationalists that led to the agreement signed at £vian-les-Bains in March 1962. On April 16, still an unknown figure to many Frenchmen and lacking parliamentary experience, he was appointed premier. Although his prestige in the National Assembly rose during the May 1968 student riots in Paris and concomitant industrial unrest, de Gaulle suddenly replaced him with Maurice Couve de Murville after the elections of June 1968. Ten months later, when de Gaulle resigned, Pompidou entered the race for the presidency and was elected on June IS, 1969, receiving more than 58% of the second-round votes. As president, Pompidou continued in broad outline de Gaulle's foreign policy, maintaining friendship and economic ties with Arab states; he was less successful with West Germany and did not significantly improve relations with the U.S. When the majority of the Gaullist-dominated ruling coalition was considerably reduced in the March 1973 elections, Pompidou assumed greater independence, overriding his ministers, including his new foreign minister, Michel Jobert. During his presidency, Pompidou met many world leaders, including Pres. Richard M. Nixon (December 1971, May/June 1973) and the Soviet leader Leonid I. Brezhnev (October 1971, June 1973). Among his most significant travels was a visit to China in September 1973. For almost five years Pompidou provided France with a stable government, strengthened its economy, and made France's political presence felt throughout the world. He supported Great Britain's entry into the European Economic Community, but failed to win wide public support in a national referendum on the enlargement of the EEC. His death was unexpected despite growing evidence of rap-
ministrator
idly failing health.
POMPIDOU,
POPE-HENNESSY, JAMES, British biographer (b. Nov. 20, 1916— d, London, Eng., won wide acclaim for his official biography (1959) of Queen Mary, consort of George V. His reputation as a biographer was earlier established with works on Monckton Milnes (1950, second part 1952) and Lord Crewe (1955). West Indian Summer (1943), Verandah (1964), and other colonial studies were inspired by a stay in Trinidad and Tobago (1939) as private secretary to the governor. From 1947 to 1949
GEORGES
French statesman July
5,
1911— d.
(b.
JEAN
RAYMOND,
Montboudif, Cantal, France,
Paris. France, April 2, 1974),
was president of the French Republic at the time of his death. The son of schoolteachers, he graduated first in his class from the ficole Normale Superieure in Paris before becoming a classics teacher in Marseilles and then at the Lycee Henri-
and writer
Jan. 25, 1974),
Pope-Hennessy was tator. At the time of
literary editor of The Spechis death, he was engaged in research for an authorized biography of Sir Noel
Coward.
RITTER, TEX (Woodwaso M*t;»ict Ritti«). r S. actor and singer of country and western songs lb,
Murvaul, Tex., Jan.
12,
1906—d.
Nashville,
Tinn., Jan. 2, 1974). was best known for his throaty renditions of "You Are My Sunshine." "Jingle, Jangle, Jingle." and ol Iht theme song
from High Soon (1952).
ROBERTSON OF OAKRIDGE, BRIAN HUBERT ROBERTSON,
I
SI
Bakon, British
soldier
and
administrator (b. Simla, India, July 22, 1896— d. Far Oakridgc. Glouccitcrshire, Eng., April 29. 1974). whose skill and vision helped to bring order and progress to Western Germany immediately after World War II. was appointed deputy military governor of the British Zone of Germany in 1945, commander in chief (promoted to general) and military governor in 1947, and first British high commissioner to the German federal government in 1949; during this period he solved problems posed by economic difficulties and strained relations among the Allies. He returned
army service in 1950 as commander in chief. Middle East Land Forces, but in 1953 was appointed chairman of the British Transport Commission. In 1961 he was created a baron. to
ROSAY, FRANCOISE (F«ancoise Bandy de (b. Bucltingham Palace, London, Eng., March 17, 1886— d. Windlciham. Surrey, Jan. 12, 1974), was the youngest daughter of the and his duchess, formerly Connaught duke of Princess Louise Marguerite of Prussia. Following
Nal^che). French
her marriage in 1919 to Captain (later Admiral Sir Alexander) Ramsay, she relintiuished the title of princess and lived a retiring life.
English, or
Queen Victoria
RANSOM, JOHN CROWE, critic
(b.
Pulaski,
Tenn.,
U.S. poet and literary April 30, 1888— d.
Gambler. O.. July 3, 1974), was the founder (1939) and for 20 years editor of The Kenyan Review. Ransom used the quarterly to propagate his New Criticism, which basically insisted that the text and te.vtual qualities of a literary work were more important than its ideas or social setRansom wrote sparingly often ting. Though about traditions of the South and the passing of an agricultural economy that he believed enhanced human life his poems are noteworthy for their gentle eloquence and formal excellence.
—
—
RAYMOND, ERNEST,
British novelist (b. ArFrance, Dec. 31, 1888— d. London, Eng., May 14, 1974), wrote the continually reprinted best-seller Tell England (1922), later made into a film. The novel was followed by 44 others and a dozen volumes of essays, plays, and autobiography. Raymond's reflective storytelling drew first upon his period of schoolmastering and his service as an Anglican chaplain in World War I (he resigned holy orders in 1923) and then upon middle-class life, mostly in London.
gcnticres,
April 19.
1891— d.
actress (b. Paris. France, Paris. March 28, 1974), be-
PIERRE
EUGENE GEORGES,
(b. Paris, France, Jan. 9. 1893— d. Paris, Dec. 9, 1974), professor of contemporary history at the Sorbonne from 1933, greatly influenced modern historical studies in France. His
French historian
publications include Les Origines Immidiates de (192S), La (.2S iuin-4 aout 1914) la guerre Crise europeenne el la grande guerre (1934), and Histoire des relations internalionales (1953-58). He was secretary-general of the board that published Documents diplomatiques jran^ais 18711914 and was elected to the Academic des Sciences Morales et Politiques in 1946.
RIBEMONT-DESSAIGNES, GEORGES,
—
French
and painter (b. 1884 d. SaintJeannct. AIpes-Maritimcs, France. July 9. 1974), was the last poet of Dada. a movement of negation in art and literature precursory to Surrealism. His poems were admired and illustrated by Max Ernst, Joan Miro, and Georges Braquc. His plays were poet, dramatist,
edited by
Raymond Queneau.
RIDEAL, SIR ERIC KEIGHTLEY, British sciend. London. Eng., Sept. tist (b. April U. 1890
—
was a distinguished physical chemist noted for his work in surface chemistry, particularly the study of interfaces, and in polymer chemistry. In 1930 he became Cambridge University's first professor of colloidal physics and in 1946 was appointed director of the DavyFaraday Research Laboratory and Fullerian professor at the Royal Institution. In 1950 he became 25, 1974).
professor of physical chemistry at King's College. London, retiring in 1955. He was a fellow of the Royal Society, recipient of the society's Davy
Medal, and was knighted
in
1951.
trade unionist (b. Valence, France. Nov. 27. 1910—d. Paris. France. Oct. 28. 1974). was general secretary of the Communist-dominated World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) from 1945 to 1969. and although not believed to be a member of the Communist Party, followed Moscow's line. He came to prominence in the clandestine French union movement during World War II, and in 1945, as a result of an agreement between U.S. and Soviet union leaders, was elected first general secretary of the WFTU. A few years later British. to U.S.. and other trade unionists left the protest its pro-Soviet stance. Saillant was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize in 1959, criticized Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia in 1968. and repost the following year. signed his
WFTU
WFTU
SANTOS, EDUARDO, Colombian politician and journalist (b. Bogota, Colombia, Aug. 28. 1888 d. Bogota, March 27. 1974). held numerous government posts before serving as president of Colombia from 1938 to 1942. As owner and publisher of El Ticmpo, Santos was also one of the best-known journalists in South America. His private library, one of the finest in the country, is a rich repository of materials documenting the life of Simon Bolivar, the man who freed six Latin-American countries from Spanish rule.
of the great ladies of the French cinema: her career lasted some 60 years and included more
SCHIRACH, BALDUR VON, German Nazi leader (b. Berlin. Gcr., May 7, 1907— d. Krov, Rhein-
100 films, some of which were American, German. She acted at St. Petersburg (l'U2-13) and sang as a soprano at the Paris Opera (1916-18). By the 1930s she was firmly committed to a film career, appearing first in Hollywood in The Magnificent Lie. Later pictures included La Kerntesse hiroique, Un Cornet de bal, Jenny, Johnny Frenchman, and Quartet. From 1944 to 1947 she was art director of Radio
land-Pfalz. W.Ger., Aug. 8. 1974), as national director of the Hitler Youth Movement from 1933, personified and propagated the Nazi cult ol the blond Aryan. He joined the National Socialist and German Workers' (Nazi) Party in 192 7 and the following year, at Hitler's direction, formed the Nazi Students' League. At the outset of World War II he took part in the French campaign, but in 1940 Hitler sent him to Vienna as governor and gauleiter (provincial party boss). In 1946 the Niirnberg war crimes tribunal sentenced him to 20 years' imprisonment for his part ia deporting Jews and organizing forced labour. Following his release from Spandau in 1966, he published his memoirs. Ich Claubte an Ditler ("I Believed in Hitler"), in which he slated that it was not until May 1944 that he first heard of the methods used for "the final solution of the
came one than
Without interrupting her professional career she directed a course in dramatic art in Paris from 1956 to 1967.
Algiers.
ROSEBERY, ALBERT EDWARD HARRY MEYER ARCHIBALD PRIMROSE, 6th Earl nobleman
0>. British
(b.
Dalmeny House, South
—
d. Mentmore, Quecnsferry, Scot., Jan. 8, 1882 near Leighton Buzzard, Eng., May 30, 1974), was a soldier, politician, and all-round sportsman. The elder son of the Sth earl, who was prime minister in 1894-95, he sat as Liberal member of Par-
liament for Midlothian (1906-10), moved to the Liberal Nationals in the early 1930s, and worked during World War II as regional commissioner (1941-45) and secretary of stale (1945) for Scotland. But it was on the turf that Rosebery won popular renown: he was a member of the Jockey Club, was president of the Thoroughbred Breeders' Association,
and won
five
maintained his Mentmore stud, races, notably with Blue
classic
RUBY, HARRY (Harry Rubinstein), U.S. songwriter (b. New York. N.Y., Jan. 27, 1895— d. Woodland Hills, Calif., Feb. 23, 1974), composed numerous popular tunes, especially in collaboration with lyricist Bert Kalmar. Among his best-known songs are "Three Little Words," "Who's Sorry Now," and "I Wanna Be Loved by You." Ruby also wrote Broadway scores and movie scenarios and was an early associate of the Marx brothers, whose comedies he helped produce.
RYAN, CORNELIUS, U.S. author (b. Dublin, Ire., June 5. 1920— d. New York, N.Y., Nov. 23, 1974), was a World War II corre.spondent whose fascination with
Jewish problem.'
SEATON, FRED(ERICK) A(NDREW),
the
Allied
invasion
of
U.S. busi-
and political figure (b. Washington, Dec. 11. 1909— d. Minneapolis, Minn., Jan. 1974), inherited ownership of a network of Midwest newspapers and radio and television stations, but was best known to the nati< Dwight D. Eisenhower's secretary of the interior (1956-61). dedicated to acquiring statehood (1959) for Alaska and Hawaii and concerned
nessman D.C:.,
16,
about conservation, wildlife, and educational pro-
grams
Peter.
RENOUVIN,
SAILLANT, LOUIS, French
for
An
SEVERSKY, ALEXANDER PROCOFIEFF DE, U.S. aeronautic Russia. June 7,
engineer
(b.
1894- d. New
Tiflis
[Tbilisi],
York, N.V., Aug.
24, 1974), flew more than 50 missions as I czarist aviator after losing a leg in his first
combat mission (1915) during World War I. was in Washington. D.C. in 1918 serving ai assistant naval attache when his country closed embassy. Seversky elected to stay in the U.S. During the next half century and more he wa5 an effective advocate of strategic air power, patenting numerous inventions that hastened the arrival of modern aircraft technology. He designed the first fully automatic synchronous bombsight. its
U.S. poet (b. Newton, M Nov. 9, 1928 d. Weston. Mass.. Oct. 4, whose intensely personal poetry reflected her
sustained ten years of painstaking resulted in The Longest Day that (1959), a best-seller about "the courage of man" that was later made into a movie. Ryan wrote two other highly successful war books. The Last Baltic (1966) and A Bridge Too Far (1974).
SEXTON, ANNE,
RYNDIN, VADIM FEOOOROVICH, Soviet stage designer (b Moscow, Russia, Jan. 2. 1902— d. April 1974). was the creator of stage sets for plays, opera, and ballet and writer of works on stage design. As chief designer at Alcksandr Tairov's Kamerny Theatre. Moscow, he designed productions of L. Pervomaysky's Unknown SolMachinal diers (1932), Sophie Treadwell's (1933). and V. Vishnevsky's An Optimistic Tragedy (1934). At the Bolshoi Theatre he staged Verdi's La traviata and Sergey Prokofiev's IVor and Peace. Ryndin was a member of the Soviet Academy of Arts and was married to Soviet
Pretty breakdown and recovery. All (1962) is also autobiographical. Sexton's was widely recognized in the form of ^ grants, awards, honorary degrees, and tr
Normandy research
dancer Galina Ulanova.
—
I
nation with death, won the Puliuer Prize ii tor a volume of poems called iii'e or Die Her first book. To Bedlam and Part Ifo (
1
(1960), was an intense examination of her
My
.
Boston University (1970-71 Colgate University (1971-72). Her last book was entitled The Death fiotebooks (1974).
positions at
SHAZAR, ZALMAN (Shneu« Zalman Rt
fa-
statesman (b. Mir. Belon Jerusalem, Israel, Oct. 5. Israel's third president (1963-73), was a 11 scholar and journalist whose political careei in 1906 as secretary of a secret Labour Zionist
SHOV),
Israeli
Oct. 6.
1889— d.
\
conference in Minsk, Russia. Later he went to the Academy of Jewish Studies in St. Petersburg and to Germany to study history and philosophy at the universities of Freiburg, Strasburg, and Berlin. He first visited Palestine in 1911, returning there in 1920 as a member of the World Labour Zionist delegation. He settled in Tel Aviv in 1924 and the following year helped to found Davar, the daily newspaper published by the Labour Zionist movement, of which he was editor from 1938 to 1948. In 1949 he was appointed minister of education in independent Israel's first government, resigning in 1950 to join the Jewish Agency executive. On May 21, 1963, the Knesset (parliament) elected him president to succeed Yitzhak Ben-Zvi. He was reelected in 196S and resigned in May 1973.
SHUKSHIN. VASILY, Soviet film director (b. Siberia. U.S.S.R.. 1929— d. Moscow, U.S.S.R.. Oct. 2, 19 74), became a leading figure in modern Soviet cinema after studying at the Moscow Cinema Institute. He appeared as a screen actor and published short stories before his debut as director and scriptwriter of There Was a Lad (1964), winner of the Golden Lion of St. Mark at the Venice Festival of Children's Films. Other films were Your Son and Brother (1966), Strange People (1970). and The Red Snowball Tree (1974). In this last film, an unprecedented (although censored) satire on Soviet officialdom, he played the leading role of a former professional criminal. At the time of his death Shukshin was working on an adaptation of Mikhail Sholokhov's They Fought for the Motherland.
SIMONDS, GUY GRANVILLE, Canadian (b.
Bury
—
St.
Edmunds,
Suffolk.
general Eng.. April 23,
Toronto, Ont., May 15, 1974), was generally considered Canada's finest tactician and field commander during World War II. He went to Europe in 1939 as a major and in 1941 became the Dominion's youngest general at age 39. After leading the Canadian 1st and 2nd divisions in Africa and Italy, he commanded the 11 Corps in an assault on Antwerp that opened the port to Allied shipping. After the war he became chief of the general staff and rose to the rank of lieutenant general before retiring in 1955 to enter 1903
d.
(1934-45). Having bought a printing press in Paris, he became, in 1947. co-director of Combat. founded by the writer Albert Camus and others, sole director from 1950. The circulation of his somewhat erratically directed paper gradually dwindled. After conviction in Tunisia for illicit currency dealing (the prison sentence was quashed on condition of surrender of his Tunisian property) in 1967. Smadja returned to France and moved Combat's office and press to a chateau outside Paris as an economy measure. However, within two months of his death the paper ceased publication. (See Publishing.)
SMRKOVSKY, JOSEF,
Czechoslovak Communist
leader (b. Velenka. Bohemia. Feb. 26. 1911— d. Prague. Czech., Jan. 15, 1974), was a firm supporter of Alexander Dubcek, who in the spring of 1968 tried to give Czechoslovakia "socialism with a human face." A baker, he joined the Communist Party in 1929. During the German occupation he became a leading figure in the Czech resistance movement. In May 1945, as deputy chairman of the provisional Czech National Council, he opposed the entry of U.S. troops into Prague, thus enabling the "liberation" of the capital the following day by Soviet forces. In February 1948, as commander of the Workers' Militia, he ensured the Communist seizure of power, but subsequently fell into disfavour. Arrested in 1951 and accused of fictitious crimes, he received a death sentence which Element Gottwald, president of the republic and party boss, hesitated to confirm. Smrkovsky was freed in 1955 and worked as a forester and then as a chairman of a collective farm until his rehabilitation in 1963. In 1966 the I3th party congress elected him to the Central Committee and in January 1967 he became forestry minister. He vigorously supported Dubcek in his struggle against Pres. Antonin Novotny and in March 1 968 joined the party's Presidium, being elected pre^.ident of the National Assembly in April. Immediately after the occupation of Prague by Soviet forces. Dubcek and Smrkovsky were arrested and taken to Moscow. Ludvik Svoboda. then president of the republic, obtained their release and return to Prague, after which they were deposed from office and expelled from the key party bodies,
business.
SOKOLOVA, LYDIA (Hilda Munnings), EnSINGH, YADAVINDRA,
Indian statesman, sports-
man, and diplomat (b. Jan. 7, 1913— d. The Hague. Neth.. June 17, 1974), succeeded his father as maharaja of Patiala in 1938 and proved to be an enlightened ruler of his state. During World War II he served in the Western Desert, Italy, and Burma. He was the last chancellor of the
Chamber
of Princes before India's inde-
pendence (1947) and became rajpramukh of the merged Patiala and East Punjab states (194856), a member of the National Defense Council (1962), India's ambassador to Italy (1965-66) and to The Netherlands (from 1971). He captained India at cricket in the 1930s, founded the Asian Games Federation in 1951, was president of the Indian Olympic Association (1936-60), and chairman of the All-India Council of Sports (1960-65).
SIQUEIROS, DAVID ALFARO.
Mexican muralist
(b. Chihuahua, Mex., Dec. 29, 1896— d. Cuernavaca, Mex., Jan. 6, 1974), whose political activity and social protest gained as much notoriety as his very considerable artistic talent, expressed his Communist beliefs in gigantic, bold, and flamboyant murals. He was jailed several times, most notably in 1960 for inciting student riots. Pardoned after four years, he retired from politics to resume painting with unabated vigour. His bestknown murals, depicting historical and revolutionary scenes, are in the gardens of the Hotel de Mexico, on the outside of the National University administration building, inside the National History Museum, and on the exterior and interior walls of the Polyforum. a convention hall in Mexico City. The latter, his largest work, covers
,
i
j
60,000 manity
sq.ft.
and
is
titled
"The March
of
Hu-
in Latin America, on the Earth and in the Direction of the Cosmos: Misery and Science." He received the National Art Prize in 1966 and was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize by the Soviet
I
Union
in
1967.
I
i
I
ballet dancer (b. Wanstead, Essex, Eng., d. Sevenoaks, Kent. Eng., Feb. 4, 1896 1974). became in 1915 the first English dancer
glish
March 5,
—
where she bea leading ballerina under the choreographers Michel Fokine and, especially, Leonide Massine; with Vaslav Nijinsky danced in Petrouchka, she in Spectre de la Rose, and in Massine's version of The Rite of Spring, among many roles. After Diaghilev's death in 1929 and the dissolution of the company, Sokolova rarely danced again, to enter Diaghilev's Ballets Russes.
came
though she appeared with Leon Woizikowski's in 1935. Her memoirs. Dancing for Diaghilev, were published in 1960.
company
SPAATZ, CARL ANDREW,
U.S.
—
general
(b.
d. Washington, Boyertown, Pa., June 28. 1891 D.C.. July 14, 1974), was a West Point graduate (1914) who very early shared Billy Mitchell's enthusiasm for military air power. In 1947 Spaatz
was named the first Air Force chief of staff when that branch of the military was given equal autonomy with the Army and Navy. Spaatz went to England in 1940 to evaluate military might, then took command of the U.S. 8th Air Force in July 1942. He served under Dwight D. Eisenhower in Africa, directed air assaults against Italy, then returned to England with Eisenhower to plan the D-Day invasion of the continent. After V-E Day. Spaatz took over the Pacific Air Force command and though personally opposed to the use of atomic bombs against Japanese cities, carried out Pres. Harry S. Truman's orders to hit Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Spaatz represented the U.S. at the of-
German
ficial
surrender ceremonies in
Germany and Japan.
SPEARS, SIR EDWARD (LOUIS),
1st Baronet, (b. Paris, France, Eng., Jan. 27. 1974), was instrumental, as Winston Churchill's representative in France in 1940. in bringing Gen. Charles de Gaulle to England; afterward, with the rank of major general, he headed the British mission to the Free French government-in-exile. After leading a mission to Syria and Lebanon in 1941 Spears served as British minister to the new republics from 1942 to 1944. De Gaulle later accused him of conspiring against France by espousing the Arab cause. British soldier and politician
Aug.
7,
1886— d. London.
SPOTTSWOOD, BISHOP STEPHEN GILL. U.S. religious and civil rights leader (b. Boston. Mass., July 18. 1897—d. Washington. D.C.. Dec. 1, 1974). was ordained in the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church after graduating (1919) from the Gordon College of Theology in Boston; he then joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and commenced a two-fold career as civil rights activist and pastor of churches in Maine, Connecticut, North Carolina, Indiana, and New York. From 1936 to 1952 he was pastor of the John Wesley National A.M.E. Zion Church in the nation's capital. In 1955 he was elected to the board of directors of the NAACP and in 1961 became board chairman. Though a moderate by nature and a firm believer in economic opportunities for blacks as the most basic requirement for social justice, Spottswood was also capable of righteous anger and personally joined picket lines, organized boycotts, and initiated protests long before such things assumed major proportions during the 1960s. STRAUSS, LEWIS LICHTENSTE1N,
U.S. gov-
official (b. Charleston. W.Va., Jan. 31, 1896— d. Brandy Station, Va., Jan. 21, 1974), became chairman of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission in 1953 after serving as one of its original members since 1946. After the Soviets
ernment
exploded their first atomic bomb in 1949, Strauss urged and received approval for the development of a hydrogen bomb. He was supported by Edward Teller and Ernest Lawrence but vigorously opposed by J. Robert Oppenheimer, all three greatly respected physicists. In a highly controversial decision, Strauss joined others in voting to deprive Oppenheimer of his security clearance in 1954. After resigning as chairman of the AEC in 1958, Strauss was nominated secretary of commerce by Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower. After weeks of hearings and debate, the Senate, perhaps still smarting from previous conflicts with Strauss, rejected the nomination by a vote of 49-46. Earlier in his career, Strauss was a successful Wall Street banker and during World War II
attained the rank of rear admiral while serving on several military committees and as assistant to James V. Forrestal, secretary of the navy.
SULLIVAN, EDWARD VINCENT, U.S. impresario and columnist (b. New York, N.Y., Sept. 28. 1901— d. New York. Oct. 13, 1974), was a Broadway and Hollywood coleditor, umnist for the New York Daily News (1933-74). and part-time impresario before hosting the "Harvest Moon Ball" on CBS television in 1947. sports
Alg..
journalist (b. Oran, July 14, 1S97— d. Paris, France, July 15, 1974), directed the freewheeling left-wing Paris
He was thereupon signed as regular host of the CBS variety show "Toast of the Town," which made television history as the "Ed Sullivan
newspaper Combat from 1947 to the time of his death. In 1934 he founded a Tunis newspaper and was elected to the Grand Council of Tunisia
a wooden expression and self-conscious mannerisms, Sullivan attained stardom through his
SMADJA, HENRY, French i
535
Obituaries 1974
and
Show" by running from 1948
to
1971. Despite
an elective office conferred by the UN General Assembly. Tanaka, who obtained his law degree from Tokyo Imperial University, visited ihc U.S. and Europe to broaden his understanding of International law. Among his writings is Theory of International Law, for which he received the Asabi
VAN BIESBROECK. GEORGE
Prize in 1935.
mcr
THANT,
U, Burmese educationist and civil servant (b. Pantanaw. Burma, Jan. 22. 1909—d. New York. N.Y.. Nov. 25, 1974), was the third secretary-general (1962-71) of the United Nations. After taking an active role in the Burmese resistance against the Japanese during World War II, he was recruited for government service, became press director (1947). director of broadcasting (1948), and secretary of the Ministry of Information (1949). He was a frequent adviser to Burmese political leaders, including
Prime Minister U Nu, and in 1957 began his career as Burma's permanent representative. In 1959 he was vice-president of the General Assembly. After the death in 1961 of Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjold. Thanl was confirmed as secretary-general on Nov. 30. 1962. Among the problems that confronted him during operation his first term in office were the in the Congo, the Cuban missile crisis, the IndiaPakistan war, and the escalation of the Vietnam war. In 1966 he was reelected unanimously, after earlier indicating his unwillingness to continue in office. In 1967 his decision to withdraw the
UN
UN UN
UN
shrewd scouting and presentation of entertainers from all over the world. Year after year he provided an endless stream of diverse talent that kept audiences transfixed and ratings at record levels. Among big-name stars who made their first television appearances on Sullivan's show were the Beatles, Elvis Presley, Jack Benny, Liza Minnelli, Martin, Humphrey Bogart, Rudolph Nureyev, Maria Callas, and Jackie Gleason.
Dean
SUSANN, JACQUELINE, U.S. author (b. adelphia, Pa., Aug. 20. 1921— d. New York,
Phil-
N.Y.,
Sept. 21, 1974), became a literary phenomenon and a publisher's delight by turning out three successive novels that all reached the top of the best-seller list and then became movies. Valley of the Dolls (1966), which became the bestselling novel of all time with 17 million copies, depicted the disintegrating lives of four fading glamour girls and their progressive surrender to drugs and alcohol. The Love Machine (1969) detailed the ambitions and love life of a television executive. Once Is Not Enough (1973) titillated readers with keyhole glimpses of socially prominent persons and their sexual adventures. Though severely berated by critics for writing books of little literary value, Susann, a former actress and television personality, was undaunted; to her, writing books that were immensely popular (and profitable) was sufficient proof of her writing ability. Her personal favourite was Every Night Josephine/ (1963), a nonfiction work about herself, her husband of 30 years, and their poodle.
SUTHERLAND,
EARL WILBUR,
JR.,
U.S.
pharmacologist (b. Burlingame, Kan., Nov. 19, 1915— d. Miami, Fla.. March 9. 1974), was awarded the 1971 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for isolating cyclic AMP, the chemical that enables hormones to perform their function of carrying messages via the bloodstream. In 19S6, while serving as director of the department of medicine at Western Reserve University in Cleveland. O., Sutherland discovered cyclic and later demonstrated its vital function as a regulatory substance in the chemistry of living organisms. His breakthrough stimulated a vast range of subsequent research. Sutherland received his M,D. degree (1942) from Washington University Medical School in St. Louis. Mo., where, after serving in World War H. he worked in the laboratory of Carl Ferdinand Cori. himself a Nobel laureate. Sutherland moved to Vandcrbilt University, Nashville. Tenn., in 1963 to devote full time to research. From July 1973 he was on the faculty of the University of Miami Medical School.
AMP
TANAKA KOTARO CIS
(English name
Tanaka), Japanese
Jap., chief
1890— d. Tokyo,
Jurist
(b.
Paul FranKagoshima,
March 1, 1974). as Supreme Court of Japan Jap.,
the (1950-60) was responsible for giving Japan's new constitution a definitive interpretation without postwar advice from Western sources. He was the first Japanese Christian to become chief justice and later served (1961-69) as a judge on the International Court of Justice in The Hague, justice
of
UN
Emergency Force from the border between Israel and Egypt at the Arabs' request was criticized in the West (although legally no other option was open to him). Thant was a man of comprehensive interests but was particularly concerned with the problems of Southeast Asia and with the UN Technical Assistance Program and Development Decade.
TOPPING, DANIEL REID,
U.S. sports executive
Greenwich, Conn., June 11. 1912—d. Miami Beach, Fla., May IS, 1974), inherited a fortune that enabled him to become co-owner of the New York Yankees, one of the most successful professional baseball teams in history. With Larry MacPhail and Del Webb he acquired the Yankees in 1945 for $2.8 million. Two years later MacPhail sold his interest for $2 million and Topping be(b.
came president of the Yankee organization. During the next 18 years the Yankees won IS American League pennants and 10 World Series championships. In 1964 CBS became an 80% shareholder and two years later bought the club outright. Topping opened an advertising agency in 1930 and in 1934 was a leading amateur golfer when he first invested in sports by purchasing an interest in the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National Football League. He later also became part owner of the
New York Yankees
of
the All America
Football Conference.
Mexican educationist (b. Mexico City, Mex., April 17, 1902— d. Mexico City, May 13, 1974), became one of Latin America's most respected intellectuals before serving
UNESCO
director general of from 194S to 1952. After teaching (1924-29) French literature at the University of Mexico, his alma mater, he entered foreign service and was assigned to Mexican embassies in Madrid, Buenos Aires, and Brussels. He then became Mexico's minister of education (1943-46) and foreign minister (1946-48). Throughout his life he was an energetic advocate of well conceived and innovative programs attacking illiteracy, which he viewed as one of the greatest dangers to individual freedom and world
peace. His 38 published works include poetry, essays, novels, and memoires (the sixth volume of which was never finished).
UNDEN, BO dSTEN,
Swedish statesman
—
(b.
Karlstad, Swed., Aug. 2 5, 1886 d. Stockholm, Swed., Jan. IS, 1974). was one of the chief architects of Sweden's neutrality policy and served twice as foreign minister. From 1917 he taught civil law at the University of Uppsala, of which he was rector (1929-32). A member of the Social Democratic Party, he was elected to the Riksdag and in 1920 became minister of justice in Sweden's first Social Democratic government, under Karl Hjalmar Branting. .Adviser on international law to the Swedish Foreign Office from 1917. he became foreign minister (1924-26) in the third Branting government and later under Per Albin
Hansson and Tage Erlander (1945-62). He represented Sweden regularly at the general assemLeague of Nations in Geneva (192039) and also at those of the United Nations m blies of the
(1946-61). Undto
criticized the
Norway and Denmark into NATO and supported the idea of a Nordic political, economic, and defense community. llstment of
A., US. astrono. (b. Ghent, Belg.. Jan. 21. 1880—d. Tucson. Ariz.. Feb. 23, 1974), whose study of the bending of light from stars provided new evidence con-
firming Einstein's theory of relalivity. was ao acknowledged authority on twin stars, astero and comets. For almost 50 years he worked at Yerkes Observatory in Wisconsin, a facility op* erated by the University of Chicago. He thea moved to the University of Arizona where be charted the orbit of Nereid. Neptune's secomt satellite. During his long career he discovered 1 1 asteroids and 2 comets. '
VANOERBILT, CORNELIUS. JR., U.S. author and journalist (b. New York, N.Y., April 30, 1898— d. Miami Beach, Fla., July 7, 1974). repudiated his inherited social standing by publishing Farewell to Fifth Avenue (1935), a personal account of the great and wealthy he had known. Forgoing a life of easy opulence, turned to journalism, writing newspaper columns and interviewing celebrities. He published tabloids in San Francisco, Miami, and Los Angeles, all financial failures.
VUCHETICH, YEVGENY VIKTOROVICH,
Soviet sculptor (b. Dnepropetrovsk. Ukraine. Dec. 28. 1908—-d. Moscow. U.S.S.R., April 12, 1974), created the impressive Soviet war memorial in Treptow Park, East Berlin, and the Stalingrad
memorial on the Mamai Hill battlefield, which won him a Lenin Prize. He also made the "Let Us Beat Swords into Ploughshares" statue which stands before the
UN
building in
New York
WADIYAR, JAVA CHAMARAJENDRA,
City.
former
maharaja of Mysore (b. Mysore. India. July 18, 1919 d. Mysore. Sept. 23, 1974). was the last in line of a ruling dynasty established in the 14th
—
century. A philosopher, Sanskrit scholar. student of music and geography, he succeeded his uncle as maharaja of Mysore in 1940 and, support of the Allied war effort, formed a Mysore squadron of the RAF. After India's independence 1947 he signed Mysore's accession to in
Indian Union and when democratic introduced in 1949. he became first
rule was goveri He retained his title of maharaja until 1971 when the princely orders and their privy purses w abolished by the Indian government.
WANG MING
(Ch'en Shaq-yu),
Soviet-trained
Chinese Communist (b. Liu-an County, Anhwei, China, 1905— d. Moscow, U.S.S.R., March 27. was a prominent revolutionary in the 1 974 ) early 1930s who was serving on the Comintern Moscow when Mao Tse-lung emerged as party leader during the famous Long March (1934-35) to northwest China. On his return to China in 1937, Wang urged Mao to join forces with Chiang Kai-shek against the Japanese. Mao's refusal to ,
i
TORRES BODET, JAIME,
as
New York
follow these Moscow directives initialed a longterm ideological conflict with Wang that cul-
minated In Wang's 1969 denunciation of Mao at an anti-Communist dictator bcnl only on sellglorification.
Central Earl
Though
several times elected to iIm the Chinese Communill
Committee of
Warren
Party,
Wang was
progressively
removed
from
positions of influence. In 1954 he was divested of all party authority and retired to Moscow two
years later.
WARREN, EARL,
U.S. jurist and politician
Los Angeles,
March
Calif..
19,
(b.
IS91— d. Washing-
1974), was chief justice of the United States (1953-69) during an era of preceton. D.C., July 9.
dent-shattering interpretations of U.S. constitutional law. The historic importance of these Supreme Court decisions tended to overshadow Warren's highly successful earlier career as attorney general (1939-43) and governor (1943-53) of California, and his nomination (1948) as Republican vice-presidential candidate. The first major decision of the Warren court (1954) upset a doctrine that had prevailed since 189C). It unanimously declared that "separate but equal" educational facilities for blacks and whites were "inherently unequal" and therefore unconstitutional. The underlying principle quickly affected all forms of racial discrimination. In 1962 the court held that the Constitution, in accepting the separation of church and state, forbade the itation of state-composed prayers in public schools.
Regarding criminal law. the court ruled (1961) that illegally obtained evidence, however damagcould not be used in any U.S. court of law. It later (1966) declared that all arrested persons a right to counsel before being questioned, suspects had to be advised of that right, and that free counsel had to be provided to the poor. Moreover, a confession obtained in violation of these rights was inadmissible as evidence. In 1964 the court applied the principle of "one man, one vote" to state legislative districts, thereby necessitating a nationwide realignment of district boundaries. The chief justice remarked th characteristic simplicity that "legislators represent people, not acres or trees." Such decisions dismayed various segments of the population and sparked heated denunciations of the "Warren Revolution." Undeterred. Warren continued to pursue his vision of equal justice and fairness for
ford, Eng., Nov. 9, 1974), was eminent both as a composer and as a music historian who specialized in Byzantine notation, opera, and early 20th-century music. One of Schoenberg's pupils, he composed songs, ballets, six first operas, symphonies, and string quartets. From 1929 to 1938 he was professor of the history of music at Vienna University. At the time of Hitler's occupation he was invited to Oxford University, where he taught for the remainder of his life. He edited Monumenta Musicae Byzantinae and two volumes of the New Oxford History of Music. He was created commander, Order of the British Empire, in 1957.
WHEELER, SIR CHARLES (THOMAS),
British
Eng.. March Mayfield, Sussex, Eng., Aug. 22. 1974), was president of the Royal Academy (1956-66). His works adorn such places as India House. South Africa House, the Bank of England, and the Jellicoe memorial bust and fountain (in collaboration with the architect Sir Edwin Lutyens), all in London; Rhodes House. Oxford; and the RAF memorial, Malta. Sensitive smaller pieces include "The Infant Christ" and "Spring," both in the Tate Gallery, London. Wheeler's presisculptor 14,
(b. Codsall, Staffordshire.
1892— d.
dency of the Royal Academy was marked by the sale of its Leonardo da Vinci Cartoon for £800,000. which restored its finances. His autobiography, High Relief, appeared in 1968. U.S.
Army
en-
gineer (b. Peoria, 111., July 31. 1885- d. Washington, D.C.. Feb. 8, 1974). graduated from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point in 1911 before working on the Panama Canal. In time he directed engineering projects all over the world, rose to the rank of lieutenant general, received numerous citations, and was chief of the U,S. Army's Corps of Engineers from 1945 to 1949. During World War II he supervised construction of the Ledo Road running between India and China and in 1956 came out of retirement to oversee the clearing of 45 wrecks from the Suez Canal.
WINDGASSEN, WOLFGANG, German
operatic tenor (b. Annemasse, France. June 26, 1914— d. Stuttgart. W.Ger., Sept. 8, 1974), was a leading singer and producer at the Wurttemberg State Theatre, Stuttgart. He made his debut at the
nurder of Lee Harvey Oswald, the presumed The Warren Report, published one year declared that an exhaustive study failed to uncover any evidence of a group conspiracy.
Pforzheim Municipal Theatre in 1939 as Alvaro in La forza del destino. During 1945-72 he sang regularly at Stuttgart. His Bayreuth debut in 1951 was followed by appearances in major
tried to reassure a troubled
nation by appointing
assassin. later,
Wagnerian
WATSON, ARTHUR KITTREDGE,
U.S. business
Summit, N.J., April 23, 1919— d. Norwalk, Conn., July 26. 1974). was named vicepresident and a director of IBM World Trade Corp. when it was established as a new subsidiary of the IBM Corp. in 1949. During the next 20 years, using the slogan "World Peace Through World Trade," Watson increased IBM's foreign sales 50-fold to $2.5 billion annually. In 1954 was elected president of IBM World Trade and chairman in 1963. He resigned in 1970 to become U.S. ambassador to France, but two years returned to IBM as a director and member utive
fb.
of the board's executive
committee.
WEBB, DEUBERT) EUGENE,
U.S. real estate tycoon and sportsman (b. Fresno, Calif.. May 17, 1899— d. Rochester. Minn.. July 4. 1974). developed a small carpenter business into the Del E. Webb Corp. worth $100 million. His projects included planned communities for retired persons, business offices, and hotels that extended from Florida to Hawaii. Part of Webb's fortune derived from his co-ownership of the New York Yankees baseball team, which during an 18-year period (1947-64) won 15 American League pennants and 10 World Series championships.
WEBB, JAMES RUFFIN, Denver.
U.S. screenwriter (b. Colo., Oct. 4, 1909— d. Hollywood, 27, 1974), won an Academy Award the West Was Won of
Calif., Sept.
for
his
scenario
How
(1963) and counted among his other notable screenplay credits such movies as They Call Me Mr. Tibbs. Trapeze. The Big Country, Vera Cruz, and The Hawaiians. He was founder, president, and chairman of the International Writers Guild, chairman of the Writers Guild of America, founder and president of the Writers Guild Foundation,
and
board
chairman
of
Actors
Equity.
WELLESZ, EGON JOSEPH,
Austrian-born musi-
cologist (b. Vienna, Aus., Oct. 21,
18S5—d.
Ox-
Army and became
a
Communist Party member
1919. Surviving the 1937 purge of Red Army he was appointed commander of Soviet Mongolia and in August 1939 defeated the invading Japanese Army on the Khalkhin River. He served on Gen. S. K. Timoshenko's staff during the Soviet-Finnish war of 1939-40 and in
officers,
WHEELER, RAYMOND ALBERT,
ren chairman of a commission to investigate assassination of Pres. John F. Kennedy and
regardless of social status. In November 1963 Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson
all,
Georgy K. Zhukov
roles that included Parsifal, Siegfried. Lohengrin, Tannhauser, and Tristan. His New
York Metropolitan Opera debut took
place
in
1957. From 1972 he was director at the Stuttgart Opera.
WOODING, SIR HUGH (OLLIVIERE BERESFORD), Trinidadian judge
1904— d.
St.
(b. Trinidad, Jan. 14. Augustine, Trinidad, July 26, 1974).
was the first chief justice of Trinidad and Tobago (1962-63). He was called to the bar by the Middle Temple, London, in 1928, practiced in the Caribbean, and served as mayor of Port-of-Spain (1943-44). After retiring from the judiciary, he joined the boards of several international companies and became chancellor of the University of the West Indies and chairman of the Trinidad and Tobago Constitution Commission. He was knighted
in
1963.
WRIGHT, GEORGE ERNEST, U.S. archaeologist (b. Zanesville. O., Sept. 5. 1909— d. Jaffrey, N.H., Aug. 29, 1974). became an acknowledged expert on Near Eastern archaeology with the publication of Pottery of Palestine from the Earliest Times to the End of the Early Bronze Age (1937). He undertook major excavations in Palestine at Shechem (1956-74) and Gezer (1964-65), and in Cyprus at Idalion (1971-74). At Shechem a team under his direction uncovered artifacts dating as far back as 4000 B.C. In 1966 Wright was named head of American Schools of Oriental Research, which represents some ISO scholarly institutions. His name appears on such books as Shechem: The Biography of a Biblical City (1965).
ZHUKOV, GEORGY KONSTANTINOVICH,
mar-
Union (b. Strelkovka, Kaluga Province, Russia, Dec. 2, 1896 Moscow, d. U.S.S.R., June 18, 1974), the son of a peasant, became one of the greatest military commanders in World War II. Conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army in 1915, he was twice decorated for bravery. After the Revolution he joined the Red shal of the Soviet
—
forces in
was
later appointed
commander
tary district with the rank of
of the Kiev miligeneral. In
army
February 1941 he was brought to Moscow as chief of the general staff and deputy commissar of defense. In October 1941 he succeeded Timoshenko as commander of the army group that successfully defended Moscow. A year later he directed the defense of Stalingrad and soon afterward coordinated the operations that in January 1943 resulted in lifting the siege of Leningrad. Created a marshal of the Soviet Union, he planned the great oh'ensives of 1943-44 of the 1st and 2nd Belorussian and 1st and 2nd Ukrainian army groups. In November 1944 he took command of the 1st Belorussian Army Group and pushed on through Warsaw toward Berlin. On the night of May S-9, 1945, in Berlin-Karlshorst, he was one of the four Allied commanders who accepted the German surrender. He was then appointed Soviet governor and commander in chief in Eastern Germany. In March 1946, however, he was recalled to Moscow where he was made commander of Soviet land forces, and later, through Stalin's jealousy, he was sent to Odessa as military district commander. After Stalin's death, he was appointed first deputy minister of defense, and in 1955 he attended the Warsaw conference where the Warsaw Pact was concluded. In July 1957 Zhukov became the first regular army officer to be named a full member of the Presidium of the Communist Party, but months later N. S. Khrushchev dismissed him from both the ministry Lenand the Presidium for having "violated inist principles" by trying to reduce the influence of political commissars among the troops. Following Khrushchev's removal, Zhukov made a formal reappearance at the 1965 VE-Day celebrations in Moscow. In 1966 he was awarded the Order of Lenin. His autobiography was published in 1969. .
ZWICKY, FRITZ,
.
.
Swiss astronomer, physicist, and propulsion expert (b. Varna. Bulg.. Feb. 14, Pasadena, Calif., Feb. 8. 1974). made valuable contributions to the understanding of supernovas, stars that for a short time are far brighter than normal. He believed that the explosions of supernovas are totally different from those of ordinary novas, occurring only two or three times every 1,000 years in our galaxy. He contended that in supernovas most of the matter of the star is dissipated, leaving little or nothing behind. To confirm his theories, Zwicky studied neighbouring galaxies and between 1937 and 1941, while working at the California Institute of Technology, discovered 18 supernovas; only 12 others had been previously reported. In the early 1930s Zwicky contributed substantially to the physics of solid state, gaseous ionization, and thermodynamics. In 1943 he joined Aerojet Engineering Corp. in Azusa, Calif., where he developed some of the earliest jet engines, including the JATO (jet-assisted takeoff) units used to launch heavy-laden aircraft from short runways. jet
1898- d.
;
price of grains and
oil,
the sharp debate over uncon-
amnesty for war resisters and deserters, tenMiddle East, threats of nuclear proliferation and an escalated arms race these were but a few of the issues to which pacifist and nonviolent
ditional
sions in the
Oman
—
An independent
sultanate,
Oman
occupies the south-
ei-lirn part of the Arabian Peninsula and is bounded he United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, the Gulf Ml
Oman, and
country
lies to
separated from
the Arabian Sea.
A
small part of the
Oman and is by the United Arab Emirates. Area
(213,380 sq.km.). Pop. (1973 est.): 700,000 to 750,000, Cap.: Muscat (pop., 1973 est., 15,000). Largest city: Matrah (pop., 1973 est., 18,000). Language: Arabic. Religion: Muslim. Sultan
Qabus ibn Said.
In 1974 Oman's tially,
for social change responded in a year that witnessed striking changes in the sociopolitical land-
scape.
The
the north of the rest of it
82.000 sq.mi.
in 1974,
movements
oil
to 12.
revenues increased substan-
but urgently needed development was held up
when funds were diverted
to the struggle in the
Dhofar
The
moved
the
Bulletin acted in response to the failure of
of
arms
new generations
systems, India's
Gulf IPFLO.AG), supported by Yemen (Aden) and the U.S.S.R. Sultan Qabus' forces claimed progress in the pacification of Dhofar, but clashes continued, especially in the Sarfait area north of Salalah. The
the
defended their use on the ground that Arab states had refused his requests for aid. At the Arab League foreign ministers' meeting in Tunis on March 25-28 a mediation mission with representatives from Tunisia, Algeria, Kuwait, Egypt, and Syria was formed; in May it visited Oman but not PFLOAG's "liberated areas." PFLO.\G later refused to send a delegation to an Arab League meeting in Cairo that was considering Oman. Oman-Kuwait relations suffered because of Kuwait's financial aid to Yemen (Aden). In July Oman signed an agreement with Petroleum
Scientists
the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. to achieve agreement on significant strategic
region of the southwest against the forces of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman and the Arabian
presence of some 1,500 artillery-supported Iranian troops fighting alongside the sultan's British-officered Army was denounced by PFLOAG. Sultan Qabus
Atomic
Bulletin of the
minute hand of the "Doomsday Clock" on its cover three minutes closer to midnight in the September 1974 issue. The clock, which registered the editors' view of the degree to which the world was endangered by nuclear devastation, was shifted to nine minutes
development weapons and delivery
limitations, the
of nuclear
first
explosion of a nuclear device,
the prospective introduction of nuclear reactors into
Middle East, and the increased threat of nuclear
terrorism and sabotage resulting from the proliferation of nuclear energy systems.
Until midsummer much of the energy of the U.S. peace and antiwar movements was focused on the
impeachment debate. Whereas most discussion
cen-
tred on domestic abuses of power, peace leaders also
stressed the secret
on
bombing
civil liberties in
war
of
Cambodia and
general and harrassment of anti-
activists in particular as additional
the formal
attacks
impeachment and
trial
grounds for
of President N'ixon.
Though considerable minority opinion in the House Judiciary Committee supported these viewpoints, the were not included in the committee's formal findings, and the issues became clouded after latter charges
Nixon
resigned.
Development (Oman) to increase Oman's participation in the company from 25 to 60% in line with that of other oil-producing states. Annual revenue from Oman's average oil production of 290.000 bbl. a day was estimated at $575 million. A Canadian company reported the discovery of large copper deposits (peter Mansfield) in Lasail Valley in the north.
Peace leaders feared that, in the backwash of political disenchantment evident after Watergate, such issues as the need to dismantle the "imperial presidency," to recast campaign financing, and to make governmental representatives truly accountable would be neglected just when their implementation seemed possible. While Congress was beginning to reassert its role in foreign policy, peace advocates pointed to the many steps required to restore true balance between
[978.B.4.a]
the dominant executive and the legislature.
The
syste-
matic clandestine involvement of the Central Intelligence .Agency in financing acts that "destabilized" the
O.MAN
.\llende regime in Chile
Education. (1971-72) Primary, pupils 15,809, teach-
ber 1973 was only one example of congressional over-
ers 445.
Finance and Trade. Monetary
unit:
rial
Omani.
with (Sept. 16, 1974) an official rate of 0.345 rial to U.S. $1 (free rale of 0.08 rial = £1 sterling). Budget (1972 est.): revenue 52 million rials; expenditure c. 80 million rials. Foreign trade (1972): imports 51 million rials; exports 50 million rials. Import sources:
Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development:
Commercial and Trade Policies; Development, Economic and Social
sec
Japan 10%; India 6%; Australia 6%; The Netherlands 5%: China 5%. Export destinations: Japan 32%; France 19%; Denmark 11%; Sweden 9%; Spain 8%: Norway 7%:
United Arab Emirates
21%; U.K.
217
I
time, deficit operations forced a rise in canal
tolls.
Torrijos and his associates were willing to tap any
republic of Central America, bisected
Zone,
appeared from
nomic problems were insistently pressing upon the Torrijos regime, and commissions were organized to soothe the friction between labour and management,
first
Panama
as half of their domestic
savings to finance low-cost housing. Protests ensued from business and investment interests and opposition
new apartment
in
Omar
Torrijos
1974 seemed to be evident
houses, schools, higher living
U.S. Secretary of Slate Henry Kissinger and Panamanian Foreign Minister Juan Antonio Tacl< sign a declaration of principles on negotiations for a new treaty governing the Canal Zone (right).
foreign sources of help that were available. Late in October 1973 a subsidiary of the First National City Bank of New York had provided a loan with which to refinance the foreign debt. Another loan from the World Bank was granted to finance electrification projects, and funds from the Inter-American Development Bank, intended for the Darien section of the Inter-American Highway, were diverted to other segments of that road. Early in the year, under the leadership of Torrijos and Pres. Jose Figueres of Costa Rica, seven Central and South American nations Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecusdor formed the Union of Banana Exporting Countries (UPEB). On March 10 all but Guatemala and
—
—
Nicaragua announced increases in the export price of bananas ranging from 1-2^ cents per pound, effective April 30. The countries, which accounted for 66% of the world's banana exports, stated that the increase was necessary to offset their soaring petroleum im-
and
land, water,
air
spaces needed to operate and de-
fend the canal but was to surrender certain unused tracts of land in the Canal Zone. Panama was assured
company. Standard Fruit and Steamship Corp., threatened to boycott banana shipments from Costa Rica. Also, the head of the Banana
new or enlarged canal capacity. A more equitable sharing of the monetary benefits of canal operation was included. This new understanding met with immediate and forceful hostility in both houses of the U.S. Congress. The chief point of op-
Handlers' Council of the International Longshore-
position was the eventual surrender of sovereignty
men's Association threatened the UPEB heads of state with a boycott of all of their shipments of bananas to the U.S. But these statements, along with later actual reductions by Standard Fruit of imports from Honduras and Costa Rica, only appeared to
over the Canal Zone to Panama. Without that control, it was contended, defense of the canal would be im-
port
bills.
One major U.S.
fruit
strengthen the resolve of the its
decision.
UPEB
The administrative
cartel to stand
by
headquarters
of
UPEB
was expected to be established in Panama City. Another possible source to bolster the Panamanian economy was an increased Canal Zone annuity, but this payment was an inseparable part of the longstanding negotiations between Panama and the U.S. concerning Canal Zone sovereignty. Washington dispatched the experienced diplomat and U.S. ambassador at large Ellsworth Bunker, and for some six weeks in late 1973 and early 1974 he and Foreign Minister Juan Antonio Tack engaged in conversations prepara-
Henry Panama City on Feb-
tory to the visit of U.S. Secretary of State
in the planning for
possible.
A
resolution introduced in the Senate calling
for continuation of U.S. sovereignty indicated sufficient
support to defeat a treaty, but Bunker and
Tack continued
periodic talks.
In the latter part of August,
Panama
reversed
its
by reestablishing diplomatic relations with Cuba. The move had significance as a spur to the Organization of American States to lift its sanctions and possibly to the U.S. to soften policy of isolating Fidel Castro
its
quarantine of the island republic.
(almon
r.
Wright)
[974.B.l.f]
Papua New Guinea
treaty regulating the
Papua New Guinea is an internally self-governing state composed of the Australian external territory of Papua and the Australian-administered UN Trust
Canal Zone. It provided for the abrogation of the treaty of 1903 and for the negotiation of a new treaty to endure not in perpetuity but for a fixed term of years. The U.S. was to continue to have the rights to
New Guinea. It is situated in the southwest Pacific and comprises the eastern part of the island of New Guinea, the islands of the Bismarck, Trobriand, Woodlark, Louisiade, and D'Entrecas-
Kissinger. Kissinger arrived in
ruary
7 to sign the
declaration of principles that would
serve as a guideline for a
new
Papua
New Guinea
and defending the canal and
a share in administering
Territory of
teaux groups, and parts of the Solomon Islands, inis separated from Australia Area: 178,260 sq.mi. (461,690
cluding Bougainville. It
by the Torres
[AMA ition. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 319,124, leach0.578; secondary, pupils 74.4S4, teachers 3,440; vocational, pupils 30,725, teachers 1,701 teacher training, students 6,391, teachers 259; higher, students 21,616,_ teaching staff 705. Finance. Monetary unit: balboa, at par with the U.S. dollar, with a free rate (Sept. 16, 1974) of 2.31 balboas to £1 sterling. Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange: (Dec. 1973) U.S. $2,188,400,000: (Dec. 1972) U.S. $933.6 million. Budget (1973 est.): revenue 229 million balboas; expenditure 228.2 million balboas. Gross national product: (1972) 1.266.000.000 balboas; (1971) 1.125.700,000 balboas. Money supply (deposits only): (Dec. 1973) 184 million balboas; (Dec. 1972) 164.7 million balboas. Cost of living (Panama City; 1970 100): (June 1974) 133; (June 1973) 113. Foreign Trade. (1973) Imports 488.480.000 balboas: exports 132,660.000 balboas. Net service receipts from Canal Zone (1972) 127.5 million balboas. Main import sources: U.S. 35%; Ecuador 10%; Venezuela 7%; Japan 7%. Main export destinations: U.S. 45%; West Germany 15%; Italy 12%; The Netherlands 7%. Main exports: bananas 43%; petroleum products ;
=
18%; shrimps 13%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1972) 7,016 km. Motor vehicles in use (1971): passenger 50,200; commercial (including buses) 16,200. Rail-
ways (1972) 720 km. Shipping (1973): merchant ves100 gross tons and over 1,692 (mostly owned by U.S. and other foreign interests) gross tonnage 9,568,954. Telephones (Dec. 1972) 100,000. Radio receivers
sels
;
(Dec. 1972) 250,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1972) 200,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; 1972 in parentheses): rice c. 130 (125); sugar, raw value 81 (80); bananas (1972) c. 920, (1971) c. 940; oranges (1972) c. 84. (1971) 83; coffee 5 (5); cocoa (1972) 0.5. (1971) O.S. Livestock (in 000; 1972-73): cattle c. 1.350; pigs 188; horses c. 165. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1972): petroleum products 3,940; cement (1970) 181; manulacturedgas (cu.m.) 16,000; electricity (kw-hr.: 1970) 956,000.
Strait.
2,563,310. Cap. and largest Port Moresby (pop., 1971, 76,500). Language: English (official), Papuan and Melanesian languages, and Pidgin English, the lingua franca. Religion
sq.km.). Pop. (1973 est.)
:
city:
(1966): Roman Catholic 31.2%; Lutheran 27.3%; indigenous 7%. Chief minister in 1974, Michael T.
Somare. After attaining self-governing status on Dec. 1973, the territory of Papua
New
1,
Guinea entered a
transition period at the beginning of 1974 before at-
tempting to achieve
full
independence from Australia.
The inexperienced indigenous government headed by Chief Minister Michael T. Somare {see Biography) seemed to be dealing effectively with the complex problems that faced the undeveloped island nation. According to Minister for Defense and Foreign Affairs Albert Maori Kiki (see Biography the new administration was giving priority to "bringing the people together." By October, however, hopes to achieve independence were dampened by poHtical strife and long parliamentary arguments over the proposed constitution. The independence day target date of Dec. 1, 1974, was abandoned. Ever present intertribal tensions continued, and in an attempt to impart a sense of national unity to the 1,000 tribes, which speak more than 600 mutually unintelligible languages, public buildings throughout the pg^gma Canal Zone: territory were plastered with posters reading "Kantri see Dependent States; )
,
Bilong Yumi," the phonetic spelling of the English "Country belong you me" meaning "our country"
—
T^-j ^u in Pidgin, the
Somare's
T-
1-
I-
L
J
English-based
common
government attempted
to
placate
Panama Paper Industry: see Forestry:
1
language.
Industrial
Production and the
Technology
Paraguay was successfully playing one against the However, some elements criticized the Itaipu agreement on the ground that Paraguay had sold surplus power to Brazil at an unacceptably low price. On the domestic front, soaring oil and wheat prices
544
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Paraguay
other.
Education. (1972) Primary, pupils 22 7,699, teachers 7 381- secondary, pupils 24,335, teachers 1,079; vocational, pupils 6,015, teachers 389; teacher training, students 1,936, teachers 213; higher (University of Papua New Guinea; 1972), students 1,245, leaching 136.
staff
„
.
led to a massive increase in the cost of living, pro-
voking the country's only legal labour union, the Confederacion Paraguaya de Trabajadores, to request a wage increase for the first time in many years. The main source of protest, however, was the traditional
,
unit: Australian dolfree lar, wilh (after devaluation on Sept. 24, 1974) a i\ sterling). rate of A$0.76 to U.S. $1 (A$1.77 Budget (1972-73) balanced at A$216,166,000 (in-
Finance and Trade. Monetary
=
A$78, 180,000 grant by Australian government). Foreign trade (1971-72): imports A$2S6,386,000- exports A$127, 181,000. Import sources: Australia 55%; Japan 15%; U.S. i%. Export destinations: Australia 42%; Japan 17%; West Germany 147c; U.K. 10%; U.S. 8%. Main exports: copper ores 18%; coffee 16%; cocoa 9%; copra 7%: timber 6%; machinery 5%; transport equipment 5%; copra oil 5%. Transport. Shipping (1973): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 56; gross tonnage 27,827. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; 1972 in parentheses): cocoa c. 29 (c 31); coffee c. 30 (1971)-142; rubber c. 6 (c. 30); copra (1972) 136. 1971-72) 5,500, (1970-71) (S); timber (cu.m.; 5,100. Livestock (in 000; March 1972): cattle 95; pigs 8; chickens 210. Industry. Production (in 000; troy oz.; 1971): gold 23; silver 17; copper (metric tons; 1971-72) 141.
cluding
alliance of students ants.
to local
prices for
autonomy. Other secessionist drives
still
of controversial constitutional quesa wider split in the dominant party of the
number
and
the in
University
of
sermons by the
principal exports, notably beef. In 1973
was achieved, compared
—
Abaijah.
tions,
at
with $3.6 million the previous year. However, while the value of exports rose 47.3%, their volume rose
in Papua, one of which was led by the territory's leading feminist and only female member of the 100-seat House of Assembly, Mrs. Josephine
At the end of the year the House of Assembly
its
a trade surplus of $5 million
occurred
faced a
briefly
archbishop of that city, but calm was restored when about 100 demonstrating students and peasants were rounded up and handed over to military tribunals. Paraguay continued to benefit from high world
produces most of the territory's main export, copper) as well as the prosperous agricultural tribes on New Britain Island by offering them what would
amount
and clergy on behalf of the peas-
flared
and were supported
.Asuncion
movements on Bougainville Island Cwhich
separatist
Protests
—Pangu Pati—was envisioned.
national coalition
a disturbing situation in view of the exonly 4.9% pected leveling-off of meat and other commodity gross prices. Nevertheless, the achievement of a real domestic product growth rate of 7% in 1973 was
well above
the
development plan target of 5.5%.
Moreover, while the worid energy crisis impaired the external position in the short run, the country's longterm prospects as an energy-producer were consider-
(anne parsons)
ably enhanced. [974.F.3]
PARAGUAY Education. (1973) Primar>', pupils 459,393, teachers (including preprimary) 15,871; secondary and vocapupils 66,746, teachers 6.829: teacher training r (1972), students 1,475, teachers (1968) 1,021; high, students 9,719. teaching staff 1,231. Finance. Monetary unit: guarani, with an offi (i: rate (Sept. 16, 1974) of 126 guaranies to U.S. $1 £1 sterling). Gold, SDKs, :r rate of 289 guaranies tional
:
=
exchange, central bank: (June 1974) 1 $71,260,000; (June 1973) U.S. $43,810,000. Bu.l: (1974 est.): revenue 37,198,000,000 guaranies: penditurc 37,051,000.000 guaranies. Gross nalin: product: (1972) 94.950,000,000 guaranies; (19:: 82,110,000.000 guaranies. Money supply: (June 1": 11,907.000,000 guaranies: (June 1972) 8,318,000, ICi guaranies. Cost of living (Asuncion; 1970 (June 1974) 163; (June 1973) 129. Foreign Trade. (1973) Imports 15,750,800. Imp. guaranies. guaranies: exports 15,686.300,000 sources: Argentina 26%; U.S. 17%; West Germ; 11%; U.K. 7%. Export destinations: West Germ. 18%: U.S. 13%; Argentina 13%: The Netherl.r foreign
Paraguay
•
landlocked republic of South America, Paraguay is bounded by Brazil, Argentina, and Bolivia. Area: 157.048 sq.mi. (406,752 sq.km.). Pop. (1974 est.):
A
Cap. and largest city:
2,584.000.
Asuncion
(pop..
1972, 387,676). Language: Spanish (official), though is the language of the majority of the peo-
Guarani ple.
Religion:
Roman
Catholic.
President in 1974,
Gen. Alfredo Stroessner. President Stroessner's fifth five-year term of office
entered
its
stability.
second year
in
an atmosphere of political
Effective opposition
was virtually absent,
and the president remained firmly in control with the support of the Colorado Party and the armed forces. Rumours of plans to manipulate the constitution so as to make Stroessner president for life had yet to be borne out. However, Stroessner's eldest son, Gus-
was increasingly brought into the limelight, indicating that potential problems of succession were tavo,
Payments and Reserves, International:
Exchange and Payments,
see
International
Peace Movements: Pacifism and
see
Nonviolent
Movements Penology: see Prisons and Penology Pentecostal Ctiurches: Religion
see
constniction
of
a
3.3
million-kw.
plant
at
Yacyreta-Apipc, also on the Parana River. Later both countries agreed to provide funds and assistance for a
number
U.K. 7%; Belgium-Luxembourg 5%. Main meat 32%; timber 9%; cotton 9%; tob.i
6%:
oilseeds
5%.
Transport and Communications. Roads (1° 11,225 km. Motor vehicles in use (1970): passcii. 7,400; commercial (including buses) 10,000. Railw:r (1970) 498 km.; traffic (1968) 28 million passenkm., freight 22 million net ton-km. Navigable inl:i waterways (including Paraguay-Parani river sysl' 1970) c. 3,000 km. Telephones (Dec. 1972) 21, Radio receivers (Dec. 1972) 175,000. Television ceivers (Dec. 1972) 52,000. Agriculture. Production (in 000: metric tons; 1": 1972 in parentheses): corn 300 (209): cassava (1"" c. c. 1,350. (1971) 1.690; sweet potatoes (1972) (1971) 138; soybeans (1972) 128, (1971) 74; li, nuts 25 (17); dry beans c. 36 (c. 36); sugar, ri* tomatoes c. 47 c. 61; value (1972) c. 66, (1971) (45): oranges (1972) 177, (1971) 197; mandarin oranges and tangerines (1972) 37, (1971) 31; bananM (1972) c. 250, (1971) c. 250: tobacco 24 (18); palm kernels c. 21 (c. 17); cotton, lint 25 (IS); beef and veal (1972) c. 115. (1971) C. 111. Livestock (in 000; 1972-73): cattle c. 5,966; sheep c. 335; pigs c. 540: horses c. 710; chickens (1971-72) c. 6.400. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 19cement 75; petroleum producu 231; cotton yarn electricity (kw-hr.) 273,000. 1
joint project with Brazil for the 10.7 million-
kw. Itaipu hydroelectric plant, embarked on in 1973, had led many people to assume that plans for cooperation with Paraguay's other large neighbour. Argentina, would be shelved. However, in December of that year a similar agreement was reached with Argentina for
ports:
8%;
•
being kept in mind.
The
—
of development projects,
and
it
seemed
that
1
banks and finance, insurance, and shipping comand to assume total control of the mining and petroleum sectors. The campaign against the opposition press had been stepped up, and on July 27 all national daily newspapers were handed over to be run by government-appointed committees, a move that provoked violent right-wing demonstrations in Lima and earlier precipitated the resignation of the minister and commander-in-chief of the Navy, ViceAdm. Luis Vargas Caballero, and two other high-ranking naval officers and administrators. Earlier in the year several foreign (mainly U.S.) companies were nationalized, including the Cerro de Pasco mining operations; Peru finally agreed to pay $150 million in compensation for U.S.-owned enterprises (see Latin-Ameeican Affairs), including the Cerro Corp., W, R. Grace & Co., and various fish meal companies. In April the government approved a law establishing "social ownership" enterprises, with capital to be supplied by the state and full participation by workers in management and profit sharing. Toward the end of the year several small companies were set up under the terms of the new law. The government hoped that this new sector would eventually dominate the economy. Meanwhile, rapid inflation and serious lines,
panies,
Peru A
republic on the west coast South America, Peru is bounded by Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, and of
the Pacific Ocean. Area: 496,-
224 sq.mi. (1,285,215 sq.km.). Pop. (1974 est.): 14,370,000, including approximately
46%
52%
whites and mestizos and
Indians. Cap. and largest city:
Lima (metro,
area pop., 1972, 3,317,648). Language: Spanish; In-
Quechuan or Aymara. Religion Roman Catholic. President of the military government in Alvarado. Velasco 1974, Juan The military government of Peru continued to fol-
dians speak
:
low a middle road between capitalism and Compolitically, survived well during 1974 despite a few setbacks. The policy of nationalization was a key issue. In July, with the publication of the
munism and,
Inca Plan
(the original program of the revolution
October 1968), President Velasco emphasized his government's intention ultimately to nationalize airof
food shortages affected daily the private sector of the
Education. (1970) Primary, pupils 2,562,695, teach64.004; secondary, pupils 547,316. teachers 21.863; vocational, pupils 127,207, teachers 6,333; teacher training, students 18,000, teachers 1,075; higher (including 23 universities), students 124,700, ers
teaching staff 13,900.
Finance. Monetary unit: sol. with a principal official exchange rate (Sept. 16, 1974) of 38.70 soles to U.S. $1 and a free rate of 43.38 soles to U.S. $1 (100.50 soles = £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs. and foreign exchange, central bank; (Jan. 1974) U.S. $477.9 million; (Jan. 1973) U.S. $442.2 million. Budget (1972 actual); revenue 45.112.000.000 soles; expenditure 47,740,000.000 soles. Gross domestic product: (1972) 291.2 billion soles; (1971) 261.2 billion soles. Money supply: (Dec. 1973) 71.590.000,000 soles; (Dec. 1972) 56,220.000,000 soles. Cost of living (Lima and Callao; 1970 = 100); (May 1974) 145; (May 1973) 124.
Foreign
Trade. Imports (1972) 30,633,000,000 soles; exports (1973) 40,192,000,000 soles. Import sources: U.S. 30%; West Germany 12%; Japan 8%; Colombia 5%. Export destinations (1972): U.S. 33%; Japan 14%; West Germany 11%; The Netherlands 7%; China 5%. Main exports: copper 27%; fish meal
13%;
zinc
cotton
6%;
9%;
8%; 6%.
sugar
iron ore
silver
7%;
coffee
6%;
Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) 52,102 km. (including ISO km. expressways). Motor passenger 256.400: commercial 136,100. Railways: (1972) 2,100 km.; traffic (1970) 248 million passenger-km., freight 610 million net ton-km. Air traffic (1972); 355 million passengerkm.: freight 16.1 million net ton-km. Shipping (1973): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 663; gross tonnage 448,325. Telephones (Dec. 1972) 269,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1972) 2 million. Television rec.ivcrs (Dec. 1972) 410.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; >;-' in parentheses): rice 427 (436); corn c. 645 lis')); wheat 149 (140); barley c. 165 (170); potatoes 1.888 (1.712); sweet potatoes (1972) 173, (1971) 168; tomatoes 69 (55); onions 177 (162); cassava (1972) 479, (1971) 482; dry beans c. 64 (c. 60); sugar, raw value 923 (922); grapes c. 62 (c. :l; oranges (1972) 236, (1971) 243: lemons (1972) vehicles in use (1972):
I
10.
(1971) 75; coffee (1972) 72, (1971) 71; cot(1971)
m, lint c. 65 (86): fish catch (1972) 4,768, Ml. '06. Livestock (in 000; 1972-73): cattle c.
4,360; 2,070; goats (1971-72) 1,946; 685; poultry (1971-72) 24,363. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1972): crude oil 3.194; coal (1971) 92; natural gas (cu.m.) 480.000: cement 1,428; iron ore (metal content) 5,931; pig iron 171; steel 192; lead 86: zinc 66; copper 39; tungsten concentrates (oxide content; 1970) 0.7; gold (troy oz.) 90; silver (troy oz.) c. 40.000; fish meal 900; petroleum products 4,570; electricity (kw-hr.; 1971) 5,949,000. shiep 17.320; pigs horses
life.
Increasing state participation caused confidence in
PERU
(1971-72)
c.
c.
economy
to fall,
and invest-
ment, except by the state, remained at a low level throughout the year. Nevertheless, foreign investors were not discouraged, and large foreign capital inflows were recorded. Substantial amounts were provided by the foreign oil companies, and investment and re-
by other governments, commercial banks, and international financial institutions. Investment capital was provided, in particular, for the Cuajone copper-mine project and for the ambitious Majes irrigation project, in which an international consortium of firms participated. The large financing loans were granted
capital inflows helped to
make
the external sector the
economy's dominant feature. Although the volume of exports did not increase to any great extent, their value rose because of high world commodity prices, from a record level of $1,119,000,000 in 1973 to over $1.4 billion, with mineral exports accounting for
more
than $700 million. During the year carefully controlled anchoveta fishing was resumed, with the total catch limited to about four million tons in an effort to allow stocks to return to normal.
Peru's serious foreign debt problem was expected to
be of a short-term nature as export earnings from
minerals and petroleum would increase substantially
by the end of the decade when new copper mines would begin producing (e.g., Cuajone and Cerro Verde, in particular) and large volumes of petroleum would become available. Eighteen foreign oil companies signed contracts for exploration and development of petroleum in the Peruvian Amazon, based on a production split between the government and the companies. Several wells proved successful and prospects were excellent. Peru was currently producing about 60-70% of its total oil requirements but hoped to become a substantial net exporter by the end of the decade. During the year the government arranged about $600 million in financing principally by Japan and Iran and the banks of a number of other coun-
—
tries
—
to cover the cost of construction of a 530-mi.
trans-Andean pipeline that would carry
Amazon Taken
oil fields
as a
oil
from the
to the Pacific coast.
whole domestic economic growth was
545
Peru
slow, largely as a result of poor performance in agri-
Philately and
Numismatics
and the government pressed ahead with an expansion program at the Chimbote steelworks and with development of the Nazca integrated steelworks. One of the most successful industries was shipbuilding, and during the year major contracts were won from Cuba, Ecuador, (franxes kirkham) and France. culture. Steel production increased rapidly,
[974. D. 2]
Philately
and Numismatics
Philately. Aided by the ternational
ant in
Designs for the new dollar, half-dollar,
and quarter coins to be issued in honour of the U.S. bicentennial.
flight from currency, the instamp market remained extremely buoy-
1974, with considerably increased turnovers
reported by major philatelic auctioneers in Europe and America. Among the most interesting realizations were L24.500 for a block of 12 Lombardy-Venetia lO-centes black (Robson Lowe) and $75,000 for a Japanese stamp of 1871 with an inverted centre (Waverly Trading Co. sale in Tokyo). Four notable international exhibitions were held. The venues and major award winners were: New Delhi. India— B. Pasti, Italy (Grand Prix d'Honneur), M. A. Bojanowicz, U.K. (Grand Prix International), and D. H, Jatia, India (Grand Prix National); Jerusalem Louis Abrams, South Africa (Grand Prix International), and Hans G. Sladowsky,
—
West Germany (Grand Prix Xationan Basel, Switz. Cervera, Spain (Grand Prix d'Honneur), Anton Jerger, Austria (Grand Prix International), and Rolf Rothmayr, Switzerland (Grand Prix National Stockholm John 0. Griffiths, L'.K. (Grand Prix d'Honneur), Simone Rubeli, Switzerland (Grand ;
—Luis
I
—
;
Prix International; the
first
time a
woman
collector
had achieved this honour), and Julius L. Spencer, U.S. (Grand Prix National). Other honours included: Lichtenstein Medal of the Collectors Club (New York), Ernest A. Kehr; Royal Philatelic Society Medal (infrequent award), Ewart Gcrrish; Philatelic Congress Medal (U.K.), Marjorie M. Humble; Reginald M. Phillips Gold Medal (every fifth year for work in British stamp designing), T. Stuart Rose; and the Gold Medal of the Postal History Society of America to .Man W. Robertson. U.K., for his writings on maritime postal history. New appointments included John 0. Griffiths as honorary secretary of the Royal Philatelic Society, London; George Beal as editor of the Philatelic Magazine, London; and Hans Hunziker. Switzerland, as president of the International Association of Philatelic Experts.
For the first time since its foundation in 1909, the annual Philatelic Congress of Great Britain was held outside
the
of
part
the
U.K.
—
25th
Enghien-les-Bains,
at
anniversar>'
Paris
celebrations
of
—
as
the
British-based France and Colonies Philatelic Society.
The
year's
new
signatories
to
the
Roll of Distin-
guished Philatelists were Jacques Fromaiget and Ray-
mond
Salles. both of France, and Patrick C. Pearson and George South of the U.K. During the year Stanley Gibbons International Ltd. moved into continental Europe by acquiring the Briefmarkenhaus Merkur of Frankfurt am Main, W.Ger.. long-established auctioneers and dealers in classic issues. The new Canadian Postal Museum was formally opened in Ottawa in September, and a fund was launched at the Jerusalem international stamp exhibition to found a postal
museum in Israel. The controversy over
the practicality of self-ad-
by the issue of by Gibraltar and the experi-
hesive stamps was further stimulated a booklet of such stamps
mental issue of a
stamp by
the U.S.
10-cent
The
self-adhesive
Christmas
U.S. Postal Service held three
seminars to consider the extension of philatelic facilities through marketing by the Postal Service. Great Britain
announced the experimental
1975, of Office
issue, in January charity-cum-postage stamps: the Post
its first
would
sell
the
stamp
at
U
pence above postal
value and an independent committee would advise on the distribution of the money among recognized charitable organizations.
Two omnibus
were
issues
launched; one, with worldwide support, for the centenary of the Universal Postal Union and the other (largely confined to the British
Commonwealth
ter-
centenary of Sir Winston Churchill's birth in 1874. Unlike previous omnibus issues, both included a wide variety of designs by different artists. The American Philatelic Society published The Yucatan ASair: The Work of Raotil Ch. dc Thtm, Philatelic Counterfeiter, a record of the forged overprints and postmarks made by de Thuin in Mexicoj ritories) for the
before the in 1967.
APS
bought
his business
and closed
(KENNETH
F.
it
down
chapman)
was the selecNumismatics. The tion of the three winning designs for use on the U.S. bicentennial quarters, half-dollars, and dollars, and' the striking of one each of these coins. The winners highlight of 1974
547
were: Austria (125th anniversary of the federal poViennese International Garden Exposition), (nine denominations from 1 cent to
lice;
Philippines
The Bahamas
B$5), Bangladesh, Belize, Canada (centennial of the dollar), Chile, Dominican Republic, Czech(composer Bedrich Smetana), East Germany (physicist Johann P. Reis; philosopher Immanuel Kant), Haiti (1973 coins), Iceland (two silver coins for the 1,100th anniversary of settlement), Indonesia, Israel (David Ben-Gurion, 1886-1973), Malawi (tenth year of independence), Norway, Philippines (25th anniversary of its central bank), Poland,
Winnipeg oslovakia
Western Samoa, and West Germany. Canada issued the first 4 coins (dated 1976) of a 2S-coin set in observance of the 1976 Olympic Games to
be held
many
Montreal. Private mints issued
in
commemorative medals, including ones honouring Pablo Casals, Sigmund Freud, composer Charles Ives, Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman, the bicentennial of the arrival of the Shakers in America, and the centennial of the invention of the telephone.
(GLENN [4S2.D.2.b;
B.
SMEDLEy)
72S.B.4.g]
Philippines A new
series of postage
stamps issued
in
Situated in the western Pacific Ocean
Great
Britain marl0
Lesotho
198.500 300,948 37,000 63.360 67.293 111,074 77,200 17,479,300
12,482 1,131
2,185 13,249 6,890 15,424 39,787 38,094
320 22,481
19,213 1,590 6,217 2,211,200
1,470 2,257
226,444 45,747 476,822 398,000 787 177,117 308,642 489,000 356,669
203.6
Czechoslovaltia
Denmark Faeroe Islands (Den.) Finland
Si.
226 25,332 71,498 13,893
32,375 11,782 42,823 75 49,374 16,629 1.399 130,129
129.1 231.1 828.1
201.2 1.653.3 295.1 301.1
Heler-o (U.K.)
Sao Tom6 and
Prin
1,333.3 175.7 290.0
Senegal Seychellei (U.K.)
27,925 246,300 471,445
Spaniih Sahara (Sp.)
14,372 2,143 5.509
Ugondo
continued jrom page 555
For two decades the wealthier developed nations of North America, Oceania, and Europe had been growing slowly while rates of increase in the poor countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America continued to rise. Awareness of the problem led to the world's first major population conference, an 11-day series of debates and discussions sponsored by the UN in Bucharest, Rom., in late August. {See Special Report.) In the past few decades world census figures had shown dramatic changes. The U.S., for example, grew
rapidly after
World War
II,
American people had begun cially
a'^^'EVEKyiBODy'itopfarrwa;
but in recent years the
to limit family size. Offi-
the population reached
211.9 million in late
June 1974, though because of census undercounts the actual figure may have been closer to 217.5 million. However, during the year ended September 1974, the U.S. birthrate had fallen to 14.8 per 1,000, one of the lowest in history.
With
the death rate stable at 9.2,
was under 0.6%. This meant would take 116 years to double. In Europe, too, growth had slowed. Europe, including the Soviet Union, was growing at roughly the same rate as the U.S. The most populous country on the continent, the U.S.S.R. (252 million people), was growing at a rate of 0.9%. Similarly, West Germany, the U.K., Italy, and France were all adding less than the annual growth rate the U.S. population
each year. Small, isolated 1% Albania recorded the fastest growth rate, 2.5%, the product of a birthrate of 33 and a death rate of 8. Slowest growth was recorded in Austria, where a birthto their populations
and a death rate of 13 produced a growth rate of 0.1%; at this rate the population would not rate of 14
double for 693 years. East Germany continued to lose population, while West Germany for the first time also showed a loss. Similar patterns were noted in Oceania. Despite a young population and a policy of encourag-
was growing at about 1.7%. Highest growth was reported in Asia, Latin America, and Africa, all of which had rates of 2.6% or more. ing immigration, Australia
This meant they would add another 3,000,000,000 people in little more than a generation. Except in Africa, the high growth rates were due to extremely high
and death rates brought down below 20 by improved medical care. In many Muslim countries birthrates of 50 or above were recorded and growth rates surpassed 3% a year. Asia was home to two of the world's most populous nations: China, with an announced population of about 800 million (estimated unofScially as high as 917 million), and India, with an officially estimated population of 586 million. Though accurate figures were difficult to obtain, both countries were thought to be growing at about 2.5% annually, suggesting an additional 1,500,000,000 people in 25 years. The next largest country, Indonesia, with 127.5 million inhabibirthrates of about 40
was increasing by 2.9%. was growing by only 1.3%. tants,
The
By
contrast,
Japan
largest African country, Nigeria (79.8 million
people announced at the 1973 census but estimated by
UN
be only 59 million in the same year), had and a death rate of 25, resulting in a growth rate of 2.5%. These statistics were typical of many African countries, where births were numerous and deaths among infants were common. As medical the
to
a birthrate of 50
care improved, however,
In the
growth rates could go higher. Arab countries of North Africa they already
exceeded
3%.
In Latin America, Brazil and Mexico were growing at
2.8%, fast enough to double in 25 years. In both
countries close to half the population
age of 15.
The
was under
the
highest growth rate, however, was in
Members of the Population Action Group gather '"''"''°"'
El Salvador which,
if it maintained its current growth 3.6%, would double its population in 18 years, The slowest growth was in southern South America, where Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay had rates below •,« ^ N 2%. (warren w. eisenberg)
rate of
Demography.
See also
[S2S.A]
Portugal A democratic
republic of southwestern Europe, Portu-
gal shares the Iberian Peninsula with Spain. Area:
35,383 sq.mi. (91,641 sq.km.), including the Azores (905 sq.mi.) and Madeira (308 sq.mi.). Pop. (1973 est.): 8,564,200.
1973
est.,
Roman
Cap. and largest city: Lisbon (pop.,
757,700). Language: Portuguese. Religion:
Presidents in 1974, Rear Adm. Americo de Deus Rodrigues Tomas, from May 15 Gen. Antonio Sebastiao Ribeiro de Spinola, and, from September 30, Gen. Francisco da Costa Gomes; premiers, Marcello Jose das Neves Alves Caetano, from May 16 Adelino da Palma Carlos, and, from July 13, Brig. Gen. Vasco dos Santos Gongalves. The military coup that took place on April 25, 1974, radically changed Portugal internally and in its relationship to the African continent and the world. The coup derived from the work of a group known as the "Captains' Movement," which had been formed in mid-1973 to press for better pay and conditions for junior officers in the armed forces. In early 1974 it became more political, especially after the February Catholic.
publication of Gen. Antonio de Spinola's (see Biog-
raphy) revelatory book Portugal
e o futuro ("Portu-
and the Future"), which stated that the wars in Africa could not be settled by military means but only by a political solution. In early March, after the clandestine circulation by the movement of a document voicing similar aspirations, the government decided to act, seized the movement's leaders, and placed some 200 officers under virtual house arrest until March 12. On March 14 General Costa Gomes and General Spinola were dismissed after they had gal
i,"fo°rdeliveri''nT'
a message on population control to the prime 1"^ '"''^'ft^'' ^' residence.
,;„5„„j
562
PORTUGAL
Portugal
Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 970.736. tMchcrs 31.312; secondary, pupils 381.299. teachers 22.057;
vocational, pupils 163,284, teachers 10,918; teacher training, students 7,470. teachers 997; higher (including 3 main universities), students 53,999, teaching staff 3.433. Finance. Monetary unit: escudo. with (Sept. 16, 1974) a free rale of 25.92 escudos to U.S. $1 (59.98 escudos = £1 sterling). Gold, SDKs, and foreign exchange, official: (June 1974) U.S. $2,527,000,000; (June 1973) U.S. $2,599,000,000. Budget (1973 est.): revenue 43,621,000,000 escudos; expenditure 43,597,000,000 escudos. Gross national product: (1971) 194.9 billion escudos; (1970) 175.5 billion escudos. Money supply: (Dec. 1973) 165.6 billion escudos; (Dec. 1972) 122,290,000,000 escudos. Cost of living (Lisbon; 1970= 100): (May 1974) 172; (May 1973) 137.
Foreign escudos; sources:
Trade. exports
(1973) Imports 73,183,000,000 44,759,000,000 escudos. Import
West Germany 14%; U.K. France 7%; Angola 6%; Spain 6%;
127:
8%;
U.S.
Italy S%; Swe5%. Export destinations: U.K. 24%; U.S. 10%; West Germany 8%; .Angola 7%; Sweden 6%: France 5%; Mozambique 5%. Main exports: textile yarns and fabrics 18%; machinery 11%; clothing 11%; wine 7%; chemicals 6%; cork and manufactures 6%; fruit and vegetables 6%. Tourism (1972): visitors
den to attend a ceremony to pledge loyalty to Marcello Caetano's government. On the night of March 15-16 part of an infantry regiment based at Caldas da Rainha (50 mi. of Lisbon) mutinied. They held their senior officers captive and left for Lisbon but were turned back before reaching Lisbon by police and troops. The ensuing calm was deceptive, however, and early on April 25 a force of about 5,000 men converged on Lisbon. The army insurgents, calling themselves the Armed Forces Movement, overthrew the government, defailed
N
tained Pres. Americo
and members of
3,925,300; gross receipts U.S. $391
Tomas and Premier Caetano
and installed a "Junta The coup was carried out generally without bloodshed. General Spinola on April 26 promised a provisional civil government within three weeks; immediate dismissal of Tomas and Caetano and his government; free elections by universal suffrage within a year; freedom of political association and free trade unions; abolition of censorship; disbandment of the secret police in Portugal; immediate amnesty for political his Cabinet,
of National Salvation" headed by Spinola.
Jubilant Portuguese
demonstrate their solidarity with
army
units
tal
of the staff
publication,
came
{see Obituaries). olic
had broken away
Le Quotidien de
after the death of
La
its
Final
new
closure
Henry Smadja
Le Quotidien de Paris, the CathCommunist L'Humanite were
Croix, and the
to receive state subsidies in
all
to start a
Paris.
director,
1975 as "journals of
opinion."
The it
closure of
De
Tijd was of wider interest since
was the first test of The Netherlands' new scheme government subsidy, a matter of increasing conmany countries. The Dutch scheme was aimed
for
cern in
through with closing
at preserving a diverse national daily press
reorganization
grants
down. In January,
De
129 years earlier by a
to
those
faced
Tijd, a quality paper founded
Roman
Catholic priest, was But in August the pubmeet the second of the two
offered the first such grant. lishers said they could not
conditions for the grant: that not less than 55,000
1974
574
Publishing
copies should be sold and that direct losses should not exceed 3 million guilders. Elsewhere, the struggle continued, and even in the
Among
the year's
more important transactions
in
economic gloom there were some with plans for expansion Die Welt, the Hamburg-based West German announced plans for transferring its central editorial offices to Bonn in 1975 with the aim of becoming the leading national newspaper in a country whose national press was still based on strong regional centres. In May it was announced that Europa, the economic monthly published jointly by Le Monde, La Stampa, The Times (London), and Die Welt, was to be improved and further developed in its second
the newspaper business were the merger of the Knight and Ridder companies to form the nation's largest newspaper chain, with some 35 papers; the purchase of a controlling interest in the afternoon Washington Slar-News by Joe L. AUbritton, a Texas banker, for $25 million; and the death of Chicago Today, an afternoon daily owned by the Chicago Tribune Co. Today had been founded in 1881 as the Chicago Herald, and was one of four major dailies left in that Immediately upon its closing, the morning city. Tribune became one of a score of "24-hour" newspapers in the U.S. In contrast to most papers, which
year of publication.
publish
:
daily,
was a June the new Portugovernment announced regulations
The other main
struggle, in 1974 as always,
basic one for press freedom. In
guese military curbing freedom of expression, with penalties including fines of up to about $20,000, 60-day suspension from publication, and indefinite detention. Scarcely a
later the first fine of $4,600 was levied on the Lisbon paper A Capital, for a report about two officers who were said to have refused to lead troops against
week
strikers.
In Greece seven years of military rule ended, but restrictions on public comment and reporting
many
remained. In September there came an attack from Panayotis Lambrias, undersecretary in charge of press affairs in the new government. Lambrias, a journalist for 2 5 years, charged the Greek daily press with what he called yellow press journalism worse than that of any other country in Europe or North America. Others continued to suffer more than tonguelashing. From South America came reports of journalists being shot, imprisoned, put out of work, or censored, almost throughout the continent. In Peru, in July, the six national newspapers were simply
and put under government control. Other regimes acted with little more subtlety. In Rhodesia a three-month ban was imposed on the Roman Catholic weekly Molo. The minister of jusDesmond Lardner-Burke, commented; "For tice, many years this newspaper had taken a line which has been strongly antagonistic against the government (peter rmoiCK) and against Europeans generally."
expropriated
For newspapers in the U.S., 1974 was a bittersweet mixture of professional vindication and economic distress. The Watergate affair, which was uncovered by newspaper journalists and pursued with a relentlessness that some readers considered excessive, helped bring about the resignation of Richard Nixon
That event was seen by many an affirmation of the value and
as president of the U.S. in the profession as
legitimacy of investigative reporting, the aggressive, closely researched pursuit of suspected official wrongdoing a practice that earlier generations of journal-
—
called muckraking. In the wake of Watergate, newspapers across the country began setting up their own investigative reporting units, and a number of those teams came up with consistently worthwhile ists
stories.
Pulitzer prizes were
awarded
to Wtisliington
Star-News reporter James R. Polk, whose series on the financing of Nixon's 1972 campaign broke the story of the secret $200,000 contribution by Robert L. Vesco, a financier living in Costa Rica; to Long Island's
Newsday,
for an investigative series tracing
the route of heroin from Turkish
poppy
fields to
New
streets; and to New York Daily News reporter William Sherman, for a series on abuses by physicians in the Medicaid program.
York
new
editions during only part of the day, a
"24-hour" newspaper throughout the day.
publishes
Woodward,
Carl Bernstein and Robert
who
numerous
editions
the
Wash-
uncovered White House involvement in the Watergate break-in, reaped fame and wealth from that journalistic coup. Their book All the President's Men, an account of their work on the story, became a bestseller in 1974, and actor Robert Redford bought movie rights to it. Watergate and the romance of investigative report ing helped make journalism one of the most popular career goals for young people in 1974. Enrollments in the nation's 213 undergraduate and graduate journalism programs rose by more than 15''c over the 48,327 in 1973. That number was nearly four times the journalism enrollment of a decade earlier. How. ington
Post
reporters
first
ever, only about two-thirds of the 11,000 journalism
graduates in 1974 had been able to find jobs in the profession by the year's end.
most important events for the newsin 1974 took place in the U.S. Supreme Court, whose justices unanimously overturned a 1913 Florida "right to reply" law. The statute had been invoked against the Miami Herald by Pat Tornillo, g local teachers' association official who had been criticized by the paper in two editorials. The Herald refused to print Tornillo's rebuttal, and he claimed a
One
of the
paper industry
violation of the 1913 law.
statute
The court ruled
was unconstitutional because
guarantee of a free press in the First
it
that the'
violated
Amendment
the: toj
the Constitution. 741 The gross statistics of newspaper growth in 197' Publisher were encouraging. According to Editor International Year Book, there were 1,451 evening newspapers in the U.S.. up from 1,441 a year earlier evening circulation increased from 36,431,856 to 36,623,140. The number of morning dailies rose to 343 after having dwindled to 337 the year before, and morning circulation rose from 26.078,386 to 26,524, 140. There were 624 Sunday and weekend papers i 1974, up from 603 a year earlier, and their combine! circulation rose from 50,000,669 to 51,717,465. De spite signs of a recession, newspaper advertising revenues for the first three quarters of 1974 were at leas
&
6%
above the same period
in 1973.
Despite those cheering figures, the economic well of the newspaper industry was seriouslj
being
threatened by a crisis involving its most imporUD raw material, paper. The shortage of newsprint th»
had plagued publishers
in
the costs of that crucial
prccedented
levels.
The
1973 eased somewhat, bu
commodity climbed
to
price of newsprint rose
UD
fnw
$175 a ton in eariy 1973 to as much as $285 a ton* the end of 1974. The effect of that increase vatto from one newspaper to another, but nearly all adversely affected. The New York Times, one of th
nation's largest users of newsprint,
jump from $56 Times
saw
its
paper
bill
million in 1973 to $66 million in 1974.
officials said
that they expected the figure to
$75 million in 1975. Publishers responded to the newsprint cost crisis in a number of ways. The American Newspaper Publishers Association reported that nearly half the 1.275 dailies still charging only 10 cents a copy in 1973 raised their newsstand price to 15 cents a copy in 1974. Meanwhile, the Los Angeles Times, the Narise to
Observer, and a number of other papers trimmed their page widths by from one-half inch to about two inches to cut newsprint consumption. To further reduce costs, newspapers accelerated the installation of automated production equipment in 1974. Some 1,050 of the nation's 1,794 dailies had adopted some form of automated printing, and at least 500 were using one of the most sophisticated newsroom devices, the video display terminal. That mintional
iature
television
edited,
and
set
allows a story to be written,
set into type
without the intervention of
typewriters, lead pencils, and, in
some
cases, printing
employees.
As might be expected, those innovations were not made without strong opposition from the printers. In
New
York, Washington, and other
cities
printers'
unions went on strike to protest the introduction of
automated equipment that threatened to abolish their jobs. At the New York Times and New York Daily Ifews, printers agreed to accept automated equipment in return for lifetime job security and substantial monetary incentives to early retirement, a pattern "that was expected to be repeated as other papers at(donald mather morrison) tempted to automate. Magazines. The magazine publishing industry was of course subject to all the same economic pressures as newspapers, and in some cases to legal pressures also. Magazine publishing, however, remained a simpler operation than newspaper publishing, and though a major corporation like the U.K.'s International Publishing Corp. (IPC) found it prudent to postpone two major projects planned for the year, others thought it still worth trying for sections of the market with magazines like Woman's Choice, based in Ireland. In ;pite of the economic storm clouds and talk of declining standards of living toward the end of the year, Britain got yet another hi-fi magazine. .Another British newcomer was slightly less dependent on market forces, somewhat to the chagrin of its small-magazine rivals. With the aid of a £6,000 \rt3 Council grant.
The
New Review
was launched,
under the editorship of Ian Hamilton, as a critical
forum. (See Literature.) Changes took place in another famous literary magazine: poet Sergey Narovchatov became editor bf the Soviet magazine Novy Mir, an appointment iterary
welcomed as restoring a literary figure to the chair. Also in the Soviet Union, the Chronicle oj Current Events, an underground newsletter prepared by IVIos-
;ow dissidents, reappeared after l' injunction against the "Zebra" search solely on the basis of a "profile." On May 16 four Black Muslims were indicted for murdering three whites and conspiring to murder others. More significant was a January Supreme Court ruling. The court held that 17 blacks and two whites were not entitled to seek injunctions against local judges and prosecutors in Cairo, III., who allegedly engaged in a pattern of setting more excessive bail and harsher punishments for blacks than whites. The majority agreed that, even if discrimination had been proved, federal court injunctions were improper as
9%. But progress had been much slower in the cities North and West where 57% of black students
they would violate federal and state harmony. Justice William 0. Douglas, in angry dissent, described the
of the
ruling as doing "violence to the conception of even-
in 1972
handed justice envisioned by the Constitution." An even more ominous Supreme Court decision
these data, the Center for National Policy in-
volved education. The court decided in July, by a narrow 5-4 count, against allowing a metropolitan
remedy
for the racial segregation of public schools
The four Nixon appointees were joined by Justice Potter Stewart, who concluded that "the was not commensurate with the constituremedy tional violation found." The importance of this dein
Detroit.
.
.
.
were becoming
cision lay in the fact that central cities
were
still
in schools at least
80%
black. Citing
Review
charged in September that federal efforts outside of the South had been characterized by "bureaucratic caution, needless delays, administrative inefficiency, and sloppy investigation." Health, Education, and Welfare Secretary Caspar Weinberger defended his department's actions and asserted that the South had been "much more willing to accept desegregation."
As
underscore the charges, the U.S. Court of could Washington, D.C., held that
to
if
Appeals
HEW
in
increasingly populated with blacks while the suburbs
not disburse funds to school systems with racially dis-
were largely white. Justice Thurgood Marshall called the decision "a giant step backward." Other court decisions also deterred education desegregation. The Supreme Court upheld the validity of a Knoxville, Tenn., plan that placed most of the city's black students in just nine schools, each two-
criminatory teacher assignments.
The
more black. Memphis, Tenn., plan
thirds or
turb a
court also refused to disthat
retained 25
all-
black schools. It also declined to rule on a celebrated
law school of the University of Washington. After being denied admission, Marco DeFunis, Jr.. a white applicant, sued on the ground that 36 minority applicants with lower grade averages had been admitted. The court's action invited further legal attacks upon "affirmative action" programs that case involving the
judicial
nation
branch was joined by the
existed in the schools of Topeka, Kan., one
still
Court decision
in
Brown
v.
Supreme Board of Education
against de jure public school segregation.
the
level,
HEW's
Justice
request, to
Department sued Louisiana, force the desegregation of
legislative
He challenged a U.S. District Court order for school desegregation in Boston as not "the best solution to quality education" even as proreiterated the attack.
and violence raged in the city. Boston's desegregation of schools had been ordered
test
W. Arthur
Garrity.
Jr.,
after his
had knowingly segregated both teachers and students through special attendance and
finding that the city
initial
1974 on the
Attention was also focused during the U.S.
Commission on
step involved only about Yet violence,
student boycotts, and mass protest parades
characterized the carefully organized resistance to the plan's initiation during the fall. Amid scenes reminiscent of the
South of the mid-1960s, most
local
white
joined the effort to subvert the court order, and in December the Boston School Committee voted to appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court. Less political leaders
publicized were the successful beginnings of extensive desegregation plans in such cities as Springfield,
Mass., Denver, Colo., and Minneapolis, Minn. The South in 1974 boasted more school desegregation than other regions.
While
98%
in 1964.
ern black students were in schools with a
more black enrollment, by 1972 the
figure
of South-
90%
or
was only
of
Civil Rights issued a stinging
localities
and
California, Arizona, Colorado,
state
governments in and Texas
New Mexico,
for having consistently failed to provide equal educa-
Chicano children. The commisand Chicano culture had largely been ignored and "even suppressed." It recommended funding sanctions, mandatory bilingual programs, the recruitment of Chicano teachers, and the prohibition of at-large school board tional opportunities to
elections so as to allow
more Chicano
representation.
January held that San Fran1964 Civil Rights Act if it did not provide bilingual education and Englishlanguage instruction for 1,800 Chinese-American pupils who did not speak English. Assistant Attorney General Stanley Pottinger promised that the Justice Department would use this decision to ensure equal educational opportunities for the two million students whose first language was Spanish. Similarly, the New York City Board of Education agreed in federal court
The Supreme Court
cisco
was
in
in violation of the
provide Spanish-language instruction in subjects for those among its approximately 200.000 Spanish-speaking pupils who were unable to make progress in English-language courses. in .August to
basic
report released in August by the U.S. Commiswhat was needed combat housing discrimination more effectively: and local zoning refederal subsidies and state
A
6,000 "bused" children out of 94,000.
white
at
the
state-supported university system.
sion concluded that the Spanish language
The
or-
HEW
beyond the school next closest to the pupil's home unless the courts determined that more extensive transportation was necessary to protect constitutional rights, and across district lines unless boundaries were found to have been deliberately drawn to foster segregation. In a March radio address, Pres. Richard Nixon scored "excessive forced busing" for desegregation based on "complicated plans drawn up by far-away officials in Washington." Sen. Claiborne Pell (Dem., R.I.) accused Nixon of "reopening a painful wound." But President Ford, soon after taking office,
grading patterns.
HEW
dered Topeka to submit corrective plans. In April, cut off federal funds to Pasadena, Calif., because that city had failed to comply fully with a courtordered desegregation plan. At the higher education
indictment
June by Judge
af-
cities.
discrimi-
of the original districts in the historic 1954
and executive branches in its resistance to school desegregation. In July Congress passed a new federal aid to education bill that contained antibusing measures. It prohibited busing for racial desegregation
in
decision
HEW did determine in January that racial
educational problems of other minorities. In February
favour minority applicants.
The
The
fected $20 million in grants to five Northern
sion on Civil Rights succinctly listed to (
1
)
forms to allow black entry into the suburbs; (2) and enforcement of fair housing laws by
real
the Justice Department;
HEW
(3) as a condition for re-
housing grants, a requirement that states establish agencies with the power to override local barriers to open housing; (4) financial incentives for families to seek housing integration; and (5) requirements for companies with federal contracts to demonstrate the existence of adequate lower-income housing in suburbs where they were located or planning to ceiving
locate.
585
Race Relations
586
Refugees
Equally pen'asive were minority employment problems, though on this front 1974 witnessed advances.
The
Department and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) were particularly active in securing court orders and consent decrees with industry and local governments. The El Paso Natural Gas and Georgia Power companies both agreed in January to pay retrospective wages and benefits and over the next five to seven years to increase their employment percentages of minorities to Justice
March seven
those of the surrounding population. In
all
major job agreement was reached in the fedBirmingham, Ala. Nine major steel companies and the United Steelworkers union signed an agreement that included $30.9 million in back pay, one-half of openings in trade and craft positions to be filled by minority persons and women, and easier aceral court of
cess to jobs previously reserved for white males.
The
NAACP
quickly sued to have these consent decrees
with the
steel industry set aside as inadequate.
The Maryland by banning pre-
State police forces were also affected. State Police in January settled a suit
employment tests that discriminated against women and blacks and by agreeing to hire and assign them on a nondiscriminatory basis. The Mississippi Highin
March by
upheld
bama Department hiring policies
And
the
same court
in July
by the Census Bureau
5S%
but the black median family income that
of whiles.
And
whites
while
gained slightly more in 1973 than the inflation in prices
(
+2.9%-
),
blacks lost in real income
(
—0.3%).
The Census Bureau reported in January that by mid-1973 black Americans numbered 23. S million. This figure represented an increase of 1.2 million since 1970. The bureau also recorded 10,580.000 Americans of Spanish descent, 1.5 million more than were listed in 1970. This number included approximately 5,290,000 Chicanos, 1,550,000 Puerto Ricans, and 733,000 Cubans. Blacks won numerous honours in 1974. In May television
Emmy Awards went
of Miss Jane Pittman"
(a
star.
special.
leagues,
to
"The Autobiography
fictional
elderly ex-slave) as the best its
drama
account of an special,
and
to
Cicely Tyson, as actress of the year in a
James Bell, renowned star of the old Negro was named to baseball's Hall of Fame in
February. Lee Elder became the
first
black golfer to
Tournament when he won a became the major league baseball when he
qualify for the Masters
contest in Pensacola, Fla. Frank Robinson first
Radio: Television and
Iff
Radio Railroads: ice
Transportation
Recordings: ICC
Music
Reformed Churches: sec
Religion
black manager in
was named in October to head the Cleveland Indians. The Rev. C. Shelby Rooks became the first black president of the Chicago Theological
Seminary of
Church of Christ. The Rev. Lawrence Bottoms, a minister in Decatur, Ga., was elected to be the first black moderator of the Southern-based Presbyterian Church in the U.S. In San Antonio, Tex., the United
in
July, J.
stranded minorities
—
Soon afterward it undertook two more one in Cyprus and the other in Indochina while at the same time discharging its traditional responsibilities of international protection and material assistance. UNHCR succeeded in finding permanent resettletinent.
—
ment opportunities for the last of the 4,500 .\sians who had been brought to transit camps in Europe under its aegis in November 1972 following their expulsion from Uganda. In these
refugees.
20 countries admitted Canada, Sweden, and
all,
Denmark,
sick.
In the autumn of 1974
tained the agreement of the
Ugandan
in
admitting
UNHCR
ob-
authorities to
act as a channel for claims for compensation from
Asians from Uganda of undetermined nationality, and a special unit was established with
UNHCR
for this
purpose. Close coordination was maintained with the
gave further testimony to these economic difficulties. Though only S% of white Americans lived below the poverty line in 1973, 31% of all blacks and 40% of black children did so. Both races gained in income slipped to
who found themselves
after the 1971 hostilities in the South Asian subcon-
aged and
Safety must alter its highway patrol until it was
Income data reported
in 1973,
persons
)
Ap-
one-fourth black.
amounts
UNHCR
54S,
of Public
for the
(
among
April a lower court decision that the Ala-
in
Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refucompleted two major special tasks in mid-1974, one concerning Asians from Uganda of undetermined nationality and the other concerning
the 5th Circuit Court of
peals to be racially discriminating.
PETTICREW)
ITANNICA Fans. HeriKige -American Speaks: lleritaie Indian Speaks (1973).
Switzerland were particularly helpful
Patrol, with only five black officers
was found
F.
United States.
Affairs;
Refugees gees
from one-third
April a
way
Encyclopaedia (1969); The Mex (1972); Tlie A
vacancies with minority persons. In
fill
and Urban
See also Cities
[S22.B]
The
to
(THOMAS
odists.
to
major trucking firms agreed one-half of
pastor of an all-white congregation of United Meth-
Garfield
Owens became
the
first
black
British Claims Board, which had submitted claims on
behalf of Asians with U.K. passports.
Another operation carried to a successful conclusion was the massive repatriation begun in 1973 in the South Asian subcontinent, under which Bengalis were to Bangladesh and non-Bengalis from Bangladesh to Pakistan. The transcontinental airlift organized for this purpose was concluded on July 1 after 241,300 persons had been repatriated. On August 20 a new challenge arose when UNHCR was appointed by the UN secretary-general to coordinate UN humanitarian assistance in Cyprus. It was estimated that 226.000 people who had been displaced or uprooted during hostilities there were in need of various types of assistance. {See Cyprvs.) Requirements from September 1 until the end of the year were assessed at $22 million. Well before the end of the year, the target had been met by contributions in cash and kind made through UNHCR, the Inter-
moved from Pakistan
national
Committee
of the
Red
Cross, or bilaterally.
In September another special program was announced entailing rehabilitation measures for uprooted and displaced persons in Laos and Vietnam. A regional office was established at Vientiane, Laos, in October to administer the various projects, which would require $12 million during 1974-75. Within its regular program, UNHCR was faced with mounting needs in Latin America related to the change in government in Chile in 1973. By the end of March, 2,600 foreign refugees who had sought asylum in Chile prior to the coup and subsequently wished to leave were resettled, with UNHCR's aid, in 39 countries, and UNHCR's charge de mission in Santiago was withdrawn. However. Chileans had also crossed into Argentina and Peru. They were admitted to Peru in transit on the understanding they would soon be reset-
587
Religion
Mother and
son,
empty
rice
bowl
in hand, join thousands of other refugees streaming into Da Nang, South Vietnam. Incessant artillery
Vietnamese from their
shelling by the North
forced
them
to flee
villages.
tied elsewhere,
had
left
and by the end of October about 700
for another country. In Argentina, on the
other hand, local settlement was the main solution for
who had
the 15,000 Chileans
entailed
arrived there, and this
UNHCR.
heavy expenditure for
Mainly be-
of origin and other abuses. In June he appealed to the 73 countries that had not yet done so to accede to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, the
the financial target for
UNHCR's
gram was raised
course of the year from $8.7
in the
1974 regular pro-
million to $11. S million; fortunately, this
main instrument
(unhcr)
See also Migration, International. [S25..'\.l.c.iii]
amount was
covered by supplementary contributions. The Nansen Medal for outstanding service
Religion to the
cause of refugees was presented for the first time since 1971 to the Right Rev. Helmut Frenz, bishop of the
Evangelical Lutheran Church of Chile. Bishop Frenz
had taken the lead in organizing a National Committee for Aid to Refugees, which had assisted thousands
The major themes
of 1974 in the world of religion were familiar ones: the struggle to achieve ecumenical agreements and understanding among the various Christian bodies; concern over the decline of "the
great absolutes of the Judeo-Christian tradition"; the
of refugees in Chile following the coup, particularly
continuing
through the creation of "safe havens" where refugees could stay while awaiting resettlement. Africa continued to be the area with the largest
effect of the charismatic
of refugees of concern to UNHCR. Of the in 1973, 90% 285,000 refugees assisted by were on that continent, and in 1974 Africa again ac-
number
UNHCR
counted for the largest allocation to any region within the regular program. The biggest amount allocated to single country was $2.9 million to Tanzania for assistance to refugees from Burundi. This was occa-
any
sioned not by a
new
influx but
50.000 persons from the the
Tabora
by the need
Kigoma in
to transfer
area to settlements in
region.
One long-standing problem
Africa
— that of
refu-
gees from territories under Portuguese administration
—appeared
likely to be solved at last with the inde-
pendence of Guinea-Bissau and the rapid progress toward self-government of Angola and Mozambique. UNHCR maintained close contact with recognized liberation movements with a view toward helping organize the expected
mass repatriation of refugees from and Zambia.
Senegal, Tanzania, Zaire,
Though migration from Europe generally declined refugees were
reaction to economic conditions, given special consideration. This, together with inin
in the field of international
protection.
cause of the increased requirements in Latin America,
movements to European countries such as Sweden and Switzerland, led to a sharp reduction in the number of refugees awaiting settlement. The high commissioner, Sadruddin Aga Khan, began a third term of office extending through 1978. On several occasions he was obliged to intervene to pre-
creased
vent the forcible return of refugees to their countries
strength
of
the
so-called
conservative
churches; the increasing interest in evangelism; the
—
movement on
all
churches;
and the problems especially acute in many "mainbrought on by deline" churches and organizations clining contributions and inflation.
—
After the turbulent activism of the 1960s, U.S. churches, especially, were reexamining their relationship
to
social
and
political
questions.
Yet events
throughout the world indicated that religion could affairs, even
achieve no easy divorce from worldly
that were considered desirable. In southern Africa and in Latin America, churches were deeply involved on all sides of the issues dividing those regions. In Cyprus, Makarios HI, the president and primate of the Cypriot Orthodox Church, was the central figure in a conflict exacerbated by religious differences between ethnic Greeks and Turks. In Israel a Greek CathoUc prelate was convicted for smuggling guns to the Arabs. Both Catholic and Protestant churchmen were among those arrested in government crackdowns against dissidents in South Korea and the Philif
Korea; Philippines.) In the U.S. churchmen continued to be troubled over the effect of the Watergate affair on moral stanippines, (See
dards.
The
tapes of White
House conversations,
re-
leased on April 30, raised shocked questions in some church circles about Pres. Richard Nixon's earthy language and more general questions about the moral climate within his administration, which was denounced by church leaders as "insensitive," "reprehensible," and "cynical." Nixon's subsequent resignation and his pardon by Pres. Gerald Ford for any
588
Religion
he might have committed while in office opened up far-reaching considerations of Christian mercy (which Ford had invoked) and its relationship to justice. Two clergymen received wide publicity for their support of President Nixon: John McLaughlin, a Jesuit employed by the White House as a staff specchwriter. and Rabbi Baruch Korff, founder and head of an organization known as Fairness to the offenses
Presidency.
The ecumenical movement presented
a mixed pic-
ture in 1974. Father Charles Angell of the
Graymoor
Ecumenical Institute noted wryly that "everywhere in official ecumenical circles there is a sinking feeling that the same old tired faces shuffle from conference to conference, producing documents which fall on lifeless ears.' Nevertheless, there were some signs of progress, although theological understandings and practical cooperation were more in evidence than moves toward real organizational unity. A series of dialogue sessions between U.S. Lutherans and Jews removed many historical barriers between the two groups. The dialogue, first begun in 1969, frankly attacked the problem of the anti-Semitism prominent in Martin Luther's writings. Lutheran theologians made it clear they were in no way bound by these writings. The Lutheran-Jewish dialogue was summarized in the book Speaking of God Today: Jews and Lutherans in Conversation. In another historic ecumenical step, Lutheran and Roman Catholic scholars agreed that papal primacy "need not be a barrier to reconciliation" between Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches. A three-year study preceded the declaration by Lutheran scholars that a form of the papacy "renewed and restructured under the Gospel" might be an "appropriate visible expression of the Ministry that serves the unity and ordering of the church." Catholic scholars held that "Catholics continue to emphasize that papal primacy
an institution in accordance with God's will." The overall consensus among the theologians was that there must be promotion of unity among all believers. The Lutheran scholars recommended that "our churches is
earnestly consider a
new
if
the time has not
attitude toward the
papacy
come
to reaffirm
'for the
sake of
Roman
Catholic
"
Faith-healer John Scudder with a Datient
^"^ ""'^'"d '" '^e church.' Ecumenical relations between the
Church in Scotland and the Episcopal ^Anglican) Church took a forward step when the two groups slated there was now "extensive agreement on the Eucharist as sacrament and sacrifice. In another development. England's five major churches (Anglican, Roman Catholic, Baptist, United Reformed, and Methodist agreed to form a national commission for "
i
multilateral discussions about practical reunion.
Moves
toward uniting three Presbyterian bodies in the U.S. were approved at 1974 meetings. (See Presbyterian, Reformed, and Congregational, below.) In Australia. Presbyterians, Congregationalists. and Methodists agreed to unite June 2, 1976, but a substantial majority of the Presbyterians disapproved of the union and might form a continuing Presbyterian church. In New Zealand, Anglicans voted to try again in 1976 to form a five-church merger (Anglican, Presbyterian, Methodist, Congregational, and the Associated Churches of Christ) after an initial church union proposal was defeated by the Anglican S>Tiod. In Canada there were strong doubts that the Anglican Church would join the proposed merger of the United Church of Canada, the Anglican Church of Canada, and the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). (See Lnited Church of Canada, below. Prospects of union between the national Church of Scotland Presbyterian and the Methodist Church in Scotland appeared hopeful when Kenneth Greet, secretary of the British Methodist Conference, told the Presbyterian General Assembly that necessary legal steps were being taken that would allow one section of British Methodism to unite with another church. (See Meth-
I
)
(
I
odists, below.)
The Consultation on Church Union (COCU). a posal to unite nine U.S. denominations odist
(
pro-
African Meth-
Episcopal, African Methodist Episcopal Zion,
Christian
Church
[Disciples
of
Christ]
.
Christian
Methodist Episcopal, Episcopal. Presbyterian Church United Church of Christ, United Meihi>dist Church, and United Presbyterian Church in U.S.A.), seemed to have changed directions di: 1974. Early tendencies to develop a monolithic uiuiiu church gave way to a new pluralism more responsive to the various heritages and traditions of the partici-
|
in the U.S.,
i
|
pating bodies.
P^'''^^
Two major embroiled
U.S. denominations found themselves
in bitter
controversy.
The question
of or-
daining w'omen to the Episcopalian priesthood created
when 11 women were ordained in July. (See .Anglican Communion, below.) The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod found itself a
furor within that church
torn by dissension as a result of extremely conservative creedal positions
taken in 1973. (See Lutherans,
below.
A
major, two-year ecumenical study of Christian church membership in the U.S. was published by the Glenmary Research Center, a Catholic agency in Washington, D.C. The study, compiled by the Rev. Douglas W. Johnson of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., the Rev. Paul Picald of the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, and the Rev. Bernard Quinn of the Glenmary Center, showed that church membership had grown from 45.8% of the population in 1952, when the last such survey was made, to 49.6% in 1971. {Sec Special Report.) In other surveys of religious trends, the Center for Policy Research showed that the percentage of "h" population believing in God had fallen from 77 1964 to the current 69%. .\ Daniel Vankelovidi vey of youth values indicated thai the numUi
I
589
youth who consider religion very important had defrom 38 to 28% for college youth clined markedly and from 64 to 42% for noncollege youth. A Gallup Poll released early in the year showed that 40% of all U.S. adults attended a church or synagogue during a typical week in 1973; this was approximately the same as in 1971 and 1972 but some nine percentage points below 1958. Statistical reports from various church sectors
—
showed
Religion
membership was still cause for some cases contributions actually Thus, while Lutheran membership in North
that declining
concern, although in increased.
America dropped for the fifth successive year, the Lutheran Church in America reported a 6% increase giving. Sunday School attendance also troubled churchmen. According to the Toronto Star, for exin
ample, Sunday School attendance in Canada had declined nearly 50%, within ten years, and some churches
Following their disputed ordination, the Rev, Alison Cheek (left), the Rev. Carter Heyward (centre), and the Rev, Jeannette Piccard (right),
reported even greater losses.
The
resignation of
J.
Brooke Mosley
as president of
Union Theological Seminary (New York) in June exposed a complex set of problems troubling Union in
and liberal religious institutions in general. Along with financial problems, the seminary suffered from a decline in enrollment, the passing of some of its theological "stars." and tensions among students, faculty, and administration. Another dispute arose when five veteran staff members of the National Council of Churches took "early
3 of 11 controversial
new women Episcopal
particular
retirement."
The new
NCC
general secretary, Claire
Randall, said the retirement was part of a previously
significant decline in
congress was to discuss the task of evangelizing the
Episcopalians which was paralleled by a continuing
Anglican numbers in the United Kingdom, In England the historic tie between church and state was
which placed heavy emphasis on a conservative inter-
weakened by the church's decision, given final approval by the General Synod on Feb. 20, 1974, to order its own worship and doctrine without reference, as
was given
to the "liberation of the
(Alfred
pretation of the Bible.
p.
klausler)
IPROTESTANTS
it
is
who must personally provide
the holder of this office the vital,
if
tenuous, link
between the scattered family of autonomous churches that constitute the worldwide Anglican Communion,
The
made in May, was that Donald Coggan Biography), who had been archbishop of York
decision,
{see
fall in
hitherto, to Parliament (which duly passed the
Anglican Communion. The outstanding event of 1974 was the appointment of a new archbishop of Canterbury. Although the appointment rests only with the English authorities,
1
membership among American
whole man"
and the need to implement the social implications of the gospel. Delegates adopted the Lausanne Covenant,
also
j
Episcopal Church in the U.S,), the prospect of continuity in Anglican policy was strengthened by the
Christian churches to preach the gospel, consideration
Meanwhile, at the conservative end of the spectrum, all parts of the world attended the International Congress on World Evangelization in Lausanne, Switz., in July. The main purpose of the 2,500 delegates from
!
June of Bishop John AUin as presiding bishop of the
world. Although primary emphasis was on challenging
than 100 years service to the council.
j
communion at the Riverside Church, New York City.
reappointment for a further term of office, until 1979, of the Rt. Rev. John Howe as secretary-general of the Anglican Consultative Council. Bishop Howe affirmed his belief that members of the Anglican Communion, with its "structure of local autonomy and global family consultation," had received a blessing beyond anything they might have devised for themselves. At the same time, he warned that indefinite continuance of liturgical experiment, however excellent in itself, might threaten that essential Anglican unity which, historically, had been based on the general use of substantially identical prayer books. Statistics published in 1974 indicated a small but
approved restructuring plan and that finances were not involved, though there were indications that contributions from member churches had diminished. Adding to the uproar was the fact that the five executives were men and that together they had given more
1
priests, celebrate
)
reference to the prime minister. Meanwhile, the rate
was up to 100 a year, and numbers of clergymen in active service and
of church buildings closed
declining
candidates for ordination gave cause for concern. In the ecumenical movement for Christian reunion
(roundly declared by Bishop
Howe
I
I
I
j
1961, should succeed the retiring archbishop, Michael Ramsey, at the end of the year. His appoint-
since
ment was received with general approval, despite the fact that at his age of 65 he could expect a tenure of
feeble state), Anglicans scored
and Roman
office
of only five years at most.
The bishop
of Liver-
Rev. Stuart Yarworth Blanch, was appointed to succeed him as archbishop of York. Despite this change in the leadership, which coinpool,
the
Rt.
and goings in various Anglican posts (notably the installation
cided with other comings fluential
in-
in
to be in a sick and no notable successes.
Catholic theologians did issue
Anglican an agreed statement on the nature of the priesthood, which optimistic observers thought might conceivably
I
j
Wor-
Measure on December 4 and by its proclaimed desire, expressed by vote of the General Synod on July 5, to appoint its own bishops without ship and Doctrine
herald
some softening
of
Rome's hitherto
rejection of the validity of Anglican orders.
explicit
The
Angli-
can Church in Wales pledged itself to pursue a "covenant for union" with other denominations, and the Church of England voted to engage in "talks about talks" with other British churches. But such vague
590
Religion
remove the impression that, Howe's words, "a general pattern of denomi-
declarations did nothing to '" '^'shop
national Christianity
is
with us for a long time to
come.'
Among
concern to Anglican authorities were the church remarriage of the divorced and the ordination of women to the priesthood. In England. Canada, and several other Anglican provinces, the groundswell of opinion appeared to favour a change in traditional attitudes on both is.';ues. In the U.S. in July violent controversy flared when three retired bishops and a bishop from Costa Rica "ordained" 1 1 women deacons to the priesthood in a highly publicized ceremony in North Philadelphia. In voting of
particular issues
12S-9 to declare the ordination invalid, the House of
ing mutual understanding."
Membership had increased in 1974 David Russell,
by 30.000 since 1969. Early
general secretary of the Baptist Union of Great Britain
and Ireland, and C. Ronald Coulding, associate secretary of the Baptist World Alliance, visited Romania, where they discussed the relationship between the state and Baptist churches with the chairman and vicechairman of the government Department of Cults. In Hungary ten new Baptist churches had been opened since 1972. and there w'ere about 12,000 members in 500 churches. Activities of the Baptist churches in Czechoslovakia had become increasingly diflicult. howThe state imposed restrictions on Christian activity, and there was little contact between denominations. The Bulgarian government closed the Baptist
ever.
Russe when
Bishops, at an extraordinary meeting held August 14-15, based their decision on the fact that the cere-
church
mony had been performed contrary to canon law, which among other things requires approval of the
Chad the U.S.-based Baptist Mid-Missions Agency was ordered to cease its church-related opera-
bishop within whose diocese an ordination is held and of the standing committees of the candidates' dioceses.
which the government interpreted as contrary About a hundred churches in south-central Chad were closed, the nativeborn pastors were imprisoned, and six missionary families and six single missionaries were ordered to leave the country. Only a small medical force remained. The American Baptists were very active in the interdenominational effort to use church investments to affect corporate policies in southern Africa. Some investments in their stock portfolio were sold in protest against unethical and un-Christian policies on the part of the companies involved. In other developments, a Southern Baptist editor urged fellow Baptists to boycott Texas International .•\irlines because TIA's magazine carried an article
Later, at their regular meeting, the bishops endorsed
admission of women to the priesthood in principle. The question had been narrowly defeated at the 1973 General Convention and was expected to be reintroduced at the next convention, in 1976. (r. l. Roberts) Baptists. The worldwide membership of Baptist 2^% during 1973, bringing the
churches increased by total
33.492,813
to
according
to
statistics
of
the
World Alliance. For the first time Baptists outnumbered those in Europe 1,160.000 to 1.150.000; the bulk of Asian members were in India and Burma. In the U.S. the National Council of Baptist
—
in Asia
Churches' annual tabulation of religious afliliations showed a decrease of 5% among congregations of the American Baptist Churches in the U.S.A.; the report was strongly contested by Robert C. Campbell, executive secretary of the
from
ABC, who
his ofhce indicated a
12%
said figures available
increase over the pre-
ceding four years. Membership of the Southern Baptists,
the largest Protestant denomination in the U.S.,
rose 2%. to slightly over 12 million.
Jaroy Weber, pastor of the 9,700-member First Church of Lubbock, Tex., was elected president of the Southern Baptist Convention at the annual meeting in Dallas. The SBC expressed the amBaptist
bivalence
regarding the ordination of
characterized
many church
women
that
groups. Controversy over
abortion continued, with the
SBC
reaffirming a 1971
resolution approving abortion in cases of "rape, incest, clear
evidence of likelihood of damage to the
in
its
thorities a "satisfactor>'"
leaders failed to give au-
list
of
members' names.
In
tions,
to the nation's cultural revolution.
favouring legalized gambling.
Some
three thousand
delegates to the executive board meeting of the pre-
dominantly black National Baptist Convention voted unanimously to ask poor people to reject the food demanded as ransom by the kidnappers of Patricia Hearst see Biography). In Britain, Welsh Baptists launched a plan to bring about greater cooperation between all Baptists in that country. In England over I
£300,000 was raised to increase the capital of the ministers' superannuation fund. (NORMAN R. DE PUV RONALD WILLIAM THOMSON) Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). Members of this congregationally governed, 1.3 millionmember body gave more than $11 million to the operating fund of the church for the first time in history. The 3.4% gain was the largest in nine years, though ;
well
A
below the rate of
inflation in the U.S.
economy.
Disciples missionary couple working in the Philip-
was
emotional, mental and physical health of the mother."
pines for the council of churches there
The American
held for tw'o weeks, then ordered to leave the country,
Baptist Churches were continuing the
evangelistic thrust of the interdenominational
Key
73
campaign with the Evangelistic Life Style movement. of Renewal, a joint effort by the American Baptists and the predominantly black Progressive Na-
The Fund
tional Baptists to raise
minorities,
in
was
in the
money
for the education of
process of being implemented.
Pressure continued to be exerted against Baptists Communist countries, but there were some en-
arrested,
Mr. and Mrs. Paul Wilson claimed that they and other church leaders were imprisoned because the church had criticized the government. W. Barnett Blakemore, dean of Disciples Divinity House at the University of Chicago, was elected president of the World Convention of Churches of Christ a confessional fellowship with origins Campbellite movement on the American fron-
(Disciples), in the
couraging developments. In Poland the report issued in 1974 by Michael Strankiewicz, president of the Polish Baptist Union, recorded 2,400 members in 50
election took place in Mexico City. The quadrennial assembly of the International Christian
churches, served by 40 ministers and over 130 local
to Lafayette. Ind.
preachers. According to Aleksey Bichkov, secretary
Angeles was named president, the first black woman to hold that post. Roman Catholic and Disciples leaders, ending five
of the All-Union Council of Evangelical Christians-
Baptists of the U.S.S.R., the relationship between church and state in the U.S.S.R. was one "of increas-
tier.
The
Women's Fellowship drew more than 4.000
delegates
Mrs. Anderson B. Barnes of Los
years of theological dialogue, called on both bodies
'•
',
to "explore as rapidly as possible" the idea of inter-
communion. Kenneth L. Teegarden, general minister and president of the church in the U.S. and Canada, and Mrs. Wilfredo Velez, a Disciples member and vice-president of the National Council of Churches,
were part of an ecumenical team that visited the U.S.S.R. to discuss continuing relationships between Soviet and American Christians. (Robert l. friedly) Christian Science. The Church of Christ, Scientist, continued to strengthen its overseas activities in 1974. Early in the year DeWitt John, who became chairman of the board of directors in June, made an official tour of several Asian countries, and in the Otto Bertschi, the
fall
first
European
become
to
a
member of the board of directors, visited Africa. The International Youth Meeting, held at the ChrisCenter in Boston, July 29-31, had as its theme the verse "Lord, what wilt thou have me to do?" from the Book of Acts. Young Christian Scientists from five continents took part in one of the Voice of tian Science
America's "Religion Today" programs. At the annual meeting of the First Church of Christ,
Boston (June 3) it was announced that more than 20 new translated publications had been issued by the Christian Science Publishing Society during the year and that Portuguese and Spanish editions of the Heralds of Christian Science were being published monthly for the first time. Christian healing was the focal point of a program in the CBS television series "Lamp Unto My Feet." New officers of the Mother Church named during the year included: president, Georgina Tennant of London; first reader, Clem \V. Collins of Boston; and second reader, Jane 0. Robbins of Boulder, Colo. Scientist, in
(j.
Churches of
BUROUGHS stokes)
Christ. Teaching of the Bible was a
major emphasis
in
1974.
Among
the programs for
Bible teaching of children were the
Thursday school
mothers of the community a free day; Children's Worship; and the Busing Ministry, used in cities to reach povertyarea and minority children. Mass media evangelistic programs and national and international television and radio ministries were expanded during the year. A mass mailing effort. Pathway Evangehsm, was begun by Joe Barnett. A new publication, Campus Journal, was founded to serve Christian students at 100 state colleges throughout the U.S. The 21 colleges related to Churches of Christ for preschool children, designed to give
reported increased enrollments. In the area of
all
world missions, a
new
printing facility in Vienna was
publishing Bibles and tracts for distribution in countries.
Some 650,000 persons were
enrolled
by James
20 in
the Bible correspondence courses offered
the 'World
Bible School, under the direction of
L. Lovell.
Evangelistic campaigns were carried out in both and domestic mission areas. Hundreds of
foreign
young people were used in door-to-door visitaand personal work during summer campaigns, and
college tion
many became missionary
recruits. Despite the financial caused by inflation, the number of mission workers was larger than in any previous year. Enrollment in preacher training schools and mission train-
stress
ing
programs on Christian college campuses also innumber of men were leaving the
creased, although a
(m. norvel young) Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Spencer 'W. Kimball, a member of the Council of Twelve since 1943 and its president since 1973, was sustained (confirmed) as president of the church at full-time ministry.
the semiannual conference in April 1974. He had been chosen by the Council of Twelve to succeed Harold B. Lee, who died Dec. 26, 1973, after 18 months in office. Kimball's counselors in the First Presidency were N. Eldon Tanner and Marion G. Romney. The new president of the Council of Twelve was Ezra
Taft Benson. Shortly after he was sustained as president, Kimball suggested that most anticipated organizational changes had been carried out and that emphasis would now be on the implementation of existing programs. Two important changes occurred subsequently, however. In September the church turned over ownership
and operation of its 15 hospitals in Utah, Idaho, and Wyoming to a new nonchurch, nonprofit corporation. The second change was the dissolution in June of the Aaronic Priesthood Mutual Improvement Association. Youth activities for boys 12-17 were consolidated under the Aaronic Priesthood, and girls of corresponding ages became part of an organization called simply Young Women.
Church membership continued
to
grow
relatively
rapidly, to approximately 3.5 million at the
end of
1974. Stakes (dioceses) and missions at midyear were
organized into 270 regions, 72 of them in non-English-language areas. In June the church's first stakes in Scandinavia (Copenhagen) and Northern Ireland Belfast) were established. The temple at Kensington, Md., was dedicated November 18-21. In July Richard P. Condie stepped down as conductor of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, a position he had held for 17 years, and was succeeded by Jay E. (LEONARD JAMES ARRINGTON) Welch. (
Jehovah's Witnesses. The international society of
known as Jehovah's Witnesses enjoyed phenomenal growth during 1974. Their work, congregations, was carried on in organized by 34,576 Christian evangelizers
207 countries and territories; 297,872 new evangelizers were baptized, bringing the worldwide total to 2,021,432. This was achieved despite opposition to the society's work in Eastern Europe, the Arab countries, Greece, Cuba, Singapore, and some African countries. During the summer a series of 168 "Divine Purin the U.S., Canada, the and Western European countries; over
pose' conventions were held British Isles,
persons attended the sessions and heard the public discourse entitled "Human Plans Failing Purpose Succeeds." Two completely new as (iod's 1.6 million
Bible study aids in English were released at these as-
semblies
:
God's "Eternal Purpose"
Now
Triumphing
Man's Good and Is This Life All There Is? The rapid growth of Jehovah's Witnesses was also highlighted by a new peak attendance of 4,550,457 at the
for
annual celebration of the Lord's Evening Meal Eight new rotary presses and new bookbinding
equipment were ordered for printing plants in the U.S., West Germany, the Philippines, and Japan. During 1974 the Brooklyn plant alone produced 45,718,920 Bibles and bound books and over 268 milHon magazines. Circulation of the official journal, The Watcktower, reached 8,450,000 copies in 77 languages and that of its companion magazine. Awake!, 8.3 mil(n. h. knorr) lion copies in 31 languages.
Lutherans. The ongoing theological feud in the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod between conservatives, headed by the president, J. A. O. Preus, and moderates reverberated internationally in 1974. The executive committee of the Lutheran World Federation, meeting at St. Olaf College in Northfield, Minn., continued on page 594
591
Religion
SPECIAL REPORT
New York. Their presence, along with that Eastern Orthodox churches which do not keep accurate figures or did not cooperate would not have changed the map in any significant way. A third complicating feature is the inevitable distortion that occurs because of differing population densities; thus the sparsely or three counties in of
THE GEOGRAPHY OF RELIGION IN AMERICA
—
settled
Southwest gives
strength that
Marty
u
nited States citizens in 1974 enjoyed a rare opportunity to
learn something of the geographical distribution of their faiths.
The publication of
a statistical study and denominational
map
(see opposite page) revealed that regionalism remained strong in
American religion. There were fewer "national" churches than many had suspected, and in almost every part of the country one group tended to dominate. On a county-by-county basis, large numbers of churches were indeed represented. In that sense, the U.S. was religiously pluralistic, yet in the majority of coun-
religious
church held the allegiance of over 50% of the churchgoing population in most of the others, one denomination ties
single
a
;
summon
25%. The study on which the map is based. Churches and Church Membership in the United States: 1971, was prepared by a Lucould
theran and a
at least
Roman CathoHc
research group and an ecumenical
agency, the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the
U.S.A. The only similar compilation had been
made
for 1952.
Users of the map who focused only on religious majorities might think the U.S. is largely made up of five church-joining regions. The most intact is Utah, where Latter-day Saints (Mormons overwhelm all other faiths. Second is a huge domain of Baptists in the South, where the Southern Baptist Convention has a clear majority in most counties. Stretching from Kansas to Pennsylvania, roughly along the latitude of the Ohio River, is a belt of counties where Methodism tends to have over 25% or, more rarely, over 50% of church members' loyalty. Following the path of Scandinavian and German migrations, there is a northwest-trending arc of Lutheran majorities beginning along a line from Nebraska to Wisconsin and reaching through the Dakotas into Montana. Roman Catholicism, which represents 36% of all U.S. Christian church membership (and 44.5% of the membership in this study, in which not all churches took part), dominates in the Northeast, along the industrial belt of the Great Lakes states, on most of the West Coast, in the Southwest, and in the southern tips of Texas, Louisiana, and Florida. The publishers of the map urged caution upon their readers. The U.S. Census is not permitted to ask questions about religious affiliation, so the statisticians had to rely on data supplied by the churches. These statistics are only relatively reliable, though they appear to be improving. Further, allowance had to be made for different standards for measuring membership. More important was the omission of a number of religious groups. Most black churches work with estimates instead of scientific counts, and could not be included. For the most part, they would have added to Baptist or Methodist majorities in southern regions or would have been submerged by Roman Catholic majorities in the cities. Because this was a Christian study, Jews were not represented, but it is believed they dominate in only two )
Martin E. Marty
is
a projessor oj religion in the Divinity School
of the University of Chicago, and an associate editor of Christian Century. His published works include Righteous
The
The
Em-
Protestant Experience in America. He also has served as an adviser on religion for the Britannica Book of the Year. pire:
592
Catholicism an appearance of
strengths and weaknesses in the various churches. tistics
E.
Roman
not have nationally. These limitations aside,
the materials did provide a reference point for a reassessment of
The
1971 sta-
located over 100 million U.S. Christians in 53 communions,
80%
church members. All five of the regionally strong churches appeared as the result of 19th-century revivalism or later immigations to the U.S. The religious map shows a startling absence of regional power among the three groups that had a virtual monopoly on religious loyalties in the 17th and 18th centuries. Episcopalians accounted for more than 50% of church membership in only one area in Alaska and one county in Colorado and for 25% or more in only four Great Plains counties. The United Church of Christ, the daughter of colonial Congregationalism, was also visible mainly in the Great Plains area, where Episcopalians and Congregationalists had carried on mission work among American
probably
By Martin
may
it
—
Indians.
The
of
all
Presbyterian, the third of the strong colonial groups,
was the only one with a predominance in any county east of the Mississippi, but its showing on a regional basis was as weak as the others. All three groups remain sizable. They form the centre of what is often called the "mainline" group of churches, but almost nowhere do they dominate. Two of the major religious trends of the late 1950s and early 1970s are not revealed by the map. If a cartographer utilized impressions gained at the religion department of a paperback stand, he would probably expect to find millions of individuals devoted to Zen Buddhism, yoga, and various Hindu or Muslim faiths. These groups tend to attract visible but very small mihowever. It is not likely that they will alter the appearance of the religious map in the next score of years. The other major trend has been one in which the mainline churches at best held their own while a number of assertively conservative and evangelistic churches prospered. But despite their growth, these churches with the exception of the Southern Baptist Convention, a church body that has much internal variety but keeps its evangelistic focus are not found on the map. For example, the Church of God of Cleveland, Tennessee, grew by 120% between 1952 and 1971, but its original base was small and it has no county majority. norities,
—
—
The
statistics
accompanying the map reveal one other feature
of considerable note. There are vastly differing degrees of religious loyalty in various regions. In the
westward sweep of the
19th century, the churches were effective in the west north central states (Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri,
Nebraska, and the none of which has less than 51% of its population on church rolls. But that effectiveness diminished farther west. For a variety of reasons, the Pacific region (Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington) was least churched. No state there
Dakotas
I,
has more than
England the
60%, but
38%
Roman
of
its
population formally enrolled. In
New
Catholic presence pushes the total figure to
the historic Protestant churches are relatively weak.
Two groups of map and statistics
observers had reason to be surprised by the released in 1974. One consisted of people who
had predicted dramatic declines in institutional religion. Few in the mainline churches were cheered, but their losses tended to be ofi.set by gains among the aggressive and strict denominations. The other group consisted of those who expected the religious map to show fundamental changes as a result of suburban population shifts and upheavals associated with the second \'atican Council and the social controversies of the '60s. Overall, such change is of a glacial character; it is possible that the mapmakert of the 1990s will not need to reach for too many new colours to tell
the story of religious loyalty in the U.S.
594
Religion
continued from page 591
three-year study of papal primacy, in which they said
Mikko E. Juva
of Finland,
the issue need not be a barrier to reconciliation of
that "the total body of world Lutheranism is suffering" because "this strong and respected church is torn by a severe internal discord." The executive committee instructed Juva to send "a brotherly letter" to the
The Lutheran World Federation changed leadership when Andre Appel resigned as its general secretary
LCMS
expressing the federation's deep concern over
become president
the doctrinal dispute that threatened to split the 2.8
fession of Alsace
million-member denomination, second largest Lu-
Carl H.
"'^^ '"'''
^y
''^
president,
after nine years and returned to his native France to
Mau,
of the Church of the Augsburg Conand Lorraine. He was succeeded by an American with long interna-
52,
tional experience.
theran body in the U.S. Earlier,
the two churches. (See Introduction, above.)
the Lutheran
Church
in
America, at
Robert
its
seventh biennial convention, gave strong support to the moderates in the LCMS. Reaffirming the tradi-
LCA
J.
Marshall was reelected president of the from WalHoly Trinity Lu-
after a surprisingly strong challenge
lace E. Fischer, senior pastor of
tional
theran Church in Lancaster, Pa.
and
ered use of the
Lutheran position of fidelity to Holy Scriptures Ecumenical Creeds and the Lutheran Confessions, the LCA statement declared: "We therefore regret all official efforts to legislate adherence to additional documents that serve to fence God's Word and fracture God's people." (Similar resolutions were adopted by the American Lutheran Church at its seventh general convention.) In response, Preus wrote Robert J. Marshall, president of the 3.1 million-member LCA, that "I must categorically reject this judgment on the part of your church body." The central figure in the controversy, the moderate John H. Tietjen, was suspended late in January as president of Concordia Seminary in St. Louis, Mo., on charges of administrative malfeasance and advocacy of false doctrine. In protest, most of the 600-odd students and a majority of the faculty walked out. A month later they established Seminex or "Seminary in Exile" at St. Louis University's Divinity School, a Roman Catholic institution, and Eden Seminary, affiliated with the United Church of Christ. The Synod's 38 North American district presidents were warned not to place, ordain, or install Seminex graduates without following proper procedures, including interviews and certification by Concordia Seminary. By year's end, however, it appeared that congregations and district presidents were likely to receive most of the Seminex ministerial candidates. As the 1974-75 academic year began, Concordia at St. Louis, once the largest Lutheran seminary in the U.S., reported 190 students, Seminex claimed 408, and Concordia at Springfield, III, had 387. Meanwhile, on October 12, Tietjen was found guilty of the charges against him, and Concordia Seminary's Board of Control
to the
dismissed him as president.
expulsion as an
LCMS
He
also faced possible
pastor.
The Synod's moderates, organized as Evangelical Lutherans in Mission (ELIM), said they did not intend to form another church body but would work for reform within the Synod. The Synod's directors, however, censured ELIM as "substantially a church within a church" because it solicited funds for a seminary, an independent mission society, publications, and an organizational structure. Adopting a budget of $1.5 million at a three-day assembly in Chicago, ELIM indicated that a major portion of the
amount would
be allocated to Partners in Mission, set up as an in-
dependent board for overseas missions and started with four persons who had resigned from the Synod's
Board for Missions.
The
historical-critical
method
of Bible study, at
LCMS doctrinal dispute, "though by no means the supreme arbiter, must be used as a gift from God in the contemporary discussions among Christians," asserted Lutheran and Roman Catholic theologians who had been engaged in dialogue since 1965. The theologians issued formal findings on their the core of the
The
LCA
reconsid-
"bishop" but, as in 1972, the nomenclature failed to gain the needed two-thirdj majority. The American Lutheran Church authorized experimental use of the title in 1970 but had not taken final action. The ALC elected David W. Preus, title
cousin of J. A. 0. Preus, to his as
first
six-year term
president.
For the fifth successive year, membership in the Lutheran church bodies of Xorth America declined in 1973, to 9,005,213.
The
five-year loss of 234.061
represented about 2.5% of the all-time high of 9,239,274 recorded in 1968.
Gen. Ernesto Geisel (see Biography), the son of Lutheran immigrants, became Brazil's first Protestant
Church of Alsace and Lorraine approved intercommunion with the Roman Catholic Church. In South Africa a five-year ban against Manas Buthelezi, noted Lutheran theologian, was withdrawn without explanation by the govern-
president. In France the Lutheran
ment
after six months. Bishop Helmut Frenz, head of the Evangelical Luin Chile, was awarded the 1974 Nansen
theran Church
Medal
for his "inspiring e.xample" in helping refugees
after the 1973 military coup. Meanwhile, conservatives
church sought the bishop's removal because of his refugee work. (erik w, modean) Methodists. The year 1974 began with a worldwide Vigil of Prayer, starting on the International Date Line at Tonga and encircling the globe. During the 12-hour period of prayer for the mission of Christ's church on earth, participants heard taped messages from the king and queen of Tonga, Bishop Prince Taylor (chairman of the Methodist World Council executive committee), and church leaders from every continent. The vigil was arranged in response to the call of the World Methodist Council meeting in Denver, Colo., in 1971 inviting Methodists to join in an intensified mission to the world. In preparation for in the
positive evangelistic action in 1975, regional planning
congresses were held in Europe, North and South America, Africa, India, and Australasia. A World Consultation and Convocation attended by 2,500 people was held in Jerusalem in November 1974. reaching a climax in a commissioning service in the Shepherd's Field at Bethlehem. In the U.S. the United Methodist Church's continuing movement toward desegregation reached a new level in 1974, with the elimination of all districts based on race. Although the more than 500 district* in the U.S. were predominantly while, because of their geographic nature, 38 had superintendents from ethnic minorities 1 Hispanic, 2 Asian-American, and 35 black. Ethnic leadership also increased at the next highest level, with minority staff persons serving mor* than 20 of the nation's 70 annual conferences. U.S. membership continued to decline slowly, to 10,192,-
—
I
was given
265, but a record $49,407,758
595
for world-
wide benevolence and administration. A plan to reduce the number of seminaries from 14 was begun with the
merger of two schools
in Illinois to
Religion
become Gar-
rett-Evangelical Theological Seminary in Evanston.
Discussions were held through the year between the official
Board of Global Ministries (missions) and an Evangelical Missions Council, which had
unofficial
accused the board of stressing social-political-eco-
nomic action to the exclusion of evangelistic concerns. Another evangelical group, known as Good News, expressed
opposition
"doctrinal
the
to
pluralism"
adopted by the denomination's 1972 General Conference. Support of the church for women's rights was expressed, among other ways, in the special assign-
ment of a staff member to work for the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment to the U.S. ConThe Rev. Vivian McFadden became the first United Methodist woman chaplain in the military first black woman chaplain in the denominaand the tion or in the U.S. Navy.
stitution.
The bishops
of
six
African
nations
asked
the
church's missionary agency to send only missionaries
and requested by the church in Africa" to fulfill functions determined by those churches. At midyear a total of 794 missionaries from the U.S. were serving in some 50 overseas countries. Rhodesia's Bishop Abel T. Muzorewa was one of six persons honoured by the UN as international champions of human rights. He was unable to attend the presentation because his travel documents had been lifted by the Rhodesian government. The Methodist Church in South Africa elected its first black president, the Rev. Jotham Charles Mvusi. It agreed to continue membership of the World Coun-
who
cil
are "needed
of Churches,
despite
disagreement with the
its
The Rev. Sun Myung Moon, South Korean evangelist
who
Some church officials believed the charismatic renewal movement was an important factor in the growth of Pentecostal churches. Ever larger conferences year.
and Congregational churches in South Africa and agreed to accept women candidates for the ministry.
The British Conference, meeting at Bristol in June 1974, adopted a Declaration of the Methodist Church on the Non-Medical Use of Drugs. The document outlined the facts of the drug situation and then examined the social factors involved and the theological basis for the Christian attitude to drugs, with special reference to alcohol. The report recognized changes in the attitude of
many church members toward
hol and concluded
by
alco-
stressing the importance of in-
dividual Christian choice. The conference also adopted a declaration on
the use of leisure
and a detailed
statement opposing euthanasia. The conversations between the Church of Scotland and the Methodist Church in Scotland continued, with agreement at committee level on doctrinal standards, the structure of the united church, integration of the
from candidates for and the name for the united church. (peter H. bolt; WINSTON H. TAYLOR) Pentecostal Churches. Rapid growth continued in the Pentecostal churches in 1974. The American As-
ministries, qualifications required
the ministry,
semblies of
—
God
reported a
6%
gain in U.S.
mem-
marked
the charismatic
movement during
the
Over 4,000 attended the March World Conference on the Holy Spirit in Jerusalem, the largest Christian gathering in Israel since the Middle Ages. Conferences on the Holy Spirit were also held at Princeton Theological Seminary, the Vatican, and in the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C. In June 25,000 Catholic Pentecostals gathered for their annual conference at Notre Dame University. (See Roman Catholic Church, below. There was a growing movement toward detente between charismatic members and officials of the mainline denominations. Events in the third world were prominently featured during 1974, and the December meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies focused on "The Third Force and the Third World." In San Juan a crowd of 50,000, including many Catholics, gathered to protest a decision of the Puerto Rican Supreme Court citing )
a Pentecostal church as constituting a "public nui-
sance." Over $60,000 was pledged to Vietnam missions
convention in the Pentecostal Full Gospel Assembly Church in Seoul, South Korea. In December the Jotabeche Methodist Pentecostal Church in San-
at a
tiago, Chile
Church
(affiliated
in the U.S.
)
,
with the Pentecostal Holiness
dedicated a
new "cathedral"
seat-
ing 18,000 persons.
In Great Britain and Ireland, a great Jubilee Rally held on Feb. 14, 1974, packed the Birmingham Town Hall. The annual General Conference, held May 11-18
Minehead, Somerset, was attended by 5,500 delemany registered visitors. A team of "mis-
from 710,071 to 751,818 in one year; worldwide Assemblies of God membership was placed at 3,938.2 74: and similar growth was experienced by the 22 other denominations connected with the Pentecostal
at
Home
missions had conducted 13 pioneer evangelizing
Fellowship of North America.
efforts
during 1973 and planned six more crusades,
bership
many
preaches in Madison Square Garden, Nev^ York City, during his U.S. crusade.
specifically not for military purposes) to guerrilla or-
glican, Presbyterian,
believed by
to be the Messiah returned,
World Council's policy of providing grants (though ganizations in southern Africa. It also declared its intention to work toward eventual unity with the An-
is
of his predominantly youthful followers
gates and
sionary heralds" was formed to evangelize in Malaysia.
596
Religion
Youth Council sponsored two youth Manchester and Nottingham. The Publishing House reported a 27% increase in sales, and the official organ Redemption Tidings had a circulation (VINSON synan; aaron linford) of 8.614. Presbyterian, Reformed, and Congregational.
while (he National rallies, at
Membership Churches
(
World
the
in
Prc.'^byterian
Alliance
of
Reformed
and Congregational) reached
1974 with the admission of the Evangelical Church of Bolaang Mongondow (38,000 communimember church in Indonesia), cants; the 21st
140
in
the
Waldensian Evangelical Church of the River
WARC
Plate, with a total in
Uruguay and
communicant membership
.\rgentina,
of 5,000
and the 92,000-strong Afri-
Merger discussions of the Reformed Presbyterian Church. Evangelical Synod (formed in 1965 by the union of the Reformed Presbyterian Church in North America, General Synod and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, originally called the Bible Presbyterian Church) and the Orthodox Presbyterian Church moved forward toward final form during the year. The lOOih General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Canada, held in Kitchener, Ont., in June 1974, placed particular emphasis on restructuring the national administration of the church.
The 144th
sessioD
Assembly of the Cumberland PresbyChurch, meeting in Bowling Green. Ky.,
of the General terian
adopted a report calling for a two-year study of
can Presbyterian Church, the first all-black independent denomination in South Africa and Malawi to
Christian unity.
join the Alliance.
Rev. Katie Cannon, was ordained by the presbytery of Catawba. The Rev. Florence Dianna Pohlman be-
The 1974 meeting
of the executive committee was
held in Stony Point, N.Y., in January. This first
was
the
time that the committee's meeting had been
closely related to that of the
North American Area
Council of the WARC, held in the same place a few days earlier. The executive committee unanimously agreed to enter into theological discussions with the Baptist World .\lliance. It also decided on a theme
("The Glory of God and the Future of Man') for the ne.itt
(assembly)
General Council
of
WARC,
the
The
first
black
woman
minister in
UPCUSA.
the
the first Presbyterian woman in the U.S. to be endorsed for chaplaincy duty. In South .\frica the six churches involved in union negotiations approved a "Declaration of Intention to Unite." They were the Anglican, Methodist, United Congreeational. and three Presbyterian churches, the
came
Presbyterian Church in Southern
Presbyterian
Church, and the
.\frica. the Tsonga Bantu Presbyterian
Church.
scheduled to meet in St. Andrews, Scot., in 1977. Inflation, coupled with only a slight increase in the churches' contributions, caused concern among
The European Area Committee of the WARC met in Frankfurt am Main. W.Ger., September 13-16. Church representatives continued discussions on the
executives. Although the anticipated deficit for 1973
theological basis of
was smaller than forecast $6,000, as against $10.000) 1974 was likely to end with a deficit of $20,000 in a total budget increased from $142,000 to $1 75,000. Representatives at the North .American Area Council at Stony Point expressed concern over the continuing violation of civil and religious liberty in South Korea. A message conveying this was sent to the two Alliance member churches in Korea, as well as to the Korean National Council of Churches. Later in the year the WARC president, William P. Thompson (U.S.), and General Secretary Edmond Perret (Switzerland) called on Pres. Park Chung Hee to "take constructive steps to unite all citizens under a true, Korean style of democracy." Many Presbyterians were among those sentenced under emergency decrees declared by President Park early in the year. In 1974 the WARC was given consultative status with the UN Economic and Social Council (Ecosoc). This was done despite opposition from China, which objected to the fact that 'Taiwan was still represented
launched by the
WARC
(
in the Alliance.
The general assemblies of the highest policy-making bodies of the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.
(UPCUSA) and (PCUS) met
the Presbyterian
Church
in the
concurrently in Louisville. Ky.,
1974; this was the city since 1913.
first
June
time they had met in the same
The Rev. Robert
C. Lamar, a lead-
ing advocate of Presbyterian union,
erator of the lS6th
in
U.S.
UPCUSA
was elected mod-
assembly, and the Rev.
Lawrence W. Bottoms, the first black man to be so honoured by his denomination, was elected moderator of the 114th PCUS assembly. Commissioners (delegates) to both assemblies approved proposals aimed at uniting the two bodies, which had been separated since the Civil War, and the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, which had separated from the main body of American Presbyterians in ISIO. A Plan of Union would be distributed and recommendations
to the churches to their
for
comments
1976 general assemblies.
human
rights
(a study project
1970 world assembly in Nairobi, and opened up a new series of discussions on the criteria of theological truth. (See United Church
Kenya
)
of Christ, below.
I
(frederik h. kaan; William b. miller) Religious Society of Friends. The year 1974, the 350th anniversary of the birth of George Fox, founder of the Quakers, was marked by continuing emphasis on such traditional Quaker concerns as nonviolence and social change. The award of the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize to Henry Kissinger and Le Due Tho troubled many Friends, who felt it was not consonant with the original principles governing the award. The Quaker program at the UN was reviewed at a conference in London in June. It was noted that the Quaker UN team was being recruited from Friends beyond the predominant Anglo-American circle. The European and Near Eastern sections of the Friends World Committee on Consultation met .April 1 1-13 in East Germany, the first time an international Quaker organization had been allowed in Eastern Europe. Moved by Britain's economic crisis at the beginning of 1974. the society's Social Responsibility Council
took on the task of clarifying the Quaker attitude toward change with emphasis on the traditional testimony on simplicity in living. A report on Friends
—
schools
Many
in
Britain gave rise to an extended debate.
British Friends
saw the nine schools as
privi-
leged establishments. In the U.S., Intermountain Friends est yearly meeting,
became
the nevt'
Wilburite Friends held the fourth
general meeting in their 130-year history in North Carolina, June 21-23, and formed a Northeast Association of Conservative Friends. Louis Schneider b*'
came executive secretary of the American Friends Service Committee on June 1 the .\FSC continued to serve civilian war victims in Vietnam and provided direct war relief to Israel, Egypt, and Syria. (DAVID GEORGE FIRTH; J. WILLIAM FROST) ;
Salvation Army. The High Council of the Salvation Army, meeting in May 1974 at Sunbury-on-Thames, Eng., elected Commissioner Clarence Wiseman {see Biography), the territorial commander of Canada, to succeed retiring Gen. Erik Wickberg. Wiseman was the tenth general of the movement and the first Cana-
Unitarians and Universalists. Although acknowledging that individual freedom for inquiry and belief are fundamental to this liberal movement, growing
dian to hold the position. Before retiring on the eve of
come
70th birthday,
his
General Wickberg completed a
rigorous world tour of Salvation
Army
centres.
He
conducted congresses in Sweden and France, Repentance Day in Germany, and Ascension Day in
also
Switzerland.
In the U.S., 1974 was a Year of Recruitment, following up the Army's involvement in the Key 73 evangelistic program. U.S. membership rose to 361,571,
and increased attendance was noted at adult and youth activities. Services to the aging expanded with the dedication in San Francisco of the Army's first federally subsidized high-rise housing complex, built in cooperation with the federal Department of Housing and Urban Development. Salvationists continued to be active in disaster relief. For several weeks Salvationists served in flooded areas of New South Wales and Queensland in Australia, and relief to the value of A$3 50,000 was supplied in Brisbane. Relief work was also intensified in Bangladesh, and Salvation Army teams were on duty following a Christmas Day 1973 fire in Hong Kong and the explosion of a chemical factory in Flixborough, Eng. In the U.S., where disaster teams aided thousands of victims of tornados and floods in the Midwest and South, the Salvation Army was officially designated as a recognized disaster agency in new federal disaster legislation passed by Congress. (ERNEST W. HOLZ; HARRY READ) Seventh-day Adventists. During 1974 the church centennial of its world outreach. On celebrated the Sept. 15, 1874, the denomination, which had its origin in the U.S., sent John Nevins Andrews from Boston to Europe. Services commemorating his arrival were held in Basel, Switz., Sept. 28-30, 1974. During 1973— the last year for which complete statistics were available 316 new full-time workers and 195 student missionaries were sent to serve overseas. Between 1874 and 1974 church membership had grown from 4,801 to 2,390,124 (including 486,601 in the U.S.), and appropriations for mission work had risen from nothing to a record $76,390,169. Tithes and offerings in 1974
—
new high of $305 million. About 2,000 delegates attended three identical eightday Bible conferences held in the U.S. for Seventhday Adventist ministers, Bible teachers, and church workers. Their purpose was to examine carefully the church's teachings, making certain that they could be
reached a
defended on the basis of sound hermeneutical principles. The last such conference was held in 1952. The denomination's first medical institution. Battle Creek (Mich.) Sanitarium, founded in 1866 by John Harvey Kellogg, again came under church control after
church's
35 years of independence. Members of the Linda University surgery team per-
Loma
formed the nam.
The
first
first
open-heart operations in South Viet-
numbers of Unitarian leaders
felt that a solution
must
be found for destructive strains against consensus
and community.
When
freedom and responsibility bebreakdown occur in both
separated, erosion and
the institution and
its
human
constituents.
The Unitarian Universalist Association (U.S. and Canada) claimed 1,008 local congregations in 1974, with 153,750 adult members, 51,655 church school students, and annual expenditures of $22,230,073. The largest number of churches and members were in Massachusetts, New York, and California. Bias against some members of the clergy on grounds of sex and age remained a problem. Of 44 qualified women ministers, only
occupied pulpits. The average age of the active was 38.5 years, and their average salary pack-
7
clergy
age was $15,300.
The number
4%
dropped about
of active ministers
had
in the preceding five years,
but
theological schools reported high enrollment.
The primary denominational instrument
for social
action and service, the Unitarian Universalist Service Committee, assisted dozens of congregations to launch
problems concerning the and prisons. Pilot enterprises in rural
local projects dealing with
courts, police,
Mississippi and urban Boston were exploring innovative uses of video technology to assist community de-
velopment projects. Additional programs were under way in Peru, Central America, and Haiti. The 1974 General Assembly of the UUA drew 1,324 delegates and observers to New York City, June 2530.
Preceding the plenary sessions, the
official
dele-
gates were divided into 100 small groups of eight or nine persons each to discuss the agenda items. In the final
resolutions,
some passed by small
majorities,
delegates urged the establishment of an Office of
Gay
Concerns, support for the United Farm Workers' boycott of nonunion grapes and lettuce, opposition to the restoration of the death penalty, cessation of military
by all governments to both North and South Vietnam, reform of the courts and penal system, and the right of adults to decide what they should read,
aid
and see, free from censorship. Meadville/Lombard Theological School and the North American Chapter of the International Association for Religious Freedom sponsored an Institute on World Religions, March 14-18, at the University of
hear,
Chicago. Representatives of various religious cultures led discussions and workshops to consider how re-
Hgious bodies
can
acknowledge and celebrate the
existence of faiths different from their own.
The Rev. Jacob Davies
of Dyfed, Wales, president
of the British General Assembly, died on Feb. 11, 1974; this was the first time a president had died in
At the Annual Meetings in London in April, was taken by Mrs. G. J. M. Thomas, also from Wales. During the meetings, delegates and guests from Great Britain and overseas joined in celebrating
office.
his place
the 200th anniversary of the
founding of the
first
avowedly Unitarian Church in Great Britain in Essex Street, Strand, London, on the site of the present headquarters. Resolutions carried included one expressing support for Amnesty International's campaign against the use of torture and an-
denominational Ellen G.
side the U.S.
White-SDA Research Center
was opened
Newbold College
in
out-
in early April at the church's
England. The centre specialized
in
early Adventist history, as well as letters, articles,
and books written by Ellen G. White (1827-1915), one of the denomination's founders. (KENNETH H. WOOd)
other asking the government to find means of relieving magistrates of the duty of asking for the religious beliefs
of witnesses
who choose
to affirm rather
than
take the oath in courts of law.
(JOHN NICHOLLS BOOTH;
B. L.
GOLLANd)
Religion
598
Religion
United Church of Canada. The steady contraction the church's membership since 1962 had become a matter of serious concern. Baptisms and confirmations had declined to an alarming degree, and attendance generally was down. Some of the falloff could be accounted for by the purging of congregational rolls. This was the case in the largest congregation of the church, where 1.000 names of nonattenders were eliminated. There were other factors, however, which in
were said to hinder the church's care of its people. It was suggested that the church had been preoccupied with other continents and countries while political, economic, and social matters in Canada were ignored.
The concern among Canada's churches
for
California grape growers had been strong, but the farm
labourers in Canada's Holland ignored. In addition,
some
of
Marsh were the
programs
largely
the
of
church had not been brought to maturity for example, union with the Anglican Church of Canada in the near future seemed impossible, although the Pla>i of Union had been overwhelmingly approved by the United Church's General Council. There was little for the ;
United Church to do but be loyal to tions and insights.
Much comment
own
its
regarding the church's
life
convic-
had come
from a group of evangelicals, sometimes referred conservatives,
as
who maintained
that
the
to
United
Church was more interested in social action than in promoting the gospel and that it had diluted the faith and mission of the church. There appeared to be some truth in this, although frequently the indictment went too far. One of the most prominent of the evangelicals made it clear that both social action and evangelism are essential to the church's ministry. Evangelism was growing in the United Church; it had the support of some of the best ministers in the church, most of them young.
Women
were playing an increasing role in the lay membership of the 1974 General Council consisted of 130 women and 87 men. Three women were chosen as presidents-elect of their conferences, and two women were among the eight nomichurch.
The
nated for the moderatorship. The number of women candidates for the ministry was rising steadily, and they ranked high in the theological colleges. An increase of both men and women training for the ministry had been evident for some time. The new moderator of the church, the Rev. Wilbur Howard of Emmanuel United Church, Ottawa, was
nominated
by
conferences.
three
The
Reverend
Howard, who is black, had been associate editor of the church's Sunday School publications for 12 years before entering the pastorate.
(ARTHUR GUY REYNOLDS) United Church of Christ. Brought into being in 1957 by a union of the Congregational Christian Churches and the Evangelical and Reformed Church, both of which had been formed out of previous unions, the United Church of Christ in 1974 had a membership of
1,867,810 in 6,617 congregations.
Financial
reports for 1973 indicated that though the giving of the
members continued
to increase (to $196,845,8051,
the proportion going to mission at the regional
and
national levels declined. This was due in part to in-
but there was evidence that local churches were engaging in their own mission work to an inflation,
creasing extent. in major efwas apparent that degradually. place For was taking
The denomination was not engaged forts
to
restructure, but
centralization of staff
it
the
time since the denomination came into being,
first
number
the
of professional staff at the regional or
conference level exceeded staff at the national level. generation of leaders also had appeared at the conference level. Since 1959 new chief executives had
A new
been elected
27 of the 40 conferences, .\mong those
in
was the Rev. W. Sterling Cary. the black to become conference minister in the denomination, who would serve in the Illinois Confer-
elected in 1974 first
He was
ence.
also the
black to have served as
first
president of the National Council of Churches.
The year saw
UCC
increased efforts on the part of the
to fulfill its
commitments
nantly black colleges related to cational
institutions
ser\'ing
The 17/76 Fund,
seas.
it
to the six
and
predomi-
to related edu-
minority groups over-
a campaign to raise $17 million
by
had been started .At the end of 1974, 16 conferences had participated and donations were approaching S5 million. The remaining conferences would participate in 1975. The new national Office for Church Life and Leadership was approved by the conferences and began operations on July 1. It incorporated functions formerly held by five bodies that had been phased out. Contrary to the practice in other national offices, the staff of the new office was regionalized. It was seen as an experiment in developing new working relationships between conferences and national staff. For the third year national agencies were engaged in priority programs as authorized by the General Synod of 1971. Prominent among them were Criminal Justice, conducted by the Commission for Racial Justice; Faith Exploration, which combined the techniques of the retreat and the encounter group to enable church members to explore what it means to be Christian; Evangelism; and To Heal a Nation, a program of the Center for Social .\ction which had dealt with the question of amnesty for Vietnam war resisters, joined other church agencies in aiding minority veterans, and urged complete withdrawal of military aid from Vietnam. these
for
among
institutions
1976,
the conferences in late 1972.
Several of the national agencies that held invested funds continued to offer and support stockholder resolutions calling for fair
employment
practices in south-
ern Africa and the U.S. by .American corporations, representation of minorities and women on boards of directors and
in
management, and the end of
de-
structive environmental practices. (See Presbyterian,
Reformed, and Congregational, above. 1 (ROBERT
V.
moss)
[827. D; 827.G.3; 827. H; 827.J.3]
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH Throughout 1974 Pope Paul VI, his pontificate, laid great stress
for the
on
its
Holy Year
year of
twin themes of renewal and reconciliation. Rec-
onciliation, itself
in the llth
on the need to prepare
of 1975. In his discourses he dwelt
and
he said repeatedly, involves the church its
inner unity, but extends also to other
churches, to society as a whole, and to poUtics and
work
for peace.
The Synod
of Bishops, which met in late Septemwas subordinate to the Holy Year preparations. The synod's theme was "The Evangelization of the Modern World." One of the principal points at issue was the relation between faith and political commitment. Particularly from Latin .-Xmerica there were ber,
demands
for a "theology of liberation" interpreting
salvation as liberation
from
injustice
and oppression.
''",;,;'..
600
bishop.
Women were becoming more militant; the NaAmerican Nuns (NCAN) called
tional Coalition of
Religion
for feminine participation in the synod,
denounced the
presence of a handful of women observers as "tokenism," and pointed out that Jesus sent Mary Magdalene to
tell
the good
news of the Resurrection
to the
peared, but
of Anglican orders and the controverted question of
He became
the apologist of the it
as a "grace for
the whole church" and predicting that
it
would
revi-
sacraments and parish life. In 1975 the Conference of the Charismatic Movement would be held in Rome over Pentecost. Italy was preoccupied with other worries in 1974. The divorce referendum of May 12-13 proved an talize the
New
baptizes Nathaniel Ryan Morreale, who had been refused baptism by the priests of his parents'
own parish
Marlborough, Mass., because of Mrs. Morreale's views favouring abortion.
in
it
deliberately left in suspense the question
the papal ministry. This last question
was bravely
who reached a
tackled by a Catholic-Lutheran group
surprising measure of consensus on the need for a
reformed papacy might all Christians. (See Introduction, above.) Elsewhere there were some striking contrasts. While in Strasbourg, France, the Lutherans responded favourably to the archbishop of Strasbourg's openminded position on intercommunion, in England the hierarchy refused to join the British Council of Churches "so as to preserve their right to defend the full teaching of the Catholic Church without reserve." (peter hebblethwaite) visible focus for unity that a
provide for
[827.C; 827.G.2; 827.J.2]
EASTERN CHURCHES The Orthodox Church. The
turmoil provoked by the Solzhenitsyn {see Bioc-
unwelcome and unexpected reverse for the hierarchy, which had committed itself to opposing the divorce law as the ruination of the Italian family. Pope Paul said he was "pained and saddened" by the result. Commentators drew the conclusion that Italy had changed radically, that it was rejecting its peasant past, and that it was moving toward pluralism. Over
expulsion of the writer A.
40 priests who had advocated pluralism were suspended by the hierarchy. The best known was Dom Giovanni Franzoni, formerly abbot of St. Paul's Outside the Walls in Rome, who was expelled from the
tor.
Benedictine Order.
clearly diminished the credibility of the Soviet govern-
The Vatican found
Yori' under the aegis of a new National Enterprise Board; and the repeal of the Conservatives' Industrial Relations Act, passed in 1971, which set up a system for the regulation of trade unions, together with a return to a voluntary incomes policy.
British
membership
whether
to
endum;
a wide-ranging
The
Liberals, with only
MPs
1 1
in the
outgoing Par-
scheme for holding back inflation by taxing companies and their employees who forced up either prices or earnings above an agreed annual rate; a minimum wage; a tax credit scheme to help the less privileged; and improvement of industrial relations. But the main weight of the Liberal thrust was against the two-party system itself which they blamed for sterile politics and a self-defeating liament, put forward a
alternation of conflicting short-term policies.
As the February campaign developed, the opinion showed an initial lead for the Conservatives dwindling, and a startling advance (put by some polls
polls
around 25%) by the Liberals. When the results were declared they produced deadlock. In the old Parhament Conservatives had a majority of 16 over at
all parties.
Labour was now the
largest single party,
Heath, though they called for "a government of national unity." Thereupon Heath resigned and Wilson was called on to form a government. still
—
which was to remain unchanged another general election in October was:
Wilson's Cabinet after
Edward Short
—
House of Commons), Lord Shepherd (leader of the House of Lords). James (leader of the
Callaghan (secretary of state for foreign
affairs; see
Biography), Elwyn Jones fiord chancellor), Roy Jenkins (home secretary), Denis Healey (chancellor Exchequer; see Biography), Michael Foot (employment; see Biography), Eric Varley (energy),
of the
Frederick Peart (agriculture), Barbara Castle (social
Anthony Wedgwood Benn ("industry; see Biography), Anthony Crosland (environment), Wil(Duchy of Lancaster, with responsibilities for economic policy), Peter Shore (trade), Shirley Williams (prices and consumer protection; see Biography), Roy Mason (defense), Merlyn Rees (Northern Ireland), John Morris (Wales), and Reginald Prentice (education and science). Though the Wilson government was extremely insecure in the House of Commons, it carried on through the spring and summer, submitting to an occasional defeat, but also bringing in some of its more conservices),
liam Ross (Scotland), Harold Lever
troversial legislation, including the repeal of the In-
dustrial Relations
Act and the abolition of the Pay
UNITED KINGDOM Education. (1972-73) Primary, pupils 6,228,702, teachers 248,107; secondary, pupils 4.061,002, teachers 242,436; vocational, pupils 348,766, teachers 63,547; teacher training, students 1,863, teachers 240; higher (including 42 universities), students 389,659. leaching staff 50,788. Finance. Monetary unit: pound sterling, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a free rate of £0.43 to U.S. $1 (U.S. $2.31 =£1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, official: (June 1974) U.S. $6,570,000,000; (June 1973) U.S. $6,873,000,000. Budget (1974-75 est.): revenue £23,188 million; expenditure £22,203 million. Gross national product: (1973) £71,270 million; (1972) £62.470 million. Money supply: (March 1974) £12,774 million: (March 1973) £12,333 million. Cost of living (1970 = 100): (June 1974) 149; (June 1973) 128. Foreign Trade. (1973) Imports £15,854.1 million; exports £12.455 million. Import sources: EEC 33% (West Germany 87'
!.
».i ii» i-jciLU vjft.ni
istaami
The most important political event of 1974 was the tenth congress of the Yugoslav League of Communists Belgrade on May 27-30. The congress elected Tito
733
ZAIRE
teachers 2,643; higher, students 12,363, teaching staff 1,386. Finance. Monetary unit: zaire, with (Sept. 16, 1974) an official exchange rate o( 0.50 zaire to U.S. $1 (free rate of 1.16 zaires £1 sterling). Gold, SDRs, and foreign exchange, central bank: (June 1974) U.S. $246.6 million; (June 1973) U.S. $114,730,000. Budget (1972 actual): revenue 305.5 million zaires; expenditure 426.! million zaires. Gross national product: (1972) 1.342,900.000 zaires; (1971) 1.244,800,000 zaires. Money supply: (Dec. 1973) 283,350,-
=
000
zaires; (Dec. 1972) living (Kinshasa; (March 1973) 151.
1970=
Foreign
,
Relations between church and state deteriorated as
Marxist professor and five students were each given ten months' imprisonment in Ljubljana, and dissident author Mihajlo Mihajlov was arrested in October. A group of alleged Croat nationalists was put oh trial in Zadar, Croatia. Two young British plane spotters, who had been accused of espionage and sentenced to
each in 1973, were released and sent home (k. f. cviic) on November 15. five years
[972.B.3.d]
^ (
Mobutu
30,
Mobutu announced
1973, President
was to be nationalized and that foreign-owned mining companies more of their or over hand 50% required to would be equity to the government. Many companies were affected by this order, including Lonrho and Unilever. The government also began to work on plans to make that foreign-owned agricultural land
possible the refining of copper in Zaire rather than in
Europe. Mobutu banned Asian, Greek, and Portuguese traders from living or doing business in five of the country's provinces. Portuguese observers and also Zairians criticized the ban on the ground that government officers were corruptly acquiring foreign-owned properties for their
ment was
266.5
million
2,100; pigs c. 550. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1972); coal 123; copper 300; tin 1.4; zinc 67; manganese ore (metal content) 196; gold (troy oz.) 139; silver (troy oz.) 2,100; diamonds (metric carats) 13,381; elecc.
tricity
(kw-hr.) 3,842,000.
own
The Greek governsome of its nationals
families.
also concerned about
of their possessions and forced Bank into refugee camps. The governor of the Central that the new arrangements however, of Zaire insisted,
who had been robbed
mixed did not affect Zaire's attachment to the idea of a economy and that the changes were not intended to investors. foreign to offered guarantees the get rid of
Mobutu Sese Seko
At the same time, compensation for nationalization would only apply to large-scale industries and agri-
introduces George Foreman
cultural land.
at opening
The search to
for offshore oil proved extremely expen-
was hoped that some return would begin be seen by the middle of 1975. At a conference of
sive,
but
it
the leading copper-producing countries held in Lusaka,
Sese Seko.
On Nov.
Imports
384; commercial 54,350. Railways: (1972) 5,174 km.; traffic (1971) 751 million passenger-km., freight 2,482,000,000 net ton-km. Air traffic (1972): 524 million passenger-km.; freight 19.8 million net ton-km. Shipping (1973): merchant vessels 100 gross tons and over 9; gross tonnage 38,966. Inland waterways (including Zaire [Congo] River; 1973) c. 13,700 km. Telephones (Dec. 1972) 42,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1972) 100,000. Television receivers (Dec, 1971) 7,100. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; 1972 in parentheses): rice 227 (206); corn (1972) c. 350, (1971) 306; sweet potatoes (1972) c. 360, (1971) c. 360; cassava (1972) c. 10,500, (1971) c. 10,500; peanuts c. 190 (c. 180); dry peas c. 80 (c. 80); palm kernels c. 110 (c. 105); palm oil c. 190 (c. 180); coffee c. 79 (c. 83); sugar, raw value c. 60 (c. 39); rubber c. 40 (c. 40); cotton, lint c. 24 (c. 20); timber (cu.m.; 1972) 14,700, (1971) 14,300; fish catch (1971) 124, (1970) 137. Livestock (in 000; Dec. 1972): cattle c. 980; sheep c. 720; goats
schoolchildren and students. In September a liberal
repubhc of equatorial AfZaire is bounded by the Republic, African Central Rwanda, Uganda, Sudan, Burundi, Tanzania, Zambia, Angola, Congo, and the Atlantic Ocean. Area: 905,365 sq.mi. 2,344,885 sq.km.). Pop. (1974 est.): 24,222,000. Cap. and largest city: Kinshasa (pop., 1973 est., 1,798,576). Language: French; Bantu dialects. Religion: animist approximately 50%; Christian 43%. President in 1974,
227,680,000 zaires. Cost of 100): (March 1974) 188;
(1970)
exports 367.7 million zaires. Import sources: Belgium-Luxembourg 24%; U.S. 11%; West Germany 10%; France 8%; U.K. 7%; Japan 7%; Italy 5%. Export destinations: Belgium-Luxembourg 43%; Italy 11%; U.K. 7%; France 7%. Main exports: copper 67%; diamonds 6%; coffee 5%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1973) 145,000 km. (including 69,347 km. main regional c. roads). Motor vehicles in use: passenger (1972) 81,-
tics after Tito.
rica,
Trade.
zaires;
a result of the stepping up of the indoctrination of
Zaire
(1970-71)
Primary, pupils 3,088.011, teachers 70,000; secondary, pupils 253,234, teachers 11,755; vocational (1969-70), pupils 33,985, teachers 3,515; teacher training (1969-70), students 34,532,
(who on May 16 had been elected president of the republic for life by the two chambers constituting the Assembly of the Federation) party leader "with an unlimited mandate." The congress also adopted new party statutes that emphasized party discipline and gave greater powers to the central party bodies, especially to the Presidium's 12-man Executive Committee in place of the existing 9-man Executive Bureau. The number of generals and army officers in the Central Committee and other leading party bodies increased perceptibly. A general was appointed minister of the interior in July, and another became federal prosecutor. Edvard Kardelj (see Biography) one of Tito's closest associates and a member of the State Presidency, and Stane Dolanc, secretary of the League of Communists' new Executive Committee, were probably the two most powerful figures in Yugoslav poli-
A
Zaire
Education.
in
Pres.
and in
Muhammad AH
ceremonies Kinshasa prior
to their v^ortd
heavyweight championship fight. All subsequently won the match.
734
Zambia
Zambia,
in
June 1974, representatives of Zaire joined
with the other delegates
in
severely criticizing the sys-
tem under which copper prices were fixed by the London Metal Exchange. Encouraged by the actions of oil-producing
make
countries,
the
conference set
out
plans to enable copper-producing countries to
prices. (See
Commodity Trade;
to fix
Special Report.)
Relations with Belgium became strained early in the year over the publication of a highly critical biography of President Mobutu by a Belgian lawyer. Later in the year the situation improved with the arrival of a
new
Belgian envoy in Kinshasa. Potentially more
seri-
ous over the long term were Portuguese fears that Zairian forces might unite with Holden Roberto's An-
golan guerrilla movement, with an eye, perhaps, on the oil
resources of the Cabinda enclave. Portuguese bor-
der defenses were strengthened, but no action ensued
on the part of the Zairian government although it was thought that Mobutu was anxious to abandon the moderate role he had played for the previous ten years and emerge as a leader of the more militant African nationalists. The president congratulated Frelimo on its successes in Mozambique after the military coup in Portugal, and he joined with Sudan's President Gaafar Nimeiry in criticizing the Organization of African Unity for failing to unite the various guerrilla
movements in Angola. With encouragement from Mobutu, the promoters of the boxing match between George Foreman and
A worker
prepares spools of copper wire for shipment at a Zambian cable manufacturing plant.
Boxing.) Trading figures for 1973 showed a number of promising developments. Exports to Japan had quadrupled over the 1972 figures to show a total value of
which had alleged that he had sent people out of the country to train to overthrow the government. Zambia's economic situation seemed promising, though there remained obstacles to be overcome. Negotiations took place early in 1974 with a view to increasing the export of copper to China, which had first begun when the government took control of the copper mines in 1970. and in February Kaunda paid a
$81.2 million, while the corresponding figure for im-
goodwill visit to China. As a result of technical de-
Muhammad
championship
for the heavyweight
Ali
of the world successfully staged
it
in
Kinshasa. {See
was only $59.9 million. Trade with Britain had followed a similar if less striking pattern. In 1974 Zaire received an offer from Japan for a loan of $1 12
ports
million
toward construction of a railway between
(kenneth ingham)
Banana and Matadi. [978.E.7.a.i]
^
republic and a
member
of the
Commonwealth
of
Nations, Zambia
is bounded by Tanzania, Malawi, Mozambique, Rhodesia, South West Africa, Angola, and Zaire. Area: 290,586 sq.mi. (752,614 sq.km.).
Pop. (1974
est.)
:
4,751,000, about
99%
of
whom
are
Africans. Cap. and largest city: Lusaka (pop., 1974 est.,
415,000). Language: English and Bantu. Reli-
gion: predominantly animist. President in 1974,
Ken-
neth Kaunda; prime minister, Mainza Chona. President Kaunda's personal success in being elected to a third five-year term in December 1973 was clouded by the defeat of three of his leading ministers in the general election and by the poor turnout (39%) of voters. However, the meeting of the United Na-
Independence Party national council in April 1974 produced a vigorous exchange of views, suggestKaunda had striven and
tional
ing that the unity for which
search of which he had banned opposition parties was beginning to be felt. Previously, criticism of government policy had tended too readily to deteriorate into hostility and bitter opposition, often along tribal lines. In March, Simon Kapwepwe, the former vicein
president,
radio
Education. (1973) Primary, pupils 777.873, teachers 16,491; secondary, pupils 60,051; vocational, pupils 1,871; secondary and vocational, teachers 2,779; teacher training, students 2.186, teachers 164; higher, students 1,934, teaching staff 214. Finance. Monetary unit; liwacha, with (Sept. 16, 1974) a par value of 0.64 kwacha to U.S. $1 (free rate of 1.49 kwachas £1 sterling). Gold and foreign exchange, official: (March 1974) U.S. $219.2 million; (March 1973) U.S. $195 million. Budget (1974 est.): revenue 499.7 million kwachas; expenditure 436 million kwachas. Gross domestic product; (1972) 1,217,.
=
Zambia A
ZAMBIA
won
a hbel suit against the state-owned
and television service and
two newspapers,
000.000 kwachas; (1971) 1,106,000,000 kwachas. Cost of living (1970 = 100); (Feb. 1974) 126; (Feb. 1973) 114. Foreign Trade. (1973) Imports 393.7 million kwachas; exports 742 million kwachas. Import sources (1972): U.K. 24%; South Africa 15%; Japan 10%; U.S. 9%; Italy 5%; West Germany 5%. Export destinations (1972): Japan 20%; U.K. 20%; Italy 12%; France 9%; West Germany 8%; Brazil 6%. Main export copper 94%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1972) 34,963 km. Motor vehicles in use: passenger (1972) 64,000; commercial 40,000. Railways (1972) 1,297 km. (excluding the new 1,860-km. Tanzam railway linking Zambia with Dar es Salaam in Tanzania). Air traffic (1973): 340 million passenger-km.; freight 16,370,000 net ton-km. Telephones (Dec. 1972) 58,000. Radio receivers (Dec. 1972) 100,000. Television receivers (Dec. 1972) 20.000. Agriculture. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973; 1972 in parentheses): corn c. 355 (612); caiisava (1972) c. MS, (1971) c. 145; millet c. 63 (c. 63); sorghum c. 140 (c. 188); peanuts (1972) c. 100, (1971) c. 103; sugar, raw value c. 54 (c. 50); tobacco c. 6 (6). Livestock (in 000; 1972-73): cattle c. 1,700; sheep c. 30; goats c. 195; pigs c. 115; chickens (197172) c. 7.000. Industry. Production (in 000; metric tons; 1973): copper 638; lead 25; zinc 53; electricity (kw-hr.) 3,420,000.
coal 940;
-^- -
'
.t.
r
^"
V'"rf'rtHt
•
velopments by the Nchanga copper mines group, the output of copper in the future was likely to be greatly increased and the cost of production would be relatively low. At a conference of copper-producing countries in Lusalia in
June, delegates criticized the sys-
tem under which prices were fixed by the JLondon Metal Exchange, and discussed plans to enable the copper-producing countries to fix prices. (See Commodity Trade Special Report.) Inadequate transport facilities resulted in the
tional Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, adopted in 1973 and so far signed by 39 nations, would help the endangered animals in their natural habitat and give zoos even more inducement to form captive breeding groups. Many zoos through-
out the world
Zambia
at the
docks in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, early in the year. Metal goods rusted in the heavy rains, while perishable goods, including food, deteriorated in the heat. One section of the new Tanzam railway, from Dar es
Salaam
to
the
northern
Zambian border, was
brought into operation in April ahead of schedule to try to reduce the backlog. While the railway might produce an immediate improvement in the import situation, its long-term benefits to Zambia were expected to lie primarily in providing a new outlet for
raw materials
would not depend on the cooperaopposed neighbouring states. Probably the most important development in foreign affairs was the change of government in Mozambique. In May Kaunda called upon the new military government in Portugal to grant independence to Mozambique and Angola, and in September, at his initiative, Frelimo leaders and the Portuguese foreign minister, Mario Scares, met in Lusaka. There, final details were arranged for Frelimo's participation in an interim government in Mozambique. In December Kaunda was host to meetings that led to an agreement between Ian Smith's regime and black leaders that
tion of ideologically
in Rhodesia. {See
Rhodesm.)
(kenneth ingham)
[978.E.8.b.iii]
Zoos and Botanical Gardens Zoos. During 1974 even greater stress was being placed on conservation of animals in the wild and the breeding of animals in zoos. Officially listed as endangered were some 290 species and subspecies of mammals, 340 birds, 180 reptiles and amphibians, and 90 fish. It was hoped that the Convention on Interna-
Botanical
Gardens
now
operated loan programs whereby single animals were sent to other zoos to form breeding pairs.
:
pileup of imported goods intended for
Zoos and
Probably the greatest contribution to conservation make was to breed endangered animals such numbers that they could be returned to the
that zoos could in
One of the most successful of such conservation programs had been started over 20 years wild state.
Wildfowl Trust in Great Britain. At that time only 42 Hawaiian geese (nene) remained in the
earlier at the
wild state and three of these were sent to the trust for breeding purposes. Since then the trust had reared over 820, returned 200 geese to Hawaii, and had
loaned 180 birds to other zoos for breeding purposes. The Wildfowl Trust, with a surplus of Hawaiian
was allowing some
geese, their
to fly at liberty
grounds and also offered some for
throughout
sale to other
zoos. Other notable breeding successes with endan-
gered species had been the European bison and the Pere David's deer, both of which were extinct in the
Whipsnade Park in England had even sent some Pere David's deer to their native China. Other organizations were also setting up breeding programs, and zoos could learn a great deal from the wild.
research undertaken. Cornell University had set up a captive breeding program for the peregrine falcon, virtually exterminated in North America as a result of exposure to toxic chemicals. In 1974, 20 peregrines were reared, so that it would be possible to start the
program sooner than expected. of a new first breeding was becoming increasingly difficult but the Point Defiance Aquarium, Tacoma, Wash., recorded the first captive propagation of sea otters. All zoos were now striving to attain second generation captive breeding, and the National release
The recording
Park,
Washington,
recorded this danger of extinction. Also at Washington, a bald eagle was hatched; only three others had ever been bred of this now Zoological
with golden marmosets
D.C.,
—a species
in
species, which is the emblem of the U.S. At the Toledo (0.) Zoo the first chimpanzee birth
uncommon
This lioness
is
one
of several kinds of African animals
that freely roam
in
Lion
Country Safari, a zoo in Ashland, Va., through which visitors can drive.
Zinc:
Mining and Quarrying
see
Zoology: see Life
Sciences
The new
horticultural unit at the Santa Barbara (Calif.) Botanic Garden had a large greenhouse with Saran shading and automatically controlled cooling and heating, as well as other facilities. At the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Eng.. several special collections received particular attention.
The
Oleaceae. Escallonia, Buddleia, and grass collections
were replanned, extended, and replanted. Dutch elm disease continued to exact a toll and an injection program using the fungicide Lignasan had encouraging results. Hazel coppice plantings were made in the Queen's Cottage grounds and the Queen's Garden was extended around the front of Kew Palace. Part of the
was landscaped for Selaginella plantings. Wakehurst Place a new bog garden was part of
ferneries .'\t
the project for conserving wetland species.
The world lites
trend toward specialist gardens as satel-
was exemphfied by the Botanic Gardens of South Africa, where
of larger institutions
National
extensive collections of species of the particular re-
Chia-Chia and Ching-Ching, ^'"""'" Zoo^'by
Ch7nV°e!r
comfortably
in their
new quarters.
from artificial insemination was recorded. The Jersey ^°°' Channel Islands, bred two lowland gorillas which were being hand-reared and could be observed on closed-circuit television. An Andean condor was bred at Yokohama (Jap.) City Zoo, and Chester Zoo in England had a record bird-breeding year with many rarities, including a first red-headed laughing thrush. Red-fronted macaws were captured alive in Bolivia for the first time. This species is found in a very restricted area and is hunted by the natives, so ten were taken into captivity to form a breeding nucleus. West Berlin Zoo received two vulturine parrots from New Guinea, a species that could only be seen at two other zoos in the world. Giant pandas always form a great attraction, and a pair were received at the London Zoo as a gift from the Chinese government.
A large number of new buildings were erected. The Bronx (N.Y.) Zoo was constructing a new five-acre South American exhibit and the National Zoological Park was enlarging its giant panda enclosures. The Twycross (Eng.) Zoo opened a new orangutan house. Under construction at West Berlin was the most advanced carnivore house in Europe and a new tropical house.
The Chester Zoo constructed new moated
en-
closures for antelope including the Arabian gazelle, a species virtually exterminated in the wild. Perhaps
was reached at the Philadelphia Zoo where carpets were fitted in the public part of three of the animal houses. But even such sumptuousness did not satisfy a group of several hundred activthe height of luxury
animal lovers, who demonstrated in New York November demanding the immediate shutdown
ist
in
of
Central Park and Prospect Park zoos and the eventual (c. s. mottershead) closing of zoos in general. Botanical Gardens. A new feature of the New York Botanical Garden was the Junkin Memorial
Limestone Garden, opened May 23, 1974. Constructed of huge limestone blocks and landscaped with a cascade and pools, it formed an ideal habitat for plants loving alkaline conditions. About 75 mi. away from New York City, but under the same direction, the Cary Arboretum reported rapid development in its third year.
At the Missouri Botanical Garden 1974 saw the ground-breaking ceremony for the new Japa-
gion were being represented in each garden. At the central Kirstenbosch Gardens work on the Proteaceae garden was being completed. The Leucadendron species were reported to be flowering and the grassed pathways were doing very well. Rocky outcrops were placed in tJie Erica garden where the lawns were extended and the broad connecting approaches were
graded prior
to
being grassed.
The Dunedin (N.Z.) Botanical Garden, one
of the
world's numerous municipal gardens, reported an increase in their remarkable collection of Rhododendron species in cultivation. In gardens with high alkalinity,
however, the cultivation of acid-loving plants poses a problem. For example, at the
Geneva botanic
gar-
den the construction of the rhododendron massif entailed the excavation of soil to a depth of one metre
and filling with Jura peat. Lateral seepage of alkaline water was avoided by lining the sides of the depression with plastic sheet, while allowing free drainage through the floor. Feeding once annually with a proprietary manure was found to be adequate to maintain plant health and
maximum
The two gardens
in the
flowering.
Canary Islands were
ex-
panding. Planting had taken place on the 40-ha. ex-
Gran Canada, which since 1951 had specialized in endemic Canary Islands species. The other extension was taking place on Tenerife where the historic Jardin de Aclimatacion tension to the Jardin Canario,
(founded in 17S8) specialized duced by early travelers.
in exotic plants intro-
Reorganization of research at the National BotaniGardens, Lucknow, India, placed all projects under seven well-defined areas of research. Among these cal
were the introduction, consideration, and documentation of germ plasm; medicinal and aromatic plants; and other ornamental and economic species. Large collections of roses. Bougainvillaea, Sansevieria, and especially of Chrysanthemum had been built up since the gardens had been declared a national repository for these cultivars.
Donetsk Botanical Garden, Ukraine, U.S.S.R., was opened to the public in 1974, after nine years of The garden was situated in an industrial zone with huge waste dumps from mining operations, and the difficult substratum created problems of selection of suitable species of acacia and rose to con(FRANK N. HEPPER) solidate the soil. preparation.
initial
r3SS.C.6]
nese garden. Plans for this three-year, ten-acre project included an enlarged lake and other major features.
to
ENCYCLOPyeDiA Bbitannica Filus. Zoo's-Eye View: Damn Dark (1973).
CONTRIBUTORS Names
of contributors to the Britannica
The arrangement
AARSDAL. STENER. Economic
Editor,
B0rs€n, Copenhagen.
Denmark
ACCARDO. JOSEPH
J.
Book is
Year with the
of the
articles written
BOLT, PETER H.
Secretary,
Vision. Lecturer in Latin American Literature, University of Mexico. Literature (in part)
British Committee, Council. Author of Religion (in part)
A Way
HOWARD. Journalist and Broadcaster. Editor, Winter Sports, 1948-69 Winter Sports Correspondent, Daily Telegraph, London Christian Science Monitor, Boston Canadian Skater^ Vancouver; Skate, London Skating, Boston Ski Racing, Denver Sportsxoorld, London. Author of The Sense in Sport; This Skating Age; The Magic of Skiing; International Encyclopaedia of Winter Sports; Let's Go Skating. Biography {i7i part) Hockey (in part)
BOOTH. JOHN NICHOLLS.
BARROS. SALVADOR.
Literary Critic,
Energy (in part)
:
C. Turf Editor. Chicago Sini-Times. Author of Ten
for Professional
Handicapping. (in part)
AGUS, JACOB
B. Visiting Professor of
Modern Jewish Philosophy, Dropsie Evolution of Jewish Thought; Dialogue and Tradition. T}ie
Religion (in part)
ALLABY, MICHAEL. Free-lance Writer and Lecturer. Author of The E co- Activists j Who Will Eatr : a Blueprint for Survival.
;
;
;
;
;
BOSWALL, JEFFERY. BEALL, JOHN VALENTINE.
Business
Development Engineer. Author of sections 1 and 34, Mining Engineering Handbook. Frequent Contributor to Mining Engineering, New York. Mining and Quarrying (in part)
Producer of
Sound and Television Programs, British Broadcasting Corporation Natural History Unit, Bristol, Eng. Life Sciences (in part)
BOYLE,
C. L. Lieutenant Colonel. (retd.). Chairman, Survival Service Commission, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 1958-63; Secretary, Fauna Preservation Society, London, 1950-63.
R.A.
BEATTY, J. A. Lecturer in Geography, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
Unitarian
Universalist clergyman. Co-founder, Japan Free Religinus Association. Author of The Quest for Preaching Power; l7itroducing
Ice Skating; Skiing
(in part)
ALLAN,
Netherlands, The
;
University, Philadelphia, Pa. Author of
Environment
of Loving.
Amsterdam.
!ity,
;
AGRELLA. JOSEPH Horse Racing
World Methodist
BASS.
Washington Columnist.
Commandments
by them.
alphabetical by last name.
R. Senior Research Associate,
J.
B. F. Goodrich Research Center, Brecltsville, O. Industrial Production (in part)
and Technology
Environment
(in part)
Libya
ALLEN,
V. L. Professor of the Sociology of Industrial Society, University of Leeds. Eng. Author of Power in Trade
Unions; Trade Union Leadership ; Trade Unions and the Government ; Militant Trade Unionism ; l7it emotional Bibliography of Trade Unionisyn; Sociology of Industrial Relations. Industrial
Relations
ALSTON, REX.
Broadcaster
and Journalist. Author of Taking the Air; Over to Rex Alston; Test Coynmentary Watcixing Cricket.
ANTONINI. GUSTAVO ARTHUR. Associate Professor, Center for Latin American Studies, University of Florida. Dominican Republic
BECKWITH. DAVID CAMERON. Correspondent, Tim.e magazine,.
Washington. D.C.
nist Collapse in hidonesia.
United States (in part)
BEDDOES,
R. H. Sports Columnist,
J, Writer, St. Lo Post-Dispatch. Author of Bowling for
Boys and
Girls.
Bowling and Lawn Bowls
JR. Professor and Chairman. Department
Toronto Globe and Mail. Hockey (in part)
BELTRAN, WILLIAM. Research
Officer.
of Radiation
Senior Economic
Lloyds Bank
International, London. Latin-American Affairs
BERGERRE, MAX. for Vatican Affairs, Vatican City State
Correspondent
ANSA
Rome.
A. G. Lecturer, Department of Economics, University of Bristol, Eng. Investment, International; Trade, International
F.
BICKELHAUPT, DAVID
BRICKHOUSE, JACK.
;
L.
Manager
University. Author of Transition to
Baseball (in part)
Insurance Companies; Multiple-Line -^ - -al Insurance (9th ed.). G ^
ATTON. CYRIL
J. Editor, Motorcycle Sport, London. Motor Sports (in part)
BRIERRE, ANNIE.
Literary Critic,
La
Lenclos. Literature (in part)
BURDIN, JOEL ALAN. Music
BODDY, WILLIAM
Horse Racing (in part)
Technical
Journalist. Industrial Production and Technology
ASTROM, ERIC
Canadian Race Tracks.
Vice-President and Continental
WGN
of Sports,
Broadcasting Company.
Croix Histoire Pour Tous ; France-Culture; France-U .S.A. Author of Ninon de
BLYTH,
of
Earth Sciences (in part)
Professor of Insurance, College of Administrative Science, Ohio State
the Latter-day Saints. Religion (in part) A. Executive Assistant The Ontario Jockey Club; Director, National Association
(in part)
Executlv
BRAZEE, RUTLAGE J. Senior Seismologist. Solid Earth Data Services Division, D62. NOAA, Boulder, Colo.
BILEFIELD, LIONEL.
to the President,
and the Department of
Secretary, Harness Tracks of AmericE Vice-President, United States Inc. Trotting Association. Horse Racing (in part)
'—
Church Historian, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Author of Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of
Professor of J. Old World Prehistory, the Oriental Archaeology
In
ARRINGTON, LEONARD JAMES,
BRAIDWOOD, ROBERT Institute
(in part)
ARMSTRONG,
Therapy and Nuclear
Medicine, Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital. Philadelphia. Contributor to Clinical Dynamic Function Studies with Radionuclides : New Techniques in Tumor Localization and Radioimmunoassay. Health and Disease (in part)
Anthropology, the University of Chicago.
BERGSTEIN, STANLEY
ARCHIBALD. JOHN
BRADY, LUTHER WELDON,
Critic,
London.
Music (in part) C. Editor,
Motor Sport. Full Member, Guild of Motoring Writers. Author of The Story of Brooklands The SOO Mile Race: The World's Land Speed Record; Continental Sports Cars; The Sports Car Pocketbook; The Bugatti Story ; History of Montlhery; :
Vintage Years of the Morgan Three-
L. Associate Director,
American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education Secretary. Associated Organizations for Teacher Education Editor Journal of Teacher Education, Washington, D.C. Author of A Reader's Guide to the Comprehensive Models for Preparing Elementary Teachers. Co-author of Elementary School Curriculum and l7istruction. ;
;
Education
(in
part)
BURKE, DONALD Chemical Week.
Industrial Production (in part)
P. Executive Editor, ., ^ and Technology _,
,
738 Contributors
BURKS, ARDATH W.
Professor and Associate Vice-President for Academic Rutgers University, New Brunswicic, N.J. Author of The Oovernment of Japan; East Asia: China, Korea, Japan. Affairs,
CHU, HUNG-TL Expert
UN
Par Eastern
In
Area Specialist and Chief Affairs. of Asia-Africa Section and Trusteeship Council Section, 1946-67 Professor of :
Government, Texas Tech, University, Lubbock, 1968-69. Chir
;
Taiv
DECRAENE. PHILIPPE. Member
Tableau des Partis Politiques Africains. Cameroon: Central African Republic; Chad; Congo: Dahomey; Dependent States {in part)
BUSHONG. ALLBN
D. Associate Professor of Geography, University of South Carolina, El Salvador; Honduras
DONALD F. Professor of Metallurgy, University of Idaho. CLIFTON, Metallurgy
CLOUD. STANLEY WILLS. Washington,
D.C
BUTLER, DAVID RICHARD.
Publications Officer, Institution of Gas Engineers, London. Energy (in part)
Correspondent. Time magazine. Biography (in part)
of
editorial staff. Le Monde, ^Parls. Editor In Chief, Revue /rcnfuisc d^^:tudcs politiques africaines. Author of Le Panafricaniame
de
la
Ivory Coast
;
BARRE, KENNETH.
Director.
Montreal Office. Arctic Institute of North America. Arctic Regions
DEMPSEY. GEOFFREY.
Fellow of Institute of Practitioners In Advertising, Walter Thompson Co. Ltd., London.
J.
COGLE,
T. C. J. Editor. Bleclrical
Advertising (in part)
Review, London.
BUTLER, FRANK.
Sports Editor, Newa of the World, London. Author of A History of Boxing in Britain. Boxing
and Technology
Industrial Production
(in part)
Lecturer In Bulgarian History, University of London.
BYRNE, DON. Traffic
Associate Editor,
World Magazine, Washington, D.C. nunications {in part)
CALASCIONE. JOHN.
CALHOUN, DAVID
Athletics Correspondent.
A
The
Picture History of the Olympics. Track and Field Sports (in part)
COPELAND. JAMES
Associate Professor, Department of Microbiology, Ohio State University.
R. Editor,
Life
C.
DE PUY, NORMAN
R. Senior Minister, Church of Dearborn, Mich, formerly Executive Director, Division American Baptist Churches, USA, Valley Forge. Pa. Author First Baptist
CAMPBELL,
DILLARD, DUDLEY.
Professor and Chairman, Department of Economics. University of Maryland. Author of The Economics of John Maynard Keynes; Economic Development of the North Atlantic Community.
Sciences (in part)
;
STANLEY H. British Correspondent, Australia7i Tailor and Menswear and Herrenjournal COSTIN,
DIRNBACHER. ELFRIEDE.
International.
of Fulilic Libraries in the Urian Metropolitan Setting.
Fashion Writers International.
EDLIN.
Fashion and Dress (in part)
Officer,
Former President, Men's
CRATER, RUFUS W.
Chief Correspondent, Broadcasting,
in
Eng.
New York
City. Television and Radio (in part)
Transport Correspondent, The Economist, London Traffic: Policies in
Congestion.
EDWARDS, JOHN.
CVIIC, K. F. Leader Writer and East Specialist, The Economist,
EISE.NfBERG,
European
CASSIDY, VICTOR M. Writer and
editor,
currently at work on a biography of Wyndham Lewis. Biography (in part)
London. Biography (in part) Yugoslavia
;
Czechoslovakia:
Historic Preservation
Editor. Encyclopedia Britannica, Yearbooks. Biography (in part)
CHAPMAN, KENNETH
F. Editor, Philatelic
DAVID, TUDOR. Managing Educatio7i, London. Education (in part)
Good Stamp Collecting ; Commonwealth Stamp Collecting. (in
Heinz
III,
Rep. H. John
to
Washington, D.C.
Populations and Areas R. Editor, Vooruitgang
(Quarterly of the Belgian Party for Freedom and Progress). Brussels. Belgium: Biography (in part) D. Editor and Director. Fairplay International Shipping Weekly, London. Author of Marine Engines: Atomic Submarines : Hydrofoils and Hovercraft Bnildino a Ship. Editor of World Atlas of Shipping. Industrial Production and Technology (in part): Transportation (in part) :
Correspondent, The Times, London. Author of
and Numismatics
WARREN W.
Administrative Assistant
EWART, W.
DAUME, DAPHNE.
Philately
Research Fellow. University of Leeds, Eng. Author of Social Patterns in Birmingham. Housing
ENGELS, JAN
DAIFUKU, HIROSHI, Chief, Sites and Division, UNESCO. Paris.
Monuments
;
part)
t,in
Correspondent, The Guardian, London, and British Broadcasting Corporation. Biography (i7i part): German Democratic Republic; Germany, Federal Republic of
Transportation {in part)
Collecting
L. Publications
Plants: What Wood Is Thatt ; Guide to Tree Planting and Cultivation. Co-author of Atlas of Plant Life; The World of Environment
CROSSLAND. NORMAN. Bonn
CASEMENT, RICHARD.
Stamp
HERBERT
Forestry Commission of Great Author of Trees, Woods and Man; Wayside and Woodland Trees; Man and
Britain.
Literature (in part)
Author of Urban
Austrian
Civil Servant. Austria; Biography (in part)
H. C. Chief Librarian, Toronto Public Library, Toronto. Autho
Italian, University of Sussex, Literature {in part)
M. Free-la
The Daihj Telegraph, London. Author of Olympic Report i968; The Olympics 1971;
EncyclopiBdia Britannica, Yearbooks. Biography (in part) Consumerism (in part)
CARSANIGA, GIOVANNI. Reader
R. J.
of Communication.
COOTE, JAMES.
Press and
Publications Officer, International Organization of Consumers Unions, Hague, Neth. Consumerism (in part)
DENNERSTEIN.
Writer, Jerusalem. Biography (in part)
COLLINS, LESLIE JOHN DUDLEY.
Editor.
part)
DONALD A. Editor, Drug i Cosmetic Industry, New York. Contributor to The Science and Technology of Aerosol Packaging. Industrial Production and Technology DAVIS,
CHAPMAN, ROBIN. Research
Officer,
Senior Economic
Lloyds Bank
International, London. Cuba; Mexico
(in part)
CHAPPELL, DUNCAN. Director. Law and Justice Study Center, Battelle
Memorial Institute. Seattle, Washington. Co-author of The Police and the Public i Australia and Neui Zealand; The Australian Criminal Justice System. Crime and Law Enforcement {in part)
DAWBER, ALFRED.
Textile consultant In aspects of textile production. Specialized writer on textile, engineering, all
and
electrical subjects. Industrial Production and Technology ( in part
SETRA
Civil
(Service d'ftudes Techniques des Routes et Autoroutes),
Bagneux, France. Engineering Projects (in part)
1S67-18S7
;
and Canada,
Ofricc
Tivo
Dc
FAULKNER,
D.
J.
Fellow,
RAUL. Formerly
Fulbrlght
Visiting Lecturer on American History, University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte. Braz. Co-author of Latin
Mount Stromlo
and Siding Spring Observatory, Australian National University. Canberra. Contributor to various sclentlUc journals. Astronomy
PENDELL, ROBERT d'ECA,
CHAUSSIN. ROBERT. Government Engineer,
The Colonial
Canadian Experienc Canada
J.
New York
Editor, Automotive News. Automobile Columnist for Gentleman's Quarterly. President Emeritus, International Motor Press Association. Co-author, Encyclopedia of Motor Racing Greats. Motor Sports (in part)
Contributors 739
FERRIER.
R. "W.
Group Historian,
British Petroleum, London. Energy (in part)
Human
Conservation of
FIDDICK, PETER, Features
Editor,
The Guardian, London.
Resources,
Columbia University. Author of Men, Money and Medicine; Urban Health Services: The Case of New York.
HASEGAWA, RYUSAKU.
Health and Disease (in part)
Publishing (in part)
TBS-Britannica
Co., Ltd.,
Editor.
Tokyo.
Biography (in part)
FIRTH. DAVID GEORGE. Friend, London
Editor,
The
formerly Editor, Quaker Monthly, London. ;
Religion (in part)
R. J. Lecturer. Department of Mining- Engineering. University of
Newcastle upon Tyne, Eng. (in
part)
FRANCO, JEAN.
Professor of Spanish and Portuguese. Stanford University. Author of The Modern Culture of Latin
America; An Introductioji
to Spayiish-
Americayi Literature. Literature (in part)
Financial Times, London.
HATHAWAY, RICHARD
Norway
Editor. English
Bridge Quarterly. Bridge Correspondent, Yorkshire Post; Yorkshire Evening Post. Broadcaster. Author of Best of Bridge on the Air. Contract Bridge
FREDRICKSON. DAVID
A. Associate Professor of Anthropology. Sonoma State College. Rohnert Park. Calif. Archaeology (in part)
PRIDOVICH. IRWIN.
Professor of Biochemistry. Duke University Medical Center, Durham, N.C.
Office of
Teaching
Goddard Jewish Demographj' and Institute of
College, Plainfield, Vt. Pacifism and Nonviolent Movements
Statistics.
Contemporary Jewry, the
Hebrew University
of Jerusalem. Israel.
Religion (in part)
Television and Radio (in part)
Author of Sales Under Uniform Commercial Code; Cases on Bills and Notes Com.mercial Paper; Transactional Guide of the Uniform Commercial Code; Cases on Sales and Security. Law (in part)
GOLLAND,
HAWLEY,
GODWIN. MORGAN. W.
Assistant
:
American Radio Relay
Secretary.
League, Newington. Conn.
B. L. General Secretary, Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches. London. Religion (in part)
H. B. Consultant, Nutrition and Food Science, Sherborne. Eng. Food Processing (in part)
Human
GOLOMBEK, HARRY.
British Chesa Champion. 1947. 1949. and 1955. Chess Correspondent. The Times and Observer, London. Author of Penguin Handbook on the Game of Chess; Modern Opening Chess Strategy.
Biography (in port)
;
Chess
GOODWIN,
R. M. Free-lance Writer. London. Gabon; Guinea; Horse Racing (in part) Malagasy Republic; Mali; Mauritania; Niger; Senegal; Togo; Upper Volta
Editor of Faith in Question; Talking with Unbelievers. Biography (in part) Religion (in part) ;
;
Sciences (in part)
FRIEDLT, ROBERT
O.
Faculty. History and International Studie; Secretary. Division of
the General
FRANKLIN, HAROLD.
Life
Oslo Correspondent,
GLIKSON. PAUL.
FOWELL, Energy
GJESTER, FAY.
HENDERSHOTT. MYRL
C. Associate
Oceanography. Scripps Institution of Oceanography.
Professor of L. Director.
Communication. Christian Church
(Disciples of Christ). Indianapolis. Ind. Religion (in part)
GORALSKI, ROBERT. NBC News
Washington Correspondent. Vietnam
HEPPER, FRANK
N. Principal Scientific Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens. Kew, Eng. Co-author of Plant Collectors in West Africa. Editor of Flora of West Tropical Africa Officer.
FRIEDMAN. IRVING
S. Senior International Policy Adviser. First National City Bank of New York, and formerly Economic Adviser to the President of the World Bank and Department Director of the International
London. Drug Abuse (in part)
;
Health and
Disease (in part)
(vol.
ii
and
iii).
Zoos and Botanical Gardens
(in part)
Monetary Fund. Author of Inflation: A World-Wide Disaster: Exchange Controls and the International Monetary System; U.S. Foreign Econojnic Policy.
Development, Economic and Social
FROST. DAVID. Rugby Union
GRAHAM. JARLATH JOHN.
Editor.
Advertising Age. Advertising (in part)
Correspondent, The Guardian, London.
GRAY. LYNDA. News
Football (in part)
Editor,
B
d T
Weekly, Sydney. Austr.
FROST,
J.
WILLIAM.
Associate Professor
of Religion and Director, Friends Historical Library. Swarthmore (Penn. College. Author of The Quaker Family in Colonial America. Religion (in part)
FULLER. and Social
Economic Darwin College,
M. F. Lecturer Statistics,
In
University of Kent at Canterbury, Eng. Natic
GADDUM. PETER W.
Chairman,
H. T. Gaddum and Company Ltd., Silk Merchants, Macclesfield. Cheshire. Eng. President, International Slik Association. Lyons. Author of Silk How and Where It Is Produced. Industrial Production and Technology (in part)
—
GALVANO, FABIO.
GREEN, BENNY. ;
Jazz Critic. Observer. Record Reviewer, British Broad-
Special
Turin, Italy.
San Marino
HOLLANDS,
GRIFFITHS,
HOLZ, ERNEST W. National
A. R. G. Senior Lecturer University of South
in History, Flinders
Australia. Australia; Biography (in part);
Nauru
GROVE, ROBERT
D. Former Director, Division of Vital Statistics, U.S. Public Health Service. Co-author of Vital
Rates in the United States, 1900-19^0 : Vital Statistics Rates in the United States, 191,0-1960. Demography
Italy
R. L. Hockey Correspondent, the Daily Telegraph, London. Co-author of Hockey. Hockey (in part)
Chief Secretary and Colonel, Salvation Army, U.S.A. Religion (in part)
HOPE, THOMAS WALKER.
A. Professor.
School of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Wisconsin Madison. T. J. S. World Population Year Secretariat, United Nations, New York. Author of Krishna Menon: A Biography Lee Kuan Yew's Singapore. :
Biography (in part) Cambodia; Korea; Laos; Southeast Asian Affairs; Thailand ;
Publishing (in part)
HARRIES. DAVID Moodie (1973)
Ltd.,
Peterborough, Eng.
Engineering Projects (in part)
Editor,
Behavior Today: Senior Editor. Psychology Today, Del Mar. Calif. Behavioural Sciences
HOTZ. LOUIS. Former A. Director. Kinnear
President
and Publisher, Hope Reports. Inc., Rochester. N.Y. Author of Hope Reports AV-USA 1972; Hope Reports Education d
HORN, PATRICE DAILY.
HACHTEN, WILLIAM GEORGE,
Geographer,
U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. Author of The Changing Map of Africa. Andorra; Liechtenstein; Luxembourg; Monaco;
casting Corporation. Author of The Reluctant Art; BlaTne It on My Youth; 58 Minutes to London; Jazz Decade; Drums in My Ears. Contributor to E?icyclopedia of Jazz. Music (in part)
Statistics
Correspondent, Gazzetta del Popolo,
1951-61. Taxation (in part)
HODGSON. ROBERT D. The
Television and Radio (in part)
London
Co-author of The Wealth of the Nation: The Balance Sheet of the United Kingdom,
editorial writer, the Johannesburg (S.Af.) Star. Co-author and contributor to The Jews in History. South Africa: A Biography (in part) ; South Africa
740 Contributors
HUGHES. TERENCE.
KAPLANSKT. IRVING.
Institute, London. Teleuision and Radio (in part)
Department
Director of Publications, International Broadcast
Mead Distinguished
George Herbert
Mathematics
HUNNINGS, NEVILLE MARCH. General Editor, Common Law Reports Ltd., London. Editor of Common Market Law Reports, European Law Digest, and Burolaw Commercial Intelligence. Author of Film Censors and the Law, Co-editor of Legal Problems of an Enlarged European Community. Law (in part)
HURTIG, SERGE.
KNEESHAW, JOHN.
Economist.
Bank
for
International Settlements, Basel, Swlt2.
Service Professor,
of Mathematics, the University
Money and Banking
of Chicago.
Secretary General,
KNORR.
N. H. President. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Religion (in part)
New
York. Author of Magaz Libraries ; Introduction to Reference
Work. Publishing (in part)
Biography (in part)
KELLEHER, JOHN
KOVAN. RICHARD W. Features Nuclear Engineering International,
A. Editor, The Dominion, Wellington, N.Z. Biography (in part) New Zealand ;
;
Industrial Production
Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques Professor, Paris Institute of Political Studies. Former SecretaryGeneral. International Political Science Association. Political Science
Nobel Prizes
and Technology
;
INGHAM. KENNETH.
Professor of
History. University of Bristol, Eng. Author of Reformers in India; A History of East Africa. Dependent States (in part) Guinea-Bissau; Kenya: Malawi: Rhodesia: Tanzania: ;
Uganda:
Zambia
Zaire:
KRADER. BARBARA.
Past President, Society for Ethnomuslcology Executiv Secretary, International Folk Music :
KERR,
A. Senior Lecturer, University
c
Birmingham, Eng. Chemistry
(in
part)
KERRIGAN, ANTHONY. Unamuno
(10 vol.).
Editor and
Works
translator of Selected
de
ISSA (INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SECURITY ASSOCIATION), Geneva.
J.
of Miguel
Author of
At the Front Door of the Atlantic. Editor and Translator of works of Jorge Luis Borges.
Social and Welfare Services (in part)
TELECOMMUNICATION UNION),
Geneva. Telecommunications
(in
JACKSON,
D. A. S. Research Officer, of Applied Economics, University of Cambridge: Fellow of St. Catharine's College, Cambridge. Employment, Wages, and Hours
Department
JARDINE, ADRIAN. Company
B. Professor of Industrial Education and Technology, Eastern Washington State College. Industrial Production and Technology (in part)
KILNER, PETER.
Arab Report
Technical
Production and Technology (in part)
Industrial
Producer, Science and
Features Department, British Broadcasting Corporation. London. Telecommunications (in part)
H. E. Senior Blophysiclst. Division of Biological and Medical Research. Argonne National Laboratory. Author of Introduction to Research with Continuous Cultures. Sciences
(in
part)
LEGUM, COLIN.
Associate Editor and
Commonwealth Correspondent. Observer, London. Author of Must
Congo Disaster. Editor Contemporary Record.
We
Lose Africat;
of Africa
African Affairs; Biography (in part)
;
Morocco;
LEIFER, MICHAEL. Reader
In
International Relations, London School of Political Science. Author of of Statehood in Southeast Asia.
Economics and
Dilemmas
Malaysia; Singapore ajid Agai7i
Sailing
European Editor, North American Publishing Company, Philadelphia, Pa. Member, Society of Photographic Scientists and Engineers. Editor of Encyclopaedia of Type Faces.
Internatic
and Record, London.
Director
editorial consultant.
JOHN, LAURIE.
Editor,
Algeria: Biography (in part)
and Public Relations Consultant. Secretary, Guild of Yachting Writers.
JASPERT, W. PINCUS.
;
Life
ORLAND
KILLIN, staff.
V. Associate Editor,
Encycloptedia Britannica. Chemistry (in part)
part)
International Union of Local Authorities, The Hague, Neth. Cities and Urban Affairs
lULA. Research
:
KUBITSCHEK. KILLHEFFER, JOHN
ITU (INTERNATIONAL
KRIZ, MIROSLAV A. Vice-President. First National City Bank, New York City, 1958-73 Federal Reserve Bank of New York. 1945-58 Economic and Financial Department of the Secretariat of the League of Nations, 1936-45. Economy. World; Exchange and Payments,
with Israel.
KIND, JOSHUA
B. Associate Professor of Art History. Northern Illinois University. Author of Rouault. Museums (in part)
Manchester, Author of Index to Man-Made Fibres of the World: The World Fibres Book. Editor of Nonioovens '71. Industrial Production and Technology (in part)
KIRKHAM, FRANCES.
Information Othcer, British Non-Ferroua Metals Federation, Birmingham, Eng.
Argentina; Peru
i
of
God
i
and Ireland. Author of Will the Church Go Throunh the Trihnlntionf A Course of study ill .S;)ii-i(i(ol Gills: The Baptisr Hnlu Spirit Livini/ like Angels; :
KITAGAWA, JOSEPH
M. Professor of History of Religions and Dean of the
:
Divinity School, the University of Chicago. C. M. Editor, World Bowls; Tennis. Author of Winning Bowls;
JONES.
Lawn
How
Become
to
a
Champion: numerous
Author of Religions of the East; Religion in Japanese History. Religion (in part)
FRANKLIN H. Professor, Department of Religion, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa. Co-editor LITTELL,
hooks on tennis. Co-author of Tackle Bowls My Way; Bryant on Bowls. Bowling and Lawn Bowls (in part)
KLARE, HUGH
JONES, W. GLYN. Professor
Penal and Penitentiary Foundations. Secretary, Howard League for Penal Reform 1950-71. Author of People in
Anthropologist. Somalia
Prison. Prisons and Penology
LUSTIG,
of
Scandinavian Studies, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Eng. Author of Johannes Jorgensens motive ar : Johannes j0rgensen; Denmark; William Heinesen; "
og
J.
Member
of
Parole Board for England and Wales;
Member
of the Council, International
of Weltkirchcnlexikon. Religion (in part)
LULING. VIRGINIA
R. Social
LAWRENCE
K. Managing
Editor. Encyclopedia Britannica,
Yearbooks.
kosvfios. Literature (in part)
KLAUSLER, ALFRED
JOSEPH, LOU. Manager
Broadcasting Company. Author of Censorship, Obscenity and Sex: Growth in Worship. Co-editor of The Journalist's Prayer Book.
MacDONALD, BARRIE KEITH.
Health'and Disease (in port)
Religion (in part)
Pacific Island.?.
KAAN, PREDERIK
KNECHT. JEAN. Former
rfi
P.
Editor at Large, Christian Century, Chicago Religion Editor, Westinghouse
Biography (in part)
:
Relations.
Bureau
of Media of Public Information, Association. Author of
American Dental Allernv Facts and Fallacies.
—
In History,
Fiji;
H. Secretary of the Department of Cooperation and Witness, World Alliance of Reformed Churches (Presbyterian and Congregational), Geneva. Author of Pilgrim Praise ( hymna). Religion (in part)
Lecturer
Massey University,
Palmerston North, N.Z. Author of several articles on the history and politics of Tonga; Western
Samoa
Assistant Foreign Editor, Le Monde, Paris; Former
MacDONALD,
Presse Diplomatique Franfiaise. Franco
World Scries: Business Cycle Series. Agriculture and Food Supplies (in part) Transportation (in port)
Permanent Correspondent in Washington and Vice-President of the Association de la
Research
Ltd..
M. C. Director, Econtel London. Editor.
Contributors 741
MACDONALD. TREVOR
J.
Manager
International Affairs, British Steel Corporation. Industrial Production and Technology
METENDORFF, JOHN. ;
New
Theological Seminary,
McMANUS, IRENE.
Professor of
Church History and Patrlstics, St. Vladimir's Seminary Professor of History, Pordham University, New York City; Lecturer in Eastern Orthodoxy, Union
'
York.
Religion (in part)
Associate Editor,
American Forests, Washington, D.C. Forestry
PETER W. Chairman, Department Entomology, University of Adelaide,
MILES, of
McMURRIN, STERLING
M. Ericksen
Distinguished Professor and Dean of the Graduate School, University of Utah. Co-author of A History of Philosophy.
MALLETT,
MILLARD,
R.
Engineering Projects (in part)
Chart, Bradford. Eng. Industrial Production and Technology
MILLER. WILLIAM Department
MANGO. ANDREW. Broadcaster. Biography {in part)
B. Manager,
Religion (in part)
i
Turkey
;
MILLIKIN, SANDRA.
Architectural
Historian.
MANSFIELD, PETER. Formerly
NEILL, JOHN. Chief Chemical Engineer,
Submerged Combustion Ltd. Author of Climbers' Club Guides Cwm Silyn and
Mountaineering
NELSON, BERT.
Editor and Publisher, Track and Field News. Track and Field Sports (in part)
NETSCHERT, BRUCE
of History. United Presbyterian Church, U.S.A.
Orientalist
British Marine Isopods. Life Sciences (in part)
:
Deputy Director,
S.
Professor of Marine Biology, University of Liverpool Director, Marine Biological Laboratory, Port Erin, Isle of Man. Author of
Tremadoc, Snoxcdon South ; Alpine Club Guide: Selected Climbs in the Pennine Alps.
Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Department of the Environment, Crowthorne, Berkshire, Eng.
Weekh
H. M. F. Editor,
Austr. Life Sciences (in part)
NAYLOR, ERNEST.
C.
Vice-President, National Economic Research Associates, Inc., Washington, D.C. Author of The Future Supply of Oil and Gas. Co-author of Energy in the American Economy: 1850-X975. Energy (in part)
Architecture: Art Exhibitions
Middle East Correspondent. Sunday Times, London. Free-lance Writer on Middle East affairs.
NEWMAN, PHILIP L.
Bahrain; Biography (in part) Egypt: Iraq; Jordan: Kuwait: Lebanon: Middle Eastern Affairs: Oman: Qatar: Saudi Arabia: Syria: United Arab Emirates: Yemen, People Den cratic Republic of: Yemen Arab Republii :
MINNES, GORDON.
Secretary, Canadian
Pulp and Paper Association. Industrial Production and Technology
MITCHELL.
Associate Professor
of Anthropology, University of California at Los Angeles. Author of Knowing the
NOEL,
K. K. Lecturer,
Department of Physical Education, Leeds University. Hon. General Secretary,
H. S. Managing Editor, World Fishing, London. Fisheries (in part)
NORMAN. GERALDINE.
MARCUS, IRVING
MODEAN. ERIK W.
H. Publisher Columnist. Wines Vines. Author of Dictionary of Terms; Lines About Wines; Ho Test and Improve Your Wine Jul Publications
Director. News in the U.S.A.
Saleroom Correspondent. The Times, London. Author of The Sale of Works of Art,
Bureau. Lutheran Council
:
Religion (in part)
NOVALES. RONALD
R.
Ability. Alcoholic Beverages (in part)
Professor of Biological Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, 111. Chairman. Division of Comparative Endocrinology. The American Society of
MARSHALL. J. G. SCOTT. Horticultural Consultant. Gardening (in part)
Zoologists.
MARTENHOFF,
JIM.
Life
Boating Editor,
Miami (Fla.) Herald. Author of How to Buy a Better Boat; Handbook of Skin and Scuba Diving. Motor Sports
Sciences (in part)
(in part)
MORRISON, DONALD MATHER. Writer, Time magazine. New York. Publishing
MATSUBARA, MASAKL
Director of Planning, Zaikai magazine, Tokyo. Biography (in part)
(i?i
Staff
part)
Contributor to The Nation : the New York Times. Author of Beyond Broadway : The Quest for Permanent Theatres. Theatre (in part)
MORTIMER, MOLLY. Commonwealth Correspondent, The Spectator, London. Author of Tritstecship in Practice; Kenya. Botswana: Burundi: Commonwealth of
MATTHIASSON, BJORN. Iceland Correspondent, Financial Times, London.
Nations: Dependent States (in part) Gambia, The; Ghana: Lesotho: Maldives: Mauritius: Nigeria: Rwanda: Sierra Leone;
Iceland
Swaziland
;
A.
—
MAUDE,
N. F. Consultant Editor, British Journal of Photography Photo Trader. Editor, Photographic Processor. Author of Take Better Photos; Choosing a Camera.
O'LEARY. JEREMIAH
State Department Correspondent. Washington (D.C.) Evening Star-News. Author of Dominican Action 19S5 Panama: Canal Issues and Treaty Talks1S61.
Biography (in part) President, American Association of Theological Schools, 1966-68. Author of The Life of Paul; We Believe;
Photography
;
Chile
OSBORNE, KEITH.
Editor, Rowing, 1961-63. Hon. Editor, British. Rowing
Almanack, 1961-
.
Rowing
MAURON, PAUL.
Director, International Vine and Wine Office. Paris. Alcoholic Beverages (in part)
MAZIE. DAVID M.
MOTTERSHEAD,
G. S. Director-
Secretary, Chester Zoo, Chester, Eng. Zoos and Botanical Gardens (in part)
Associate of Carl T.
Rowan, syndicated columnist. Free-lance
C. Director,
of Economic and Business Research, University of Florida. Editor, Feasible Planning for Social Change in the Field of Aging.
Bureau
Engineering Projects (in part)
Writer. Social
OSTBRBIND, CARTER
:
and Welfare Services (in part)
MERMEL,
T. W. Consulting Engineer; formerly Assistant to Commissioner for Scientific Aftairs, Bureau of Reclamatior
U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. Chairman, Committee World Register of Dams, International Commission on Large Dams. Author of
Register of
Dams
in the
United States.
Engineering Projects (in part)
o:
PAKEMAN, SIDNEY
A. Historian.
Author of Ceylon, Sri
NATOLI, SALVATORE
J.
Lanka.
Educational
Affairs Director, Association of American Geographers. Co-author of
Dictionary of Basic Geography. Geography
PALMER,
S.
B. Lecturer,
Department of
Applied Physics, University of Hull, Eng. Physics
742 Contributors
PLATT. MAURICE. Consulting
PANIC. MILIVOJE. Chief Economist,
National Economic Development Office
Former Director
Engineer.
of Engineering,
Vauxhall Motors, Ltd. Author of Elements of Automobile Engineering. Industrial Production and Technology
PLOTKIN, FREDERICK
S. Associate Professor of English and Philosophy,
Philippines
Strategies:
German
Fiction in the ZOth
Literature {in part)
Free-lance Writer,
Washington, D.C.
J. H. Lecturer In German. University of Nottingham. Eng. Author of Heinrich Boll: Withdrawal and Re-emergence. Co-author of Critical
Century.
(in part)
PARGAS. RAFAEL.
REID.
Chairman, Department of English, Stern College, Yeshiva University, New York. Author of Milton's Inward Jerusalem ; Faith and Reason; Judaism and Tragic Theology. Literature {in part)
REYNOLDS. ARTHUR GUY.
Formerly
Registrar and Professor of Church History, College, Toronto.
Emmanuel
Religion (in part)
RILEY.
WALLACE
B.
Computers Editor.
Electronics magazine.
Computers
POLLACK, GERALD
Economic Adviser. Exxon Corporation. Author of
Alcoholic Beverages (in part)
PARSONS. ANNE. Economic Research
Lloyds Bank International, Londo Ecuador; Paraguay; Uruguay
Officer,
A. Senior
Perspectives on the U.S. International Financial Position. Profits
ROBERTS.
Geography, Ohio State University.
POTTER. SIMEON. Emeritus Professor of English Language and Philology. University of Liverpool. Eng. Author
Nicaragua
of
Religion (in part)
PATTEN, GEORGE
P. Professor of
PATTERSON, SHEILA.
Our Language Language in the Modern World: Modern Linguistics :
Changing English. Words and Meanings. New
Research
Department of Anthropology, University College, London. Author of Colour and Culture in South Africa; The Trek ; Dark Stranc/ers ; Ivimigrants Last in Industry. Bahamas. The; Barbados; Dependent States {in part); Grenada; Guyana: Jamaica; Migration, International; Race Relations Trinidad and Tobago. (iji part)
ROBINSON. DAVID. Film
Associate,
Biography (in part) Guatemala; Spain
Consultant and
Free-lance Journalist. Director. London Information Office of the European Communities. 1965-73. Co-author of
Businessman's Guide
to the
Plastics. Industrial Production
and Technology
:
(in part)
RODERICK. JOHN
P. Foreign Correspondent in Tokyo. Associated Press. Author of What You Should Know About
Biography {in part)
;
India
Biography
(iji
part)
ROSENWALD. ALAN
K. Chairman. of Psychology. Illinois State Psychiatric Institute. Chicago. Health and Disease {in part)
Department
PREIL. GABRIEL. Writer. Hebrew and
PENFOLD, ROBIN C. Public relations executive, Carl Byoir and Associates Ltd.. London Author of A Journalist's Guide to
—
fvlotion Pictures
Common
PRASAD. H. T. SHARADA. Director of Information. Prime Minister's Secretariat, New Delhi, India.
Colombia; Costa Rica;
;
Critic. The Times, London. Author of Buster Keaton; The Great in the Twenties Funnies A History of Screen Comedy; A History of World Cine77ia.
Hollywood
PRAG. DEREK. Business
:
PEARCE, JOAN. Research Officer, Economics Department, Lloyds Bank International, London. Editor of Latin 4merica; A Broader World Role.
R. L. Editorial Consultant.
Church Times, London.
Yiddish poet. Author of Israeli Poetry
Peace and War; Nof Shemesh Ukhfor ("Landscape of Sun and Frost") Ner Uul Kokhavim ("Candle Against the Stars"); Mapat Erev ("Map of Evening"); Lieder ("Poems") Haesh Vehadmama ("The Fire and the Silence") Jlfiloc^ Zeman Venof ("Of Time and Place"). in
;
RYBCZYNSKI.
T. M. Chief Economist an Director. Lazard Securities Ltd., London. Savings and Investment
;
{in part)
;
PETERSON. VIRGIL W.
Literature (in part)
Executive
Director, Chicago Crime Commission 1942-70. Author of Gambling Should It Be Legalized!: Barbarians in Our Midst. Crime and Law Enforcement (in part)
—
PETHERICK. KARIN. Crown Princess Louise Lecturer in Swedish. University College. London. Literature (in part)
F. Professor of Social Psychology. Harvard University. Author of A Profile o/ the Negro American; Racially Separate or Togethe ' Racial the United States. Rac Relations (in part) •
PFEFFER. IRVING.
Professor of Insurance and Finance. College of Business. Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University. Author of Jnsurajice and Economic Theory; The
Financing of Small Business; Perspectives
Professor. College of
Literature {in part)
RANGER. ROBERT
J. Assistant Professor. Department of Political Science. St. Francis Xavler University. Antigonish, Nova Scotia. Defense
RAVEN. VIVIAN. Managing Industrial Production
SAINT-AMOUR. ROBERT.
Professor.
Department of Literary Studies. University Quebec at Montreal. Author of various
of
articles on literary topics. Literature {i7i part)
Editor,
Tobacco, London.
PETTIGREW. THOMAS
SAEKI, SHOICHL
General Education. University of Tokyo.
SANDON. HAROLD. Former
and Technology
(in part)
G. F. Senior Research Fellow. National Institute of Economic and Social Research. London. Industrial Production and Technology
RAT,
Professor
of Zoology. University of Khartoum. Sudan. Author of The Protozoan Fauna of the Soil: The Food of Protozoa : An Illustrated Guide to the Fresh-Water Fishes of the Sudan; Essays on
Protozoology. Life Sciences {in part)
(in part)
READ. HARRY.
Director, Salvation International Information Services.
Army
London.
Bowling and Lawn Bowls
Religion (in port)
(in part)
Stock Exchanges (in porl)
PHILLIPS.
Former
K. R. Secretary-General. Association of Track Statisticians. Contributor. Sportsworld. Editor. World Sports Olympic Games Report. Co-compiler of Guinness D.
and Field
Book
of
Olympic Records; Sportsworld
International Athletics Annual. Sporting Record
PICK. OTTO. Professor
of International Relations. University of Surrey. Guildford, Eng. Director. Atlantic Information
Centre for Teachers, London. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
PIERCE. FRANCIS
S. Editor, Consumers Digest, Inc.. Chicago. Contributor to Encyclopcedia Britannica. Biography (in part) Government Finance ;
RECKERT, STEPHEN. Camoens Professor of Portuguese, King's College, sity
of
London. Author of de amigo ; Gil Vicente
esptritu y letra. Literature (in part)
SCHMITT, TILMAN. Brewery Enelneei Editor of Brauwelt ; Brauwissenschaft, Niirnberg. W.Ger. Alcoholic Beverages (in part)
SCHOENFIELD, ALBERT.
REIBSTEIN. JOAN NATALIE.
Free-lance
Editor,
Swiynming World. Swimming
Writer and Editor. Former Staff Writer, Encyclopasdia Britannica. Biography (in port)
SCHULIAN. JOHN. Basketball (in part)
Aeronautical and Marine Meteorology Consultant. Former Chief. Weather
Bureau. U.S. Department Washington. D.C. Earth Sciences (in part)
Reporter, the
Baltimore Evening Sun.
REICHELDERFER. FRANCIS W. of
Commerce. Health and Dh
;
Football (in part)
Contributors 743
SERGEANT. HOWARD.
Lecturer and
Writer. Editor of Outposts, Walton-on-
Thames, En^. Author of The Cumberland Wordsworth Traditioti in the Making of Modern Poetry. ;
STAERK, MELANIE. Member. Swiss
THOMAS, HARFORD.
National Commission tor (Information).
Biography
UNESCO
City Editor, The
Guardian, London. (in part)
United Kingdom
;
Switzerland
THOMPSON, ANTHONY. European
Literature (in part)
Linguist, College of Librarianship,
SHACKLEFORD. PETER.
Research Adviser, World Tourism Organization (WTO). Geneva.
SHARPE, MITCHELL
Health and Preventive Medicine, and
Dingman Professor
of Cardiology,
Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago. Author of Lectures on Preventive Cardiology : Your Heart Has Nine Lives.
Aberystwyth, Wales. General Secretary, International Federation of Library Associations, 1962-70. Author of Vocabularium Bibliothecarii; Library Builditigs of Britain ajid Europe. Libraries
Health and Disease (in part) R. Science Writer.
Author of Livino in Space: The Environment of the Astronaut: Yuri
Gagarin. First Man in Space; Satellitea and Probes: The Develop7nent of Untnanned Space Flight "It Is I, Seagull": The Life of Valentino Tereshkova. Co-author of Applied Astronautics : Baaio Astronautics ; Dividends from Space. :
THOMSON, RONALD WILLIAM. Former
STANTON. LEONARD.
Professor of Radiation Therapy and Nuclear Medicine,
Hahnemann Medical
College and Hospital, Philadelphia. Author of Basic Medical Radiation Physics ; chapters in Physics of
Diagnostic Radiology. Health and Disease {in part)
Assistant General Secretary, Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland. Author of Heroes of the Baptist Church; William Carey ; The Service of Our Lives ; A Pocket History of the Baptists. Religion {in part)
Space Exploratron
SHAW.
T. R. Commander, Royal Navy. Member. British Cave Research
Speleology
SHERMAN. HARVEY
R. Envir. Policy Division, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. Agriculture and Food Supplies (in part) C. CHUNG-TSE. Senior Adviser on Trade Negotiations, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
SHIH,
(UNCTAD).
Essayist in Yiddish ;
Literature (in part)
STEVENSON, TOM. Garden
Columnist,
TRAIN. CHRISTOPHER JOHN.
Assistant Secretary. Probation and After Care
Department. Home Office. London. Drug Abuse (in part)
Baltimore Neivs American; Washington Post; Washington Post-Los Angeles Times News Service. Author of Pruning Guide for Trees, Shrubs and Vines; Lawn
TRIGG. ROBERT H. Senior Economic Adviser and Manager, Institutional Research, New York Stock Exchange. Stock Exchanges (in part)
STOKES, J. BUROUGHS. Manager. Committees on Publication, The First Church of Christ, Scientist, Boston.
TRILLING, OSSIA. Vice-President, International Association of Theatre Critics. Co-editor and contributor. International Theatre. Contributor, the FiJiancial Times, London. Biography (iti part) Theatre (in part)
Switzerland.
Commercial and Trade
SHOREY. JOHN
Policies
Lecturer In Economics, University College. Cardiff, Wales. Marketing and Merchandising C.
Mining and Quarrying
SMEDLEY, GLENN
Officer,
Public Relatlo
Nippon Hoso Kyokai (Japan
Broadcasting Corp.), Tokyo.
Paris
Fashion Correspondent for Internationa Textiles (Amsterdam) and the British Textile Industry. Fashion and Dress {in part)
Wool B. Governor.
American Numismatic Association. and Numismatics
SWIFT, RICHARD
(in part)
DAN THROOP. Professor Emeritus. Harvard University Senior SMITH,
UNHCR. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Geneva.
N. Professor
Politics, New York University. City. Author of Internatiotial Curre7it and Classic.
Ne La
Refugees
United Nations
TTNNY.
:
Research Fellow. Hoover Institution. Stanford (Calif.) University; Director, Cambridge Research Institute Former Deputy to Secretary of the Treasury :
;
President, National Tax Association and Tax Institute of America. Author of Federal Tax Refoiin; Tax Factors in Business Decisions. Taxation {in part)
Former
R. W. Provost. Callison College. University of the Pacific, Stockton, Calif.
SYNAN, VINSON. Division Chairman, Emmanuel College, Franklin Springs, Ga. General Secretary, Pentecostal Holiness Church President, Society for Pentecostal
Religion (in part)
Author of The HolinessMovement; The Old Time
Profession. Veterinary Science
SMOGORZEWSKI,
K. M. Writer on contemporary history. Founder and Editor, Free Europe, London. Author of The United States a7id Great Britain; Poland's Access to the Sea. Albania; Biography (in part); Bulgaria; Hungary; Mongolia; Poland; Romania; Soviet Bloc Economies
Vice-President, Religion
(11
Section,
rt)
In
R. Assistant
charge of Commodity
Economics Department, First New York City.
National City Bank, Commodity Trade
TAISHOFF, SOL. Chairman and
Editor,
Broadcasting, Washington, D.C.
TATTERSALL. ARTHUR. Expert and
Textile Trade
Statistician, Manchester,
Industrial Production
Eng.
and Technology
van PRAAG. JACK H. Chairman, National Badminton News Committee, American Badminton Association, Pasadena, Calif. Author of numerous articles on badminton. Biography {in part)
(in part)
VIANSSON-PONTE, PIERRE.
TAYLOR. WINSTON
H. Director, United Methodist Communications. Author of Angels Don't Need Public Relations: Ending Racial Segregation in the Methodist Church; Toward an Inclusive Church.
Washington
Office,
Religion (in part)
TERRY. WALTER. Dance Author of Stripping : The Surface Mining of
France-
;
URQUHART. NORMAN
Pentecostal
Television and Radio {in part)
Barbara, Calif. Author of Evolution of the Veterinary Art; The American Veterinary
GOVINDAN. Agence
Presse Special Correspondent for India, Nepal, and Ceylon. Bangladesh; Bhutan; Burma; Dependent Nepal States {i7i part)
;
Studies.
SMITH.
Biography (in part)
TSUJIMOTO. ICHIRO.
Television and Radio (in part)
SWEETINBURGH. THELMA.
H. Manager. Market Research, Fluor Utah, Inc. ;
Ker
P.
Literature (in part)
SKELDING. FRANK
BBC,
;
Senior Lecturer in Norwegian, University College. London.
Sydney, Austr. Horse Racing (in part)
Energy (in part) (in part)
Religion (in part)
ST0VERUD, TORBJ0RN. W.
SIMPSON, NOEL. Managing Director. Sydney Bloodstock Proprietary Ltd..
Philately
STARKMAN, MOSHE.
and Hebrew; Bibliographer. Former President, Yiddish P.E.N. Club New York Editor, Hemahekh Anthology of American Yiddish Poetry. Associate Editor, Lexicon of Yiddish Literature. Contributor, Jewish Daily Forward, New York.
R^publiqtie Gaullienne. Biography (in part) la
VIELVOYE, ROGER. Critic,
Saturday Reviexv magazine. New York. Author of The Dance in America; The Ballet Companion: Miss Ruth: The "More Living Life" of Ruth St. Denis. Dance (in part)
Editorial
Adviser and Leader Writer, Le Motide, Paris. Author of Les GaulUstes ; The King and His Court; Les Politiques ; Histoire de
Industrial
Journalist, London. Transportation {i7i part)
VILLACA, ANTONIO CARLOS. Editor, Do Brasil, Rio de Janeiro.
Jornal
Literature {in part)
744 Contributors
WADLEY,
J. B. Writer and Broadcaster on cycling. Author ot Tour de France 13T0, 1911, and i975; Old Roads and New. Cycling
WARD-THOMAS,
P. A.
GoK
Correspondent, The Guardian, London. Golf
WILLIAMS, BRIAN.
Free-lance Writer,
London. Television and Radio (in part)
Religion (in part)
Communist Movement L. F. RUSHBROOK. Fellow ot All Souls College, Oxford University, 1914-21 Professor of Modern Indian History, Allahabad, India, 1914-19. Author ot The State of Pakistan: What
WILLIAMS.
WAT, DIANE
LOIS. Archivist, Anglican
Diocese of Toronto, Can. Biography (in part)
;
About Indiat ; Kutch
L. Literary Editor, The Guardian, London and Manchester.
WEBB, W.
Literature (in part)
in History
L. Assistant Department of Botany, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Life Sciences (in part)
Professor,
Legend. Editor ot Handbook to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka and Sufi Studies East and West.
WEEDEN,
CYRIL. Assistant Director, Glass Manufacturers' Federation, London, industrial Production and Technology
WILLIAMS, PETER.
J. TIMOTHY. Sports Columnist, the Chicago Daily News. Author of
Dance and
Dancers, London. Dance (in part)
WILLIAMSON, TREVOR.
A. A. Editor, Toys International,
WILE, JULIUS. Senior Vice-President, Julius Wile Sons & Co., Inc., New York City. Vice-President, New England Distillers, Inc.. Teterboro, N.J. Cha Table Wine Committee, National
Association of Alcoholic Beverage Importers, Inc. Lecturer on wines. School of Hotel Administration, Coi University. Alcoholic Beverages (in part)
Economic
Lloyds Bank
Biography iin part); Bolivia; Portugal; Venezuela
Haiti;
WOOLLEY, DAVID. Editor. Airports International, London. Transportation (in part)
WORSNOP, RICHARD
L. Writer,
part)
Chief Sports
subeditor, the Daily Telegraph, London. Biography (in part) Football (in part) ;
Associate Editor.
Scanorama, Bromma, Swed. Sweden
Biography (in part)
London. Games and Toys
Officer,
International, London.
Editorial Research Reports, Washington, DC.
The Buckeyes.
WHITE,
Research
Liberia; United States (in
WILSON, ALAN.
WEIGEL,
Editor,
WOOLLER. MICHAEL.
and
Afghanistan; Iran; Pakistan
WEBSTER, PETER
WOOD, KENNETH H. Editor. The Advent Review and Sabbath Herald. Author of Meditations for Moderns: Relevant ulhoT ot His Initials
Director General, Ontario Science Center, Don Mills, Ont. Author of Continents Adrift. Co-author ot Physics and Geology. Geology
WILSON, MICHAEL.
Technical Editor, Flight International, London. Free-lance Writer. Industrial Production and Technology (in part)
WISE, CONRAD.
YOLLES, STANLEY
F., M.D. Professor and Chairman, Department ot Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, School of Medicine, Health Sciences Center, State University of New York at Stony Brook. Drug Abuse (in part)
TOUNG. M. NORVEL.
Chancellor,
Pepperdine University, Mallbu. Calif. Editor of Ticenlieth Century Christian Power for Today. Author of Churches of Today. Religion (in part)
Chief, Division of Standards, Research and Museums,
ZIMMERMAN, DONNA.
UNESCO,
Writer. Biography (in part)
Museums
Paris. (in part)
Free-la
baseball 103b Allen, Woody (actor)
Index
"Impeachment cial
The black type entries are article headings In the Book of the Year. These black type article entries do not show page notations because they are to be found In their alphabetical position in the body of the book. They show the dates of the issues of the Book of the Year In which the articles appear. For example "Archaeology 75, 74, 73" Indicates that the article "Archaeology" is to be found in the 1975, 1974, and 1973 Book of the Year. The liglit type lieadings tiiat are indented under blaclc type article headings refer to material elsewhere in the text related to the subject under
which they are
listed.
The
light type headings that are not indented refer
to information in the text not given a special article.
Biographies and
obituaries are listed as cross references to the articles "Biography"
and
"Obituaries" for the year in which they appear. References to illustrations are preceded
by the abbreviation
"il."
word or more, are treated purpose of alphabetization as single complete headings. Names beginning with "Mc" and "Mac" are alphabetized as "Mac"; "St." is treated as "Saint." All references below show the exact quarter of the page by means of the letters a. b, c and d. signifying, respectively, the upper and All headings, whetlier consisting of a single
for the
lower halves of the first column and the upper and lower halves of the second column. Exceptions to this rule are tables, illustrations, and references from biographies and the articles "Energy" and "Industrial Producand Technology."
tion
A
and radio 662d "Advertising Age" (period.) 43a Advertising Standards Authority
Aaron, Henri':
AAU:
il.
AEC:
102 Athletic Union
Amateur Abaco. isl.. Bahamas 98c see
Abadjiev, Ivan (states., Bulg.) 148c Abbott, Bud: sec Obituaries 75 ABC (American Broadcasting Co.)6Gld Abe. Kobo (au.) 463a ABEDA (Arab Banic for Economic De-
velopment in Africa) 47d Abelian group (math.) 478a
ABM
Ag: Algeria 73b
Ecuador 256d El Salvador 266d Honduras 367b
(Antiballistic missile) system
214b
t
Atomic Energy
Comn
commodity trade 177c
Cameroon)
Ali; see
Biography
"American Journal
opment) 67b Aid to education 258c; S85a medical profession 360b Aid to Families with Dependent
disasters 237c
AIM Aini.
Mauritania 479a
Academy
of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences 498a Accidents and safety 190a; 691b airliners 387; 677c death rates 226 (table) games and toys 318d industrial health hazards 346c; 402b
AFM:
see Captain's
Commonwealth
plastics industry
defense 224a
Nations 182d
dependent states 228d development, economic and (drug)
Obituaries 75 Acheampong, Ignatius Kutu: see Blogsee
aphy 73
233c drought
ils.
social
ACT
(Action for Children's Television)
353b
Adams, Richard George:
sec
Biogra-
phy 75 Addiction: see Drug abuse Additives 7Ia; 304a; 726d Aden: see Yemen, People's Democratic
Republic of Adler. Mortimer Jerome: see Biogra-
phy 75 Adrian.
Max:
sec
Obituaries 74
Advertising 75, 74, 73 consumerism 192c
Airlifts
67a
Air pollution: see Pollution Airports 313d; 691a; 709a "Airport 1975" (film) 497a
Alabama
(state, U.S.) S86a U.S. Congress 714. 715 (tables) Alaska (state. U.S.)
energy 272b mountaineering 505a museums 506a natural resources 282d pipeline construction 83b U.S. Congress 714. 715 (tables) 75, 74, 73
Bulgaria 148c
Communist
Parties 186 (table)
Cyprus 217d defense 213 (table) demography 225 (table) mining and quarrying 489a populations and areas 561a religion
603b
47d
energy 273 industrial production and technology
Alcoholic Beverages 75, 74, 73 Islamic law 603c taxation 657c theological attitudes 595b
74
(American Civil Liberties Union) 584d Acosta Banuelos, Romana 584b ACP (African, Caribbean, and Pacific) 5 291a Acronyms 730a Acrylics 398
Yemen Arab
Alberta, prov.. Can. 157d ALC (African Liberation Committee)
12, 13
economy, world 255b
Obituaries
ACLU
al- (premier,
Republic) 731b
Albania
demography 226a
345b
;
Movement
of
Movement)
(An
584c
African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries 291a African Affairs 75, 74. See Africa 73
motor vehicles 388 394 seismology 249a skiing 615c traffic disasters 240c Acetophenetidin (Phenacetin)
74
Mohsin
law of the sea 432d mining 487c populations and areas 561a Portuguese coup 561d
African affairs 48c agriculture and food
race relations 581a refugees S87b
662b 685a United Nations 712b West African drought 66a world food problem 8d Year"
supplie
(table)
commodity
religion 595a television and radio trade, international
cartels
180b
see also African African Development Bank 614c African Liberation Committee (ALC)
energy 276 France 316a historic preservation 362c Italy 416c
Mali 474b migration, international 486a
47d African National Council (ANC) 605c African Party for the Independence of
Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) 336d (American Federation of Teachers) 261a AGA (American Gas Association) 276 Aged: see Senior citizens Agency for International Development
AFT
trade, international 684c
Alinsky, Saul: see Obituaries 73 Alioto, Joseph
584d
"Alive" (Read) 452c Allan,
of
Archaeology'
(period.) 78d American League (baseball) 102c American Motors Corp. 388 American Museum of Natural Histor: (New York, N.Y.) 79b Associatioi American Numismatic (ANA) 547b American Psychiatric Association 352 American Samoa demography 225 (table) American-Soviet Commercial and Eco nomic Commission 702b American Telephone and Telegraph Cc (AT&T) 19c; 658d America's Cup (sailing) 609a Amicable numbers 478c Amin, Idi: see Biography 75 African affairs 48b Tanzanian invasion force 655b Uganda 699c
Amis, Kingsley (au.) 451a; il. 449 Ammons, A. R. (poet) 4S7a
Amnesty
Burma 150a Congolese leaders 189a Iraq 410c Turkey 698a Vietnam war resisters 539b; 598d Amnesty International Czechoslovak prison conditions
207i
Malawi 472b political use of torture religious beliefs 597d
540a
Amniocentesis 352b Amplitude modulation (AM) 661b Amtrak 693a (American Numismatic Associa tion) 547b Anaconda Co. (mining enterprise) 487; ANC (African National Council) 605 Ancerl, Karel: see Obituaries 74 Andean Group 59a; 428a Boli^ 143a Chile 163d Venezuela 72Sc Andersch, Alfred (au.) 461 73 Andersen, Lale: see Obltu Anderson, Sir Donald Forsyth Obituaries 74 Anderson, Jack Northman; see Blog raphy 73 Andom, Aman Michael: sec Obituarie 75 Ethiopia 289d Andorra 75, 74, 73 Andreotti GiuUo: see Biography 73
ANA
Andretti, Mario (auto racer) S03a
234a
Egypt 265d (Special
Amateur
584c
Al: see Amnesty International AID (Agency for International Devel-
tourism 678b
Dhabi 276; 705b Egypt 265d
AM
(pres.,
Tokyo-Taipei agreements 6S3d Tonga's ventures 678a
.\bu
Alvin Ailey City Center Dance Theate 209c (Amplitude modulation) 66Ib Amalgamated Clothing Workers o
Ahidjo. Ahmadou 152a
insurance 405a
"World Population Year" (Special Report) 5S7d Abplanalp, Robert Henry: see Biography 74 Abrams, Creigliton Williams: sec Obituaries 75
consumerism 189d Jamaica 417c Trinidad and Tobago 697a
Ahmed, Fakhruddin
development, economic and social 232d economy, world 252a employment, wages, and hours 267b environmental problems 284d European Economic Community 292c fish and fish products 303d gardening 321a marketing and merchandising 476a population changes 555d prices 563c processing and storage 305a trade, international 684a United Nations 711c world needs 7b "World Population Year" (Special Report) 556c
religion 603b Ai (poet) 4S7b
United Kingdom 283c; 709a see also Space exploration Afarsand Issas. French Territory of the 228d AFDC (Aid to Families with Dependent Children) 618b Afghanistan 75, 74. 73 development, economic and social 234c energy 276 Iran 4l0a museums S06c Pakistan 541d Soviet troops 219b
178a; 480d; 488d bauxite cartel 180c
America 399b Athletic Union (AAU) 650c 680d; 682b American Airlines 690c American Ballet Theatre 209a American Broadcasting Co. (ABC 661d American Cancer Society 346c American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU 584d "American Condition, The" (Goodwin 456a American Dental Association (ADA 353b American Express Co. 191b American Federation of Teachers (AFT 261a American Gas Association (AGA) 27( American Hospital Association 352a American Indian Movement (AIM
cooperatives 194a
Abortion 340d Ausi I 97c congenital defects 352b reimbursable costs 620b religious controversy 590b
(Bernsteii
Obituaries 75
Agriculture and Food Supplies 75. See Agriculture and Fisheries 74. See Agriculture; Fisheries 73 African affairs 46d archaeology 79d British government finance 331d commercial and trade policies 175b
India 380b
U.S. Aerosol sprays 284b Aerospace 387; 688b advertising 43d air turbulence research 246c Antarctic aviation 74c B-1 bomber il. 212 crime 200b. il. 198 defense 21 td
Men"
and Woodward) 45Sc; 574c Almirante, Giorgio: sec Biography 71 Italy 415c Aloi. Vincent 200a Alps, mts., Eur. 504c; 615c Alsop, Stewart (Johonnot Oliver): se
Aluminum
packaging labels 477c
Aboriginals (Austr.) 96c; I82c
Achard, Marcel:
of
(USDA) 51a; 304b entomology 447b
497b
Allende Gossens, Salvador: see Obit* uarles 74. See Biography 73 Chile 163b U.S. position 427b Allsop, Kenneth: see Obituaries 74 "All the President's
India 14a Latin -American affairs 428d Malagasy Republic 47lc Agriculture, Department U.S.
Biography 75
sec
baseball 101b;
(UK)
of a President" (Spe-
Report) 717b
Andrew Edward
Obituaries 75
Fairbairn:
Androutsopoulos, Adamantios (pr.min. Greece) 332c; 699a Angell, Charles (cler.) 588a Anglican Communion (Episcopalians 589b; S92c Angling 636a Angola 228d agriculture and food supplies 58d Congolese relations 189a defense 224b energy 274 (table) fisheries 303 (table) independence 46c mining and quarrying 489b Portugal S63a race relations 580d; 623d refugees 587b
INDEX
746
A nguitla / Behavioural
599b rugby 308b weather headlines 246 (table) Arias Navarro, Carlos: see Biography religion
Scie
Arizona (state. U.S.) 714. 715 (tables) mining 487a Anguilla.
isl..
Carib. 230b
Animal behaviour:
Zoology
see
Anne Elizabeth Alice Louise, see Biography 74
Princes;
Armed Forces Movement:
kidnapping attempt 197d; 709c
Arrow. Kenneth
J. (econ.)
250c
Art: see Architecture; Art exhibitions; Art sales; Dance; Literature; Mu-
seums; Theatre Arteriosclerosis (Hardening of the ar-
244b Antarctica 75, 74, 73 Anthony, Earl (bowler) 143d Anthropology 75, 74, 73 archaeology 78a Antiballistic missile (ABM) system 214b Antibiotics 394; 445d Antiknock compounds 160c Antimony 488d Anti-Semitism 601c Antitrust cases 187c; 191b; 310c; 659a Apartheid 582a; 623a UN General Assembly 435a Apollo (spacecraft) 630a Anorthosite
(geol.)
Project
(ASTP)
Technology Applications (ATS) 387; 631a "Apprenticeship of Duddy
Satellite
ApoUo/Soyuz
Test
630b Kravitz,
The" (film) 498d Aquaculture 305 a Arab Bank for Agricultural and Industrial Development 48b Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa (ABEDA) 47d Arab Emirates, Federation of: see United Arab Emirates Arab-Israeli conflict: see Middle East-
em
3S4a death rates 226 (table) Art Exhibitions 75, 74, 73 handcrafts 319a photography 551c U.S.S.R. 701b; il. 704 Artificial organs 346d Art Institute of Chicago 86a Art Sales 75, 74, 73 teries)
Artsimovich, Lev Andreevich: see Obituaries 74 Artyukhin. Yury P. (cosmonaut) 630b Asbestos 489a Aschenbach. Hans-Georg (skier) 616c ASEAN: see Association of Southeast Asian Nations Asfa Wossen (head of state. Eth.) 289c Asgeirsson, Asgeir: see Obituaries 73 Ash. Roy: see Biography 74 social programs 617a Ashby. Hal (film director) 497c Ashby. W(illiam) Ross: see Obituaries 73 Ashford, Daisy: see Obituaries 73 Asian Broadcasting Union 661d Asian Development Bank 729c
Asian Highway Network 281c Aspirin 345a
affairs
Arab League Assassinations 197b
African affairs 47d
European Economic Community 291d Lebanon 436d
Ireland. Northern 710b
Oman
Liechtenstein 440b
S38a Somalia admission 620d Arab Republic of Egypt: see Egypt Arafat. Yasir: see Biography 75 Middle Eastern affairs 414c; 482d United Nations 710d; il. 711 Arag6n, Luis Cardoza y (au.) 470b
Arana Osorio, Carlos Manuel (presGuatemala) 335b Aranda. Gabriel: see Biography 73 Archaeology 75, 74, 73 Chinese texts 449c display of Chinese finds 87c early man site near Pittsburgh fossil dating 77c
il.
76
Architecture 75, 74, 73 developing nations lib engineering 279a historic preservation 364b "Architecture Plus" (period.) 279b Arctic Regions 75, 74, 73 energy 272b Arden, Elizabeth 300d Areas: see Populations and areas
"Are Cartels Inevitable?" (Special Report) 180a Aref Bourhan, Ali (premier. Afars and Issas)
228d
Aroentina75.
food
supplies
55
(table)
alcoholic beverages 72a
Antarctica 74c archaeology 80c
(table)
engineering projects 278c exported paintings 89a (table)
industrial production 396 (table)
and technology
Latin-American affairs 427b literature 469c Mexico 481b motion pictures SOOc motor sports 501a Paraguay S44b populations and areas 561c
Balenciaga, Crist6bal: see Obituaries
horse racing 370b housing 372d ice skating 377b income, national 378a industrial production and technology
Ballard. J. G. (au.) 451b Ballet 208d Ballet Rambert 210b Baltic Sea 285a
Energy
Commission
240d Balance of payments: see Exchange and payments. International Baldick, Robert: see Obituaries 73 Baldwin. James (au.) 4S5a
73
Banda, Hastings
mining 488a motion pictures 498d New Zealand S15d Papua New Guinea 543d populations and areas S61b prices 563d prisons and penology 570a publishing industry 578b religion 588c rowing 608a rugby 308 b sailing 610a stock exchanges 646c sugar harvesting machinery il. 68 swimming 649d television and radio 662c; 667c tennis 668d track and field sports 680d trade, international 684d transportation 691c weather headlines 246 (table) world food problem 8b Australian Wool Corporation (AWC) 179b prices 398 Austria 75, 74, 73 agriculture and food supplies 57 (table)
alcoholic beverages 70c Communist parties 186 (table)
cooperatives 194a
Czechoslovak relations 206d defense 213 (table) demography 226c employment, wages, and hours 270c energy 274 (table) hockey 365d industrial production and technology
Kamuzu
awi) 47 Id Bandaranaike, Sirimavo Lanka) 640a Bangladesh 75, 74, 73 Afghanistan 46c agriculture
Communist
(pres..
Mal-
(pr.min.,
Sri
and food
supplies 64b parties 186 (table)
defense 213 (table)
development, economic and
social
287b India 382b Iran 409b
floods
populations and areas 5S5 (table) refugees 586d religion 603d smallpox 347c United Nations 712b weather headlines 246 (table) Banking; see Money and banking Bank of England 254c; 493a Banks. Dennis 584b Bantustans 623d Banzer Suarez, Hugo (pres.. Bol.) 142a Baptists 590a; 592b race relations 581 b Barasoain. Alberto (au.) 467d Barbados 75, 74, 73 Caricom 230b cricket 195d
demography 225 (table) employment, wages, and hours 270 (table)
sugar exports 183a
667c Barker, A. L. (au.) 450c
386d international law 434d motor sports 502a music 507a natural gas pipelines 629a philately and numismatics 546c populations and areas 561a prices 564c sailing 609 (table) skiing 615d speleology 635b stock exchanges 646b swimming 650a television
:
Dom. Rer
Baltimore. Md. 199b Baluchistan, prov., Pak. 541d Bancroft. David J.: see Obituaries 73
386d insurance 406a Korea 424d Laos 42 6d law of the sea 434a
and radio 662d
theatre 676c
tourism 678d tunnels 282a Yugoslavia 732c
"Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman. The" (TV drama) S86b; 666a Automation 575a Automobiles: see Motor vehicles Autotransfusion (blood) 345c "Avenue Bearing the Initial of Christ into the New World, The" (Kinnell) 457a Averina. Tatjana (skater) 377b Aviation: see Aerospace Awards: see Prizes and awards AWC: see Australian Wool Corporation Ayoubi. ^ Mahmoud (premier, Syria)
Australia 93d Barnes, Anderson B. 590d Barnes, Sidney George: see Obltuarle
bados) lOOd Barsacq. Andr^: see Obituaries 74 BART: see Bay Area Rapid Transit Barton. Randolph P. 318b Baryshnikov. Mikhail (dancer) 209b Barzani. Mulla Mustafa al-: see Biog-
raphy 75 Iraq 410c Baseball 75, 74,73 Negroes. American 586b Baseball Hall of Fame 586b Basketball 75, 74, 73 Basque separatists (Spain) 580c Bates. Alan: see Biography 74 Bates, Herbert Ernest: see Obituaries
75 Bates. Ted: see Obituaries 73 Batista y Zaldivar. Fulgencio: sec Obit-
uaries 74
Batmunkh, Zhambyn
(premier,
Mong.)
495 a
Obit-
Baudouin
I
(k..
Belg.)
108b
Bauxite 487d; 684c
(AEC)
see
Applications Technology Sat-
see
Obit-
uaries 74. See Biography 73
economy, world 255b energy 275 303 hockey 366a
hockey 365d
al- (pres., Ira.;
410b Balaguer. Joaqufn (pres.,
390; 393 reactor danger 284a
ATS:
Auden, W(ystan) H(ugh):
crime 197 b Cuba 202c defense 215a
fisheries
individual sports Atlanta, Georgia 101b Atlantic Ocean 247c Atlas. Charles: see Obituaries 73 Atomic energy; see Nuclear energy
Auchincloss, Louis (au.) 456d
parties 186 (table)
demography 225
Malaysia 473b Mexico 481c Park Chung Hee, Madame 420c Tanzania 655a Associated Press 309a Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 627b Australia 94b Commonwealth of Nations 182d ASTP (ApoUo/Soyuz Test Project 630b Astronautics: e Space Exploratio 75. See Astronautics 74, 73 Astronomy 75, 74, 73 archaeology 79d lunar data 244b new words and meanings 729c Nobel Prize for physics 519d Asturias, Miguel Angel: see Obituaries 75 literature 468b AT&T: see American Telephone and Telegraph Co. Athenagoras I: see Obituaries 73 Atherosclerosis 35 4a Athletics: see Sporting record and under
ellite
architecture 81b Bolivia 143a
Communist
Korea 424b
Atomic
74, 73
and
agriculture
Bakr.
migration, international 486c
variou
U.S.;
Captain's
Armstrong, Hamilton Fish: see Obituaries 74 Arnoux. Alexandre: see Obituaries 74 Arnstein. Margaret G.: see Obituaries
Comecon 628b hockey 366a Kafka's death 449c Kant's birth 549c music 507a philately and numismatics S46c religious events 596d mgby 308d Soviet visits to allies 185a television and radio 663b Bicentennial.
see
Movement
Anniversaries
see also
race relations 584b Arkansas (state. U.S.) U.S. Congress 714. 715 (tables) Arlen. Stephen: s« Obituaries 73
Ahmad Hassan
education 258d employment, wages, and hours 268c energy 273 environmental problems 284b fisheries 303 (table) food processing 304c games and toys 318d historic preservation 362d
literature
Bay Area Rapid Transit Bazzaz. Abdul Rahman
B
452d
Aulaqi, Saleh al-: see Obituaries 74 Austin. Gene; see Obituaries 73 Australia 75. 74, 73 advertising 44d agriculture and food supplies 68c alcoholic beverages 70 (table) Antarctica 74c architecture 82a bowling 143c commercial and trade policies 176b commodity cartels 180c commodity trade l79b Commonwealth of Nations I82c
Communist
parties 186 (table)
consumerism 192c cricket 195c cycling 203c
defense 213 (table)
prices 564 (table)
demography 226b dependent states 231b
refugees 586d
drug abuse 241d
74 Bacteria food processing 304d genetic research 445b marine biology 442c
•Badlands"
(film)
497a
679c
Bahrain
76, 74, 73
housing 373c Bail (law)
566b
Bainbridge, Beryl (au.) 4S0c Bake£, Howard Henry. Jr.: set
Obituaries 74
I88c; 691d al-: see
Obit-
uaries 74 (British Broadcasting Corp.) 663a Beame, Abraham David: see Biography 74 Beaumont. Hugh: see Obituaries 74 Beavcgui. Louis Laiisana (premier. Guinea) 336b Beckenbauer, Franz: see Biography 76 soccer 306c Beef: see Livestock Beefalo il. 52 Beer 70a "Before Civilization: The Radiocarbon Revolution and Prehistoric Europe" (Renfrew) 79a Behavioural Sciences 76, 74. See Psychology; Sociology 73 anthropology 76a determination of health 34lb epidemics 354d geographical research 323a industrial working conditions 402a material needs 7c mental health 348a; 349a
BBC
political science
555b
prison regimes 566d strike activity
95d
Behaviour modification (therapy) 348c Behrman, S(amuel) N(athaniel): see Obituaries 74 Beirne. Joseph Anthony: see Obituaries 75 Bejam Bulk Buying Ltd. 476c Belgium 75, 74, 73 alcoholic beverages 70c
archaeology 78c
88a
Biological rhythm 441a Biological sciences: see Life sciences
(table)
United Nations
Biography 73
Nepal 513c Birth and death
Demog-
statistics: see
aphy
cycling 204b
dance 211c defense 215b
demography 225 (table)
"World Population Year" Report) 556b
Economic Community European 291d exchange and payments, international 294d Germany, East 324d hockey 366b industrial production and technology 386d international law 431c investment, international 408a Ireland 412d marketing and merchandising 477a migration, international 486a money and banking 493a motor sports 501c museums 50Sb music 509a Netherlands 514a prescription drugs 34Sb prices 564a prisons and penology 566c rowing 608 b Rwanda 608c social and welfare services 616d stock exchanges 645a theatre 676c tourism 679a Tunisia 698a Zairian relations 734a Belize (British Honduras) 230b numismatics 547c Bell, James (athlete) 586b Belladonna, Giorgio 195c Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. 659a
magnetic-bubble memory 187b Bemis. Samuel Flagg: see Obituaries 74 Benchley. Peter (au.) 45Sb Benedetti, Arrigo (au.) 462b Benelux; see Belgium; Luxembourg; Netherlands, The Ben-Gurion. David: see Obituaries 74 Benites, Leopoldo: see Biography 74 Benn. Anthony Neil Wedgwood: see Biography 75 airplane construction 709a Benny, Jack (Benjamin Kubelsky): see Obituaries 75
Oblt-
s7S Benti, Teferi (head of state, Ethiopia)
289d Benton, Helen Hemingway: see Obituaries 75 Benton. William: see Obituaries 74 See Biography 73 Bergamtn. Jos^ (au.) 467d Berlin. Ger. 327b Berlin Free University 27qb Berlinguer. Enrico: see
Biography 73
(Special
Bishop, Morris: see Obituaries 74 Bjrtrneboe. Jens (au.) 466c Blackett, Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett, Baron :5« Obituaries 75 Black hole (astron.) 90c Black Liberation Army 584d Blackmer, Sidney: see Obituaries 74 Black Muslims 199a; 584d Blacks: see Negroes, American Blakemore, W. Barnett 590d Blalock, Jane (athlete) 329d Blattv, William Peter; see
Biography
75 Blindness Braille magnetic tape machine il. 395 electronic brain stimulation il. 346 Blocker. Dan: see Obituaries 73
Blood 345b
fisheries 431c; sailing 609b
Obituaries 75 Betjeman, Sir John sec Biography 73 :
Beverages, Alcoholic: see Alcoholic beverages Bevilacqua, Alberto (au.) 462c Bhumibol Adulyadej (k., Thailand)
670b
Bhutan
75. 74. 73
Buddhism 602d Bhutto, Zulfikar Ali: Pakistan 540d
see
Biography 73
Biafra (reg., Africa) 519a Biathlon 63 6d Bibesco, Princess Marthe: see ies
Obituar-
74
Bicentennial, U.S. 364a Carpenters Hall. Philadelphia il. 722a philately and numismatics 546d Bicycles 168d; 190b cycling 203c sales 318c "Bigger Splash,
A"
(film)
498c
Bradley. Thomas: see
Biography 74
Bradshaw. Terrj' (athlete) 3l0d
see
Obit-
magnetic tape machine il. 395 Brain (biol.) 441a Brando, Marlon: see Biography 73 Brandt, Willy: see Biography 74, 73 Germany, West 325c Brasch, Charles: see Obituaries 74 Bratteli. Trygve (prime min.. Norway)
Dom
chess
Bobsledding 636d Boeing Airplane Co. 387 Boerma. Addeke Hendrik; see Blogiphy 75 f Obituaries Bohlen. Charles EusI 75 (BWR) 274; 393 Boissier. Pierre: see Obituaries 75 Bokassa, Jean-B^del (pres.. Cen.^ Rep.) 159a
commodity trade 179d; 684d Communist movement 186b
-
Bolding. Jim (athlete) 682b Bolivia 75, 74, 73 agriculture and food supplies 59a archaeology 80b bird conservation 736a
62c
contract bridge 193c
crime rate 198a defense 215a development, economic and social 232d; 255b education 260b energy 273 engineering projects 278a exchange and payments, interna-
Brown. Joe E.: see Obituaries 74 Brownlo, Kevin (film director) 498c Brugger, Ernst (pres., Switz.) 651b Brundage, Avery: see Biography 73 Gilbert Francois; see Obituaries 74 Bryant, David (bowler) 144c Bryce Echenique, Alfredo (au.) 469b Buck. Pearl Comfort Syden Strieker: see Obituaries 74 Buck, Tim: see Obituaries 74 Buckley. William (au.) 456a Buddhism 602c Vietnam peace protests S40b Budenny, Semyon Mikhailovich; see Obituaries 74 Budgets, National: see Government Aires, Argentina 171 (table)
N.Y. 104b
Building and construction 389 architecture 80d cities and urban affairs 169d employment, wages, and hours 268a engineering projects 278d historic preservation 363b housing 372c industrial relations
399b
trans-Alaska pipeline 83b "Buildings of England" (Pevsner) 452c
Bulgaria 75,74,73 agriculture 65 (table)
Albania 69d alcoholic beverages 70 (table) Communist movement 185a cooperatives 194c
Cyprus 217b
bowling 143c
Communist movement 186b drug abuse 242d energy 274 (table) mining and quarrying 488d roads 281b Boll, Heinrich (au.) 460c
defense 213 (table)
171 (table)
Bombieri. Enrico (math.) 478a
Bombings 197b -Albanian embassy il.
671b
(theatre)
Brock, Lou: see Biography 75 baseball 101b Broda, Walter: see Obituaries 73 Brogan, Sir Denis William: see Obituaries 75 Bronowski, J(acob): see Obituaries 75 Brook, Clive: see Obituaries 75 Brookeborough. Basil Stanlake Brooke. 1st Viscount; see Obituaries 74 Brooklyn Academy of Music 671c "Brothers, The" (TV series) 667b Browder. Earl Russell: see Obituaries 74 Brown, Ivor (John Carnegie): see Obit-
Buffalo,
Brazil 148a
Brussels
Broadway
Buenos
Helder 540b
Blythe. Betty; see Obituaries 73
1
"Broadcasting Yearbook" 661a Broadfoot. Barry (au.) 457c
finance
Bolivia 142d
Camara.
British Honduras: see Belize British Leyland (mfr.) 708a British Open (golf) 329b_
Brunei 220c Brunot. Andr6
Braille
land) 515b
Blunden, Edmund Charles; uaries 75
in
Rome
70a
108
Cambodia I50d Ireland 412a Italy 416a Japan 419d
race relations 580d United Kingdom 710b; il. 709 Bompiani, Valentino (au.) 462c Bondarenko, Fyodor: see Obituari
Bonnet, Georges ^tienne: see Obituaries 74 Bonnier, Joakim: see Obituaries 73 Bontemps. Arna Wendell: see Obitu-
Bertrand, Jean-Jacques: see Obituaries 74 Best. Edna: see
W. A. ("Tony"): see Biography 73 Bradbrook. Muriel (au.) 452a Braddock. James Joseph: see ObltuBoyle,
Braunthal, Julius: see Obituaries 73 Brautigan, Richard (au.) 455a
303 (table)
Berryman, John: see Obituaries 73 Berti. Gian Luigi (secretary of state, San Marino) 610b Bertolucci, Bernardo: see Biography 74
Farah Manufacturing Co. 399b Grenadian independence ceremony 334d Netherlands 514a Boyd. William: see Obituaries 73 Boyle. Harry J. (au.) 458a
New Zea-
Bermuda 230c Bernstein, Carl: sec Biography 74 "All the President's Men" 455c; 574c Bernstein, I. N. (math.) 478b
lOd
521d
atherosclerosis 354a Blue denim 298d Blundell. Sir Denis (gov.-gen..
Bombay. India e
7
Bowen, Elizabeth Dorothea Cole: see Obituaries 74 Bowen, Ira Sprague; see Obituaries 74 Bowling and l_awn Bowls 75, 74, 73 Boxing 75, 74, 73 Cuba 662a Zaire 734a Boycotts education 260d; 585b
(table)
educational exhibition 264b employment, wages, and hours 267
energy 273 environmental problems 285b
United Nations 7llc Bourguiba. Habib (pres.. Tun.) 697b Bouteflika, Abdel-Aziz: see Biography Algeria 72d
Deva, King;
747
Behaviour j Busk
Biophysics: see Molecular biology
see
Canada 158c Communist parties 186
INDEX
731d
Biochemistry: see Molecular biology Biography 75, 74, 73 Biological controls 447c
Bird, Florence (au.) 458a Birds: see Ornithology Birendra Bir Bikram Shah
agriculture 51 (table)
art exhibitions
Bijedic. Dzemal (premier, Yugos.) Bikila, Abebe: see Obituaries 74 Billiards 636d Binary stars 90b
West Virginia protesters 260d Bordaberry Arocena, Juan Maria: see Biography 74 Uruguay 723a Bordonove, Georges (au.) 459d Borgeaud, Georges (au.) 458d Borghese. Prince Junio Valerio: see Obituaries 75 Borneo: sec Malaysia; Indonesia; Brunei Bose, Satyendra Nath: see Obituaries 75 Boston, Mass. 87c; 103d school desegregation 260d; 585c Botanical gardens: see Zoos and botanical gardens Botany 441a; 736b archaeology 80a forestry 312c marine flora 442b plant research 321a waterweed problems 287c Botswana 75, 74, 73
Latin-American affairs 428b literature 464b marketing and merchandising 477b Mexico's economic relations 481a mining 487d motor sports 501b Paraguay 544c phosphate rock I80c photography 55lc populations and areas 561c prices 564 (table) religion 599b soccer 306d swimming 650c Taiwan 653c telecommunications 6S8c television and radio 662c transportation 691d "World Population Year" (Special Report) 556c Brennan, Walter (Andrew): see Obituaries 75 Brennan. William (justice, U.S. Supreme Court) 430b Bresson, Robert (film director) 498d Bretscher, Egon: see Obituaries 74 Brezhnev, Leonid Ilich: see Biography 74
Communist movement
184c;
il.
185
Egypt 265d France 316a Germany, East 323d Germany. West 326d Ni3
:
liistoric
preservation 362c
hockey 365d
and technology
industrial production
386d religion S90c
Soviet bloc economies 628b theatre 677a track and field sports 681d Bulman. Oliver Meredith Boone: see
Obituaries 7S Bunker. Archie: see Biography 73 Buiiuel, Luis: see Biography 74 Burckhardt, Carl Jacob: see Obituaries 75 Bureau of Mines, U.S. 276, 487b Burgess, Anthony (au.) 450d Burglary 198c Burlington. Vt. 82a Burma, 75, 74, 73 agriculture and food supplies 64d Communist parties 186 (table) defense 213 (table) employment, wages, and hours 270 (table)
energy 276 fisheries 303 (table)
363a
income, national 378a India 383a
721,
religion
see
Obit-
Bridges 278a Sudan il. 647 British Broadcasting Corp. (BBC) 662d British Columbia, prov.. Can. 156c
mining 488a speleology 63Sb see
wealth of Nations British Film Institute 498c
604a
Burnham, Forbes
Bridge, Peter J.: see Biography 73 Bridge, Contract; see Contract bridge
Commonwealth:
(table)
energy 274 (table) Finland 302c
floods 287b historic preservation
Poland 554a U.S.S.R. 700c Vladivostok meeting 214b Brian, (William) Havergal: uaries 73
British
demography 226c Egypt 265c employment, wages, and hours 270
Common-
(pr.min..
Guyana)
33 7d Burns. Arthur F. 297b Buron, Robert Gaston Albert: see Obituaries 74
_
Burundi
5
74
75, 74, 73
agriculture and food supplies 6ld demography 225 (table) refugees 587b
Busby, Steve (baseball player) 102a Bush, George (U.S. envoy to China) 168a Bn^h_ Vatinevar: see Obituaries 75
INDEX
748
CBS
{Columbia Broadcasting System) 661d
furs 316c
Gabon 317b government finance 332b hockey 364c horse racing 368d
review /Circle in the Squ
Ceausescu. Nicolae: see Biography 75
Romania Cell (biol.)
housing 373 (table); U. 172 ice skating 376c income, national 377d India's nuclear experiments 381a industrial production and technology
Censorship 430a; 467c Chile I63c Greece 3 3 2d
385d
Mangosuthu:
6atsha
Buthelezi,
see
insurance 405b international law 431d
Guyana
Japan 420c
Biography 75 race relations 582a Butler, Sir Milo B. (gov.-gen..
literature 457b loan to Malawi 471d migration, internatioi al
World Food Conference 51a
money and banking 493a
BWR:
see Boiling water reactor Bynoe, Dame Hilda Loui:^a Grenada) 334d eObil Byrnes, James Francis: 73
486b
(gov.,
motion pictures 498c motor sports 502a museums S06d music 5lOd philately and numismatics S46d
Chile 163c
"CIA and
Caballero Bonald. JosS Manuel (au.) 467c; il. 468 Cabinet. U.S. 716 (table) Cables 278a; 660d Cable television (CATV) 19d; 663a copyrights on broadcasts 435b Cabot, Bruce: see Obituaries 73 Cabral. Amilcar: see Obituaries 74 Cabral, Luis: see Biography 75 Guinea-Bissau 336c Cacao: see Cocoa CACM: see Central American Com-
mon Market Cade. Sir Stanford: see Obituaries 74 Caetano, Marcello Jos6 das Neves Al(premier. Port.) 561d Cairns, James Ford: see Biography 75 Australia 93d Cairo, Egypt 171 (table)
Cakobau. Sir George (gov.-gen., 301c Calasso, Roberto (au.) 462a
Fiji)
sailing
609b
savings and investment 61 Id seismology 249b skiing 616a
speleology 635b stock exchanges 643b
swimming 649d telecommunications 660d television and radio 661a theatre 673b tourism 679a trans-Guinea railway 336c transportation 688c weather headlines 246 (table) "Canada's Native Indian Peoples" (special report) 154a Canadian Broadcasting Corp. 661d Canadian literature 457b; 460b Canal Zone 427a; 542c Canary Islands, Atl. O. 736d Cancer 346c; 226 (table) cat virus 726c
444a DNA drug abuse 241d 394
CAP (Common
agricultural
policy)
291b Cape Verde Islands, Atl.O. 229c Guinea-Bissau independence 337b Portugal 563a Capital punishment 99d; 201a
archaeology 79c baseball 101b botanical gardens 736c drug abuse 243b grape harvest 72b mental hospitals 348b
Captain's
Movement (Armed
Movement;
minicomputer applications i88b obscenity cases 430a public school financing 261a
AFM)
Forces 224b; 561d
Carbon 441a Carbon monoxide 346c
California, University of 78a; 105a Callaghan, (Leonard) James; see Biog-
Cardenal, Ernesto (au.) 470b
defense 215b
Carew, Rod (baseball player) 103b Carey, James Barron: see Obituaries 74 Cargo: see Freight Caribbean, The: see West Indies Caribbean Common Market (Caricom) 230b Grenada 335b Trinidad and Tobago 697b Carl XVI Gustaf: see Biography 74 Sweden 648c Carlton, Steve: see Biography 73 Carmichael, Leonard: see Obituaries 74 Garner, Joanne (athlete) 329d Carney, Harry Howell (mus.) Sllc Caro, Robert (au.) 456c Carpentier, Alejo (au.) 469a Car pools 692 b Carr, Gerald (astronaut) 630a Carr, Robert: sec Biography 73 Carrero Blanco. Luis: see Obituaries 74. See Biography 73 Carroll, Leo G.: see Obituaries 73 "Cars That Ate Paris. The" (film) 498d Cartagena Agreement 428a Cartels 180a; 195a; 250d Cary. Rev. W. Sterling 598c Casadesus. Robert Marcel: see Obituaries 73 Casals, Pablo: see Obituaries 74 Case, Ross (tennis player) 669a Cassettes (phot.) 549c Castaneda, Carlos: see Biography 74 Castellanos. Rosario 46Sb Castro, Fidel (pr.min., Cuba) 202b
demography 226b
Catalvtic afterburners and converters
raphy 75
EEC
29lb: 710a British policy on Calvin-Benson cycle (bot.) 441a Calwell, Arthur Augustus: see
Obituar-
ies 74
CAM
(Crassulacean acid metabolism)
441b
Camara Pessoa, raphy 75
Dom
Helder: see Biog-
People's Peace Prize 540b religion
599c
Cambodia
75, 74, 73 agriculture and food
supplies
65
(table)
Communist movement 186b defense 222b
demography 225 (table) prices 564 (table) Southeast Asian affairs 62 7d Cameras 549c; 631c Cameroon 75, 74, 73 African affairs 47d agriculture 58 (table) drought 66a energy 274 (table)
and welfare services 619b 75, 74, 73 agriculture and food supplies 8b; 56c alcoholic beverages 71c social
Canada
art sales
89b
bowling i43d
commodity
cartels 181a of Nations 182c
Commonwealth cycling 204c
economy, world 251c employment, wages, and hours 271b energy 272b exchange and payments, international 294d fisheries 303b food processing 304d
African affairs
46d
agriculture and food supplies 61c cultural and social revolution 58lb
development, economic and social 234a drought 66a energy 274 (table) religion 590c Chadwick. Sir James: see Obituaries 75
_
687c pollution 283c alternatives 160c U.S. federal standards 388
TEL
Catholic Church: see
Roman
Church Cats 726a Cattle: see Livestock CATV: see Cable television Cayman Islands. Carib. 230c
Catholic
prices
565a
'
frican affairs 48i ;riculture and fc
_
chaeology 79b; 449c;
,
,
il.
77
art exhibitions 87c
basketball 106b botanical information 321a Brazil 148a
Cambodia 151d crime rate 198a defense 2 lid; 222d demography 226a economy, world 256a education 263b energy 273 fish hatchery il. 303 Gabon 317c health care 339c
397
Japan 41 8d Malagasy Republic 471d Malaysia 473b Mauritania 479a migration to Hong Kong 231a mining and quarrying 488d
Mongolia 495b Nepal 513d Nigeria 518d Pdre David's deer 735c populations and areas 561b publishing industry 578d religion 596b
Romania 607 seismology 249d Singapore 615b Southeast Asian affairs 626c Sri
Lanka 640d
Switzerland 651b Taiwan 6S3c
Tanzania 655a
Chandler. Norman: see Obituaries 74 Chandos. Oliver Lyttelton.
Wheeler) 671c Cannabis: see Marijuana Canoeing 637a
Calcutta, India 171 (table) Caldera, Rafael (pres.. Venez.) 724d Caldwell, Sarah: see Biography 75 California {state, U.S.) 249a; 7l9d
75, 74, 73
Thailand's trade ban 671b
Togo 677c transportation 691c U.S.S.R. 184d; 704a
and
Bernstein
(musical.
'
Chad
660a
basketball 105a
dieldrin 447b research liver 390; " Candide'
Thailand's affairs 670d Thai troops in Laos 426c Cereals: see Grains Cerebrospinal meningitis 347b Cerebrovascular disease (Stroke) 3S4a death rates 226 (table) Ceylon: see Sri Lanica 75, 74. See Ceylon 73 . CGE (Compagnie G6n6rale d'Electricit^)
populations and areas 561c refugees S86d
hockey 365d
Cyprus 216d
race relations 581c refugees 586c
CAA (Civil Aviation Authority) (U.K.) 690d CAB (Civil Aeronautics Board) 688c
the Cult of Intelligence,
The" 4S6b; 579d
profits 57 Id
mining 487c numismatics S47c
weather headlines 246 (table) 75, 74, 73 Afghanistan 46c
"Centennial" (Michener) 455b Central African Republic 75, 74, 73 drought 66a Central American Common Market (CACM) 194d;428d Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
pipeline construction 83c populations and areas 555 (table) prices S63d prisons and penology 570a
Latin- American affairs 427a; 48Ib literature 46 8
China
33 7
Jordan 422a Korea 423c Nicaragua 517a Portugal 574a South African publications 62Ic TV broadcasts 66 Id Census data: see Demography; Popula-
Bahamas,
The) 98b Butter: see Dairy and dairy products Butz. Earl Lauer: see Biography 74
185a; 606d
440d
genetics 443d Nobel Prizes S20c Cellulose 394 Celsing, Peter: see Obituaries 75 Cement 178a; 489a; 516d
Channel Islands, Eng. 143c
Vietnam 728a
Chapin, Schuyler: see Biography 74 Chaplin, Charles Spencer: see Biography 73 Charismatic Movement, Conference of
world food problem 7b "World Population Year" Report) 556c Yugoslavia 732b
the 600a Charles, Prince of Wales il. 94 Charri&re, Henri: see Obituaries 74
Charter airline service 690c Chavez, C6sar 540b
CHD:
Coronary heart disease Chehab, Fuad: see Obituaries 74 Chemistry 75, 74. 73 industrial production and technology 389 Nobel Prizes 520b ozone pollution 284c photography 550d ChenauU, Marcus Wayne 199a Chfenebenoit, Andr6: see Obituaries 75 Chen Yi; see Obituaries 73 Chess 75, 74, 73 Chesser, Eustace: see Obituaries 74 Chevalier. Maurice: see Obituaries 73 Chiang Ching-kuo: see Biography 73 Taiwan 653c Chiang Kai-shek (pres., Taiwan) 653c Chiao Kuan-hua 166c see
111. 171 (table) art exhibitions 86a
Chicago,
museums 505b theatre 671c U.S. Courthouse
Annex 82b
Chicago, University of 78c Chicago Board of Trade 178c Chicago Lyric Opera 509b "Chicago Tribune" (newspaper) 7!8a Chichester, Sir Francis: see Obituaries
Ireland 411c Children 106d advertising 43c
"
-
_
" _
ist
53a
preventive medicine 356c social and welfare services 620c television and radio 663c Vietnam war victims il. 727 Chile 75, 74, 73 agriculture and food supplies 59a alcoholic beverages 70 (table) Antarctica 74c
Communist movement 186b copper trade 179d; I81a defense 213 (table)
Chirac, Jacques Ren6: see
(Special
Biography
75 France 3 1 3a Chisholm, Shirley: see Biography 73 Chissano, Joaquim (pr.mm.. Mor.) 229d Chlorine 181a; 480d Chloroplast (bot.) 321b
Cholera 347c Cholesterol 354a
Chona, Mainza (pr.min., Zambia) 734b Chotiner, Murray M.: see Obituaries 75 Chou En-lai (premier, China) 164c Malaysia 473b Chris Evert (horse) 368b Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)
590d Christian churches (denomination): see United Churcli of Christ Christianity 581b Christian Science 591a Christie's (art dealer) 88c Christo: see Biography 73 Chrome 181c
Chromium 489a Chromosomes 444d Down's syndrome 3S2b Chronology of Events 1974
p.
23
Chrysler Corp. 388 Chung, Arthur (pres., Guyana) 337d Church, Richard Thomas: see Obituaries 73
"Churches and Church Membership in the United States: 1971" (interdenominational report) 592a Churches of Christ 591b Churchill, Peter Morland: see Obituaries 73 CIA: see Central Intelligence Agency "CIA and the Cult of Intelligence. The" (Marchetti and Marks) 456b; 579d Cicognani, Amleto Cardinal; see Obituaries 74 Cigarettes 244a: 398 advertising 665a CHD epidemic 355a taxation 657c
Cinema:
CIPEC
see
Motion pictures
(Intergovernmental Council of
Copper Exporting Countries) 180d Circle in the Square-Joseph E. Levine
Theatre 67ld
Cities and Urban AHairs 75, 74. 73 crime and law enforcement 198a effect on climate 24Sd health care 339d health conditions 342a housing 372c
Comecon: see Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Commerce, U.S. Department of 389
Commercial and Trade Policies 75. See Commercial Policies 74, 73
race relations 581d transportation 691d
modity
cartels 18
trade, international 683c
Commodity Trade
(CAB) 688c (CAA) (U.K.)
690d Civil rights
and
liberties
S82a
consumer credit 191a education 258d industrial conditions 402c industrial relations 401 b
law 430c Little League teams 103c mental patients 348c; 349a press freedom 574a religion 594d rights of privacy 20d South Africa 62 1 c Clark, Kenneth (au.) 452b
See
Com-
486d
i
prices 564c
and Tobago) 696d Claude, Albert 520c Claudio, Mario (au.) 464a Clayton. Jack (film director) 498b Clean Air Act 283b Clemente, Roberto: see Obituaries 73 Clerides. Glafkos John: see Biography 75
stock exchanges 641b trade, international
683c
Common
African and Mauritian Organization (OCAM) 48c Cameroon's withdrawal lS2c Central African Republic 159c Common agricultural policy (CAP)
291b
Common Common
Cause 539a see Central AmeriMarket; European
markets:
Common
can
Economic Community, etc. Commonwealth Development Corp.
Cyprus 204d Cleveland. Ohio 101b; 199c Cleveland Museum of Art 506c
183a
Commonwealth
Climate 245c
The"
75.
modities, Primary 74, 73 commercial and trade policies 175a Commonwealth of Nations 183a development, economic and social 232b consumerism 191c economy, world 252d employment, wages, and hours 268b energy 271c
money .and banking 491a
Clark, Ramsey: see Biography 73 Clarke. Austin: see Obituaries 75 Clarke. Sir Ellis {gov.-Ken.. Trinidad
"Clockwork Testament. gess) 4S0d Cloning 445a
(Bur-
Clot formation (Thrombosis) 354a lothing: see Fashion and dress lub of Rome285d MEA: see Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Coal 273; 480c; 487b energy crisis 272c; 385b I
1
of Nations 75, 74,
73 dependent states 228d lawn bowls 144c
sat)
187d
Community
Services
Administration
S84a
Comoro
Islands. Ind.O. 231a coelacanth research 442d independence 49a d'6lectricit€
Compagnie G6n6rale Poland 554a shipping 694d
United Kingdom 705d to Stop Funding the War 539a Coastal Upwelling Ecosystem Analysis (CUEA) 248d Coalition
(CGE) 660a Comprehensive Health Manpower Act (1971) 360a Computer Automation.
Computers
Inc. 188c
75. 74, 73
and
Satellite
Coetzee. Barzillai Blaar: see Obituaries
Condon, Richard (au.) 455a Conference on Trade and Development. UN (UNCTAD) I75c development, economic and social 236b world shipping 695b Confucianism 164c; 604a Congo 75, 74. See Congo, People's Republic of the 73
75
raphy 75 589b
Cohen, Matt (au.) 457c Coins: see Philately and numismatics Colds (med.) 347b Cole. Jack: see Obituaries 75 Coles. Robert: see Biography 73 Colleges: see Universities and colleges Colliding beam experiments (phys.)
supplies
55
(table)
Communist
c
parties 186 (table)
defense 213 (table)
drug abuse 242d economy, world 255b energy 273 food processing 305a Latin-American affairs 427b literature 468c prices 564 (table) religion 599b roads 281c tennis 669c trade, international 684d Colombo Plan 183c Colonialism 17a; 47a Colonies and dependencies: sec Dependent states Colorado (state, U.S.) 722b architecture 82a prisons and penology 565d race relations 585b Colson. Charles W. 429b; 7I3a Colum, Padraic: see Obituaries 73
Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS)
73
Cosgrave. Liam; see Biography 74 Ireland 411c Cosmetics 300c Costa Gomes. Francisco da (pres.. Port.) 561d United Nations 712b Costa Rica 75, 74. 73 agriculture and food supplies 58a demography 225 (table) energy 274 (table) Latin-American affairs 427b Nicaragua 517a Taiwan 654 a Costes. Dieudonn€: see Obituaries 74 "Costs of Education in the Health Professions" (U.S. study) 360a
Thomas
(au.)
456b social
Council for Mutual Economic Assist-
(CMEA; Comecon) 628b
and food supplies 60c education 263b information systems 438c Council of Europe 43d; 191d; 293b Council of Ministers (EEC) 291b
and
social
Coups
d'etat
Afghanistan 46a African affairs 46c Bolivia I42a Chile 163c Cyprus 33b; 204d; 216a;
Congo, Democratic Republic of the:
see
Zaire see
Presbyterian,
Congregational Reformed, and churches; United Church of Christ Connecticut (state, U.S.) 719d Connolly, Cyril Vernon: see Obituaries 75 Connors, Jimmy: see Biography 75 tennis 668d Conscientious objectors 621d Conservation: see Environment Consolidated Edison 492c Constitution, U.S.: see United States Constitution Construction: see
Building and con-
struction
Consultation on Church Union
Italy
416b
Niger 517c Portugal 229a; 472b; 561b effect on African colonies 224b race relations 580c
587d Ugandan attempt 699c Uruguay 723b Yemen Arab Republic 731c Court, Margaret 670a Courts 429a
Consumerism
75. See Affairs 74. 73 advertising 43c alcoholic beverages 70b cooperatives 193d economy, world 251c
factors in strike activity 95b food prices 5 Id
income, national 378c industrial production 385d international law 436a
copyright cases 576c drug abuse 243c fund impoundment 330b
Korean dissidents 423d Lake Superior pollution 287c restrictive practices and monopolies 292 d United States 712d unlawful discrimination S83a see Obituaries 74 see Biography 74
Coward. Sir Noel:
Consumer
Crime and Law Enforcement Crime 74, 73
75. See
archaeological treasures 77d
Chilean junta 302d drug treatment of sexual offenders
352b
FBI
record systems 21b of a President" (Special Report) 717c insurance 406a Ireland 412a
"Impeachment
430d
legal decisions
museum vandalism and
thefts police race relations 58 4d
prisons and penology 565d "Problem of Prisons, The: Abolition" 567a
505a
Reform
or
United Kingdom 709c Watergate 716c Crockett. Ivory (athlete) 682b
Crooks, Richard: see Obituaries 73 Cross-country 637a
Grossman, Richard Howard Stafford: see Obituaries 75 Crowther, Geoffrey Crowther, Baron: see Obituaries 73 Cruyff, Johan: see Biography 75 soccer 306c Crystallography 552d Cuba 75, 74. 73 agriculture and food supplies 58 (table)
boxing broadcast 662a Caricom 230b
Communist movement 186b defense 213 (table) demography 225 (table) energy 274 (table)
Jamaican relations 418a Latin-American affairs 85a; 427b; S43c; S46a; 725d literature 468d Soviet bloc economies 628b Soviet forces 219b track and field sports 680d Vatican City State 724b CUEA (Coastal Upwelling Ecosystem Analysis) 248d Cunhal, Alvaro
(pol.. Port.)
il.
184
Curling 637a Cycling 75, 74, 73 Cyclones 93d; 240a
Cyproterone acetate (drug) 3S2c 75, 74. 73 alcoholic beverages 70 (table) Canada 158a China 166d Commonwealth of Nations 182d
Communist Parties 186 (table) "Cyprus and the Great Power Balance" (Special Report) 216a development, economic and social 234c employment, wages, and hours 270 (table)
Greece 333 b Iran 409d lack of
(COCU)
588c
right of privacy 21b stock exchanges 641b Credit bureaus 21b Cricliet 75, 74, 73
Cyprus
7Ub
religion
Congregationalism:
552c
Colombia
Correll. Charles J.: see Obituaries Cosell, Howard: see Biography 73
ance
588c Codeine 242c Coelacanth (zool.) 442c
interna-
tional 294c
factors in strike activity 95b government finance 330a industrial production and technology 389 inflation and recession 250a international law 436a money and banking 491a prices S63d
Jamaica 417d
agriculture
Condominiums 190a Condon. Eddie: see Obituaries 74 Condon. Edward Uhler: see Obituaries
Cofiee 58a; 179d; 684d El Salvador 266c Coggan, (Frederick) Donald: see Biog-
economy, world 252b exchange and payments,
Cornell. Katharine: see Obituaries 75 Cornell University 32lb Coronary heart disease (CHD) 354a medical research 345c Corporation for Public Broadcasting
Cottle,
Corp.) 187d Concorde SST 387
75
cooperatives 194c
Cook. David (au.) 451b Cooke, (Alfred) Alistair: see Biography 74 Cooper, Merian C: see Obituaries 74 Cooperatives 75, 74, 73 handcrafts 319d Honduras 367b marketing and merchandising 476c transportation 692c Copper 268a; 480a; 487a cartel attempts 180d Chile 163d commodity trade I77d; 179d marine pollution 442b Peru S45d trade, international 684c Zaire 733b Zambia 734c Coppola, Francis Ford (film director) 496d Copyrights 435b rights of information creators 22d television and radio 663c William & Wilkins case 576c
Cotton 54c; 397 development, economic and 234a Rhodesia's output 606c Senegal 614b Soviet bloc economies 628d trade, international 684c
U.S. information industries 19b also Information science technology
(Consultation on Church Union)
law of the sea 432b petroleum resources 272b Contraception: see Birth control Contract Bridge 75, 74, 73 "Conundrum" (Morris) 451d "Conversation, The" (film) 496d
archaeology 79c
see
75, 74, 73 agriculture and food
Continental drift 245a Continental shelf Antarctica 75d
building design 80d consumer credit 191a telecommunications 660a
•Comrade Jacob" (film) 498c (Communications Comsat
religion
749
Cities I Czechoslovakia
(CPB) 664c
Commonwealth
countries Communications Satellite Corp. (Comsee also
I
COCU
U.S. 189d
Consumer Protection Charter 43d
international law 431d
urban renewal 82a Citizenship 582d Citroen Co. 389 City Center Jeffrey Ballet 209a Civil Aeronautics Board Civil Aviation Authority
INDEX
Colwell, Paul (bowler) 144a
Cox. Archibald: Cox. Wally: see Obituaries 74 CPB (Corporation for Public Broadcasting) 664c
NATO
unity 218a
Pakistan position on dispute 540d prices 564 (table) race relations 580c refugees 586c
587d Turkey 698a U.K. troops 220b United Nations 711b "Cyprus and the Great Power Balance" religion
(Special Report) 216a
Czechoslovakia 75. 74. 73 agriculture and food supplie
58
(table)
alcoholic beverages 70 (table) Argentina 85a chess 162a Communist movement 185b defense 215b
"Craftsmen Without Number" (Special Report) 319a Craig, Lyman C: see Obituaries 75
demography 227b employment, wages, and hours 270
Biography 74 Cranko, John: see Obituaries 74 Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) 441b
energy 274 (table) environmental problems 285b Finland 302c
Craig. William: see
(table)
INDEX
750 Dacca
}
employment, wages, and hours 267b
Demin. Lev (cosmonaut) 630b Democratic Party (U.S.) 719d
Demography
Economics
hockey 364c housing 372c income, national 379a industrial production and technology
76 African affairs 50a coronary heart disease 354c education 2S7d employment, wages, and hours 267c health statistics 341a health status 342a Italian divorce law 415a populations and areas S5Sd race relations 581d
and welfare services 617b U.S. religious distribution 592a West Africa 66d world food problem ISa social
386d motion pictures 500b numismatics 547c religion 590c
"World Population Year"
(Special
Report) 556d
Yemen's marriage law 731b see also Populations and areas Demonstrations and riots 538d; 644c Boston's school desegregation S85b
i669b theatre 677a track and field sports 681d transportation 691d Vatican City State 724b
British scientists il. 401 deiiendent states 229c education 260d European fan S9d legal decisions 431a London's West End il. 173
Yemen (Aden) 731a Yugoslavia 732c
I
D
Pakistan 603b prisons and penology 565d senior citizens ils. 618, 619 soccer 307d Southeast Asian affairs 627a
Dacca University (Bangladesh) 99c
sugar prices il. 192 textbook protest il. 258
Dahomey
75, 74,
73
De
Beer.
Sir
Gavin
(Rylands):
Obituaries 73 Debt, National: see
Denktash, Rauf: Cyprus 205b
7!
Denmarit
75, 74. 73 agricultu re and food
supplies
chess 162a
and urban
Communist
(table)
and welfare services 619b stock exchanges 644d taxation 656c television and radio 662d theatre 677a
social
tourism 679b track and field sports 681b treatment of criminals 3S2b UNFICYP 711b
Middle Eastern
482c
442a;
Race
Australia 93d crisis
99a
insurance 405a
Disciples of Christ (Christian Church)
111 Health" (Special Report) 341a (gov.-gen.. Grenada) 334d Dekobra, Maurice: see Obituaries 74
De Gale, Leo
De La
Bedoyere, Count Michael: see Obituaries 74 Delacourt-Smith, Charles George Percy Smith. Baron: see Obituaries 73
Delaware
(state, U.S.) 714; 715 (tables) Deligne, Pierre (math.) 478a DeU'Acqua. Angelo Cardinal: see
(econ.) 251b; 268b;
385a
Valleys Drilling Project 74b
see
t
Obituaries 75
(DITB) 476a Divorce: see Demography
DM
165a
Com
184c
427a Solzhenitsyn's attitude 46Sd trade reforms 2S6a U.S.S.R. 703a Det Mich. 585a; 171 (table) affairs
see
Mark
Deval, Jacques: see Obituaries 73 Devaluation and revaluation 491d economy, world 252c income, national 379a Japanese exports 55la
tourism 678b trade, international 686a see also various countries
Devaney, Robert; see Biography 73 Developing nations 177d; 231d China's foreign policy 166c
commercial and trade policies I75b commodity cartels 180b Commonwealth of Nations 183b consumerism 189c cooperatives 194b economy, world 25Sa education 257d
see
Leslie Clar.
r
Obituaries Obituaries
Dunn, Michael: see Obituaries 74 Dupont. Clifford W. 605c Duras, Marguerite (writer) 667a
Lawrence (au.) 4S0d; ii. 451 Dutra. Eurico Caspar: see Obituaries 75 Dutt. (Rajani) Palme: ^^r Obituaries 75 Duval. Paul (au.) 457d Duvalier. Jean-Claude 338c Dylan, Bob S12b; il. 511 Durrell.
E Thomas raphy 73
Eagleton.
Francis: see Biog-
Earthquakes 240a; 24Sa; 249a Earth Resources Technology
(ERTS)
Satellite
245a; 630c
environmental problems 286a photomosaic of U.S. il. 322 space technology 387 Earth Sciences 75. See Geology;
Meteorology; Oceanography; Seismology 74. 73 Antarctica 74a botany 44 Id environmental problems 284d geographical research 322d law of the sea 432a new words and meanings 729c space exploration 630b West African drought 66a East African Community 182d East Germany: see German Democratic Republic
590d Disease: see Health and disease Distributive Industries Training Board
relatic
drug abuse 243c "Definitions of
Demand
Biography 75
Latin American affairs 429a Pakistan earthquake 542a West African drought 66a
see Diethylstilbestrol Civil rights
Deserts 286c Sahel drought
see
Guatemala 336a Honduras 366c
(DNA)
African affairs 46c
Deutschemark:
see also various countries Defense, U.S. Department of 218a
Dry
,
Dlamini, Makhosini 647d
United Nations 710c U.S. spending protests S39a women chaplains 595a
ceuticals
Druon, Maurice 67Sa
75
691b
Bangladesh
Latin-American
narcotics use 243c trade, international 68Sa
cotles 74, 73 narcotics traffic 199d theological attitudes 595b Drugs, Pharmaceutical; see Pharma-
Dunn, Alan Cantwell:
"Moon for the Misbegotten. A" 671c de Wilde, Brandon; see Obituaries 73 Dia. Mamadou 614a Diabetes mellitus 161a; 226b Dial-a-ride 692d Diamonds 489b; 614d; 684d "Diary of Anals Nin, The" 456d Diego Garcia, isl., Ind.O. 231a Dieldrin 447a Dies, Martin: see Obituaries 73 Diet 345c; 354d see also Nutrition Diethylstilbestrol (DES) 56d; 726d Dietze, Constantin von: see Obituaries 74 DiGregorio, Ernie (athlete) 104c Dilatation (seismology) 249c Dimitrios I: see Biography 73 DiNapoli. Joseph 200a Diokno. Jose W. 547d Diori, Hamani (pres.. Niger) 517b Diouf, Abdou (premier. Senegal) 613d Disarmament 214b; 703b "Disaster in the Desert" (report) 66d Disasters 75, 74, 73 African affairs 46d
74 Netherlands 514a Denver, Colo. 82a Deoxyribonucleic acid
?
affairs
India 14a; 381c
world food supplies 8d
Dugdale. Bridget Rose: see Biography
air crashes
Christian 520c
aerospace 387 African affairs 47a law of the sea 432a
Cyprus 206b
Vietnam 729a
investment, international 406c
Dentistry 79d; 353a Den Uyl, Joop Marten: see Biography
Chir
Antarctica 74c mining and quarrying 488a oceanography 248d petroleum 272b pipeline construction 83d Dropouts (educ.) 260c Drought 233c agricultural production 53d
United Nations 7nc West Africa 66b world food problem 8b
energy 274 (table) environmental problems 285a European unity 290d exchange and payments, international 296a fisheries 303 (table) Germany, East 324d horse racing 372a housing 374 (table) industrial production and technology 386d law 430d money and banking 493a prices 563d publishing industry 578c sailing 609a
428a; 725c
Deep Sea Drilling Project 248d Defense 75, 74, 73
Dress: see Fashion and dress "Dressmaker. The" (Bainbridge) 450c Drew, George Alexander: see Obltu-
inflation effects 255c
dependent states 229a European unity 291a
Dewhurst, Colleen:
liberties;
Drama; see Theatre Drenkmann. GOnter von 326b
Dubai (emirate) 705c Dubcek. Alexander 207c Dublin Theatre Festival 675a Duckpins 144c Duckwitz, Georg Ferdinand: Obituaries 74
trade, international 683c
168d
affairs
parties 186 (table)
edi
DES:
Debus. Kurt H. 630a DeButts. John D. 659a De Castro. Josue; see Obituaries 74 Decision No. 24 (econ. agreement)
housing 372c income, national 378a industrial production and technology 385a industrial relations 399a Islamic summit conference 540d the sea 432b law of migration, international 486a money and banking 491c populations and areas S5Sd prices 565a race relations S80d religion 595d road building 28 !b savings and investment 612a social and welfare services 619b trade, international 683d transportation 692c United Nations 7 lid "World Population Year" (Special Report) 556c "World Without Want. A" 7b Development, Economic and Social 75. See Development, Economic 74, 73 African affairs 48b agriculture and food supplies 52c commercial and trade policies 175b
religion 587d tourism 678b
alcoholic beverages 70 (table) cities
293a health and disease 339c
Douglas, Bill (film director) 498c Douglas, William O. 456d: 585a impeachment effort 7I7c Down's syndrome (Mongolism) 352b Drakensberg scheme 622a
race relations 581d
(table)
see
Government
finance
De Duve,
Biography
see
Community
Economic
European
commodity cartels 180a Commonwealth of Nations 183b
agriculture and food supplies 62b.
development, economic and social 234a Dairy and dairy products 55b; 304d Dalai Lama 602c Daley. Arthur John: see Obituaries 75 Dams 77d; 249b; 279d; 653b Dance 75, 74. 73 Dance Critics Association 210a Dance Theatre of Harlem 208d; il. 209 Dan George, Chief: see Biography 74 Dani€lou. Jean Cardinal: see Obituaries 75 Danish literature 466a Darin. Bobby: see Obituaries 74 Darvas, Lili: see Obituaries 75 Darwin, Australia 93d Data processing; see Information science and technology Dating (archae.) 77c; 79a Daud Khan, Mohammad Sardar: see Biography 74 Afghanistan 45d Daves, Jessica: see Obituaries 75 Davidson, Gary: see Biography 75 football 311c Davies, Rodger Paul; see Obituaries 75 Davies, Stephen Owen: see Obituaries 73 Davis, (Daisie) Adelle: see Obituaries 75 Davis. Angela Yvonne: see Biography 73 Davis Cup (tennis) 669c Day. Douglas (au.) 452a Dayan. Moshe 413b "Day for Night" (film) 498a Day-Lewis, Cecil: see Obituaries 73 DDT 287b; 312b; 447a Dean, Dizzy: see Obituaries 75 Dean, John Wesley, III: see Biography 74 Nixon and Watergate 713a; il. 431 Death Angels 199a "Death Notebooks, The" (Sexton) 457a Deaths; see Demography; Obituaries
energy 272a environmental problems 28Sc
(Deutschemark): sec Mark see Deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA:
Dodd, The Rev. Charles Harold: Obituaries 74 Dodds, Sir (Edward) Charles:
ico)
see see
Dollar 2S2d; 294b; 491d balance of
payments 612b
investment, international 406b tourism 678b trade, international 686a Dominica, isl.. W.I. 230b Dominican Republic 75, 74, 73 agriculture and food supplies S8d irtel 180d his
East Pakistan: see Bangladesh
"Ebony Tower, The" (Fowles) 451a Ecevit, Bulent: see Biography 75 Cyprus 205b Turkey 698a Echeverrfa Alvarez, Luis (pres.. Mex-
i362c
ining 488a numismatics S47c
prices 564 (table) Donaldson. Sir John Francis: set Biography 73 Dong. Pham Van 728d Donlevy, Brian: see Obituaries 73 Doppler shift (phys.) 5S3b Dorfman. Ariel (au.) 468d Dorget^s. Roland: see Obituaries 74 D'Ormesson. Jean (au.) 4S8c Dorticds Torrado. Osvaldo 202b
481a
Eclipses 91 (table) E. coli (Escherichia coli) 445b Ecology: see Environment Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and 628a
the
Pacific
(ESCAP)
Economic
UN
and Social Council. (Ecosoc) 234d; 7Uc 75, 74, 73 African affairs 47d commercial and trade policies 175b cooperatives 193d developing nations 7b
Economics
development, economic and social 231d economy, world 251a employment, wages, and hours 267a
government finance 330a; 655b health care and status 342a industrial relations 95a; 399a
money and banking 491a new words and meanings 730b Nobel Prizes 519c peace effort S39d prices S63b South African apartheid policy 623d
Economy, World
75, 74, 73 policies 175b
commercial and trade
commodity commodity
cartels 180a trade 177c
consumerism I89c development, economic and social 231d employment, wages, and hours 267a energy 27 Id engineering projects 281b environmental problems 282d exchange and payments, interna-
Ekangaki. Nzo: see Biography 74 African affairs 47d Elahi, Chaudhri Fazal (pres.. Pak.) S40d Elazar. David 413c Elder, Lee (athlete) il. 328 Elderly: see Senior citizens Eldjarn, Kristjan (pres.. Iceland) 375a
tional 293c fisheries 303b
Elections alcoholic beverages 7Ic
forestry 311d furs 316b
games and toys 318a government finance 330a; 655c housing 372b income, national 377b
Electricity 273;
energy
industrial production 385a investment, international 406b
marketing and merchandising 47Sd
5
563b
profits 571a
savings and investment 612a social and welfare services 6l6d
Southeast Asian affairs 627b Soviet bloc economies 628b stock exchanges 641a television and radio 661a trade, international 683c transportation 687c United Nations 7Uc world migration patterns 485c Ecosoc: see cil,
Economic and
Social
Ecuador
75. 74, 73 agriculture 58 (table)
archaeology 80b demography 225 (table) economy, world 255b energy 274 (table)
303b
income, national 378a Mexico's economic relations 4Sla OAS meeting 427c prices 564 (table) Ecumenism S87c Eddy. John A. 79d Edmonton Eskimos (football team) 311c Education 76, 74, 73 building architecture 81b Canadian Indians 15Sa consumerism 190d costs of medical education 360a developing nations 16a development, economic and social 235a employment 267c games and toys 318c geography 322c handcrafts 319c health care 339c journalism student increase 574c
peace effort 539c philosophy 549b racial discrimination 585a; 624a social and welfare services 617c
Employment Oppor-
Commission) 586a EEZ (Exclusive economic zone) 432d EFTA (European Free Trade Association) 435b Eggs 55b; 178c Egypt 75. 74, 73 African affairs 48b agriculture and food supplies 61c tunities
France-Middle East 316b petroleum 271c; 293c; 484a; 485a U.S. sales to Cuba 202c; 427b Emergency Livestock Credit Act (1974) 56b Emigration: see Migration. Interna-
Awards 666a
Employment, Wages, and Hours
and
social
government finance 330a; 656d health care and status 343c; 360b production and techindustrial nology 386b industrial relations 95a; 399a inflation and recession 250a investment, international 408c migration, international 485c
money and banking 491a photography industry S51a
Israel
42 Id
Kuwait loan 425a Libya 439b Middle Eastern affairs 482b Pakistan 540d Saudi Arabia 61 Id Sudan 647d Syria 652d Tunisia 698a
transportation 690d working conditions 402b
U.S.S.R. 219b; 700c
United Arab Emirates 705c United Nations 710c United States 721a Yemen, People's Republic of 731a
Se-
astronomy 91b atmospheric circulation 246b dams 280a
Economic
Community
291c food production needs lib metallurgical processes 480a nuclear physics 552c prices 564c profits 571d Soviet bloc economies 628c
space exploration 630d
i687b
prices 564 (table) religion
601b
smallpox 347d wildlife conservation 288c
Ethnography and Anthropology
ethnology:
see
Ethology: see Zoology Eukaryotes (biol.) 443a
Eurocurrency and Eurobonds 294b; 491a European Broadcasting Union 66 Id Eu ropean Consortium for Political Research (ECPR) 555c European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms 434b European Cup (basketball) 106c European Cup (soccer) 306d European Cup Winners* Cup (soccer) 307a European Development Fund 723a European Economic Community 290d; 434d agriculture and food supplies 59c alcohoHc beverages 70c Comecon 629b iai policies 176b; 477b; 68Sa needs 181d onwealth of Nations 182c idity
192a
development, economic and social 236b energy 273; 390 European Poverty Program 618d exchange and payments, international 294c food processing 304b France 315d Gabon 317b income, national 377d investment, international 407c Malta 475a migration, international 48Sc money and banking 493a Netherlands 514c television and radio 663a United Kingdom 706a value-added tax 656c West Germany-U.S. relations 326c Yugoslavia 732c European Free Trade Association (EFTA) 435b European Monetary Cooperation Fund 493a European Poverty Program 61 8d European Space Research Organiza-
United Church of Christ Evangelism 592d
and botanic gardens 321a; 73Sb Agency Protection Environmental 284d; 391; 447a
photosynthesis 441b B (Greek Cypriots) 205a; 580c Epidemics (med.) 239c: 347a;^354c
EOKA
Episcopalians: see
"
.'\nglii
Epstein, Benjamin (writer) 601c
Opportunities Employment Commission (EEOC) S86a Equal Opportunity Act 191a Equatorial Guinea 75, 74, 73 Gabon 317c Equestrian sports 637b Equinoxes 91 (table)
Equal
(play, Shaffer) 67 Id
(Energy
Research
and De-
see Earth Resources Technology Satellite Ervin. Samuel J., Jr.: see Biography 74
ERTS:
curity Act 405c "Encyclopaedia Britannica" 579c Endangered Species Act (1973) 312c Endo. Shusaku (au.) 462d Endosulfan (insecticide) 287b Energy 75, 74. See Fuel and Power 73 African affairs 47d agricultural supply and prices 55d
751
Fadden
505c construction 83d industry 394
3
velopment Administration) 393 Eriksen. Erik: see Obituaries 73 Eritrea, prov., Ethiopia 47a Errath. Christine (skater) 376d
6l6d
/
..J ;
transportatic
ERDA
religion 598d social and welfare services
European
mining 486d
"Equus"
publishing industry S73d race relations 581d; 624a
Employment Retirement Income
Iran 409b Iraq 411a
historic preservation 363d industrial health 346c law of the sea 432c life sciences 440c
genetic research 444c insects 447d
see also various countries
tech-
and urban affairs 168c consumer problems 192b determination of health 341a ecological models in anthropology 76d cities
biological evolution 443c
Commumty
Economy
1
Enzymes
stock exchanges 641b
234c; 255b energy 276 historic preservation 362c production and industrial nology i9i
PLO
African affairs 48a; 143b
Economic
Research and Development Administration (ERDA) 393 Supply and Environmental Coordination Act (1974) 283a Engerman. Stanley (au.) 456b Engineering Projects 75, 74, 73 75a Ant: industrial technology 387 trans-Alaska pipeline 83b England: see United Kingdom English literature 449c Opera (J National English Wells Opera) 509c (union with Greece) 205a; 216b; 333b Entertainment: see Dance; Fairs and shows; Motion pictures; Music; Television and radio; Theatre Entomology 447a Environment 75, 74, 73 archaeology 79c architecture 81b automobile industry 387
forestry 3I2c geographical research 322b
Embargoes
293a
Edwards, Jorge (au.) 468d EEC: see European Economic Com-
413b Jordan and
(table)
energy 274 (table) Latin-American affairs 367b; 428d populations and areas 561c prices 564 (table) Taiwan 654a
European
veterinarian shortage 726d
archaeology 78a defense 215a; 221b demography 226a development, economic
;als
h: see Obituaries 73 Garbage: see Waste c"
GARP (Global Atmospheric Research Program) 246c _ ^ GARP Atlantic Tropical Experimeni .
.
,
,
(GATE) 246b
103b Garr. Ralph (baseball player) 103b Garvey. Steve (baseball player) Gas: see Natural gas
GATE periment) 246b Agreement GATT (General l">a
TariHs on -r„r;«„
and Trade)
Obit-
Gaudin, A(ntoine) M(arc) uaries 75 G. B. Enterprises 477a
Biography 75
Brazil 146
Gell-Mann. Murray (phys.) 552d Gemini (spacecraft) 630a Biography clneen, Harold Sydney: !« 74 Tariffs and General Agreement Trade (GATT) 176a_ 390 General Electric Co. (U.K.) General Foods 403a s