Britannica Book of the Year 1962
During the period 1938-2018 Encyclopædia Britannica published annually a "Book of the Year" covering the past
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English Pages [897] Year 1962
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Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Table of Contents
Introduction
Editors and Contributors
Calendar of Events, 1961
World Without Want
Part 1: Bread Upon the Waters
Part 2: Education in Emergent Africa
Part 3: Puerto Rico, Showcase of Development
BOOK OF THE YEAR
ABYSSINIA
ALCOHOLISM
ARCTIC
AUSTRALIA
BAPTIST CHURCH
BOSTON
BUSINESS REVIEW
CHAD
CIVIL DEFENSE, US
CONSUMER CREDIT
DEFENSE POLICIES
EDUCATION
EVANGELICAL UNITED BRETHREN CHURCH
FOOD AND FOOD PROCESSING
FRUIT
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS, US
HOTELS
INTERIOR DECORATION
IRAN
KENNEDY
LIBRARIES
MASSACHUSETTS
MISSILES AND SPACE VEHICLES
MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NUTRITION
OKLAHOMA
PHILIPPINES
PORTUGUESE OVERSEAS PROVINCES
RADIO AND TELEVISION
ROWING
SKIING
SPACE EXPLORATION
SYRIA
TROPICAL DISEASES
UNITED STATES
VATICAN CITY STATE
WISCONSIN
INDEX
A
B
C
D-E
F
G-H
I
J-K
M
N
O-P
Q-R
S
T
U
V-W-X-Y-Z
Citation preview
1962
1
7T68
BR1TANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR
4
A
BRITANNICA
Record of the March of Events of 1961
BOOK OF THE YEAR
1962 WILLIAM
BEJVTOJV, Publisher
HARRY S. ASHMORE, Editor in Chief JOHN DODGE, Executive Editor V.
HOWARD
E.
KASCH, Managing
Editor
of Encyclopaedia Britannica
ROBERT
W.
MURPHEY,
of the Britannica
Managing Editor
Book of
the Year
rToH
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, CHICAGO
•
TORONTO LONDON •
•
GENEVA
INC.
1962 BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
COPYRIGHT UNDER INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT UNION ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER PAN AMERICAN AND UNIVERSAL COPYRIGHT CONVENTIONS BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
Britannica Book of the Year (Trade Mark Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.)
PRINTED IN
U.S.A.
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
The Britannica Book of is
of
the
Tear
published with the editorial advice
the faculties
of The University of Chicago
Frontispiece Photo by
Dan Budnik — Magnum
in
Table of Contents
some ways the backward view from 1962
in the table of
Presidents, Sovereigns and Rulers,
while this volume cites 104 independent
Editors and Contributors, vi
United Nations
the
organization
Calendar, 1962, xviii
of
UN
subject to the internal stresses that
is
title in
the 1938 edition
League of Nations. The first edition contained an obituary of Jean Harlow; this year we note the passing of Gary Cooper. Blum, Leon, has given way to De Gaulle, Charles; the British Empire to the Commonwealth of Nations; and Windsor, Duke of, has
Book-Length Feature
World Without Want,
members
and notes that the
alone,
long ago removed a major
Calendar of Events, 1961, xix Special
reveals
a simpler scene. There were only 82 countries listed
1
Britannica Book of the Year, 1 Index, 751
disappeared entirely from the contemporary record.
Remarkably, only one name spans the entire period
Nehru, Jawaharlal,
with equal prominence:
of
India.
The yearbooks triumph. In the
reflect
first
tragedy and human was necessary to devote
human
issue
it
considerable space to Anti-Semitism; this year the sequel
is
recorded under Eichmann, Adolf.
1930s Iron
major subjects;
Introduction
In the
Lung and Infantile Paralysis were
disease for the
in
1962 the decline of the dread
first
time justified dropping the sepa-
rate entry Poliomyelitis.
Twenty-five years ago the
editors of Encyclopaedia
To keep up with
the changing times the yearbook
Britannica recognized that the world was progress ing,
has evolved special feature articles sufficient in scope
or at least changing, at a rate that made new demands upon the encyclopaedist. Few hard facts, and no body of knowledge or theory, could any longer be counted as static. Thus began the Britannica
to permit full analysis and interpretation of developments of unusual significance. These have now found their permanent place in the front of the book. The range of these special articles literally has been world
Book of the Year as an annual chronicle designed to supplement the basic set of 24 volumes. The yearbook, too, has changed over this quartercentury. The editors soon came to realize that a simple, essentially journalistic record was not enough. The encyclopaedist has an obligation to explain, not simply annotate, the course of history. This has been discharged by the selection of contributors specially
wide.
qualified to give perspective to the
running tide of
contemporary events. In their
own way
Last year's definitive "The Voice of Latin
America" by William Benton continued
in
1961 to
attract favourable attention with its publication as
a separate volume. This year
we
feature a three-part
look at the international developmental programs
many contemporary statesmen
regard as the world's
best hope for peace.
The ever,
selection of topics for feature treatment,
is
not limited to international, or even
how-
political,
Over the years experts have reported on the problems of the aging, problems of water supply and
affairs.
the headings of the major articles
yearbook were a sort of shorthand survey world in the 1930s. Titles acutely
the implications of the discovery of the carbon- 14
of the state of the
technique which enabled archaeologists to
applicable to those depression years have happily
time intervals of mankind's past. Our editorial concern is with those events and trends which signalize
in that first
the present volume: Sit-down Strikes; Share-the-Wealth Program; Bankruptcy; Dole; Relief; Dust Storms. And there were grim reminders, too, that the nation's and the world's problems were not merely economic: Blackshirts; Brown Shirts; Hitler, Adolf; National Socialism; Popular Front; Spain, Civil War in. The original yearbook reflected a world in which the first flares of a great war were already visible yet
disappeared from
;
fix
the
or presage significant change in any part of man's total
range
environment will
—and we have to assume that the
expand
rapidly than
it
has
in
the next 25 years even
more
in the last.
Hairy
S.
Ash more
Editor
in
Chief
Encyclopaedia Britannica
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS HARRY JOHN
S.
V.
ASHMORE,
DODGE,
Editor in Chief
Executive Editor of
Encyclopedia
Britannica
HOWARD
E.
KASCH,
Managing Editor
Encyclopaedia
of
Britannica
ROBERT W. MURPHEY, Managing Editor of the Britannica Book
of the
Year
PHILIP W. GOETZ,
(Initials
principal articles written by them.
A.CBs.
ALAN CUTHBERT BURNS.
The arrangement
is
Picture Editor
and names of
contributors to the Britannica
Book of
the Year with the
alphabetical by initials.)
Cameroons; Nigeria (in part) Former Colonial Governor. Author of
Lutherans
A. La.
ALEXANDER
LIEPA.
Editor, the National Lutheran.
History of Nigeria; Colour Prejudice; History of the British West Indies.
A.L.A.
South Carolina A.C.Fa. A. C. FLORA, JR. Associate Professor of Economics Director. Bureau of Business and Economic Research, University of South Carolina, :
ANGEL LIBORIO AYUSO.
British Honduras (in part) Program Organizer, Broadcasting Serv-
British Honduras.
ice, Belize,
AI.Do.
Columbia.
Biochemistry
ALBERT DORFMAN.
A.CLo.
Child Labour
ADELBERT
C.
LONG.
Chief,
Division of
Youth Employment
Director. LaRabida— The University of Chicago Institute. Professor, Department of Pediatrics and Biochemistry, The University of Chicago.
Standards and Services, Bureau of Labor Standards, U.S. Department
AUDREY
A.C.Rd.
Coast Guard, U.S. ALFRED C. RICHMOND. Admiral. U.S.C.G. Commandant, United States Coast Guard, Washington, D.C.
Argentina (in part); etc. AMOS E. TAYLOR. Professor of Economics, American University, Washington, D.C. Formerly Director, Department of Economic and Social .Affairs, Pan American Union, Washington, D.C.
A.E.Tr.
A.E.Wr.
Philippines, Republic of the E. WRIGLEY. Chief, Philippine-Indonesia-Malaya Section, Far Eastern Division, U.S. Department of Commerce.
ADA A.G.
Malta
ALBERT GANADO.
Municipal Government
A.M.Ds.
of Labor, Washington, D.C.
(in part)
tion.
New
M. DAVIES.
(in part)
Librarian, Institute of Public Administra-
York, N.Y.
A.M.Ro.
ARNOLD MARSHALL
ROSE.
Sociology Professor of Sociology, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis. Author of Human Behavior and Social Processes; Theory and Method in the Social Sciences.
A.Mu.
Dance
(in part)
ARTHUR MURRAY. President, National Institute of Social Dancing. Author of Ballroom Dancing; Dance Secrets; How To Become a Good Dancer; etc. Producer of network TV show: "The Arthur Murray Party."
Surgery
A.O.
ALTON OCHSNER, M.D.
Lawyer, Malta.
Clinic
A.Gg.
Aviation, Military (in part) Chief, Current History Branch, United States Air Force Historical Division. Editor, History of the U.S. Air Force, 1907-1957.
ALFRED GOLDBERG.
Director, Department of Surgery, Ochsner and Ochsner Foundation Hospital, New Orleans, La. Professor
of Surgery, School of Medicine, Tulane University of Louisiana, Orleans.
New
A
ANTONE
G.
SINGSEN.
Insurance (in part) Vice-President, Blue Cross Association.
(in part); French Literature (in part) of editorial staff of Le Monde, Paris.
France
A.Pr.
ANDRE A.G.S.
PIERRE. Member
Author of Vie
de Tolstoi (Paris)
;
U.R.S.S. (Paris)
Ar.Mo. A. J. Me. A. J.
McCLANE.
Fishing Editor, Field
&
Stream,
New
Angling York, N.Y.
Nevada
A.J.Pr.
ARTHUR JUDSON PALMER.
JR. Assistant to the Nevada Legislative Counsel. Author of County Consolidation and Reorganization in Nevada; Political History of Nevada (1959); Study of the Presidential
A
Primary. A.J.S.
ARTHUR JAMES SEYMOUR.
British
Guiana
(in part)
Chief Information Officer, GovernBritish Guiana. Author of
ment Information Services, Georgetown, The Guiana Book; Caribbean Literature.
ARY MOSSIMAN. and Cable Company,
Electrical
etc.
;
I
ndustries (in part)
Manager, Market Research, Anaconda Wire York, N.Y.
New
Arkansas
A.S.Sn.
(in part)
A(NTHONY) STEPHEN STEPHAN. versity of Arkansas, of Social Conditions C. F. Schmid).
A.Ste.
Fayetteville. in the Twin
Professor of Sociology, UniCo-author of Guide to Studies Cities (with R. F. Sletto and
Exchange Control and Exchange Rates Assistant Director, Department of
ALEXANDER STEVENSON.
South Asia and Middle East, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington, D.C. Operations.
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Housing
At.H.D.
tin pari)
ALBERT HAROLD DEHNER.
Chairman of Finance, Division of Business Administration, Portland State College, Portland, Ore.
VII
C.CO.
Building and Construction Industry CARTER CLARKE OSTERBIND, Research Professor. College of Business Administration. University of Florida, Gainesville. Author
of Florida's Commercial Fisheries; Florida's Older People.
National Bureau of Standards
•
A.V.A.
ALLEN V(ARLEY) ASTIN.
Director, National Bureau of Standards. Author of papers in physics and engineering journals.
C.D.O'C. Assistant
A.W.Br.
ARTHUR ciation,
W. BAKER. General
New
Urban Transportation, U.S. Secretary, American Transit Asso-
York, N.Y., which prepared the
article.
Japan
A.W.Bs.
ARDATH WALTER BURKS. I
Dean
The
of Students,
JR.
C.E.R.
Forestry Information Specialist. Formerly with IS. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington. D.C. Author of Our Forests; etc. C.F.Ls.
CHARLES Spanish Literature
Ay.Kn.
(THOMAS) ANTHONY KERRIGAN.
American
Editor,
British South African Territories (In part) SILLERY. Secretary to the Curators of the Taylor InOxford University. Author of Africa: a Social Geography; The Bechuanaland Protectorate; Sechele.
Ay.Sy.
ANTHONY stitution.
Aluminum
(in part);
Diamonds
BERENICE BARRICK MITCHELL. Commodity Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of the
(in part); etc.
Industry An-
Interior,
LEWIS.
F.
Director,
The Buhl Foundation.
Pittsburgh Pittsburgh,
1956-
Pa., 1928-56; Consultant,
Goya
Ed. and trans., Pio Baroja's The Restlessness of Shanli Andia and Other Writings; Miguel de Unamuno's Collected Works. (Madrid).
B.B.M.
Lumber
Forests;
CHARLES EDGAR RANDALL.
Professor of Political Science, Rutgers
Diversity, N.J.
alyst,
Scholarships and Student Aid Director of Admissions and University of Chicago.
CHARLES DAVID OCONNELL,
Washington,
D.C. Psychiatry Professor and Chairman, Department of Neurology and Psychiatry, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, 111. Editor of Review of Medicine.
Budget, National; Debt, National;
C.F.Sz.
CHARLES
SCHWARTZ.
F.
Western Hemisphere Washington, D.C.
etc.
Chief. North American Division. International Monetary Fund.
Department,
Cartooning
C.Go.
CHESTER GOULD.
Cartoonist; creator of "Dick Tracy."
Alabama
C.G.Su.
tin part)
CHARLES GRAYSON SUMMERSELL.
Professor of History and Head of the Department of History, University of Alabama, University, Ala. Author of Alabama History Filmstrips; Alabama History for Schools; Mobile: History of a Seaport Town.
B.Bo.
BENJAMIN BOSHES.
Utah
B.D.M.
BRIGHAM
D. MADSEN. Associate Professor of History, Utah State University, Logan.
CONNOLLY JAMES COLE. C.J.S.D. C. J. S.
I
BERNARD BAKER,
M.D.
Assistant Clinical Professor, Department of Radiology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago.
ndians, American
DURHAM. Former Director of Information. Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. National Parks and
C.L.Wi.
X-Ray and Radiology
Be.B.
Ireland, Republic of (in part) Journalist.
C.J. Co.
CONRAD
L.
WIRTH.
Monuments
tin part)
Director, National Park Service, Washington,
D.C.
C.M.H. Machinery and Machine Tools New York, N.Y.
B.Fy.
BURNHAM FINNEY.
Editor, American Machinist,
Houston
B.Gi.
BEN
M. GILLESPIE. Manager, Information Department, Houston Chamber of Commerce, Houston, Tex.
Intelligence Operations; International Propaganda Professor of Journalism and Chairman of Department, University of California, Berkeley.
CHARLES M. HULTEN.
Baltimore; Maryland
C.N.E.
CARL
N.
EVERSTINE.
ence, Baltimore, of
Director, Department of Legislative Referof History of the Grand Lodge of Masons
Md. Author
Maryland.
Dams
B.O.M.
BYRON
McCOY.
Vice-President, pany, Inc., Rutland, Vt. O.
Vermont
Electric
Power Com-
Canals and Inland Waterways (in part) Writer and Broadcaster on Middle Eastern and Balkan affairs. Formerly Manager, Ionian Bank Ltd. Author of The Balkan States: an Economic and Financial Survey; Greece
C.O'D.I. C. O'D. ISELIN. H. B. Bigelow Oceanographer, graphic Institution, Woods Hole, Mass.
Oceanography
Woods Hole Oceano-
B.S.-E.
BICKHAM SWEET-ESCOTT.
a Political
COs.
CANDIDO OLIVERAS.
Secretary of
and Economic Survey.
Church Membership
C.S.B. B.T.S.
BYRON
T.
SHAW.
Agricultural Research Service Administrator, Agricultural Research Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
B.W.C.C.
BASIL WILLIAM CLIFTON COOKE. port.
Puerto Rico Education, Department of
Education, Hato Rey, P.R.
Railroads (in part) Associate, Institute of Trans-
etc.
C.W.A.
Editor of the Railway Gazette.
Bolivia fin part); Peru tin part)
CHARLES W. ARNADE. Church Membership
B.Y.L.
(in part)
tin part)
CHARLES
S. BRADEN. Emeritus Professor of History and Literature of Religions, Northwestern University. Evanston, 111. Visiting Professor of Religion, Scripps College. Claremont. Calif. 1954 56. Author of Jesus Compared; These Also Believe; Christian Science Today;
Florida,
Professor of History, University of South
Tampa.
BENSON
Y. LANDIS. Editor, Research Publications, Bureau of Research and Survey, National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., New York, N.Y.
C.W.Ck.
Marine Biology
CONSTANCE WHITNEY CHADWICK. Planktonology,
Donations, Bequests and Grants CB \RLES A. ANGER. Chairman, Board of Directors, and Chief Executive of John Price Jones Company, Inc. Author of Academic Eminence: a Study of Outstanding Scholars in 208 Graduate Fields; American Philanthropy for Higher Education; etc.
C.A.A.
Woods Hole Oceanographic
Research Institution
'in part)
Assistant in Hole,
Woods
Mass.
C.W.Cu.
Mathematics
CHARLES W. CURTIS. Wisconsin.
Madison.
Professor of Mathematics. University of Co-author of Representation Theory of Finite
Groups and Associative Algebras. C.A.Bn.
CHARLES and Modern
A. BRESKIN. Chairman of the Board, Plastics Encyclopedia, New York, N.Y.
Modern
Plastics Plastics
C.W.Hn. sity
C.A.Hh.
CHARLES
Botany
CHARLES
W. BLAGEN, JR.
in part)
Professor of Botany. Indiana Univer-
Bloomington.
Hotels
HORRWORTH.
A. Hotel Association.
Executive Vice-President, American
C.B.Hr.
Botany
fin part)
Da.G.
Pediatrics DAVID GITLIN. Assistant Professor of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical school; Physician, Children's Hospital Medical Center, Boston; Consultant to l.s. Surgeon General,
CHARLES
B. HEISER, JR. Professor and Curator of the Herbarium, Indiana University, Bloomington.
C.C.K.
CLIFFORD CHARLES KNERR.
Shipbuilding (in part) Secretary-Treasurer. Shipbuilder!
Council of America.
D.A.Pe.
DONALD
A. Association.
Veterinary Medicine
PRICE.
D.As.
in Chief.
American V
Business
dickson \^n Arkansas tin part) OLOVIS COPELAND. State Publicity Director, Arkansas Publicity and Parks Division, Little Rock, Ark.
C.Co.
Editor
of V' delphii 1
it
I
rinar>
Management
[
in part)
igaxlne. official publ Past President elation
sodatlon Executives and Philadelphia Booksellers ion
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
VIII
Ghana
D.Au.
(in part)
DENNIS GILBERT AUSTIN.
Research Fellow, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London. Author of West Africa and the Commonwealth.
D.W.A.
DAVID W. ANGEVINE.
Co-operatives Information Director, Cooperative League
of the U.S.A., Chicago.
D.W.Ar. Jewish Literature
D.Az.
DINA ABRAMOWICZ. Jewish Research,
New
Assistant
(in part)
Yivo Institute
Librarian,
for
Merchant Marine
DONALD
York, N.Y.
D.W.M. California Professor of History, University of Southern
D.C.Cr.
DONALD
C.
California.
Los Angeles.
CUTTER.
DONALD tional
National Guard
McGOWAN.
W.
Major General. U.S. Army.
MILLER.
C.
DOROTHY WOODMAN.
ABC
Statesman. Author of public of Indonesia.
Burma Staff contributor of the Pacific; The
on Asian
Making
of
DONALD U.S.
Conservation Conservation Service, Soil
A.
WILLIAMS.
Administrator, Soil
New
Burma; Re(in part)
ERNEST ALBERT JOHN DAVIES.
Associate, Institute of TransEditor, Traffic Engineering and Control. Author of National Capitalism; National Enterprise; editor of Roads and Their Traffic; etc. port.
E.A.Pr.
Dd.A.W.
Na-
fin part)
Affairs.
Canals and Inland Waterways
E.A.J.D.
Economics DUDLEY DILLARD. Professor and Head, Department of Economics, University of Maryland, College Park. Author of Economics of John Maynard Keynes; co-author of Posl-Keynesian Economics.
D.D.
Chief,
Guard Bureau, Washington, D.C.
D.Wo. (in part); Federal Reserve System Vice-President. Continental Illinois NaCompany of Chicago. Author of Taxes, the tional Bank and Trust Public Debt, and Transfers of Income.
Banking
D.C.Mi.
DONALD
(in part)
W. ALEXANDER. Maritime Administrator, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
Fisheries
EDWARD
A. POWER. Chief. Branch of Statistics, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Red Cross
E.A.Ri.
Chicago
DeV.S.
DE VER SHOLES.
Director. Research & Statistics Division, Chicago Association of Commerce & Industry.
EDWARD
RICHARDS.
A.
E.A.S.
Metallurgy
D.F.C.
DONALD FREDERIC CLIFTON. lurgy. University of Idaho,
Assistant Professor of Metal-
Algeria (in part); Guinea (in part); etc. Assistant Geographer, U.S.
ELVYN ARTHUR STONEMAN. Department of
State,
Washington, D.C.
Moscow. E.B.Nn.
Union
D.Fd.
of Soviet Socialist
DAVID FLOYD. London
Special Daily Telegraph.
correspondent
Republics
on
(in part); etc.
Communist
affairs,
Rubber
EDWIN BOHANNON NEWTON.
Manager, Rubber Research. B. Goodrich Research Center, Brecksville, O.
F.
E.C.F.
Candy
D.Gw.
DON GUSSOW. tioners Journal,
Publisher and Editor, Candy Industry and Confec-
New
York, N.Y.
West Virginia Director of Development and Pro-
D.H.B.
DONOVAN HINER BOND.
fessor of Journalism. West Virginia University. Morgantown. Author of Half-Century of Nursing in West Virginia; The Wheeling In-
A
D.HI.
D.Hn.
Editor, Architectural Forum.
Architecture York. N.Y.
New
Newspapers and Magazines (in part) Publisher. Formerly member of staff, the SpecBritish Journalists of and Newspapers; etc.
DEREK HUDSON. Author
tator.
Tropical Diseases
ERNEST CARROLL FAUST.
Emeritus Professor of Parasitology. Department of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, Tulane University. School of Medicine. New Orleans. La. Member, Expert Panel on Parasitic Diseases. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switz. Author of Animal Agents and Vectors of Human Disease; etc. E.C.H.
EDWARD CHARLES HOLMBLAD, dustrial Medical Association, Chicago,
telligencer to 1860.
DOUGLAS HASKELL.
(in part)
Assistant Director, Office of Publica-
American National Red Cross.
tions.
Panama
D.H.Sr.
'in part)
DAVID HALL STAUFFER.
Diplomatic Historian. U.S. Department of State. Washington. D.C. Author of The Origin and Establishment of Brazil's Indian Service; 1889-1910.
Wages and Hours
D.J.H.
DONALD
J. HART. Dean, College of Business Administration, University of Florida, Gainesville.
E.C.Sd.
Aviation, Civil (in part) Air correspondent, New Scientist. Author of The Air Force of Today; Great Flights; etc.
EDWIN COLSTON SHEPHERD.
Newspapers and Magazines
E.Ey.
Tariffs fin part)
DAVID LYNCH.
Chief Economist. United States Tariff Commission. Author of The Concentration of Economic Power; The Tariff Policy of Greece; etc. Co-author of Postwar Developments in Japan's Foreign
Professor of Journalism. University of Minnesota. Minneapolis. Author of The Press and America; History of the American Newspaper Publishers Association; etc. Associate Editor of Journalism Quarterly.
Maine
E.F.D.
EDWARD FRENCH
DOW. Professor of Government and Head of the Department of History and Government, University of Maine, Orono.
EDWARD
F.
ROSENBERG, M.D.
Chicago Medical School, Chicago, E.G. An.
ESTELLE
Trade.
(in part)
EDWIN EMERY.
E.F.Rg.
D.Lh.
Industrial Health (in pari) to the In-
M.D. Consultant 111.
G.
ANDERSON
Rheumatic Diseases Assistant Professor of Medicine,
111.
Shoe Industry 'Mrs. Arthur D. Anderson). Associate
Editor, Bool and Shoe Recorder.
D.L.L.
DAVID LEO LAWRENCE,
Pennsylvania Governor, Commonwealth of Pennsyl-
vania.
D.L.La.
Patents and Trade-Marks Commissioner of Patents, U.S. DepartCommerce, Washington, D.C.
DAVID LOWELL LADD. ment
of
D.N.M.
DONALD NELSON MICHAEL.
Civil Defense, U.S. (in part) Director, Planning and Programs,
Peace Research Institute, Washington, D.C. D.P.B.
DONALD PETER BURKE.
EDWARD
Chemical Week.
Printing Editor, Printing Production Magazine, Cleve-
Arizona
E.H.P.
EDWARD
H. PEPLOW, JR. Magazine Editor, Arizona Journal. Author of History of Arizona; co-author of Holiday on Oak Creek; Rock to Riches; editor of Roundup Recipes. Thailand
Liberia (in part)
Professor
of
Geography, East
Baseball (in part); Basketball; etc. Editor, Sport and Outdoor Book Division of Thomas Nelson & Sons, New York. N.Y. Author of Pro Football Handbook; Major League Baseball Handbook; World Series Encyclopedia.
DONALD SCHIFFER.
Interstate
EVERETT HUTCHINSON.
Science and Assistant Director. Bureau of Governmental Research. University of Mississippi, University, Miss. Co-author of Yesterday's Constitution Today; co-editor of A Directory of Mississippi Municipalities; Problems and Prospects in Public Administration.
Commerce Commission
Chairman, Interstate Commerce Com-
mission, Washington, D.C.
Aviation, Civil (in part); Roads and
ESTHER JAMES DUDGEON.
Analyst
in
Highways and
Transportation
Communications 'Economics Division), Legislative Reference
Service,
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. E.J.G.
Mississippi
Acting Associate Professor of Po-
part)
Lecturer in Thai, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
E.J.Du. D.Sr.
(t'n
EDWARD HAROLD STUART SIMMONDS.
Carolina College, Greenville, N.C.
DONALD SHORES VAUGHAN.
OWEN,
E.Hu.
D.R.Pn.
D.S.V.
H.
land, O.
E.H.S.S.
Chemical Industry Associate Editor for Technology,
DONALD RAHL PETTERSON.
E.H.O.
Badminton; Bowling; etc. News Editor, The Advocate, Newark, Co-editor of Baseball Encyclopedia.
EDWARD JOSEPH GRANT. N.J.
litical
Telephone
E.J.McNe.
EUGENE JOHNSON McNEELY. and Telegraph Company,
New
President, American Telephone
York, N.Y.
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
IX
United Church of Christ FRED HOSKINS. Minister and Secretary of the General Council of Congregational Christian Churches. Co-president. United Church of Christ. Professor of Parish Ministry Elect, Chicago Theological Seminary, Chicago. Co-editor of A Book of Worship for Free Churches.
F.Ho.
E.L.A.
ELMER
ANDERSEN.
L.
Governor, State of Minnesota.
E.L.Cy.
EDWIN L. CROSBY, M.D.
Hospitals Director. American Hospital Association.
Dentistry
E.M.Bi.
ERIC MILLER BISHOP.
Assistant Director, Information, American Dental Association.
E.M.Y.
EDWARD MERLE YOUNG,
Bureau of Public
Tunnels JR. Associate Editor, Engineering
Missiles and Space Vehicles IRA III. George C. Marshall Space Flight Center, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Huntsville, Ala. Co-author of Basic Astronautics; International Missile and Spacecraft Guide; Space Flight; Your Future in Astronautics; editor of Advances in Space Science and Technology.
F.t.Or.
FREDERICK
ORDWAY,
News-Record. Nutrition (in part) Professor of Nutrition. Schools of
F.J.Se.
Diabetes Professor of Clinical Medicine. HarE. P. vard University Medical School. Honorary President. Diabetes Foundation Inc. Physician, New England Deaconess Hospital, Boston, Mass.
E.P.Jo.
JOSLIN, M.D. Emeritus
E.R.BI.
EUGENE tion
R.
BLACK.
International Development Association; etc. President. International Bank for Reconstruc-
FREDRICK
J.
STARE. M.D.
Medicine and Public Health, Harvard University. Public Health Engineering K. ERICKSON. Associate Regional Health Director, Environmental Health Services, U.S. Public Health Service, Region
F.K.En,
FREDERICK
VI, Kansas City,
Mo.
and Development, Washington, D.C. F.L.H.
North Dakota BURNS ROBINSON. Professor of History, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks. Author of Heroes of Dakota.
E.Rn.
ELWYN
I
FRANCES
nternational Trade
BELLE HALL.
La
Analysis Division,
Deputy Director, International Trade U.S. Department of Commerce. Washington, D.C.
Author of
Area Trade Patterns With Special Reference
Sterling
to the
Dollar Problem.
E.S.Ah.
Iraq (in part); etc. broadcaster. Author of
EDWARD SELIM An Arab
Tells
ATIYAH. Writer and His Story; The Arabs; Black Vanguard; Lebanon Para-
dise; etc.
Tennis
E.S.Br.
EDWIN S. BAKER.
Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of FRANCIS LOEFFLER LEDERER, M.D. Professor and Head of the Department of Otolaryngology. L'niversity of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago. Author of Basic Otolaryngology; Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat; Principles and Practice of Otorhinolaryngology; etc.
F.L.Lr.
Lawn Tennis
Executive Secretary, United States
F.M.H.
Association.
Malaya
FREDERIC MARTIN HUTTON. Foreign Credits, U.S. KERBER. Chief. Government Grants and Credits Section. Balance of Payments Division, Office of Business Economics, U.S. De-
E.S.K. E. S.
Four-H Clubs
YORK,- JR.
LAHEY,
New
York, the
Administrator, Federal Extension Service, U.S. F.R.B.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. E.V.Lh. E. V.
Author of
Business Pub-
Albany. N.Y. Canal State; Albany, a Cradle of America.
licity.
E.T.Y. E. T.
Kuala
New York
F.P.K.
FRANCIS PATON KIMBALL. Director, Bureau of New York State Department of Commerce,
partment of Commerce, Washington. D.C.
(in part)
Malay Mail.
Editor,
Lumpur, Malaya.
Foundation.
South Dakota
Ev.W.S.
EVERETT W. STERLING.
Professor of History,
University of
R. BRUNS. JR. Director, Division of Philately. Post Department, Washington, D.C. 1947-62. Syndicated Stamp Columnist. Author of Stamp Collecting, Your Introduction to a Fascinating Hobby; etc. Office
Electrical Industries (in part)
EDWARD WILLIAM GOLDING.
Assistant
Director.
Electrical
Research Association, London. Author of Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments; Electrification of Agriculture and Rural Dis-
Handball
Fr.Ro.
FREDERICK ROTHE. and
South Dakota, Vermillion.
E.W.G.
Philately
FRANKLIN
Brewing and Beer Chairman and President, United States Brewers
New
Former Governor, Downtown Athletic Club York Athletic Club, New York City.
F.W.AI.
FRITZ W. ALBERSHARDT. Manager. Francisco
Chamber
of
F.W.McC.
tricts; etc.
FRANK
E.Wi.
Italy (in part); etc.
San Francisco Research Department, San
Commerce, San Francisco,
W. McCULLOCH.
Calif.
National Labor Relations Board Chairman, National Labor Relations
Board, Washington, D.C.
ELIZABETH WISKEMANN.
Tutor in Modern History, University College of Sussex, Eng. Author of Czechs and Germans; Germany's Eastern Neighbours; Italy; The Rome-Berlin Axis; Undeclared War; etc.
F.W.Rr. F.
Meteorology
W. REICHELDERFER.
Chief.
Weather Bureau. U.S. Department
of Commerce, Washington, D.C. International Monetary Fund U.S. Executive Director, International Monetary Fund. Washington, D.C. Author of Foreign Exchange Practice and Policy; The Finances of European Liberation.
F.A.Sd.
FRANK A. SOUTHARD. JR.
Art Exhibitions
F.A.Sw.
(in part); etc.
FREDERICK ture.
The
A. SWEET. Curator of American Painting Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, 111.
and Sculp-
F.W.W.-S.
Art Exhibitions (in part)
FRANCIS WILLIAM WENTWORTH-SHEILDS. ing Instructor,
Twickenham School
Designer. Visitof Art. Middlesex. Eng.
G.A.Ho.
West
GLADSTONE ALBERT HOLDER.
Indies,
Information
The
Officer.
(in part)
Barbados.
West Indies, The (in part) Chairman. Board of Censors; Deputy Chairman, Pensions Authority, Jamaica.
G.C.Cu. F.B.H.
Portugal (in part)
FRED BRABY Service,
HILLS. Program Organizer, Uganda Broadcasting Kampala. Uganda.
GLORIA CLARE CUMPER.
Morocco
G.C.J.
Motion Pictures (in part) FREDA BRUCE LOCKHART. Television Critic. Time and Tide. Former Film Critic, the Taller. Film and Television Correspondent,
F.B.Lt.
Woman.
GEORGE COLIN JACKSON,
Barrister at Law.
(in part)
Lecturer, writer
and broadcaster.
Bhutan
G.C.Li.
in part); etc.
GENEVIEVE COLLINS LINEBARGER.
Boxing
F.Br.
(in part)
FRANK
BUTLER. Sports Editor, News of the World. Author of The Fight Game; Success at Boxing; Success at Soccer. F.D.N.
FRANCIS
D. NICHOL. Midnight Cry; The Answer
Seventh-day Adventists Editor, Review and Herald. Author of The to
Modern Religious Thinking;
F.D.Wr.
FRANCIS DAVID WALKER.
Affairs.
Gd.M.
Tunisia
GERARD MANSELL.
Journalist
and
writer.
(in part)
Author of Tragedy
in
Algeria.
etc.
Navies of the World JR. Captain. U.S. Navy.
Consultant. Foreign Policy Research Institute. University of Pennsylvania. Philadelph. author of The Idea of Colonialism; Washington Sources on International
fin part)
Ge.M.
GEORGE M W>\
Hawaii Director of Economic Development.
B
Hawaii. Honolulu.
Aluminum
F.E.H.
(in part);
Copper
(in part); etc.
FLORENCE
E. HARRIS. Former publications editor, Mineral Trade Notes. Bureau of Mines. U.S. Department of the Interior. Washington, D.C. Compiler of mineral statistics, Britannica Book of the Year.
F.G.Kt.
FRANCES
G.
KNIGHT.
American Citizens Abroad Director, U.S. Passport Service. U.S. De-
partment of State, Washington. D.C.
G.F.A.F.
London
ARTHUB
l:\IU) FRANCIS PAY London Editor, Manchester (Eng.) Guardian. Anthoj at Vhe Abbey Theatre: Cradle of Genius.
'.I
G.G.T.
Singapore
QRA1 THOMSON Service Political study Centra,
>r
in part)
of Training. Singapore Ulvtl
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS G.J.Br.
GERALD JACKSON BRYAN.
Diefenbaker, John George; Pearson, Lester Bowles Parliamentary writer for the Ottawa
G.J.C.
GREGORY
Virgin Islands, British Administrator, British Virgin Islands.
CONNOLLEY.
J.
Citizen, Ontario.
Washington, D.C. JR. Research Director, Economic Development Committee, Metropolitan Washington Board of Trade, Washington, D.C.
Epidemiology Commissioner of Health, New York State Department of Health, Albany, N.Y.
H.E.Hi.
HERMAN
HILLEBOE, M.D.
E.
Export-I mport Bank of Washington President and Chairman. ExportImport Bank of Washington, Washington, D.C.
H.F.Li.
HAROLD FRANCIS LINDER.
G.Ky.
GORDON KENNEDY,
G.L.W.
WARREN.
GEORGE
L. Department of State,
Refugees Adviser on Refugee and Migration Affairs,
Surinam (in part); Commissioner
H.G.H.
HENRI GERARD HERMANS,.
Netherlands
H.G.Wh.
HARRY GEORGE WHITEMAN. H.H.B.
Disciples of Christ
GAINES M. COOK.
Executive Secretary, International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ). Author of The Privileges of Church Membership; etc.
French Literature (in part) Literary journalist.
HENRY HESS
BLAU.
University, Columbus, O.
Glass Professor of Glass Technology, Ohio State Author of The Glass Industry of Central
Europe. H.J. A.
Chicago,
for
Washington, D.C.
G.M.Ck.
G.M.J. G. McSTAY
etc.
Cultural Affairs and General Information in the Netherlands Antilles.
Interior Decoration and Home Furnishings President, McStay Jackson Company,
JACKSON.
111.
Jewish Literature (in part) GABRIEL PREIL. Writer. Hebrew poet. Author of Israeli Poetry in Peace and War; Nof Shemesh Vkhfor ("Landscape of Sun and Frost "); Ner Mul Kokhavim ("Candle Against the Stars"); Mapat Erev ("Map of Evening"); etc.
G.P.
Narcotics (in part)
H. J. ANSLINGER. Commissioner of Narcotics, Treasury Department, Washington, D.C. U.S. Representative on the United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs. Member, Committee on Narcotic Drugs and Drug Addiction, National Research Council. Author of The Physician and the Federal Narcotic Law; co-author of The Traffic in Narcotics; etc.
Washington
H.J.De.
HERMAN
DEUTSCH.
J.
Professor of History, Washington State
University, Pullman.
G.P.H.
Tariffs (in part)
PATRICK HENRY.
Economist, United States Tariff Commission, Washington, D.C. Co-author of Postwar Developments in Japan's G.
Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Commissioner of Food and Drugs, Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Department of Health, Education and \\ elfare, Washington, D.C.
G.P.L.
GEORGE
P.
Insurance
H.J.J.
HOLGAR
J.
JOHNSON.
(in part)
President, Institute of Life Insurance,
New
York, N.Y.
Foreign Trade.
LARRICK.
Communism;
H.Ko.
etc.
HANS KOHN.
Professor of History, The City College of New York. Author of American Nationalism: an Interpretative Essay; The Idea of Nationalism, a Study of Its Origins and Background; Pan-Slavism, Its History and Ideology; etc.
Presbyterian Church
G.S.K.
GUY SOULLIARD KLETT.
Research Historian. Department of History, The United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America.
H.L.Hy.
rado
Canadian Literature (in part) Librarian; Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada. Author of Pokes catholiques de la France contemporaire; Sondages;
Colorado
HAROLD L. HANEY.
Assistant Director, Colorado State Advertising Author of Historical Colothe Louisiana Purchase Until Today; etc.
and Publicity Department, Denver, Colo.
From
G.Sr.
GUY SYLVESTRE.
etc.
G.W.Ad.
GEORGE WILLIAM ADAMS.
Legislative
Connecticut Reference Librarian,
Connecticut State Library, Hartford.
Greenland (in part); etc. HELGE LARSEN. Teacher at Nykrtbing Kathedralskolo, Den. Author of Politiske Grundlauker ("Political Ideas"). Contributor to De fern Lauge ar ("The Five Long Years").
H.Ln.
Monuments
National Parks and
H.M.A.
HAROLD MAURICE ABRAHAMS.
Secretary,
(in part)
National
Parks
Commission, London.
G.W.Ey.
Banking
GROVER WILLIAM ENSLEY. Potential
G.Y.
GEORGE YOUNG.
(in part)
Executive Vice-President, National New York, N.Y. Author of
Mutual Savings Banks, Economic Growth of the United
Association of
Farmers Home Administration Administrator, Farmers Home AdministraDepartment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Ho. Be.
HOWARD BERTSCH. tion, U.S.
States.
Air Races and Records; Automobile Racing; etc. Editor, Sports Service Bureau, New York, N.Y.
H.A.Cn.
Clothing Industry
HARRY
A. COBRIN. Executive Secretary, Clothing Manufacturers Association of the United States of America, New York, N.Y.
H.A.So. Vermont H. ALLEN SOULE. State Historian, MontpeUer, Vt. Editor of State Papers of Vermont, vol. x, jri.
Space Exploration Executive Director, U.S. National Committee for the International Geophysical Year, and Executive Director, Space Science Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.
H.Od.
HUGH ODISHAW.
English Literature (in part) Editor of Outposts. Author of The Cumber-
Ho.S.
HOWARD SERGEANT.
land Wordsworth; Tradition in the Making of Modern Poetry; Survey of South African Poetry.
HUGH
Idaho A.
WILSON.
Secretary, Idaho State
Chamber
of
HOWARD
PYLE.
President, National Safety Council.
Commerce. Dermatology
H.Ra. H.B.N.
Geological Survey, U.S. Information Officer. U.S. Geological
HERBERT BISHOP NICHOLS.
Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. H.C.CI.
HENRY CUMMINGS CAMPBELL.
Canadian Literature Chief Librarian,
(in part)
Toronto
Public Libraries, Toronto, Ont. H.C.FI.
Civil
HAROLD
C.
Institute,
Inc.,
Rights
FLEMING.
Executive Vice-President, The Potomac Washington, D.C. Formerly Executive Director, Southern Regional Council, Atlanta, Ga. Co-author of Integration North and South. H.Dt.
Netherlands (in part)
HANS DAUDT.
Assistant, University of of Floating Votes and the Floating Voter.
Amsterdam, Neth. Author
HORACE DENTON WOOD, Cotton Exchange,
H.E.Ds.
HAROLD EUGENE
Wool JR.
Secretary,
New
York, N.Y.
HERBERT RATTNER,
M.D.
Professor and Chairman, Department of Dermatology, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago. 111. Editor, Archives of Dermatology.
H.R.Sh.
HARVEY
R. of Congress.
SHERMAN.
Barley; Cocoa; etc. Legislative Reference Service, Library
Prices (in part)
H.S.Br.
HAROLD SCOTT BOOKER.
Lecturer
Economic
in
Wool Associates
of the
don.
China; Formosa
H.T.Ch.
HUNG-TI CHU.
Expert in Far Eastern
Affairs.
Kentucky
HAMBLETON TAPP.
Director,
Kentucky
Life
(in part)
Museum, University
of Kentucky, Lexington.
Red Cross
H.W.Dg. Venezuela
Statistics,
of Economics and Political Science, University of LonAuthor of The Problem of Britain's Overseas Trade.
London School
H.Tp.
H.D.W.
New York
Critical
Accidents
H.Py.
H.A.W.
A
HENRY
W. DUNNING.
Counselor, League of
Red Cross
(in part)
Societies.
DAVIS.
Professor of Latin American History and Government, the American University, Washington, D.C. Author of Latin American Social Thought; editor of Government and Politics in Latin America.
H.W.Hk.
HOWARD WILLIAM HOPKIRK. Corpus
Christi, Tex.
Child
Welfare
Child Welfare Consultant,
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Betting and Gambling (in part) STOTESBURY. Assistant Secretary.
H.W.Sy.
HERBERT WENTWORTH Home
London.
Office,
H.W.Wr.
Libraries
HOWARD WOODROW WINGER.
Library School,
The
Associate Professor. Graduate University of Chicago. Managing Editor, Library
XI Post Office, U.S.
J.E.Da.
EDWARD
DAY. Postmaster General, U.S. Post Office Department. Washington, D.C.
J.
Federal Bureau of Investigation Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation,
J.E.H. J.
EDGAR HOOVER.
U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, D.C.
Quarterly.
Cleveland; Ohio (in part) F. HUTH, JR. Editorial writer on city and state affairs, Cleveland (O.) Plain Dealer.
J.F.Hu. Wildlife Conservation Executive Secretary, The Wilderness Soci-
H.Z.
HOWARD ety.
ZAHNISER.
JOHN
Editor of The Living Wilderness. Juvenile Delinquency JR. Visiting Associate Professor and Director, Youth Studies Program, The University of Chicago. Associate Professor of Sociology. Washington State University. Pullman. Associate Editor, American Sociological Review. Co-author of Suicide and Homicide: Some Economic, Sociological, and Psychological Aspects of Aggres-
J.F.Sh.
Eichmann, Adolf
H.ZI.
HANS
I.
A.
Professor of Law and Sociology, The University of School. Author of Say It With Figures; co-author of Marienthal.
ZEISEL.
Chicago Delay in
Law
the Court;
Massachusetts
Ma.
IGNATIUS ALBERT MATKOV.
State Librarian, State Library of
Massachusetts, Boston.
F.
Stocks and Bonds
IRVING PFEFFER.
Associate Professor of Insurance, University of California at Los Angeles. Consultant on Insurance and Employee Benefit Programs. Author of Insurance and Economic Theory.
Words and Meanings, New Chairman of the Research Committee on New Words of the American Dialect Society which prepared the article. In addition to Russell (U. of Alabama), the committee consists of H. Rex Wilson (Royal Military College of Canada). T. L. Crowell (Columbia U.), J. S. Hall (Pasadena City College), A. L. Hench
I.W.R.
WILLIS RUSSELL.
(U. of Virginia), M. J. Meredith (U. of Nebraska), P. G. Perrin (U. of Washington) and P. Tamony, San Francisco, Calif.
Banking
J.A.G.G.
JOHN ALEXANDER GORDON GRANT.
sion.
J.G.N. Post, J.J.
Anthropology
Ho.
HONIGMANN.
JOHN
J. Professor of Anthropology and Research Professor, University of North Carolina and the Institute for Research Author of Culture and Personality; in Social Science. Chapel Hill. The World of Man.
Aircraft Industry
J.J.Hy.
JAMES
J.
JAMES ALISTAIR KERR.
Lecturer in Chemistry, University Col-
lege of Wales, University of Wales, Aberystwyth.
JR. Editor, Aerospace Year Book.
J.J.Ro.
Secret Service, U.S. Chief, U.S. Secret Service, U.S. Department J. ROWLEY. of the Treasury. Washington, D.C.
JAMES J.K.
Israel (in part)
JON KIMCHE.
Editor, Jewish Observer and Middle East Review. Author of Seven Fallen Pillars, the Middle East 19^5-1953; co-author of The Secret Roads, the Migration -of a People.
J.K. P.
JOHN
A. MYERS, M.D. Professor of Medicine and Public Health, University of Minnesota Medical and Graduate Schools, Minneapolis. Author of Tuberculosis Among Children and Adults; etc.
English Literature (in part)
J.A.Po.
JOHN ALASTAIR POLE. Member
of Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia
Britannica, London.
JACOB BERNARD AGUS.
Judaism Author Judaism;
Rabbi, Beth El Congregation.
of Guideposts in Modern Judaism; The Evolution of Jewish Thought.
Modern Philosophies
of
Management.
Agriculture; Fruit (in part); etc. Senior Specialist in Natural Resources and Legislative Reference Service, Library of Congress,
JOHN KERR ROSE. Conservation,
Washington, D.C.
Baseball tin part) Manager of Sports. WGN, Inc., Chicago, 111. Publisher of Jack Brickhouse's Major League Baseball Record Book.
JACK BRICKHOUSE.
Stomach and
J.B.Kr.
KIRSNER, M.D.
Intestines, Diseases of the
Professor of Medicine,
The University
Roman Catholic Church; etc. Associate Editor, America, National Catholic
J.LaF.
weekly review,
S.J.
New
York, N.Y.
J.Lo.
Bridges
JACK LONDON.
Partner, Steinman. Boynton, Gronquist
Consulting Engineers,
J. Be.
B. of Chicago.
Profitable Service
J.K.R.
JOHN LaFARGE,
J.B.A.
JOSEPH
Savings and Loan Associations Associate Professor of Business Organization, University, Columbus. Author of Personal Finance;
PFAHL.
K.
Ohio State Tuberculosis
My.
J.
New
&
J.L.S.
JACK
London,
York, N.Y. Missouri
L.
SIMION.
Assistant
Director,
Missouri
Civil
Defense
Agency, Jefferson City, Mo.
Guam;
J.L.Ta.
etc.
JOHN LEWIS TAYLOR.
Consultant on Territorial and Indian House of Representatives, Washington, D.C. Author of Waikiki: a Study in the Development of a Tourist Community.
Affairs,
J.C.Or.
JOSEPH COLLINS ORR.
German Literature Associate Professor of German, Purdue
Recordings and Sound Reproduction (in part) Editor and Publisher. The American Record Guide. Co-author of Modern Music; Our American Music.
J.Lys.
JAMES LYONS.
University, Lafayette, Ind.
J.C.R.
Arctic
JOHN CALVIN REED.
Executive Director. Arctic Institute of Federal Power Commission Chairman, Federal Power Commission,
J.C.Sw.
JOSEPH
C.
SWIDLER.
J.M.Pn.
JOHN MALCOLM PATTERSON.
North America, Montreal, Que.
Washington, D.C.
Immigration and Naturalization Lieutenant General. U.S. Army, retired. Commissioner of Immigration and Naturalization, U.S. Department of
JOSEPH M. SWING.
Professor of Politics. University of Leicester, Eng. Author of Australian Government and Politics; The Commonwealth in the World.
JULIAN DARRELL BATES.
Gibraltar (in part) Colonial Secretary, Gibraltar.
J.D.Gr.
Washington, D.C.
of Nations
JOHN DONALD BRUCE MILLER. J.D.Bs.
Alabama Governor of the State of Alabama.
J.M.Sg.
Justice,
Commonwealth
J.D.B.M.
Jn.M.
Social Security fin part)
JOHN MOSS. tration.
Barrister. Editor, Local Government I aw and AdminisAuthor of Hodden's Health and Welfare Services Hand*
Mormons
Jo. A.
ANDERSON.
JOSEPH Secretary to the First Presidency. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons). Salt Lak(< City. I'tuh.
Gliding
JOHN
D. GRAVES. Head, Technical Group. Engineering Department, Del Mar Engineering Laboratories, Los Angeles, Calif. Chairman, Airworthiness Committee of Soaring Society of America. Tram Captain. 19.58 U.S. International Gliding Team; Team Manager, 1960 U.S. International Gliding J.D.Le.
Team.
D.
LEONARD.
Jo.C.M.
JOHN
C.
MURRAY,
Budget
Officer. State of
and Exhibitions (in part) Chief, Industry Promotion Staff. Office of U.S. Department of Commerce. Washington,
Rhode
Rhode Island Island. Provi-
dence. Jo.C.S.
Fairs
International Trade Fairs,
D.C.
HAGGERTY,
Chemistry
J.A.Kr.
JOHN
Armies of the World; Defense Policies Military affairs reporter, Washington
Washington, D.C.
(in part)
Assistant Lecturer in
Economics, London School of Economics and Political Science, University of London.
J. A.
SHORT,
JOHN GILBERT NORRIS.
I.Pr.
I.
JAMES
North Carolina
JOSEPH CARLTT.K JITTERSON.
Konan Professor
of
History.
Dean. College of >r and Sdencee, (Tnl ra ettj of North Carolina. Chapel Hill Author of Tht SeefMton Movement In North Carolina; Sugar Country. Co-author of American Society and the Changin. Editor of Studies
m
Southern History.
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
XII Jo.C.W.
JOHN C. WEAVER.
Paints and Varnishes Research Co-ordinator, Department of Research
The Sherwin-Williams
Administration,
Co., Cleveland, O.
Jo.Hn.
Ceylon
JOHN HOCKIN.
London
(in part)
Aden
K.I.
KEXNETH
(in part); etc.
INGHAM. Professor of History, Makerere College, University College of East Africa, Kampala, Uganda. Author of Reformers in India; The Making of Modern Uganda; A History of East Africa.
Editor, Times of Ceylon, Ceylon.
K.L.G. J.P.Ly.
Boston
JOSEPH
P.
LALLY.
J.R.Bg.
JAMES
R.
BROWNING.
KEXNETH LAWRENCE GOULD. Richmond
City Auditor, Boston. Mass.
Supreme Court of the United States Clerk of the Supreme Court of the United
States.
Kennedy, John Fitzgerald; Political Parties, U.S.; etc. ROLFSON. American Broadcasting Company White House
JOHN
correspondent.
News
Virginia
Assistant
City Editor,
the
Leader.
K.L.L.
Latin-American Literature L. LEVY. Associate Professor, Department of Italian and Hispanic Studies. University of Toronto. Author of Vida y Obras de
KURT
Tomds J.Ro.
(Va.)
Carrasquilla.
K.M.E.
KENNETH MILO ENDICOTT,
Cancer
M.D.
Director, National Cancer Health Service, Depart-
institute. .National Institutes of Health, Public
Photography
J.S.CI.
JOHN
S.
CARROLL.
(in part)
Editor, The Photo-Lab-Index.
ment of Health, Education and Welfare, Bethesda, Md. K.S.L.
Missions, Foreign (Religious); Religion D.D. Sterling Professor EmeriOriental History, Yale University, New Haven,
KEXNETH SCOTT LATOURETTE. J.S.GI.
Veterans Administration, U.S. JOHN S. GLEASON, JR. Administrator, Veterans Affairs. U.S. Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C.
tus of Missions
and
Conn.
K.Sm. Electronics; Recordings and Sound Reproduction (in part) STOKLEY. College of Communication Arts, Michigan State University, East Lansing. Editor, Science Marches On. Author of Electronics in Action; The New World of the Atom; Science Remakes Our World; Stars and Telescopes; Atoms to Galaxies.
J.Sto.
JAMES
J.Th.
Narcotics (in part) Director. Washingtonian Co-author of Management of Addictions; 7
JOSEPH THIMANN, M.D. Hospital. Boston.
Chemotherapy in Mental
Medical
Poland (in part) K V/.IMIERZ SMOGORZEWSKI. Journalist. Founder and Editor, Free Europe, London. Eug. Author of Poland's Access to the Sea; etc.
L.A.Ba.
Cuba
LUIS
BARALT,
A.
JR. Managing Editor, Enciclopedia Barsa.
L.A.Wn.
Golf
LINCOLN
A.
WERDEN.
L.B.H.
John XXIII; Vatican City State
JAMES ISIDORE TUCEK. Rome news
Director.
Welfare
National Catholic
Co-author of Pope John XXIII: an
bureau.
Authoritative Biography.
V.
LEWIS
Prisons and Penology Director, U.S. Bureau of Prisons, Washing-
BENNETT,
ton, D.C.
J.We. Vice-President and Inc.,
New
York.
NY.
Winei Manager. Julius
Production Secretary.
New England
Dis-
Teterboro, N.J. Delegate, Wine Conference of America. Lecturer on wines, School of Hotel Administration, Cornell University,
tillers,
B.
New
Selective Service, U.S. Director, Selective Service System, Washing-
HERSHEY.
L.Car.
Inc.,
Ithaca, N.Y.
Smithsonian Institution Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
Washington, D.C.
tion,
Motorboat Racing
L.EI. l.'>i
JULIUS WILE. Wile Sons & Co.,
York Times,
D.C.
ton.
LEONARD CARMICHAEL.
J.V.Be.
JAMES
New
Illness.
J.Tu.
Conference
Sports Staff, the
York. N.Y.
111.
IS W. EPPEL. Service Manager, Johnson Motors, Waukegan. Council Member, American Power Boat Association.
L.F.R.W.
Iran (in part); Pakistan (in part)
LAURENCE FREDERIC RUSHBROOK WILLIAMS.
Sometime
Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Author of India Under the Comthe Crown; What About India?; etc.
pany and
Municipal Government (in part) GULICK. Chairman of the Board. Institute of Public Administration. New York, N.Y. Former City Administrator, New York City. Author of Administrative Reflections From World War II;
L.Gu.
J-W.G.
Theatre fin part) Sterling Professor of Playwriting and Dramatic Literature, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Drama Critic, Educational Theatre Journal. Author of Masters of the Drama; The Theatre in Our Times; Producing the Play; Form and Idea in the Modern Theatre; Theatre at the Crossroads.
JOHN W. GASSNER.
J.W.Mw.
Calendar of Events; Argentina [in part); etc. JOSEPH W. MARLOW. Lawyer. Editor and Research Analyst. Military Intelligence Service, U.S. War Department. 1944-46.
LUTHER
etc.
Michigan LEWIS GEORGE VANDER VELDE. Emeritus Professor of History and Emeritus Director of the Michigan Historical Collections, Uni-
L.G.V.V.
versity of Michigan.
Ann
Arbor.
South Africa, Republic of (in part) editorial writer, the Johannesburg (S.Af.) Star. Co-author and co-editor of The Jews in South Africa: a History.
L.H.
J.W.Re.
City and Regional Planning Professor of City Planning and Chairman, Department of City and Regional Planning, Cornell University, Ithaca,
JOHN WILLIAM REPS. N.Y.
LOUIS HOTZ. Former
Astronomy
L.H. A.
LAWRENCE HUGH ALLER.
J.W.Rs.
Nebraska
JACK W. RODGERS.
Associate University of Nebraska, Lincoln.
Professor
of
Political
Science,
J.Wy.S. J.
WESLEY SULLIVAN. News
Oregon Editor of The Oregon Statesman,
Salem, Ore. J.Z.R.
JAMES ZACHARY RABUN.
Georgia Associate Professor of History,
Emory
University, Atlanta, Ga.
K.Gr.
Home Economics Economics Journalist. Former Iowa State University, Ames.
K.Gy.
KALMAN GYARFAS,
Latin America SILVERT. Senior Associate. American UniProfessor of Government, Dartmouth College, Author of The Conflict Society: Reaction and Revolution
KALMAN HIRSCH versities Field Staff.
Hanover, N.H.
in Latin America;
A
LEO HERMANN CRIEP, M.D.
Chief Clinician, Allergy Clinic, Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine, School of Medicine, L'niversity of Pittsburgh, Pa. Author of Clinical Immunology; Essentials of Allergy.
and
L.Hd.
.
Study in Government: Guatemala.
Assistant Director, United States Mint,
Money Wash-
ington, D.C.
Wisconsin
L.H.FI.
LESLIE
H. FISHEL, JR. consin, Madison.
Director, State Historical Society of Wis-
Alcoholism
M.D. Associate Professor of Psychiatry. Director, Residency Training Program, University of Illinois College of Medicine. Chicago. Chief Psychiatrist and Consultant, Chicago Alcoholic Treatment Center. K.H.S.
Allergy
L.H.C.
LELAXD HOWARD.
KATHERINE GOEPPINGER. Home Professor of Journalism,
Professor of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Author of The Atmospheres of the Sun and Stars; Nuclear Transformations, Stellar Interiors, and Nebulae; Gaseous Nebulae.
and Fire Losses; Insurance (in part) Dean, School of Business AdministraDean, College of Insurance, University of Connecticut. Hartford. Author of Risks We Face; coauthor of Fundamentals of Federal Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Fires
L.J.A.
LAURENCE J. ACKERMAN.
tion. University of Connecticut. Storrs.
Insurance.
Bacteriology Associate Professor of Microbiology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago.
L.J.LeB.
LEON JOSEPH
Le
BEAU
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Newspapers and Magazines (in part) L. JOHN MARTIN. Research and Reference Service, United States Information Agency, Washington, D.C. Author of International Prop-
L.J.M.
aganda.
Shows and Entertainment Chicago Bureau Chief, Variety.
L.L.Bn.
LESTER
BROWN.
L.
(in part)
M.G.G.
Public Health Service, U.S. Surgeon General, Public Health Service, Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C.
M.H.St.
Md. Member, Board
L.L.Te.
LUTHER
L.
TERRY.
U.S. Department -of
MELANIE
Petroleum
L.M.F.
LEONARD
M. PANNING. Editor, World Petroleum Policies. Author of Fathers of Industries; Foreign Oil and the Free World; The Rise of American Oil; The Story of the American Institute; etc.
Editor, Swiss Review of World Affairs,
GLAESER.
Emeritus Professor of Economics, Uni-
Public Utilities (in part)
MARTIN
G.
versity of Wisconsin, Madison. Wisconsin Public Service Commissioner.
Belgium
Antarctica
LAURENCE M. GOULD.
President of Honour, International Federation of Journalists. Honorary President, Belgian Press Association. Editor in Chief, Het Laatste Nieuws, Brussels, Belgium. Correspondent to The Times, London, Eng.
Oklahoma
M.H.W.
MURIEL
WRIGHT.
H. Editor, The Chronicles of Oklahoma. OklaHistorical Society, Oklahoma City, Okla. Author of Guide to the Indian Tribes of Oklahoma; The Oklahoma History.
A
President, Carleton College, Northfield,
Minn. Director, U.S. IGY Antarctic Program. Chairman, Committee on Polar Research, National Academy of Sciences. Author of Cold: the Record of an Antarctic Sledge Journey.
Dance
Ln.Me.
LILLIAN MOORE.
(in part)
MARCEL HENRI STUNS.
homa L.M.Gd.
(in part)
STAERK.
F.
Zurich.
LOUIS LIONEL KAPLAN. Dean, more,
Switzerland
M.F.S.
Religious Education (in part) Baltimore Hebrew College, Baltiof Regents, University of Maryland.
L.L.K.
XIII
Childbirth and Child Planning (in part); Medicine MORRIS FISHBEIN, M.D. Editor, Excerpta Medica. Medical World News. Contributing Editor, Postgraduate Medicine. Editor of Medical Articles, Britannica Book of the Year.
M.Fi.
Dancer,
Choreographer.
Faculty
(in part)
Tourist Travel
Mi.Fe.
MICHAEL FROME.
Travel Editor and Consultant, Washington, Author of Better Vacations for Your Money; Washington: a Modern Guide to the Nation's Capital; Whose Woods These Are: the Story
D.C.
of the National Forests; etc.
Member,
American Ballet Center, N.Y. Member, the President's Advisory Committee on the Arts (Department of State). U.S. Correspondent, London Dancing Times. Former Soloist, Metropolitan Opera Ballet.
Zoology
M.J.
MALCOLM THOMAS
JOLLIE. Assistant Professor of Zoology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa. Author of The General Anatomy of Lampanyctus leucopsarus.
Geology
L.On.
LAWRENCE OGDEN.
Assistant Professor of Geology, Colorado
School of Mines, Golden.
Dominican Republic
M.J.MacL.
Lawn Bowling National Councilor and former President, American Lawn Bowling Association. Chairman, "People-to-People" Special Committee for Lawn Bowling.
L.Pr.
LEWIS PILCHER.
Trust Territories RONALD ALDOUS. Head, Information Department, United Nations Association of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Editor, United Nations Association Yearbook. Author of Education for Peace; World Health: The New Outlook; etc.
'in part);
Haiti (in part);
Mexico (in part) Interim Assistant Director, School of Inter-American Studies, University of Florida, Gainesville.
MURDO JOHN
MacLEOD.
M.L.My.
Nutrition (in part) Instructor in Nutrition, Schools of Medicine and Public Health, Harvard University.
M.
L.
MYERS.
L.R.A.
LESLIE
M.Ln.
Motion Pictures (in part) Director of Research, Motion Picture Associa-
MICHAEL LINDEN. tion of America, Inc.,
New
York, N.Y.
M.L.R. Ly.W.R.
LYMAN
Friends, Religious Society of University of Pennsylvania Library, Phila-
W. RILEY.
Nursing
MARY LOU RANKIN.
Assistant Public Relations Director, Ameri-
can Nurses' Association.
delphia.
M.Mr. M.A.K.
Gold (in part) Senior Economist, The First National City
MIROSLAV
A. KRIZ. of New York, N.Y. Author of Les Operations des banques emission sur lemarche libre ("Open Market Policy") The Price of Gold; Gold in World Monetary Affairs Today.
Bank d'
;
M.B.Gr.
MELVILLE BELL GROSVENOR. Society.
Cameroons (in part); Nigeria (in part) Journalist on Commonwealth and International Affairs. Contributor to The Times Colonial Quarterly; Times of India. Author of Trusteeship in Practice.
MOLLY MORTIMER.
National Geographic Society President, National Geographic
Editor, National Geographic.
Associate Professor of History,
Montana Montana State
University, Missoula.
Housing
M.C.Br.
MARGARET CHRISTINE BAKER.
Secretary,
The
(in part)
Housing
Centre, London.
Panama Canal Zone (in part) P. DuVAL, JR. Captain. U.S. Navy (retired). Head of Panama Canal Liaison Organization and Isthmian Canal Studies, Navy Department, 1946-49. Author of Panama Canal Series and other writings on interoceanic canal problems.
M.DuV.
MILES
M.E.Dk.
MARSHALL
Political Science; Unitarian Universalist Association
DIMOCK.
All-University Head Department of Government, New York University, New York. Author of Modern Politics and Administration; Public Administration; etc. E.
Music (in part) MORRIS EUGENE HALL. Associate Professor of Music. Michigan State University. East Lansing, Mich. Author of The Development of a Curriculum for Teaching Dance Music at College Level; Teacher's Guide to the High School Stage Band.
M.E.HI.
M.E.We.
MATTHEW
Indiana E.
WELSH.
Governor. State of Indiana.
M.F.C.
Italian Literature F. Professor of Italian Language and Literature, Smith College, Northampton. Mass. Author of The Italian Heritage. Co-author of Died Novelle Contemporanee; Corso d'ltaliano; etc.
MICHELE
Churches of Christ President, Pepperdine College, Los Angeles, Editor, 20th Century Christian and Power for Today. Author of History of Christian Colleges; etc.
M.
NORVEL YOUNG.
Calif.
Mo.Pr.
M.Bn.
MORTON BORDEN.
M.N.Y.
CANTARELLA.
Veterans' Organizations, U.S.
MORTON PUNER.
Program Service
Director,
Anti-Defamation
League. Author of Community Relations Reports on Defense Department; co-editor of Freedom and Public Education.
Mo. Si.
International Negotiations
MASSIMO SALVADORI.
Professor of History, Smith College, Northampton, Mass., and Bennington College. Bennington. Vt. Author of Cavour and the Unification of Italy; The Economics of Freedom; Locke and Liberty; Western Roots in Europe.
M.S.
Labour Unions
MARGARET STEWART.
Childbirth and Child Planning (in part)
M.S.C.
MARY STEICHEN CALDERONE, M.D. Medical
Director, Planned Inc. Co-author of Release From Sexual Tensions; editor of Abortion in the United States.
Parenthood Federation of America,
M.Sp.
MORTIMER SPIEGELMAN. Life Insurance
Birth and Death Statistics Associate Statistician. Metropolitan of Introduction to Demography.
Company. Author
Marine Biology
M.Ss.
MARY tion,
SEARS. Planktonologist, Woods Hole Oceanographic Woods Hole, Mass.
Na.G.
Fairs
NAT GREEN.
and Exhibitions
MAXWELL FINLAND,
M.D.
Respiratory Diseases Associate Director. Thorndike Memo-
Laboratory. Physician in Chief, Fourth Medical Service, Boston City Hospital. Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical
rial
School.
(in part)
Institu-
(in part); etc.
Free-lance writer.
Religious Education (in part) General Secretary, World Council of Christian Education and Sunday School Association.
N.CI.
NELSON THOMAS CHAPPEL.
Boxing (in part) Treasurer and Boxing Writers' Association, New fork, N.Y. Author of Nat Fleischer's All Time Ring Record Book; Fifty Years at the Ringside; Pictorial History of Boxing; The Heavyweight Championship; etc.
N.FI.
M.Fd.
(in part)
Industrial journalist.
NAT
S.
FLEISCHER.
former President,
*
Publisher and Editor. Ring.
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
XIV
Jehovah's Witnesses Bible and Tract
N.H.K.
NATHAN
H. KNORR. Society of Pennsylvania.
President,
Watch Tower
Communications Commission
Federal
NEWTON
N. MINOW. Chairman, Federal Communications mission, Washington, D.C.
Com-
Army Commander of
Salvation
N.S.MI. S.
MARSHALL.
The Salvation Army
in the
Commissioner; National United States.
Chairman,
Norway
O.F. K.
OLE FERDINAND KNUDSEN.
Editor,
Norway
(in part)
Exports. Oslo. Illinois
O. Kr.
Governor, State of
Illinois.
O.M.R.
-
P.Ss.
Insurance
(in part)
PERCY STEBBINGS. cial
Insurance Editor and Correspondent to FinanTimes, Bankers' Magazine, Investors' Chronicle, Lloyd's List, London.
Employment; Strikes (in part) Professor of Economics, Brown University, ProviAuthor of Structure and Government of Unions; The AFL
P.Ta.
PHILIP TAFT. dence, R.I.
Music (in part) NICOLAS SLONIMSKY. Composer and pianist. Author of Music Since 1900; Music of Latin America; etc. Editorial Adviser for Encyclopaedia Britannica on American Music.
N.Sy.
OTTO KERNER.
PAUL RAND DIXON. Washington, D.C.
N.N.M.
NORMAN
Federal Trade Commission Federal Trade Commission,
P.R.D.
Time
in the
of Gompers;
The
AFL From
the
Death of Gompers
to the
Merger.
P.W.R.
Table Tennis National Chairman, History Committee, Table Tenuis U.S. Association.
PETER W. ROBERTS.
International Law WRIGHT. Professor of International Law, The University of Virginia, Charlottesville. Author of A Study of War; The Study of International Relations; etc.
Q.W.
QUINCY
Australia (in part)
OWEN MICHAEL
ROE.
Lecturer in History, University of Tas-
Seismology
R.A.E.
ROBERT
mania, Austr.
EARLE.
A.
Chief, Geophysics Division, U.S. Coast
and
Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C.
Heart and Circulatory Diseases
O.PI.
OGLESBY PAUL, M.D. Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine, Attending University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago. Physician, Presbyterian-St. Luke's Hospital, Chicago, 111. President, American Heart Association, 1960-61.
Ra.W.
RAYMOND WALTERS,
American Literature New York Times
JR. Associate Editor, the
Book Review. R.B.Gt.
Atomic Energy
Or.Td.
OLIVER TOWNSEND. Director, State of New York, Albany, N.Y.
Office of Atomic Development. Author of World Development of
Endocrinology
ROBERT BENJAMIN GREENBLATT, crinology, Medical Endocrinology.
College of Georgia,
M.D.
Professor of EndoAugusta. Author of Office
Atomic Energy. R.B.Pe.
O.S.W.
Pulitzer Prizes; etc. Editor, Literary and Library Prizes and Paperbound Books in Print, New York, N.Y. Assistant Editor, Good Reading, Committee on College Reading.
OLGA SVATIK WEBER.
Sweden
P.A.B.G.
PERCY AMOREY BEAUFORT GETHIN.
(in part)
Assistant in Scandina-
vian Studies, Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge. P.A.E.
ment
Former Senior
Irrigation Economist. U.S. Depart-
of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
PAULINE TRIGERE. PHYLLIS
Fashion designer.
STECKLER. Company, New York, N.Y. B.
Book Publishing and Book Sales Book Department, R. R. Bowker Editor of Bowker Annual of Book Trade
Editor,
and Library Information; Textbooks
ROBERT
TOOTELL.
B.
Governor,
Farm
Farm Credit System Credit Administration,
Washington, D.C. Physiology CLIFFORD INGRAHAM. Professor of Physiology. University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago.
RAYMOND
Rd.A.F.
Fashion and Dress
Pa.T.
P.B.St.
R.B.T.
R.C.I.
Irrigation
PAUL A. EWING.
Aviation, Military (in part)
ROBERT B. PIRIE. Vice-Admiral, U.S.N. Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air), U.S. Department of the Navy, Washington, D.C.
in Print.
Physics Professor of Physics, University of
RICHARD ALLAN FERRELL. Maryland, College Park.
Retail and Wholesale Sales Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University. Author of Value Added by Industrial Distributors and Their Productivity; co-author of Whole-
R.D.Bu.
ROBERT DOW BUZZELL.
saling. P.
CO.
Drug Production and Sales
PAUL CRANDALL OLSEN. Topics and Drug Trade News, Drug Products.
Director of Market Research, Drug
New
York, N.Y.
Shipbuilding
P.Df.
PETER JOHN DUFF. of British Ships P.
Author of Marketing
Editor, Shipping
(in part); etc.
World, London.
Author
and Shipping. Delaware
PAUL DOLAN.
Professor, University of Delaware, of Government and Administration of Delaware.
Newark. Author Cricket
York correspondent, Sydney
(Austr.)
Morning Herald. P.F.Wr.
Defense, U.S. (in part) for Training, Education and Public Affairs, Office of Civil and Defense MobilizaCivil
tion,
F.
WAGNER.
Lecturer on Latin-American Outline History of Latin America.
d'ECA.
Deputy Assistant Director
Washington, D.C.
P.G.C.
Business Review PAUL G. CRAIG. Professor of Economics, Ohio State University, Columbus. Co-author of Financing Unemployment Compensation.
Ph.D.
Cameroun
(in part); etc.
PHILIPPE DECRAENE.
Theatre
RICHARD FINDLATER.
Dramatic
(in part)
Author of Michael
critic.
Member of editorial staff, Le Monde, and research assistant at the Centre d'Etudes des Relations Internationales de l'lnstitut d'Etudes Politiques de l'Universite de Paris. Author of Le Panafricanisme.
Andorra
R.D.Ho.
Liechtenstein (in part); etc. Assistant Geographer, U.S. Depart-
(in part);
ROBERT DAVID HODGSON. of State, Washington, D.C.
West
Rd.T.
ROSALIND TOLSON.
Indies,
P.Hn.
PHILIP A. HAZELTON. Law and New Hampshire State Library.
New Hampshire Legislative Reference Librarian,
P.M.A.L.
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization; etc. Professor of Asiatic School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Washington, D.C. Author of Government in Republican China; Psychological Warfare.
PAUL MYRON ANTHONY LINEBARGER.
The
(in part)
Journalist and writer.
Baptist Church E. E. HARKNESS. Professor of History of Christianity, of the Baptists, of World Religions, The Baptist Institute Junior College. Bryn Mawr, Pa. Emeritus Professor of History of Christianity, Crozer Seminary, Chester, Pa. President, the American Baptist Historical Society, 1930-50. Editor, The Chronicle; Journal of Baptist History, 1938-57.
R.E.E.H.
REUBEN
Horticulture Professor and Head, Department of HortiUniversity Park. culture, the Pennsylvania State University,
R.E.Ln.
RUSSELL
E.
LARSON.
Paris,
Politics,
Co-author of
affairs.
Rd.F.
ment
Pe.M.
PAUL
RAUL
Redgrave: Actor; Six Great Actors; The Unholy Trade.
Do.
PETER MICHELMORE. New
Brazil (in part)
R.d'E.
New York
R.F.W.
ROBERT
F.
WAGNER. Mayor
of
New York
City
City.
Paper and Pulp Industry
R.G.M.
MACDONALD.
Treasurer and Editorial Director, Technical R. G. Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, New York, N.Y.
R.G.N.
RALPH GEOFFREY NEWMAN.
President,
War Book
Civil War Centennial Abraham Lincoln Book
Club, Inc. Author of Shop, Inc. President, The Civil Lincoln for the Ages; co-author of The Civil War; Eyewitness; co-editor of Civil War Digest.
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Bahama
R.G.Ra.
RICHARD GEORGE RAE.
Islands (in port)
Works, Bahama
Director of Public
xv Kansas
Rt.W.R.
ROBERT WILLIAM RICHMOND.
State Archivist of K.,
Islands.
R.W.Cr. R.H.A.
St.
RICHARD HILLER AMBERG.
Louis
Florida
R.W.Fr.
New
Democrat. R.H.Cr. R. Tallahassee, Fla.
HENDRIX CHANDLER.
Associated
correspondent.
Press
RAYMOND THOMAS
Radio and Television (in part) Assistant Secretary, American Radio
HIGGS.
Relay League.
Museums
R.H.Ls.
RALPH
Chief, Branch of Museums, National Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
Park
roger h. Mcdonough. Trenton, N.J. R.Ho.
ROYCE HOWES.
Director,
New
Taxation
Tax Foundation,
Detroit Associate Editor, the Detroit (Mich.) Free Press.
RICHARD M. SCAMMON.
Director, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. Editor of America Votes, 1958.
Labour Unions
(in part); Strikes (in pari)
SAB A LEVITAN. Deputy
Executive Director. Presidential Railroad Commission, Washington, D.C. Author of Federal Assistance to Labor Surplus Areas; Ingrade Wage-Rate Progression in War and Peace. Textile Industry
S.B.H.
HUNT.
B.
Economics Bureau,
President. Textile
York, N.Y. Editor, Textile Organon,
New
York,
fin part)
BRAIDWOOD.
J.
Inc.,
NY.
India tin part) Director of Historical Division. Ministry of External Affairs, New Delhi. India. Author of The Permanent Settlement in Bengal and Its Results; The V iceroyally of Lord Irwin, 19Z61931; The Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon, 1880-1881f
S.GI.
.
Automobile ndustry Editor and Publisher, Labor Trends.
S.H.Bs.
I
STANLEY HOWARD BRAMS.
Toys and Games
S.Ho.
Archaeology
R.J.B.
Professor of Old World Prehistory, the Department of Anthropology, The Univer-
Oriental Institute and the
Inc.,
York, N.Y.
S.A.Ln.
New
Jersey Jersey State Library,
Census Data, U.S.
STUART HOOVER.
Executive Secretary, Toy Manufacturers of the United States of America.
S.H.W.
sity of Chicago.
Psychology
SHELDON New Mexico
R.L.EI.
RALPH
President,
SARVEPALLI GOPAL.
Ri.M.S.
ROBERT
York. N.Y.
STANLEY
New
R.H.M.
Contributing Editor of Television Magazine,
tin part)
LEWIS.
H.
York, N.Y.
ROBERT WARREN FRENCH. New
R.Hi.
WILLIAM CRATER.
New
azine,
Radio and Television in part) Editorial Director, Broadcast, tig Magi
RTJPUS
Publisher, St. Louis (Mo.) Globe-
H. WHITE. University of Chicago.
Assistant Professor of Psychology,
The
EDGEL.
Director. Bureau of Business Research and Professor, College of Business Administration. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Co-author of Income and Employment in New Mexico, L.
19W-1959.
Greece fin part) Journalist: former Director, Author of Salute to Greece; Starva-
S.L.H.
STELIO LLTCIAN HOURMOUZIOS. Greek Information
Office,
London.
tion in Greece.
Contract Bridge
R.L.Fy.
RICHARD L. FREY. Director of Public Relations. American ConEditor. ACBL Bulletin; Associate Editor, The Bridge World magazine. Author of According to Hoyle; How to Play Canasta; Contract Bridge in 10 Easy Lessons; etc.
tract Bridge League.
International Finance Corporation President, International Finance Corpora-
R.L.G.
ROBERT tion,
L.
GARNER.
Washington, D.C.
Colombia
GILMORE.
(in part)
Associate Professor of History, Ohio Uni-
L. versity, Athens.
Christian Unity.
S.M.Mc.
Philosophy
STERLING M. McMURRIN.
U.S. Commissioner of Education. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Washington, D.C. Professor of Philosophy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City.
S.Nn.
English Literature
(in part)
SYLVA NORMAN. New Zealand
R.M.Ch.
(in part)
ROBERT McDONALD CHAPMAN.
Senior Lecturer in History, University of Auckland, N.Z. Editor of An Anthology of New Zealand Verse.
R.M.Gn.
ROBERT MARSHALL GOODWIN.
Horse Racing (in part) (London),
Assistant Editor
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
R.M.Py.
ley;
Writer and critic, London. Author of After ShelCat Without Substance; Tongues of Angels. Furs
S.Pa.
SANDY PARKER.
Fur Editor, Women's Wear Daily.
Foreign Investments Assistant Chief. Balance of Payments Division. Office of Business Economics, U.S. Department of Commerce. Washington, D.C.
S.Pr.
SAMUEL
PIZER.
Virgin Islands, U.S.
RALPH M. PAIEWONSKY. Rn.D.
RICHARDSON DILWORTH.
S.R.Bn.
Governor, the Virgin Islands.
United Nations
Associate Professor of Government, New York University. New York City. Author of World Affairs and the College Curriculum; co-editor of Annual Review of United Nations Affairs, 1955-56.
N.
SWIFT.
Ro.W.C.
Liquors, Alcoholic
ROBERT W. COYNE.
President.
Distilled
Spirits
Institute.
Advertising
BERNSTEIN
SIDNEY
Philadelphia Mayor, City of Philadelphia. Pa.
R.N.S.
RICHARD
SAMUEL McCREA C AVERT.
U.S.
R.L.Ge.
ROBERT
Christian Unity Executive Secretary fretired) in the United States. World Council of Churches. Author of On the Road to
S.McC.C.
Inc.
Formerly Executive Head of the Council of Motion Picture Organizations, Inc.
Editorial Director of Advertising Age. R. Industrial Marketing atid Advertising Requirements. Executive VicePresident and General Manager. Advertising Publications Inc.
SAMRAY SMITH, ciation, Chicago,
Fiji fin part); etc.
RICHARD PHILLIP GILSON.
Research Fellow. Department of
Editor,
ALA
Bulletin.
111.
Music
S.Sp.
BIGMTXND SPAETH.
SYDNEY serral
.
broadcaster. Editor Great Orchestral Music; A History of IVftr.s-
With Music;
West
ALHW MEADE.
ST.
Leeward
In part)
Lecturer and
Author of .\ Guide to Popular Music in America; Fifty
Journal.
S.St. A.M.
R.P.Gn.
American Library Association American l.ibrar> Asbo-
S.Sh.
etc.
Indies.
The
in pari)
Administrative Secretary, Mont-
Islands.
Pacific History, Australian National University. Canberra, Austr.
Radio and Television in part) President, Editor and Publisher of Broadcasting Magazine, Washington. D.C, and of Television Magazine, New York.
S.Tf.
R.S.H.
Railroads 'in part) Retired Vice-President, Association of Author of This Fascinating Railroad Business;
ROBERT SELPH HENRY. American Railroads.
sol TAISHOPP. N.Y.
Trains.
S.W.Y. Peace Corps
R.S.Sr.
R.
SARGENT SH RIVER.
^\\M
Los Angeles KI.
W.
T.A.Ln.
Methodist Church General Secretary, The Commission on Public Relations and Methodist Information.
R.Sy.
RALPH STOODY.
YOKTY.
Mayor. City of Lot Angles.
Director, the Peace Corps.
tut
\i.itm
Wyoming D] VRSON Head, Department of History, and Direc-
School of American Studies, Author of Wyoming's Wat ) tor,
i
niversitj
of
Wyoming, Laramie
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
XVI
Eastern Orthodox Churches
T.As.
VERY
REV.
DEAN TIMOTHY ANDREWS.
Librarian and Professor of Research Methods at Greek Orthodox Theological School, Brookline, Mass. Author of Eastern Orthodox Church, a bibliography. Berlin;
T.C.Pe.
Germany
(in part)
THE HON. TERENCE CORNELIUS PRITTIE.
German Correspondent, the Manchester (Eng.) Guardian. Author of Escape to Hot-Pot; Mainly Middlesex. Freedom; Lancashire
THEODORE EMIL FRENZEL.
Assistant
Manager
of Press Rela-
Department, American Trucking Associations,
tions, Public Relations Inc.
E. OGILVIE. Stock Exposition, Chicago,
(in part)
Secretary-Manager,
International Live Author of Pioneer, Agricultural Jour-
111.
nalists.
Business Management (in part) E. SCHLENDER. Professor of Business Organization. Assistant Dean, College of Commerce and Administration, Ohio State University, Columbus. Co-author of Elements of Managerial Action.
W.E.Sc.
WILLIAM
Soviet Literature
TAMARA KAZIMIROVNA TRIFONOVA. Senior Scientific Worker, Gorki Institute of of Sciences, Moscow.
Candidate of Philology.
World Literature, U.S.S.R.
Academy T.L.K.
KARNES. Associate New Orleans, La.
L.
Costa Rica (in part) Professor of History, Tulane
Consumer Credit
T.N.B.
THEODORE
N. BECKMAN. Professor of Business Organization and Consulting Economist, Ohio State University, Columbus. Author co-author or senior of Principles of Marketing; Wholesaling; Credits and Collections in Theory and Practice; Management and Theory. T.Q.C.
THOMAS QUINN
W.F.L.
Radio and Television
WALTER FIRTH LANTERMAN. Broadcasting Company,
T.K.Ta.
University,
WILLIAM
Trucking Industry
T.E.Fr.
THOMAS
Shows and Entertainment
W.E.O.
CURTISS.
Drama
critic,
Theatre (in part) New York Herald
New
Inc.,
Engineer.
Station
Gambia
W.H.Is.
HAROLD INGRAMS.
(WILLIAM)
etc.
W.HI.
WENDY
(in part); etc.
Former Adviser on Overseas InAuthor of Arabia and the Isles;
formation, Colonial Office, London.
Hong Kong;
(in part)
National
York, N.Y.
Finland
HALL. Author and
Gold and Granite: a Background
journalist, to
London.
(in part)
Author of Green
Finland; etc.
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of
W.H.Ts.
(in part)
WILLIAM HARFORD THOMAS.
Assistant Editor, the Manchester
(Eng.) Guardian.
Wi.H.C.
Canals and Inland Waterways (in part) Traffic Services and Information
CROSSWHITE.
WILLIS Officer.
Tribune, Paris.
Gerontology
W.J.
Cyprus
V.J.P.
fin part)
VERNON JOHN PARRY.
Lecturer in the history of the near and middle east, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Betting and Gambling (in part); Crime, U.S.; Police Operating Director, Chicago
V.W.P.
WINGATE MEMORY JOHNSON.
Emeritus Professor of Clinical School of Medicine, Wake Forest College, Winston-Salem, N.C. Editor, North Carolina Medical Journal. Author of The Years After Fifty; editor of The Older Patient. Medicine,
Bowman Gray
W.J.Bn.
VIRGIL WALLACE PETERSON.
WILLIAM JORDAN BROWN. M.D.
Crime Commission, Chicago, 111. Author of Barbarians In Our Midst; Gambling: Should It Be Legalized?
of
Venereal Diseases Chief, Venereal Disease Branch
Communicable Disease Center, USPHS, Atlanta, Ga. Iowa
W.J. P.
W.A.Dw.
WARREN
Fencing A.
DOW.
Former Secretary, Amateur Fencers League of
America.
W.A.E.
Alaska
WILLIAM ALLEN EGAN.
Governor, State of Alaska.
W.A.Re.
WILLIAM
A.
Occupations of
RITCHIE.
(in part)
New York State MuN.Y. Author of The Pre-Iroquoian
State Archaeologist.
Service. Albany,
New
York State.
Christian Science WILL B. DAVIS. Manager, Committees on Publication, The First Church of Christ, Scientist, in Boston, Mass.
WALTER torial staff
—
Shows
Texas BELDING MOORE. Editor, the Texas Almanac. Ediwriter, the Dallas (Tex.) Morning News.
(in part)
WILL JUDY.
President, Oldtimers of the Kennel World, Chicago. Author of Dog Breeding Theory and Practice; Dog Encyclopaedia; Training the Dog; etc.
111.
W.K.B.
W.B.Ds.
W.B.M.
Superintendent, State Historical Society of Iowa. Professor of History, State University of Iowa, Iowa Author of Steamboating on the Upper Mississippi; Iowa City. The Rivers of Her Valleys; Iowa History Reference Guide; The Story of Iowa.
W.Ju.
Archaeology
seum and Science
WILLIAM JOHN PETERSEN.
Genetics
WILLIAM KAUFMAN BAKER,
Professor of Zoology,
The Uni-
versity of Chicago.
Canada
W.K.Gi.
WILLIAM KENNETH GIBB. Secretary-Treasurer, of Canada Ltd. Author of A Conspectus of Ontario.
(in part)
Seeley Systems
W.L.Be.
W.B.Td.
WILLIAM BURTON TODD.
Book Collecting Professor of English, University of
Texas, Austin.
W.C.Bs.
WILLIAM CALHOUN BAGGS.
WINDSOR COOPER CUTTING.
Caribbean Organization Miami (Fla.) News.
Chemotherapy
W.L.M.
Professor of Experimental Therapeutics. Stanford University, Stanford, Calif. Author of Manual of Clinical Therapeutics; Actions and Uses of Drugs.
W.Dd.
Foreign Aid Programs, U.S. JR. Director of Economic Studies, Council on Foreign Relations, New York, N.Y. Author of Trade and Payments in Western Europe; New Directions in Our Trade Policy; The Schuman
WILLIAM DIEBOLD, Plan.
WILLIAM DENNIS HAWKLAND.
Law
(in part)
Professor of Law, University of Law, Urbana. Author of Cases on Bills and Notes; Sales Under Uniform Commercial Code; Commercial Paper. Illinois College of
W.Dk.
WILLIAM DAMESHEK, M.D.
Blood, Diseases of the
Professor of Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Mass. Senior Physician and Chief of Hematology, New England Center Hospital, Boston, Mass. Editor in Chief, Blood the Journal of Hematology.
—
Photography (in part) WILLARD D. MORGAN. Editor, The Encyclopedia of Photography (11 volumes). Author of The Leica Manual; Graphic Graflex Photography; etc.
Tennessee
WALTER LEE JORDAN.
Director, Tennessee State Archives. Social Security (in part)
WILLIAM
MITCHELL.
Commissioner of Social Security. Social Security Administration, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C. L.
West
W.L.Ma.
WILLIAM LAIDLAW MacINTYRE. Lucia,
Windward
Acting
Indies,
The
(in part)
Administrator,
St.
Islands.
Organization of American States Director, Latin-American Studies Program, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. Former Assistant Secretary-General, Organization of American States.
W.Mr.
WILLIAM MANGER.
W.D.Hd.
W.D.Mn.
Rochester, Minn.
W.L.Jn.
Editor, the
W.Cu.
Eye, Diseases of the L. BENEDICT, M.D. Emeritus Professor of Ophthalmology. University of Minnesota Graduate School, Mayo Foundation,
WILLIAM
Evangelical United Brethren Church SPARKS. Bishop, Pacific Area. Sacramento. Calif. Recording Secretary of the General Conference of The Evangelical United Brethren Church.
W.M.Ss.
W.
MAYNARD
Wn.A.S.
WELMAN
A.
the Aerospace Flight; Florida
SHRADER. Sciences, New From
Aviation, Military (in part) Director of Publications, Institute of York, N.Y. Author of Fifty Years of
the Air; etc.
Ryukyu Islands Visiting Scholar, East-West Center, University of Hawaii, Honolulu. Co-author of Post- War Okinawa.
W.P.L.
WILLIAM PHILIP LEBRA.
_
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Telegraphy
W.P.Ma.
WALTER
P.
MARSHALL.
graph Company,
New
The Western Union
President,
W.W.Bn.
xvii Education
WILLIAM W. BRICKMAN.
Professor of Education. New York University, New York. Editor, School and Society. Author of Guide Research in Educational History. Co-author, The Changing Soviet School; John Dewey: Master Educator; The Countdown on Segregated Education; Religion, Government, and Education.
Tele-
York, N.Y.
to
Louisiana
yy p r
WALTER PRICHARD.
Francois Xavier Martin Professor Emeritus of Louisiana History, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.
...
.
._
WW
Marriage and Divorce E W. Professor of Sociology and ADirector for the Social Sciences, the Research Foundation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins.
WINSTON
,.
Elections, U.S.; United States (in part)
W.R.Mcl.
WILLIAM REYNOLDS McINTYRE.
Washington correspondent.
American Broadcasting Company.
EHRMANN.
Protestant Episcopal Church Librarian and Professor of Church History, Philadelphia Divinity School. Philadelphia, Pa. Author of History of the American Episcopal Church.
W.W.Ms. Africa Instructor in History, New York UniverLecturer in History. New School for Social sity. Now York City. Research. New York, N.Y. Author of African Nationalism; co-author of Contemporary Civilization.
WILLIAM W. MANROSS.
W.So.
WALLACE SOKOLSKY.
W.W.Rn.
Yachting
WILLIAM WHEELER ROBINSON. Law
W.T.Ws.
WILLIAM.
(in part)
magazine.
THOMAS WELLS. Member
of the Magistrates' Courts Rules Committee. Former Member of the Lord Chancellor's Committee on the Practice and Procedure of the Supreme Court. Author of How English Law Works.
W.V.PI.
WILFRED VICTOR PENNELL. Morning Post (Hong Kong).
Hong Kong
Associate Editor, Nationally Syndicated Boat Columnist.
Wy.C.B.
Prices (in part) Professor of Business Economics and Director, Bureau of Business Research, School of Business Administration, University of Oregon. Eugene.
WESLEY
C.
BALLAINE.
(in part)
Associate Editor, South China
Yachting
X.
ANONYMOUS.
H3I
1961 JANUARY M T W T
S
3 9 10 16 17 23 24 2
1
8
15 22 29
4
JULY
5
F
S
6 13 20
7 14
12 19 26 27
11
18 25
s
M
2
3
4
9 10
21
16 23 30
28
11
17 24
18 25
12 19 26
7
14
20 21 27 28
1
2
8 15 22
9 16 23
2 9 16 23 30
6 13
5
12 19 26
7
8
14
15 22 29
20 21 27 28
13 20 27
9 16 23 30
5
11
12 19 26
18 25
9 16 23 30
17
24
3 10 17
11
18
25
8 9 14 15 16 21 22 23 28 29 30 7
20 27
1
8
8 15
14
28
22 29
5 12
G 13
19
20 27
21
15 22
11
12 19 26
18 25
4 11
18 25
5 12 19
18 25
26
1
18
2 9 16 23
26
6 13 20 26 27
1
JANUARY 4 6 6
10
6 7 8 13 14 15 18 19 20 21 22 25 26 27 28 29 4
5 12
11
4 11
5 12
18 25
19 20 26 27
7
14 21
28
8 15 22 29
3 9 10 16 17 23 24 30
1962
New
Year's day Independence day, Burma Epiphany (Twelfth Night) 50th anniversary, admission of New Mexico as the 47th state 87th U.S. congress convenes 2nd
Robert E. Lee's birthday, 1807 Australia day Anniversary of the proclamation of the Republic of India
Candlemas
(Purification
of
the
Virgin)
2
Ground-hog day
4-5 Total eclipse
of the sun. beginning of partial eclipse visible at sunset along Pacific coast of U.S. (begins 9:34 p.m. Greenwich civil time, 4:34 P.M. E.S.T.)
5 6 7
8 12 14 14 18 19
Chinese New Year's, 1st day New Zealand day 150th anniversary, birth of Charles Dickens, English author Boy Scout day Lincoln's birthday, 1809 St. Valentine's
50th anniversary, admission of Arizona as the 48th state Septuagesima Sunday Penumbral eclipse of the moon, to observatories in U.S. (begins 11:04 a.m. Greenwich civil time, 6:04 a.m. E.S.T.) Washington's birthday, 1732
MARCH 2 4 6 7 9
Texas
Independence day (anniversary of state's independence from Mexico)
100th anniversary, U.S. Civil
15 17 19 20
20 25 25
26 30
and
the
(Conf.) Girl Scout day, 50th anniversary of founding at Savannah, Ga.
Ides of March St. Patrick's day St. Joseph's day of Lots) E.S.T.), be-
ginning of spring Independence day, Greece Annunciation; Quarter day Kuhio day, Hawaii Seward's day, Alaska
12
1
6 13 20 27
8 15
7
14
2 9 16
JULY F
S
3
4
10 17 24
11
18
5 12 19
25
26
1
2
9
14
8 15
16
2(7 21
22
23
1
2 9
22 23 28 29 30 31 21
M
s
W
T
12
T
F
S
4 3 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 7
12
7
14
3
4
21
28
6
18 25
31
4
5
11
12 19
18
3 10 17 24
25 26 27 28
12
3
5
4
5
11
12 19 26
18
25
6
NOVEMBER 1 2 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
2 9 16 23
1
7
14 21
8 15
22 28 29 30
1
8 13
All Fool's
30
10.
7
9
3 10 17 23 24
Armed Forces
11
12 19
Feast
9
7
13
14
3
4
12
3 4 10 11 17 18 22 23 24 25
8
9
15
16
20 21 27 28 29 30 31
5
12 19 26
NOVEMBER 2
a 10
4
5
11
17 24
18 25
12 19 26
1
2
1 2 6 7 8 9 13 14 15 16 20 21 22 23 27 28 29 30
DECEMBER
6 13
7 14
8 15
9 16 23
8 15
3 10 17 24
22 29 30 31
4
5
6
11
12
13
7 14
18 19 20 21 25 26 27 28
SEPTEMBER 100th anniversary, beginning of U.S. Civil War battle at Antietam 150th anniversary, Napoleon's capture of Moscow 100th anniversary, birth of O. Henry, U.S. short-story writer Independence day, Mexico Citizenship day, U.S. Equinox (7:35 a.m. E.S.T.), beginning of autumn American Indian day
11
16 17 23
28 29 29 30
12 13 fiscal
year 1963
Dominion day, Canada
24 31
Ire-
Independence day, Belgium Constitution day, Puerto Rico of the sun, ending
day),
Annular eclipse
of partial eclipse visible at sunrise in southeastern U.S. (begins 9:26 a.m. Greenwich civil time, 4:26 a.m. E.S.T.)
AUGUST
day, U.K.
Independence day, Argentina Rogation Sunday
Memorial (Decoration) day, U.S. Ascension
JUNE 4 8
6
Michaelmas; Quarter day
Rosh Hashana (Jewish New Year beginning year 5723), 1st day Feast of St. Jerome
OCTOBER
Orangeman's day. Northern
labour
Birthday of Jefferson Davis. 1808 Muslim year 1382 begins at sunset Shabuoth (JewishFeast of Weeks), 1st day Trooping the colour in honour of Queen Elizabeth II's birthday
2a
6 13 20 27
Labor day, U.S. and Canada
100th anniversary, birth of Sir William Bragg, English physicist Independence day, U.S. Independence day, Philippines
Canada
31
30
4
8
JULY Beginning of U.S.
day, U.S. 100th anniversary, Pres. Lincoln's signing of the Homestead law opening 250.000.000 ac. of free land for western settlement Victoria day (Queen's birthday),
Commonwealth
28
4 5 6 7 12 13 14 18 19 20 21 25 26 27 28 11
3
8
day; Quarter day Feast of St. John the Baptist
Norway
(Citizenship
24 25 27 30
3
19
5
Midsummer
Mother's day
of the
18 25
4
Corpus Christi
anniversary)
21
5
12
summer
Bastille day, France St. Swithin's day Penumbral eclipse of the moon, visible to observatories in U.S. (begins 10:27 A.M. Greenwich civil time, 5:27 a.m. E.S.T.)
Empire day Canada
4 11
7
land
19
10 17 23 24
OCTOBER
3
18 20 21 22 25 26 27 28 29
150th anniversary, birth of Robert Browning. English poet Independence day, Israel (14th
Constitution day,
15 22
30
festival
13 17 18
2 3 9 10 16 17 23 24 30 31
Solstice (4:25 p.m. E.S.T.), begin-
ning of
3)
international
day,
3
2 9 16
1
8
JUNE 2 9 16
day, Hawaii Flag day, U.S. Trinity Sunday Bunker Hill day. U.S. Father's day, U.S. 150th anniversary. U.S. congress' declaration of war on England, beginning War of 1812
100th anniversary, capture of New T Orleans by L nion forces 150th anniversary, admission of Louisiana as the 18th state
May
16
22 23 28 28 30
1
Whitmonday Kumrhameha
MAY 1
14 21
8 15 22 29
SEPTEMBER 8 15
7 8 6 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
(actual birth date April 21, 1926)
June
7
10 17 24
Pentecost (Whitsunday)
30,
7 6 13 14 18 20 21 25 26 27 28
1
day
May
6 13 20 27
5
4 7 3 5 6 8 2 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 29 23 24 25 26 27 28 30 31
Passion Sunday
May
12 19
1
2
Thomas Jefferson's birthday, 1743 14 Pan American day 14-15 50th anniversary, sinking of the British luxury liner "Titanic" 15 Palm Sunday 19 Patriot's day, U.S. 19 Pesach (Jewish Passover), 1st day 19 Maundy Thursday 20 Good Friday 22 Easter Sunday 23 St. George's day, Newfoundland 25 Anzac day, Australia and New Zealand 26 Confederate Memorial day (also 29
11
MAY
5
DECEMBER 1
5
APRIL
4
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
4
1
4
31
7
MAY
4 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
7
MARCH
3 4 5 7 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
2
6 13
1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 24 27 23 25 26 28 29 30 2
7
12
4 11
3 10 17 24
OCTOBER
5
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 8
AUGUST
FEBRUARY 3 4 10 11 17 18 24 25
SEPTEMBER 3 9 10 16 17 23 24 30 31
APRIL
War
"Monitor" "Merrimack"
Purim (Jewish Feast Equinox (9:30 p.m.
JANUARY T W T
the 194th year of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica.
Ash Wednesday (Union)
M
S
year 1962 of the Christian Era corresponds to the year of Creation 5722-5723 of the Jewish calendar; to the year 1381-1382 of the Mohammedan hegira; to the 186th year of the United States; and to
20
Quinquagesima Sunday Shrove Tuesday, Mardi Gras sea battle between the
12
S
The
day
visible
22
F
7 6 8 9 12 13 14 15 16 19 20 21 22 23 26 27 28 29 30
JUNE 1
FEBRUARY 2
T
5
APRIL 6 13
3
10 17 24
session
19
26 26
W
2
31
1
T
3 6 7 4 5 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
MARCH 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
24
M
12
3
25 26 27 28
31
12 5 12 19
3 10 17
S
AUGUST 2
7 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
DECEMBER 2
8 9 14 15 16 21 22 23 28 29 30 7
S
5 6 11 12 13 18 19 20
4
NOVEMBER 4 11
F
4
FEBRUARY
3 10 17 24
29 30 31
31
6 13 20 27
22 28 29
OCTOBER 7
1
5
7
7 5 6 8 9 12 13 14 15 16 19 20 21 22 23 26 27 28 29 30
4 11
24 25
JUNE 4
14
3
8 9 10 14 15 16 17 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
8 15
21
1
31
6 13
3 10
2
7
4
MAY 1
8 14 15 21 22 28 29 7
12
SEPTEMBER 3 10 17 24
1
4
6 12 13 19 20 26 27 5
12 6
APRIL 3 10 17 24
2
S
S
AUGUST 3 4 10 11 17 18 24 25
MARCH 1
F
1963
JULY
31
FEBRUARY 6 13
T
1
30 31
5
W
T
JANUARY M T W T
NOVEMBER 1
2 5 6
11 11 11
22 30
2 6
8
22
of the Virgin Mary 100th anniversary, birth of Claude
25 26
100th anniversary, birth of MauMaeterlinck, Belgian dramaand poet
Feast
of St.
Andrew
First
Sunday
Feast Feast
of St. of the
in
Advent
Nicholas
Immaculate Concep-
tion
15
Independence day, Switzerland Feast of the Transfiguration Tishah Bov (Jewish Fast of Ab) Penumbral eclipse of the moon, not visible in the U.S. (begins 6:16 p.m. Greenwich civil time)
rice tist
S.R. Veterans' day, U.S. Remembrance day, Canada Martinmas (Feast of St. Martin) Thanksgiving day, U.S.
DECEMBER
22 23
Debussy, French composer 29
All Saints' day; Allhallows All Souls' day
Guy Fawkes day, U.K. General election day, U.S. 7-8 October Revolution (1917), U.S.-
Lammas day
Assumption
Thanksgiving day, Canada Yom Kippur (Jewish Day of Atonement) Columbus day Sukkoth (Jewish Feast of Tabernacles), 1st day United Nations day Halloween
28
Bill of
Rights day
Solstice (3:15 a.m. E.S.T.), begin-
ning of winter Hanukkah (Jewish Festival of Dedication) 100th anniversary, birth of Connie Mack. U.S. "dean of baseball"
Christmas day Boxing day (St. Stephen's day), U.K. Childermas (Feast of the Innocents)
31
New
Year's Eve (Hogmanay)
Pres. Kennedy's cabinet nominees were sworn in after senate confirmation — Dean
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
1961
•
Rusk, secy, of state; C. Douglas Dillon, treasury; Robert S. McN'amara, defense; Robert F. Kennedy, attorney general; J. Edward Day, postmaster general: Stewart L. Udall, interior; Orville L. Freeman, agriculture; Luther H. Hodges, commerce; Arthur J. Goldberg, labour;
Abraham signed in Moscow an agreement for the sale of Soviet military equipment to Indonesia.
JANUARY
1 J
Soviet motion to censure
IH Belgium
for
alleged
interfailed to
ference in the Congo win a majority in the ty council.
UN
Laotian
1
ported that
government reCommunist forces
had captured the strategic central plain and the city of Phong Saly.
French voters, in a national 8 referendum, endorsed Pres. Charles De Gaulle's policy for Algerian administrative reforms and eventual self-determination.
War
John M. Bailey
Pres. Eisenhower prohibited holding of gold abroad by U.S. citizens and corporations.
John
be his chief disarmament adviser
Special task force on housing,
and negotiator.
named by Pres. -elect Kennedy, recommended creation of a cabi-
Glenn T. Seaborg was named chairman of the U.S. Atomic Energy commission by Pres.elect Kennedy.
3
U.S. terminated diplomatic
and consular relations with Cuba.
U.S.
net-level
department
of
Sinhalese replaced English
IU
as
ton,
D.C.; Rep. Sam Rayburn (Dem., Tex.) was elected to 10th term as speaker of the house.
Tamil-speaking Hindus.
Belgian strikes and work stop-
Sir John Cockcroft, British physicist, received the 1961 Atoms for Peace award.
protesting
Haitian Pres. Francois Duvaordered Bishop Remy Au-
lier
Council of Organization of American States (OAS) voted
(14 to
1)
in
favour of limited
economic sanctions against the Dominican Republic.
White House announced
that the severance of U.S. -Cuban relations would not affect the status of the U.S. Guantanamo naval base.
UN Security council ad5 journed after failing to act on Cuban charges
that
the
U.S.
planned a military invasion of Cuba. Pres. -elect Kennedy, in 6 formal count of electoral votes at a joint session of U.S. congress, received 303, YicePres.
Richard
M. Nixon
219,
Sen. Harry F. Byrd (Dem., Ya.J 15.
7 Communist
nations to join
in
support and maintain the independence of Laos.
Heads of state of Ghana, Guinea, Mali. Morocco and the United Arab Republic, meeting in Casablanca, announced their intention to establish an African organization similar to
XATO.
Guerrilla forces were reported training in Guatemala against Cuba, according to The New York Times. for action
American Telephone and Telegraph Co. reported earnings of SI, 243,945,000 for fiscal ended Nov. 30, I960 largest corporation earnings in history for a 12-mo. period.
—
year
senate, in a filibuster issue, voted (50 to 46) to return to its rules committee 2 proposals to reduce the voting requirements to cut off debate.
nU.S.
10
Dwight D. Eisen-
Pres.
\L hower
and
the
U.S.S.R.
Canadian-U.S. treaty for joint development of Columbia river resources was signed in Washington, D.C., by Canadian Prime Minister John G. Diefenbaker and Pres. Eisenhower.
in his farewell state the union message to U.S. congress reported advances during his administration, but noted that many domestic and foreign problems remained to be solved.
Eisenhower
Pres.
in
his
10 final press conference urged a constitutional amendment to decrease the time between the presidential election and the inauguration; he said that his greatest regret as president was that he had been unable to establish permanent peace.
Lumumba, former Patrice prime minister of the Republic of the Congo, was transferred from Thysville military prison to a prison in
Katanga province.
1Q Arthur M. Ramsey,
arch-
Iw bishop of York, was nominated to succeed Geoffrey F. Fisher as the 100th archbishop of Canterbury and primate of all England.
of
10
Brazil
10
their first extradition treaty
in
and
U.S.
signed
Rio de Janeiro.
Belgian
austerity
U.S. tions
bill
was
Communica-
Federal
commission
authorized
American Telephone and Telegraph Co. to establish the first space satellite communications link between US. and Europe on an experimental basis.
OH
passed (115-90) by the chamber of representatives and sent to the senate.
John
F.
L\i augurated of the U.S.;
Kennedy was
in
May
political parties
1960.
lifted the
imposed
in-
as 35th president
Lyndon
B.
00 U.S. Government Ethics LL committee, headed by Judge Calvert Magruder, was established by Pres. Kennedy to examine the ethical standards of all government agencies.
00 lO
supreme court
held that state and local censorship of motion pictures was not unconstitutional.
U.S.
(5 to 4)
Marine workers ended their 2wk. strike against railroads operating
ferryboats and harbour.
tugs
in
New York
Frank B. Ellis was chosen by Kennedy as director of the
Pres.
U.S. Office of Civil
Mobilization
and Defense
(OCDM).
Venezuela adopted a new^ constitution providing for a strong central government.
04
Z4 find
Portugal requested British and U.S. planes and ships to and board its cruise ship
"Santa Maria," seized in the southern Caribbean by Portuguese political exiles.
OC El Salvador's 6-man junta, in power for only 3 months, was overthrown and replaced by L \J a
new
rightist junta.
Pres. Kennedy announced at his first presidential press conference that the U.S.S.R. had released the 2 surviving crewmen of the U.S. air force RB-47 jet shot down over the Barents sea in 1960.
Henry R. Labouisse was appointed director of the International Cooperation administration and Frank director of the
M.
Coffin
as
Development
Fund.
OP Britain and the U.A.R. L\J announced resumption of diplomatic relations, broken off in 1956.
Johnson
took the oath as vice-president.
H and 01 Queen Elizabet L\ Prime Philip arrived in New Delhi on state visit to .
Turkish government ban on
Indonesia
Eisenhower in a farewell address to the nation urged vigilance against dangers to its liberties implicit in a vast military establishment.
1Q
in politics."
U.S. called on other non-
efforts to
S80,865,000,000.
gustin to leave the country "for
meddling
4
Belgium's Socialist unions voted to end their 33-day strike.
UPres.
10
the official language of Ceylon over the protests of
the government's proposed austerity program, resumed after a halt for the Xew Year's holiday.
expenditure
S82, 333,000,000,
housing and urban development.
1st session of the 87th U.S. congress convened in Washing-
pages,
(Conn.) was
elected chairman of the Democratic national committee.
ID Pres. Eisenhower
subIU mitted to U.S. congress a budget for fiscal year ending June 30, 1962: estimated revenue
J. McCloy was named by Pres. -elect John F. Kennedy to
UN.
to the
Securi-
centennial was U.S. Civil officially opened with ceremonies at the tomb of Gen. Ulysses S. Grant in New York city, and at the tomb of Gen. Robert E. Lee in Lexington, \'a.
Fidel Castro, Cuban prime 2 minister, ordered the U .S. embassy staff in Havana reduced to 11 within 48 hr.
A. Ribicoff, health, education and welfare; plus Adlai E. Stevenson as chief delegate
t
India.
For elections and disasters of 1961 see under those headings In the For obituaries of prominent persons who died during 1961, see under the entry, Obituarlea.
text.
xix
—
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
XX
Queen Elizabeth
II
and Prince on a
Philip arrived in Karachi state visit to Pakistan.
JANUARY — Continued 0*7 Georgia legislature apL I proved repeal of the state's public school segregation laws.
Minuteman,
U.S.
ICBM, was
time from Cape Canaveral, Fla., for a successfully fired for
K. Finletter was
L\j named by Pres. Kennedy as permanent U.S. representative to
NATO; Edward
became
R.
Murrow
director of the U.S. In-
formation agency.
2
Pres. Kennedy submitted to congress a wide-ranging eco-
nomic program
calling
for
in-
creased benefits for the aged and extended aid to the jobless.
U.S. Olympic named 1960 woman athlete of the year in an Associated Press poll of sports writers and broadcasters.
Alvin Hamilton, Canadian agriculture minister, revealed the sale to Communist China of
On OU
Pres. Kennedy in his state of the union message challenged U.S. congress and the nation to meet the grave perils
the liner "Santa Maria" to the Portuport of the guese government at Recife after rebels headed by
abroad and a worsening economic recession at home.
Capt. Henrique Galvao had surrendered the vessel to the Brazilian navy.
Wilma Rudolph, track
star,
was
Pres.
750,000 tons of wheat and 260,000 tons of barley.
Brazil
in a special
message to U.S. congress proposed steps for a sound health
program for all U.S. citizens especially for the aged.
and
minister.
rigging.
returned
U.S.
10
head the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space administration
London conference on
consti-
reforms for Northern Rhodesia ended in complete disagreement. tutional
U.S. Federal Home Loan 10 bank board announced plans to make more than $1,000,000,-
in
the firing of a Soviet rocket
Patrice
Lumumba,
Pres.
Kennedy
Z,U message
resi-
in a special
congress proposed enactment of a $5,625,000,000 program of federal aid to education. to
U.S.
de-
Canadian Prime Minister
panions were reported as killed by tribesmen the day before.
held
Belgian senate passed (97-63) new economic "austerity"
tual interest.
Inter- American Development bank made its first loan
the
(NASA).
01 U.S. house of representa01 tives voted (217 to 212) to
tries.
10 posed prime minister of the Republic of the Congo, and 2 com-
of
was chosen to
annually underdeveloped coun-
$1,000,000,000
for aid to
Columbia William L. Cary university law school was named chairman of the U.S. Securities and Exchange commission.
rity.
Webb
joint communique in Washington, D.C., revealing a West German offer to make available
OH
radio announced
ban refugees
in the U.S.
and West
German Foreign Minister Heinrich von Brentano issued a
10 Moscow \L
Kennedy
nPres. Kennedy
000 available in additional dential mortgage credit.
was a threat
E.
established
in Port-of-Spain a treaty to allow the federation to reoccupy about 80% of the land granted to the U.S. for military bases during World War II.
toward Venus from a satellite placed in orbit around the earth.
James
Kennedy
and The West Indies
IU signed
ordered U.S. aid amounting to $4,000,000 in money and surplus food for Cu-
to free-world secu-
-
10 a 21-member U.S. labourmanagement advisory committee to promote sound wage and
about U.S. Atty. Gen. Kennedy announced that the U.S. justice dept. was preparing damage actions against electrical companies convicted of price fixing and bid
U.S. Atomic Energy commission warned in its annual report to U.S. congress that continuation of the ban on atomic tests
Pres.
r>res
IB
price policies.
Pres. Joseph Kasavubu of the Republic of the Congo proclaimed the end of military rule; he named a provisional government with Joseph Ileo as prime
in
3
Kennedy
1961
first
distance of 4,200 mi.
QQ Thomas
9
•
Diefenbaker and Pres. Kennedy informal
discussions
in
Washington, D.C., on international and other problems of mu-
bill.
King Baudouin
expand from 12 to
$3,900,000 to Peru for water and sewage systems in Arequipa.
lyl Soviet
solved parliament and called for new elections to be held March
rules committee, neutralize the conservative Re-
4U.S.S.R.
Gen.
15 the house in a move to
publican-southern Democrat coalition.
Ham, 37^2-lb. male chimpanzee, was recovered alive 420 mi. downrange in the Caribbean after being carried to a height of 155 mi. in a U.S. space capsule
launched from Cape Canaveral, Fla.
U.S. Civil Aeronautics board tentatively approved the merger of United Air Lines and Capital Airlines to form the largest U.S. airline.
David
Ben-Gurion,
Israeli
IH agreed to U.S. proposal that nuclear test ban talks (at Geneva) be postponed for 6 weeks.
Rioting in Luanda, capital 5 of Angola, was reported to have broken out again.
6
7 executives of U.S. electrical
received jail sentences in U.S. district court in Philadelphia for violating antitrust laws.
Australia confirmed the sale to Communist China of 1,050,000 tons of wheat and 40,000 tons of
for-
pany U.S. servicemen overseas.
Secy.-
month.
Lumumbist government, by
U.S.S.R.
and
U.A.R.
1C J I
the
7
that the "facts of international life" required the admission of Communist China to the UN.
3,
Pres. Kennedy pledged that the U.S. would defend charter "by opposing
UN
of
any government
to intervene unilaterally in the
Congo."
Secy. -Gen.
Hammar-
skjold refused to comply with Soviet demands in the Security council for his resignation.
Belgium, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Peru, Sweden, U.K. and West Germany announced the formal convertibility of their currencies within the meaning of article viii of the International Monetary Fund charter.
United Press International
Belgium
dis-
26.
01 UN Security council
authorized use of force to precivil war in the Congo; Pres. Moise Tshombe of Katanga ordered general mobilization
L
I
in his state.
00 LL
Pres.
Kennedy
sonal
message
sent a perto
Soviet
Premier Khrushchev expressing hope for improvement in U.S.Soviet relations.
00 CO
Pres. Kennedy sent to U.S. congress a broad natural resources program which emphasized water and flood-control problems.
National Council of Churches approved the use of artificial methods for birth control in family
planning.
The left
pictures on this page are, to right:
SEABORG STEVENSON
MURROW HOME
Left and right
of
vent
headed by Antoine Gizenga, in Congo's Oriental province was
UN
flour.
Lord Home, British foreign 8 secy., told the house of lords
revoked
UN
Dag Hammarskjold and demanded withdrawal of UN troops from the Congo within a
any attempt
FEBRUARY Pres. Eisenhower's order to reduce by more than half the dependents allowed to accom-
of
its
manufacturing companies
Pres. Kennedy asked U.S. congress to raise the federal minimum wage from $1 to $1.25 an hour and to extend coverage to 4,300,000 more workers.
mer
recognition
recognized
prime minister, despite the previous day's 77-26 vote of confidence by the knesset, resigned in protest against the absolving of Pinhas Lavon of blame for a 1955 security mishap.
IPres. Kennedy
Union withdrew
VON BRENTANO
Jan. Jan. Jan. Feb. Feb.
16 21
28 8 17
CALENDAR OF EVENTS maintain
$135,000,000
to force in the 1961.
UN
FEBRUARY— Continued OJ
U.S. Federal Communications commission is-
the
Congo through
TV.
Queen Elizabeth
Robert G. Menzies, Australian prime minister, met with Pres. Kennedy in Washington, D.C., for informal discussions.
Philip arrived in state visit to Iran.
and Prince Teheran on a II
Soviet Premier Khru-
L\J shchev in a message to Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru called for a commission of African states authorized to restore peace in the Congo.
3
Frederick M. Glass was ap-
pointed to head a new presidential task force to determine U.S. aviation goals for the 1960s.
OC Crown Prince Mulay Mohammed
Queen Elizabeth
II and Prince arrived in Katmandu, Nepal, on a state visit.
Philip
0*7 U.S.
L
supreme court
up-
held (5 to 4) in broad terms the investigating power of the I
house committee on un-American activities.
UN Congo command Congolese troops
J.
Holyoake,
New
Zea-
land prime minister, held informal discussions with Pres. Ken-
nedy
in
Washington, D.C.
C. S. Jha, India's representative to the UN, offered a 3,000-man
V.
Indian combat brigade for duty with the forces in the Congo.
UN
4
Congolese troops forced the withdrawal of
UN
Sudanese
troops from the town of on the Atlantic coast.
Banana
R. Sargent Shriver was designated director of the U.S. Peace Corps.
Leopoldville
in
of brutal assaults sonnel.
accused
on
UN
per-
German deutsche5 West mark was revalued from 4.2 to 4 to the U.S. dollar to halt a
OQ Pres. Kennedy requested L\j U.S. congress to authorize higher taxes on the trucking industry to finance the $37,000,000,000 interstate superhighway system.
Ghana demanded
French government made public
decrees restricting the police political powers of the French
and
army
in Algeria.
UN Secy. -Gen. Hammar2 skjold asked the UN general
Commonwealth prime minsociety, an ultraconservative group, was criticized in U.S. congress for alleged accusations of Communist leanings against former Pres. Eisenhower and other high-ranking officials.
U.S. nuclear submarine "Patrick Henry," equipped with 16 Polaris missiles, arrived at its base at Holy Loch, Scot., from Charleston, S.C., setting an underwater cruising record of 66 days 22 hr.
Moscow radio 9 that the U.S.S.R. and recovered a
announced had orbited
10,340-lb. space-
LANCASTER
7
Kennedy
Pres.
a
in
special
message to U.S. congress asked
Pres. Kennedy submitted to U.S. congress a federal housing program designed (1) to revitalize cities, (2) to provide "decent housing" for more middle- and low-income families and for the elderly and (3) to encourage a prosperous building industry.
Social Progress.
prompt
1C Hendrik
F.
Verwoerd,
lu South African prime minister, announced in London that when his nation became a republic,
May
31,
it
would leave the
commonwealth.
port.
same time pro-Communist
failed to win necessary majority Security council. in
Kennedy announced mea-
to ease U.S. balance-ofpayments problem by curtailing dollar spending by servicemen overseas.
Netherlands increased 6 value of its gulden from
forces in
3.8
to 3.6 to the U.S. dollar to maintain stability with the revalued
West German deutschemark.
Pres.
IP
U.S. senate ratified (72 to
U.S. state dept. declared that
10
18)
U.S. is "no longer bound" by the concessions offered on Berlin at the 1959 Geneva conference.
of the 20-nation Organization for Economic Co-
at 5,705,000, highest level since 1941.
UN
general assembly resumed
Left,
World
L'.S.
a
a
treaty
making the
member
operation and Development (O.E.C.D.).
Indonesia ended
its
last
ties
with the Netherlands by requesting the British to stop representing Dutch interests in Indonesia.
Kennedy ordered nPres. Kennedy
"strengthened machinery" to ensure U.S. citizens of all colours and beliefs equal access to em-
UN
central Laos.
the
15
April 1 April 12 April 17
TVA
a joint antitrust suit against 6 electrical companies alleging over-charges amounting to more than $25,000,000.
Joint resolution (proposed the day before by Liberia, Ceylon and the U.A.R.) asking for an inquiry into conditions in Angola
pictures on this page are,
March March
U.S. justice dept. and filed
Laotian government anIU nounced willingness to accept "a policy of strict neutrality" to end the civil war; at the
U.S. Secy, of Labour Gold7 berg reported that U.S. unemployment in Feb. 1961 stood
GOLDBERG VERWOERD NEHRU GAGARIN
restoring former Pres. Eisenhower's wartime rank of general of the army.
appropriation of the S500,000,000 already authorized for the Inter- American Fund for
in
ployment by U.S. government and its contractors.
left to right:
house approved and UU.S. sent to the White House a
ship that carried a dog and other live "biological specimens."
17
U.S.
abolished interdepartmental
advisory and policy-making committees set up during the previous administration.
Kennedy urged in a spemessage to U.S. congress that farm production and marketing programs be developed by farmers rather than by congress. Pres.
cial
Commonwealth prime ministers issued a communique' welcoming Sierra Leone as a pro-
spective
10 Congolese The
isters' conference in London approved admission of Cyprus as the 12th member of the commonwealth.
force surrendered its arms and withdrew from Matadi, key Congo river
Outnumbered UN
men and
assembly for 25,000
program for hemispheric economic and social development. yr.
current inflation.
Pres.
established by executive order the Peace Corps comprised of U.S. men and women volunteers for service in underdeveloped foreign countries.
Pres. Kennedy outlined a joint U.S. -Latin America 10-point, 10-
satellites.
John Birch
sures
IPres. Kennedy
champion-
McNa-
mara issued a directive giving the U.S. air force virtually exclusive responsibility for military development of space vehicles
launched a major offensive
MARCH
heavyweight
sional ship.
U.S. Defense Secy.
8
Floyd Patterson knocked
10 out Ingemar Johansson in the 6th round of bout in Miami Beach, Fla., to retain the profes-
bill
Keith L\J Hassan, as Hassan II, was proclaimed king of Morocco following the death of his father,
of
Congo.
and Algerian rebel regime agreed to the resumption of direct peace negotiations with France.
OE
Nkrumah
UN
sued
final authorization for a 3yr. trial of the nation's first pay
Kwame 10
15th session; Pres.
its
XXI
that the reorganize its military and civilian program in the
French troops completed the evacuation of all their military bases in Morocco.
Zt
1961
•
leaders, confer-
\L ring at Antananarivo in the Malagasy Republic, agreed to a new confederation to replace the Congo republic; the plan was not supported by Antoine Gizenga's rebel government in Stanleyville,
United Press International ; second from
member when it attained
independence April
27.
Saudi Arabia declared that
its
1957 agreement with the L'.S. for the military airbase at Dhahran would not be renewed when it expired in 1962.
Oriental province.
left.
Pictorial Parade; ri/ht 3,
Vide
Commonwealth prime ministers ended
their con-
-
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
xxii
proposals for ending the fighting in Laos with "a positive and constructive reply."
MARCH — Continued
•
1961
U.S. Atty. Gen. Kennedy 6 announced an 8-point legislative program to fight organ-
rica's racial policies as reprehensible and repugnant to human
dignity.
ized crime.
ference in
OT
disarmament.
L I Macmillan in a speech before the parliament of the West
London with a call for new efforts to achieve total world
and U.S.S.R. signed Moscow a cultural agreement U.S.
exchange
U.S.
of
in for
and Soviet
British
Prime Minister
Indies federation expressed hope that the federation would achieve full independence within the commonwealth early in 1962.
Congo central government
scholars.
1Q
U.S. Atty. Gen.
Kennedy
Iw announced that the justice dept. was investigating alleged price fixing of meat, milk, drugs and other products.
01 Nuclear test ban conferL\ ence, after a 3 ^-mo. recess, reopened
in
Brazil established diplomatic with Bulgaria, Hungary and
Rumania.
Rumanian grand national assembly approved
a major re-
organization of the governmental structure.
congress approved and sent to the White House U.S.
payment of additional unemployment compensation to
a
Belgian PrimeMinisterGaston Eyskens resigned after his Christian Social party lost the election of the day before.
bill for
workers whose state benefits had run out. British Prime Minister Macmillan in a report to the house of
commons denounced South
Afri-
ca's racial policies.
UN Pres. Kennedy submitted lo congress a revised defense budget calling for a speed-up in long-range missile strength.
mously called on South Africa to desist from pursuing tyrannical policies and racial practices in South-West Africa.
council adopted in Bangkok, Thailand, a resolution warning against a continued Communist push in Laos.
MSEATO
statement by Pres. 8 Joint Kennedy and British Prime Minister Macmillan, issued at end of 4-day meeting, noted their agreement as to gravity of the
amendment to the U.S. constitution giving District of Columbia residents the right to vote in presidential elections received the necessary 38 ratifications with that by Kansas.
world situation.
23rd
Qn OU
00 Lv
Soviet government abolished prior censorship on outgoing news dispatches.
Kennedy warned
01 Pro-Communist forces 01 launched a major attack Laos, capturing
Tha Thorn.
treasury dept. anL J nounced that the interest rate of U.S. government savings bonds, series E and H, had been increased to
3%% compounded
semiannually.
OC
Kennedy and
nounced that
its
forces
had
re-
captured Manono, main centre of the Luluaba region in northern Katanga.
Federal party of Ceylon launched a civil disobedience campaign for recognition of Tamil rather than Sinhalese as the official language.
U.S. Postmaster Gen. Day requested congress to approve increases in most U.S. domestic mail rates, with a new rate of Si per ounce for lst-class mail.
IE UN general assembly
bill
called
(61
to 5)
British Prime Minister Macmillan arrived in Ottawa for talks with Canadian Prime Minister Diefenbaker on com-
3
Cuban
and
air bases were bombed Cuban Foreign MinRaul Roa charged attacks
strafed;
Soviet Union in an aidememoire to Britain agreed to an early international conference en Laos.
i
rebels,
di-
by U.S.-based Cuban Revolutionary council, landed near Bay of Cochinos and were
in Lord De L'lsle's appointIU ment as governor general
resisted by government troops; both sides suffered heavy casual-
was approved by
nAlfons Gorbach
took
office
as Austrian chancellor heading a reorganized coalition
an
ties.
Maj. Gen. Edwin A. Walker was relieved as commander of the U.S. 24th division in Germany pending investigation of that he had used his position to indoctrinate his troops with views of the John Birch society.
charges
cabinet.
Eichmann
be-
court in Jerusalem; principal charges dealt with crimes against the Jewish people during World War II. in
rected
II.
Israeli
French Pres. De Gaulle confirmed in a press conference France's refusal to contribute to the costs of the force in the
UN
U.S. supreme court held (6 to operated restaurant on publicly owned space could not refuse to serve Ne3) that a privately
groes.
"Oscars" awarded by
the Motion Picture Arts and Sciences went to The Apartment as the best motion picture
Academy
Congo.
10 Maj. Yuri Gagarin, Indian Prime Minister Nehru confirmed that India had purchased a number of Soviet air-
Ant -Castro
in-
problems.
gan
1
for
Belgian military and political personnel.
all
ister
Trial of Adolf
APRIL
\L U.S.S.R. cosmonaut, became the first man to successfully orbit the earth.
of
of 1960, to Burt Lancaster, best actor, and to Elizabeth Taylor, best actress.
craft.
General Motors Corp. was of the 1961 sugar assigned to Cuba
quota formerly
was withdrawn by the U.S. agriculture dept.
3 Representatives
ellite testing.
Mobs
of
Swedish
Pres. Kennedy pledged that U.S. armed forces would not intervene in Cuba under any conditions to bring about the overthrow of Fidel Castro.
Katangans attacked
UN troops guarding the
5Bohdan Winiarski (Poland)
L\J Prime Minister Macmillan
was elected president of the 15-member International Court of Justice.
in-
dicted by a U.S. federal grand jury in New York on charges of using its vast financial power to monopolize the diesel-electric locomotive industry.
of U.S.,
Britain and France agreed in Washington, D.C., on a joint program of communications sat-
airport at Elisabethville.
issued in Key West, Fla., a joint appeal to the U.S.S.R. to meet
a
reinstating the 1949 Reorganization act granting the president power to reorganize the executive branch.
of Australia
British
Pres.
U Tamil
IJ again
Kennedy approved
an-
Dominican Republic's share
U.S.
1961.
withdrawal from the Congo of Pres.
Elizabeth
Katanga government
satellites.
Pres. Kennedy in a message to U.S. congress proposed that the budget for fiscal 1962 be raised by $2,322,000,000 for nonmilitary items.
1,
U
pro-Communist
strictive bill.
July
monwealth and international
the air force responsibility for operating all U.S. reconnaissance
lH
Day
and military equipment into the Congo by U.S. air and shipping lines had been stopped.
U.S.S.R. that the U.S. would not tolerate the loss of Laos to forces.
Postmaster Gen.
U.S.
announced rate increases on most U.S. mail abroad, effective
were "prologue to large-scale vasion planned by U.S."
U.S. defense dept. assigned to
U.S. house rejected (186 to 185) administration-supported bill to expand and increase minimum wages but approved (216 to 203) a more re-
cies.
9
the
OA
Pres. Kennedy sent to congress a general outline of plans for reforming federal regulatory agen-
U.S. state dept. announced that without specific UN authorization shipment of arms
Pres. Kennedy sent to U.S. congress a message outlining "new basic concepts for a U.S. foreign aid program."
OC
general assembly unani-
00 lO
southward against north-central Rival anti-Castro groups in the U.S. were reported to have selected former Cuban prime minister Jose Miro Cardona as president of a new Revolutionary council.
Pres.
announced the lifting of a 4-mo. economic blockade of Gizengaled Eastern and Kivu provinces.
Geneva, Switz.
ties
00 LL
Haitian Pres. Duvalier, under a 1957 electoral law, abolished Haiti's bicameral legislature and requested a 67-seat unicameral assembly.
7
U.S. Atomic Energy commission announced the discovery of the element lawrencium (no. 103
on the periodic
UN
13
scale).
general assembly condemned (95 to 1) South Af-
Budget for the fiscal year endMarch 31, 1962, estimating
ing
revenue at £6,440,000,000 and expenditure at £6,002,000,000,
was presented to the British house of commons by Chancellor of the Exchequer Selwyn Lloyd. 1
Q
Soviet offer of assistance to
10 Cuba brought a warning from Pres. Kennedy that the U.S., under inter- American obligations, would tolerate no outside military intervention in Cuba. Bill to create a cabinet-level department of urban affairs and housing was submitted to congress by Pres. Kennedy.
CALENDAR OF EVENTS cabinet headed by Theodore Lefevre as prime minister.
APRIL— Continued France's 4th atomic test was
1Q Laotian government
carried out at the Reggane testing grounds in the Sahara.
an-
uniformed would assume posi-
Iw nounced that
U.S. soldiers tions as advisers to the Laotian
OH ZU
Castro victory was pro-
Pres.
dend payments and on expense accounts.
restrictions
Greek Prime Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis and Pres. Kennedy issued a joint communique in Washington, D.C., calling for tightening of GreekU.S. ties.
NATO
council confirmed
L I the appointment of Dirk U. Stikker (Neth.) as secretarygeneral of to succeed Paul Henri Spaak of Belgium
NATO
(resigned).
Pres. Kennedy announced that the initial project of the Peace Corps would be in Tanganyika, to help local technicians build roads.
00 UN general assembly adLL journed after approval of a $100,000,000 authorization for military operations in the Congo. French government announced that the city of Algiers was in control of insurrectionist French army units led by Gen. Maurice Challe.
Former Pres. Eisenhower expressed his support of Pres. Kennedy after conferring with him on the Cuban situation at Camp
1963.
council resolved at IU Oslo to counter the global as well as the European challenge of the Soviet-Chinese bloc.
War
II
OP
French army mutiny
in
L\j Algeria collapsed, with leaders apparently in flight.
its
U.S. house approved
to
and sent to the White House a bill for $394,000,000 in 193)
federal aid to help rehabilitate chronically depressed areas.
Pres. Tshombe of Katanga was seized by Congolese soldiers at Coquilhatville after walking out of a conference of Congolese leaders.
affair.
OQ L0
Pres. Kennedy submitted LI to U.S. congress reorganization plans permitting the Fed-
Communications commisand the Securities and Exchange commission to dele-
eral
gate rendering of final decisions to panels of commissioners, individual commissioners or staff
members.
t4 Laos and the reconvening of the International Control Commission for Laos to confirm it. France and the independent republics of Dahomey, Ivory Coast, Niger and Upper Volta signed co-operation agreements
commonwealth.
Major overhaul and modernization of conflict-of-interest laws affecting officials and employees of independent agencies was proposed to congress by Pres. Ken-
nedy.
OQ International l0 Commission
Control
for Laos (Canada, India, Poland) was re-
convened
New
in
signed by Pres. Nkrumah (Ghana), Pres. Toure (Guinea) Pres. Keita (Mali).
"sole in
responsibility" for U.S. the attack on Cuba.
Belgian
25
nam, on an official tour of south and southeast Asia.
inducted
King Baudouin a new coalition
Philip arrived at state visit to Italy.
and Prince Naples on a
II
Laos
orders in 3 Cease-fire became effective on all fronts. Pres.
Habib Bourguiba
nisia
arrived
D.C., on an
of
official visit.
R. Killian, Jr., was chosen chairman of the presidential board of consultants on foreign intelligence activities, reestablished by Pres. Kennedy.
U.S. navy balloonists, Malcolm Ross and Victor G.
2
4
Soviet Union awarded a OU 1960 Lenin peace prize to Cuban Prime Minister Castro.
Viet-
British Prime Minister Macmillan ordered a broad investigation of Britain's defense security system.
Tu-
Washington,.
in
S.
Prather, soared to a record 113,500 ft. Prather was killed during recovery operations in the
Both houses of U.S. congress passed and sent to the White House bill providing for 10 new U.S. circuit court judges and 63 new district court judges. B. Shepard, Jr., bethe 1st U.S. astronaut to achieve suborbital flight when his space capsule was launched 115 mi. into space from Cape
John Teasdale, chairman
Sir
of the Australian wheat board, announced the sale of 750,000 tons of wheat to Communist
China
in 1961.
Iranian Prime Minister Amini announced a 15-point program to counter corruption and avoid economic bankruptcy.
Leon Balcer, Canadian transport minister, announced plan to restrict domestic Canadian trade on the Great Lakes and part of the St. Lawrence river to ships of
Canadian
registry.
10 International Develop\L ment assn. made its first loan, S9,000,000, to Honduras for highway development.
Alan 5 came
10 International conference
Canaveral, Fla.
10 on Laos, opening at Geneva, was deadlocked by Soviet insistence that Pathet Lao representatives be seated as equals.
Pope
John
XXIII
White House announced
received
and Prince
14
Philip in private audience at the
that Bolivia had accepted U.S. offer of SIO.OOO.OOO in im-
Vatican.
mediate
II
aid.
minister of Iran after resignation of Jaffar Sharif Imami and his
Pope John XXI urged a wellplanned and boldly executed worldwide attack on hunger and
cabinet over teachers' pay.
poverty.
AM Amini was named
prime
1
1
Oft.
Pres.
Kennedy
a $1.25-an-hour
signed a
MAY 1
Cuban Prime Minister Castro,
in a
May
1961
Pulitzer prizes were to
play All the
lad
Mosel
Way Home
for
(based on
Pulitzi
in the
Nkrumah
of
Ghana took
complete control of the government and ol the ruling Convention People's party.
3,400 Portuguese troops shipped out to help quell terrorist uprisings in northern
Members of the Interna8 tional Control Commission Laos arrived
for
in
Vientiane tn
begin verification and sion of the cease-fire.
"Freedom tacked
in
riders" were atAnniston and Birming-
ham,
Ala., while on a bus tour of the south to test desegregation of facilities at bus stations.
IE
U.S. Securities and ExIJ change commission announced an extensive investigation of New York's American Stock exchange because ot a rigging scandal.
supervi-
British-U.S.S.R.
compromise
scat 3 rival Laotian delegations, thus permitting the opento
his
Family) and to Harper Lee for her novel To Kill a Mockingbird. Pres.
3,624,000
daj
in Havana, declared th.it Cuba had become a so< i.ilist nation and no longer would hold eli
awarded
bill for
minimum wage
which would cover additional workers.
A Death
White House statement said that Pres. Kennedy assumed
Johnson
Vice-Pres. nU.S. arrived in
Queen Elizabeth
Queen Elizabeth
Delhi.
James Agee's 1958
in Paris.
part
as
Gulf of Mexico. Sierra Leone, former British west African colony, became an independent nation within the
Britain and U.S.S.R.
called for a cease-fire in
NATO
her executive representative.
sion
French Pres. De Gaulle assumed dictatorial powers crush the mutiny in Algeria.
OJ
Luxembourg appointed and heir, Prince Jean,
est son
James
OT
head a probe of the Central In-
to
of her eld-
programs.
Saigon,
(223
and
Cuban
1ft
Grand Duchess Charlotte
Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor was named by Pres. Kennedy to the
Minow, chairman
TV
OQ Charter establishing a Lv union of African states was
agency's role in
N.
the FCC, in a speech before the National Association of Broadcasters convention berated the violence and mediocrity in ol
tons of grain valued at S362,000,000 during June 1961-Dec.
David, Md.
telligence
Newton
NATO
to
$587,000,000 partial settlement
Kennedy
in a tax-reform message to congress proposed tax savings for investments in plant and machinery but urged withholding on interest and divi-
01
protectorate, achieved full internal self-government; Julius Nyerere was sworn in as the first prime minister.
submarines
missile forces.
agreed to sell to 2 Canada Communist China 6,000,000
l Germany's post-World debt to the U.S.
claimed after last of Cuban rebel invaders were captured at Playa Giron, near the original landing point.
XXIII
African
British
U.S.
and West Germany exchanged notes effecting a
army.
1961
•
Tanganyika,
French Pres. De Gaulle
in a
TV
address urged co-operation between French people and Al-
ing of the international confer-
gerian rebels in establishing
the
government
9
self-
U.S. Secy, of State Rusk
announced
U.S.
n 1
Laos, was agreed
:
S
tor Al.
NA
ouncil In Oslo. Nor., that the would commit 5 Polaris at
1
( )
i
1R P p es. Kennedy ID Ottawa on \ isil to Canada.
a
2
arrived in
dav state
14-nation conference on Laos
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
XXIV
Gen. Thomas
named to succeed D. White, retiring U.S. air force chief of staff.
MAY — Continued opened in Geneva; Chinese Communist Foreign Minister Chen Yi accused the U.S. of sabotage, threats and military menaces in
head
junta,
claimed
Young,
military control of
full
A 27 "freedom riders" were fcT arrested and jailed in Jackson, Miss., minutes after their arrival from Montgomery, Ala. 1
Pres. Kennedy appealed to U.S. citizens to contribute to the Tractors for Freedom committee, designed to exchange U.S. tractors for imprisoned Cu-
South Korea and its government, seized the day before.
ban
rebels.
Cuban Prime Minister
OC Lv
Pres.
Castro
offered to exchange 1,217 rebels
captured in invasion of Cuba for 500 U.S. bulldozers. Pres. Kennedy, in addressing the Canadian parliament, called for Canada's greater co-operation in
1Q Radio Corporation 10 America was
of
by the National Aeronautics and
in a special
accelerate
space
ex-
and foreign aid and to expand nonnuclear military
to
U.S. experimental nications satellite. first
build
commu-
1Q Nationwide walkout by Iw
the Railroad Yardmasters America (A.F.L.-C.I.O.) was blocked for 60 days when Pres. Kennedy invoked the Railway Labour act and appointed an emergency fact-finding board. of
OH
400 U.S. marshals were LVj sent to Alabama by the justice dept. to restore order in areas of racial violence; large mob attacked busload of "freedom riders" upon arrival in
Montgomery.
France announced a 30-day cease-fire in Algeria as negotiations with Algerian rebels opened
signed as special tive in the Congo.
representa-
King Hussein of Jordan was married in Amman to Antoinette Gardiner, daughter of a British
army
01 Gov. John Patterson
of
Alabama declared martial
law in Montgomery following a renewal of racial violence.
OP
Pres. Kennedy submitted to congress a plan to consolidate U.S. foreign aid programs into a single agency within the state dept. to be called the Agency for International Development
(AID).
OT
U.S. delegation at Geneva statement accusing the Communists of "cynical disregard" of the cease-
L
I issued a detailed
fire in
Chang Do Young.
supreme court
(4 to 3) that E.
I.
Pres. Kennedy signed bill providing for $600,000,000 in special U.S. aid to Latin America.
papers and
Korean
govern-
outlawed 834 newsnews agencies for
"improper registration" and arrested 25 businessmen and officials
accused of corrupt activi-
held yr.,
divest itself of the 63,000,000 shares of General Motors stock it.
Gen. Curtis
E.
I
U.S.
supreme court
sustained the constitutionality of (1) the sections of the 1950 Internal Security act requiring registration of
"Communist-ac-
tion" organizations and (2) the provisions of the 1940 Smith act making it a crime to be a member of a party advocating the violent overthrow of the U.S. govern-
ment.
Pres.
Joaquin Balaguer of the Dominican Republic announced
South 6 junta
that Generalissimo Rafael Le6nidas Trujillo Molina (dictator since 1930) had been assassinated the night before.
lute military dictatorship with power vested in a few officers.
of
South Africa became
independent
ceased to be a
republic
member
and
of the
commonwealth Charles R. Swart ;
was sworn in as the first president; Verwoerd continued as prime minister.
Korean
military
established an abso-
Pres. Kennedy in a report to the nation stated that his talks with Soviet Premier Khrushchev had lessened chances of a "dangerous misjudgment on either side."
7
U.S. and Britain, supported by France, boycotted the
international conference on Laos because of Communist violations of the cease-fire.
JUNE IGen.
Rafael Trujillo, Jr.,
assumed command of the Dominican Republic armed
forces.
Northern Cameroons (former British
UN
trust
territory)
Communist
2
Rep. William E. Miller (N.Y.) was unanimously
of Morocco II coalition cabinet
formed a new headed by himself as prime minister.
3 Generalissimo
Francisco
Franco of Spain denounced western policy, capitalism and democracy in a speech opening the
new
4
Pres.
Cortes.
Kennedy and Premier Khrushchev concluded their
and Mrs. Kennedy were warmly welcomed on arrival in London for an informal visit.
U.S. Atty. Gen. Kennedy L study are luthorities in their respective fields, the Editors of the Britannica Book of the Year have sked them to feel free to express their personal opinions and conclusions. Their views are. of coin ce&sarily those i>t the Editors.
in practice, the editors
WORLD WITHOUT
WANT
PART
I
Bread Upon the Waters: The Problems and Promises of Development
BY PAUL
G.
people The most
HOFFMAN
of the world today live in the
exciting, the
most
fearful, the
most
dangerous and yet the most hopeful time in history. Our tense world is filled with opportunities unimaginable to our grandparents. Only in the last few moments of time, as hu-
man
history
is
recorded, has
man known how
wipe out the poverty, hunger, illiteracy and chronic ill-health that have been his intimate companions on his journey to the present. The real ferment that stirs the world today is not a struggle over ideology. Instead, what moves men"s minds in much of the world is the fact that people today know they can have a better tomorrow. This is perhaps the most important fact of our time. Hundreds to
of millions whose forebears patiently accepted lives of misery are involved in what has
aptly been called "the revolution of rising expectations." What has been a distant dream has now become a passionate demand. This is a demand that we of the industrially developed nations can no longer ignore in our own interests. For if the yearnings of these hundreds of millions of people for a better life are ignored, the future promises one explosive outbreak after another. Furthermore, if effective and adequate assistance helps these people achieve better lives, the world may become a safer and better place to live than anyone has ever hoped. More than any other single factor, the response to this demand for more decent living conditions will determine the political and social complexion of the future. There is no simple answer to the problem of assisting underprivileged people to achieve better living standards. The huge dimensions of the problem assure this. More than 100 countries and territories associated with the United Nations are dreadfully poor. In them live more than 1,300,000,000 people. These people, plus the 650,000,000 in mainland China, total more than two-thirds of the world's population. Not only are the dimensions appallingly large, the processes by which improvement can be achieved are bewilderingly complex, fluid and ever evolving. W e call these processes economic develop-
—
The hope of a world that knows want, seen in the eyes of a child at a food distribution centre, Kasai province, Republic of the Congo, during the 1961 famine
ment.
— WORLD WITHOUT WANT. world. That
WHY BE CONCERNED?
charity;
Having achieved a high standard of living through our own technical and business talents applied to the exploitation of our natural resources, we people of the industrially advanced coun-
may
tries
why we
be inclined to ask
own moral,
our
question:
is
it
sense that product or market development
The
is
There is an answer to and business interests
politically
we
are so inextricably intertwined with theirs that
we cannot
afford
why we should be Morally we can't escape concern;
bluntest and most accurate answer to
concerned
political
sound business
is
management.
should be concerned about
the peoples of the underdeveloped world. this
good business. Economic development is not sound business management in exactly the same
is
dictate
we must
be.
can't avoid
it;
that
own
economically, our
interests
it.
to ignore them.
WHAT IS AN UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRY?
For generations, profound moral beliefs have prompted charitable and educational activities by churches and private philan-
version of a developed nation.
thropies.
The
weak, the rich to act compassionately toward the
to help the
poor. And,
doctrines of every major religion require the strong
if
moral codes
fail to
command
positive action, the
negative whip of an uneasy and inescapable conscience compels
An of
underdeveloped country
is
not simply a poverty-stricken
It is a
country lacking
in factories
own, without adequate supplies of power and
its
light.
telephones and other communications.
Even when
have communications, outlying areas are terribly
large cities
few hospitals and few institutions of higher learning. Most of
to help them.
people cannot read or write.
There are urgent
political reasons, too.
War
After World
II
demanded and nations among the origi-
areas found expression as nation after nation
achieved independence. There were 51 nal signatories to the
UN
104 members; of the
new members, 32
UN
new
and got
it
—and are
a threat to
is
it
who
improvement
by the great powers
in
commodities
than a
improvement. The increasing pressures for one way or another. Will this
will find release in
—
come by peaceful means by dynamic evolution? Or will demands give birth to violent revolution to blood and chaos and possibly even World War III? The question is not: Why be concerned? Rather it is: Can we afford not to be? The moral and political reasons for assisting underdeveloped nations are compelling enough by themselves. But there are solid
—
the
business reasons as well. In the long view, the 100 underdeveloped
new economic
nations and territories are the great well-run business allots a part of
work
—
its
in research, in the search for
frontier.
Any
resources to development
new
products, in the expan-
sion of markets. Business enterprises that are content with today
—
soon disappear.
It is a fact
as well
known
to the small
as to the president of the largest corporation to succeed
it
1%
merchant
— that for a business
must move forward.
If per capita
by only
better than extortionists.
Not only
are there
incomes in the underdeveloped world were
lifted
per year more in the 1960s than they rose in the
wholly or partly under foreign control, with
is
little
of the profit being reinvested in the country.
The
their peoples will not settle for less
release
little
staple product with perhaps a small admixture of handicrafts or
an infringement on their sovereignty.
visible beginning of
are often
luxury goods. Often extraction or production of these export
it.
The new nations often feel such participatheir precious new freedom; the older countries
life;
em-
But many of
getting
All these countries need help. Their citizens are determined to
have a better
is
who have wealth usually refuse to invest it productively in their own countries. The underdeveloped nation's exports typically consist almost entirely of raw materials, ores, fruits or some other
their internal affairs.
consider
banking system
attained their independ-
countries, are sensitive to participation
tion
Its
bryonic; small loans have to be obtained through moneylenders
of the older underdeveloped
still
many
nations, as well as
surrounded by overwhelming poverty.
few savings from which investment could be made, the people
even after independence, looked to the former colonial powers the
hands of a
its
What wealth it has is concentrated few people who live in comparative opulence
had
charter in 1945. In 1961 the
ence or were created after 1945. In some cases these countries, for assistance
in the
do
isolated. It has
our attention to the needs of stricken people and also our action
the long-smothered feelings of nationalism in the underdeveloped
It
usually lacks roads and railroads, efficient government services,
Statistics of
But while
it is
Underdevelopment
easy to see that a country
is
underdeveloped,
up an exact statistical definition of what constitutes underdevelopment. Over the last 50 years or so the industrial nations, such as the United States and many countries in western Europe, have been carefully watching and measuring their own economies with a variety of statistical yardsticks. For example, the U.S. knows with considerable precision how much money its banks loaned last month, how many freight is
it
extremely
difficult to set
how much money was paid out in wages and and how many people were employed.' The underdeveloped country, lacking both business and government stacars were loaded,
what
at
tistics,
rates
cannot measure
its
some
figures
lacks
information about
instance,
it
own economy
and can guess
itself.
others,
in
this
way.
It
all,
has
but by and large
it
In most parts of Africa, for
virtually impossible to get accurate figures
is
on
no uniform system, if there is for registering births and deaths in the jungles
the population because there
any system at and villages.
at
is
International organizations have done a great .deal to push
back the fog of
statistical darkness.
One important United Na-
1950s, export markets for the entire industrially advanced world
tions task, for example, has been to help underdeveloped nations
would expand by billions of dollars. For the United States assuming it continues to retain its current share of the interna-
set
tional trade flow
—such an increase would amount
an estimated by 1970.
to
additional $7,000,000,000 in U.S. exports per year
In man-hours alone an equivalent of more than 4,500,000 jobs in the
United States depend on foreign trade. Of these, more than
1,750,000 jobs depend on U.S. exports to the underdeveloped areas of the world.
equivalent of
By 1970
number may
more than 3,500,000
growth of an additional the
this
1%
well double to the
full-time jobs.
Assuming a
per year in per capita incomes in
underdeveloped countries, the total exports for
this
ten-
year period as a whole can reasonably be expected to reach
$320,000,000,000 from the
8
developed to
the
underdeveloped
up
statistical services
and
and co-ordinate the Out of these efforts a
to correlate
available statistics for the whole world.
Where detailed statistics made based on samples and projections can be drawn based on known trends. Using such statistics as are available, we can arrive at a rough general picture
is
beginning to emerge.
are lacking, generalizations can be
some and the extent of their economic problems, even though we must admit that any such generalizations are somewhat arbitrary. One of the simplest yardsticks for measuring a country's relative development is the average annual per capita income of its citizens. This index is reached by taking a country's total income, as revealed through general definition of an underdeveloped country and get idea of the
number
of such countries
BREAD UPOX THE WATERS
—
Beggars on a street of Quito, Ecuador. Lured to the cities by the hope of wealth or driven to them by the rigours of peasant life people of underdeveloped countries, hampered by a lack of education and labour skills, find only the lowest-paying, temporary jobs and often none at all
—
THE VICTIMS OF UNDERDEVELOPMENT Indian miners descending into the coal
pits.
Productivity
is
often
hampered by the attitude of the worker who, seeking only to satisfy his immediate needs, will leave his job and return to his village as soon as those needs are met
Da Silva, slum-dweller of Rio de Janeiro, Braz., whose story was told in Life magazine in 1961. Flavio was helped to a new life by the gifts of sympathetic Americans, but millions of others throughout the world remain in the Flavio
deepest poverty
— WORLD WITHOUT WANT. production figures and other data, and dividing of
all
by
it
the
number
Per Capita Income
the persons in the country of whatever age or condition.
This average
is
then stated in terms of a
common
currency such
as U.S. dollars. Admittedly, this index does not express the real
income of people
any country and conversion into dollars
in
is
Afghanistan
when
Combodio Cameroons
poor, the incomes of only a few millionaires will raise the aver-
age of the per capita income substantially. In addition,
should
it
may have
be remembered that the same per capita income
cheap, where because of climate needs for clothing and shelter
more tolerable than scarce and thus more costly or where
are minimal, a low income is
rather
is
(Brit,
adm.)
.
Central African Republic
Chad' China (Formosa) Congo, Republic of the
.
.
.
.
.
.
in a
cold
....
make heavy
warm houses
clothing and
required items
Guinea
Indonesia
Kenya
.
.
.
.
.
Mali Martinique .
.
Papua
South-
adm.)
.
.
.
.
.
.
735 1,402
2,870 34,091 92,727
503 570 650 502 336 244
(Austr.)
West Africa
(S. Af.)
.
.
.
.
.
.
4,901
2,450 2,010
522
.
Sudan
11,770
Swaziland (U.K.) Tanganyika (Brit, adm.)
259 .
.
.
.
Thailand
Togo
Uganda
(U.K.)
Upper Volta Yemen
4,100
.
(Austr.
Portuguese Guinea Portuguese India Portuguese Timor Reunion (Fr.) Rio Muni and Fernando Po (Sp.). Ruanda-Urundi (Belg. adm.) Sierra Leone Somalia
1,695 7,131 1,805 1,290
(U.K.)
New Guinea
Nigeria Pakistan
432,567 92,600
Liberia
National and per capita income figures for underdeveloped
New Guinea Niger
3,000 3,505
Laos
for everyone.
Netherlands
270
Haiti India
6,385 9,180
Nepal
Guadeloupe and dependencies (Fr.)
740
Mozambique
20,000 308
(U.K.)
Jordan
winters
Pop., mld1960 10001
Mauritania
1,652 1,227 2,660 10,613 14,150 1,934
Ethiopia
Gambia
3,800 4,605
3,462 20,662 4,952
Dahomey
a
Where food
widely different significance in different countries.
land where food
(U.K.)
Burma
the
to hide extremes, especially
Moreover, averages tend
Underdeveloped Countries Country
685 340
Bolivia
extremes are great. In a country where most citizens are very
is
1
(Poo;.)
Basutoland (U.K.)
Bechuanalond
not always meaningful.
the
$100
Less than
Angola
in
Pop., mid1960 (000)
Country
9,238 25,520 1,440 6,682 3,635 5,000
277
.
countries are, generally speaking, only informed guesses. Fur-
thermore, such guesses or estimates tend to exaggerate the differences between the poorer and the richer countries. the income figures in dollars per year, local
income
statistics into dollars,
state
necessary to convert
it is
and
To
this
done
is
at the official
The official dollar rate of exchange is often an inadequate way of measuring the local purchasing power of pesos or rupees or rials. One could probably buy a good deal more rice in Thailand for one baht than could be purchased at an rate of exchange.
American supermarket for
five cents,
U.S. currency at the
exchange
official
which
rate.
is
the equivalent in
Moreover,
this
method
of translating local per capita income into dollars understates the real income level of low-income countries because
take into account the pattern of local
produced
necessities are
at
home
and the
life
it
cannot
many
fact that
or bartered in the villages and
$100-$ 199
as underdeveloped the annual per capita it is
in
as
The
list
is listed
.
.
Ryukyu Islands Saudi Arabia Senegal
3,765 1,953 20,182 7,085 3,230 24,665
Iran Iraq Ivory Coast Korea (South)
.
Rhodesia and Nyasaland (U.K.)
6,691
Guatemala
»
Philippines
440
Syria
,
Tunisia
Vietnam (South) Zanzibar (U.K.)
875 6,640 2,973 4,560 4,168 14,100
307
$200-$299 Algeria Bhutan British
Hong Kong (U.K.) Malaya and dependencies Mexico
11,020
(Fr.)
670
Borneo
1,199
Mauritius
567
British Guiano Colombia
14,132 2,994
Dominican Republic
2,981
6,909
658
(U.K.)
34,626
270
Surinam (Neth.)
West
3,115
Indies (U.K.)
394
Islands (U.K.)
much
income
as $700.
is
The
below
well
table groups
$300-$699 20,956 7,628
Malta and Gozo
Costa Rica
1,171
Puerto Rico (U.S.)
Cuba
6,797
Singapore Uruguay Venezuela
Argentina Chile
.
.
.
.
Cyprus Israel
563
Lebanon
2,114 1,646
.
329
(U.K.)
Panama
1,055 (U.K.)
.
.
.
.
2,359 1,634 2,827 7,202
terms of annual average per capita
income using data as available of the country
Peru
2,612
Honduras
5,393 11,626 1,477 1,768 10,857 27,500 8,330
Nicoragua Paraguoy
4,317 25,929
Gabon Ghana
1,195
Malagasy Morocco
statistics.
But the indexes of the various countries considered together do give a rough picture of their relative status in terms of economic organization and activity. In most of the countries classed $300 although in a few underdeveloped nations
Libya
820
Congo, Republic of Ecuador Egypt El Salvador
Fiji
do not enter into national income
65,743 3,240 9,870
Brazil
Caroeroun Ceylon
The
in late 1961.
total population
ply does not get by.
The immediate
alongside.
excludes European countries with low annual per
capita incomes such as Albania,
Bulgaria,
Greece, Hungary,
Poland, Portugal, Rumania, Spain, Turkey and Yugoslavia, as
excessive.
They
us.
man
of the under-
His demands are not
include such things as an opportunity for his
children to learn to read and write, a source of pure water, a
well as certain low-income countries
reliable plow, a
tions
of one, a doctor
and territories with populaunder 200,000. It also excludes mainland China, North Korea and North Vietnam because published and verified knowl-
expectations of the average
developed world seem simple enough to
sewing machine, shoes, two cooking pots instead
when he
or his family needs one, enough food
for tomorrow's meals as well as today's, seed with a slightly
edge is not available on those countries and because they have not so far participated with other nations in a world-wide pro-
higher yield, perhaps a bicycle, certainly some protection for
gram of economic development.
such as a drought or an insect plague or the failure of the mon-
If the 674,000,000 peoples of
those three nations are added to the approximately 1,300,000.000
included in the table,
people on this
ei.rth
live in countries
it
is
safe to say that
—about
some 2,000,000,000
two-thirds of the
human
race
where dire poverty and deprivation are the
facts of daily life.
The
of Poverty
these stark facts
that he
mean
is
existence. If he has land,
it.
This
is
not pie in the sky. In the developed nations
many
of
obtained through the income from a few hours of labour. But
He
to the average
man
in the
it is
in a relentless struggle for
a tiny plot.
When
But when the rain
he
is late,
the seed doesn't germinate fully, or he
is
From is
it
mere
he must pro-
lucky, he can just
or comes too soon, or
sick during the harvest,
or any of a host of other possible contingencies happens, he sim-
10
caught up in a natural disaster
these things are securely institutionalized and the others can be
stands alone.
He
man
of the underdeveloped world.
wrings subsistence from his environment
with his bare hands. The dangers to his precarious existence are
beyond his control that he knows ward them off by whatever magic seems to work. When the magic fails, a minor breakdown speedily becomes a disaster he may or may not survive. The lot of the Indian peasant is typical. He lives in a village of mud huts. He has few contacts beyond the next village; few roads exist and when they do they are usually nothing more than cart so clear, so present and so far
engaged
vide for himself and his family.
about make
is
soon.
yet within reach of the average
underdeveloped world?
They mean
when he
they and the institutions needed to create them are simply not
Human Realities
What do
himself and his family
of nothing to do except
BREAD UPON THE WATERS tracks over difficult terrain and in poor condition. If he
—and nearly 40% of India's 200,000,000 not —he has land. His three acres may be
is
lucky
rural population are
two or three or perThey are among the most unin
haps
widely separated plots.
six
productive cultivated acres in the world.
The peasant cannot
power machinery or any but the most primitive farm tools. The annual income from the land for his family of six will be about $200, of which a third will be owed afford fertilizer, better seed,
to a moneylender.
back from If the
it
He
will
pour
his energies into this land to get
barely enough for him and his family to eat.
economic outlines of
his life are harsh, the other aspects
For a bed he often uses a straw pallet or perhaps the raw earth. For fuel with which to cook his meagre meals, he uses dried cow dung. The water he drinks is carried by his wife or children from a village well of doubtful purity. All the clothes he owns, he wears. He can neither read nor write, and it is only recently that his children have been given the hope of learning. Malnutrition and illness are rife. If he gets sick, there is no doctor for him. He and his wife expect that half their children will be dead before they reach the age of six. Any member of his family could consider himself fortunate if he are harsher
still.
lived to be 40 years old. Seventy-five per cent of India's people
share his
lot.
Gandhi described the Indian peasant's
life
"eternal compulsory fast." These Indian peasants constitute
as an
20%
of the agricultural and rural peoples of the entire world.
The urban
dwellers of the underdeveloped world fare
On June
little
magazine published a photographic essay on a slum family of Rio de Janeiro, Braz. It was a revelabetter.
16, 1961, Life
tion of unutterable squalor.
The Da
—
Silva family existence
until the article
appeared
was not unusual. The father came
"Now
to the city to escape the
kerosene and bleach in a and Nair [his wife] built as they did their tiny shack from tin cans, broken orange crates and stolen pieces of lumber. The shop brings in about $20 a month. To get $5 more to buy food, Nair, about to have her ninth child, washes clothes in the only available water from a spigot at the foot of the hill. The children, who range from 12 years to 17 months, are penned in the shack or roam the foul pathways of the favela where the filth of the inhabitants is tossed out to rot."
burdens of peasant
life.
he
sells
—
tiny boxlike stall which he
—
—
There was
much
little
evidence in the story that either parent cared
it was hard to tell since both were unceasingly exhausted. None of the children had ever been as far as minutes away from their wretched hovel. They had no shoes, no sheets and no more hope. The brutal drudgery of their
lives
for or about the children, but
had pounded the entire family into a mold of defeat from
which there was no prospect of escape. The care of the younger children was
in the
hands of 12-year-
old Flavio, the one bright spot in the otherwise unrelieved gloom.
But Flavio was
sick
and
it
seemed unlikely that he would get
treatment in time to save his
life.
U.S. readers' reaction to the story was immediate and generous.
Almost overnight, the lives of Flavio and the Da Silva family were transformed. The tragedy of the underdeveloped world is that the story is not an unusual story, except for its happy ending. The Da Silva family was typical. They were not especially poverty stricken by comparison with their neighbours. And their slum existence is not duplicated by only dozens or hundreds or thousands; with minor differences, it is duplicated by dozens of millions
all
over the underdeveloped world.
Typical peasant village of India: thatch-roofed earthen houses surrounded by bare ground and linked by from a source of doubtfid purity, animals roaming freely
mud
roads or paths, water supplied
WORLD WITHOUT WANT: MYTHS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT There are
number
a
of
myths about why the underdeveloped myths also about the conditions of
nations are underdeveloped, these countries.
life in
The most
myth
pernicious
is
white-skinned peoples. There are
that of the superiority of the
many who
still
believe, despite
the evidence to the contrary, that the darker-skinned peoples are skills and of judgment needed for economic development. With some of those who hold such views, there is no use presenting evidence or discussing the question; reason plays no part in their attitude. But with others, whose only guilt is an unthinking ac-
incapable of absorbing the education, of acquiring the exercising the
ceptance of inherited misconceptions, a simple look at the leaders
much
of
of Asia, Africa
and Latin America and
at
what the
peoples of such areas as India, Mexico and Puerto Rico have already accomplished in an amazingly short time
destroy the validity of these attitudes.
And
is
enough
to
a closer look at the
peoples of these nations will reveal the simple fact that the
human
race
is
made up
same
of about the
cross section of types
and even poverty
in every country. Intelligence, capacity, ability
know no
colour
line.
Allied to this idea of racial inferiority
native myth.
We
are told
by
its
tivator lives an idyllic life close to the
His wants and needs are simple. told,
it
is
we who
another: the happy
is
proponents that the peasant cul-
He
bosom
is
of
mother
earth.
happy. Indeed, we are \ng rice in Ceylon. Such simple improvements as better seed and fertilizer can change failure to success among sub-
are unhappy; our goal should be to emulate
the simple grandeur and dignity of the
course these people
know
man
Of
in the fields.
sistence farmers
the peasant cultivator only
from the pages of a colourfully illustrated travel magazine or from a brief glimpse through the windows of an air-conditioned railroad car. Their noses have not been rubbed in the grime and misery of the peasant's daily
life.
And
their dignity has not
been
contradicts
among ning,
add
when
this
Some long-independent
belief.
the least developed, to the
the initial
countries
and independence can,
problems of development.
On
the other hand,
handicaps are overcome, independence does
challenged by the daily necessity of working to exhaustion for the equivalent of half a loaf of bread. No, the happy native exists
provide an incentive for sharply accelerated development.
almost solely in conversations at cocktail parties in wellappointed living rooms. A recent investigation disclosed that
The Myths About Geography
there are as
many stomach
ulcers (which are reputed to be in-
duced partly by tension) per 1,000 persons New York.
in
Indonesia as in
—
Another myth or rather system of myths concerns colonialism. On the one hand, many of the citizens of former colonial powers feel that their activities made substantial contributions
and development of
their one-time colonies.
On
the other hand, deep-seated resentments in the former colonies blind their citizens to everything but the memory of exploitation.
Both points of view are emotionally charged, and the peoples of both groups are extremely sensitive on the subject.
A purely objective look at colonialism shows that the truth is somewhere in between. Colonialism, in many of its forms, generally was exploitative and often ugly. But the colonial powers frequently tion
and
in
made substantial many instances
contributions in health and educainjected the
into the underdeveloped lands
—
a
lie
myth about in tropical
climate.
Many
of the underdeveloped
and semitropical areas. Can
their
poverty
be traced simply to the heat?
men
—
is
Not very many years ago the climatic explanation of economic backwardness was widely accepted. The tropics, it was said, made
The Myths About Colonialism
to the welfare
There countries
are
at the begin-
first
industrial capital
the roads, docks, mining equip-
lazy;
more
charitably,
it
was stated that hard and sustained
labour was "impossible" in the equatorial and near-equatorial
Or other reasons, such as diseases that are endemic in the were held responsible for the poverty there. Today, however, one must be more chary of ascribing underdevelopment to the influence of climate. To be sure, there are parts of the world where the heat is debilitating, but such locales are the exception rather than the rule. Even when the heat is fierce, it normally occurs only during a few hours of the day or months of the year. In addition, some tropical locales, such as the Queensland region of Australia, have shown vigorous economic growth. And to clinch the point, by no means all underdeveloped countries are tropical. Korea has a temperate climate as does much of highland Africa, Argentina and Chile. As has zones.
tropics,
been pointed out, there
is
no significant difference
in attitudes
ment, railroads and other appurtenances of industrialization. In some instances they brought another prerequisite of development: stable government. And they certainly brought to the
or productivity between Indonesians living at sea level and those
peoples of the colonial areas an awareness of the possibilities of
economic backwardness have concerned themselves with rainfall. Much of the problem of the African continent revolves
material improvement.
To
assign colonialism the full
unfair. True, in
others
it
some
cases
blame for underdevelopment
myth about
independence, in and of
itself,
is
held development back, but in
should be credited with the
Parallel with the
12
it
first
colonialism
few steps forward. is
another myth: that
guarantees development. History
ft. up in the mountains. Other investigators into the relationship between climate and
living in the invigorating climate 4,000
around of
its
its
unevenly distributed precipitation and the inability
inhabitants to control and utilize water. Along the great
northern strip of Africa the Arab peoples have for centuries
contended with a rainfall that
is
sporadic and insufficient, while
large areas of tropical Africa alternately
wash away under
tor-
BREAD UPON THE WATERS downpours or parch under none. Asians,
rential
too, have had unfavourable distribution of annual rainfall: the
to live with
monsoons call the tune for all of south Asian and when the monsoons are late, the crops die in
great life-giving agriculture,
the fields.
Yet South America as a whole has no such problem, and better and tended, north Africa was the granary of the ancient Roman empire. As with climate, the pattern of rainfall tilled, irrigated
provides at best only a partial explanation for underdevelop-
ment.
What
seems
to pose insuperable obstacles to future
even more important, neither heat nor
is
rainfall
development. Air
conditioning, water storage and irrigation can go a long
toward improving the physical environment as witness the
way
in these respects
economic progress of both Australia and Israel or, Kansas (once called the Great American desert)
for that matter,
and California. The peoples of the tropics and the deserts will always have to reckon with and adapt to geographic liabilities, but these need not keep most such regions from eventually joining the ranks of the
Then
there
countries,
have
the
is
some
more prosperous nations of the world. myth about resources. The underdeveloped
believe, cannot be developed because they do not
their fair share of the bounties of nature.
The
portedly no good. There are no fish in the oceans.
cover has been destroyed. There are few, it
is
a fact that the balance sheets of
countries do not
show the navigable
if
soil is
The
pur-
forest
any, minerals.
And
many underdeveloped
rivers, the
Anuak tribesmen
of western Ethiopia threshing millet by beating Grain falls from the stalks onto the ground below. Lack of capital buy machinery leads to waste of both labour and produce
it.
to
promising hydro-
electric sites, the deposits of iron ore, coal, tin, bauxite
and the thousand and one other raw materials of modern industry. But the actual paucity of physical resources remains a ques-
Burmese girl carrying water from a village mudhole. Impure water supplies add to the health problems of underdeveloped countries
tion.
United Nations investigations with modern equipment have
turned up abundant resources in areas hitherto thought devoid of wealth.
The Myth About Costs One its
and
of the
most prevalent myths about development concerns makers
cost for the industrialized nations. Because budget legislators find
it
convenient to describe these costs in terms
solely of dollars or other currencies,
we have come
to think that
these costs represent simply outpourings of cash which in turn
from the taxpayer's wallet. This is not true. What want and need and what we have given them and will give them is goods and technical services. It is true that these things must be paid for with money, but far less money comes from the taxpayer's pocket than the figures would indicate. For goods sold to the underdeveloped countries mean new jobs for workers in the industrialized nations. They are abstracted
—
the underdeveloped nations
—
mean
greater profits through increased trade.
They mean
ab-
sorption of surplus commodities with a consequent firming of prices.
They mean
that,
because of economic expansion, more
taxes can be collected without a corresponding rise in tax rates.
In short, the betterment of business that aid to the underdevel-
oped countries brings serves
to
make
the actual out-of-pocket
program substantially less than its book cost. There are other myths about development. But mythology has
cost of such a
no place
in the
conquest of poverty; only a cold hard look at
the facts will provide the foundation needed for sensible strategy
and
effective tactics against this
most prevalent of
social mal-
functions.
THE COMPLEXITIES OF THE PROBLEM Even more staggering than the dimensions of the problem of development are its bewildering complexities. The societies which the work must be done run the gamut from primitive to semimodern. The sk '' eeded range from feeding a baby prop;
most sophisticated geopolitics. The effort is complicated further by the existence of firmly held beliefs which erly to the
M
— WORLD WITHOUT WANT: interfere with unbiased judgments. Finally, the problem's complexities rise out of the widely varying situations in the coun-
underdeveloped countries suffer from a paralyzing lack
All
tries involved.
The
Shortage of Capital
plain fact
is
that each country
development program, suited
must have
to its specific
a hand-tailored
needs and conditions.
Since there are 100 countries and territories, there must be 100 programs. And each program will consist of a variety of projects,
of capital. This lack
which
It is capital
one of the basic blocks to development.
is
is
the magic lever of production
—
capital in
the shape of plows and tools, lathes, engines, cranes, factories,
warehouses, dams. Without capital, productivity
is
limited to
each of which must be designed and carried forward with specific priority objectives in mind. Of course there may be experience
ingenuity and the strength of bare hands used with the most
gained in projects and programs in one country that can usefully
ditches, hand-turned spinning wheels.
be carried over to another. But by and large, development of each country is a unique combination of specific problems.
Peasants working on their tiny strips cannot possibly afford
It is well to
bear in mind that
place in a time dimension, too.
long as well as an arduous task.
development process takes Development is historically a But the pressure of demand tothis
day is so great that time is lacking for the slow development which was characteristic of most of the industrially advanced nations. The processes that took centuries for us must be com-
The
facts
the times, and time itself,
more
pressed into decades for the underdeveloped world. of
modern communication make
today than ever before. The poverty-stricken peoples of the world are impatient; immediate, visible signs of improve-
pitiless
ment are urgently needed.
THE COMMON DENOMINATORS OF
UNDERDEVELOPMENT As the multitudinous problems are faced in the actual development of countries, differences among the countries must be taken into account. But the attack on poverty, hunger, illiteracy and chronic ill-health can be understood against the background of certain
common denominators
of
underdevelopment: (1) short-
age of capital; (2) inability to increase export earnings to pay for essential imports; (3) lack of productivity;
(4) lack of knowl-
primitive equipment
—
It is lack of capital
stick plows, oxcarts,
hand-dug
irrigation
which cripples the postage-stamp farmer.
—
efficiently utilize mechanical sowers and reapers and binders. They cannot afford steel plows to replace their wooden ones. Chemical fertilizer is impossibly expensive for hand-to-mouth budgets, and even animal fertilizer is scarce. Nor is capital available in the form of draft animals.
nor could they
One
revealing index of the scarcity of capital
is
the avail-
power in the underdeveloped lands. In India, in 1953, man and beast produced 65% of all the nation's economic energy, and of the remaining 35% of inanimately produced energy, about three-quarters was secured from the burning of dung. In the United States, in the same year, human and animal power together accounted for only 1% of the nation's economic energy, and the use of primitive animal fuels was practically zero. The total amount of power generated by India in 1953 would not have sufficed to light up New York city; despite a ability of useful
doubling of production, on a per capita basis India's electricity output
is still
less
than
2%
of that of the United States.
This deep-rooted and pervasive problem of the insufficiency of capital vital
is
one to which we shall return, for clearly here
lies
a
element in any prescription for economic development.
edge of physical resources; (5) lack of trained people to bring
Need for Export Earnings
and human, into effective use; (6) lack of organized programing and planning for development; (7) social and psychological attitudes which hamper development; and (8)
As the pace of development increases in a country, its needs and other transport equipment, industrial machinery, electrical plant and gear, iron and steel,
rapidly expanding populations.
textiles
resources, physical
Egyptian farmer preparing
his fields
for imports of tools, vehicles
and other manufactures, as well as for technicians, ex-
with a wooden plow of a design seen in tomb paintings of 3,000 years ago
m
'*.* ,
*j •*£
m
BREAD UPON THE WATERS
--*-«---; •
With
draft animals scarce,
much hard
physical labour must be done by human hands, even children's, as in the case of this
Chinese
girl
pands proportionately. For the most part the foreign exchange
come from export earnmust be made on the part of
required to pay for these imports must ings.
Hence, an intensive
effort
underdeveloped countries to diversify and expand their ex-
all
ports. In this difficult task they should
of the industrialized countries. this help
More
opportunities, especially for a rapid expansion of industry
and small
be said later on
how
Many, even most, development
efforts
They do not know
can be given.
One so
not even
most heart-rending
underdeveloped world
in the
by
of the
much backbreaking
This
particularly
is
is
facts apparent to the visitor
how
pitifully little
is
produced
labour.
evident in agriculture.
In the United
farmer typically produces enough food for himand for 23 nonfood-producing citizens. As recently as 1940 he produced enough for 11. But in different parts of Africa, it takes from two to ten men, women and children to produce enough for themselves and only one nonfood-producing adult. States, a single
self
Clearly, at the heart of economic development in
increase in agricultural productivity. Better seed,
lies
most areas more land,
large
of the underdeveloped nations begin their in ignorance
about their own capacities.
the extent or nature of their resources.
do not have accurate surveys of the land. They
Lack of Productivity
—
Lack of Knowledge of Physical Resources
have the co-operation
will
—and of transportation and commerce.
know
may
Hence they
the size of their populations.
They
very well are apt
development projects based more on guesswork and hope than on sound blueprints for success. It is fair to say that hundreds of millions of precious development dollars and to launch
rupees and cruzeiros and francs
—have
—
gone down the drain
and project preparation. However, the losses caused by the failure of development schemes are tiny when compared with the losses the under-
just for lack of adequate investigation
developed countries are suffering through underutilization of their resources. Indonesia, for example, is blessed with a fertile volcanic soil and has
much underground
wealth. South America
has vast arable lands and great mineral potentials. Africa boasts
many
better methods, better markets, all lead to higher agricultural
huge reserves of subsoil treasure. And
As more food and other agricultural commodities are produced, some of these can and must be used for public bene-
what best describes the situation is that resources are not so much lacking as simply unknown. Typical is the case of Libya which, until a few years ago, would have been written off as a nation almost bereft of any of the gifts of nature but today is known to have substantial oil deposits. Underdeveloped coun-
output.
fit
as well as for that of the family unit.
consume people
of
all
who
it.
A
portion must be
The peasant cannot
diverted
to
the
feed
are working on the economic underpinnings of ex-
pansion and in the businesses which do not produce food. a portion of
it
may
be useful for export
—
to produce
And
needed
foreign exchange.
Increased agricultural productivity also makes possible the im-
provement of conditions of rural life, making it so attractive that the necessary numbers of young people will want to "stay on the farm" rather than migrate to crowded cities where opportunities for their useful employment do not yet exist. But as efficiency on the farm increases,
more and more people
will
available for other types of activity; occupations useful
and
their
country must be developed.
become to them
Some can be employed
in
most can be absorbed into their country's industry and commerce. The availability of this labour force, with public works, but
its
significant
potentialities
for
development, underscores the
need for the rapid expansion of economically productive work
tries,
in
other nations
generally speaking, are not poor in resources.
simply poor
in
knowledge of
They
are
their resources.
There are literally dozens of rivers flowing through the lowincome countries whose waters have never been used for irrigation or the generation of power. There are hundreds of millions of acres of land which could be tion of fertilizer.
And
made productive by
acres in semiarid countries which can be
ways are found
the applica-
there are other hundreds of millions of
made productive if now flow into the
to conserve the waters that
sea unused. In the not too distant future low-cost desalinization
of sea water promises an opportunity to
make many
diverts
blossom.
Without doubt the uneven allocation of the gifts of nature make development more difficult in some areas than in others.
will It
will certainly influence
the direction which development will
u
—
British Guianan hunters, wearing sunshades of leaves, watching Kaieteur falls. Exploitation of water and other physical resources is a key step in development
take, encouraging animal
husbandry here and rice culture there, power in one area and oil in another. The pace and pattern of change must inevitably reflect the variety of natural habitats in which it takes place. Viewing the problem as a whole, however, there is every reason to believe
making
that adequate resources to support a prosperous
found or developed
in
of resources have
requirement for effective growth. start not with capital
ment which makes
economy can be
every underdeveloped country.
Hence preinvestment surveys
A
become
a
first
developing country must
In the development of a country, physical and sources must be used with as possible. It
when both
substantial capital building possible and effec-
demands
grams to implement it. Someone must decide on the priorities. Should the dam come before the school and after the training should the order be otherwise?
institute, or
Obviously
many underdeveloped
countries will need help in
planning and programing, and the United Nations
work
already. It
is
is
doing a great
equally obvious that the national
ministered.
resources that they gave to physical resources, the econ-
omies of many countries would be much further advanced than they are today. This problem is of such significance that it will be examined in detail later.
Psychological Attitudes That In
many
Lack of Organized Programing and Planning for Development is
haphazard,
any, programing and planning for economic development.
As
a
consequence, the slender resources of the countries themselves
have too often been devoted to glamour projects such as ornate government buildings or wide boulevards in the capital rather
countries as a
first
Hamper Development
step in the development process
certain psychological problems arising out of traditional social
attitudes
must be faced. There are deeply rooted reasons
these attitudes.
They
will
not be changed easily.
a significant obstacle to development.
To
—
begin with, the vast majority
They
for
represent
What are they? many as 70% or 80%
as
and Latin America are peasants. A successful farmer in industrialized countries is a businessman of the land. He is progressive and forward-looking. On the other hand the peasant of the peoples of Africa, Asia
"Peasant"
In most of the underdeveloped countries there
re-
planning authorities of the various countries must be ably ad-
Every low-income country is extremely short of trained government administrators, technicians and professional men, teachers, business leaders and skilled workers, people who can make effective use of physical resources. If the aid programs that got under way ten years ago had given the same attention to
16
are in such short supply. Avoidance of waste
deal of that
Lack of Trained People
if
is
human
motion and waste as virtually criminal to throw money and energy away lost
little
the establishment of an organized plan and the creation of pro-
investment alone but with the preinvest-
tive.
human
than to schoolhouses and farm-to-market roads.
coal a source of
is
is
not another word for farmer.
extremely conservative.
He
is
fearful of change. This does
immutably tied to the past. He is not just mulish, obstinate or stupid. Rather he is operating in a world in which there is no margin for error, no room for maneuvering. As opposed to modern agricultural science which he doesn't unnot
mean
that he
is
BREAD UPON THE WATERS knows the practices of the past that have worked and for him. Yet he will change his ways once it has been demonstrated that by so doing his agricultural output can be increased. Thousands of agricultural experts' who have worked with the peasants will testify to this. The urban worker in the underdeveloped countries, like the peasant, is not easily transformed into a member of a modern economic system. He is generally unskilled and must be trained derstand, he
for his ancestors
Nor
for even the simplest of tasks.
is
kind of discipline that must be enforced
he accustomed to the a factory
if
ate efficiently. Nevertheless, significant progress
the development of efficient workers in
in
is
many
is
to oper-
being
made
of the less
The
attitude of
some of the wealthy people
Some
development.
are material incentives enough by themselves. is
also vital for successful
The
sense
development must
be motivated by increasing opportunities, particularly for young people. In the underdeveloped world a feeling of inability to
improvement
participate in
is
pervasive. Optimism, as opposed
The
to wishful thinking, is too rare.
development
is
real value of the effort for
underrated. Yet there are
many examples
of suc-
cessful leadership transforming wishful thinking into optimistic effort.
Gandhi, personally, spun the thread and lived with the un-
touchables to prove that participation
Many
is
important.
other psychological factors must be taken into account.
In some countries rigid taboos have to be considered. In parts of Africa fetish priests retain a powerful hold on the economic,
developed countries.
to
Nor
of dedication which
is
a serious block
use their wealth constructively, for the
But too many of them the distressing conditions in which the masses of
political
and
social lives of the people
and sometimes do their
wily best to frustrate necessary advances. But like
hamper development
all
the other
benefit of the people of their country.
factors which
are callous to
change, change which can be brought about by dedicated leader-
the people live. Instead of investing their wealth within their nation, they invest
They evade
it
abroad or store
it
away
taxes and flaunt their luxury in the faces of their
an essen-
is
ingredient of economic development. Such reforms
cognizance of the fact that incentive for private risk
The
willing to put their backs into the job.
Rapidly Expanding Populations
Now we
must take
difficult
needed.
growth.
is
between the needs of the government and is difficult to achieve. Both
delicate balance
by peoples
The
—
—
must turn to the last and in some respects the most endemic obstacles the problem of population
of these
:
political scientists
and economists of the world are en-
how many people the resources of known ways of producing
the ambitions of individual citizens
gaged
elements must be weighed
the earth can support. Considering
The
in tax
reform.
attitude toward physical labour held
of the low-income countries
is
by people
in certain
also a serious handicap to develop-
ment. In these countries the tradition persists that hunting,
fish-
and politicking are the only respectable occupations for men. Work in the home, around the home, in the fields, stores and markets is for women, and women only. This attitude is slowly changing. But until men get to work, until physical labour is accorded the dignity it should have, progress toward
ing, fighting
better living conditions will be slow.
The question
of status also has a strong influence in the devel-
opmental process. In
many
countries the only groups that enjoy
government employees, the lawyers, the doctors and the priests. Men engaged in production and trade are looked upon as third-class citizens. Only when proper recognition is given to the significant contribution which entrepreneurs, industrialists, businessmen and efficient workers must make toward prestige are the
building a country will talent be attracted into these pursuits.
Of equal importance
is
the status of
relationship between the status of
nomic development
women
regard
in
women. There
women and
is
a close
the state of eco-
any given country. So long
as countries
as chattels their development will be slow and
painful.
When
it
comes
to savings, the idea of
today for a better tomorrow
many
sion of
difficult for
tighten
it
is
postponing consumption
presently beyond the comprehen-
people in low-income countries. Admittedly,
someone whose
belt
is
it is
already at the last notch to
further. Yet, as every farmer knows, out of even a
small harvest sufficient grain must be saved for a
new and
larger
planting.
There is also the question of material incentives. People will work hard if work helps them get what they want. As has already been noted, their demands are not excessive. But in too many countries the shops are nearly bare; the materials for building a better
home
children
;
are nonexistent; there are no teachers to teach the
the badly needed household items
and other goods are
not available. Examples abound in the underdeveloped world of
people intensifying their effort to earn
money
for attractive, rea-
sonably priced consumer goods, to exploit newly sources of water, to build their assists
them
own
in obtaining teachers.
schools
are subject to
in foreign banks.
underfed neighbours. In such situations tax reform tial
ship and
these too
when
discovered
the government
in a great
debate about
food, arguments range
from the promise that 10,000,000,000
people can be sufficiently nourished on our planet to the gloomy
statement that there are already more people than can ever be fed adequately. That debate will go on for a long time.
do know
is
What we
that today about one-half of the world's people are
inadequately fed and the earth's population
is
growing at a rapid
rate.
Of course the question about population growth that concerns The burden of physical labour borne by women of underdeveloped countries is typified by this peasant
woman
of
Ecuador
WORLD WITHOUT WANT:
Shoppers and merchants continued hard work us
is
the effect
help meet
it
human
an Indian
in
village. Accessible
markets, well stocked with needed and desirable goods, can provide an incentive for
is
obvious: population growth
tends to cancel out economic growth. If the world's population increases
creases
10%
by
10%,
during a period
when
the net effect per person
case in point
is
is
Aswan high dam
the
most ambitious engineering undertakings nation.
The predicted
raise agricultural
of
new
—
Egypt one of the any underdeveloped will is
It will
be to
make
expected to
take ten years
the Egyptian population will
At that point, have increased enough to absorb
almost
dam
to build the
all
agriculture.
install the irrigation canals.
the additions the
Thus the net
make
to
the country's
total effect of the agricultural aspect of
the project will be that while decline in living standards,
provement
will
it
it
will
will
have prevented a disastrous
have added
little visible
im-
(The second phase
to the lot of the average Egyptian.
in certain industrially
about the same as is
The
alive longer.
almost doubled creasing
New York
city.
is
does this pattern of population growth continue despite that family planning
is
many
reasons.
not feasible or acceptable in some
mean
countries. In others,
where
tion, children are the
only form of "social security." Boys are a
childless old age can
starva-
standard of value in a world which has no other material wealth. Girls are not only sources of domestic labour for families without appliances, they can often bring comparatively rich dowries.
—however
Children are also often symbols of prestige they
18
may
be provided
for.
population in the
poorly
India
last 27 years.
many
is in-
people as live in
Between 1960 and 1970 the
total population
more than
This "population explosion" makes rapid progress in development doubly urgent as the numbers of people and their needs for food, shelter and employment increase. Pressures for improvement already great will only grow greater if their satisfaction is postponed. The countries faced with these problems must find ways of ensuring that their economic growth rate is higher than
—
—
growth rate
Full-Scale Attack
deterrent effect on development? There are
One
for population growth. Concerted
result? Indonesia, to take one example, has
its
what extent can-
not be accurately estimated.)
Why
is
declining death rate
300,000,000.
their population
its
The
of the underdeveloped world will have increased by
their people.
to
advanced nations, the birth rate today
has always been.
it
population annually by as
its
present production of electric power in Egypt. This, of course,
economy, although
not the only and perhaps not the most im-
more generally responsible
of the project, to be completed 10 years later, will triple the
will greatly stimulate the
is
portant factor in population growth. It can be argued that, except
attacks on diseases such as malaria and yaws have kept people
in
phase
45%.
countries
still.
cropland. This
production about
dam and
Many
zero.
in
effects of its first
available 2,000,000 ac.
output of goods in-
its
are going to have to run hard just to stand
A
But the birth rate
has on economic development, that lever to
needs. This effect
Despite
all
if
they wish to improve the lot of
Can Succeed
the problems and difficulties involved in the de-
velopment process,
it
is
a solid fact that
underdevelopment
the result of the underutilization of physical and in the countries involved. will
break the vicious
A more
circle of
the vicious circle the attack obstacles that stand in the
human
is
resources
effective use of these resources
underdevelopment. But to break
must be mounted against
way
all
the
of development.
This attack must be mounted on
all levels. It will
require skill
of the highest order in every one of the social sciences and in
most
of the physical
and biological sciences
as well.
From
agron-
BREAD UPON THE WATERS omy and
business
administration,
through the alphabet past
geology, gynecology, meteorology and psychology to zoology, the
whole range of human knowledge and human skill will have to be brought to bear on the problem. Ultimately, the societies of the underdeveloped countries must be transformed. This transformation the peoples of these countries must bring about for themselves.
No
imposed foreign pattern would be acceptable. Nor would it work, for one of the most pervasive feelings of the underdeveloped world is a hatred of uninvited outside interference and everything that can be construed as
The required changes must be motivated by, rise from, be accepted by and be shouldered as the burden of the "colonialism."
people
who
are
making the demand
for
WHAT HAS BEEN DONE? of helping whole nations improve their lot through economic development, the idea of helping whole peoples help themselves to economic independence and self-sustained economic progress of doing these things in enlightened self-interest
—
is
a
new
one. It proceeds directly
from changed attitudes
ward poverty and exploitation at home economically advanced countries.
in
the technically
—
There were a number of other U.S. government programs in field. Government foreign assistance, excluding military aid and investment in international financial institutions, amounted the
to
approximately $50,000,000,000 between 1945 and 1960. The
portion of this assistance total which has gone to the underdevel-
oped areas has not been large although it has been increasing in recent years. There were also U.S. private agencies in the picture,
CARE, the American Red Cross, the Asia, Carnegie. Ford and Rockefeller foundations, dozens of religious organizations and many other groups that made outright gifts, promoted and supported development work or purchased bonds of governments such as
improvement.
The concept
—
Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance act of 1954 (public law 480). While essentially a method of disposing of agricultural surpluses in 5, by authorizing the government to make supplies available to less developed nations on generous terms, this act has made significant contributions to development by combating hunger and controlling inflation in certain low-income countries and through the use of payments for the products as loans or gifts toward development projects in those countries.
to-
and
of low-income countries.
The U.S. was only one of several countries advanced world which, besides contributing
in the industrially
to
UN
programs,
involved themselves in bilateral and regional aid plans. In the
example, Great Britain took the lead in organizing in 1950-51 the Colombo plan for co-ordinated
latter field, for
and launching
economic development assistance
in south and southeast European Economic ComEuropean Development Fund for develop-
Until fairly recently, for example, people in the United States were exploiting rivers and forests and "mining" land instead of
Asia.
developing these resources. Accepted as gospel was the old saying that "the poor are always with us." A relatively high percentage
ment
of people were expected to live in poverty; that
they have special links. It began approving grants in 1958 and
was the way
it
bilateral
The
member
six
munity organized
a
states of the
assistance in overseas countries and territories with which
had always been.
1959. Great Britain and France greatly increased their direct as-
But these attitudes have changed markedly. Heedless exploitation of resources in the United States is now generally regarded as short-sighted and self-defeating. Widespread poverty at least
sistance to their dependent overseas territories and former col-
—
hopeless and "inevitable" poverty of the type that prevailed during the depression a quarter of a century ago
garded as inevitable.
It
—
is
no longer
re-
has virtually been wiped out.
its Colonial Development and and France through its Economic and Social Investment Fund. During the 1950s the German Federal Republic,
onies, the
Welfare
former notably through
acts,
Japan, the Soviet Union and other countries established or enlarged bilateral programs of technical and financial assistance to
These new attitudes on the part of the United States and other industrialized countries found an early expression in the estab-
underdeveloped countries.
lishment of the International Bank for Reconstruction and De-
Nations and
velopment (the World bank)
A major element in relating and extending work of the United Nations agencies was the establishment in 1950 of the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance. Funds for this program are volunteered by governments at annual United Nations pledging conferences. They are
They received vicariously a powerful stimulus in the spirit and method of the Marshall plan. They were given further impetus by the launching of the in 1944.
United Nations technical assistance program and the United States Point Four program in 1949. Thereafter programs of aid for the underdeveloped
The 1950s saw
countries multiplied rapidly.
this idea take
hold most encouragingly. Assist-
ance to the underdeveloped countries increased substantially, and today virtually all the industrially advanced nations not only
through the United Nations but have their own country-to-country development assistance programs. Many are contribute
In this same period, the 1950s, the activities of the United
the operational
spent for services of experts, fellowship awards and a limited
amount
of equipment for demonstration purposes. Projects are
serviced by the United Nations or the related agency with particular competence in the fields of assistance, which include labour and manpower, food and agriculture, education and science, civil
aviation, health,
energy. During
participating in various regional programs.
In the United States both major political parties have sup-
specialized agencies in the developmental field
its
increased manyfold.
telecommunications, meteorology and atomic
its
first
ten years, the program sent out about
9,000 experts and awarded 16,000 fellowships to train nationals
When in office, Republican Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower was an active supporter of foreign aid. Democratic Pres. John F. Kennedy has expanded U.S. support for foreign
of approximately 140 countries and territories.
assistance programs and especially development aid.
These pro-
operations in 1959. Using income derived from voluntary con-
grams have taken several forms and have been called by different names when differing goals were denned by particular acts of congress or when new agencies were formed. Some major types and goals of post-World War II U.S. bilateral foreign aid were:
tributions of governments, the Special Fund, with the collabora-
ported such programs.
Marshall plan (Economic Cooperation administration). A program for recovery from the effects of war, primarily in Europe. It was not directly aimed at economic development but at economic redevelopment an entirely
—
different process.
Mutual Security and related programs. These provide defense support funds, a part of which contribute to economic development, the Development Loan Fund and funds for technical co-operation and other program mid-1961, programs formerly directed by the International Cooperation administration, and including the Development Loan Fund, were placed under the direction of a new co-ordinating body, the Agency for International
Development.
Another major development
in
United Nations assistance dur-
UN
ing the 1950s was the creation of the
Special Fund. It began
United Nations and its related agencies, assists in earning out large-scale surveys of natural resources, in establishing urgently needed training institutions and in developing tion of the
applied-research
facilities. Its
primary goal
tion for national, intergovernmental
is
to lay the founda-
and private investment
for
development.
On
the side of investment itself, the lending capacity of the
Bank
International
World bank
i
was
to lending for
ini
for
Reconstruction and Development (the
••
development
it
moved from
|
governmental subscriptions of
capital,
reconstruction loans
itirces come from bonds issued on the capital
19
WORLD WITHOUT WANT: market and sales of loans and participations to other investors. By the end of the decade it had made more than 250 loans to 52 countries and territories involving total commitments of more than $5,000,000,000. Between 1956 and 1959 the bank provided underdeveloped countries $930,000,000 net. At the end of 1959 there was an undisbursed balance of loans committed to these
Agencies Related to the United Nations Which Provide Investment Capital or Other Financial Assistance Agency
or
progrom
Bank for Reand Development (World bank)
International construction
International (IMF)
Monetary Fund
Authorized capital
000 Members' quotas $15,000,000,000
Its
concerned with eco-
in the list are, first, the agencies
International Finance corporation (IFC)
Capital
International Development association (IDA)
Authorized capita-
capital
lization
$1,000,000,000
UN regional economic comwhose budgets are included in the amounts shown for economic, social and technical assistance.
preinvestment assistance; third, the
Preinvestment Assistance Agency or program
Funds available
Special Fund
when measured
in
grants to governments for large-scale surveys of natural resources, for vocational and technical training and for applied research
were not im-
terms of improved living standards.
Although precise figures are not available, indications are that the average 1950 per capita income in the 100 underdeveloped coun-
and territories associated with the UN was about $90. In 1959 it had grow'n to a .bit over $100. Gross income grew at the
tries
3%
rate of
institutes
Expanded Programme
of
($42,000,000,
Technical Assistance
eluded
in global resources of UN and other agen-
(EPTA)
cies
United
Nations Fund (UNICEF)
In-
Children's
below)
raise of
about $1 a year during the decade
—
a dangerously slow
UN
cides,
and Social
of Economic
$37,100,000
resources, public administration, so-
welfare, fiscal and financial services. Funds cover economic and social research and work on behalf
can this record be improved during the 1960s?
One way
No
is
to avoid the mistakes that
were made during the
apologies are necessary for those mistakes;
decade of experimentation from which
unsound concepts that led
much
we now know
it
was
can be learned.
to the mistakes of the 1950s
replaced with concepts that
of
The most
listed below. Also included is $850,000 for UN Operational, Executive and Administrative Personnel (OPEX), to provide governments, on request, with
The
must be
are sound.
senior officers to direct services or
deportments until national personnel can be trained adequately to take over
serious and pervasive mistake
are investments in people
made
in
connection
International Atomic Energy agency (IAEA)
$ 6,937,000
Furnishes advisory services; surveys of future nuclear power needs; provision of equipment; fellowships in the field of peaceful uses of atomic
International Labour organ!zation (ILO)
$14,714,000
Provides advisers or instructors on labour problems and projects; training program included exchanges of
Food and Agriculture organizotion (FAO)
$21,472,000
Supplies technical and scientific skills, some equipment; advisory services
energy
They
are not. Development programs and prosperity and investments in
—
peace and freedom as well. If assistance
charity,
many
workers between countries
to the less developed countries
is
considered
nations will contribute nothing because the view
in
widely held that governments should not use tax
money
for
on
would lack continuity; it would be spasmodic. economic assistance were considered charity the effect
this basis if
agriculture,
and
nutrition;
forestry, fisheries training and fellow-
ships
philanthropic purposes. Further, support of the low-income coun-
Finally,
rights, narcotics control, as well as activities of regional
economic commissions
with development assistance programs has been to think of them as charity or "giveaways."
human
etc.,
a
Mistakes Must Not Be Repeated
tries
vaccines, insectifor children
cial
How
is
including
emergency food
Helps in critical areas of economic development; e.g., industry and natural
Affairs
improvement.
1950s.
tion
country,
the equivalent of saying that each person earned a
UN Department
fellow-
scientific
and equipment for demonstrafor projects handled by the and certain of its related
ships
Aids development of national services In child health, nutrition and maternal and child welfare; trains local personnel; provides equipment and materials needed from outside the
a year, but the addition of 200,000,000 people in
is
Provides experts and
agencies
$30,000,000
the underdeveloped world produced a net growth of only about
1%. That
Development
Mokes
$48,000,000
What About Results? results of the increased aid in the 1950s
Activities for
1961
in
UN
The
and management
Provides long-period loans to governments for development purposes, repayable on easier conditions than conventional loans
Agencies of the United Nations Which Provide Technical and Other
missions,
pressive
a pool of currencies available for short-term borrowing; promotes
Invests in private enterprise, mostly Industrial, in association with private
$94,000,000
nomic development through capital loans and investments; second, the organizations and programs providing technical and
UN
member governments through
Assists
disbursements up to the end of the decade had
been rather modest, amounting to $14,200,000. It undertakes investment in private enterprises, mostly in the industrial sphere.
Shown
govdevelop-
with
for
monetary stability; works against trade discrimination through monetary policy
Nations agency was created: the International Finance corpora-
(IFC).
or
ment projects
countries of $855,000,000. Meanwhile, in 1956-57 another United
tion
Loans to governments ernment guarantee
$20,000,000,-
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and
ganization
$21,695,000
Supplies skills and advisory services in educational and scientific fields, fellowships and teaching personnel
$25,875,000
Makes
Cultural or-
(UNESCO)
on the countries accepting such charity would be devastating; it would sap the self-reliance of both the leaders and their people. Paternalism should have no place in relationships among sover-
World Health organization
eign nations.
International
Civil Aviation organization (ICAO)
$ 6,380,000
Supplies technicians, experts and advisory services in the field of civil
International Telecommunication union (ITU)
$ 3,720,000
Provides advisers and technical skills on projects in the communications
World
$
1,271,000
Provides advisers and scientific skills on projects in meteorological field; training through fellowships
(WHO)
Closely allied to the "charity" mistake has been the continu-
ance of the "donor country-recipient country" point of view.
These terms are perfectly acceptable when used to describe an international relief program. But they outlived their usefulness when attention shifted from relief to recovery and then to development. As this change occurred, the relationship between the nations involved should have changed into a partnership in an international joint venture to reduce human misery and expand the world economy. To be sure, the industrially advanced
nations are contributing
some
of the capital to the venture, but
the contributions of energy, dedication
20
difficult
social transformation
by the underdeveloped countries represent much sacrifices and are equally vital to its success. An
as well as capital
more
and
available
advisory
services,
and some equipment on medand public-health programs including anti malaria campaign; fellowships and training skills
ical
aviation; training of personne
field
Meteorological
ganizotion
Arms of
or-
(WMO)
the United Nations Integrated
With Technical Assistance
Agency or program Regional economic commissions for Europe (ECE); headquarters. Switz. Geneva, America (ECLA); headquar-
Latin
Santiago, Chile and the Far East (ECAFE); headquarters, Bangkok, Thailand Africa (ECA); headquarters, Addis Ababa, Eth. ters,
Asia
Activities
Activities
maintain secretariats and assist governments on economic development plans and programs, with advisory services; preparation of statistical data and reports on the regional economy, or that of individual countries; and with conferences and
All
seminars
BREAD UPON THE WATERS expanding world economy
perhaps more critically needed by
is
an industrially advanced nation than by an underdeveloped one.
We
are as dependent for our future well-being on the under-
developed countries
—
as they are
upon
—for market, materials and an orderly world
us.
What happens
in the
have a tremendous influence on
will
nations are donors and
all
us.
underdeveloped world
In this titanic
effort, all
nations are recipients.
Another serious mistake has been the
failure of the industrial-
proach has been frightfully wasteful and
The in too
many
cases failed to recognize that no matter
sacrifice; theirs is the greater
low-income countries as an objective worthy of achievement for its own sake. Instead, foreign aid has been considered a tactical
countries
—
in the cold war a system of buying allies, winning and influencing peoples. As a result, many programs have been hastily conceived and badly executed. Much of the money has gone into projects that have little effect on economic development. Some countries have received too much of the wrong kind of aid at the wrong time; others have received too little aid of any kind. The principals in the cold war have found themselves
friends
blackmailed into offering aid
in the position of being virtually
by being played off against one another. The net the waste of hundreds of millions of dollars.
The
result has
been
is
is
needed
is
speeding the development
a recognition that
of the less developed countries will help achieve the objectives
which both the east and the west profess to be their aims: the creation of economically self-sustaining nations independent
of domination by the United States, the Soviet Union or any
other external power.
Using the
UN
Greatly expanded use should be
United Nations and
made
of the services of the
specialized agencies operating in the
its
development field. The needs of the developing nations for preinvestment assistance are so immense that the field should, of course, be open for any country or organization or group to help political, economic in any way it chooses. But the advantages
and technical
—which
—
repose in the United Nations and
lated agencies should be
more widely
its re-
recognized.
Representatives of countries receiving assistance repeatedly declare their general preference for help given through the United
Nations because aid from
this source is
Further, United Nations assistance
endeavour, with a voice given to size or
On
wealth and with
all
is
all
not politically motivated.
a completely co-operative
countries regardless of their
countries contributing to the costs.
the other hand, the United Nations can be firm with the un-
derdeveloped countries without being accused of seeking any
commercial advantage. Better results can be obtained through United Nations machinery at substantial savings in political or
money. In the United Nations and
its
specialized agencies reposes
the richest experience in virtually every field of development
found anywhere. The United Nations draws on the whole world for its technicians.
activity that can be
A Long-Term A
Task
further mistake has been to regard assistance to the less de-
veloped nations as something temporary in nature, as an unpleasant task for which annual appropriations must reluctantly be
made. The fact
is
that development
programs must be thought
of not in terms of years but of decades.
hope of
gain.
The people
of these
clearly understand that only they can bring
about
the better life they seek. It is
apparent that in future administration of economic de-
velopment programs there must be clear recognition that such programs are not charity; that all participating nations are both donors and recipients; that economic development is a goal
worthy of being pursued for its own sake; that it can frequently be assisted more efficiently and less expensively through the United Nations; that it will take a long time; that it can only succeed with those
who
help themselves. Once these underlying
ideas are understood attention can be turned to the mechanics
that a
rule.
What
must
of economic development.
program for development of the underdeveloped areas would be necessary whether or not there was a cold war. Hunger is just as disturbing in an amicable world as it is in a world of political turmoil. The demands of the ill-fed, ill-housed and illiterate peoples of the world would be as great, and our obligations and self-interest to assist in meeting those demands as real, if political tranquillity were the international fact
how much
and investment their countries receive from the outside, they and their people must bear the overwhelming share of responsibility for their own economic and social progress. External aid has only a limited, though vital, role. Theirs is the greater task; theirs is the greater technical assistance, preinvestment help
ized nations to accept the task of speeding development of the
weapon
inefficient.
leaders of the low-income countries, for their part, have
The year-by-year
ap-
THE MECHANICS OF DEVELOPMENT When
the U.S. programs for assisting the low-income countries
first
got under way,
Boy
of
village
many
people in the U.S. assumed that they
Ecuador watching happily as
pump
into his family's jar
clear
water flows from a new
Young mother and
UNDERDEVELOPED AREAS OF THE
WORLD Shown by the shaded areas of the map: China and other known low-income countries are included together with those nations
UN
which are participating
in
and other international eco-
nomic development programs Bordering the of
peoples
map
is
a gallery
from some of the
underdeveloped countries
child of
Mexico
Chulupi Indian from Paraguay
_!
— WORLD WITHOUT WANT: might produce the same dramatic results as the Marshall plan. Forgotten was the vast difference between a recovery and a de-
velopment program.
It is not
easy for a shattered economy to
get on the road to recovery, but at least the skills, the experi-
"take-off" toward maturity. It must, of course, not be forgotten that the wide variations in the levels of development in dif-
ferent regions of a country
and other factors preclude any
rigid
classification of the country.
ence, the managers, workers, distributors, the trained farmers
are
The foundation
available.
all
for recovery exists; capital
is
A
development program requires an entirely different approach. In practically all cases, a new social and economic struc-
must be
ture
built.
The
strains
and transformations of the
Industrial Revolution are important elements of a development
program and
their effects are magnified because they are
com-
pressed into a few years.
work out
a
development program?
He
approach because
in
country
must, of course, take
into account the fact that each developing nation different
requires a
each the problems are different.
Furthermore, within any particular country different sectors of the
economy and
different regions of the country are at different
stages of development.
traditional society has the furthest to go.
Such a nation,
technologically very backward and broadly primitive in ganization, retains or has just escaped
its or-
from a considerable degree
of tribal or feudal rule. Basic information
is lacking, there is a grave shortage of nationals trained for administration and other
and institutions within the government are human and physical
in-
Under these circumstances, outside preinvestment
as-
vital activities
adequate to stimulate effective use of
How does an expert go about the business of assisting a to
The Traditional Society The
the major requirement.
As a
first
step he
must get the answers
sources.
re-
sistance should consist primarily of seven contributions:
To supply
1.
international
civil
servants
for
temporary
strengthening of government.
To
2.
establish local institutes to train nationals in public ad-
ministration and for technical and economic departments.
To
3.
strengthen the educational system with prospects for
some
basic general questions:
broad general education, but with
What
data are available for policy formulation and project
rapid teacher, technical, administrative and business training.
to
What knowledge is there of resources, both physical and human? What is accurately known about production, marselection?
kets, transport costs?
What
information
is
available on the size,
composition, skills and employment of the population? Is such information published and readily available for planners and organizers?
What
To
4.
To
and general publishing.
arrange for a broad assessment of physical resources
land, water, mineral
To supply
6.
and power
potentials.
experts in agriculture to advise on crop rotation,
seed selection, rural co-operatives,
has been the recent economic experience: depression?
funds set aside for
strengthen the system of communications, in broadcast-
ing, the press 5.
sufficient
community development,
rural
extension services, the beginnings of diversification and on start-
new land-tenure systems where needed. To supply experts in the industrial field
famine? inflation? deflation? juggling of the currency? increasing
ing
economic tempo? What are the areas of progress and stagnation? What educational and communication facilities are available? Are there adequate schools and teachers? Are there means of
to advise on the development of small-scale industries based on local arts and crafts and to lay the foundations for market expansion. 8. To encourage increased exports of cash crops, minerals and other local products that will earn foreign exchange, and the laying of foundations for an effective taxation system.
adult education and of communicating directly to the populace
through radio or television, through a free press, through books?
enough of the population literate for an effective system of communications to be set up? What, if any, are the specific development goals of the counIs
try?
How
sued?
rational are they?
What
enterprise?
What
is
seriously are they being pur-
are the relative roles of government and private
How
efficiently are resources
the institutional
social, legal
How
and
mobilized?
—
framework of the country economic, government stable? respected?
political? Is the
honest? efficient?
Is
the population willing to
make voluntary sacrifices? Next come questions even more
work hard and
7.
These basic steps are among those that should be taken concurrently; development
The coun-
economic-policy decision making procedures, its technical departments, its fiscal policies and affairs and its foreign-aid
—has
at this relatively early stage
Togo, on the west African coast, is a newly independent nation and a new member of the United Nations. At the time of its independence in 1960 it could have been used as a typical example of a nation with primitive economic conditions. While
many
of
the people along the coast had had contacts with people and ideas
specific in nature.
—even
interdependent arms.
from foreign
most of economy and
lands,
outside of a market
the country to the north
retained
much
in the
was
way
of
been gathered is it reasonable to ask: How can immediate improvements be made? How can the kinds of decisions which these improvements require best be assured? How can
and traditional social institutions which resisted centralized policy direction. There was, for instance, no system of modern taxation worthy of the name. The principal export crops were coffee and cocoa. The annual per capita income of its nearly 1,500,000 people was well below $100. There was inadequate food production, inadequate education, inadequate knowledge of resources, inadequate government service, inadequate trade. In
realistic longer
fact, the perfect
try's
history
must
all
be studied in exhaustive
basic questions have been answered and
all
detail.
Only when the
the detailed informa-
tion has
When
range objectives be achieved?
questions such as these have been carefully studied, then
recommendations for appropriate and properly balanced development programs can be made. Often though not always these recommendations can be grouped in terms of the stage of economic development of the country. It was Walt W. Rostow who performed the valuable service of drawing attention to the par-
—
ticular characteristics
—
and needs of countries falling into different (The Stages of Economic
categories of economic development
Growth, Cambridge University Press, London, 1960). Use of that general idea can help to clarify the requisites of countries
with traditional societies, those in the phase of establishing the preconditions for modern economies and those in the position of
24
tribal
word
to describe almost every aspect of
economic structure was, and
to
some extent
still is,
Togo's
"inadequate."
Sylvanus Olympio, the president of Togo, has started the ball toward economic and social development at perhaps the
rolling
fastest rate feasible
way
under the circumstances. Togo
still
has a
But today there is greater acceptance of the need to modernize institutions, and skilful leadership has begun to weld the people into a national unit bent on working for a better life for tomorrow. Of course, the country has been and is receiving aid from outside sources, particularly from France, the former administrative power in Togo under the United Navery long
to go.
tions trusteeship system.
Another source of aid
is
the United Nations family of or-
-
V
-
W3 had been previously surveyed without
\
sufficiently
result.
He
also reported
important traces of minerals to recommend further
The UN Special Fund is assisting, through the Food and Agriculture organization, in a comprehensive study of
investigation.
land and water use to raise farm output. Meanwhile, problems
power and and additional
of electricity supply are being studied; the rates for
energy
Togo
in
are
among
the highest in the world
and cheaper supplies must be found to meet development needs. Other projects range from research on coconut-tree diseases to helping in establishing the country's
first
regularly published
newspaper. Further advisers are assisting the minister of health, while
still
affairs
others are assisting the minister of finance, economic
and planning
in establishing
development programs. Train-
ing Togolese counterpart personnel and junior staff constitutes an
Cr
-
important part of the assignment of each expert. In addition to training local personnel on the spot, experts will help the gov-
ernment abroad.
in the selection of suitable candidates for fellowships
UN
assistance
is
co-ordinated through the
office of its
resident representative which opened in Aug. 1960. Particular at-
tention
is
given to helping formulate projects requiring outside
financing, leaving the selection of financial sources to the gov-
ernment. Typical isolated rural village of eastern Togo, a nation in the first stages of development, still dependent in many ways upon traditional tribal organization and institutions ganizations.
Even before Togo's independence the
UN
brought in to help produce an urgently needed preliminary ventory of the country's problems and needs. Subsequent projects completed or under
way
was in-
UN
indicate the kinds of activities
which are needed at early stages of development. They aim at helping to adapt local institutions to new needs, making avail-
by UN experts in other underdeveloped countries confronted with similar problems and assisting the government to fit development projects within the frameable the experience gained
work of other external assistance. Thus the UN made available to Togo a
director of the treas-
ury, as well as a director of the National School of Administration
and an expert
to assist the
government
in
improving the efficiency
government services and in adapting them to present requirements. Another UN expert helped to start work on the setting up of a central statistical bureau. Other experts have been provided in such fields as rural housing, road building and maintenance and the transformation of the agricultural loan bank into a bank catering to various development needs. One underground resources expert found good prospects of water in an area which of
More
In addition to aid from France and the United Nations, the
Federal Republic of Germany, the United States and other countries have bilateral agreements with Togo covering harbour development, the establishment of a secondary school, the electrification of
wharf cranes and similar projects.
The Preconditions Stage The groundwork sidered solidly laid
for a country's development
when
it
may
be con-
has succeeded in building institutions
capable of organizing further advance, has produced reasonable notions of general development needs and possibilities, has begun
change people's attitudes in the direction of feeling that man's environment can be shaped by human action and human thought, has made marked advances in education, particularly teacher training, and has achieved modest improvements in agriculture. to
With such accomplishments
a country
may
be said to have en-
tered the preconditions stage of economic growth. this stage still requires
many
primitively organized society, but other changes well. 1.
They include: The international
civil
A
country at
more must be made as
of the steps needed in a
servants needed by the traditional
society should gradually be replaced with the developing country's nationals.
schools are an urgent requirement in first-stage countries such as Togo. In this picture fill in building a new school
college students are helping Togolese to crush rocks to be used as
US.
WORLD WITHOUT WANT. Measures to build an effective taxation system should be Government expenditures will increase markedly for development of the institutions, facilities, transportation and 2.
reinforced.
communication requirements of an expanding economy. 3. A strong bureau for programing and planning should be established. This bureau should be outside the daily political arena but responsible directly to the chief executive officer of the nation. It should correlate sectional
and regional development
programs with the goals and objectives of the national develop-
ment
effort
and be the central coordinating agency for
all
out-
A
committee of international experts advises the Economic fields of economic development programing. In connection with this work, a three-month course in development planning has been given to 80 Colombian econoPlanning board on various
mists.
The
A
UN
government was reorganized
experts.
course was given on supplies and warehouse management, a
demonstration project was organized and manuals in English and Spanish on purchasing, warehouse management, standard bid and contract conditions and similar subjects were prepared by the
side assistance.
Surveys for specific resources in promising areas should be
UN
undertaken, along with feasibility studies for industrial projects.
A
4.
entire executive branch of the
with the assistance of
Emphasis should be given in the training field to establishment of secondary, vocational and technical schools. Technicians and skilled workers will be needed in agriculture, transport, power and health services. Vocational training should include a study of business methods for the purpose of supplying skilled clerks and accountants for both public and private enterprise. 5.
bia,
expert.
study was undertaken of social security programs in Colomand recommendations were made. UN experts assisted in
formulating a
A
civil service
law for the country.
school of public administration was planned and began op-
eration early in 1961.
Assistance
to
vocational
training
programs
continued
in
Bogota, Medellin, Barranquilla and Cartagena.
projects involving heavy capital expenditure such as irrigation,
Advice was given on land reform and colonization programs, and help was provided in the writing of bills to be submitted to
drainage and creation of farm-to-market road systems.
the legislature for proper
6.
7.
In agriculture,
it
should be possible to give consideration to
In industry, there
will
be a necessity for continued strength-
ening of in-service training. Legislation can be used at this stage to
encourage private investment, from both domestic and foreign
An
UN
stereoscopic photointerpretation followed carried on.
8. Exports must be increased, for more and more capital equipment from outside sources will be needed. Colombia is at this stage of economic development or a bit
operated
—
it.
It
has been blessed with exceptionally able leadership
since 1958. It
is
a
country of more than 14,000,000 people, with
an annual per capita income of about $250. cultural, but diversified industrialization
is
It is still largely agri-
under way.
Colombia has an excellent planning board, of which the country's president acts as
class institute
now boasts a firstMost of the bilateral
chairman. The country
of public administration.
Colombia has been supplied by the United States. In the field of programing and planning the UN Economic Commission for Latin America has been helpful. aid to
of the experts furnished by the UN and its specialized and of the projects of the UN Special Fund, illustrates and the kinds of things needed at this stage in development also serves to point out the progress Colombia has made:
A listing
agencies,
—
Colombian students tional training
is
at a
An
by
field
sampling was
was planned, established and set up in Buenaventura. Both of these projects were advised by UN experts. A training program was established in the national statistics department, and a census of livestock and agriculture was begun. inland fisheries training centre in
Buga.
A
marine biology station was
Experts were supplied for strengthening teacher-training programs and training school inspectors and supervisors. School budget techniques were also worked out with UN expert help. An expert in the teaching of physics and mathematics was
made
A
available to the minister of education.
specialist in rural sociology taught that subject
and
anthropology at the National university and participated
social in
the
preparation of a textbook on the subject for the use of Colombian students.
Short courses in leprosy control were given to members of the Colombian public health services and a leprosy-control program was assisted by a UN World Health organization expert.
government-sponsored agricultural program listen to a lecture on the development
especially significant in the second stage of
distribution of public
over-all policy
sources.
past
management and
on land distribution was worked out with assistance. Training of technicians in soil surveys using
lands.
effects of climate
upon wheat growth. Voca-
BREAD UPON THE WATERS 4. In the industrial field, attention should be given to the establishment of applied research institutions, productivity centres
and industrial pilot demonstration projects. India is an example of a nation at this third stage of economic development, a fact which may surprise a great many people. It is hampered by primitive agricultural patterns: poor tools, postage-stamp-sized farms and rural inertia. Like any other de-
moved
faster in some sectors than in program is now quite advanced; on the other hand, while famine has been avoided, agriculture has lagged and the average caloric intake of its rising number of
veloping nation, India has
others. Its industrialization
people has hardly improved. The reason
is
that India's second
five-year plan did not give agriculture the emphasis
The
third five-year plan
required.
it
correcting this imbalance, notably
is
encouraging the production and use of
by
fertilizers,
by
efforts to
improve water conservation and use and by facilitating the planting of better seeds. The particular problems of a particular developing nation naturally must dictate the course of
now
ment. India's leaders
seek to
move
its
develop-
rapidly ahead in agricul-
ture as well as in industry.
India has
many
economic ad-
of the ingredients required for
vance. It has a stable government under strong and dedicated leadership. Its people are
Colombian farmers roofing a new house in a colonial resettlement area. Land reform and the opening of new agricultural regions have been significant factors in the Colombian development plan
WHO
experts advise the School of Public Health on training
of doctors, nurses and sanitary inspectors.
In addition, the
UN
Special
Fund
a survey of the soil of the northern part of the eastern lowlands
determine
in order to
and land-use
soils capability
possibilities
of the area; a project to assist in the training of vocational in-
by providing experts and equipment; a project to expand the facilities of the Institute for Technological Research
structors
Bogota
at
to enable
it
civil service is
and experienced leaders
committed
to give more effective assistance to the
Its resources
—
in coal, iron ore,
which
will
permit
growth without
it
the
Cauca
and a project to assist and area development in
sustaining
toward self-sustaining economic amounts of intergovernmental aid. In
new plan
requires $1,000,000,000 per year
—
investment
is
forthcoming and
if
the plan suc-
is
rapidly changing into an industrially advanced
be well on the way to joining the family of free industrial nations and
it
has not yet reached the stage of take-off to
will in turn
ceeds (as there
However, the time
growth.
Colombia will be ready At that stage: 1.
include the elements
from outside sources. India's own people who exist on an average of 18 cents in income per day are putting up the remaining $3,400,000,000 a year needed to If the outside
The Readiness for Take-off country, but
—
carry out the plan.
valley.
Colombia
manganese, titanium and mica,
to continue
significant
of investment and assistance
in land use
—
needed not only for basic industries but also for chemical, atomic energy and other of the more advanced technologies. India also has a plan and a program. The first two five-year plans were successful, by and large, and if the third plan, begun in 1961, succeeds, India will have achieved the breakthrough
the meantime, India's
of the Industrial University of Santander;
There are able commerce,
economy
industry, agriculture.
country's small- and medium-size industries; a project to enlarge
and research
efficient.
in all sectors of the
the training and research facilities of the engineering faculties
in training
to the idea of industrializa-
honest and quite
plus an energetic, hard-working populace
assisting in carrying out:
is
The
tion.
to enter that next
self-
approaching when
is
phase of development.
is
every indication that
will), India will
it
be capable of making more significant contributions
to the conquest of
poverty
in
other parts of the world.
end of the "eternal compulsory fast"
will
And
the
be in sight for the
Indian peasant.
Attention should be given to the creation or expansion of
When
a nation achieves a self-sustaining economy,
reached economic maturity. Virtually
of
it
has
foreign assistance
banks and savings institutions and capital markets, and policies should be developed for the encouragement of the higher levels
can be on a hard-payment basis. Specific bottlenecks and trouble
of domestic and foreign public and private investment that are
spots
Assuming that appropriate and adequate preinvest-
required.
ment
activities
have been carried on
in the
preceding stages, the
return on investment should rise vigorously during this stage.
The emphasis
fall on supplying highly government administrators, school superintendents, professional people, business managers the top-level people of an industrialized society. At the same 2.
skilled
in training
should
and highly sophisticated
time, the
economy should be producing enough
to support raising
may
require international assistance but only on a very
for
heavy investment. There may also be need for highly specialand technology calling for the services of outside
ized research
experts.
Even the United States recently received some of
3.
in
crop cultivation, animal husbandry and other
phases of modern agriculture.
land/man
nomically inefficient
By
this time, the
adjustment of
be well under way and the end of ecofarms should be in sight.
ratios should
A
kind of aid through the United Nations. their rice fields, thereby increasing the
from
this
Chinese expert advised
Louisiana rice farmers on techniques for producing
fish
crops in
economic benefits derived
their farms.
GOAL FOR THE
probably to universal secondary-school standards.
vanced training
its
small scale and with large potential results in direct opportunities
general education levels at least to universal primary-school and
Consideration should be given to the establishment of ad-
all
The
crucial
called the
decade of the 1960s
is
development decade by
other world statesmen
..
.,
Pros.
President
UN
1960s
now under way. John
F.
It
has boon
Kennedy and
Kennedy further
specify-
Sept 25, 1961, as the United Nations decade of development. And, happily.
ing
it,
in his
address to the
general assembly on
VL fwTt
2
Workers leaving
steel
with aid from the providing employment for many
mill recently constructed
Soviet Union. Industrialization
is
of India's jobless, landless people
INDIA— READY FOR ECONOMIC TAKE-OFF Despite almost primitive living conditions in some agricultural aided by a stable government and a practical program for development, is rapidly approaching attainment of
districts, India,
a self-sustaining economy.
Some
aspects of this development are
suggested piclorially on this and the opposite page
Fisherman casting net in a reservoir created by Tilaiya dam, part of the Damodar river project which will provide flood control, power, irrigation and improved navigation
New Delhi. Increased emphasis has been placed upon agricultural imPrize cattle at a fair in
provement
28
in India's third five-year plan
Women at a new well in Faridabad, a village in a rural development "block," a unit in a government-sponsored program of community improvement. This block consists of 102 villages in an area of 148 sq.mi.
Indian freighter unloading manganese ore in Mobile, Ala. Discovery and exploitation of natural resources have increased India's export trade Street scene in
Bombay,
India's second largest city.
and automobiles are obvious
New
signs of increasing prosperity
buildings
— WORLD WITHOUT WANT: it
good
to a fairly
is off
from
start despite timidities resulting
IDA, an
of the underdeveloped countries.
affiliate
World
of the
national
bank and the 14th UN specialized agency, came into being in Sept. 1960 to promote economic development with credits bear-
of east-west tensions; and,
ing less heavily than conventional loans on the balance of pay-
three factors: a concern over aid expenditures because of inter-
payments problems; heavy demands for defense because more basically, an inadequate appreciation that, "come hell or high water," economic development must be promoted on an adequate scale. The first two years of our present decade have seen bilateral, regional and UN programs of technical and capital assistance both expanded and improved. One of the most dramatic and
interest-free loans
hopeful developments
irrigation
in
is
the U.S. -proposed Alliance for Progress
Latin America. It launches for the
ment program areas
is
which
in
social
first
reform
time a major develop-
in
the underdeveloped
a condition for continued U.S. assistance.
The
does avoid
it
promises
—
enormous
if
many
of the mistakes of the 1950s and
the countries put
forward the
effort
wider range of projects than the bank. Thus
it
required
benefits to the entire western hemisphere.
The year 1961 also marked another "first" in U.S. aid with the new concepts in the bill for the fiscal year 1962.
—
But most of the 1960s
The out
first
task of each nation
own program
its
originally asked for $4,755,500,000.)
Though
Kennedy had
the point
was ob-
scured by the debate over techniques for borrowing to
make
development loans, the U.S. congress, while denying the advance treasury financing requested by the president, did for the first time formally recognize that the U.S.
will
be
assistance for a long time, and that long-term
in
the business of
commitments
for
ahead.
is
Though
own
to set its
for achievement.
Many
agree that
all
to be done.
goal and carry
of the low-income
countries have already begun to do so. While these goals may be expressed in various mixtures of increased educational facilities, road building, communications, land reform, agricultural diver-
ment,
(President
lie
still
economic growth must be accelerated, much remains
sification, industrialization
underdeveloped countries.
and
charge of only ^ of 1%.
That bill appropriated for foreign assistance $3,914,600,000, of which slightly more than $2,000,000,000 is for economic assistto
made
—repayable
inclusion of
ance
has already
it
for municipal water supply, highways
over a 50-year period with the starting date of repayment delayed for ten years and involving a service
U.S. has
pledged to contribute a major part of the required $2,000,000,000 per year. No one can tell what the program's ultimate effects will be, but
ments of its member countries. Its projects, like those of the World bank, are carefully selected and prepared, but it provides capital on much more liberal terms and is able to help finance a
is
it
and the other ingredients of develop-
simpler to think about the total desired improvement
terms of net increases in annual per capita income. In these terms, several countries have set their standards very high and in
are expecting to double their annual per capita income in the
decade.
But
with the
UN
taking
underdeveloped
the
as a whole,
we
—
all
countries
of us together
associated
—should
fix it as
our goal to double, in the 1960s, the annual per capita rate of economic growth in the 100 countries and territories containing 1,300,000,000 of the world's people. If
we achieve
this goal
it
development lending are necessary and good. The fact that congress authorized development loans up to $7,600,000,000 through 1966 is one welcome evidence of the maturing of U.S. thought
will
mean
less
developed countries from an average of
on the nature and urgency of the task of speeding economic and social advancement.
necessary, because of population growth, for the less developed
Western European countries in the first two years of the decade expanded substantially their bilateral and regional development programs, including assistance granted through the European Economic Community. The western European countries, together with the United States and Canada, also undertook the transformation of the Organization for European Economic Coopera-
over the ten years a total increase of about
tion (O.E.E.C.) into the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (O.E.C.D.), one of whose purposes is to expand and harmonize the development assistance activities of those countries.
A
further effort in this direction, one designed to in-
clude another donor country, Japan, was the establishment of the to
Development Assistance group, which was changed become the Development Assistance committee
in
of
increasing
1950s to an average of
per capita economic growth rate of the
2%
in the
1960s.
increase of nearly
a year in the this
it
40%
25%. This would bring per
be
will
4%
or
and b per capita
capita income
from
the estimated present figure of around $100 to around $125 in 1970, an increase in income over the 1960s of about
25%
per
person or an average of about $2.50 per person per year.
minimum
This
25% increase in per capita income modest and certainly attainable. However, to requires greater effort and greater understanding on
over the decade achieve
it
goal of a
is
the part of everyone. This in turn will lead to effective
more adequate and
preinvestment work, more liberal trade policies and
substantially increased investment.
PREINVESTMENT
the
Preinvestment, as the word implies,
Meanwhile, there were also important developments in United Nations programs, which were stepped up in all directions. The resources for
UN
technical
and preinvestment assistance
in 1961
represented a threefold increase over the 1958 level as Special
Fund operations
got under
way and
is that group of activities which prepares the way for investment. Included are technical
assistance, surveys of natural resources, the establishment of
product-, technique- and market-research institutes and the education and training of people in the low-income countries.
A common
other programs were ex-
public investment in the industrially advanced
We
tended to help meet, for instance, the increasing needs for United Nations assistance to newly independent countries in Africa and to nations about to become independent. Resources for the UN
world
program
involves study of terrain, calculation of
to supply
executive personnel
low-income countries with operational and (OPEX) were also increased and the pro-
gram was put on a permanent basis as needs of low-income countries for such assistance became more apparent. At the same time it became possible for the UN to recruit for its programs increasing numbers of experts from countries receiving assistance to serve in other countries requiring their knowledge and skill. In addition, multilateral financing institutions intensified their activities as the
decade began. The International Development
association was created to help
30
1%
To do
countries to sustain an annual rate of economic growth of
1961
O.E.C.D.
the"
meet
a particularly urgent
need
is
a highway system.
have learned, often at great cost
to the taxpayer, that such a project
greatest of care
if
it
is
must be planned with the
to be carried out efficiently. Planning traffic flow,
consideration
of durability of materials, of availability of labour, of weather
records and many other factors. Such preliminary planning costs money, but in the long run it saves many times as much money as it costs.
The
engineering of national development
is
far
more compli-
cated than the engineering of a highway system. For that reason, it
is
far
more important
that
some investment be made
at the
beginning to determine what kind of further investment can
most
beneficially be
made. Such preinvestment
is
not only neces-
BREAD UPON THE WATERS sary to hold waste to the
means
a
minimum.
venture into the unknown, but portunities for
And
its
will
not
comes forth readily when op-
it
just as the cost of planning a
—but low-cost—prerequisite
ment. Moreover,
Money
productive use are clear.
comparison with the cost of building vital
even more essential as
It is
of encouraging- large-scale investment.
it
highway system so
it,
for efficient
is
is
tiny in
preinvestment a
economic develop-
an extremely high-return expenditure.
is
Dramatic evidence of its potentials is a preinvestment project in Argentina assisted by the UN Special Fund through the World bank. It was a survey of electrical-energy potential completed in 1960 at a cost to the UN of under $300,000. In this survey, a team of British and U.S. engineers and economists showed that prospective revenues would fully support an investment of $735,000,000 over ten years in facilities to provide urgently needed electricity for industrial and home use. Each dollar of UN preinvestment money spent on this project in Argentina produced a sound investment opportunity for 245 other dollars. That is a truly high-return investment in demonstrating economically and technically feasible development possibilities.
dam and generating and by 1966 are estimated at about $22,000,000, part of which would come from domestic sources. All initial capital from external sources could be repaid over a period of 20 years from earnings on the sale of electricity alone. The margin between returns and costs would also be sufficient to meet cumulative capital requirements for the distribution installations
requirements for the planned extension of generating
capital
capacity in later years while permitting present
tariff rates to
be
reduced substantially.
Here
is
another example of the potentialities of studies of
natural-resource development possibilities, this one specifically directed toward increasing agricultural output. principal rivers
is
Yet preliminary studies indicate
that,
use of the waters of the river, the of the
most
One
of Ethiopia's
the Awash. Its waters have been
fertile in all Africa.
little
used.
with control and profitable
Awash
valley can
become one
Prospects are so bright that a
British syndicate signed an agreement with the Ethiopian gov-
ernment
to
supply $35,000,000 of capital for a development
project in a part of the valley, provided the intensive
water-use survey,
now under way with United Nations
soil
and
assistance,
measures up to the preliminary findings.
Finding Physical Resources Many
The
low-income countries, as has already been stressed, do not know what they have in the way of mineral resources or the potentialities of their fields, forests and rivers. They just do not know the possibilities of putting larger areas of their land into agricultural production, through irrigation for of
the
investigation and evaluation of the physical resources of
a country are very important but not too difficult. soil,
Whether
water, minerals, petroleum, fisheries or timber that
is
it is
to
be
instance; of harnessing their rivers to produce electricity; of
good techniques are available and constantly improving. Mineral exploration illustrates this. Today, with lowflying airplanes and modern equipment, it is possible to prospect 100 sq.mi. in less time and more thoroughly than it took to
opening up mineral deposits or developing large-scale fishing or
prospect a single square mile by traditional methods. Similar
other industries for
home consumption
or export.
Some
hint of
the untapped agricultural potential lies in the fact that farm
output tinent
10 times higher than the average in Asia and 20 times
higher than in Africa. virtually
And
may
local materials
specific
advanced techniques are available in other areas. The great need is for adequate financial support of such surveys.
is
and organized dissemination of knowledge are the gold mines here. They can find new uses for local material and products and improve commodities and techniques, thereby promoting economic diversification and increased output, efficiency, employment and investment.
Special
intensive investigations
rich but little-used resource
A
is
the Niger
study for the multipurpose develop-
Fund
was completed
in Sept.
World bank. The and Dutch firms employed
help through the
by the
British
perform the survey revealed that the site earlier selected as best for a dam was unsuitable. An excellent new site was found to
at Kainji and the report of the study
recommends
that
work
begin immediately so that Nigeria can obtain the electricity
it
need in 1966. The scheme would permit hydroelectric production at an installed capacity of 860 megawatts, more than
will
that of any dam in western Europe and more than all the hydropower capacity available in Africa ten years ago. It would satisfy the anticipated power requirements of Nigeria until 1982. Building the dam would produce other benefits as well. It would pro-
vide an alternative crossing of the Niger, thereby reducing the delays at the inadequate single-track railway bridge at
Jebba which is also used by road vehicles and cattle. The huge lake formed by the reservoir would provide a much-needed increase of protein from fishery production. National and international navigation would be improved
—upstream
into neigh-
bouring Niger and downstream to the sea.
At the same time, prospects for agricultural production would be changed fundamentally through the control of floods. areas of the flood plain intensive agriculture would sible, particularly
Another area of low-cost-high-return preinvestment work
be available for goods they can produce with
and manpower.
example of a
UN
Preinvestment in Research for Development that of research and advisory services. Institutes, laboratories
of a section of that river in Nigeria
1961 with
traffic
—
possibilities or of the
river in western Africa.
ment
the underdeveloped countries have
no knowledge of their industrial
market that
A
—
metric tons per person on the North American con-
in is
investigated,
with a
pump
irrigation
On
large
become pos-
system that would use
Niger waters stored up during the wet season to enable the
culti-
vation of crops during the dry season. Net returns on the crops
would be increased by cheap transportation on the
river.
The
desert of Tumbes, along the coast of Peru. Many such areas, previously thought to be barren, have proved to contain rich resources or have responded to land management and thus provided an economic
The
advancement
— WORLD WITHOUT WANT: The
gains to
human
well-being from investment in producing
and applying new useful knowledge are rarely recognized. One reason is In an article in The Humanist, Theodore Schultz of The University of Chicago reported on an attempt, with which he was associated, to identify particular pieces of
economy and and what return they made to
moved
into the
to see
new knowledge
that have
what they cost the society
One such
piece of
knowledge that it was possible to isolate and treat was the development of hybrid corn:
in this
the society.
new way
The
—
.
.
task of
making more
of the low-income countries
.
—
Resources
effective use of the is
infinitely
consuming and more costly than
is
more
human
difficult,
resources
more time
the surveying of natural re-
sources and the extension of technology.
Yet it is at least as development is to succeed at all it will require a host of trained and educated people. Schultz, in his article in The Humanist, also graphically stressed the necessity for a subcritical
because
if
stantial investment in
The history of hybrid corn development in this country goes back to 1910, with relatively few people involved at first, but with pyramiding of effort in the later stages. A colleague of mine has just published the results of some very ingenious research; he has found that if we count all of the private and public costs of hybrid corn, everything that has gone into its development and the records on this are quite complete a total of 130 Then if we measure all million dollars has been invested since 1910. of the product that can be identified and attributed to this particular new piece of useful knowledge, we find that its contribution to the consumer surplus, which is what made the analysis so difficult and required so much ingenuity turns out to be no less than 910 million dollars. That is, the return on the 130 million dollars invested is running at 700% per year. ("Human Wealth and Economic Growth," The Humanist, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 71-81, March-April 1959.)
—
Human
Preinvestment in
that the beneficial effects are so difficult to calculate.
.
.
.
humanity.
He
stated in part:
own economic growth from 1929 to 1953, or at the Japan or Germany or other countries, one observes what
looking at our
rapid growth of
We
shall call an under-specification of resources. have omitted a part of the wealth, and thesis is that this omission is represented by additions that have been made in the stock of human wealth. This human I
my
wealth consists of improvement in human effectiveness arising from the that man has developed capacities that result from investments in man. We may feel a bit touchy at having this concept of 'capital' taken over from the realm of reproducible, material things, and applied to ourselves as humans. And yet perhaps the greatest capital formation that has been going on in our society is our investment in ourselves. It may be that these investments in ourselves in our abilities, our talents and capacities, in our stamina, our health, the way we live and what we eat are the very kinds of capital that make the greatest returns in terms of reward for our efforts. fact
—
.
.
.
This example can be used to illustrate another fact: that the
cumulative effects of new discoveries often extend far beyond
Frederick Harbison of Princeton university brought this ques-
the land of their birth. United Nations technicians, seeking to
tion of human capital directly to the development field in a publication of the Inter-University Study of Labor Problems in
assist
Yugoslavia
in raising its
farm output, turned
corn seed to maximize production.
corn harvest averaged
3,350,000
to hybrid-
From
1951 through 1955 the
tons.
The 1957 production
exceeded 5,500,000 tons and in 1959 production broke through to establish a
new peak
of 6,670,000 tons.
As the
including forage types which would enrich the soil and provide feedstuffs required to increase livestock.
can
make an enormous
says:
A
yields increased,
acreages planted in corn could be transferred to other crops,
Applying available knowledge and adapting
Economic Development called The Strategy of Human Resource Development in Modernizing Economies. In the publication he
it
to local needs
contribution to economic progress in the
On
country's capacity to utilize effectively physical capital
is
dependent
upon the availability of human capital, and vice versa. And it is essential for politicians and planners to understand that any development plan which does not give high priority to human capital formation is simply unrealistic and almost certainly destined to fail, for experience has shown repeatedly that high-level manpower docs not appear automatically or magically as dams, roads, factories, hospitals, radio stations, and airports
come
into existence.
By
develop improved manufacturing techniques, design new
high-level manpower, Harbison means the highly trained and highly educated professional people. He points out that these people are relatively immobile preferring to live in big cities and underutilized since they must frequently perform not only
equipment and products, promote better use of local materials, expand markets, raise productivity, improve management.
but also supporting functions. For instance, medical doctors in
low-income countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America. of these continents the
UN
Special
institutions for applied research tialities,
One example
is
Fund
is
all
helping to finance
which define industrial poten-
the Central Mechanical Engineering Research
institute in India. This
new
institute
is
designed to serve India's
growing mechanical-engineering industry through applied
re-
search, design development and testing facilities. It will provide pilot plants
and prototypes, investigate materials for manufactur-
—
the aspects of their jobs for which their education
many underdeveloped
is
essential,
lands spend a great deal of time making
laboratory tests which technicians perform in industrially ad-
vanced countries. Such technicians do not exist in many areas. So the advanced education of the doctor is wasted a significant portion of the time.
The same
is
true of engineers in relation to
ing tools and machinery and promote standardization of materials
draftsmen and of other professionals.
and finished components of machinery. Further, it will train research workers, designers and specialists in different branches
can come from three sources
of mechanical engineering, collaborate with industry on day-to-
in
Harbison points out that the education and training needed
experts and fellowships for Indian engineers to study abroad, the Special Fund will furnish equipment including high-
import from abroad development employment; and formal education. He states that strategic human capital formation must occur at a rate greatly in excess of the growth rate of the labour force as a whole. Scientific and engineering personnel must increase at a rate three times that of the labour force as a whole and subprofessional personnel six
precision machine tools, testing machines, measuring instruments
to nine times as fast.
day problems and act
as a clearinghouse for the dissemination
of technical information in
its field.
Besides providing interna-
tional
and furnaces. The three-year project will cost $1,666,000, of which the Special Fund will provide $725,000 and the government of India the equivalent of $941,000.
UNESCO
is
serving as exe-
cuting agency.
In another part of the world the Central American Research Institute for Industry, thanks to United Nations assistance, has
provided valuable services to governments and business in seven
:
;
Harbison then outlines: "A strategy of human resource de-
velopment has three essential components the building of appropriate incentives, the promotion of effective training of employed manpower, and the rational development of formal education." :
Of course the implementation of this strategy is as varied as it must occur. But the general outline must be followed in every country that is going to succeed in economic the countries in which
countries. Its technicians and laboratories have completed scores of projects in food processing and conservation, in the utilization of wastes of coffee and rice, in testing products and raw materials, in advising on standards and norms, in services to chemical,
development.
mining and other industries. Such preinvestment assistance to the underdeveloped countries should be greatly stepped up.
Nations, around 750,000,000 of those at or over school age
32
The educational and
training task that lies ahead
is
appalling
magnitude. Of the 1,300,000,000 people in the 100 underdeveloped countries and territories associated with the United in its
still
cannot read and write. Even the achievement of literacy alone
Ancient Inca road still in use in Peru. Despite reluctance of private investors to put their capital into projects such improvement, which do not provide direct profits, they are essential to economic improvement
not help enough. Scores of millions must be given secondary
will
as road building
getting on with this all-important task, for
much more
education as well. There are immense needs for vocational train-
an d technical training
an overriding factor in economic development, numbers of people must be trained for highly skilled occupations. At a conservative estimate for the immediate future, the 100 underdeveloped countries and territories need to train
economic advance.
1,000,000 people as top-level administrators, professional per-
country develops economically largely through
ing. Finally, as
vast
sonnel,
management and business executives and middle-level
always been true and
the adult population
is
a very special problem. In
estimates that about 17,000,000
is illiterate;
fewer than
80%
5%
85%
and
A
five-year
of
of the children
attend primary school go on to secondary school
training institutes.
;
program has been adopted by the
education ministers of this area which calls for a
77%
increase
primary-school enrollment, a doubling of secondary-school
and university enrollment. To achieve even least 450,000 teachers must be trained.
The United Nations and many
national
this
modest goal
at
It
produces what
is
no
less
true today that a its
own
efforts.
the development process by providing an extra margin for buying development goods abroad, but it is only an extra margin. The core of the development process remains production and trade.
This being true, the following factors exert a powerful
governments have in
much greater effort is required contemplated. And there is no time to lose in
countries can
make
upon the
— for these
countries
than
they buy from the
rate at
if
not
which the underdeveloped
progress: (1) the level of economic activity
and the rate of econnrv
the underdeveloped world. But a
presently
can,
it
controlling influence
stepped up their assistance to raise the capacities of people
is
it
production. Investment and aid from the outside can speed up
UNESCO
children are without classroom space; between
in
It has
fewer
Educationally speaking, Africa tropical Africa alone,
1%
MORE ENLIGHTENED TRADE POLICIES
of those attending school are enrolled in vocational
technicians for building and industrial programs, health services,
than
education
indispensable to achieve really significant
consumes what it must and exchanges the remainder in world markets for commodities which it needs but cannot or does not produce. By and large, underdeveloped countries produce mostly raw materials (fibres and minerals) and "luxury" foodstuffs (coffee, cocoa, tea, sugar, meat and tropical fruits) to sell in world markets. With the proceeds they buy, for the most part, manufactures which they need for consumption or capital equipment with which to increase their own
education and supervisory positions in government and industry.
who do
is
and harbour
rowth maintained
in large
less
in the industrialized
part determine what and
how much
developed countries and the prices paid
33
WORLD WITHOUT WANT. between the prices of raw materials and other products which the less developed countries sell and the prices of the manufactured goods they must buy; and (3) the trade policies of the industrialized countries for for these goods; (2) the relationship
—
tariffs,
quantitative restrictions and taxes imposed
upon imports
both the price and the volume of the commodities imported
affect
from the
developed countries.
less
The Widening Circles of Recession The economic
recession that began in the United States, spread Europe in the fall of 1957 and extended through 1958 was not severe enough to cause a marked decline in the volume of imports of primary commodities into the industrial countries, but the sensitivity of commodity markets to the changing economic climate in the major buying countries was such as to drive down commodity prices and reduce the export earnings of the underdeveloped countries by 7% to 8% from mid-1957 to mid1958. During the same period the prices of manufactured goods, to western
even
in
an industrial recession, continued to increase, with the
result that the
000
in
side
underdeveloped countries
lost
import capacity. This was about as
about $2,000,000,-
much
as all the out-
governmental and international economic assistance they
received in the period, and was approximately equivalent to six years' lending at
1956-57
by the World bank to the underdeveloped countries To meet this deficit in their earnings, the
rates.
countries had to run
dangerous
term
down
and, in
many
reduce imports severely. this often
In
exchange reserves to
overseas borrowing, increase their short-
levels, turn to
liabilities
their foreign
cases, put into effect
Where
the underdeveloped countries were
then
UN
secretary-general, pointed to the paradox that the in-
"progressive expansion of aid has not been
dustrial nations'
matched by equal progress in the reduction in obstacles to the growth of trade." For more than a decade the United Nations has been concerned with the persistent problems of trade development and market stabilization. It has made many studies of trade policies and the commodity price problem as they affect the underdeveloped areas; in broad outline, these studies concluded: (1) that inter-
national price stabilization schemes for primary commodities are
extremely hard to arrange and the desired results; stabilization
(2)
difficult to
that national
making
a subsidy
or contribution to the industrialized countries, at a time
programs can and do mitigate price fluctuations in a (e.g., sugar, wheat and tin), and efforts to ar-
few commodities rive at such
programs with respect
price of the one or several
raw products upon whose export they
depend; (4) but that recession or depression in the industrially advanced countries can undo all the good of price stabilization schemes and diversification. This imposes upon the industrially
advanced nations, particularly the United States, a burden of increased awareness of the value of a steady and rapid growth of their own and the world economy.
when
Robbing Peter
to
Pay Paul
which retard growth create a double load on the industrially advanced nations. It is clearly folly to pour in aid and investment at the top of the barrel while pursuing policies that Policies
allow the low-income countries' the bottom. For instance:
tion obviously
One
makes no
why
a situa-
own substance
Coffee, tea, cocoa, tropical fruits
so
many
so hostile to the United States in 1958
volume and prices of
Such
sense.
of the chief reasons
commodities should
mitigate the effects upon their economies of fluctuations in the
the low-income countries through grants
loans.
to other
be actively pursued; (3 J that industrial growth and economic diversification in the less developed countries can help greatly to
those "advanced" countries were trying to aid development of
and
administer to achieve
and international price
measures to
foreign credits were not available
involved a cut in the rate of growth of investment.
effect,
Problems arising from fickle markets in the industrialized countries persisted on into mid-1961 when Dag Hammarskjold,
Latin Americans grew
and 1959 was that the
their countries' exports to the U.S. de-
creased while the prices of their imports from the U.S. rose.
to drain out at
and other "luxury" com-
modities produced in vast quantities in low-income countries are taxed so heavily their
in
many
industrialized countries as to reduce
consumption sharply.
Many industrialized
nations limit imports of agricultural prod-
Manufacture of consumer goods in Ghana. Left, packaging cartons at a cigarette factory; below, worker tightening bolts at a truck assembly plant. Increases in income through development will open markets for locally produced good:, thus encouraging further industrialization
BREAD UPON THE WATERS ucts so as to maintain artificially high domestic prices or other-
wise protect their
Many
own
industrialized countries
cross-purposes are considerably diminished. In addition, the post-
war practice
agriculture.
impose
tariffs,
quantitative limitations upon imports of
excise taxes or
some
industrial
raw
of having both importing
participate in
making sure
way
and exporting nations
commodity agreements has the salutary
that the interests of
all
effect of
are taken into account. In
materials which are the mainstays of the economies of certain
this
underdeveloped countries
monopoly is avoided. But in addition to the development of such schemes, trade policies must be liberalized. And above all the leading industrial countries should adopt measures assuring their own sustained
(e.g.,
U.S. restrictions upon imports of
lead and zinc despite fears concerning U.S. dependence in emer-
gency situations on foreign supplies).
Many
raw maimpose restrictive duties upon imports of those same commodities in even slightly processed forms. industrialized countries, although admitting
terials free,
Manufactured consumer goods produced tries
in
low-income coun-
climbing the ladder of industrialization frequently find the
markets of the industrialized countries closed to them, wholly or partially, on the grounds that they are produced with cheap labour.
There seems
certain textiles
to
from
be some progress
less
opening markets to
in
developed countries. One must hope
for similar progress with respect to other products.
and vigorous economic growth. This would make easier the ac-
but also curtail the
in the industrialized countries
low-income countries to improve their lot and make economic progress through their own enterprise. In these circumstances, extraordinary aid to and investment in the low-
ability of
and help immeasurably to stimulate economic progress abroad. A dynamic and expanding world economy, with trade directly
moving in
may
freely through every port, with investment capital flowing
adequate volume,
tries
and
is a key to progress in the low-income coungrowing prosperity in the industrialized nations.
to
THE NEED FOR INCREASED INVESTMENT According to experts, a
25%
governments
to beat a
extending development aid
restrict trade while
man
is
thus
with one hand while dressing his wounds with the
come from
low-income countries to
its
not?) will consider trade policy and development-aid policy as
two sides of the same
coin.
Otherwise
its
economic
activities
countries,
part
underdeveloped world. The remainder must
—principally
80%
from the highly indus-
that
may
well be asked
it
is
is
how
the low-income
of whose people are undernourished, can save to
invest in their economic progress.
the price they
must pay
They can because they must;
to get ahead.
Domestic Savings in the Underdeveloped Countries
selves cannot fail to realize that the prospects of expanding their to the developing countries
The major
may
be both costly and self-defeating. The developed countries them-
own exports
required.
the invested savings of the peoples and
outside sources
The question economic progress in the advantage (and which country should
industrialized country which finds
is
under-
investment in the
trial countries.
other.
An
come from in the
will live in the
in 1970, a total ten-year
neighbourhood of $210,000,000,000
often but partially, for denied opportunities for self-improve-
To
the 1960s are going to conclude with
comes of the 1,600,000,000 people who developed countries of this must
ment.
if
increase over the decade as a whole in the per capita in-
only serve to compensate wholly, and more
income countries
own people
ceptance of more liberal trade policies, benefit their
Clearly, trade restrictions of these kinds not only penalize
consumers
the danger of having an agreement turn into a producers'
depend very largely on
India
is
an example of a low-income country which
is
squarely
facing this hard reality. Its leaders have told their people that
their contribution to the latter's capacity to import. This will re-
in
quire adjustments in the pattern of production in the advanced
domestic savings have to increase from about 8.5% at present
countries over the next 20 years, but that problem
to
if
is
manageable
tackled soon enough.
pace without being dependent on external assistance outside of
In the meantime those countries can and must, in their interest, join seriously in
own
United Nations attempts to establish
schemes for creating greater short-run stability in commodity markets. The need is underscored by the fact that the export receipts of the underdeveloped countries
an average annual variation of for trend) during the
9%
to
have been subjected
12%
UN
to
(allowance being
postwar years.
Two major international approaches are request of the
five years from now. Further increases are also by the end of the fifth plan, in 1976, "the economy should become strong enough to develop at a satisfactory
about 11.5%
foreseen so that
Helping the One-Product Economy
made
order to achieve the country's current (third) five-year plan,
to
(Government of India p. 13).
Major reliance for investment capital must rest on the government of the low-income country. Its principal sources of income from which investment can be made are duties on
its
exports
and imports, income and property taxes and borrowing from other countries.
One is a limited version of method generally favoured by the is
capital"
Planning Commission, Third Five Year Plan, Summary,
Another source of domestic investment capital
be considered at the
general assembly.
an all-commodity approach, a underdeveloped nations, while the other
the normal inflow of foreign
the commodity-by-
commodity approach, preferred by the industrial nations. The former approach, outlined by an expert committee, advocates the creation of a development insurance fund which
would pro-
vide special multilateral assistance to less developed nations
whose export proceeds depend on one or very few commodities. A number of safeguards are proposed to avoid permanent subsidization of a country with steadily declining export receipts.
Serious attention will probably be given for
some time
to the
concept of an insurance fund.
savings of householders and businesses
come which they put ities
lem, agreements for particular commodities will also receive at-
commodity agreements have the advantage funds and stocks in that more countries share
is
the private
share of their
in-
directly into raising the productive capac-
of their farms and companies or which they contribute
indirectly, for instance
by putting those savings
into
banks or
bonds. It must be admitted that most of the low-income countries have not done too well in mobilizing their own resources for financing productive investment. Both in the governmental and in
the private sectors savings have not increased as
much
as
they should have and could have. Thu.4, during the 1950s, when ever increasing importance was being attached to accelerating
economic growth, domestic savings
In line with the second United Nations approach to the prob-
—the
countries.
in relation to gross
domestic
more than one-third of the underdeveloped And even among these countries, the incre at
product did not
rise in
tention. International
usually modest. In tboul half the countries, in fact, over-all levels
over national buffer
of dome.Ntu
the burdens involved,
and the chances of countries working
at
I960,
UN
have declined.
Document E/3501/Rev.
1.)
(World Economic
\
In certain countries trends
WORLD WITHOUT WANT: markets have exercised a profound influence on sources of domestic savings. Also important has been the pressure on the in export
governments
to step
up
their current expenditures to
needs of growing populations
—
in
meet the
investment must be doubled to meet the
between what what they may
deficit
the countries need from external sources and
reasonably be expected to earn from their exports.
The explanation
education, health and other
change
for this
in
proportion of investment
is
simple and sound. In the majority of the underdeveloped coun-
services. It is therefore essential that these
governments, despite the
enormous difficulties, take urgent measures to increase local savings and channel them into productive projects. There is also a need for appropriately revised land and agricultural taxes and taxes on certain segments of the population where luxury con-
tries,
the essential need of the 1960s
is
what
the construction of
called the infrastructure of development. This includes trans-
is
portation and communications facilities channels, telephone systems;
river
resources for power and irrigation
—
roads, docks, dredged
the development of water
school systems to supply the
;
sumption and extensive nonproductive use of private savings and wealth suggest that government revenue could be increased with-
administrators, technicians and skilled labour that further de-
out retarding private investment.
all
Dedicated leadership, heroic
effort
and great
sacrifice are re-
velopment requires. These
and institutions
facilities
of public funds;
it
would be foolish
be attracted to the establishment of such
domestic capital formation. But the required increases in domes-
developed areas today. Yet the establishment of
savings can be reached.
From
Investment While
ture
economic development must
on
rest
the cornerstone of domestic savings, there remains a great need for international private
and public funds
facilities in
a prerequisite to the creation of a situation in the low-
is
to
fill
the gap in the
the building of the infrastructure of development, there
70%
Thus, possibly
quired from the outside during the 1960s will have to
vestment
tivities
of doubling the rate of per capita income growth in the 100 countries
and
territories.
What
portion of this capital must
come from
the underdeveloped countries themselves, and what portion
is
needed from the outside?
The
own guess
author's
lizing
do
And he
that $140,000,000,000 will
convinced that, despite the
is
have
to
difficulties of
mobi-
such a sum, the people in the low-income countries can
of
it
and similar purposes. Some
—
that are sound and bankable
will
be
in
the form of loans
by such intergovernmental agencies as the World bank, often with private participation as well. But much of this capital will be needed for suitable for financing
communications, irrigation, housing, education
—transport and —which, because
they are not directly profit producing or because they involve risks concerning the receiving countries' ability to
normal period of time and
in
repay
convertible currencies,
in
a
must be
the
banker's terms; the necessities that require them are hard. More-
And
over, the possibilities that they will eventually be repaid are good,
thoroughly manageable. The
not on terms or in periods of time that cautious bankers would
all
world over the decade, or $7,000,000,000 a year.
that, too, the
author believes,
is
best estimate of the flow of genuine development capital from
call
the outside to the less-developed countries during the 1950s
indirect returns,
is
sound, perhaps, but they
may
development
if
is
well be repaid, and with great
continued on logical and per-
about $30,000,000,000. There was during the decade a reasonably
sistent bases after the infrastructure they will finance has
steady annual increase, and by the end of the decade development
completed.
and private, had reached an annual rate of all probability there was some further increase in I960, but full figures to establish this were not yet available in late 1961.) These figures mean that in the 1960s the flow of development capital to the underdeveloped areas must be increased by about $3,000,000,000 a year. How much of this additional capital might properly be supplied directly by private investors of the industrialized countries and how much through governments of these countries? It is impossible to give precise
answers to these questions, but the relative
is
more aware of the need on easier terms and conor no interest and abnormally long periods of
ditions,
with
little
—loans
of financing
repayment. Such loans are already being supplied through the
Development
International
association and certain bilateral lend-
ing programs. Perhaps $2,000,000,000 a year will be required
during the 1960s from the advanced countries for such soft but clearly worthwhile loans. It
is
therefore in two particular sectors that assistance by the
advanced countries
will
have
to
be stepped up: the provision of
funds for preinvestment work and for loans for sound develop-
that $1,500,000,000 of the $4,000,000,000 in
ment projects on easier than commercial terms. As was mentioned in discussing myths about development,
1959 might give a
clue.
development capital supplied during 1959 came from private banks and investors, and that the remaining $2,500,000,000 was provided by governments in the form of loans and grants, either directly to the low-income countries or through such multilateral
agencies as the
new kind
for this
in-
levels of outside assistance in
formed guess
An
been
Fortunately, the 1960s find the world
capital flow, public
about $4,000,000,000. (In
World bank.
It
seems probable that the proporwould need to be changed,
tions of private to public investment
that of the $7,000,000,000 annually required, about $2,000,000,000 must come from private sources and the remaining $5,000,000,000 from the governments of the higher-income countries.
In other words, private investment during the 1960s needs to be increased by about one-third over the 1959 rate, while public
36
prin-
financed through "soft" loans. But these are soft loans only in
so.
This leaves about $70,000,000,000 to be supplied by rest of the
come
from the governments of the industrialized nations. Some will have to be in the nature of grants for preinvestment ac-
cipally
purposes of establishment of the infrastructure is
be supplied from domestic savings in the underdeveloped countries.
evi-
of the additional investment capital re-
volume of imported machinery and other essential goods and services they require from the outside. As has been stated, $210,000,000,000 of new development inbe required during the 1960s to achieve the goal
is
dence of an increased acceptance and reliance on private investment which this infrastructure has made feasible.
savings of the low-income countries and to pay for the larger
will
the under-
this infrastruc-
income areas of the world that will attract future investment. While the trend is not yet marked, as countries do get on with
Outside Sources
in the final analysis
almost
to expect private capital to
quired in the underdeveloped countries to raise their levels of
tic
in
instances have traditionally been developed through the use
low-income countries for development inpay for goods and services to be supplied from the industrialized countries. These countries have the capacity to meet easily these requirements from their own surpluses (such as agricultural commodities) and from unused industrial capacity and manpower resources. Raising the level of capital for development assistance from all the advanced countries to the 100 countries and territories capital supplied to the
vestment goes
from the to
to
slightly
more than $4,000,000,000-a-year current
one of $7,000,000,000
is
rate
necessary and an investment which
BREAD UPON THE WATERS
nn ms^ii
iHl .Vaufo
Yankees nor Russians," sign "Neither written on a wall in Riobamba, Ecuador, in 1961 expressing the feeling of many citizens of underdeveloped countries who resent aid
weapon
given as a
in the cold
war
would
the advanced countries cannot afford not to make. This
mean
raising the per capita contribution of people in the ad-
may
this
purpose from $4.75 to a new annual
This
eight years of the decade remaining
what some
before us, the attainment of that level becomes
the
all
more
in turn
some regions. Even within a single couneconomy will progress at uneven rates.
can lead to political upheaval
will
—perhaps
"strong-man"
will characterize as
Politically distasteful
oped lands
urgent.
increase in
various sectors of the
try,
With only
vanced countries for rate of $8.25.
hostility
to the rise of
rule.
arrangements within a few underdevel-
be only one discouraging effect of the strains of
As development proceeds, certain manufacturers in the advanced nations will have to meet new and stiffer competition. The "great powers" will lose the control over poorer
progress.
THE PROMISES OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Though
industrially
the decade of the 1960s has been called the
UN
de-
would probably be more accurate to speak of it as the first of the UN. development decades, for surely the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s will see the struggle continuing. But this velopment decade,
is
it
the critical period. During the next eight years, the patterns
and structures of development
will
Now
own
political
and
social
the
Union and the United moon. In large parts of
UN teams are erasing the malaria that has been endemic during the entire memory of man. In the summer of 1961 Danish scientists first demonstrated the possibility of controlled fusion of hydrogen tomorrow the supply of cheap usable the world
;
power may be unlimited.
The
fact that the frontiers of
it
means
annihilation;
if
used constructively, no one can predict
accurately, but the future
is
bright with promise.
Progress will not be smooth and even
unfortunate turnings
nomic development
among
will
will
stand us in good stead.
We now
becomes aggraeffort on the scale of world-wide economic development cannot be made without the absolute certainty that some dollars, cruzeiros, rupees and rials will go down the drain. To withhold participation in the most exciting and heartening commitment of mankind in history simply because part of it might be wasted is like never starting a fire because some of the heat goes up the chimney. Yes, there will be waste, but the waste will certainly be insignificant when compared with the benefits. There will be violence perhaps much violence. Some may result from wars for independence, some from the struggles for power among rival leaders, some from deliberate incitement of the masses by those who see in turmoil, unrest and desperation an opportunity to impose totalitarian rule. waste or stop
it
before
it
—
knowledge are being pushed
down and further out does not, of itself, world. If this new knowledge is used destructively,
further up, further
assure a better
They
world forums. They
be the waste. Fortunately, the experience of the
to reduce
the Soviet
man on
will
know how vated. An
velopment are present. Science and technology are taking vast leaps. Less than a quarter of a century ago space travel was a strip affair.
There
and ideals of man's innate
and privileges of freedom, the remainder of this decade is the time to accomplish this. The potentialities for a major forward thrust in economic de-
in the
have to learn to survive distressing moments without modifying their essential principles and without panic.
and the 1950s
is
destiny, of the responsibilities
States are racing to put a
outnumbered
late 1940s
dignity, of his right to determine his
Sunday comic
find themselves
to be a
be molded. If there
practical realization of the concepts
countries that they once exercised through the purse strings.
may
—
;
—
some setbacks some One thing that eco-
are certain to happen.
will bring initially is
growing dissatisfaction
The Role of the Despite this
all
Human Spirit
the difficulties and frustrations that might result,
decade can be the decade
in
which
prosperous, orderly and creative world
momentum community
for a is
more
achieved.
In addition to sound programs, adequate preinvestment activities
and investment, three imperatives must be recognized and acted upon. All have to do with the
human
spirit.
As the first visible signs of improvement appear, the hopes and demands which today are quite generalized will become specific. No matter
developed nations go about their
what progress
recognize that they must battle not only against poverty but
the peoples of the underdeveloped world.
is
made,
people experiencing to expect too
much
it.
it
will
They
—
not be enough
in
the view of the
like all the rest of us
—are prone
too soon.
Development will surge forward in one nation, lag in another and go into reverse in still another. Jealousy and international
First there
is
the spirit
in
which the leaders of the underdifficult task.
Fortunately, most
of the leaders are dedicated to the welfare of their people.
They
II. They know that the levd and intensity of ired to speed development that it is only freedom that can inspire the necessary determination and willingness to sacrifice. They know that the human
against tyranny and pn\ t
-
.
WORLD WITHOUT WANT. spirit is
a vital factor in the transition from dependence to a
economy. Without confusing development and recovery, we can
still
from the Marshall plan the significance of mobilized human When the plan was originated to produce recovery of western Europe to 1938 industrial and agricultural production levels, it was authoritatively estimated that the cost would be learn
spirit.
more than $25,000,000,000. Further study reduced the
figure to
$17,000,000,000. In fact, the Marshall plan cost $13,000,000,000 of which about $2,000,000,000 is in the process of being re-
—
paid.
Net
The
total cost: $11,000,000,000.
not constant provocations to violent and destructive upheaval.
we must recognize that the world is indeed smaller. Gherman Titov went around it 17^ times in just about one day. To make it habitable, the people of the world must get rid of the limitations which their own narrow horizons impose on their view of the planet and its problems. As the underThird,
self-sustaining
factor which was not
In 1961
developed nations emerge from industrial and material backwardness, their people
and the people of the industrially advanced
nations must jointly develop a
—
new
a
To
new way
vision, clearly focused
reiterate that all
men
of looking at themselves
on the interests of
are brothers
may seem
a sober
than in 1938.
people of
Second is the spirit which the people of the industrially advanced countries manifest toward the less developed countries. As Lady Barbara Ward Jackson puts it:
together to emerge to shared respect and a
spirit.
The people
of
the need is to remove the work of world development from the subsidiary attention of the wealthy nations and to make it a central theme of their diplomacy, their international relationships, their philosophy of world order, their hopes for a future in which not only groups and nations but the human race itself can hope to make this small planet into a .
.
point
unfailingly
spiritual
us
add emphasis which directs
political facts of life
all
common
though
to act as
whether we are willing to admit
all
men
are brothers
or not. In this respect, the
it
nations are underdeveloped;
they must struggle
common
dedication
constructive goal.
If those of the industrially
advanced nations to
dignity and freedom are underlying beliefs
whom human
commit themselves
.
as wholeheartedly to the effort for
the 1960s can provide two gigantic lasting benefits.
Ward Jackson, "tfew Perspectives in Economic Development," background paper, Oxford Conference on Tensions in De-
velopment,
economic development as the
peoples of the underdeveloped world are doing, the decade of
habitable home. (Barbara
First,
by 1970 perhaps 20 nations
will
have achieved
means
that foreign aid, instead of being the
item to go into national budgets and the
—second only
must be given high priority
first to
to defense.
come out, Compared
three of them. itself into
Each time an underdeveloped nation transforms
an industrially self-sustaining nation under free
tutions, the cause of
to the $125,000,000,000 scheduled for defense expenditure in 1962
For, given the choice, people will always elect freedom. there
is
past time that the national budget planners of
rests the responsibility for
approving budgets
defense of their national interests in
which poverty, hunger,
and
"Cast thy bread upon the waters:
for thou skalt find
it
after
many days" Ecclesiastes 11
38
pay
off in
own
new hope if they and dedication are going and material improvement.
future with
efforts, sacrifice
spiraling spiritual, social
democratic
development can have been built up. The succeeding decades of development can follow the road maps created in these next eight years. By the year 2000, we can be living in a world with-
the creation of a world
and chronic
can see clearly that their
Second, by 1970 the impetus for world-wide achievement of
least expensive long-run
lies in
illiteracy
in the
entire world will look to their
to
And
no substitute for example. The struggling peoples of the
whom
the industrially advanced nations, and the politicians upon
societies, recognize that the best
is
insti-
freedom achieves an incalculable victory.
by the member countries of the United Nations, the $7,000,000,000 required to finance development adequately is not large. It will, in the long run, mitigate the need for future defense expenditures. It
self-
sustaining economies. India, Mexico and Argentina are probably
p. 8.)
Practically, this last
and
— for^our own safety—
to a
humanity.
economic paper, but the economic facts of today's world at man's total interdependence. The social,
was the human Europe went to work with will, with determination and with hope. In two years the European economy had not merely reached its prewar levels; agricultural production was 20% higher and industrial production was 40% higher in the original predictions
taken into account
all
out of place in
ill-health
are
out want.
What
a magnificent achievement for our century!
WORLD WITHOUT
mm
PART
II
First Steps:
Education in Emergent Africa
PART
First Steps:
II
Education in Emergent Africa By
wave of The pendence which broke upon
political inde-
tidal
cal Africa in the 1960s, leaving
tropi-
behind
new sovereign more to folclimax of a memorable
within two years
19
states with the promise of
was the
low,
decade during the course of which revolutionary changes have taken place in the daily lives of the African people. In one country after another local political
leaders progressively took over
the reins of
government from
colonial
administrators, and the aspirations of millions of politically conscious Afri-
cans found triumphant expression in the formation of national governments
sending delegations to the United Nations
and other international organiza-
tions.
steps
In other territories important
had been taken
at least
come
to
resolve
or
to grips with difficulties
impeded the achievement of poindependence, and it is virtually certain that most of the African terri-
that
litical
tories that
remain subject to for-
still
eign administrative authority will be-
come
responsible for their
own
affairs
before 1970.
These
changes,
their effects
kaleidoscopic
in
on political maps of the
once "dark" continent, have been the
outcome of a process of social awakening which is far from completed and which
is
being accelerated by the en-
new
ergetic endeavours of the
national
governments which have come into being. It is, indeed, one of the most remarkable and encouraging features of the African scene today that the
national governments are
new
moving with
such determination to reinforce the
framework of
political
independence
with the solid support of a developing
economy and
a
body
of citizens well
equipped to shoulder the responsibilities
of 20th-century nationhood.
Boys in
of southern Sudan learning to read an outdoor class
DAVID OWEN
WORLD WITHOUT WANT: It
has to be acknowledged that the early accomplishment of
this dual task
the
new African
prove extremely
likely to
is
Almost
states.
all
of
difficult for
most of
them are abysmally poor;
judged by the measuring rods of contemporary economics, their present capacity for self-sustained economic growth
and vast numbers of
their people
human
primitive stage of
unpromising. For there the
in
modern world
wherever
is
weak;
have barely emerged from a
existence.
Yet the outlook is far from which the late developers
a real sense in
is
the results of technical progress
inherit
has been achieved and they can, with the help of
it
their friends all over the world,
draw upon resources of human
co-operation which were not available to previous generations.
The key
to the use of these resources
is
education, and
the obsession with education characteristic of so
many
it
is
of the
tribal responsibility usually
culminated
For many years
in initiation
have an ambivalent attitude toward
intellectual leaders
but
ject,
of
it
may
it
be taken for granted that
much debate and experiment
new African governments
as the
take firm hold on the direction of educational processes.
Whatever ting,
it
the virtues of indigenous training in
much
clearly left
who were
its tribal
missionaries
Africa during the latter part of the 19th century. It to criticize
some
set-
to be desired in the eyes of the Christian
that they will in the end achieve their objectives in spite of the
European education
the pioneers of
is
in
possible
of the educational aims and practices of the
Christian missions
Education in Africa Today
this sub-
be the subject
will
it
emergent countries of Africa today which encourages the belief appalling difficulties in their path.
ceremonies
was normal for Europeans to undervalue, if not to despise, indigenous forms of education in Africa, but in recent times a more understanding attitude has led some educationalists to consider whether lessons might not be learned from traditional practices and whether some elements in the indigenous tradition might not be adapted to the more formal methods of modern instruction. The new generations of African of various kinds.
— Catholic
and Protestant
—but
it
is
to their
devoted efforts and the support which they received from their
There can be no doubt about the intensity of the concern which the leaders and people of the emergent countries of Africa
To describe it as an obsession is certainly no many it is white man's magic, the key to every-
home churches
modern education
that the foundations of
in
Africa are largely due. In the British, Belgian and Portuguese
feel for education.
dependent
exaggeration. For
dominant
territories the missionary effort in education has
until recent times (in
1945,
96.4%
been
of the pupils at-
thing imaginable from the energies of the internal-combustion
tending schools
engine to the control of disease and the more abundant yield of
schools). In the French dependent territories missionary enter-
traditional crops.
For others it opens the door to urban life and advancement through new forms of hierarchical employment in government service or private business. Economists, businessmen and politicians alike look to it for the
prise in the educational field has a long
to prospects of social
but
cohorts of skilled workers, supervisors, managers and administrators on
which
a
developing economy and a modern state de-
pend. Social philosophers and statesmen, and humbler
men
too,
in British tropical
ment-sponsored lay education than
The fairs
for
many
years mainly limited to the encouragement of
missionary endeavour, but grants-in-aid on a small scale were direction of educational activities
In any case the hunger for education insatiable
—
is
there
—widespread and
to a degree that never fails to astonish every
new
observer of the African scene.
From 1950 on, this hunger has produced a response from the governments concerned which has in itself been truly remarkable. Responding to the growing desire of their people for more and better education and the need to provide the manpower
essential for accelerating
ments of every degree of
economic development, African governlocal responsibility have strained their
more teachers
and services to
With the
make up
of relative indifference
and
assist the educational
that have taken place since 1950,
by war and
and
in
some
made
no-
developments
territories (but
all) they may take pride in the remarkable progress that has been made. It cannot be said, however, that more than a beginning has been made in most African countries to satisfy
not
the great hunger for education of which every traveler speaks.
Education Under Colonial Administration As late as the 1860s the European penetration of tropical Africa beyond the coastal fringe had hardly begun and the inyoung Africans was for the most part a matter of its own methods of education in the form of character training and instruction in crafts or, in the case of girls, in domestic responsibilities. The main emphasis was laid on social obligation, and the preparation of youth for struction of tribal
42
government intervention took a more positive form at an earlier stage than in most British territories. Lay schools were established, particularly for Muslim children whose parents objected to their entering mission schools, and in conformity with the French philosophy of centralized educational administration, a more or less uniform system of instruction was introduced throughout the French West African colonies as early as 1903.
8 r c of the children aged 5-14 years in all the territories taken
later years disrupted
administration of dependent territories in Africa have
and
was generally established early
20th century. In the French West African dependencies
work.
depression), the metropolitan governments responsible for the table efforts to direct
and some measure of government
for time lost (during earlier years
more schools at every and more materials
to staff these schools
illustrate the effectiveness of the teachers'
desire to
in the
to particular enterprises
was very gradual in and other areas lagged still further behind. The rate of advance was speeded up in the interwar years, but the depression of the 1930s was a serious setback, and in 1939 enrollments accounted for less than
national budgets in efforts to provide level,
other parts of tropical
intervention of colonial governments in educational af-
was
made
lems of cultural revival and adjustment to contemporary trends.
in
Africa.
changing world look to
for the answers to contradictory prob-
and honourable record
has played a less important role compared with govern-
it
in search of the elusive realities of national identity in a fastit
Africa were attending mission
custom. Each tribe had
But progress
in
the provision of schools
both British and French colonial
together.
territories,
For higher age groups educational provision was very
small indeed.
In some respects the situation was better than the relative size of the African school population
would seem
to imply. In
most
countries central education departments had been established,
and
fairly comprehensive policies of educational development had been formulated. There had been a great deal of earnest thought devoted to the specific problems of African education, and many experiments, some of them highly promising, had been made. The way was open for a new wave of progress and, although World War II was a temporary setback to expansion, it was the inspiration of much forward-looking policy formation in which the improvement of the education, health and general well-being of colonial people had a prominent place. After World War II the tempo of educational progress in
Africa gained
new momentum. The
principal colonial powers,
partly inspired by postwar idealism and partly in response to insistent pressures
from the colonial
territories
themselves (to
FIRST STEPS which expatriate educationalists and administrators as well as indigenous forces gave their weight), adopted liberal policies of colonial development. in
Education began to claim a larger share
African budgets and the system of grants-in-aid for
local
from the metropolitan countries was greatly
colonial education
extended. Moreover, as an increasing degree of responsibility for local administration devolved
on Africans themselves (espe-
West African territories) the development took on a new burst of speed.
cially in the British
tional
Since 1950 school enrollments in
many
rate of educa-
African countries have
doubled and in some they have trebled or more. Primary-school enrollments in Ghana increased from 114,000
in
1947 to 455,053
combined Eastern and Western regions of Nigeria accelerated programs of expansion brought primary enrollments from 280,000 pupils in 1945 to more than 2,000,000 in 1960. The number of students enrolled in primary schools in French tropical Africa rose from less than at the date of
independence
in 1957. In the
500,000 in 1946 to more than 1,000,000
in 1957.
In the Republic
Congo (former Belgian Congo) enrollments in primary (and preprimary) schools increased from 943,000 to more than
Shortly after the end of World
War
government of the
II the
United Kingdom voted funds for setting up four African university colleges: two in west Africa, at
and
at Ibadan, Nigeria;
one
Legon near Accra, Ghana, Kampala, Uganda
in east Africa, at
(Makerere college); and one in what is now the Republic of Khartoum. In 1957 at Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, a fifth university college, the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, opened its doors; and at Freetown, Sierra Leone, Fourah Bay college, which was already offering some courses at university level, was in 1960 granted university college status. In French Africa the Institute of Higher Studies at Dakar was raised to the status of the University of Dakar in 1957, incorporating the National School of Medicine and Pharmacy on the same site. In the Belgian Congo a private university Lovanium was established in 1954 near Leopoldville, and a state university was established one year later, with its headquarters at Elisabethville and branches in other Congo and Ruanda-Urundi centres. the Sudan, at
—
—
of the
1,460,000 between 1952 and 1960.
Developments
in
The Measure of Achievement Despite the educational progress that has taken place in Africa
secondary education proceeded more slowly,
during the 1950s,
it
cannot be said that
it
has kept pace either
and Portuguese territories, but scores level were established throughout Africa.
with political events or with the economic development of the
Technical and vocational education was given the greatest weight
expansion of need and by the growing awareness of the scale of
especially in the Belgian
of
new
schools at this
of attention in the Belgian
Congo and Ruanda-Urundi and
in
was far from being neglected elsewhere. The training of teachers was everywhere expanding to meet growing needs (although many expatriate teachers were also introduced) and many new institutions were established for the Portuguese territories, but
this purpose.
Adult education
it
in
many
community development projects
different forms, including
of various kinds,
was extended
widely, especially in the French and British dependent territories.
At the
level of university education
studies, important
and other forms of higher
developments took place
in several countries.
continent.
The
rate of
achievement has been overtaken by the
outstanding deficiencies. According to the latest available figures,
compiled by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization
(UNESCO),
only
16%
of children of school
age are enrolled in school in tropical African states as a whole.
—
The proportion about
2%
in
60%
in
some
varies from country to country ranging from former British west African countries to less than
others.
The
figures respectively for primary, sec-
ondary and higher education also show wide variations from one country to another and it is not easy to make generalizations concerning the comparative rates of educational development
Christian missionaries were the principal instruments of education in colonial Africa in the late 19th century. At left an engraver of the times romanticized the meeting of an English
missionary and a Hottentot chieftain of .south Africa. Below, a French priest and his students in an early mission school in the Cameroons, west Africa
43
— WORLD WITHOUT WANT: taking
all
the Western region of Nigeria (8.8%),
the different elements in the picture into account.
From Table
however,
I,
it
is
Sudan (6.5%), Zanzibar (5%), Basutoland and Swaziland (4.5%) and Uganda (4.4%). In many countries the corresponding proportion is less than 1%.
possible to obtain a rough idea of
by this article by the most recent available for primary- and secondary-school enrollments. So far as
the relative position of
all
the countries covered
These figures are quoted
insofar as this can be measured figures
primary-school enrollments are concerned,
it
will
used as a basis for exact comparisons between any two countries without taking into account a whole range of qualitative con-
be seen that the
Western region of Nigeria (which introduced a program of primary-school development in 1955) claimed 100% in 1958, and that this record was approached in Basutoland, the Eastern region of Nigeria, Southern Rhodesia and Ghana, followed by Kenya, Northern Rhodesia, Nyasaland, Swaziland and Uganda in British Africa. In former French Africa, Cameroun, the Republic of Congo and Gabon claimed more than 50% enrollment with the Malagasy Republic following closely behind. The Republic of the Congo, with 71.5% enrollment on the eve of independence, was high on the comparative scale. At the other end of the scale, however, the crude figures for the Northern region of Nigeria (with 7.4% enrollment in primary schools) in British Africa, and for Mali (7.7%), Mauritania (7%), Upper Volta (6.8%) and Niger (3.3%), in French Africa, give an indication of how much remains to be done in these now-independent countries. The record of two traditionally independent countries of Africa Ethiopia and Liberia cannot yet be said to exhibit a standard
siderations that cannot be reduced to statistical measurement.
Nor can they be taken at their face value as a true measure of achievement or need. School enrollment does not exactly measure school attendance, especially in parts of Africa where seasonal
requirements and other demands for child labour priority over regular schooling. Moreover,
now emerging from
colonial status.
themselves.
without
imposed a heavy strain on has been accompanied by uneasiness over the quality of education being imparted
its
penalties. It has certainly
no
little
WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE ministrations,
ment
striking.
Ghana (29.4%
enrolled) heads the
list
1.
— Educational
it
is
evident that a gigantic program of develop-
be needed to bring the educational services of tropical
Africa into line with generally accepted standards. As
done
to be
in
some countries than
the basic elements of the task are
Situation
in
Enrollment by level
Secondory lev
Country of students
No.
of students
pop. 5-14 years 10001
colony (High Commission Territory) British protectorate (High Commission Territory) Former British trust territory; absorbed into Nigeria and
Bechuonaland
Cameroons
Cameroun,
Cameroun Central African Republic
.
Chad Congo, Republic
of.
.
Congo, Republic of the
.
.
.
.
Dahomey Ethiopia
Gabon Gambio Ghana Guinea Ivory Coast Kenya
Malagasy Republic
.
.
.
** a ''
961
Former French trust territory; independent 1960 Former French overseas territory (Ubongi Shori); independent 1960 Former French overseas territory; independent 1 960 Former French overseas territory (Middle Congo); independent 1 960 Former Belgian colony; independent 1960 Former French overseas territory; independent 1 960 Independent constitutional monarchy Former French overseas territory; independent 1 960 British colony and protectorate Former British colony (Gold Coast); independent 1 957 Former French overseas territory; independent 1 958 Former French overseas territory; independent 1960 British
Liberia
1
colony and protectorate
Independent republic Former French overseas territory (Madagascar); independent 1960 Former French overseas territory (Sudan); independent
1960 Mauritania
Former French overseas
Mauritius er
British
,J9
Lagos N. region W. region E. region Rhodesia and Nyasaland
territory;
independent
1
960
colony
Former French overseas territory; independent 1960 Former British colony and protectorate; independent 1960
.
N'geria
.
British
Nyasaland Rhodesia
Ruanda-Urundi Senegal Sierra Leone Somali Republic
udan | Swaziland Tanganyika
Belgian
trust territory
Former French overseas territory; independent 1 960 Former British colony and protectorate; independent 1 961 Former Italian trust territory and British protectorate; independent 1960 Former Anglo-Egyptian condominium; independent 1956 British protectorate (High Commission Territory) Former British trust territory; independent 961 Former French trust, territory; independent 1960 1
J°9° Uganda Upper Volta
British
protectorate
Former French overseas
territory;
independent
Zanzibar
British protected state Source: Statistics of population and pupils taken by the
44
most African
1958 1958 1958 1959-60
119,478 31,193 54,844 371,421
1,404
165 84 391
13,808
1957-58 1959-60
45,774 53,973
1,480 1,473
1957-58 1959-60 1959-60 1958-59 1957-58 1958 1959 1959-60 1957-58 1958 1959-60
78,962 1,460,753 81,107 158,005 39,763 4,595
483,425 79,373 125,727 651,758 55,026
1959-60
364,217
1957-58 1957-58 1958 1957-58 1958 1958 1958 1958 1958
42,053 6,493 109,370 11,811
2,545,336 56,688
230,000 1,037,377 1,221,271
3,042
Ratio of Ratio of enrollment Estimated enrollment od|usted pop. 15-19 adjusted to pop. 5-14 years to pop. 15-19 for duration 10001 for duration of school of school
67
4.5
1
34 64 332
0.8 3.0
117
0.9 0.4
795
90.5 46.4 20.0 77.8
280 647
27.2 13.8
271
3,259
187
51,671 3,618 8,144 1,156
3,405 431 5,338
70.3 71.5 31.3
485
78 1,426
3.8
180 2,235
101
65.7
41
794
72
178,581 4,563 5,104 20,291 3,397
1,208
10.7 66.7 19.7 32.7
671 641
1.4
3.0 3.0 1.4
30
0.5 2.0 2.2
506
29.4
281
1.1
1,562
52.1
269 654
308
22.4
129
25,290
1,299
46.7
544
1.4
2,749 291 16,243 395 117,414 6,376 8,098 73,282 29,658
918
7.7 7.0
384 65
0.5
0.3 18.1
1.4
3.9 3.3
155 153
100.0
64
603
3.3
252
0.1
8,129 83 4,439 1,657 1,950
42.9 85.4 7.4
3,403 35 1,858
2.9 15.2 0.3
100.0 78.3
694 816
8.8 3.0
53.9
237 279 272 484 235 247
2.6
50.5 83.5 35.5 23.8 21.0
2,819
10.2 12.8
1,180
67
55.9 24.1
41,633 2,447
2,193 411 1,603 991
27 918
31.8 52.2
172 671
6.8
415
1,232
75
25.0
31
self-governing colony and two protectorates
N. Rhodesia S.
to
and But
Ratio of enrollment to school-age population by level Primory level Secondary level
Estimated
No.
British
common
in others.
Emergent Africa Today
Primory level
Basutoland
we have
seen, the situation varies in different parts of the region
a wide margin, the next in order of percentage enrollment being
Table
will
much more needs
by
it
Despite the progress which has been made under colonial ad-
in school in 1959,
even more
and
by untrained teachers.
was
is
rapid expansion in primary-school enrollments
the budgets of these countries,
Only
and in Liberia the corresponding proportion modest 22.4%. [Here and below, post-independence names are used for the emergent countries of Africa. Ed.] At the secondary-school level the lack of adequate provision
The
which has taken place in some countries (for example, in Ghana and in the Eastern and Western regions of Nigeria) has not been
of Ethiopian children of primary-school age were enrolled
a
have
still
takes no account of
the adequacy of school buildings and equipment, the proportion
—
3.8%
it
of teachers to pupils or the professional standards of the teachers
,
of emulation for those
magnitude of
to illustrate orders of
quantitative achievement and deficiency, and they should not be
UNESCO
1
960
statistics division
from
1958-59 1958 1958 1958 1957-58 1959
243,926 269,693 433,459 246,149 80,473
1958-59 1959-60 1958 1958 1959 1959 1959-60 1958
16,485 288,395 29,934 422,832 78,689 501,699 40,543
74,481
official publications
14,982
and country
4,948 3,042 6,485 5,480 6,102 8,277 1,828 60,941 1,066 15,315 2,373
566 667 649 1,156 561
590 325
replies to questionnaires.
136
1.4
3.0 0.9 1.9
2.8 0.8 6.5 4.5 2.1
1.0 4.4 0.4 5.0
FIRST STEPS states
and the principal needs described
in the following
para-
graphs would (with occasional exceptions) be generally acknowl-
They were the subject of detailed discussion recommendations for action) at the Conference on African cation, held under the auspices of UNESCO and the UN nomic Commission for Africa at Addis Ababa, Eth., in May
(and
edged.
EduEco1961.
School Building and Equipment In order to provide for the enormous increase in school population expected will
be needed
by 1980, in
a large-scale
program
of school building
every country. At the primary level there
an extreme shortage of classrooms and
many
is
existing buildings
do not meet modern requirements. Thousands of children are now taught beneath the shade of trees or under the cover of a grass roof supported by poles, and many more substantial "classrooms" are grossly overcrowded. There have been some remarkable contributions of voluntary labour to build classrooms
and
and there are prospects of many more, but even in these cases some building materials and equipment are usually required. In secondary schools and in higher educational institutions there is the added need for student dormitories, housing for rural schools,
teachers, laboratories
and other
facilities.
These needs are a challenge to school architects and builders to develop quick and economical methods of construction on the basis of simple designs
most suited
to African conditions.
The
need for research on building materials and methods (in which international co-operation might play an increasingly useful part)
Addis Ababa conference. equipment and textbooks in most pathetically inadequate. There is an urgent
was specially emphasized
The
at the
Students eagerly responding to a question in a class-
existing provision of
African schools
is
room at Kano, in the Northern region of Nigeria where only an estimated 7.4% of the primary-age
need for laboratory equipment, audio-visual and other teaching
The problem of producing sufficient numbers of textbooks adapted to new curriculum requirements and African conditions
population
is
enrolled in school
aids.
is critical.
problems
It calls for the solution of
many
difficult
— including the provision of material printing — meet expanding African
presses and distributive processes
tune with African cultural needs have yet to be trained.
in
production
facilities,
The Supply of Teachers The number
to
demand. Moreover, enough capable textbook writers U.S. college students helping to build a school in
sufficiently
Dahomey
in 1961.
Such voluntary labour has been important in classroom construction desperately needed by many of the new African nations
complete the
of trained teachers needed
by African
states to
Far too by completely untrained teachers.
staffing of existing schools is formidable.
many
schools are
If the
needs of school expansion, according to existing plans, are
now
staffed
added, the problem reaches vast proportions. There can be
doubt that hundreds of thousands of additional teachers
needed
in
African schools by 1980 and that this will
little
will
be
call for
a
massive expansion of middle and secondary schools, as well as
As things stand today
most major educational progress and the problem which calls
teacher-training
institutions.
African countries, the shortage of trained teachers bottleneck to for
most urgent
is
in
the
attention.
At the secondary- and technical-school
level
it is
acknowledged
that the supply of African teachers cannot be expected to meet
many
expanding needs for
years to
supply of expatriate teachers
The shortage
is
is
come and
that an increased
urgently needed to bridge the gap.
especially acute in the technical
instruction included in the
and agricultural
new secondary-school curriculums.
The Content of Education There
is
a general
agreement among those who are familiar
with the present educational situation in Africa that more than a
mere expansion
—
will
be needed
—whether of classrooms or teachers
in
numbers
if
the schools of the future are to provide the
skilled manpower essential for economic development. Thus it was emphasized at Addis Ababa that new directions in educational programs were needed to respond to changing patterns of African economic and social life. Many innovations in curriculums and methods of tuning have been introduced in African schools, but it is fen that more radical changes are needed to give greater meaning and actuality to schoolwork in the
45
WORLD WITHOUT WANT: changing African scene. Above education
is
all,
more
association with productive activities.
are
still
technical and vocational
needed, within the school systems themselves and in
As most African countries
predominantly agricultural, the needs of rural
require
life
and agricultural education should be given
special attention,
its
secondary schools. These figures cover a wide range of variations
from Basutoland, where more where
literate), to the
are educated than boys (and
girls
the female population
in fact nearly all
Muslim areas
population. In most African countries there
be adapted to rural needs and interests, and emphasis should be
crease in the
placed on the necessity of modernizing agriculture.
throughout schooling up to
tional education has
been closely tied
to the
changing pattern of
employment prospects. Some large business enterprises, for example, the United Africa company, Union Miniere du Haut Katanga, the Firestone Plantations company and East African Railways and Harbours, have for schools for their
own employees,
to in-service training
many
years founded vocational
special attention being
and apprenticeship
devoted
to such trades as cabi-
said to be
Africa where girls account for a very small fraction of the school
proper status. Curriculums and instructional techniques should
In the industrial and commercial sectors the progress of voca-
is
of Nigeria and other parts of west
number
beyond. Very few
is
a progressive de-
from one class to the next the end of the primary course and
of girls attending
girls
are enrolled in courses at the university
level. It
has long been recognized that this backwardness
education of
girls is socially wasteful,
depriving the
of urgently needed professional skills in nursing, teaching
and more enAfrican society. Con-
the social services and hindering the emergence of a
lightened concept of the role of siderable
women
in
improvement has taken place
in recent years,
netmaking, metallurgy, automobile maintenance, draftsmanship
some parts
and electronics. Some governments established trade schools but was retarded by the lack of demand for crafts-
servative religious and social forces. Special efforts will
men
prestige value, not to speak of the
their expansion
in the interwar years.
Generally speaking, clerical employ-
mand
women
of technical-training facilities followed. bitious
success of the
am-
Progress in
ments
many
but in
by conbe needed
likely to be delayed
is
but a wider recognition of the
improved earning power, of a
schooling
is
certain to play
its
part.
countries will be assisted by special arrange-
for the education of girls, the
growth
in the
number
of
teachers and changes in curriculums designed to meet
the needs and interests of future
homemakers.
economic development plans which have been adopted
(or are being proposed) by the in
The
difficulties,
who has had some
girl
and technical workers, and a great expansion
of Africa progress
overcome these
to
ment was most popular and more readily available than craft and technical work. However, the economic expansion in most African territories after World War II resulted in an enormous defor craftsmen
the
in
community
no small measure depend on
new governments a
still
training facilities on a realistic basis.
of Africa will
Higher Education Even
further expansion of these
The
use of
manpower
sur-
in
in countries
where
significant progress has
been made
recent years, the capacity of African educational institutions
what
veys to establish indications of future labour and professional
of university level falls far short of
requirements of various kinds and, consequently, the need for
growing numbers of technicians, administrators and business and
been found
different types of technical instruction has already
helpful by
more
some African governments and might
well be adopted
required to train the
professional workers without whose services no
modern
state
can hope to survive. Only 0.2% of university-age youth are enrolled in higher institutions
extensively.
is
and a large expansion of capacity
is
everywhere needed.
The Education
of Girls
Ambitious plans for the extension and development of uni-
The educational progress which has taken place to the present has not
in
Africa up
been shared equally by boys and
girls.
versities
and other higher educational institutions have already
been adopted by several African countries. Thus the government
The education
of Nigeria has decided to
of boys in
enrollments
of girls developed much more slowly than that most parts of the continent, and the latest available
figures reveal that girls account for less than
primary-school enrollment and only
Czechoslovakia)! physical education instructor teaching high school girls of Guinea girls in
to dance. Education of African countries has been
largely neglected until recently
46
22%
30%
of African
of the enrollment in
in all
aim
at the target of 10,000 student
Nigerian universities by 1970 (compared with
a total of 1,000 today and the figure of 7,500
recommended by
the commission which was set up to investigate higher education
FIRST STEPS
Biology laboratory, University college, Ghana, one of several universities established in Africa by the United Kingdom after World War II
needs over the next 20 years). Already established are the university
college
at
Ibadan and the University of Nigeria at
Nsukka. A start has also been made with a university for the Northern region, while the Western regional government has authorized the establishment of the University of Ife.
The
fed-
government also plans to establish by 1962 the University of Lagos, and a number of existing colleges of arts, science, technology and agriculture will be assimilated to or associated with
eral
or write. Literacy campaigns have already
had considerable sucsome African countries and these should be extended and
cess in
developed. Adult education
is
In Ghana the College of Technology at
the African of
community and
to give
their studies.
The
Kumasi has been
raised
thousands
university colleges of Ghana, Nigeria and
attended by thousands of adult students each year.
Legon, it is to be greatly expanded in size. In Kenya the Royal Technical college in Nairobi is also to be raised to university status and, together with Makerere college in Uganda and
tories
and
where
satisfied
at
university college in Tanganyika,
it
will
Similar developments are tak-
of that extensive region.
or no
form part of
the "federal" University of East Africa serving the four coun-
French Africa. The University of Dakar is to be enlarged. In the Malagasy Republic the Higher Education centre at Antananarivo became a university providing a full course on Nov. 1, 1961. It is planned that the Abidjan Higher ing place in former
Studies centre will be the University of the Ivory Coast.
while the Brazzaville University centre in the Republic of
MeanCongo
has already become the hub of higher educational activity in
former French Equatorial Africa.
While these far-reaching developments are taking shape will of
to
schooling to continue
East Africa (Makerere) have for several years offered hundreds
courses have been provided in
tries
an opportunity
men and women who have had some
to university status and, as in the case of the existing university
new
for spreading an
of extension courses in a wide range of subjects which are eagerly
the regional universities.
a
also essential
understanding of the great social and technical changes facing
it
course be necessary to increase the existing facilities for
in the
work of
some
Similar
of the former French terri-
Republic of the Congo. But the demand
is
and there are many parts of Africa where this
kind has so far been accomplished.
Adult education of a more vocational or practical type
many
no-
little
is
in
African countries provided by government or private
agencies through continuation schools, such as the Jeanes school
Kiambu, Kenya, where the emphasis is laid on community development including training in village management, home in
methods, literacy and health campaigns and so on. Community development work has spread throughout many parts of east and west Africa, but it covers crafts, child care, better business
only a small proportion of the local communities in which it might perform a useful service. In this field an extension of library services still meagre throughout Africa and the in-
—
—
creased use of mass communications media have an important role to play.
providing university training in foreign countries, especially in those fields of study not available at home.
The expansion
of
higher education in Africa will require not only costly new, as
from overseas
to
fill
a field in
is
terms of categories applicable to almost any developing society, by no means does justice to all the elements in the African yearning for more and better education. Complex indeed con-
become available in adequate numbers. which educationally more advanced countries
and schojars. Even greater
in helping
African institu-
efforts are likely to be called for
plement where it
to is
the
—tendencies
—
seek satisfaction in educational terms:
the desire to give expression to an indigenous cultural identity,
and music and to assert the characteristic features of contemporary
Adult Education of adult education
tradictory
at once to express forgotten riches of African history, art
during the next 20 years.
The expansion
Education
but the foregoing account of them, conventionally expressed in
have already played an important part tions
in African
evident that African educational needs are formidable,
and
qualified African scholars
This
It is
teaching appointments until
well as enlarged, institutions, but also hundreds of professors
instructors
The Cultural Factor
programs
is
an essential com-
advancement of formal education
in
a
region
estimated that 100,000,000 people are unable to read
African nationalism, while at the same time coming to terms with the technological ne^s of modern society. Tb these issues rages widel) and furiously wherever politic
illy
con-
scious Africans (and their well-wishers ) are gatlu-i
a
— WORLD WITHOUT WANT: meet in one way or another. In fact a serious attempt was made to estimate the costs (on clearly explained principles) of everything that was proposed. The results of the exercise are
and there is no consensus concerning the precise measures that should be taken. The outcome will vary from country to country, reflecting differences in contemporary attitudes and political
ing ends
timetables as well as basic economic needs and cultural influ-
distinctly sobering, but they are nonetheless valuable.
ences, but in in the
or
ill,
varying forms
its
changing content of education and, to some extent, good in its institutional
arrangements and practices.
These matters are such that they hands of Africans themselves. There
be
will best
in the
however, be plenty
will,
for international intellectual co-operation on
—
experiment
in fields of crucial practical
importance for Africa
such as tropical diseases, arid-zone cultivation, the use of solar energy, resource conservation and animal biology
—
is
likely to
present endless opportunities for scientific collaboration across national frontiers.
there
is
resources to do
The
more modest 5-year plan covering
much
so
to
to be universal,
compulsory and be provided to
level to
plete primary schools;
mostly
with, hard choices have to be
it
made. This
is
concerned, but one
is
which African governments are beginning to face with more realism than was expected by many observers. Most African
(3)
of the children
of those
—
—
economic development, the cadres for higher edumanpower on which the modern world depends and the teachers to instruct for
the
new
millions of primary-school students foreshadowed in
the long-term plan.
The
specific targets of the short-term plan
an annual increase at the primary
5%
spending between one-tenth and one-fifth of their income on
education to increase from the present
9%;
These proportions compare favourably with the corresponding proportions in many advanced countries, and they are an indication of the importance which the governments concerned attach to educational progress. But the sums yielded,
If this
sistance
in the
many
African countries,
absence of considerable financial as-
from outside sources
it
is
difficult
to see
how much
progress can be made.
In any case,
it
will
to different elements in the
picture. What importance should be attached, for example, to primary, secondary, technical and higher education respectively,
and what share of
The appeal
total resources should
make
it
it
is powerful but some imposes tremendous financial bur-
difficult for
them
secondary and technical education. ing
be allocated to each?
of universal primary education
countries have found that
dens which
from country
to
pay proper attention
Some balance
is
to
needed, vary-
and changing within each country ensure not only that the most important
to country
as time goes by, to
immediate requirements are not sacrificed but also that phased progress
is
to long-term ideals,
made toward comprehensive
goals.
One
of the
most valuable features of the Conference on
African Education was that these considerations were borne in mind. The conference was attended not only by departments of education but also by representatives of departments of finance and a group of distinguished economists who were specially concerned with the financial aspects of the policies under considera-
Thus the recommendations that were adopted, far-reaching though they were, do not ignore the practical exigencies of maktion.
48
to
51%;
(2) secondary-level
3%
of the age group to
and to adult education programs. program were realized in full it would, according
to
the conference estimates, increase primary-school enrollments
by a third and double the number of secondary-level places. It would increase the capacity of higher educational institutions by 20%. The financial estimates are based on fairly conservative capital and recurrent-cost assumptions at different levels, and take into account requirements for equipment, student residence, teacher
be necessary to plan carefully and to de-
what weight should be given
cide
40%
(3) special attention to be paid to the training of teachers
at all levels
cational projects.
level of
of the beginning age group, which will increase
enrollment from the present
spending more than one-fifth of their capital budgets on edu-
and
main emphasis
cation which will in turn provide the high-level
an additional
despite fairly high levels of taxation in
its
on secondary-level education which produces the specialized
education budgets are already high in relation to other charges on national budgets as a whole. Several governments are now
are not large,
who complete secondary
and universities to be a constant aim. The fulfillment of this plan would bring enrollments at the primary level from 11,187,000 in 1961-62 to 32,808,000 in 1980 nearly a threefold increase. At the secondary level, enrollment would increase from 816,000 to 5,905,400 more than sevenfold. Higher education would become available for 328,000 students, 13 times more than the 25,000 receiving various forms of higher education today. It will be seen that it would call for a gigantic program of expansion. The short-term plan was designed to increase total enrollments from the present figure of somewhat more than 12,000,000 to
as: (1)
three regional governments of Nigeria have recently been
who com-
higher education to be provided,
20%
in Africa itself, to
(2) education at the sec-
free;
30%
were defined
it.
the form
education; (4) the improvement of the quality of African schools
manpower
be done and where there are so few
first in
the years 1961-66.
somewhat more than 17,000,000 by 1966. But
a painful truth where African education
The
—the
targets for the long-term plan were: (1) primary education
ondary
is
THE FINANCIAL BURDEN Where
sets of proposals were presented
of an ambitious 20-year plan covering the years 1961-80; the
second, a left
two broad fronts cultural and scientific. In the first place there will be increasing scope for scholarly as well as financial assistance from overseas friends in support of research and the training of specialists in African archaeology, history, languages, culture and art. Universities and other learned institutions in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Belgium and many other countries have for some time been engaged in work of this kind, but the field is wide and relatively unexplored. On the scientific side the need for intensified research and
room
of
Two
will surely find its expression
it
housing and the improvement of existing school buildings.
5%
An
added to cover the cost of adult education, including research, equipment and training. The figures may be summarized as follows: the annual cost of the long-term plan is expected to reach $1,882,000,000 by 1970-71 arbitrary
of total estimates
and $2,593,000,000 is
in
is
1980-81; the cost of the short-term plan
estimated to rise from $584,000,000 in 1961-62 to $1,154,-
000,000 in 1965-66.
These figures are large (and might well prove to be underit may be questioned whether it is likely to be within the capacity of most African states, especially those whose estimates) and
heavy burden within was noted that even the base-year estimate of $584,000,000 will be met only with the help of $140,000,000 in various forms of external aid. For later years a much larger deficit is envisaged even after assuming a steady increase in local financial contributions, based somewhat speculatively on an assumed willingness of the states concerned to raise the percentage of their national income devoted to financing education from the present 3% to 4% by 1965 and to 6% by 1980. It may be doubted whether the long-term estimates should in any case be taken as more than very broad indications, subject educational need
is
greatest, to carry such a
the foreseeable future. It
P%Jg
Women to
of
Ghana
learning to read, part of a stepped-up literacy campaign by the government of
wide margins of possible error. The financial implications of
They would
the short-term plan are sufficiently onerous.
engage
new forms
of regional and international co-operation.
call for
heroic efforts and heavy but not impossible sacrifices on the part
and more than a threefold increase (from 1961-62 to $450,000,000 in 1965-66) in the
The Need for Educational Planning The
of the people of Africa,
$140,000,000 in
in
Kwame Nkrumah
volume of help from abroad.
scale of educational
by African
development now generally envisaged r
have such important implications for na-
states will
in
and for the economies of countries as a whole is bound to be an essential element the planning of economic and social development in general.
If
education
tional budgets
that the planning of education
The
Possibilities of
The estimated so
heavy that
it
Economy
cost of educational raises the question
supported by African finances, even financial aid
is
The assumed
development whether if
the
it
in Africa is
can in fact be
volume of external
increased on the scale suggested at the conference. increase in the share of the extremely
modest na-
is
to play its
proper role in producing the manpower
needed for economic development to the requirements of national tries
may
it
must be carefully geared
development plans. Rich coun-
be able to afford mistakes
in the
use of their resources,
but no African country can afford to do
so.
It
is
important,
education
therefore, that departments of education should be represented
would have budgetary consequences far more burdensome than the same proportionate increases would have in more developed societies. Yet if these burdens cannot be supported, the newly
on central planning institutions, that manpower development
tional
incomes of African countries to be devoted
dilemma
to
bodies should be established in association with those institutions
and
that, within
departments of education themselves, planning
of having to choose
groups should be created to undertake such tasks as collecting
between limiting their objectives retarding the pace of eduand seeking a cational development at least in some sectors greater degree of financial dependence upon the outside world (if indeed this possibility remains open to themj than might be
educational statistics, making long-range forecasts of educational
emergent states
will face the cruel
—
thought compatible with their newly the pace of educational expansion
most certainly have the and,
in a
is
—
won
political
freedom. If
retarded unduly,
effect of retarding
it
will al-
economic development
vicious circular way, limiting further the possibility of
educational advance.
On
the other hand,
it
would be unwise for
needs, estimating the costs of educational programs, revising cur-
riculums, planning teacher training and recruitment, conducting
research in
new educational technology such
ing, radio, television
and visual
aids,
as programed learnand formulating plans for
the financing of education, including the co-ordinating of external aid for this purpose. It
is
of considerable interest
and encouragement that pro-
posals along these lines were adopted unanimously at the Con-
African states to count on a volume of foreign aid so large as
ference on African Education and that
to be highly problematical. It follows that serious effort should
Nigeria, have already been able to demonstrate the usefulness of
be devoted to discovering ways of achieving the objectives of
relating long-range educational planning to broad
educational progress in Africa at the smallest possible cost. This will
use
countries, notably
economic development needs, including future manpower requirements.
require careful and farsighted planning so that the best is
made
economies will
some
of available resources. It will also require vigorous
in
school buildings and equipment.
almost certainly
call for
More than
this
it
imaginative technological innova-
tion in the business of providing education
and a willingness to
Economies
in
Building and Equipment
Foreign visitors tc
v schools and colleges are often struck by the thought that the physical standards of many of these institutions would be regarded as extravagant in many richer I
WORLD WITHOUT WANT: communities, and that there has sometimes been a tendency reproduce, with
to
modification, styles of architecture, layout
little
and accommodation, not to speak of pedagogical equipment, organization and method, appropriate to an entirely differertt climatic and cultural environment. Several postwar developments
new approaches are now being made to this suband some valuable experience has been gained, particularly low-cost school construction. The need for more appropriate,
indicate that
search institutes concerned with the technology of teaching and learning. It
efficient
and economical school design and construction
is
now
generally recognized, although the politically seductive appeal of
"prestige" building has
still
reckoned with.
to be
felt that
the prospective
demand
for teachers in
economize their use without a lowering of educational standards might have a decisive effect on the timely accomplishment of the ambitious programs that were being planned.
Important services might also be realized if newly independent were prepared to co-operate on a regional or even broader
ject,
in
was
African schools was such that any development which would
states
basis in the joint financing
teaching
institutions
and common use of research and
specializing
in particular fields, such as medicine and technology, which require expensive capital equip-
This subject received considerable attention at the Conference on African Education, and an important decision was announced by UNESCO to establish "a Central Planning Group, consisting
ment. Unfortunately some constructive developments
team of administrators, architects, engineers and education experts who would prepare costed plans and standard elements embracing secondary school administration, including residential accommodation for staff and pupils." The group (which would also act as a training unit) would begin its work in Khartoum but would maintain contact with local specialists throughout Africa and with bodies already working on school construction
mentation.
of a
problems, such as the Committee for Technical Co-operation
in
in
this
direction during the last phase of colonial administration, notably in
west Africa, have been reversed as a result of political frag-
It is certainly to be hoped that this is no more than temporary phase and that new forms of intra-African cooperation will be established wherever technical and practical
a
considerations point to their usefulness.
Methods of Finance However tional
carefully the new states of Africa plan their educadevelopment, however rigorous their economies, however
Africa South of the Sahara, the National Institute of Pedagogy
successful their technological innovation, the cost of an adequate
France and the Technical Bureau for the Rationalization of
program of expansion is bound to be enormous, and the part which falls on national budgets is certain to be a heavy burden,
in
School Building
the
in
Congo
at Leopoldville.
At the suggestion of the United Kingdom (which offered to it was decided also to establish a mobile development group which would be responsible for actually carrying out low-cost development projects supply the necessary professional leadership),
in collaboration
with national educational building organizations.
The group would
also concern itself with the design of school
furniture and equipment and with problems of economical school
maintenance.
A
proposal to establish an advisory centre
for
education building was also accepted.
The
Possibilities of Technological Innovation
Careful planning and skilful economies will help a great deal limiting the
in
enormous increase
development programs are bound consideration whether a
more
in
costs
which the African
to entail, but
it
is
worthy of the whole
especially in the poorest countries. For this reason African gov-
ernments are giving earnest consideration to possible changes in methods of educational financing which will relieve the load falling
on the individual taxpayer each year. African poverty
such that the payment of tuition fees
is
not likely to
is
make a
significant contribution to the financing of African education,
and some African countries the meagreness of taxable resources and the political difficulties of increasing the poll tax, often the principal form of direct tax, seem to limit severely the possibility of raising additional direct taxation. As general economic development takes place, however, the yield of existing taxes may be expected to rise and it would certainly be appropriate for a large in
part of the increased yield to be invested in education.
The Conference on African Education looked
wistfully in the
pears to be a basic assumption of most educational planning that
was acknowledged that the savings capacity of many African states was still low and that any sums that could be borrowed from bank deposits, savings banks
no fundamental changes are to be expected in the process of itself, nor consequently in the organization and time-
matics
radical
approach to
question might not produce even more significant results. It ap-
learning
table of this process.
Thus
it is
generally assumed that a tradi-
tional period of pedagogical time
ing boys
and
girls
is
inevitably needed for teach-
to read, to write,
to
perform arithmetical
operations and to understand and use a strange language, and
number of pupils for whom a single teacher is responcannot go beyond a traditionally accepted limit without loss
that the sible
Yet there is a growing body of evidence from experiments now being conducted in the United States and elsewhere which suggests that the learning practices in certain of teaching efficiency.
can be significantly shortened by the use of special programed learning devices and other aids. Much more research and experimentation have yet to be done before any final judgment can be given concerning the usefulness of these new methods, but enough appears to be known to justify the most serious consideration of their applicability to African conditions. Programed learning methods are such that they have to be adapted to particular circumstances and it would be necessary to train a number of African teachers (or others working fields
in
African schools) to produce special kinds of programs to meet
specific needs.
some time
The Conference on African Education devoted
to the consideration of these possibilities,
and
it
decided to establish in Africa one or more development and
50
was re-
direction of loan finance, but
it
The use of programed learning techniques, such as the course in matheshown in the photograph, is expected to play an important role
in the educational planning oj the
new African
nations
FIRST STEPS or postal check accounts should be earmarked primarily for rapidly self-amortizing investments, leaving only international
method
loans as a possible
of financing long-term capital expendi-
and expensive foreign equipment not covered by international grant aid. The International Development assotures on buildings
Bank
ciation (affiliated to the International
and Development)
in fact
for Reconstruction
make 50-year
decided in 1961 to
loans,
and and higher education should be financed in that way in Africa, on the grounds that it is a legitimate element in long-term investment in economic development. This is indeed true, and some expansion of loan financing for educational purposes may be expected, but most loans have to be repaid sooner or later and there is a limit to the burden of loan services that any state can safely assume. The problem is not likely to be solved easily or soon, and much will depend upon the help which is forthcoming from overseas. repayable by installments,
UNESCO
to
recommended
has
finance
technical
schools,
that secondary
INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION IN AFRICAN EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT From
European association with the peoby funds voluntarily contributed by their co-religionists at home, have
the International Cooperation administration designated $21,000,000
made
for African educational projects
the earliest days of
ple of tropical Africa, missionary teachers, supported
their contribution to African education. Financial adminis-
trative direction
though
it
and assistance came
later
and very slowly,
interesting to recall that the first grants-in-aid for
in
Africa were
made by
the British parliament in 1808
(included in the establishment vote for Sierra Leone),
than 20 years before
money
it
more
accepted any responsibility for spending
for education in Britain itself.
Apart from voluntarily
contributed funds from abroad the development of African edu-
when fostered and directed by colonial administrawas for the most part financed out of local resources until after World War II. However, the value of this fostering and direction should not be underestimated. Whatever its faults and limitations, it laid the foundations of modern education in Africa. cation, even
tions,
It
introduced a concept of education as a social institution basic
to healthy political, social
and economic growth, and
it
created
an administrative framework without which no orderly educational
advance would have been possible. Moreover, a long
series
of reports on policies and problems in African education, pre-
pared with the help of distinguished educators
the
in
US.
up a program of scholarships in Congo. In 1961
universities for students of the Republic of the
al-
is
education
U.S. foreign aid administrator setting
home
And
the small trickle of African students studying in
fore the
war grew
territories,
couraged
in
to a flood in the case of the British
though for policy reasons
this
Europe beand French
development was
dis-
Belgian and Portuguese Africa for several years more.
Kingdom aid to more than Si 6,000.000. This included the following allocations from the Colonial Development and Welfare Fund: According to British
African education
in
official
estimates. United
1959-60 amounted
to
Higher education Technical and vocational education Primary and secondary education Miscellaneous
53,169,572 692,784 2,756.824 1 .409,724
Total
$8,028,904
In addition, grants for general educational purposes totaling
$572,504 were made, mainly for the benefit of African
The educational
activities of the British council
territories.
were expected
to
commonwealth countries (and noncommonwealth countries) of Africa in 1961—
account for $1,218,000
in
the
countries of the colonial administrations, bears witness to the
$572,600
high seriousness and intellectual competence with which this
62.
work was regarded. The missionary teaching contribution of the United States dates back to the early 19th century, and the work of two commissions sponsored by the Phelps-Stokes Fund which
government and private sources
made
amounted to approximately $5,600,000 a year. In addition, considerable sums have been allocated to assist African education by private institutions such as the Nuffield foundation and the Leverhulme trust. The number of African students in United Kingdom universities and technical colleges exceeded 11,500 (including nearly 6,000 from Nigeria) in the academic year 1959-60. Many of them paid their own tuition fees. Others were financed by their own governments, by business firms and private endowments -
studies in the colonial territories in the 1920s
edged to have been of inestimable value
in the
is
acknowl-
preparatory work
on the educational needs of Africa. Financial assistance from overseas, which was meagre and slow to increase in
World War II, bewhen the war came Colonial Development and Welfare acts the United Kingdom provided for con-
most African
gan to be contributed on to
an end.
A
(starting in
siderable
and
in the
series of
1940) in
sums
in
French
a
territories before
much
larger scale
support of education territories the
Developpement Economique
in the
African colonies,
Fonds d"Investissements pour
le
et Social (F.I.D.E.S.. established in
1946) began to allocate financial resources for education on a considerable scale.
In the Belgian and Portuguese territories
greater reliance was placed on local public resources for educational purposes, but
some
grants-in-aid, low-interest loans
voluntary contributions were received
in
and
particular instances
from the metropolitan countries. Meanwhile increasing numbers of teachers and instructors began to go out from Britain. France, Belgium and Portugal to teach in African schools and colleges.
The
in the
cost of certain types of "hidden" assistance to
is difficult
from British
measure, but
it
is
estimated that in the case of African students studying in British universities, technical colleges
and training colleges the element
of hidden assistance
hundred received scholarships or training bursaries financed from public funds.
According to French
official
estimates, aid to African education
financed out of French government funds
mately $35,000,000
in
1960.
amounted to approxiHelp was given in the form of
educational planning and policy missions six in
l%0-t)l
i
;
ing needs; the provision terials
;
i
of
which there were
collaboration in adapting curriculums to chancif
school equipment and teaching
ma-
the supply of teaching staff and administrative personnel
and the financing uf school building and enlargement. Early
in
u
WORLD WITHOUT WANT: 1961 about 3,200 French teachers were employed in African schools,
technical-training institutions
and higher educational
establishments (not counting the 1,500 French teachers in CathProtestant or other private schools). Total expenditure from French government funds toward the cost of providing these olic,
teachers
amounted
to $22,000,000 in 1960. In addition, the
Fonds
d'Aide et des Co-operation (F.A.C.) contributed $6,000,000 to-
ward the building or enlargement of public 000
to finance
50%
schools,
of the cost of building
new
and $1,200,or enlarging
existing private schools. Another part of the cost is borne by the Development Fund for Overseas Countries and Territories of the European Economic Community, to which France contributes 40%. Help in training teachers and support for higher educational institutions include large contributions toward the cost of primary teacher-training courses and schools and pedagogic training centres for secondary teachers. In addition, the French budget pays all the costs of building and operation of higher educational centres in
most former French African
should be added the cost of almost
all
territories.
granted to students attending these establishments
AFRICAN EDUCATION
PROGRAMS IN
1961
Meeting of women's league, Nyasaland, a group studying home economics and assisting each other co-operatively in
household management
To
this
the university scholarships
(approxi-
mately 2,000 in 1960). Large numbers of African students benefit from attendance at higher educational institutions in France.
Approximately 3,000 are the holders of scholarships toward the cost of which France makes an important contribution.
Bilateral Assistance Foreign aid from countries which had no colonial responsibilities in
Africa was for long limited to the support of mission
schools, the benefactions of bodies such as the Phelps-Stokes
Fund, the Carnegie Corporation of New York and the Rockefeller foundation and the support of small numbers of African Course
in bricklaying at the
Technical institute of Khar-
toum, Sudan
students in schools and colleges in Europe and North America.
Government
aid (outside of colonial arrangements) for African
War II, and even then was on a very small scale. For some time United States government aid to African education was given mainly in support of projects in the two traditionally independent countries, Ethiopia and Liberia, which have had Point Four programs since the early 1950s. Some indirect support, however, was given to developments in the African dependencies as part of the United States contribution to the European Recovery program, and in the late 1950s the International Cooperation administration began to show increased interest in educational developments throughout tropical Africa. The amount to be spent for the year 1960-61 was approximately $25,000,000, covering extensive education programs in Ethiopia, Liberia, Sudan, the Somali Republic and Nigeria and some important developments in other countries. A number of regional centres were also established for the education did not begin until after World it
Class learning operate to stenotype machines at the Institute of Administration, Zaria, Nigeria
preparation of educational materials, assistance has been pro-
vided to school building and about 200 training fellowships have
been awarded. In 1961 the International Cooperation administration launched a special program for tropical Africa (SPTA) which concentrated on "upgrading or establishing formal educa-
tion institutions
and systems, vocational education and teacher-
training activities, and scholarship grants."
A
total of
more than
$21,000,000 was designated for 23 educational projects in 11 African countries and a variety of co-operative regional projects.
New
ground was broken in east Africa with the inauguration of under which 150 U.S. teachers will serve
a teacher-supply plan in schools in
Uganda, Kenya, Zanzibar and Tanganyika after a
period of training at Makerere college.
A number east African
of U.S. education advisers were also sent to help governments explore new ways of speeding up the
provision of African secondary-school teachers. In another im-
portant
52
SPTA
contribution toward reducing the critical shortage
FIRST STEPS of educated Africans, the U.S. government joined with 150 U.S.
and universities
colleges
to provide four-year
undergraduate
in-
struction for 300 African students in the United States. Plans for 1961-62 envisaged a considerable expansion of these pro-
grams, and the Peace Corps
developments
in several
is
to be used to support educational
African countries.
U.S. help for African education
is
by no means confined
to
government-assisted schemes. The educational work of the Christian missions continues to be
supported on a generous scale.
Moreover, the great foundations, particularly the Carnegie Corporation of New York and the Ford and Rockefeller foundations, have played a valuable role not only by assisting particular proj-
by stimulating and providing an advantageous setThe Ford
ects but also
ting for the discussion of African educational problems.
foundation has greatly increased
its
help to African education.
Grants have been made to the education departments of universities
and
to regional institutions, such as the
guages council. The foundation has
West African Lan-
made preliminary manpower
surveys in Uganda. Ghana and Tanganyika and it has embarked on comprehensive training programs in public administration in each of the three regions of Nigeria. Together with the Rockefeller
foundation
provided funds to keep open Lovanium uni-
it
versity during the post-independence crisis in the Republic of
total
in
number
of Africans
coming
to the
and pupil
instructor
physics class at
school, Conakry,
the Congo.
The
Soviet
classical
Guinea
United States for
education and training has increased greatly. In 1960. 1.578 students coming from the countries covered here attended U.S.
academic institutions, compared with 1.165 in 1959. The
distri-
bution of these students by country of origin, academic status
and the type of set out in Table
financial support II. All
Table
II
which they were receiving
the indications suggested that the cor-
— African
Students
in
1959
Angola
sursite,
Ghana
1960 2 3
1
Basutoland
3 2
7
—7
(British)
Congo, Republic of Congo, Republic of the
11 4
2
Dahomey
171 61
170 27 167
Federation of Rhodesia ond Nyasaland
Ghana
160
—
Guinea Ivory Coast
13
1
Kenya liberio
Three
Dahomey
exchange
students listening intently as
1
1
Ethiopia
a V.S. college student briefs
them on ivhat
to expect after
their arrival in the
US.
1
156 170
332 166
10 2
—8
Malagasy Republic
2
Mauritius
Mozambique
258
343
Senegal Sierra Leone Somalia
39
60
South- West Africa
14
5
Sudan
53
—
109
36
62
Nigeria
Swaziland Tanganyika
On-the-job training: veyor at construction
the United States
Countries of origin (tropical Africa only):
Cameroun Cameroons
is
8
11
.
Togo
Uganda
2
2
3
29
40
2
2
Zanzibar
1,165
1,578
Academic status* Undergroduote Graduote
658
971
331
Special student No information
120 56
434 128 45
1,165
1,578
146 250 149
235 273 213 604 36 26
Types of f.noncial support:
government Foreign government U.S.
Self Private
340
government ond private Foreign government and privote No information
19
U.S.
20 24 1,1
191
1
Aj
1,578
Source: Institute of International Education.
responding figures for the 1961-62 academic year would show a substantial further increase. Generally speaking, this
couraging trend. Considerable anxiety, however,
is
felt
is
an en-
by some
educators concerning the results of too hastily arranged African student enrollments in academic institutions of widely varying degrees of suitability.
53
WORLD WITHOUT WANT: The
shown considerable
Soviet Union has also
interest
in
African education. Following a cultural agreement with Guinea
Aug. 1961, the responsibility for building and
in
staffing a poly-
technic, with the capacity for training 1,500 engineers, has been
undertaken. In Ethiopia the Soviet Union nical school with a
institution
is
and higher education
A
similar
Union have been made
in the Soviet
many
The Federal Republic
of
Germany has
of Federal
German
external aid.
From
aid throughout the world has been
devoted to education and training, and
this
already been started in Ethiopia, Tanganyika and Ghana.
cussion)
is
in these
programs (and
in others still
under
social affairs,
which for several years
New York
The United Nations has given
as
special at-
tention to training for public administration and, to this end, several technical assistance
and Special Fund projects have been
initiated.
UNESCO. — In under
own
its
the field of African education and training the
program
for 1960
and 1961 includes projects financed
regular budget; technical assistance and training
Expanded Programme of Technical Asand the Special Fund; and assistance financed by the
projects financed by the sistance
The
its member states to an emergency program of financial aid for African education. The total amount available from these sources in 1960-61 was approximately $9,-
dis-
000,000, but substantially increased amounts were expected over
proportion has prob-
ably been exceeded in tropical Africa where programs have
main emphasis
well as in Africa itself.
UNESCO given considerable
its
department of economic and
has carried out training programs for Africans in
avail-
African countries.
weight to education in the planning of
45%
establishing a tech-
to be established in Mali. Scholarships for technical
able for students in
1956,
is
planned capacity of 1,000 trainees.
taken in close co-operation with the United Nations headquarters
the provision of training for technicians, foremen and
voluntary contributions of
the years 1961-63. Technical assistance rendered
by
UNESCO
middle-level administrative personnel for government depart-
to
ments.
sometimes accompanied by the purchase abroad of equipment, and the awarding of fellowships for study abroad. Special em-
Other countries which have already made some financial or technical
contribution
to
African
education
include
Sweden
African countries includes the provision of expert advice,
phasis
is
given to assisting governments in preparing educational
(notably the Ethio-Swedish Institute of Building Technology in
plans and
Ethiopia), Italy and the United Arab Republic (especially in the
tive
Somali Republic), Switzerland (in east Africa), Czechoslovakia
riculums and teaching methods, establishment of library and
The
documentation services, the use of audio-visual aids in education, improved teacher training and the training of administrators. Anti-illiteracy campaigns and various forms of adult
(in
Guinea and Mali) and Canada (especially
above
list
is
cussions are recipient
not complete and
now
it
is
taking place between
governments and
it
is
in
Nigeria).
growing. Bilateral dis-
still
many would-be donor and
certain that a large increase in
bilateral assistance to African education
is
in prospect.
in
establishing and improving educational administra-
machinery. Help has also been given
in the revision of cur-
education (including some community development projects) have also received assistance. With the help of the Special Fund, secondary-school teacher training institutions are being estab-
Multilateral Assistance
lished in Nigeria,
International organizations, notably technical assistance and
UNESCO,
some other forms
have provided
of help for African ed-
sideration
is
Cameroun, Ivory Coast and Sudan, and con-
also being given
institutions in the Republic of
UNESCO
ucational development on a modestly increasing scale from about
to the establishment of
Congo and
similar
Senegal.
has also established an emergency program for Af-
1950. In the early years aid was mainly concentrated on Ethiopia
rican education under which the following types of action
and Liberia, the only two states of tropical Africa that were
being undertaken in 1961:
the time
members
of international organizations in their
at
own
sovereign right. In Ethiopia professional and technical training centres in public administration, telecommunications and civil
aviation have been organized and assisted by the United Nations, the International Telecommunication union and the International Civil Aviation organization, respectively,
a
and
UNESCO
Community Development Workers' Training
1958. In Liberia.
UNESCO
has had
centre there since
has assisted the teacher-training pro-
were
Provisional allocations
Basic surveys of educational
Deeds (starting in Cameroun, Liberia and the Somali Republic) Aid in the construction of school buildings Textbook production centre Supply of overseas teachers and professors
$
300,000 1
2
5,000 50,000
2
500,000 $1,175,000
gram and the development of the university. As the years went by, however, requests for international technical assistance began to be received from the metropolitan
against a target figure of $4,000,000 for the emergency program.
powers on behalf of the African
Even more important
and the volume of
territories for
which they were
form of training fellowships, has steadily increased. With the coming of political independence, African countries have looked to the United Nations agencies for help on a much greater scale. United Nations. The contribution of the United Nations to African education and training is made through the activities of the Economic Commission for Africa (established in 1958), the responsible,
aid, especially in the
Additional activities within these categories have been planned
UNESCO
some respects
is
the initiative which
tional needs, the foundation and discussion of educational development plans and the co-ordination of effort between donors
and recipients under
—
UNESCO,
in
has taken in the general assessment of African educa-
bilateral as well as multilateral
programs.
The International Labour organization (ILO) has
for
many
years provided opportunities for the discussion of problems of vocational and technical training in Africa. In 1955 technical
and the work of its own headquarters departments. The larger volume of assistance has been financed partly by increased regular budgets, but mainly as a result of greatly increased financial allocations by the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance, the Special Fund and the United Nations Children's Fund. The work program of the Economic Commission for Africa includes train-
was provided in the field of training within industry Ghana and Gambia. Help has also been given to an accelerated upgrading training program for public employees engaged in technical trades in Sudan. In Liberia a survey is being made of
in a
number
ing projects in statistics, public administration, physical plan-
with
UNESCO
operations of the specialized agencies, notably
community development, and
assistance in
vocational training problems in general, while preliminary studies leading to specific vocational training projects have been of African countries. in the
The ILO
is
made
working closely
development of African training programs
contemplates a wide
based on manpower surveys and with the Food and Agriculture
range of training projects for personnel required for economic
organization in schemes designed to improve the vocational level
ning and
development and programing.
54
Much
it
of this
work
is
to be under-
of small farmers
and agricultural workers (including training for
FIRST STEPS subsidiary
industrial
occupations)
in
a
number
of
African
needed, as well as money,
The Food and Agriculture Organization
of the
United
Above
all,
much more
effort
and training in agriculture, veterinary science, fisheries, forestry, nutrition and home economics. Some technical assistance in these fields has been provided to African states and more extensive programs are under consideration. A department of educational
a promising start
is
for carrying
with the help of the Special Fund. In co-operation with the ILO,
UNESCO
FAO
has undertaken the management of three rural-life
possible
to be
The
—
Children's
An
out.
harmony
and home economics
in
Kenya, and
now
important responsibility
up
of effort
rests with
conference to ensure the greatest
this
among
bilateral, multilateral
and
pri-
field of nutrition.
Support
east
Africa
is
also to be given to the teaching of
by strengthening the
facilities
of
Makerere college for the training of doctors, nurses, midwives and subsidiary categories of health personnel, a project shared by and the Rockefeller foundation. The World Health organization (WHO) has laid great emphasis on medical training activities at all levels, from fully qualified doctors to nurses
and para-medical personnel. Support
has been given to local training institutions and courses for nurses in
many
African countries. Particular attention has
been given to maternity and child-health training projects and
award of training fellowships. In
east Africa support
is
being
so
—Other
specialized agencies
United Nations system have expanded their work
port of African education and training in their
own
in sup-
there
much
preparation and
in the
is
so
much
eagerness to do what
is
necessary and
willingness to help, the task of providing the emergent
nations of Africa with an adequate system of education for
all
their peoples, within a generation, should not be impossible of
accomplishment. There
Two
lions in the path.
are,
of
however, a number of formidable
them are
local African lions
—poverty
of resources and the subordination of educational standards to
considerations. Three of them are of European and North American domicile inadequate financial help; failure to provide personnel; and national rivalries among the donor political
—
countries. All the plans
which have been made for African education are
based on the assumption that
will
it
be financed substantially
from African resources, and that these resources will increase year by year as African economic development programs produce their results.
Any
and the low
level of African national
serious failure to increase African productivity
incomes
will
destroy any
possibility of providing the necessary local finance to support
educational developments on the scale which
The
given to the new pediatric centre at Makerere college.
Other International Activities.
governments
LIONS IN THE PATH When
WHO
and midwives
to assist African
this
training of teachers
in
and
tion,
extended to Sierra Leone, Nyasaland and Ivory
ships for the training of African extension workers in the general
in the
it
to follow
implementation of their own educational development programs.
Nations
and extension workers in nutrition is to be assisted in Basutoland and Ivory Coast and, in cooperation with the Food and Agriculture organization, a regional scheme is to be inaugurated, covering several countries in former French and former British Africa, including support for training facilities in African universities and the award of 118 fellow-
the
alike.
has devoted some attention to the basic subject of
training in child care
pediatrics
careful planning and co-ordination of
vate agencies seeking to help the development of African educa-
United
UNICEF
Coast.
be accomplished within
by the Special Fund. Fund. From about 1956
training projects which are to be financed
is
to
UNESCO has made what seems to have been by bringing together so many interested governments and agencies at the Conference on African Education and by achieving so large a measure of agreement among them concerning the nature of the task and the next steps required governments
extension work has been established at the University of Liberia
work
is
required on the part of donor agencies and receiving
Nations (FAO) has already made a useful contribution to the discussion of problems and policies affecting African education
the
the task
if
the next 25 years.
countries.
now
is
importance of substantial economic
vital
envisaged.
development,
within a framework of orderly government and wise economic policy, hardly needs to be emphasized.
The prospects
special fields.
of balanced educational development are likely
endangered whenever the
approval of any one
Thus, the International Civil Aviation organization, the International Telecommunication union, the World Meteorological
branch of education
organization and the International Atomic Energy agency have
distribution of available resources. Ambitious attempts to live
to be
is
political
allowed to influence unduly the general
provided training fellowships for Africans. Outside the United
up to exaggerated electioneering slogans
Nations system, the Commission for Technical Co-operation in Africa South of the Sahara has concerned itself with educational
dilution of standards
and training questions and has provided training
equipment
to African
facilities
and
governments.
The Co-ordination of Assistance
sistence
locally
duplication and intensify staffing problems. It that the danger of
all
these developments
There
is
be forthcoming from
will
afford.
there effort
is
that an
Moreover, the multiplicity of donor agencies is such that a danger that great waste may result from badly directed
and unhealthy competition. The sums needed are so large
however important, will call major decisions of high policy on the part of the principal donors. And it must be recognized that the detachment of personnel on an extensive scale (especially to fill teaching positions in the early years of expansion) and administrative help will be
it
in
most parts of Africa.
no question that financial help for African education
many
$140,000,000 to $450,000,000
it
enough
not always in political, circles
enormous increase in volume of financial aid will be required to bridge the gap between the cost of adequate development plans and what African states might be expected to
show
cation
such that
a healthy sign
familiar
if
whether
is
is
now
is
other parts of the world to be widely recognized in educational,
might be supposed that the means to provide all the help which is needed was ample. However, the estimates considered by the Conference on African Edu-
development
tional
lead to a grave
in
—
The number of agencies bilateral, multilateral and private now engaged in assisting (or preparing to assist) African educa-
on
may
and educational retrogression. Regional inspecialized institutions may produce wasteful
will
be anything
like
The only doubt is The estimates of the
quarters.
adequate.
Conference on African Education called for an expansion of foreign financial aid from the current level of approximately
$1,010,000,000
in
1970.
in
1965-66, rising beyond that to
To produce such sums
will call for
an
exceptional effort on the part of governments already committed to
many
other foreign aid projects in Africa and elsewhere
throughout the
less
developed world. Compared with current ex-
penditures on armaments, however, the sums required are rela-
that their allocation to one purpose,
tively small, while their contribution, in
for
education, to the peaceful progress and ordering of this planet is
no
less
Money to
the form of African
impor' alone will not be sufficient to help African eovernments
do what needs
to
be done. For
many
years to
come
it
will
WORLD WITHOUT WANT: not be possible for most African countries to train sufficient local teachers, especially at the secondary, technical and university levels, to satisfy expected requirements. In some countries administrative help will also be needed for several years
while local
men and women
are being trained. Existing
methods
of recruitment will not be good enough to produce the numbers of well-qualified and dedicated men and women required for long
Conclusion The assumption on which
this
study has been written
is
that
development in Africa is a major concern of all mankind. Rapid political change unaccompanied by social and educational progress in wide areas of rea large-scale
program
of educational
may
tarded development
breakdown of society, government and deeply dis-
well lead to the
periods of foreign service under exacting conditions, especially
the eruption of tyrannical forms of
when the educational expansion in Europe and North America is likely to create a serious shortage of teachers at home. Special inducements and safeguards for future security and advancement will almost certainly be needed, and even a willing-
turbing social conflict, with dangerous international repercus-
at a time
ness
make temporary
to
progress, in the
Even
if all
sacrifices,
in
terms of educational
sions.
The only
effective
bulwark against these dangers
numerous African
the emergence of a
elite,
be
modern com-
trained and experienced to conduct the affairs of a
munity, serving and supported by politically
will
sufficiently well
well-informed
alert,
bodies of free citizens in the various African states.
more advanced countries themselves.
The precondition
the dangers and difficulties described in the fore-
of
such a development
is
the spread of
going paragraphs are overcome the progress of African education may be frustrated by national rivalries among the countries
education throughout the African continent at an unprecedented
which are eager to help. The dangers of the cold war in its African setting are obvious enough, and may for this reason be less serious in practice than some political observers might sup-
energetic leadership and great exertions on the part of the African
pose. Less obvious, because they are often overlaid
by sincerely
intended co-operative arrangements or understandings, are difficulties which arise between institutions and professional educators
conditioned by different
political
traditions.
Even
in
cultural,
linguistic
and even
English-speaking Africa differing
pace. This will not be possible without imaginative planning,
peoples themselves.
ready the i-
It
will also call for a
tremendous
friends of African development wherever they
all
much
way
effort
may
by
be. Al-
has been done, especially in recent years, to prepare
for the great leap forward
which
is
still
needed. There
evidence of a willingness on the part of newly independent
and i'ar-from-well-endowed African states to make the sake of education which
many
sacrifices for
richer countries might well
backgrounds and outlooks have sometimes shown themselves to be a hindrance to the most productive co-operative endeavours of British and U.S. educators and administrators. There is no need to sacrifice the rich variety of cultural experience which
envy. Moreover, there are encouraging indications of a rising
international educational assistance has to offer to emergent Af-
tremendous, but
rica,
but
it is
certainly desirable that a real effort of imagination
and understanding should be made by
all
who
seek to help this
great cause to avoid intellectual parochialism and
the interests of Africa are
Boys ".
.
.
ensure that
to the
achievement of the ends which are sought. The task it
is
is
an exhilarating challenge to the practical
idealism of our time. Its successful accomplishment would add
immeasurably to the quality of human life in a great continent and strengthen the fabric of civilization throughout the world.
most abundantly served.
of the Sudan running to school: the hunger for education is there
scene."
to"
ground swell of foreign assistance, especially in North America and western Europe, which could make a decisive contribution
— widespread and insatiable — to a degree
that never fails to astonish every
new observer
of the African
WORLD
PART
III
Puerto Rico:
Showcase of Development
M
'mm^^m^:&
''-—-
«*-*-
***
J*' r>
A
4
,#
San Juan harbour and El Morro
fortress
PUERTO PART
RICO:
III
Showcase of Development WILLIAM
by
A -**
British sailor, reputed to be one Suffolk,
was captured
in
John George,
a native of
Feb. 1748 by a Spanish privateer
and taken
to Puerto Rico. After George was freed, he wrote an account of his experiences under the impressive title Journal of a
Captive.
Remarkable Occurrences from the year 1745
to 1748,
during the far greater part of which times I was a prisoner in the
hands of the French and Spaniards ; transcribed from notes in
Rhode
Island.
Anno
my
private
1748. In a single passage. John
George described the island and the people on
it.
The
sailor
wrote:
more
[
BAGGS
slaves or colonists in Puerto Rico.
island today
The
inhabitants of the
cannot be described as Spaniards, nor are they
Many of them are somewhat Yankee, and all them are citizens of the United States. There are only 3,500,000 Puerto Ricans. Although almost 1,000,000 of them reside in mainland United States, many of their fellow citizens in Kansas and Mississippi and Montana
altogether Latin. of
have never seen a of the islander
real, live
Puerto Rican. and the popular image
among mainland
citizens
is
blurred.
Many
peo-
him either as an indolent creature, snoozing beneath a coconut palm on a Caribbean island, or as a "foreign" ple
It Puerto Rico] is one of the finest islands I ever saw, and I verily believe not any one island in the West Indies is more capable of improvement than this; but through the pride and slouth of the inhabitant- it is the far greater part of it still a wilderness. It abounds in oranges, lemons, citrous, limes, etc., in such plenty that they are not worth the gathering. There are prodigious quantities of bananas, plan tens, coco nutts, pine apples, mountain cabbage; with a great many other fruits and vegetables ... In short, there is not any thing for the support of human nature but may here be found or cultivated. It might in the hands of tin ni Dutch be rendered a paradise on earth, but the present inhabitant-, are
C.
seem
to regard
tough, living in the slums of the mainland in crime.
The mainland
citizen appears
cities,
informed about the Philippines and Hawaii, cific,
than he
is
often involved
more conscious far out
in
of and the Pa-
of Puerto Rico although each of the three island
groups came under the U.S.
tlag at
about the same time.
I
mere
devils.
The
this
perspective of the people of the eontitient.il U.S.
thi their government has had distinct toward the Philippines and Hawaii, while its relation-
can be traced to
George involuntarily visited more than 200 fertile, but the devils have gone. There are no
island sailor
years ago
Probably
is still
policies
ship with
Puerto Rico has been poorly defined. The
phiiip-
a
WORLD WITHOUT WANT: sought
pines
independence and
total
Hawaii wished
become a
to
state
and
eventually
did.
secured
it.
Puerto Rico has de-
and does not today. No foreign power has tried to attack, invade or occupy Puerto Rico since it became a U.S. possession. In a sense, the island has been taken for sired neither status
many
granted by
mainlanders, although they do not exactly
know what they are taking for granted. There simply has not been a clear national understanding of the Puerto Rican, who he is and what he is doing in the world today. This is regrettable, because the Puerto Rican in 1962 is demonstrating on his small island the most hopeful example in the Americas of how to develop an underdeveloped community in the clean atmosphere of freedom. Puerto Rico has become a sort of senior
member among developing
began to shake
and
ago,
this
off
was
societies.
The
islanders
more than 20 years
their historic poverty
a decade before such impoverished countries
vestment of U.S. tax dollars on the
island, excluding military
$25,000,000 in 1961. In 1951
costs, at
But these
figures are misleading.
it
was half that amount.
The $25,000,000 was spent on
—with the Puerto Rican —and according San-
roads, hospitals and vocational education government matching the federal dollars
machinery
to build the roads
purchased
all
in the
to
money was
chez Vilella a large percentage of this
invested in
and equipment for the hospitals,
United States.
Moreover, the $25,000,000 represents only about 8% of the investment in the island's economy during the year. Not
total
much
of an
argument can be made that U.S. tax
dollars are the
mainstay of Puerto Rican development. Certainly the private investment of dollars in the last two
decades has helped. However, though these dollars could have
been invested at any time since the
United States was
flag of the
planted on the island in 1898, 40 years later Puerto Rico was
by inaugurating massive reforms, began to reach up and seek the more pleasant life of the industrially developed countries. In 1940 Puerto Rico began the development plans
still
which the new African states are only now beginning to test. In the last 14 years the people of the island have become self-
investment of U.S. capital. Rather,
governing. During the same period, beginning with hardly any
of his somewhat-Latin fellow citizens in Puerto Rico. Without
more than 100.000 jobs on the island by a remarkable program of industrial development. To turn
this
as India,
industry, they have created
the wheels of the
new
industry, Puerto Rico
is
producing electric
energy at a per capita rate higher than any country
America.
A
in
Latin
generation ago, the island was described as a place
where the people were
"illiterate in
English. Today, the literacy rate
two languages," Spanish and
87%. Every
is
No
Rican attends some form of school.
third Puerto
Latin republic builds
described by sociologists and tourists as "the poorhouse of
the Caribbean."
What evolved
later cannot
result of a better understanding
understanding,
worked out with an tory but something
The
birth rate, which had
created a serious problem of overpopulation, has begun to de-
In less than a generation, 22 years have been added to the
cline. life
expectancy of a Puerto Rican, and a child born
in
1961 can
All this, happening on an island smaller than the
state of
from 126 countries. These are mostly people from underdeveloped lands. Teachers come to find out
and
write. Technicians observe
Ricans acquire the
abilities
was made into
ing a candidate for
how how
laws and
relations
island that
was neither a
new
no votes
in the U.S.
not have
could
experience
been
state nor a terri-
—a commonwealth,
congress and paid no federal income tax.
in the federal
THE ISLAND On
Mercator projection of the world, the island of Puerto Rico appears as an outpost of the Americas. It is the most easterly of the Greater Antilles, and its location at the entrance to the Caribbean sea has been compared to Gibraltar in strategic ima
portance.
Navigators place the island between latitude 17° 50' and 18° and longitude 65° 30' and 67° 15' W., 1,050 mi. S.E. of
how
Miami. Tourist tropical
interests depict
Miami by
jet.
The most
geography, however,
unskilled Puerto
island.
And
a stagnant agricultural so-
booming community, now speedily becommembership in the industrially developed
a
Puerto Rico to
it
as closer to the
mainland
—
pleasure spot only two hours and ten minutes from
adults are taught
necessary for industrial work.
economists study the record of ciety
Washington
30' N.
Massachusetts, has lured more than 13,000 curious observers
to read
largely as a
politician in
indulged freely in commerce with the mainland states, but had
reasonably hope to live 68 years, almost as long as a child born
on the mainland.
came about
which the people were vested with citizenship, subject to all U.S. laws applicable and not in conflict with the Puerto Rican Federal Relations act, elected their own public officials,
campaigns are boisterous and thoroughly democratic. Since 1950, of the island's gross annual product.
it
by the
in
houses at a per capita rate rivaling that of Puerto Rico. Political per capita income has more than doubled. So has the dollar value
be explained simply by the new
is
is
influential
feature of Puerto Rican
not the location.
It
the size of the
is
only 100 mi. long and varies in width from 35
40 mi. The land mass of the Hawaiian Islands
is
almost twice
Yet the smallness of Puerto Rico would not in itself have caused so many troubles if the island had been populated as large.
at a density rate similar, say, to that of the mainland. If every
world.
Surely what these people come to scrutinize the Latin of caricature.
Yet
it
is
not the work of
sometimes appears that the story
of modern, vigorous Puerto Rico
is
better
known among
the
human on earth, except those in India and Pakistan, left his home and moved to the continental United States, the U.S. population would be approximately
2,350,000,000 instead of
educated people of Nigeria and Bolivia and Thailand than among
185.000,000, and the population density would
the Puerto Rican's fellow U.S. citizens on the mainland.
of 650 persons per square mile that exists today in Puerto Rico.
Even less understood is the role of the United States in the development of Puerto Rico. The people on the island conceived and are managing their adventure in development, but without
sities
the assistance and understanding of the federal government in
Washington, the Puerto Rican successful.
have come
The
effort
would not have been so
technicians and economists and educators
who
from the poorer countries would not have found there encouragement and hope for a better life for to the island
own homelands. Some have argued that the dramatic climb of the Puerto Rican has been made up steps paved with U.S. gold. Roberto Sanchez their
Vilella, the
60
Puerto Rican secretary of
state,
estimated the in-
match
the ratio
West Germany and Belgium have comparable population denand find them tolerable, but Puerto Rico lacked Germany's
little island was not power and did not have a Congo to exploit. Instead, it was exploited. Moreover, in the mountainous interior much of the land is unusable. Almost half of the island's 2,103,000 ac. are not easily adaptable to permanent agriculture. In a market where the supply of people far exceeds the supply of land, land naturally is at a premium. The shortage of land and its economic consequences were recognized by congress when Puerto Rico was "annexed" after the Spanish-American War. A law passed in 1900 prohibited any agricultural corporation from
natural resources and, unlike Belgium, the
a colonial
PUERTO RICO owning or leasing more than 500 of the scarce acres on the island. The law remained only a gesture, however; it was not enforced until 1941 when a reform government began splitting up large estates
and distributing the land
in small parcels to the agregados,
the landless people.
Since land reform was initiated, 54,300 pieces of land, varying in size
from a quarter of an acre
to three acres,
have been
tributed to families for homesites and family crops.
dis-
If the island
on long-term, generous credit arrangements, whereby the new
in nature's distribution of the
from sandy earth along the northern coast to red desert land near Ensenada in the south. Under a beneficent sun and in the tropical climate, the soil is spectacularly fertile, producing grapefruit and coconuts, cotton and pineapples alongside the ubiquitous sugar cane.
Like the
the other features of Puerto Rican geography
soil,
vary widely. The average temperatures along the coasts are advertised as 74.5° F. from November to April and 80° from May
The
The warmer mountains the mean
average, like most such figures,
landowner pays for the land with revenue he earns each year
to October.
from his crops. Another grim feature of Puerto Rican geography is that the small island with so many people did not get much from nature
southern coast, fronting the Caribbean sea,
form of minerals. There was a modest trace of gold, but the Spaniards quickly carried it away. Neither coal nor iron has been found. The amounts of silver, lead and copper discovered are meagre. There is some magnetic iron and some granite. There is marble in limited supply. Limestone is plentiful, and so are
than the northern, Atlantic shore. In the
temperature
What
in the
gypsum and various
clays.
(Right) Caribbean area, showing Puerto Rico's position as the gateway to the Carib-
bean sea and
its
location relative to Florida.
(Below) The island of Puerto Rico, showing roads, railroads and some of the places mentioned in text and picture captions, plus places with populations of 3,000 per-
sons or more
makes up the
soil at least partially
difference. It ranges
Under the
land reform act, 1,142 farms have been established and sold
was shortchanged
more valuable minerals, the
is
may
is
is
deceiving.
a little
"average" 8° to 10° cooler than on the coasts.
true of temperatures
is
true also of rainfall.
station in the dry lowlands of the southern coast to at
A
weather
not likely
measure more than 30 in. of rain annually while the station La Mina. in the northeastern Sierra de Luquillo, registers in. Thus, on Puerto Rico mangrove vegetation grows not from mossy forests and lacy tree ferns, cactus is neighbour
188.17 far
is
ISLANDS NEVIS
. NsVjyOM ijy^tP
WORLD WITHOUT WANT. laid out
around "plazas."
These Indians probably were part of the great Arawak civilizafrom Brazil and Bolivia north to the Bahamas, but beyond that the historian is guessing. In any event, none of the Arawaks could have had a more comfortable tion which at one time extended
life
than those on Borinquen. Food was easily obtainable from
the generous earth, and there
was no need
to
farm the steep
deep gorges on the north side of the island. Borinquen was more than large enough for its inhabitants. foothills of the south or the
Columbus had paniola on his
left
first
40 of
his
men on
the north shore of His-
journey to the Americas, promising to return
them the following year. He was sailing to make good his in mid-November of 1493 when he came upon Borinquen. With Columbus, now an admiral and a hero of Spain, were 17 vessels and 1,500 men, many of them adventurers intent on finding gold. On the 19th of the month Columbus and a picked for
promise
group put ashore on Borinquen to take on fresh water. There is no authoritative record of where they landed. Quite a few towns claim the honour. At any rate, three days later Columbus sailed Statue of Columbus in
on to Hispaniola and
Mayagiiez.Tke Italian
Spain.
explorer
aware of the celebrated
discovered
Puerto Rico on his second voyage to the new world, 1493
Not many
Spanish
officer
to colonize the islands for the glory of
of the natives on Borinquen could have been
from another world. One young
visitor
with Columbus, however, was impressed by the
pleasant island and he was to return there to introduce western
His name was Juan Ponce de Leon. Borinquen was noticed but not disturbed by the waves of Spanish adventurers who followed Columbus. Some civilization.
Little
and the aptly named flamboyant trees. of Puerto Rico follows the theme of varia-
to tropical orchids
The topography tion. The island is
the crest of a
submerged mountain, probably
volcanic in origin. It rises from the sea in lovely plains, guarded by green limestone hills where coffee and tobacco are grown.
The mountains, footed
in
immoderately handsome valleys, ex-
tend east and west in the interior and are not high as mountains
The
go.
tallest,
La
central mountains,
Puntita, south of is
only 4,389
ft.
Jayuya in the rainy west above sea level. All in all,
the geography of Puerto Rico comprises
what
a citizen of the
temperate zone would regard as a lush, tropical island. Small,
But a
yes.
fertile,
warm
is
the
name
given to three small
Vieques and Culebra to the east of the main island and Mona to the west. Vieques, with 52 sq.mi. of land, islands,
the largest. All
is
three have
Their rainfall of
hills.
surfaces characterized
than 50
less
in.
by low
annually, light for the
low elevation plus their reduced area trade-wind climate. Agriculture and grazing are practised on
tropics, in
is
a result of this
the islands, but the bases maintained
by the U.S. navy on Vieques harbour of Puerto Grande on Culebra are important factors in those islands' economies. and
in the splendid
THE SPANISH ERA Christopher Columbus discovered the lovely island which the Arawak Indians called Borinquen on his second visit to the new world, in 1493.
The Arawak Indians
there were at peace with everyone in world except for a few marauding Caribs. The Caribs had chased the more civilized Arawak tribes from all the Lesser their
Antilles
and were beginning
to raid the Greater Antilles, includ-
ing Borinquen, but the 30,000
loyal services
by the governor of Hispaniola, was given permis-
Columbus had named the (The harbour town became known as Puerto Rico or
sion to explore San Juan Bautista, as place.
"Rich Port." Slowly, however, the port took on the name of San Juan because people traveling to the island were permitted to land only at the port.
Thus the port and
the island
became
confused in reference, and the names, San Juan and Puerto Rico, were used interchangeably, until the former became com-
mon
to identify the port
name
and the
latter the island. British
and
as "Porto Rico.")
Ponce de Leon
sailed with 50
called Caparra, the second oldest
across the bay from what
On
their old enemies, the Caribs,
as
ginger were native crops, and the practice of polygamy conveniently permitted the men to send their often five or six wives out into the fields to farm while they hunted. They were
is
European
now San
city in the Americas,
Juan.
A
native chief,
the island a repartimiento , a distribution of Indians for
and four times
and stone. Tobacco, corn and
built a small
labouring purposes, had led to rebellion by the Arawaks and
nonmilitant people, they were gifted
in gold
He
plore the coast of Florida.
new
A
in 1508.
Aguabana or Guaybana, greeted Ponce and his men as friends, and the Spaniards found the first of what they imagined to be a great reservoir of gold. Ponce was rewarded, in 1509, by appointment as temporary governor of Borinquen. The rumour of gold encouraged more settlement by the Spanish but they were soon to be disappointed, for the amount of gold on the island was actually small. Court politics back in Spain ended Ponce's stay. King Ferdinand restored the privileges of Christopher Columbus, now dead, to his son Diego. The younger man removed Ponce as governor and Ponce sailed on westward to ex-
eliminate their
as weavers
men
stone house for his wife and son in a place which was to be
island were not
Arawaks on the
yet in any great danger.
and workers
much was done about colonization until Ponce de Leon, being rewarded for stock was released on the island, but nothing
U.S. interests added to the confusion by mispronouncing the
land.
"Outlying Puerto Rico"
nearby
first
live-
masters.
and for a while they threatened
to
They were soon subdued, however,
many Indians as before were distributed in a Some of the Indians managed to escape to
second repartimiento.
the south and east sectors of Borinquen, but the inexorable
exploration and settlement by the newcomers brought
them
governed by a paramount chief under
under Spanish authority once again. A few fled to Vieques and used it as a base for raids on the main island. Eventually, how-
village chieftains. Their villages
ever, time
62
whom were territorial and on the virgin green land were
and diseases brought by the Spaniards reduced the
PUERTO RICO Indians until they were no longer discernible as a separate
cannon bore down on the English. Drake withdrew. The British
ethnic group.
raid, long anticipated,
Three years
The Spanish Proprietors
rocky island at the entrance of the harbour. The move also made
more
the port
accessible to Spanish shipping, and
would promote
that this fact
was hoped
it
trade.
The Spaniards now had been on
the island long enough to was comparable to Gibraltar and Rhodes. It was obvious that the British and other European powers would soon come sailing to these waters in search of treasure and would learn the geographic advantages of controlling the island. Pirates were also a threat and rightly so, for Puerto Rico was the place where gold from Mexico was transshipped to Spain. To protect the island from the anticipated raids, La Fortaleza was started in 1533 and a second fortress, El Morro, was begun in 1539. The Spaniards had also learned that their island had good assess
its
land but
value. Strategically,
little
it
gold and not
came
much
silver.
The
to a close,
Cumberland did not imitate Drake. Ignoring the harbour, he and his men came ashore east of the town and marched on the poorest defense lines. The Spanthe British
The soldiers who settled Caparra did not care for the low, damp, insect-infested ground which Ponce had selected. In 1519 the crown authorized the people to move across the bay, to a
had been repulsed. century was drawing
later, as the 16th
again.
ish retreated to El
earl of
Morro, but the
fort could not withstand the
What Drake had failed to do, the He now controlled the port. He had
earl's siege.
Cumber-
earl of
temporary ally in the form of an epidemic (probably dysentery) which had weakened the defenders. But soon the disease was infecting the land did.
a
British soldiers, and within five months the earl, unable to dominate the interior and thus complete his control of the island,
men and
gathered his After the legal
earl's
sailed
and otherwise. The
in 1523, in the
away.
withdrawal, the island returned to trade, both first
sugar mill had been constructed
west of the island near what
is
imported by Ponce de Leon and other early
now Anasco. settlers
Cattle
were multi-
Furthermore, the
Indians had practically vanished, so the Spaniards turned toward Africa for a supply of labour.
From 1511 to 1530 more than Ten times that many, more
1,500 Negroes had been imported.
than 15,000, arrived in the following quarter century.
The Spanish
settlers
were beginning to enjoy one of the first new world. They took on some of the
plantation societies in the
was for a hammocks. Their greatest danger was from occasional raids, as when the French corsairs plundered San German in 1526. (In 1552 the town, demolished by another raid, was relocated and rebuilt.) The plains along the north coast were cultivated, summer homes were built in the cool Indians' habits, smoking the "vicious weed," which
time
and lounging
illegal,
in
mountains and the Spanish society developed
and
in
island
good
style. If there
was so
that the
at its
was no great wealth, as
vital to Spanish interests
home government was
willing to
in
because of
pay for
its
own
leisure
Mexico, the its
location
fortification
with Mexican revenues.
The Raids Sir Francis
Drake ignored the island on his plundering voyMain in 1585-86. There is no record that
ages along the Spanish
John Hawkins called on Puerto Rico in his earlier clandestine trade. But English ships were beginning to roll through the Caribbean in greater and greater numbers and the Spaniards on the island feared the British soon would attack. The historian Arturo Morales Carrion describes the intrigue of the time in his book Puerto Rico and the Non-Hispanic Caribbean: Spain's fears were certainly justified, for on February 7, 1S87, Drake and Hawkins furnished the Queen with a remarkable document to undertake a voyage to the Indies "entirely to ruin the Spaniards." The project
envisaged a raid on the African coast to capture all Spanish ships. From there, the English were to go to the West Indies for an attack on the main fortifications and ports. A careful schedule was drafted, with due Consideration to the weather conditions and other climatic factors, and a detailed description was made of the various islands and towns, with their defenses, population and resources. Both men seemed to have good knowledge of the island of Puerto Rico. (Arturo Morales Puerto Rico and the Son-Hispanic Caribbean, p. 20, University of Puerto Rico Press, Rio Piedras, P.R., 1952.) .
.
.
plying satisfactorily. Tobacco, once
illegal,
was recognized as an
export early in the 17th century. Caribbean pirates found
official
havens
in
''traders,"
the sheltering bays of the island and
married native
women and
in
some became
time became a part of
the emerging island society.
The next
came in Dutch fleet which appeared off Puerto Rico in The commander, Boudewijn Hendrikszoon, sailed
interruption of this peaceful development
the form of a Sept.
1625.
San Juan harbour and quickly took control of the town. The Spaniards retreated to a fortress. Hendrikszoon was unable into
either to convince the Spaniards
to surrender or to take
the
I
Drake and Hawkins sailed for the Spanish Main, although Hawkins died as the fleet arrived off Puerto Rico. Usually Drake depended on the element of surprise, but the Spanish were expecting him. Shot from a fort ripped into his cabin and "stroke the stoole from under him," killing two associates and convincing
Drake
Tropical vegetation at Point Caracoles, one of the beaches on the north coast oj the island
of the gunners' accuracy. After various maneuvers, he attempted to force the harbour and burn the Spanish vessels there. However, the first burning ship lighted the area and Spanish
fortress
Grave
and
finally
he burned the town and retired.
financial troubles plagued the islanders in the 17th cen-
tury. Spain allowed
them
to
produce agricultural crops and what
minerals there were to be had, but nothing more.
They could
trade only with the mother country. Moreover, the island was still
short
of
labour and this depressed the
Spanish ships had found other routes and
sugar
traffic at
San Juan declined. The islanders turned increasingly trade
— with
privateers and filibusters and
the flags of several
European powers.
industiy,
the port oi to
merchantmen
British,
French,
flying 1
63
WORLD WITHOUT WANT:
Typical valley of rolling
hills
near Comerio in the interior of the island. Tobacco
Portuguese and Dutch sailed to Puerto Rican settlements other than San Juan, trading slaves and cloth goods for island cattle, hides, ginger, pigs, tobacco, fruits in particular,
were eager
and other food. The Dutch,
to trade slaves for the island's goods.
Puerto Rico became divided into two parts: the town of San Juan, whose population had reached 1,800 by 1673, and everything outside San Juan. In the interior valleys and along the coasts the illegal trade became, as one historical account put
"so generalized [that]
it,
developed into a kind of free trade, forbidden by law but sanctioned by the pressure of daily needs." The smuggling naturally infected official morality and in 1688 it
both the governor, Gaspar Martinez de Andino, and his son Baltasar were participating in illicit trade with Curagao, where the Dutch maintained a supply base of Negroes and cloth goods. The following year the bishop of Puerto Rico, Fray Francisco de Padilla, exposed the whole unlawful business in a letter. The bishop was especially incensed by the lack of food in San Juan, inasmuch as the food, raised on outlying farms, was being traded to smugglers of other nations. His letter and the incipient
is
the chief product of the farms
Tortuga overtook vessels from
shown
New
Spain and retired to their
with booty worth 400,000 pesos.
lairs
To defend
have been expected, the "Spanish interests"
who hauled in any non-Spanish vessel they could find. from the Bay of Biscay were especially active in regard, and the privateers came to be known among the
privateers Sailors this
British
as
Biscayners. As
tensions between
the British rose, so did strange rules. British ship to trade in
was
the
The 18th Century As Puerto Rico entered the new century, a new factor was in the life of the island. Sugar was becoming the prin-
emerging
cipal crop of the Caribbean.
the islands was
now
The
old, diversified agriculture of
being reorganized to produce the giant bunch
grass that brought such excellent prices on the world market.
The
possibility of profits
from sugar reawakened English
matic authorities: "If we had Porto Rico, the land
was hypnotic. Governor Arredondo was later to play the game, and records of the period indicate that soldiers, regidores, alcaldes, priests, friars and royal officials were all happily engaged
in the pursuit of illegal wealth.
In addition to the smuggling, which robbed Spain of revenue and San Juan of food, piracy grew worse as the 17th century grew older. In four years, from 1637 to 1641, freebooters based on
64
a
game, but a British smuggler putting ashore contraband was a welcome guest. fair
smuggling and imprisoned him. ever,
Spanish and
An Englishman on board
terest in Puerto
smell of riches, how-
interests,
As might were defended by
scandal finally provoked the crown to remove Martinez. The new governor, Gaspar de Arredondo, found his predecessor guilty of
The sweet
its
the crown began in 1674 to issue letters of marque.
Rico.
British governor of the
On Aug. Leeward
28,
in-
1706, Daniel Parke, the
Islands, wrote to British diplois
soe good,
the island soe large, timber enough for building and caske, in 7
years
we could make sugar soe cheap as to be able to we could doe it for half the charge we are
the French:
undersell at here."
However, the British planters on Barbados feared that such a move would drive their sugar prices down and ruin them. They opposed it, and nothing was done. Another source of friction with Britain was the Spanish crown's
PUERTO RICO runaway Negro slaves. The crown practically away from their British masters and sail to Puerto Rico, where they were usually assured of becoming freemen if they accepted the Catholic faith and professed alleattitude toward
invited slaves to slip
revealing look at the island in the 18th century was taken by
a gentleman with the improbable
name
of
Marshal Alejandro
O'Reilly or O'Reylly, an Irishman in the service of Charles III.
The king was
startled to learn
from
commerce with the amounted to 6,000,000 pesos
a report of trade that Span-
ish Antillean
British alone,
den,
a year.
He
of
all
it
forbid-
dispatched CTReilly
Caribbean and the Irishman, arriving in 1765, took the census and conducted interesting so-
to the
island's first responsible
ciological
work among
44,883 people, of coast
seemed
the people.
whom
He
reported a population of
only 5,037 were slaves.
The northern
most densely populated.
to be the
O'Reilly confirmed the nature and magnitude of the
illicit
Seemingly intrigued, he said the people of Puerto Rico to the king, but were people with a "natural
trading.
Antonio Colorado, a professor at the University of Puerto Rico, told a visitor in 1961 that a pertinent index to the islander's
character was moderate ways. "If you examine our history care-
giance to Spain.
A
Nonviolent Reform
fully. "
Some were
sailors
who had
mountains. The
soldiers
who frowned on farm work and
deserted their ships and sought refuge in the life
there
was easy
for them. Cattle, descended
from the original Spanish herds, were plentiful, as was fruit, and demanded few clothes. O'Reilly suggested that "this
the climate
trade" was useful to the people and to the crown, ap-
illicit
As the century began, most of Latin America was headed toward revolution. Encouraged by the success of the United States in throwing off British rule, an independence movement
By
Spanish South America to freedom and
San Juan, and
—
—or
was a gesture of disdain for the British occurred during the American Revolutionary War. Two American ships, sent to the Caribbean to harass British vessels, were sighted by an English warship, which sailed after them. The chase ended at Mayagiiez, where the American ships took refuge. Citizens of
town climbed aboard the ships and raised the Spanish
flag
over
them.
commander
protested to municipal authorities and
governor at San Juan, but to no avail. Meanwhile, the Americans slipped out of Mayagiiez harbour and continued their to the
mission. This was about as close as the Revolutionary
War
got to
Puerto Rico.
The
last British raid
on Puerto Rico came at the end of the
18th century. Spain had joined revolutionary France in
its
war
against England, and a British expedition was readied and sent to the
Caribbean to capture Trinidad and Puerto Rico. Lieut. easily, and for that
Gen. Sir Ralph Abercromby took Trinidad
in Puerto Rico. But he underestimated the defenses, so long in building and many times tested, of San Juan Bautista. Furthermore, the city
reason he did not anticipate strong resistance
and the hinterland joined forces for the
first
time, approxi-
mately 20.000 rural people coming down to defend San Juan. After a month of fighting. Abercromby withdrew.
number of towns on the and the population had increased growth came from runaway slaves and
In the course of the 18th century the island
had
to 155.426.
risen
from
Much
4 to 34
of this
from non-Spanish traders. More could be attributed to
a
ri^ng
and immigration from the Iberian peninsula Before the new century was many years old the mother country would birth rate
be forced to reconsider
its
in Brazil
led
independence
was declared from the Portuguese house of Braganza. Through it all, Puerto Rico followed its own way, and the way was not violent.
The
first
native
Ramon Power y
statesman of any consequence was
Giralt.
In
Don
1809 the Spanish parliament, or
Cortes, decided that the loyal island across the sea should be
represented by one delegate. Power was chosen by the islanders.
He was an
educated man, schooled
in the service of the
in Spain, and a naval hero mother country. He was not a revolutionary 1
but he certainly was a reformer.
Almost
as soon as
Power was seated
in the Cortes,
he delivered
of the Cortes the following year, Power's influence
it
British
1810.
permit mer-
interesting gesture of friendship to the United States
The
in
Simon Bolivar had
to
interior.
the
the 1820s Jose de San Martin and
a powerful attack on Spanish exclusivism. Elected vice-president
forbidding coastwise shipping prevented the development of the
An
Mexico, sparked by the priest Miguel Hidalgo, began
in
open several
between Spain and Puerto Rico increased, but not significantly. This was little more than a gesture. Spain's exclusivist trade policies continued to inspire the contraband industry and such
perhaps
out rather than fight them out." This by nonviolent means was obvious through-
to
chants to carry on intercolonial trade with the islands. Trade
limitations as permitting only one port, that at
things
out the 19th century.
parently as an alternative to the same trade on a legal footing.
The one meaningful response by the crown was Spanish ports to trade with the West Indies and
talk
inclination for reform
were quite loyal innocence."
he said, "you discover that the Puerto Rican has pre-
ferred to
exclusivist trade policies.
was so exannulment of a royal order giving the Spanish governor of Puerto Rico new and vast powers. Encouraged, he began to attack the entire philosophy of Spanish colonialism, and with some success. Among the new laws was one permitting the sale of cattle to non-Spanish traders and the free sale of flour, needed badly on the island. tensive
A
by 1811 that he was able
waterfall at El
Yunque
to obtain
in the rain forest of eastern
Puerto Rico
c
-
'**&£
***r
wr
t Cash farm income for the period Jan. 1, 1061, Included $47,211,000 from crops, $199,727,000 from livestock and livestock prodm total of $246,938,000. This compared with a total oi same period in 1960. and $532 ;, >*,000 for all of I960, not including government payments ol during 1960. In 1960 Alabama ranked 25th among the states in farm re On Jan. 1, 1961. livestock in Alabama com| (00 cattle and calves of which 262,000 were milch cows, 972,000 swine, 31,000 sheep and Agriculture.
In
1
.
I
— —
—
I
ALASKA
18 Table
I.
Production of leading Crops
in
Average
Indicated 1961
Crop Wheat, bu Oats, bu
Soybeans, for beans, bu Sorghum grain, bu Hay, tons Cotton, 500-lb. bales Potatoes, Irish, cwt Potatoes, sweet, cwt Peanuts, lb Pecans, lb Peaches, bu
1950-59
1960
44,916,000 1,027,000 3,253,000 1,982,000 535,000 654,000
44,330,000 1,200,000 2,975,000 3,192,000 480,000 568,000 756,000 2,573,000 570,000 217,740,000 17,300,000 1,250,000
48,335,000 1,456,000 3,230,000 3,504,000 364,000 617,000 625,000 2,264,000 530,000 210,370,000 35,000,000 1,450,000
Corn, bu
and $239,873.68 of local funds. Old-age assistance amounted to $64,280,227.02, blind assistance $783,560.70 and aid to dependent children $10,321,306.73. In addition, aid to children in foster care cost $772,160.71 and expenses of a new medical care for the aged program, started April 1„1961, totaled about $3,000,000 during the first six-month period. The monthly average of persons receiving some kind of public assistance in 1961 was 201,462, including children drawing dependency benefits. In 1961 the state maintained three institutions for mental patients and 8 tuberculosis sanatoria at a total cost for the fiscal year of $10,990,845. There were 7 penitentiaries and 32 road camps maintained by the state, at a total cost for 1961 of $4,316,622.19. The penitentiaries had in Sept. 1961 a total of 3,382 prisoners and the road camps had 2,130 inmates.
state funds
Alabama
755,000 2,398,000 832,000 199,347,000 18,380,000 600,000
(J.
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Table
Mineral Production of Alabama
III.
short tons, except as noted)
(In
8,460,000 chickens, excluding commercial broilers. Banking and Finance. On June 30, 1961, there were 280 banks (having 84 branches and 9 facilities) in Alabama, including 69 national and 169 banks and 35 federal and 7 state-chartered savings and loan state-chartered associations. Total assets of all banks amounted to $2,750,639,738.85; deposits were $1,995,871,839.77. On Dec. 31, 1960, there were also 154 federal credit unions having resources of $30,788,166 and 127 state-chartered credit unions with resources of $52,244,288. During the fiscal year ended Sept. 30, 1960, gross receipts in all state funds totaled $923,570,213 and net receipts $619,680,594; gross disbursements totaled $881,503,086 and net disbursements $577,613,467. The gross state debt on Sept. 30, 1961, totaled $256,000,000 and the net debt $254,005,000. Total state taxes collected in 1961 were $275,813,000; federal taxes collected in the state amounted to $597,211,008. The total per capita tax paid was $267.25. Net assessed valuation of real property in the state was $1,751,940,311. Communications. All highways and roads in Alabama as of Jan. 1, 1961, totaled 65,494 mi., of which 26,373 mi. were paved and 25,931 mi. were either soil surfaced or graveled. During the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1961, the state highway department expended a total of $178,573,774, which included $61,985,751 from the federal government. New highway construction totaled approximately 1,750 mi. Vehicle registration for 1961 totaled 1,030,275 automobiles and 224,631 trucks and buses. Railroad mileage in the state (1961) included 3,957 mi. of main track line. There were 136 airports and 900 registered aircraft in the state. On Jan. 1, 1961, 116 radio stations and 13 television stations were in operation. As of the same date, 833,957 telephones were in use. There were 123 weekly and 19 daily newspapers. Exports through the Mobile customs district during 1960 totaled 1,867,850 tons valued at $150,700,000. Imports of 6,862,350 tons during this period were valued at $119,800,000. Tonnage on Alabama rivers in 1960 amounted to 19,026,390 tons. In the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1961, the state docks at Mobile grossed $6,394,681 and netted a profit of $635,943.97. Education. A total of 799,332 students were enrolled in 2,301 public elementary and secondary schools in Alabama in the 1960-61 school year. There were 469,233 students and 15,624.5 teachers (part-time teachers counted as half units) in the elementary schools, and 330,099 students and 12,302.5 teachers in the secondary schools. Approximately 30,800 resident students were enrolled in institutions of higher learning during 1959-60. In 1957-58 there were an estimated 28,400 students and 950 teachers in the 172 nonpublic schools, including kindergarden and postgraduate. The total amount spent by the state during 1960-61 on education amounted to $174,399,391.96, including $19,786,528.22 for the seven state-supported colleges and universities and $1,302,897.58 for the seven state-supported vocational trade schools. New construction accounted for $34,298,960.46 of the total. The average annual salary of teachers in the elementary schools in 1959-60 was $3,721, in high schools $4,000. Manufacturing and Industry. About 4,000 industrial establishments in Alabama, employing about 235,000 workers and paying about $1,002,000,000 in salaries and wages, produced finished products worth $4,706,000,000 in 1960, compared with $4,872,000,000 in 1959. Additions to capital investment in 1960 totaled $212,238,700. Total civilian employment in the state as of July 1, 1961, was 1,057,600; there were 86,600 unemployed on that date. Personal income was $4,785,000,000 in the state in 1960, compared with $4,602,000,000 in 1959. Average per capita income in 1960 was $1,462, compared with an average of $2,223 for the United States. The amount of unemployment benefits paid in Alabama during the year 1960 was $27,162,595, compared with $24,433,440 in 1959. Public Welfare and Related Programs. n the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1961, the sum of $86,819,409.71 was expended for welfare programs in Alabama, including $63,360,914.94 of federal funds, $23,218,621.09 of
—
—
—
—
—
Table
Principal Industries of
II.
All
employees 1958 Total manufacturing Primary metal industries Textile mill products Food and kindred products. Chemicals and products Pulp, paper and products
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
23,287
.
.
.
6,865 3,061
9,661
Stone, clay and glass products Lumber and wood products. Machinery (except electrical)
and
fixtures
1958
8,600 9,965 17,229 22,481 10,613 8,294
.
.
.
-
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce,
Value added by manufacture
000s)
lin
$919,016 214,775 110,814 67,274 40,026 52,575 87,433 51,800 60,554 33,235 49,225 31,660
.... Transportation equipment .... Apparel and related products Fabricated metal products .... Furniture
229,998 37,410 39,536 19,340
and wages
1958 Census
Total*
Cement
(in
000s)
1958
$1,741,992 436,475 180,789 144,542 136^530 114,730 112,309 93,955 90,441 80,466 75,583 50,499 17,012
1957
12,931,000 1,840,000 13,011,000 4,897,000 156,000 4,556,000 3,545,000 564,000 7,257,000 4,359,000 13,503,000
Ibbl.)
Cloys Coal
Cokef Ferroolloyst Iron
ore
Iron, plat
Lime Petroleum
.... ....
Ibbl.)
Sand and gravel Stone
Other minerals
...
Quantity
Value
Quantity
$217,617,000 42,706,000 2,170,000 92,439,000 99,559,000 28,710,000 23,511,000 200,366,000 6,912,000 t
14,819,000 1,786,000 11,947,000 4,898,000 131,000 4,665,000 3,634,000 579,000 5,524,000 4,352,000 11,886,000
4,759,000 19,970,000 29,445,000
.
.
.
Value
$200,847,000 46,639,000 2,089,000 78,212,000 96,477,000 28,358,000 23,922,000 206,449,000 6,847,000 t
4,594,000 18,728,000 23,897,000
*The total has been adjusted to eliminate duplication in the value of clays and stone. tValues for processed materials are not Included In the totals. JValue included with other minerals. Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
—
Mineral Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals mined in Alabama in 1959 and 1960 whose value was $100,000 or more. Alabama was second in bauxite output; third in asphalt, iron ore and slag: and fourth in scrap mica. In 1960 the 8% increase in total value of Alabama's mineral output resulted from substantial increases in the output of coal, petroleum and stone. Total employment in the mineral industries increased 2% mainly due to 7% increase of employment at coal mines. Alabama's mineral industry was dominated by the mining and processing of coal and iron ore, which contributed 53% of the state's mineral value. Alabama ranked 19th in the value of its minerals, with 1.22% of the U.S. total.
Encyclopedia Britannica Films.
Alocl/O nldolxd.
— Southeastern
States (1956).
Alaska, with an area of 586,400 sq.mi., 15,335 sq.mi. f
which
inland water,
is
is
the largest state of the
United States. At the extreme northwest corner of the North
American continent,
it
Bering
is
strait.
Alaska
habitants (1960 census)
The
is
separated from the U.S.S.R. by the
the least populous state with 226,167 in;
the July
1,
1961, estimate was 234,000.
principal cities (1960 census) are: Juneau, the capital, 6,797,
Anchorage 44.237, Fairbanks 13,311 and Ketchikan 6,483. Gov. William A. Egan and Secretary of State Hugh History. J. Wade, in office in 1961, were the state's only elected officials. Their terms were due to expire on Dec. 3, 1962. Ralph E. Moody was attorney general. The second state legislature met in annual session from Jan. 23 through April 6. A budget of $55,734,040 ($49,121,755 in state funds and $6,612,285 in federal transitional grant funds) was approved. Final implementation of the state constitution was achieved by a general law permitting the establishment of a borough (analogous with county) form of local government. To
—
accelerate expansion of the state's industrial base the legislature
created the Alaska State Development corporation to provide
needed capital for the establishment and development of new business and industry in Alaska as well as the expansion of existing facilities.
Alabama
Salories
1959
1960
Mineral
M. Pn.)
The
legislature also established the Alaska State
Mortgage association
to loan funds
on the security of insured
mortgages; increased funds available for loans under the Alaska Agricultural Revolving
Loan fund; established standards and
$1,665,202 463,815 189,887
procedures for the transfer of state-owned tide- and submerged
109 273 127'047 76,853
$23,000,000 in general obligation bonds for roads, highways and
of Manufactures (1960).
121036 75^600 84,567 73,093 93^303 51^825
lands to municipal corporations; and authorized the issuance of
a state-owned
marine highway system to connect the state and
continental highway systems via Prince Rupert, Wrangell, Peters-
burg, Juneau, Sitka, Haines and Skagway.
The to
issuance of $7,000,000 in revenue bonds was authorized
improve
facilities at the State International airports at
An-
ALBA NIA A
chorage and Fairbanks.
total of $1,500,000 in general obliga-
bonds was authorized for a vocational school and $7,000,000 revenue bonds for construction at the University of Alaska.
tion in
The petroleum industry continued
to lead Alaska's industrial
advancement. Advance estimates that 1961 would see more than 40 wells producing 6,000,000 bbl. of oil, compared with 1959 production of 559.000
bbl.,
of state land in the
was
to construct
Tyonek area
and have
May
were borne out. In
companies invested more than $7,000,000
oil
for oil exploration.
in operation
the
major
to lease 56.449 ac.
The industry
by mid- 1963 a refinery
on the Kenai peninsula, geared substantially to supply Alaska's
petroleum needs. Construction of
connect the Kenai
a pipeline to
gas wells and the city of Anchorage
was completed
in
autumn
and consumer use of gas was begun. The construction industry and the production of pulp and related wood products were in high gear as the year drew to a close after minor
had occurred trol,
earlier in the season. In its
work stoppages
second year of state con-
the fisheries of Alaska exceeded 1960 production figures.
Other industrial developments included the tapping of Alaska's
birchwood potential.
A
mill for processing birch
was dedicated
at
Wasilla on the Alaska railroad north of Anchorage. Japanese interests, already financially tied to the
Sitka pulp mill, con-
tinued research at Sitka while the state sent
official
representa-
Japan to meet and discuss Alaska's industrial potential. Japanese concerns had displayed an interest in Alaskan reserves of copper, nickel, coal, lead, zinc, iron and antimony. The tourist tives to
most easily developed potentials of from 6% to 10% over 1960. There was tourists arriving by automobile.
industry, rated one of the
the state, a
made
gains of
marked increase
in
Following publication of results of the 1960 U.S. census, the governor's
advisory board on
reapportionment recommended
more more to
that of the 40 seats in the state house of representatives. 6
be allocated to Anchorage, raising
Fairbanks for a total of
On June
2,
its total
to 14,
and
2
7.
1961, the state supreme court unanimously upheld
Alaska's power to abolish fish traps in the state.
The
basic issue
19
Total state taxes collected in the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961, amounted to $31,984,32 7; federal grants to the state amounted to $2 7,974,916. Communications. All highways and roads in Alaska in 1961 totaled 4,596 mi., including 1,644 mi. of primary and 2,590 mi. of secondary roads. funds disbursed for highways in the fiscal year 1960-61 federal State and included $4,626,034 for construction and $4,491,170 for maintenance. Xew highway construction totaled 9 mi. with the major portion of the state effort aimed at road realignment, improvement and relocation to bring existing roads up to standard. Vehicle registration to Aug. 30, 1961, included 71,022 private cars, 291 cars for hire and 12,582 commercial vehicles. Railroad mileage in the state included 579 mi. of main track line. There were 650 registered airports and 1,208 registered aircraft in the state. On Oct. 1, 1961, there were 15 radio stations and 9 television stations in operation. There were 6 daily and 23 other news periodicals. Education. In Alaska in the 1960-61 school year there were 33,213 students and 1,372 teachers in the public elementary schools and 7,580 students and 495 teachers in the secondary schools. In addition, 1,756 students attended 22 private and denominational schools and 7,819 students were enrolled in federal bureau of Indian affairs schools. On-campus enrollment at the University of Alaska reached 1,139 (980 day, 159 evening). The state of Alaska spent a total of $22,409,312.61 for education in the year ending June 30, 1961. Of this amount $16,310,910.79 came from the general fund, $5,893,406.13 from federal grants-in-aid and $204,995.69 from special funds, bond, trust and agency sources. Fisheries. Alaska's fishing industry in 1960 made a catch of 358.509,487 lb. valued at $40,934,049. This represented an increase of 34,33 7,867 lb. and $12,149,389 over 1959. Fishery products prepared for market amounted to 197,222,834 lb. and $96,688,642. Preliminary figures on the canned salmon pack for 1961 showed a total of 3,300,000 cases of 48 lb. each, compared with 2,570.000 cases in 1960. Manufacturing and Industry. More than 360 industrial establishments in Alaska, employing an average 5,777 workers monthly, paid about $44,576,000 in salaries and wages in 1960. Total insured employment in the state as of March 1961 was 41,249: there were 7,064 insured unemployed at that date. The amount of unemployment benefits paid in Alaska during 1960 was $6,448,288, compared with S7,350,127 during 1959. Public Welfare and Related Programs. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 1961, the sum of $4,028,473.20 was expended for welfare programs in Alaska including $1,768,298 of federal funds and $2,260,175.20 of state funds. Old-age assistance amounted to $1,1 16,370. blind assistance $90,487, aid to dependent children $1,614,219 and general relief-assistance $184,177.83. In addition, child welfare and general relief-medical (including hospitals, nursing homes, doctors and other medical services) cost $630,652.70 in state funds. The monthly average of persons receiving some kind of public assistance in fiscal 1961 was 4,100. In fiscal year ending June 30, 1961, the state contracted with a privately operated institution for mental patients at a total cost of approximately $1,391,416.25. Alaska did not maintain any charity hospitals or tuberculosis sanatoria. These services were provided by contractual service. Xo penitentiaries or reformatories other than a youth camp were operated by the state. A state jail was maintained at Ketchikan but such facilities were provided elsewhere by contract with municipal authorities and the federal government. (W. A. E.)
—
—
—
—
—
was whether the state of Alaska could prohibit the use of salmon traps entirely or whether the U.S. department of the interior had
Table
authority to permit the use of traps by certain Eskimo villages.
The
case was first decided in favour of the state
mond It
short tons, except as noted)
by Judge Ray-
1960
Mineral
Kelly of the U.S. district court for the district of Alaska.
was
later
appealed to the U.S. supreme court.
court system was implemented the case was
When
the state's
remanded
to that
Cool
722,000 168,000
Gold (oz.) Mercury (76-lb.
flasks)
.
.
.
once more appealed to
Sand and gravel Stone
Quantity
Volue
660,000 179,000 4,000 187,000 5,859,000 89,000
$20,495,000 5,869,000 6,262,000 852,000 295,000 5,265,000 377,000 1,575,000
Other minerals
...
...
Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
review the appeal.
Considerable publicity attended the rescue of a Kentucky tour-
William C. Waters,
Mineral Production.
lost for
69 days in the wilderness near
the Arctic circle north of Fairbanks
where he had subsisted on
rose hips and berries. See also Arctic. Agriculture.
4,000 558,000 6,013,000 275,000
1959
Value
$21,858,000 6,318,000 5,887,000 940,000 1,228,000 5,483,000 852,000 1,150,000
Quantity
Total
Petroleum (bbl.)
supreme court's decision, the villages the U.S. supreme court which decided to
court. Following the state
ist,
Mineral Production of Alaska
II.
(In
— In
1960 there were 13,845 ac. of harvested cropland in Alaska, 2,371 ac. of cropland pasture and 4,964 ac. of idle cropland. Cash income in 1960 totaled $2,312,920 from crops and $3,093,490 from livestock and poultry products, for a total of $5,406,410. This compared with a total of $5,124,000 in 1959. On Dec. 31, 1960, livestock in Alaska comprised 7,320 cattle and calves of which 2,770 were milch cows, 1,000 swine, 15,000 sheep, and 42,200 poultry.
— Table
II shows the tonnage and value of minerals 1959 and 1960 with value in excess of $100,000. output of platinum group metals, third in gold and, for the fourth successive year, in mercury. Coal replaced gold as a
produced in Alaska In 1960 Alaska was
in
first in
leading mineral of the state as a result of larger military coal contracts. Alaska ranked 44th among the states in the value of its mineral output, with .12% of the U.S. total. Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Alaska: the 49th State (1959).
—
AlhoniO
nlUdllla.
^ P eo P' es republic in the western part of the Balkan ai Europe, Albania is on the Adriatic sea,
p en nsu j
]
bordered by Greece and Yugoslavia. Area 11.099 sq.mi. Pop. Table
I.
Production of Leading Crops
Crop Oats, bu Borley, bu All lilage, tons
hoy, tonj Pototoes, cwt
All
'Includes following quantities not harvested or not 22,000 cwt.
—
in
Alaska 196]
35,700 69,350 27,000 8,400 146,000* marketed: 1960, 18,000
(1960 census) 1,625.378. Principal 1960
79,800 87,400 23,400 8,600 131,000* cwt.; 1961,
Banking and Finance. On Dec. 30, 1960, there were 18 banks in Alaska, including 7 national banks. Total assets of all banks amounted to $227,229,134.56; demand deposits were $198,511,432.20 and savings deposits, $181,244,245.56. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961, receipts to the state from all sources totaled $100,542,792, and disbursements, $102,459,150.
cities (pop.,
1958
est.)
:
Tirane
(Tirana; cap.) 119.000; Shkoder 40.900; Korce (Koritsa) 34,-
400; Vlore (Valona) 32,700. First secretary of the Albanian
(Communist) Party of Labour in 1961. Enver Hoxha; president Haxhi Leshi: chairman of the council of min-
of the presidium. isters
(premier
History.
European
i.
Maj. Gen. Mehmet Shehu.
—Albania's
allies deti
relations with the Soviet
Union and
its
further during 1961. Relations with
Communist China improved and
it appeared that by September China had completely supplanted Soviet and eastern European
ALCOHOLISM
20
influence in Albania. Albania did not attend the Soviet nist
party congress in October during which
its
Commu-
leaders were
severely criticized by Nikita Khrushchev.
The long-delayed nist)
fourth congress of the Albanian
Party of Labour took place in Tirane
in
(Commu-
February. The pro-
ceedings were dominated by the party's first secretary, Hoxha, whose speeches were notable for their antiwestern tone. His most surprising statement was that the Albanian police had exposed a plot, allegedly organized by Yugoslavia, Greece, refugee Albanians and the U.S. Mediterranean fleet, to overthrow the Com-
munist regime
in
The congress
Albania. elected a
new
central committee, increased in
from 40 to 53 members, and a new politburo, increased from 9 to 11 members. The party secretariat headed by Hoxha remained unchanged, as did his control over the whole machinery of government. The party was reported to have 53,659 members. In May ten persons, of whom the most important was Vicesize
Adm. Teme were put on plot.
Sejko,
commander
Albanian navy,
said to have confessed their guilt,
all
Admiral Sejko and three other senior party officials were sentenced to death and executed and the other defendants were
interests,
to
have acted on behalf of western
Admiral Sejko's long training
statements
made by
in fact a veiled
in the Soviet
Union and was
the prosecution suggested that the trial
attack on the Soviet Union. There was other evi-
dence that the Soviets might have made some attempt to unseat
Hoxha
early in 1961. It was reported that Soviet promises of economic aid were not being carried out. Soviet, Czech and East
German
on the brain, liver and endocrine system, and of synergisms between alcohol and other substances such as traneffects-of alcohol
quilizers.
Treatment. to the
technicians were withdrawn, and Chinese technicians and
The Soviet-Albanian break was made clearDecember when the Soviets severed diplomatic relawith Albania. Several east European satellites withdrew
—
In psychotherapy, John Clancy called attention need to deal with the alcoholic patient's problem of procras-
tination
and
Moore pointed out
rationalization. R. A.
that the
immediate gratification often leads to overt or covert rejection on the part of the therapist. On in-patient patient's insistence on
services, such unconscious hostile reaction to unrealistic permissiveness as
by the
staff
can lead
an overcompensation and perhaps
unconscious provocation. There were indications that the
to
who
alcoholic
is
in
good contact
is
more
difficult for
personnel to accept than a grossly disturbed person. Scott
recommended
therapeutic
Edward M.
that during therapy the focus should be on
present external problems such as marriage, the job and debts.
Social Psychiatry.
—R.
Strayer
felt
that the matriarchal pat-
Negro society played an important part in the superior motivation that he observed in Negro alcoholic patients coming to tern of
a clinic. In discussing the role of alcohol in Jewish culture, Albion
Roy King
sentenced to long terms of imprisonment.
Although they were said
to be a function of
alleged part in the antigovernment
trial for their
The accused were
in chief of the
by experimental animals was shown environmental temperature (J. C. Forbes and G. M. Duncan). Contributions were made to knowledge of the rate of alcohol utilization
pointed out that
it
communal group
family and the
Thus the element
of protest
is
traditionally used within the
is
as a vehicle of joint celebration.
absent. E.
M.
Jellinck observed
that in wine-drinking countries the incidence of alcoholism de-
pends on the mode and meaning of the drinking. Thus
Italy,
in
where the rate of addiction is low, wine is usually consumed at meals or in familiar, socially approved groups. In France, on the other hand, where alcoholism is much more common, wine is drunk outside the family in the hope of finding relief from cares.
aid replaced them.
Practices of psychiatrists active in treating alcoholism in the
cut in early
U.S. and the U.S.S.R. appeared to be
tions
practices of psychiatrists in general in the two countries.
their representatives
from Tirane and
it
was reported Albania had
been expelled from the Warsaw pact. See also
Communism.
—
Soviet psychiatrist's goal, to re-educate the patient to
conformity to society, (D. Fd.)
Education. Schools (1958-59): kindergartens 381, pupils 19,534, teachers 818; primary 2,685, pupils 211,546, teachers 7,130; secondary pupils 5,177, teachers 35, 336; vocational 36, pupils 6.842. teachers 389: institutions of higher education (including University of Tirane and teacher-training colleges), faculties 14, students 4,872, teaching staff 386. Finance. Monetary unit: lek with official exchange rate, high and fictitious, of 50 leks to U.S. $1. Budget (1961 est.): revenue 28,800,000,000
—
leks; expenditure 28.300.000,000 leks. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports 3,930,000,000 leks, exports 1,460,000,000 leks. About half of the trade was with the U.S.S.R. and nearly all the remainder with the people's democracies. Transport and Communications. Highways (1960) 1,677 mi. Licensed
—
chiatrist's
sheep 1,662,000; cattle 423,000; goats 1,095,000; pigs 109,000: horses 49,000; mules 16,000; asses 54,000: buffaloes 8,000; poultry 1,430.000. Industry. Production (metric tons if not otherwise stated, 1959): crude petroleum 479,000; brown coal (1957) 235,733; electricity (1958) 150,000.000 kw.hr.; chrome ore (1958) 201.252; copper ore (1958) 87,460copper, blister (1957) 925: cement (1958) 78.000; timber (1957) 124,530 cu.m.; cotton fabrics (1958) 22,000,000 m.; sugar 13,000.
—
Alberta: see Canada. Alcoholic Liquor: see Brewing and Beer; Liquors, Alcoholic; Wines.
Alcoholics Anonymous:
see
Alrnhnlkm
Pro S ress m tne treatment of alcoholics in 1961 was characterized more by the organization of
clinics, in-patient centres
The
maximum
not far removed from the U.S. psy-
attempts to help the patient adjust.
—
The ambivalent attitude of society toward the alcoholic achim as a sick man, particularly while he is recovering from an acute intoxication, while at the same time viewing him as a deviant who lacks even the excuse of having lost contact
—was
with reality
patient to drink.
suggested as representing a seduction to the
The
success of Alcoholics
from their ability Harry M. Tiebout,
sult
terms
it
uses
—
Anonymous may
re-
to integrate both viewpoints. in discussing A.A.,
pointed out that the
"hitting bottom," "humility," "surrender," "hav-
ing a big ego or
little
ego"
—have
psychiatric applicability and
that the "religious conversion" experience of the A. A.
member
and unique. A. A. should be seen as a "phenomenon whose emergence must be taken as a fact of nature, and should be treated as a material for observation and study." See also Liquors, Alcoholic. Bibliography. John Clancy, "Procrastination: A Defense Against Sobriety," Quart. J. Stud. Alcohol, 22:269-276 (June 1961); Albion Roy is
crucial
—
King, "Alcohol Problem in Israel," Quart. J. Stud. Alcohol, 22:321-324 (June 1961); Edward M. Scott, "The Techniques of Psychotherapy With Alcoholics," Quart. J. Stud. Alcohol, 22j69-80 (March 1961); Harry M. an Experiment of Nature," Quart. J Tiebout, "Alcoholics Anonymous (K. Gy.) Stud. Alcohol, 22:52-68 (March 1961). Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Alcohol and the Human Body (1949); Alcoholism (1952).
—
—
Alcoholism; Societies and
Associations, U.S.
nlbUIIUIIolll.
is
alike than
cepting
—
motor vehicles (Dec. 1959): cars 1,700. trucks and buses 3,300. Railways (1958) 104 mi. Goods transported (1958) 234,000,000 ton-km., including 81% by roads and 19% by rail. Telephones (I960) 5,500. Licensed radio receiving sets (1959) 43,000. Agriculture.— Main crops (metric tons, 1958): wheat 101.000; corn 158,000: rice 5,000; beans (1957) 7,031; sugar beets (1957) 98,406; potatoes 16,000; cotton, raw (1957) 15,992; tobacco 8,000. Livestock (1958):
more nearly
and units for alcoholics in general hospitals than by new research. However, further work was done to clarify the immediate effect of alcohol on the organism. The
Aleutian Islands: see Alaska. Alfalfa: see Hay and Pastures. «i
A
nlgClld.
geria
French territory on the north coast of Africa, Alis bounded by Morocco, the Saharan departements of Saoura and Oasis, and Tunisia. Considered politically an integral part of France as a government general, it is divided
Women
and children of the Muslim quarter of an Algerian city demonstrating the streets Nov. 1, 1961, the seventh anniversary of the beginning of the Algerian civil war. Girl (centre) is holding a rebel flag In
Muslim woman, with child on her back, voting at a village near Algiers in January. A referendum was held to determine public reaction to a proposal by French Pres. Charles De Gaulle to grant Algeria self-determination
Four French generals who
led
an
un-
successful military coup In April protesting De Gaulle's Algerian policies. Left to right: E. Jouhaud, R. Salan, M.
Challe and A. Zeller
Hadj, leader of the M.N.A. (Algerian National movement), one of the two principal rebel groups In AlMessall
geria
Muslim troops of the
F.L.N.
mountain region seize a rebel activist (National Liberation front). Regular French army soldiers (right) on the In May as conferences between French and rebel
(left), loyal to the French, in the Atlas
renewed violence in Algiers leaders opened at Evian-les-Bains, France
alert against
A'HmkK
I
»CuPhotograph,: (top left) United Pre,, International, flop right) Wide World, (centre right, bottom left) Paris Match from Pictorial Parade, (bottom renlre) Pictorial Parade, (bottom right) Dalmas—Pix from Publix
ALGERIA
22 administratively into 13 departements.
administrative authority in Algeria, of state of Algerian affairs. istered separately
from the
The
delegate general, the
responsible to the minister
is
The Saharan departements are adminAlgerian (see Sahara, French). Area
113,912 sq.mi. Cap. Algiers. Delegate general in 1961, Jean Morin.
— Provisional
taken Sept.
1960, showed a total population of 10,055,000, an increase of 12.4% over 1954. living France. The Muslim Algerians in Not included were about 350,000 urban population was 3,314,000, or 32.5% of the total. There were 9,020.000 Muslims and 1,035,000 non-Muslims and Europeans. The density of population was 11.3 per sq.mi. Principal cities: Algiers 870.000 (metro.); Oran 430,000 (metro.); Constantine 217,000; Bone 144,000; Sidi-Bel-Abbes 101,000; Blida 87,000; Philippeville 85,000; Tlemcen 80,000. Census Data.
History. —The
results
of
census
a
IS,
Algerian conflict, which began in Nov. 1954,
continued into its seventh year in 1961. In both Algeria and France the year was characterized by violence and terrorist activities by the rebels of the National Liberation front (F.L.N.)
and
De
also
by extreme right-wing opponents of French Pres. Charles
Gaulle.
Ferhat Abbas, then premier of the rebel "provisional govern-
ment of
the Algerian republic" (G.P.R.A.), attended the Casa-
blanca conference of African states on Jan. 4-7.
An
"Africa
Organization (O.A.S.). Active in both France and Algeria, the O.A.S. was formed as a counterterrorist organization by a group of defecting French
continent of foreign intervention and pressure. nition
De
jure recog-
was extended by a number of states to the G.P.R.A. prior and by the end of September at least 30 had
to the conference
done
so.
A referendum was held
on Jan. 6-8 to ascertain public approval
or disapproval of a plan proposed by
De
of an Algerian-administered state with
Gaulle for the creation
its
own government and On Dec. 20,
to grant Algeria a right to future self-determination.
1960,
De
Gaulle expressed his belief that the Algerians would
fi-
nally choose association with France rather than secession or inte-
Abbas opposed the referendum and appealed to Muslim population to boycott the polls. The referendum was
gration. Ferhat
the
held not only in Algeria and France but also in the Saharan de-
partements, overseas departements and overseas territories. plan was approved by
and by more than cause of the
many
more than 10%
60%
The
of those voting in France
of those voting in Algeria.
However, be-
abstentions the favourable vote accounted for
only slightly more than half of
all eligible
His plan having been approved,
De
early solution to the Algerian problem.
voters.
Gaulle hoped to reach an
However, on Jan. 16 the
"provisional government," located in Tunis, declared an unwillingness to negotiate on any part of the plan except that dealing
with self-determination.
A
second rebel declaration stated that
there could be no cease-fire until such time as self-determination
guarantees could be given. published
new decrees
On
Jan. 21 the
government of France
relative to administrative reorganization
lic
additional decrees restricting the police and political powers
of the French
army
and returning some of these powers April saw a series of bombings in both France and Algeria, and talks scheduled for April 7 between the French and the G.P.R.A. at Evian-les-Bains were canceled. At a press conference on April 11. De Gaulle stated that Algeria could be partitioned to protect the pro-French elements. In this event, French ties with the new Muslim state undoubtedly would be severed, and the 400,000 Algerians in France would be forced to return to Algeria. On April 22-26 a military coup was attempted by elements of French forces stationed in Algeria in to civilian control.
opposition to lute stand
De
in Algeria
March and
Gaulle's Algerian policy.
De
and the coup was quickly brought
Gaulle took a reso-
when
to
an end.
underground movement was begun known as the Secret
Army
A
the F.L.N, representatives insisted that France
must
first
recognize Algerian sovereignty over the Saharan departements
and
their mineral resources. Following a three-week secret
meet-
Ben Youssef Ben Khedda replaced the more moderate Ferhat Abbas as premier of the
ing of Algerian rebels in Tripoli, Libya,
G.P.R.A. on Aug. 27.
On Aug. 30 De
Gaulle told his cabinet in
Paris that the change in rebel leadership would not deter his
plans for Algeria. An Algerian rebel spokesman on Aug. 31 acknowledged that the G.P.R.A. had received support from the Soviet bloc and Yugoslavia. Ben Khedda headed a G.P.R.A. dele-
gation at the Belgrade conference of so-called nonaligned states, Sept. 1-6.
An announcement by De
Gaulle that France might be prepared
to recognize Algerian sovereignty over the oil-rich
Saharan de-
partements precipitated violent reactions by non-Muslim groups in
both Algeria and France. With this change
in
French policy,
there was good reason to believe that negotiations could be re-
sumed between the French and Algerians. On Nov. 1, the seventh anniversary of the Algerian conflict, Mohammed Ben Bella, vice-premier of the "provisional government," and four ministers of state who had been prisoners in France from 1956, began a hunger strike
in
which they were
The strike was ended after 20 days during which strong representations were made to the French government by Morocco. The terms on which joined by about 4,000 other Algerian prisoners.
the strike was ended included the granting of status as political
prisoners to the Algerians.
On Dec.
29
De
Gaulle announced there would be a large-scale
withdrawal of French troops from Algeria
announcement and violence
tion greeted the
in 1962.
Mixed
flared in
both Algeria
reac-
and France. De Gaulle indicated that despite all opposition he intended to carry out a program of independence for Algeria's Muslims. Some sources interpreted the speech to indicate that the French were close to an agreement with the rebel provisional
government and that conditions were favourable for a negotiated cease-fire. See also Armies of the World; France; Sahara,
French
Education.
(E. A. S.)
.
— Schools (1960-61): primary
16,660, pupils 734,300 (includ-
90%
Muslim); secondary 47, pupils 51,563 (including about 25% Muslim); vocational, pupils 20,800 (including about 75% Muslim); teachers' colleges, students 1,366. Algiers university (1959-60), students ing about
—
Finance. Monetary unit: the French franc (NF4.94 — U.S. $1). Budget (1960 revised est.): revenue NF423,446,000,000; expenditure NF423,-
146,000,000.
—
Foreign Trade. (1960) Imports XF6,242,000,000, exports NF 1,946,000,000. Principal exports (1959): wine (89,772,000,000 old fr.), citrus fruit (12,618,000,000 old fr.), iron ore (9,216,000,000 old fr.), vegetables (9,736,000,000 old fr.). Transport and Communication. Railways (1959) 4,986 km. Roads (1960) 80,100 km. Shipping (1959): 10,960 ships of 16,800,000 net registered tons entered and 9,676 ships of 14,300,000 net registered tons cleared the ports of Algeria; merchandise unloaded and loaded 13,500,000 metric tons. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1960): wheat 1,497,000; barley 755.000: oats 46,000: potatoes (1959) 272,000; dates (1959) 98,100; figs 98,000: tobacco 14,000; olive oil 25,000; wine (1959) 1,860,000. Livestock: sheep (T958-59) 5,478,000; goats (1958-59) 2,014,000; cattle (1958-59) 664,000: asses (1959-60) 427,000; mules r 1959-60) 24S,000: horses (1959-60) 210,000; camels (1959-60) 194,000. Industry. Production (metric tons, 1960): coal 118,800; crude petroleum 8.796,000; electricity 1.315,200,000 kw.hr.; iron ore 3,444,000; phosphates (1959) 531,000 metric tons.
—
—
—
—
Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: The Arab World's Past and Future; The Arab World's Case Against the West; The World's Reaction Against Western Rule; Why Prompt PeaceSettlements in Algeria and Palestine Are in Everybody' s Interest; Suggestions lor Peace-Settlements in Algeria and Palestine (8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th lectures of the series, "A Changing World in the Light of History") H958): Mediterranean Africa (1952); Lije in the Sahara (1953). Arab
In April, following the attempted coup, a tightly disciplined
and was dedicated to maintain-
to negotiate were made by the French meeting held at Evian-les-Bains May 20June 13 failed to reach any agreement. The talks were resumed again at Lugrin on July 20, but were suspended eight days later
6,553.
and decentralization in Algeria, made necessary because special government powers previously in effect expired Feb. 5. On March 1 the French cabinet of Premier Michel Debre made pub-
officers
new attempts
Several
and the Algerians.
charter" prepared by the delegates stated that nonalignment was the only genuine African foreign policy and pledged to rid the
army
ing a French Algeria.
AMBASSADORS AND ENVOYS I nterest;
Allorrrw
nllulgj.
continued
in
1961 in the treatment of sea-
sonal hay fever with only one or two injections of
pollen emulsified in
which remains a long time
oil
and free of danger,
If effective
this
treatment
the tissues.
in
preferable to
is
multiple injections. Experimental evidence indicated
the
that
injection of emulsified oil with or without an antigen such as
pollen
is
Many
not entirely free of potential danger. diseases
may
be on an autoimmune basis. Conditions
such as systemic lupus erythematosus,
rheumatic
thyroiditis,
and drug-induced purpuras, agranulocytosis and acquired hemolytic anemia are examples. It appeared in 1961 diseases, idiopathic
become body produces antibodies against them.
that under the influence of drugs or infection tissues
antigenic so that the
In other cases, as for example the thyroid or the eye lens, these proteins escape into the circulation and
Some
progress was being
munological reaction
in the
made
become
an im-
production of and resistance to cer-
The purpose
The
tissue trans-
may become
was
to find
tolerant of another's
that such organs as skin, cornea, bone
may
A company
cans with tabs for opening;
20,000-metric-ton-per-year reduction plant in central India. Negotiations continued between
plant. Plans
Ghana and
U.S. and Canadian pro-
were made for a U.S. aluminum company to take aluminum facility and a primary
part in the construction of an in Greece.
Table
Data of Aluminum Industry
II.
lin
of this type of investigation
out means whereby one person tissues, so
1960 were made largely of
announced the development of aluminum oil companies used aluminum drill pipe for operational testing, and aluminum pellets for fracturing to free oil or gas. For the first time since 1947, the U.S. became a net exporter of aluminum. During 1960 U.S. aluminum producers continued interest in expansion into foreign countries. The Export-Import bank approved a loan for construction of an alumina plant and a aluminum.
some allergic skin conditions but it was not used to discover or
remove the possible causes of the existing allergy. Further progress was being made in the field of
kidney
47%
other transportation areas. Nearly
the treatment of
in
appeared to lessen the itching
plantation.
in
of the truck trailers produced in
aluminum plant
tain types of cancer.
Hypnosis used
expansion was noted
ducers to construct and operate a 210,000-metric-ton aluminum
antigenic.
in the establishment of
23
19%, but new uses continued to appear. The use of aluminum for the 1961 automobile models rose sharply, and creased
marrow
or
be successfully transplanted to other patients.
Production, primary
was
co-operating with a group of immunologists and allergists in
U.S.
in
tons]
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
1960
1,565.7
1,679.0
1,647.7
1,565.6
1,954.1*
2,014.5
239.5 33.8 -6.1
265.0 68.0
258.0 62.6
82.5
+87.5
+68.6
-24.9
-34.5
+148.2
2,126.3* 359.9 78.0* 2,563.8* 2,128.4*
1,678.8
Crude and semicrude: Imports Exports Producers' stocks
....
Available new supply Secondary recovery From old scrap Total supply Consumption, primary.
1,777.5
1,788.5
1,774.5
1,801.2
336.0 76.4
339.8 71.7
361.8 72.5
289.6
.
2,116.1 1,754.9
2,258.5 1,787.8
2,246.3 1,774.7
2,119.5 1,802.6
.
.
.
.
.
301.5* 163.8
293.2
....
.
section on allergy of the National Institutes of Health
.
.
.
000 short
64.1
196.4
383.9
329.3 62.7 2,503.0 1,686.2
•Revised.
separating a pure antigen from such pollen as ragweed. Experi-
mentation with the
effect of
such pure antigens would help ad-
vance knowledge of the allergy in man.
In the
eight
first
months of 1961, U.S. primary aluminum
output was 1,245,053 short tons, compared with 1,357,888 tons
See also Blood, Diseases of the; Dermatology.
in the similar
H. C.)
(L.
1960 period. Shipments were 1,245,037 and 1,257,-
810 tons, respectively. See also Secondary Metals.
Alliance for Progress: see Organization of American States; Foreign Aid Programs, U.S. Alloys: see Metallurgy. Almonds: see Nuts. Al+rusa International, Incorporated: see Societies and
to the
From the U.S.
Byroade, Henry A. McGintock, Robert M.
World production
11% above
was
of primary
aluminum
in
1960
1959, according to an estimate
of the U.S. bureau of mines. All major producing
countries
!
(vacancy)
Australia Austria
Matthews, H. Freeman MacArthur, Douglas, Stephansky, Ben S.
Belgium
II
Bolivia
Gordon, Lincoln "Page, Edward, Jr.
Brazil
Bulgaria
showed
had been unbroken since 1947. U.S. output was 40% of the world output, compared with 43% in 1959. Free world production, at 4,000,000 tons, was 80% of increases, a trend that
Burma
Central African Rep.
.
.
.
Chile
Table
I.
— World Production lin
1955 Austria
63.1
Canada
612.5
China France
1
Germany, West Hungary
.
.
.
Italy
Japan
Norway Switzerland U.S.S.R United Kingdom United States
.
.
.
....
Others
.0?
79.1 33.3 475.? 27.4 1,565.7 1 27.5 3,460.
Total
United States. 1960 rose
1
142.2 151.1 40.7 68.0 63.4
3%;
000 short tons! 1956
1957
65.5 620.3
556.7
11.0? 165.1
162.4 38.4 70.2
72.7 101.3 33.2 500.? 30.9 1,679.0 170.0 3,720.
62.1
22.0? 176.3 169.6 27.7 73.0 74.9 105.4 34.2 550.? 32.9 1,647.7 192.5 3,725.
Costa Rica
62.7 634.1 29.8? 186.4
72.3 593.6 77.6? 190.7 166.6 50.4 82.7 110.4 160.9 37.9 690.0?
74.9 761.4
Cuba
1,565.6
27.4 1,954.1
235.2 3,875.
285.4 4,500.
88.1? 259.3 186.2 54.6 92.2 146.9 182.3 43.8 745.0? 32.4 2,014.5 328.4 5,010.
in the
U.S. in
of capacity,
with the
85%, attained in the April-July period. Shipments dropped 6%. Total apparent consumption of aluminum de-
....
Edmund Raymond
Gullion,
Dahomey Denmark Dominican Rep.§ Ecuador El Salvador
T.
R.
Sein
Kimny, Nong N'Thepe, Aime Raymond Heeney, A.D.P. Gallin-Douathe, Michel
Yeh,
George
K.C.
Sanz de Santamaria, Dadet, Emmanuel D.
C.
(vacancy)
A.
Bernbaum, Maurice M. Williams, Murot W. (legation at Tallinn closed) Richards, Arthur L. Gutter, Bernard
Estonia Ethiopia Finland
France
Gavin, Jomes M.
Gabon Germany (West) Ghana
Darlington, Charles Dowling, Walter C.
Guatemala Guinea
Scheyven, Louis
Andrade, Victor De Oliveira Campos,
L. Oreamuno Flores, Jose R. (diplomatic relations severed Jan. 3, 1961) Wilkins, Froser Rossides, Zenon Wailes, Edward T. Ruzek, Miloslav Mcllvaine, Robinson Ignacio-Pinto, Louis Blair, William McC, Jr. Knuth- Winterfeldt, K. G. jHill, John Calvin
Telles,
Cyprus Czechoslovakia
Great Britain Greece
capacity increased from 2,400,000 short tons to
82%
Drumright, Everett
Freeman, Fulton Blancke, W. Wendell
1960
K.
Gopallawo, William Sow, Malick Adam Muller, Walter
Colombia Congo, Rep. of Congo, Rep. of the 1959
150.8 43.6 70.6 93.2 133.8 34.7 605.0? 29.5
W. Wendell
Blancke,
China (Formosa)
1958
— Primary aluminum production
2,468,750 tons. Output averaged highest rate,
of Aluminum
T.
Willis, Frances E. Calhoun, John A. Cole, Charles W.
Chad
Vasena, Adalbert Beale, Sir Howard Platzer, Wilfried
On
Barrows, Leland Merchant, Livingston
Ceylon
world output.
To the U.S. Maiwandwal, Mohammed
'Voutov, Peter G.
Everton, John Scott Trimble, William C.
Cambodia Cameroun Canada
M.)
B. B.
United States, as of Dec. 31, 1961.
Country Afghanistan Argentina
;
ZZ22l£Z
Ambassadors and Envoys. envoys from and
Associations, U.S.
Aluminum.
(F. E. H.
....
F.
Russell, Francis H.
Bruce, David K.E. Labouisse, Henry Bell, John O.
Raymond
Thursron,
Honduras Hungary
Burro«>, Charles
fVocor
R.
y]
James
Iceland
Penfield,
India
Indonesia
Galbroith, John K. Jones, Howard P.
Iron
Holmes,
Julius C.
K.
L.,
Alejandro
L.
T.
R.
Alphand, HervA N'Goua, Joseph Grewe, Wilhelm G. Halm, W. M. Q. Ormsby Gore, Sir David LiaHs, Alexis S. Alejos, Carlos
R.
Attwood, William
Haiti
Ponce
Lima, Francisco R. |Kaiv, Johannes Dinke, Berhanou Seppdld, Richard
Conte, Seydou Mars, Louis Davila, Celeo fZodor, T-bor Thon, Thor Nehru, Broj Kumar Zoin, Zatrin
Zahedi, Ardeshir
H.
AMERICAN CITIZENS ABROAD
24 Iroq Ireland Israel Italy
Ivory Coast
Japan Jordan Korea (South) Kuwait
Jernegan, John D. Stockdale, Edward Grant Barbour, Walworth Reinhardt, G. Frederick Reams, R. Borden Reischauer, Edwin O. Macomber, William B., Jr.
Sulaiman, Ali Haider Kiernan, Thomas J.
American Academy of Arts and Letters:
Harman, Avraham
and Associations, U.S.
Berger, Samuel D.
Chung,
Hart, Parker
Thompson
Libya
Brown, Winthrop (legation at Riga closed) Meyer, Armin H. Mathews, Elbert G. Jones, John Wesley
Lithuania
(legation at
Laos Latvia
Lebanon
Fenoaltea, Sergio Bedie, Konart Asakoi, Koichiro Haikal, Yusuf
American Academy of Arts and Sciences:
(vacancy)
Khampan, Tiao fSpekke, Arnolds Dimechkie, Nadim
Peal, S. Edward Fekini, Mohieddine Kaunas closed) fKajeckos, Joseph Heisbourg, Georges Wine, James W.
Liberia
Luxembourg Malagasy Republic Malaya, Fed. of
Bartlett, Frederic P.
Rakotomalala, Louis
Baldwin, Charles F. Handley, William J. Kaiser, Philip M.
Kamil, Dato' Nik
Mali Mauritania
Mexico Morocco Nepal
Bonsai, Philip W. Stebbins, Henry E.
.
.
.
Mann, Thomas
C.
Netherlands
Rice,
New
Akers, Anthony
Niger Nigeria
Brown, Aaron S. Cook, Mercer Palmer, Joseph,
Norway
Wharton,
Zealand Nicaragua
John
II
Clifton R.
Rountree, William M. Farland, Joseph F. Snow, William P. Loeb, James
Philippines
Poland
2
Portugal
Rumania Senegal Sierra Leone Somali Republic South Africa, Rep. of Spain
Stevenson, William Cabot, John Moors
.
.
.
Sudan
Sweden Switzerland
E.
'Crawford, William A. Hart, Parker Thompson Kaiser, Philip M. Carnahan, A.SJ. Lynch, Andrew G. Satterthwaite, John C. 3 Briggs, Ellis O. Moose, James S., Jr. Parsons, James G. McKinney, Robert M.
Ridgway
Thailand
Young, Kenneth T. Poullada, Leon B. Walmsley, Walter N. Hare, Raymond A. Thompson, Llewellyn E. Badeau, John S.
Turkey U.S.S.R
United Arab Republic Upper Volta
.
.
.
Estes,
Uruguay Venezuela Vietnam (South)
Thomas
S.
Sparks, Edward J. Allan Nolting, Frederick E., Jr. *Hort, Parker Thompson
Yemen Yugoslavia
Kennan, George
F.
American Chemical Society:
The
American Citizens Abroad.
C.
Osman
Jarring,
Gunnar
August
siding in other countries on
El
Akakpo, Andre Bourguida, Habib,
Area
Europe Mexico and Central America South America Australia and New Zealand
Guirma, Frederic Clulow, Carlos A. Mayobre, Jose Antonio Tran Van Chuong
fZabarah, Asseyed
March
earlier.
Abroad
Ahmad
All
Marko
Africa Philippines Asia West Indies
Canada and
and Bermuda. Iceland
.
.
.
167,123 63,415 52,511 13,048 23,887 20,707 84,365 13,227 234,379 672,662
.
.
Total
The
Change
March 31, 1960 149,085 60,986 53,727
31, 1961
Jr.
Usakligil, Biilend
Menshikov, Mikhail A. Komel, Mostafa
+ 18,038 + 2,429 - 1,216
+ +
8,401
23,554 22,120 86,446
-
18,381
242,906 665,606
+
4,647
333 1,413 2,081
5,154 8,527 7,056
passport office of the department of state reported another
record total of 853,087 passports issued and renewed during the
—
an increase of 16.5% over 1959. The largest (22%) occurred in the April-June quarter, traditionally most active period. The smallest increase (3%) was in the
calendar year 1960 increase
the
Paris Match from Pictorial Parade
United
of
31, 1961, totaled 672,662, a
Estimate of U.S. Citizens Residing
Arthayukti, Visutr
accorded a Nigerian statesman by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, representing the U.S. at the celebrations in Aug. 1961 of the first anniversary of independence of the Ivory Coast, a former French African colony. In the background is U.S. Undersecretary of State for African Affairs G. Mennen Williams Is
March
number
R.
*Envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary. fCharge' d'affaires. JConsul-general. §Consulate (formal diplomatic relations severed Aug. 26, 1960) IjGovernment of Syrian Arab Republic recognized by U.S., Oct. 10, 1961. 'Interim appointment made Dec. 28, 1961. interim appointment made Dec. 23, 1961. 'Interim appointment made Dec. 22, 1961, to fill vanacy created by death of A. D. Anthony Biddle, Nov. 13, 1961. ^Interim appointment made Dec. 29, 1961.
DIPLOMATIC BOW
and Associa-
States civilian citizens re-
over the number abroad one year
slight increase
Omar Abu
Nikezic,
see Societies
tions, U.S.
Yturralde y Orbegoso, M. de
Lindt,
and Associa-
see Societies
tions, U.S.
Hadari,
Rishch,
4 Stewart, C.
American Cancer Society:
Abello, Emilio Drozniak, Edward Pereira, Pedro T. tPungan, Vasile Al-Khayyal, Abdullah Diop, Ousmane Soce Kelfo-Caulker, R.E. (vacancy)
Naude, W.
Bible Society: see Societies and Associations,
U.S.
Berckemeyer, Fernando
Knight,
Tunisia
American
Momo
Udochi, Julius Koht, Paul Aziz Ahmed Plate, Juan
Syria||
Togo
tions, U.S.
S.
Arango, Augusto G.
Elbrick, C. Burke
Saudi Arabia
H.
J.
Djermokoye, Issoufou
Panama Peru
Roijen,
Loking, George R. Sevilla-Sacosa, Guillermo
B.
Pakistan
Paraguay
Ahmed
Maiga, Abdoulaye Sidya, Souleymane O.C. Carrillo Flores, Antonio Ben Aboud, El-Mehdi Koirala, Motrika Prasad
van
S.
see Socie-
and Associations, U.S. American Academy of Political and Social Science: see Societies and Associations, U.S. American Association for the Advancement of Science: see Societies and Associations, U.S. American Association of University Professors: see Societies and Associations, U.S. American Association of University Women: see Societies and Associations, U.S. American Bar Association: see Societies and Associaties
Kwon
II
see Societies
October-December quarter. Issuance of passports in 1961 was reported to have increased slightly to an estimated 860,000
by Dec.
marked
31, despite a
decline in applications early in the year. Increases in the later
months brought up the Beginning on Jan. the U.S. passport.
total for the year.
1,
made
1961, changes were
The material
in the
form of
of the cover was changed from
cloth to plastic and the colour from green to blue. The number was perforated through the first ten pages. In the description of the bearer on page 2, only the state of birth rather than the city and state was given for persons born in the United States, and "distinguishing marks" were omitted. For the convenience of officials, the photograph was placed on page 3 directly op-
was provided on page 2 where, in stamps affecting the validity of the passport could
posite the description. Space
most
cases, all
be placed. Also in 1961, for the
first
time in
many years, a 48-page who travel
passport was issued to persons such as travel agents
almost constantly. The ordinary passport contains 20 pages.
There was ices
to
a general increase in the
residents of
largest increase
all
number
of passport serv-
U.S. geographical areas in
(24%) was
The moun-
1960.
received by residents of the
and the smallest (9%) by those of the south Europe continued to be the most popular destina-
tain area states
central states. tion,
east
79% of passport recipients expecting An increase was noted in travelers to
with nearly
countries there.
who comprised
nearly
7%
to visit
the far
of the total.
Seventy-four per cent of passport recipients planned to travel
AMERICAN LITERATURE 67%
25
during 1959. Half listed their oc-
National Library week, a program for the promotion of reading,
cupations as housewife, student, retired, teacher or clerk-secre-
was celebrated April 16-22 for the fourth successive year. The National Book committee and the A.L.A., who sponsor the ob-
by
air,
tary.
as
Of
compared with
this group, the
number
36%
of teachers increased
over
servance jointly,
the preceding year.
Native-born citizens received over 1960 compared with
in
creased
29%;
28%; and Nearly
77%
in 1959.
of the passports issued
The over-60 age groups
40%; 60-76
the over-76 age groups,
the under-20 group,
74%
83%
in-
age group,
6%.
of the applicants indicated trips of less than
two
91%
of the applicants
listed pleasure or personal business as their object.
(F. G. Kt.)
See also Tourist Travel.
American
Civil Liberties Union: see Societies and As-
sociations, U.S.
American Council of Learned Societies: and Associations, U.S. American Dental Association:
see Societies
and Asso-
see Societies
separate evaluations of
it.
The Cleveland
mendation of continuation at least through 1967. Later in the year, the N.B.C. study said that the measurable results of the week had been "extraordinarily impressive" and urged that it be continued for at least three more years.
The Library Technology
months' duration. Of the 737,177 passports issued or renewed during 1960 for nongovernment travel,
made
conference adopted the A.L.A. evaluation committee's recom-
vestigation of
fire
project undertook an extensive inand insurance protection of library resources
and a systems study of catalog card reproduction. Two studies completed during the year resulted in publication of Study of Circulation Control Systems and Development of Performance Standards for Library Binding, Phase 1. Following development of a successful prototype of a book-labeling system by the project, ten additional models were under construction for field testing. A testing program on copying equipment was concluded and the results readied for publication.
Other A.L.A. publications of the year included Guides to Newer
ciations, U.S.
American Dialect Society:
and Associa-
see Societies
Educational Media, Scientists' Approaches to Information, Subject
tions, U.S.
American Economic Association:
Societies
see
and
letin
Index to Books for Primary Grades, Subscription Books BulReviews, 1956-60, a collection, and College and University
Library Surveys, 1938-52.
Associations, U.S.
American Farm Bureau Federation:
see Societies
and
The A.L.A. awards,
citations
at the Cleveland conference.
Associations, U.S.
American Federation of Labor: see Labour Unions. American Geographical Society: see Societies and
a
As-
medal) for distinguished service to librarianship was presented Joseph L. Wheeler, former librarian of the Enoch Pratt Free
to
library, Baltimore.
sociations, U.S.
American Heart Association:
Societies and As-
see
sociations, U.S.
American Historical Association:
Societies
see
and
Associations, U.S.
American Hospital Association:
and As-
see Societies
sociations, U.S.
and scholarships were announced
The Lippincott award ($1,000 and
The Melvil Dewey medal
for creative pro-
was awarded to Julia C. Pressey, associate editor of the Dewey Decimal classification. The 40th Newbery medal for the most distinguished contribution to children's literature of 1960 went to Scott O'Dell for Island of the Blue Dolphins. Nicolas Sidjakov won the 24th Caldecott medal for Baboushka and the Three Kings, judged to be the outfessional achievement of a high order
American Hotel Association: see Hotels. American Indians: see Archaeology; Indians, American. American Institute of Chemical Engineers: see Soci-
standing picture book for children of 1960.
eties
and Associations, U.S. Institute of Electrical Engineers: see Societies and Associations, U.S. American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers: see Societies and Associations, U.S.
increased student use of public libraries on the libraries' regular
American
services to
American Legion:
see
Veterans' Organizations, U.S.
American Library Association.
In 1961 the
member-
ship of the
American
Library association (A.L.A.) passed 25,000 for the its
a
first
85-year history. Late in the year the association
new headquarters
planned for
building in
Chicago, the
first
time in
moved
to
especially
growth was matched by September listed scores of projects for the advancement of libraries and librarianship in the U.S. and abroad. The theme of the 80th annual conference, held in Cleveland, July 9-15, was "Libraries for All." Mrs. Florrinell F. Morton, its
An
activities report published in
director of the Louisiana State university library school,
inaugurated as president. James E. Bryan, director of the (N.J.) Public library, was elected
first
was
Newark
vice-president and presi-
The American Library Trustee
association
became the
13th A.L.A. division.
At the regular midwinter 1961 meeting, held 29-Feb.
4,
young
Public library
adults. Delia
won
the Grolier
McGregor award
of the St. Paul (Minn.)
in recognition of
her unusual
success in stimulating and guiding the reading of children and
young people. John W. Cronin of the Library of Congress received the Margaret Mann citation "in recognition of a distinguished career devoted to the development of centralized cataloging and bibliographical services." The Clarence Day award ($1,000), in recognition of outstanding accomplishment in encouraging the love of books and reading, was won by William B. Ready of the Marquette University library, Milwaukee. See also Libraries; Literary Prlzes. (S. Sh.)
use. This organizational
a vigorous program.
dent-elect.
The Dutton-Macrae award ($1,000) was won by Elaine SimpNew York Public library, to study the effects of the
son of the
in
Chicago Jan.
the A.L.A. council adopted the following addition to
the Library Bill of Rights:
"The
rights of an individual to the
The year 1961 was a good one for itpratnrp LIlGldllllG. American books: the level of writing was high and they sold well. The prosperity of 1961 boded well for the future, because it encouraged publishers to gamble on manuscripts by creative new talents. There was no evidence that the trend toward mergers among publishing firms and their public stock offerings, which had begun several years before and continued unabated, had yet made the industry any less
Ampripan rllllClludll
I
willing to experiment.
As a group, the books of 1961 were notable for an uncommon number of good novels, especially satire, and for verse by half a dozen new poets of promise, most of whom adhered to traditional
academic way^.
Huh
levels of craftsmanship
and occa-
use of a library should not be denied or abridged because of his
sionally of artistry were achieved in the fields of history, biog-
race, religion, national origins or political views."
raphy, scholarship and criticism, although no
new
trail.-
were
AMERICAN LITERATURE
26
maintaining standards while coping with large numbers of stu-
methods of education were compared with those The Schools. John Dewey's influence on U.S. education was objectively traced in Lawrence A. Cremin's The Transformation of the School, while Raymond P. Harris temperately answered many of the sharp criticisms leveled at public education in recent years in American Education. James B. Conant continued his analysis of the nation's schools in Slums and Suburbs, a comparison of conditions in the two types of communities. Student life and the curriculums employed at ten representative colleges and universities were spiritedly described in David Boroff's Campus, U.S.A. dents. Foreign in
Courtesy,
W.
Company,
Inc.
W.
Norton
&
the U.S. in Martin Mayer's report on
The south continued
to be a special province for students of
Thomas D. Clark presented compound of hope and gloom, in The Emerging South. John Howard Griffin, a white Texan novelist who disguised himself as a Negro and traveled domestic problems. The historian
WILLIAM J. LEDERER, author of A Nation of Sheep
unorthodox views of
his native area, a
widely through Dixie, vividly depicted in Black Like
everyday
blazed.
The troubled
some degree
in the
state of politics
United States
and society abroad
—and
The World Scene.—The
—occasioned some meritorious
cold
affairs.
war was
reflected in nearly
Several score specialized studies
and culture of Russia and the program and methods published by members of the Russian institutes of leading universities. For general readers, analyses of the U.S.S.R.'s policies were presented by George F. Kennan in Russia and the West Under Lenin and Stalin, David J. Dallin in Soviet Foreign Policy After Stalin and Frank Gibney in The of the history
of
Communism were
Khrushchev Pattern. Maurice Hindus reported vividly on conditions existing in Soviet cities and farms in House Without a Roof. John Gunther described the cold war's shadow across Europe in Inside Europe Today, an updating of his 1938 classic. The shadow as seen in the neutral and uncommitted nations was depicted by John B. Oakes's The Edge of Freedom. Henry A. Kissinger made a plea for a well-conceived U.S. program to offset Communism in The Necessity for Choice. William J. Lederer submitted a severe indictment of the manner in which the U.S. government
was meeting the challenges, especially in Asia, in the best-selling A Nation of Sheep. Disarmament as the only rational alternative to the catastrophe implicit in thermonuclear war was discussed in at least half a dozen books, while the need for the establishment of world order through law was pleaded by Arthur Larson in
When
Nations Disagree.
The American Scene.
many
—Not
in
many
years had there been so
sharp looks at the relations of liberty and the law.
Edmund
Cahn's The Predicament of Democratic Man and Alan Barth's The Price of Liberty warned of the dangers to individual rights inherent in
The
many methods
being used to maintain law and order.
Boyd,
also appeared.
A
tory.
of the contributors to
Two
War
concluded his six-volume rehabilitation of the reputation of the fourth president with James Madison:
cellence,
Commander
1812-1836. Colourful aspects of the pre-Civil
War
in
Chief,
period were
treated in Carl C. Cutler's scholarly Queens of the Western
Ocean: the Story of America's Mail and Passenger Sailing Lines and Walter Lord's popular account of the siege of the Alamo,
A Time
to Stand.
For a quarter of a century the Civil War has been the most written-about era in U.S. history; even so, with the beginning of the centennial celebration in April 1961, the number of books
level.
World
ExJohn W. Gardner dealt frankly with the problems of
the
and Charles M. Wiltse's The New Nation: 1800-1845. Clement Eaton retold the story of the old south, using the latest research in The Growth of Southern Civilization, 1790-1860. Irving Brant
in The City in HisLloyd Rodwin's The Future
of the school population since
in
volumes of "The Making of America," a series of David Donald, made invaluable contributions: Esmond Wright's Fabric of Freedom: 1763-1800
took a sweeping, moral-
II created an unprecedented interest in education. In
kind undertaken
initial
man's The Future of Our Cities that of a dynamic, assertive real estate operator; in Jane Jacobs' The Death and Life of American Cities that of a woman concerned with life on the family and
The phenomenal growth
Ameri-
interpretative surveys edited by
Metropolis was that of the urban planner; in Robert A. Futter-
neighbourhood
its
in
A. Leland Jamison,
century.
view of the problem across the centuries
The view
Ward Smith and
was the most ambitious venture of
American liberties and the forces them were examined historically by Oscar and Mary Handlin in The Dimensions of Liberty. The rapid and enormous growth of urban centres troubled an-
Mumford
four-volume study of Religion
can Life, edited by James
institutions at the root of
other group of writers. Lewis
the
The American Past. In U.S. historiography the years after World War II were notable for the publication in many volumes of the papers of the nation's great public men. In 1961 two more such programs were started. The first four volumes of The Adams Papers, edited by L. H. Butterfield, assisted by Leonard C. Faber and Wendell D. Garrett, covered John Adams's Diary from 17SS to 1804 and his Autobiography through 1780. The first two volumes of The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, 1768-1780 were edited by Harold C. Syrett and Jacob E. Cooke. Volumes three and four of The Papers of Benjamin Franklin (1745-53), edited by Leonard W. Labaree and Whitfield J. Bell, and volume 16 of The Papers of Thomas Jefferson (1789-90), edited by Julian P.
that threatened
istic
Me
of the southern Negro.
—
to
scholarly and polemical works.
every U.S. book on world
life
Photograph, George Cserna
BRUCE CATTON, The Coming Fury
author
of
AMERICAN LITERATURE markedly increased. Of some 250 works published during the year, five stood out: David Donald revised and rewrote the late J. G. Randall's excellent survey of the Civil War and Reconstrucwas Roy F.
new work The Divided Union. A briefer survey Nichols's The Stakes of Power, 1845-1877. Dwight
Dumond
presented a provocative interpretation of one of the
tion, calling the
L.
war's causes in Antislavery. Bruce Catton graphically recreated the year preceding the
first
battle of Bull
Run
in
The Coming
Fury, the start of a projected three-volume "Centennial History
War." The career of one of the leading diplomatists was traced in scholarly manner by Martin B. Duberman in Charles Francis Adams, 1807-1886. The Spanish-American War and its aftermath, a subject of increasing interest to scholarly and popular writers, was treated in a number of histories and biographies. Two journalists who made the war years colourful were the subjects of W. A. Swanberg's highly readable Citizen Hearst and Gerald Langford's The Richard Harding Davis Years. The seldom-discussed U.S. suppression of the Philippine insurrection of 1899-1902 was spiritedly described in Leon Wolff's Little Brown Brother. Historians' new friendliness to Theodore Roosevelt was in evidence in William Henry Harbaugh's Power and Responsibility, a "lifeand-times" biography. Herbert Croly, Walter Weyl and Walter Lippman, tireless workers in the Progressive movement, were dealt with by Charles Forcey in The Crossroads of Liberalism. Except by Richard O'Connor in Black Jack Pershing, little attention was paid to the pre-World War I years. Nostalgia was stirred and dim memories sharpened by George Waller's Kidnap, a reconstruction of the Lindbergh case. John Toland combined the scholarship of a Samuel Morison and the eyewitness approach of a Walter Lord to retell the first six months of World War II in the Pacific in But Not in Shame. In more definitive fashion Herbert Feis traced the war's last stages in Japan Subdued. A diligently researched account of the first six months of the Korean War was offered by Roy E. Appleman under the title South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu. Two cabinet members of the Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry of the Civil
of the period
S.
Truman
27
War; and Edwin Haviland Miller edited The Correspondence of Walt Whitman (1842-75, 2 vol.), of bioWhitman's
Civil
graphical rather than literary significance.
The
historian as a
Memoranda
erary
man
of letters
was documented
in
The
Lit-
of William Hickling Prescott (2 vol.), edited
by C. Harvey Gardiner. From a vast cache of letters left by the most vigorous critic of the 1920s, Guy J. Forgue brought together a representative selection in Letters of H. L. Mencken. The career of a minor writer known better for his adventures in the U.S. and Japan than for his literary achievements was admirably chronicled by Elizabeth Stevenson in Lafcadio Hearn. Authors still living received either summary treatment from others or had to write about themselves. Daniel Aaron in Writers on the Left studied Communism's influence on U.S. writing between the two world wars. Van Wyck Brooks completed his autobiography with From, the Shadow of the Mountain. Two Americans-by-adoption wrote chapters of their lives: Frank
O'Connor of
Rau
his Irish
youth
in
An Only
Child and Santha
of her years in India, South Africa,
Rama
Europe and America
in
Gifts of Passage.
Photograph,
Culver
Pictures,
WALT WHITMAN
(1812-
Inc.
92),
the
subject of several biographical
and
critical
works
In
1961
eras published their memoirs. Attorney General Fran-
A Casual Past was the recollections of the youth of a democratic aristocrat. Secretary of State Dean Acheson rememBiddle's
cis
bered the great and the near-great he met while
From Sherman Adams gave
in
the public
Dwight Eisenhower's alter ego his version of what went on during his five years in the White House in Firsthand Report. Two books dealing with the news before it had time to turn into history were distinguished by their reporting in depth. Theodore H. White's The Making of the President, 1960 was a playby-play account of the campaign that led to John F. Kennedy's election. A. J. Liebling's The Earl of Louisiana was a lively footservice in Sketches
Life. Pres.
note to the story of Gov. Earl Long, Huey's brother and a colourful
person in his
own
right.
Literary Scholarship
corded full-length study
and in
Criticism.
—Most U.S.
1961 were already
among
writers acthe classic
Edward Wagenknecht's Nathaniel Hawthorne and Mabel Wolfe Wheaton and LeGette Blythe's Thomas Wolfe and His Family were useful if not defini-
figures or destined to join them.
tive
biographical
accounts,
the
latter
being valuable
for
its
view of an almost legendary figure. Carlos Baker assembled, a few months before the death of his subject, 19 essays sister's-eye
volume called Hemingway and His Critics; the fact that half were by foreign writers demonstrated the international scope of his influence. A monumentally thorough yet highly readable example of literary scholarship was Mark Schorer's Sinclair Lewis: an American Life. Roger Asselineau studied The Evolution of Walt Whitman; Walter Lowenfels compiled the poet's in a
many
revelatory pieces of writing about the Civil
War
in
Walt
Relatively few important works of literary criticism were pub-
The most ambitious and probably the most important was The Death of Tragedy by a young man of letters named George Steiner, who undertook to explain why the tragic voice of drama had gradually become "blurred and stilled." Mark Van Doren, a man of riper years, ranged informally and mellowly over the questions of tragedy and comedy in The Happy Critic. In The Dying Gladiators Horace Gregory wrote provocatively of a number of novelists and poets. Archibald MacLeish brought his years as a practising poet, playwright and public servant into play in Poetry and Experience, during the course of which he made a lished.
stimulating contribution to the theory of poetry.
Some
critics
preferred to write about their times rather than
about literature.
Mary McCarthy's On
the Contrary treated in
several essays the behaviour of Americans at
home and
abroad.
James Baldwin reported in Nobody Knows My Name how literature and the human race look to a gifted Negro writer. Although none of the fiction published in 1961 Fiction. seemed likely ever to be discussed in Everestian terms, there was
—
perhaps a larger cluster of works than
might
in
in
any year
in
a decade that
time be counted minor peaks of artistic achievement.
The outstanding literary event of 1961 was the death, apparently by his own hand, at the age of 61 of one of the two contemporary U.S.
writers
with
towering international
Hemingway had published nothing
reputations.
Ernest
for the preceding nine years.
28 but he reportedly
some
lode of unpublished manuscripts,
left a sizable
of which would sustain
if
not increase his renown. America's
other literary titan, William Faulkner, was silent in 1961. John Dos Passos, who enjoyed an international reputation 25 years before but had
moved
into the
shadows with a
series of
polemical and historical works, came close to retrieving his
former eminence with a novel called Midcentury. Mingling fiction, sociological titbits and biographical sketches as he had in his famed "USA" trilogy, he presented a panoramic view of postwar America. The year also saw published for the in the U.S. a 27-year-old
but known
work much read and discussed
in the land of its
first
in
time
Europe
ERNEST HEMINGWAY, author who died Obituaries)
In
U.S.
1961 (see
author largely through gossip and
bootlegged copies. Tropic of Cancer, Henry Miller's semi-autobiographical account of his
life in
the 1930s, was hailed by
many
comic masterpiece, although some complained that it was dated in style. Hundreds of thousands of copies were grabbed up by readers titillated by its reputation for being critics as a
pornographic.
Carson McCullers, who achieved international stature two decades before, broke a nine-year silence with Clock Without Hands. This picture of death's shadow crossing a small southern town proved disappointingly
won both
critical
lifeless.
When
J.
D. Salinger, who had
acclaim and a fanatically devoted following
with only two books a decade before, published Franny and Zooey, two long short stories about the Glass family, he evoked not so much disappointment as puzzlement as to his artistic aims.
War, recent and JAMES BALDWIN,
in
the far past, continued to provide the
author of
Native Son Photograph, Roy Hyrkin
Nobody Knows
My Name:
More Notes
maof a
Photograph, Vide
terial for
some noteworthy
fiction.
Howard
World
Fast told of a boy
becoming a man on the first day of the Revolutionary War in April Morning. Robert Penn Warren's Wilderness, the story of a youth with the Union forces, was one of the distinguished author's minor works. Two first novels treated World War II: Mitchell Goodman's documentary-styled The End of It and Joseph Heller's bitterly satiric Catch-22. Night, the first work of Francis Pollini, painted a
frightening picture with
overtones of the brainwashing of U.S. soldiers
The comic
Orwellian
Korean war. moribund form
in the
novel, only a short time before a
was now regularly engaging many writers of talent. Peter De Vries, a practised hand, was good but not at his best in Through the Fields of Clover, which centred about the wedding anniversary of a pair of senior citizens. Bernard Malamud's A New Life, detailing the adventures of a wild man from the east on the campus of a western fresh-water college, was clever, though in
the U.S.,
uncommon gifts. Richard Condon, whose comic inventions had attracted a devoted claque, published a wild wild-west story, A Talent for Loving. Richard G. Stern's Europe traced the ups and downs of some miscellaneous characters of American origin in the old world. William Brinkley's The Fun House presented an unreasonable facsimile of what goes not a step forward for a writer of
on
in the offices of
The
a large picture weekly.
year's short story collections were not distinguished.
The
New
Yorker school provided, in addition to Salinger's Franny and Zooey, John Cheever's Some People, Places, and Things That Will Not Appear in My Next Novel, graceful (and gothic) pictures of upper-middle-class suburbia.
The
stories in
Harvey
Swados' Nights in the Gardens of Brooklyn were naturalistic accounts of men and women of the lower middle class bogged
down
in
boredom and
frustration.
Among
George
P. Elliott ranged the
whose lot it was to dilemmas both of and beyond their own making. That popular but critically underesteemed form, the historical and biographical novel, was represented by several successful examples. Irving Stone wrote of Michelangelo in The Agony and the Ecstasy and Gladys Schmitt of the great Dutch painter m Rembrandt. MacKinlay Kantor's Spirit Lake dealt with the tribulations of early settlers in Iowa and Robert Lewis Taylor's A Journey to Matecumbe was a picaresque tale of a boy and his globe for the characters in
the Dangs,
face
uncle wandering through the post-Civil
War
south.
Life was viewed through perceptive feminine eyes in novels. tegrity
May
Sarton dealt with a
on a college campus
in
crisis
four
involving intellectual in-
The Small Room.
Shirley
Ann Grau
women
in The John Williams, a newcomer of promise, treated the familiar southern small town with freshness in The Morning and the Evening. Hortense Calisher attempted a
held up to view a lusty and brawling family of
House on Coliseum
came within a hair of succeeding brilliantly in when she chose as her protagonist an ambitious man
tour de force and
False Entry
Street.
ANG LING who
tried to avoid personal
—The
involvement
some obby Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg died a-borning, if the verse issued during 1961 was any indication. Ginsberg's new volume, Kaddish, seemed to add nothing to what he had already said. Only Charles Olson, an older member of the so-called beat group, had anything striking to offer, which he did in The Maximus Poems and The Distances. For the most part, 1961 belonged to the "academics" and particularly to the writers of lyrics. New as well as old work by long-familiar figures appeared in volumes of selected and collected poems by Conrad Aiken, Robert Hillyer and Richard EberPoetry.
servers believed
great revolution in U.S. poetry that
was going
to be set off
John Hall Wheelock, on the occasion of his 75th birthday, demonstrated in The Gardener that after the fires of youth have died down, the muse can once again be wooed persuasively with
hart.
who
understated passion. Hilda Doolittle (H. D.),
died during
the year, essayed with rare success a long lyrical prose-and-verse retelling of
A
29
American Society of Composers, Authors and Pub-
in life.
Helen of Troy.
variety of verse forms ranging from very free to strict was
employed by a younger but long-established practitioner, Peter Viereck, in The Tree Witch. Another extended work was Horatio, a straight narrative monologue using a basically blank-verse line, by a comparative newcomer, Hyam Plutzik. Among poets using shorter forms, Richard Wilbur once again showed himself a master of form and unobtrusive virtuosity in Advice to a Prophet. John Ciardi's poems that made up In the Stoneworks are earthy, brutal, often strident. John Holmes in The Fortune Teller proved again that he possessed a shrewd and observant eye and could speak effectively without raising his voice. Abbie Huston Evans in Fact of Crystal showed herself one of those rare poets who writes well of nature in its most
lishers: see Societies and Associations, U.S.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers:
see Soci-
eties and Associations, U.S.
American Veterans' Committee:
see Veterans' Organi-
zations, U.S.
American Veterans of World vets)
:
War
II
and Korea (Am-
Veterans' Organizations, U.S.
see
Anderson, George Whelan.
Jr.
(1906U.S. ), navy officer and airof naval operations by
power enthusiast, was appointed chief Pres. John F. Kennedy in 1961. Born in Brooklyn, N.Y., on Dec. 15, he was graduated from the U.S. naval academy in 1927 and became a naval aviator in 1930. During World War II he was engaged in planning and production aspects of the navy's aircraft program (1940-43) and then had two years' combat service in the Pacific. Anderson worked in postwar naval avia.tion planning in Washington, commanded the antisubmarine aircraft carrier "Mindoro," was operations officer of the 6th fleet, and, in 1950-52. served as senior plans and operations officer under Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower at the North Atlantic Treaty organization headquarters. After a year in
command
of the carrier
"Franklin D. Roosevelt," he was (1953-55) special assistant to the chairman of the joint chiefs of staff.
With subsequent
and Mediterranean commands, An-
Pacific
derson attained the rank of vice admiral in 1957 and from 1959
commanded
many senior officers, He was sworn in Aug. 1, 1961,
the 6th fleet until chosen, over
to be chief of naval operations.
with the rank of admiral
succeeding
Adm.
Arleigh Burke. (J.
Ro.)
majestic sense.
Five younger writers gave impressive performances. Lee Ander-
Nags Head bore
son's
mind. Carolyn Kizer lively,
adventurous
mark of an original and imaginative The Ungrateful Garden showed herself a
the
in
lyric
poet capable of fresh imagery. Denise
Levertov's With Eyes in the Back of Our Heads was
filled
quick, sharp perceptions.
David Ignatow's Say Pardon was
ten
Arthur
in
crisp
cadences.
with writ-
Freeman's Apollonian Poems
a
An autonomous
•
nllUUIId.
viguiers (provosts).
appoints one of
experiences.
des vallees)
was
fitting that
during a year in which a Pulitzer prize went
to a practitioner of light verse, Phyllis
McGinley, another
woman
Andorra
is
and France. Area 175 sq.mi. Pop. (1960 census) 8.959. Cap. Andorra la Vella (Catalan) or Andorra la Vieja (Spanish) (pop., 1960 parish est., 2,250). Co-princes: the president of the French republic and the bishop of Urgel, Spain, represented by their
allowed the reader glimpses of a civilized mind enjoying urbane
It
principality of Europe,
located in the Pyrenees mountains between Spain
History.
its
An
elected general council of 24
members
in 1961, Julian
;
members
as the first syndic (syndic general
Reig Ribo.
—The year 1961 began with the annual meeting
general council, last elected in Dec.
of the
1959 by 1,200 heads of
same school should begin to achieve recognition. Helen When Found, Make a Verse Of hopped gaily through literature and the academic world. See also Book Publishing and Book Sales English Literature; Literary Prizes. (Ra. W.)
Andorran families. The council unanimously elected Julian Reig Ribo as the syndic general, succeeding Francisco Cayrat who had held the position from 1946. Reig, a tobacco-factory owner, had served as a member of the general council from 1947. Jose Baro was elected subsyndic.
Encyclopedia Britannica Films. Van Wyck Brooks (The Wisdom 1960); Pearl S. Buck (The Wisdom Series. 1960); James B. Conant (The Wisdom Series. 1960); Robert Frost (The Wisdom Series, 1958); Edith Hamilton (The Wisdom Series, 1960); Carl Sandburg (The Wisdom Series, 1958); John Hall Wheelock (The Wisdom Series,
licensing of the
of the
Bevington's
;
—
The
chief
Series,
1958).
American Mathematical Society:
see Societies
and As-
sociations, U.S.
American Medical Association:
see
Industrial Health;
Societies and Associations, U.S.
American Philosophical Society:
see Societies
and As-
problem facing the local administration concerned two commercial radio stations operating in the
country. Elections for half of the general council took place in
mid-December.
(R. D. Ho.)
— Schools —
Educotion.
ondary
1,
(1957): primary 12, pupils 628, teachers 23; sec-
pupils 56, teachers
5.
Economy. Xo budget or taxes. Telephone system (about 200 subscribers in 1960) built and maintained by the Spanish-controlled Radio Andorra. There is also a French-controlled radio transmitter, Andorra no. 1. Roads maintained by Forces Hydro-elcctriques d'Andorre S.A. (FHASA). Cigarette factory with yearly turnover of about 50,000,000 pesetas. Monetary units: French franc and Spanish peseta.
sociations, U.S.
American Physical Society:
see Societies
and Associa-
tions, U.S.
American Psychological Association:
Andric, Ivo:
Anemia:
see
Nobel
see Blood,
Prizes.
Diseases of the.
see
Societies
Anglican Communion:
see
Societies
nllgllllg.
see
Protestant Episcopal Church.
and Associations, U.S.
American Samoa: see Samoa. American Society of Civil Engineers: and Associations, U.S.
AnrrMnrr
The
^ ne A menc:, n -
trout-fly
Castine association held
its
1961 na-
Long Beach, Calif.. Aug. 10-15. distance event was won by Jon Tarantino with
tional
tournament
at
—
;
ANTARCTICA
30 a long cast of 186
and an average of 180
ft.
4
ft.
Winner
in.
in
the salmon-fly distance event was R. L. Hetzel with a long cast of 217
and a new record average of 213
ft.
ft.
Tarantino won the
and an average
f-oz. bait distance event with a 350-ft.-long cast
of 345
ft.
4
in.
Edward R. Lanser
led the f-oz. bait distance
event with a 400-ft.-long cast and an average of 394 ft. 8 in. In the combined championships, Hetzel set a new record in the distance fly
flies official
event with a total of 1,163
ft.
in the trout-
new record won by Eugene
distance and salmon-fly distance events. Another
included the intermediates accuracy
flies
event
Lentz with 196 points.
buildings which had seriously deteriorated under the weight of several tons of accumulated snow.
Two
38-ton bulldozers to construct and maintain a snow airwere driven more than 800 mi. from Byrd station to the south pole via the previously unexplored eastern end of the strip
Horlick mountains. The Byrd and Pole stations were, for the first
combined championships
McMurdo Sound
by ski-equipped aircraft. A fire two buildings housing
station destroyed
an aviation electronics and parachute
facility.
McMurdo
Also at
sound, unexpected breakup of ice and gale-force winds resulted the loss of the hydrographic station and two small tankers
in
new records
time, completely resupplied
at the
in-
containing 200,000 gal. of gasoline. U.S. pilots reported plumes
termediates' Skish all-accuracy and Skish accuracy baits events,
of steam being emitted from Mt. Terror, a 10,148-ft. mountain
Lentz also
set
with 201 points in the
in the
event and 128 points in the
first
latter.
Mel Gavin, who won all the ladies' Skish and casting events, a new record in the combined championships ladies' Skish curacy baits event with 154 points. Charles Suthphin won
new record average
of 285
ft.
won
with a 157-ft.-long cast and
The
International
Game
1
were
event
fly
1959, with a
8,
1961. 2
1
They included
The new catch
-lb. 4-oz.
others
1 1
42-lb. pollack caught at
May
2
by Frank G. Burke. Jr.; Scituate, Mass., on Aug. 13 by Francis C. on
5
Ward; 114-lb. roosterfish caught at La Paz, Mex.. on June 1 by Abe Sackheim; 890-lb. 8-oz. sawfish caught at Fort Amador. C.Z., on May 26 by Jack Wagner; 410-lb. blue shark caught at Rockport, Mass., on Sept.
1
1961 program. Studies of the distribution and dispersion of air-
loose rocks at altitudes as high as 6,000
ft.
The remains
by Richard C. Webster; 366-lb.
porbeagle shark caught at Montauk. N.Y., on June
5
8-oz.
by D.
P.
Walker; 139-lb. wahoo caught at Marathon, Fla., on May 18 by George Von Hoffmann; and a 295-lb. Atlantic big-eyed tuna caught at San Miguel, Azores, on July 8 by Arsenio Cordeiro. Field Stream magazine recognized the first official world
&
The fish weighed 5 lb. 2 oz. and was caught with rod and reel by Eddy Vaughn at Grenada Dam. Miss., on July 9, 1960. The magazine also recognized a new chain pick-
fish
of
numer-
and several
kinds of benthic invertebrates were discovered on the surface of ice,
approximately 100
ft.
thick, in the
McMurdo
Ross sea near
sound. Carbon-14 dating showed the fish to be about
1,100
years old.
At the South Pole station, experiments showed that the
a 74-lb. 4-oz. cod
by James J. Duggan 81-lb. kingfish caught at Karachi, Pakistan, on Aug. 27 by George E. Rusinak; 1,003-lb. 12-oz. Pacific blue marlin caught at Kona, Hawaii, on March 25 by Jim Schultz; 47-lb. 12-oz. permit caught Fla.,
—
ous partially decomposed but well-preserved
by Daniel Varas Serrano. The
Boca Grande Pass,
had
or springtails, an order of primitive wingless insects, living under
ft.
Skish distance
caught at Boothbay Harbor, Me., on June
at
area,
Antarctica.
and with a
in the
Fish association announced 12 new-
established in 1960.
all
same
United States Scientific Programs. Biology. Biologists from 15 universities and other institutions participated in the
in
borne and ground organisms revealed the existence of Collembola
rod and reel all-tackle salt-water records in
at Mainencillo, Chile,
in the
ac-
the
53§-f t. average.
flounder record was set on Dec.
sound area. Mt. Erebus,
Steve Aleshi led the Skish dis-
tance spinning f-oz. event with a long cast of 250 245^-ft. average. Tarantino
McMurdo
been thought to be the only active volcano
Skish distance bait f-oz. event with a 293-ft.-long cast and a
in the
set
in-
and animals are not governed by the rotation of the earth. This conclusion was reached by modifying the influence of the earth's rotation in ternal rhythmic "biological clocks" of plants
relation to the
rhythmic responses of hamsters,
fruit flies, fungi
and bean plants. They were subjected to controlled rotation, in complete darkness, on clock-driven turntables. The salt gland in the nose of the Adelie penguin, which enables it
to drink sea water,
than the kidney
would lead
studies
was found
to
this function. It
in
to
be ten times more
efficient
was hoped that continued
improved treatment of certain kidney
diseases in humans.
Glaciology.
—
Glaciologists determined that the huge Antarctic
ice sheet contains
about
90%
of the world's ice; evidence
to indicate a possible balance of losses.
seemed
incoming snow and outgoing
Seismic soundings at the south pole (90° S.) showed an
record for white bass.
ice thickness of
erel record for a 9-lb. 6-oz. fish
would be approximately sea level if the ice sheet were removed. Two major oversnow traverses were carried out during the 1960-61 season. One group, led by Albert Crary, spent more than
caught at Homerville, Ga.. on
Feb. 17, 1961, by Baxley McQuaig, Jr. Both fresh-water records established rod-and-reel and "caught by any method" records. (A. J.
Me.)
Angola:
see Africa; Portuguese Overseas Provinces; United Nations. Animal Fats: see Dairy Products; Vegetable Oils and Ani-
mal Fats. Anniversaries and Centennials: page
xviii
;
Civil
War
and traveled 1,230 mi. from McMurdo sound This group was accompanied by a Soviet glaciologist. The second group, led by Charles Bentley, spent 90 days in the field and traveled 1,215 mi. on a 60 days
zigzag course from
nlliai Ullba. year-round for
an(j
scientific
n
Calendar,
1962,
carried
the nftri
>
n which the U.S.
in Antarctica. U.S. icebreakers,
scientists
into
the
little
known
Bellingshausen sea; unusually heavy ice conditions again pre-
vented penetration of the neighbouring in
1962, was begun at
struction
Amundsen
sea. Installa-
power
plant, scheduled for operation
McMurdo
sound. At Byrd station con-
tion of a 1,500-kw. nuclear
station to the Eights coast of the Bel-
locations.
the top of the Skelton glacier and the south pole varied from
2,000 to 3,400 m. Examination of snow accumulation at stakes
other nations carried out large-scale,
programs
the second time,
Byrd
lingshausen sea. Scientific parties were airlifted to eight other Ice-thickness measurements taken by Crary's group between
see
Centennial.
The vear 1961 was
in the field
to the south pole via the Skelton glacier.
set out
Antorptjpo
roughly 3,000 m., indicating that the elevation
was started on a new station
to replace the existing
by Crary on the plateau during an
earlier traverse revealed
a two-year accumulation of 73 cm. near the glacier; approximately
head of the Skelton
60 mi. inland only a 9-cm. accumulation
was recorded. Bentley's group found that snow accumulation near the Bellingshausen sea coast was very high, in some places as much as 20 times more than that encountered by Crary's group; it appeared that the plateau ice in this area is dammed up behind coastal mountains.
At Byrd station
a 1,013-ft. hole first drilled during the Inter-
national Geophysical year was again examined.
The
-
hole had
ANTARCTICA from an
closed
one inch
original four inches to less than
in
diam-
no significant inclination from the had occurred. These measurements provided important
31
Data from the aurora program revealed
that a very high per-
eter in three years, although
centage of auroral occurrences are coincident in the southern
vertical
and northern hemispheres; for example, auroras observed at Ellsworth station will usually be accompanied by a conjugate
data relating to the flow-law properties of
Geology.
— U.S.
ice.
geologists working in the Horlick mountains
discovered five coal beds ranging in thickness from three to five
and an abundance of Glossopteris and
feet
stems, in
some
in upright positions,
up
to 24
ft.
fossil
wood. Tree
length and 24
in
thickness were also found. Tillite, believed to be the
covered
was
in Antarctica,
in.
first dis-
also found. Preliminary interpretations
Lawrence valley of Canada. This discovery is caused by charged solar which are trapped by the earth's magnetic field and along lines of flux to the northern and southern auroral
aurora over the
St.
strengthened the theory that aurora particles spiral in
zones.
Oceanography.
—Oceanographic
studies carried out in the
Mc-
of accumulation, moraines and glacial features in this area indi-
Murdo sound
cated that the ice had at one time been a few hundred feet thicker
temperatures at this location vary only slightly from the surface
than at present.
to the
Coal beds ranging in thickness from eight feet to a few inches
were found at an elevation of approximately 6,000
ft.
by a group
working on the rim of the Victoria Land plateau between McMurdo sound and Hallett station. Some of the thicker beds appeared to be a good grade of anthracite or semianthracite. Petrified logs
and plant
specimen was a log 17 Seismology.
ft.
—Hundreds
Byrd and South Pole acter.
fossils
were also found; the largest single
long and 15
in.
none were of local charApproximately 20 epicentres were determined to lie in the
more
stations, although
active zones being south of Australia, in the
sibly be attributed to the ice coverage of Antarctic
roughly eight inches per day.
Activities of
Other Countries.
—The Australians
IGY. Macquarie
ing the
Island, in the sub-Antarctic,
—Findings
op-
is
may
pos-
water areas
from geomagnetic studies of
studying the enhanced overhead current systems
in
Argentina was successful
in
by the U.S. during the IGY.
resupplying Ellsworth and General
Belgrano stations; they had not been reached in 1960 because
A
of heavy ice conditions.
group
at
method
for
The Belgian
these regions.
from these studies indicated the general the U.S. Antarctic stations to be somewhat
Dumont
Roi Baudouin, was abandoned
station,
in 1962.
New
level of activity at
ings occupied
by
New
planned to construct new buildings at Princess
fill
important gaps
in Antarctic
geomagnetic observations,
Martha
coast, previously a
The U.S.S.R. operated
An
aircraft espe-
Eight
three stations. Lazarev station, on the
being rebuilt at a
area.
station.
were maintained by the United Kingdom including a new one on Adelaide Island.
of a geomagnetic observatory at their base, President Gabriel
Palmer peninsula
station on the
stations
shelf ice of the Princess Astrid coast in
in the
SANAE
Norwegian
the U.S. provided instrumentation to Chile for the establishment
Gonzales Videla,
program with the
and Robert Scott during 1908-09 and 1911-12. The South Africans
Point Barrow and College, Alaska. There was evidence that the
beyond the auroral zone.
end
Sir Ernest Shackleton
polar-cap effects are perhaps less regular and smooth than sup-
To
at the
buildings at
Zealand workers restored the build-
their expeditions in
well
new
Zealand continued observa-
tions at Scott base as well as a co-operative
lower than at the two most comparable northern-latitude stations,
line-current effects at latitudes
the
and planned an oversnow traverse on the
d'Urville
Wilkes Land plateau
U.S. at Hallett station.
may mean
among
U.S. meteorologist was
Ellsworth forced to remain a second winter.
Peculiarities emerging
posed, which in turn
re-
the flora.
of the 1961 season. France planned to erect
Upper Atmosphere.
was
ported to be overrun with rabbits which threatened to destroy
of Ellsworth station, established
during these periods.
large cusped bays during magnetic storms provided a
continued
along the east coast of
scientific observations at three stations
Chile maintained four scientific stations and Argentina six in
during the winter which
posite to that observed in the northern latitudes. This
is
approximately 0.3 of a nautical
the Palmer peninsula area; Argentina also continued operation
amplitudes vary according to seasons. Amplitudes of recordings
minimum
movement
is
influenced by the tides; the average ice
is
Sandwich
Preliminary results of microseismic studies showed that wave Antarctica showed a
current velocity in this area
mile per hour and
S.,
Islands region and in the vicinity of Macquarie Island.
in
bottom and that the content of dissolved oxygen closely
follows the water temperatures, in both depth and time. Average
Antarctica including Wilkes station, established by the U.S. dur-
in diameter.
of earthquakes were recorded at the
seismic belt surrounding the continent at about latitude 50° the
area during the winter indicated that the sea-water
new
site
Queen Maud Land, was
approximately 60 mi. inland from
An oversnow
the edge of the ice shelf.
traverse traveled from
A
cially
equipped for a program of world-wide magnetic observa-
Mirny
tions
had successfully conducted several
U.S. seismologist accompanied this group. Vostok station re-
before crashing while landing at
was
resumed in 1962. Incoming cosmic radiation
McMurdo
aerial
flight
surveys
sound; the program
to be
of nearly
all
focused so that primary rays
energies enter in vertical directions; thus the poles,
fully, the installation at
McMurdo
sound was
being expanded to include a meson telescope for measuring high-
energy cosmic radiation.
quency (VLF and ELF) emissions revealed well-established diurnal and seasonal variations in the phenomena, as well as a correlation between auroral displays and a type of VLF hiss. It was found that VLF emissions, commonly referred to as whistlers, originate in the upper atmosphere and are propagated
down
the
of the earth's magnetic field to symmetrical points
in the opposite
hemispheres.
more than 800 mi.
corded a new low temperature of —126.94° F. in Aug. 1960. tiated
by the
IGY program
—The international co-operation
ini-
continued. U.S. scientists participated
programs with Argentina, Australia, Chile and the Sweden and England carried out programs at the Belgian station in 1961. The Special Committee on Antarctic Research (S.C.A.R.) of the International in scientific
U.S.S.R., and scientists from Italy,
Council of Scientific Unions held scientific
representatives of
all
its
fourth annual meeting of
countries conducting Antarctic
research, at Cambridge, Eng., in Aug.-Sept.
Studies of naturally occurring very low- and extra-low-fre-
flux lines
station, a distance of
International Relations. is
where the magnetic lines of force are near vertical, provide windows through the earth's magnetic field for viewing changes of intensities of even the lowest energy primaries. To exploit this
phenomenon more
Vostok
to
each
scientific field
1961; progress in
was assessed and new objectives were estab-
lished.
The Antarctic will
treaty, based
on the principle that Antarctica
be reserved for peaceful purposes, was ratified by
signatory nations. signatories
The
was conven'
first -
-'
in
all
12
meeting of representatives of the Canberra. Austr.. July 10-24, 1961.
See also Falkland Islands;
phy; Geological Survey, U.S.
French Community; Geograt,L. M. Gd.)
ANTHROPOLOGY
32
^
AnthmnnlnCTU nllUIIUpUIUgy. One committee and
universities.
ur i n S *96l anthropologists
e ff orts to
made
further
develop teaching of their subject.
studied anthropological instruction in colleges
Another began
to investigate
how
the subject
The confusion
when
created
cultural anthropologists disagree
over what they see was brought out in an exchange between
George M. Foster, Oscar Lewis and Julian Pitt-Rivers
They
Organisation.
could be better utilized in secondary-school curriculums. Forty-
tions in peasant societies. Differing
two anthropologists brought information about man and culture to an estimated 40,000 persons during the second year of the visiting lecturer program sponsored by the American Anthro-
ily idealized
The
Human
in
discussed the character of interpersonal rela-
view of peasant
from Robert Redfield's heav-
life,
Foster concluded that most
peasant villages were unco-operative social units. the importance of this conclusion for
He
stressed
community development
speakers visited 91 colleges, most of which lacked courses in
programs trying to harness co-operation for village betterment. Then why have not all ethnographers reported the same conclu-
anthropology.
sion
Margaret Mead drew attention to an ethical problem raised by the growing importance of studies in human
that ethnographers might perceive the
cause them to characterize the facts
behaviour. Social scientists, she insisted, for moral and prac-
fieldworker sees as distrust and suspicion becomes prudence to
pological association and the National Science foundation.
Writing
in Science,
reasons must obtain consent from individuals they study.
tical
Deception practised through hidden microphones and disguisedparticipant observation jeopardizes results because the investi-
from peasant
villages they
have studied? Pitt-Rivers replied
same
facts but their values
in different
terms.
What one
another.
Two
anthropologists,
Sol
Tax and Nancy Oestreich
Lurie,
took responsibility for co-ordinating the American Indian Chicago
gator gives his subjects false clues of a nonverbal nature that in
conference. Indian representatives issued a declaration asking for
unknown ways
changes
distort the subjects' behaviour.
Four books revealed an unexpected resurgence of
much debated
the
and
culture
question of
how
interest in
personality co-varies with
Bert Kaplan edited Studying Personality
society.
Cross-Culturally, an interdisciplinary volume that devoted sub-
in federal
Indian policy. Another action anthropologist,
William Madsen, published a guide for medical and welfare workers among Mexican-Americans.
He
advised them to adapt
medicine to those people's way of
scientific
Practical
life.
timely books by anthropologists included Alan P.
and
Merriam's
primarily by anthropologists, reviewed research in several world
Congo and Germaine Tillion's France and Algeria: Complementary Enemies. Charles J. Erasmus offered Man Takes Control to explain causes of cultural development and to assist imple-
areas and on specific subjects such as national character. In Cul-
mentation of foreign
stantial attention to problems,
methods and techniques. Psycho-
Anthropology, edited by Francis L. K. Hsu and written
logical
and Personality, Anthony Wallace explored
ture
logical
and
aid.
Bushman and Bantu
actors helped
make
a 35-minute sound-
methodological foundations for cross-cultural personality study.
colour film released by the Northern Rhodesia information de-
The
charged that his British colleagues too often separated social behaviour from the ecological setting with which it was inextricably
cultural development from earliest preAge times. Viking fund medals awarded by the Wenner-Gren foundation went to S. K. Lothrop, S. L. Washburn, and Leslie Spier for distinction in archaeology, physical anthropology and general anthropology, respectively. Paul Bohannan won the Vollmer research award for his book African Homicide and Suicide; Loren C. Eiseley, the 1961 John Burroughs medal for his The Firmament of Time; Martin Gusinde, the Annandale Memorial medal awarded by the council of the Asiatic society in Calcutta. The American Anthropological association held its 60th annual meeting in Philadelphia. S. L. Washburn was elected president to succeed Gordon R. Willey. Carleton S. Coon was president of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists and David A. Baerreis of The Society for American Archaeology. Ward H. Goodenough was elected to succeed Ruth M. Underhill as president of the American Ethnological society. An anthropologist, Philleo Nash, was made U.S. commissioner of Indian
related. In these strictures
affairs.
of cultural anthropology: to
See also Archaeology; Indians, American; National Geographic Society. (J. J. Ho.)
title
of
Yehudi A. Cohen's casebook, Social Structure and
Personality, struck a note conspicuous in the other volumes. all
stressed studying personality in conjunction with roles or
variations in social structure rather than treating it
They
were homogeneous
in a tribe or nation.
it
as though
This emphasis paralleled
other evidence of a prevailing focus on social structure in British
and U.S.
social anthropology.
E. R. Leach in Pul Eliya raised a fundamental problem posed
by the nature of the abstractions that some social anthropologists had created to explain social behaviour. Many of the "elegant analyses" of A. R. Radcliffe-Brown and the Oxford structuralists, Leach suspected, would not stand up under detailed factual analysis because they were based on mystically intuited social norms supposed to constrain behaviour. Leach claimed that in his
study of the Ceylonese village of Pul Eliya he derived
norms
statistically
from what people actually
did.
He
further
Leach tackled a persistent problem what extent are ethnographic generalizations externally grounded and to what extent are they imposed on data by an observer? He cast his answer in highly positivist terms; the order in culture
is
order that one perceives
directly.
Laura Thompson
in
Toward
a Science of
Mankind opposed
a
purely positivist perspective. Her book constituted a manifesto for a thoroughgoing configurational approach to the "supercom-
partment.
depicts
It
historic to early Iron
Encyclopedia Britannica Films.
Mead (The Wisdom Congo (The Mangbetu) (1939); Pygmies nants of a Race (1955).
of Africa
Chemotherapy. Indies, The. Mineral and Metal Production and Prices;
Antibiotics:
see
Antigua:
West
its
such secondary processes as conflict and rivalry. With firm empirical orientation, her book in contrast to Leach's
—reminded
—
one of the humanist claim that literature creates a more marvelous and truthful view of the world than the eye can see.
(1960); People (1939); Rem-
Series)
of the
culture, society
in life than
Amazon (People and Re-
Culture (1954): Margaret
munity." She urged
this concept as a useful one for integrating and geographical environment and advised anthropologists to look within this broad framework for instances whereby component species exchange co-operation and render mutual aid. These processes, she wrote, are probably more basic
— The
sources of Xorthern Brazil) (1957); Backward Civilization (1937); The Eskimo in Life and Legend (The Living Stone) (1960); A Giant People (The Watussi) (1939); Indians of Early America (1957); Man and His
see
Antimony:
see
Secondary Metals.
Apples: see Fruit. Apricots: see Fruit. Arabia: see Aden; Bahrain; Kuwait; Muscat and Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; Trucial States; Yemen. Arab League: see International Negotiations; Iraq; Kuwait: Middle Eastern Affairs.
ARCHA EOLOGY
33
archaeology of the old world. Radioactive determinations for the
The Oriental institute's settlement M. Adams worked for a short time near Nippur and then moved to the Susiana lowlands of Iran,
australopithecine beds in the Olduvai gorge in Tanganyika sug-
working
Eastern Hemisphere.—The year 1961 witArrhflPnlnffV nl ulldCUIUgjf. nessecj several unusual developments in the
gested that a tool-using manlike being
may have
had hitherto been believed
as early as
possible.
were hardly
startling, larger-scale efforts
A handsome
the future.
covered at Nippur
and a remarkable
with the Khuzistan development service. connection with
The
schemes for the planning of future development, a kind of applied archaeology. In highland Iran the new German and British
first
full
the upper
in
were planned for
cache of Sumerian sculpture was re-
in Iraq,
in co-operation
This was Adams' second settlement survey
Nile valley in Egypt and the Sudan got under way. Although the results
survey project under Robert
evolved twice
season of the archaeological salvage program
field
zons were accounted for.
series of frescoes
work
schools continued
in
Takht-e-Soleyman and Yarim Tepe,
at
respectively; the latter site in the
Gorgan
plain has a long se-
quence back into prehistoric times and would probably be an important source for evidence bearing on Iranian and central Asian interrelations. The major University of Pennsylvania exca-
was found on the house walls of an early village farming community in Turkey. A unique form of Greek temple was cleared on the island of Kea near Athens, and a wealthy Greek-American,
vations at Hasanlu were interrupted for the season, but a short
Mathon
mound
and
fruitful
sounding was carried through on the prehistoric
Waukegan, 111., returned to his birthplace on the island of Melos to hunt for the arms of the Venus de Milo. According to stories current in Kyritsis' family, the statue had been found intact and the arms were subsequently lost in transit. A search of the area yielded what were tentatively identified as
gan new excavations at a large early
portions of the arms.
on an
Kyritsis of
Pleistocene Prehistory.
—The
Upper
possibility that the
Vil-
lafranchian geological beds at Olduvai with their australopithecine
ape
fossil
men and
crude stone tools are to be dated to about
1,750,000 years ago, rather than to 600,000 to 1,000,000 years
depends on determinations made on the
as originally estimated,
potassium-argon radioactivity of rock from these layers. This a relatively
by
J. F.
fornia,
new method
Evernden and
and
is
is
of natural age determination, developed his colleagues at the University of Cali-
not to be confused with the shorter-range age-
determination possibilities of radioactive carbon (C 14 ). As with the latter method, however, the possibility exists that specimens
contaminated after their deposition. Hence
may have become some
authorities were reserving
judgment
in the
matter of what
human
of Hajji Firuz.
In Turkey James Mellaart, formerly of the British school, beCatalhiiyuk. Although
millennium
B.C.,
it
must date
site
near
Konya
called
to the earlier half of the 6th
the establishment appeared to have been based
efficient agriculture.
The
architecture of the site was well
developed and the plastered walls of some of the mud-brick rooms carried a remarkable series of frescoes representing ritual dances.
The
Neolithic levels of the great site of Knossos on Crete were
reopened and a small stone-founded house and some interesting pottery and figurines occurred. Larger exposures were made in the early
Minoan
levels of
Lebna on the south coast of Crete,
and a fine series of standard artifacts appeared, including a nthdynasty Egyptian scarab. The Greco-Roman World. The work of the various national archaeological schools continued in Greece itself. In Corinth
—
American school uncovered a new sanctuary of Demeter, insome sculpture. John Caskey of the University of Cincinnati, working on a late 2nd millennium B.C. city site on the island the
cluding
bio-
of Kea, cleared a large temple with fragments of terra-cotta
and cultural evolution might mean. The Near East. In Egypt and the Sudan there was little normal field activity, most effort having been put into the so-
sculptures of life-sized female deities. Strong indications of Cretan
Nubian salvage program in the reaches of the Nile valley by the pool of the Aswan high dam. This effort was being co-ordinated by an international committee of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization. Each co-operating foreign university or museum was allotted its own
Aegean island-Greek mainland relationships at a critical time for the formation of the earliest Greek civilization. In Italy informative clearances were made of the harbour installations of Roman Ostia, and traces of a cargo vessel and several small boats were encountered. In Rome itself two rooms of the architectural complex identified as the Golden palace of Nero were exposed and found to have frescoes which included human figures. Even finer frescoes were found in a pair of rooms of the so-called house of Augustus on the Palatine hill. Important clearances of Roman villas at the site of Apollonia in Albania were reported, with well-preserved sculpture, mosaics and other architectural features. The Harvard-Cornell expedition's work at Sardis in western Turkey continued, with increasingly large exposures becoming possible in the Lydian to sub-Mycenaean levels. A handsome painted terra-cotta relief fragment was found, as well as a variety of Greek vases. On Cyprus a fine Greek theatre and some sculpture were cleared at Salamis. The traces* of a Hellenistic establishment were identified on the island of Kuwait in the Persian gulf. Europe. The clearance of a Neolithic temple on Malta yielded
this
doubling of the available time for the span of
logical
—
called
to be flooded
"concession" or strip of land bordering the Nile for survey, clearance of surface monuments, excavation and interpretation.
Certain extrainstitutional and extranational efforts were
in pros-
moving the temples of Philae and Abu Simbel. The latter, an engineering effort of no mean scope, had not been financed as of 1961. The proposal in favour would involve cutting the rock-hewn temple free and jacking it up about 190 ft., while at the same time providing a concrete foundation for its mass to rest upon. The small temple of Debod actually was moved. A Yale-Pennsylvania project encountered the tomb of Heka-Nefer, childhood companion and official of Tutankhamen. The greatest activity in Israel was in the semiarid Negev in pect, such as
the south and along the coast, with various
establishments and some excavation. in
caves of the
Dead
sea scroll region.
the sites of Farah, Gibeon and
and a new British clearance
new surveys
New
of ancient
made The yearly campaigns at exposures were
Shechem were continued
in
Jordan,
interrelations
—
materials that
was begun. In Iraq the work of the British on Assyrian Nimrud and of the Germans at Sumerian Warka was continued. The joint Oriental institute-American school excavations at Nippur under R. Carl Haines encountered a large and historically important
The
group of sculpture
its
in the
of the goddess Inanna. in this area,
in the city of
Jerusalem
itself
Early Dynastic II levels of a temple
The
site
and Early Dynastic
was I,
also
sounded
to virgin soil
Jemdet Nasr and Uruk
hori-
were apparent, and the Kea materials would be of
considerable cultural-historical importance in assessing Cretan-
may
fill
a gap in that island's prehistoric sequence.
exploration of a large cave at Nerja near Malaga. Spain,
also yielded traces of Neolithic activity. Several exceptional ac-
cidental finds were made, including that of a very fine gold torque in
England. One unusual event was the successful Swedish raising
of Kim,' Gustavus II Adolphus' flagship "Vasa," which sank on
maiden voyage and
well preserved,
in
ar Stockholm. It was remarkably embellishment of fine wood carving and added much to the understanding of 7th-
its
a variety of artifacts
1
New finds In the Dead sea area near the Israeli-Jordan border included (above) a bronze sceptre decorated with Ibex heads which was believed to have been made about 5,000 years ago. At right, archaeologists descend Into a limestone cave by means of a rope ladder hung from the top of a canyon cliff
DISCOVERIES IN THE EASTERN HEMISPHERE IN
1961
Important excavations In Europe was the uncovering on Palatine hill of a building believed to be the palace of B.C.-A.D. Augustus (27 14), the first Roman emperor. The unearthed building Is shown at the left; below, cleaning one of the rooms of the palace whose walls were decorated with frescoes
One In
Courtesy
of the year's
Rome
(bottom right) Dr. Fabriiio Mori; photographs, (top left) David Harris for Life, Rubinger Black Star for Life, (centre left, centre right) United Press
(top right) David International
—
ARCHAEOLOGY century naval architecture and appurtenances.
Further Asia and Africa.
—The
rich and well-preserved site Harappan civilization was under excavation in Gujarat in India by S. R. Rao. There had already been some indication that the Harappan complex extended well
of Lothal of the Indus valley
Indus valley
to the southeast of the
itself
(in Pakistan),
but
Lothal included the characteristic architecture, stamp seals (with the
undeciphered Indus script), pottery and metal types
still
in
A
Danish expedition began the exploration of sites in Thailand in the region of the "river Kwai"; both Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene artifactual traces were said to have been found but comprehensible details were not yet availan impressive variety.
35
houses of a unique type were excavated. They were
line, five
described as subterranean, with a short entrance passage, rounded
and one
walls of poles
to three side rooms.
University of Wisconsin under William
—
tions of the University of British
Columbia and the National
Museum
at a
Yale
Canada were continued
of
in the
inland from the river mouth. Excavations reached a depth of 40
9,000, 8,150
Japan.
A
much was
reported from
art, for which a was suggested, was reported from the Fezzan Libya. The fortified site of Matara, southeast of Asmara in
that continent.
date of in
sites in
4000
c.
remarkable collection of rock
b.c.
Ethiopia, was cleared and yielded materials of about the be-
ginning of the Christian era.
Tombs
near Yeha were said to show
even earlier Egyptian connections. In northern Nigeria a terra-cotta figure of the
Nok group
(c.
400
fine
new
400) was
B.C. to a.d.
recovered, this being part of the remarkable group of early sculpture which
is
probably ancestral to the later general development
of west African art.
(R.
Western Hemisphere.
B.)
J.
—The 26th annual meeting of the
So-
American Archaeology was held in Columbus, O., May 4-6, 1961, with the Ohio Historical society and Ohio State university as host institutions. The Viking fund medal and award in archaeology of the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research were awarded to Samuel Kirkland Lothrop, ciety for
the society's candidate.
Early Man.
— Numerous new
finds
were made
on the complex problems of the antiquity of
in
man
datings were obtained on several of these and on finds;
and
a
number
1961 bearing in
America;
some
earlier
of Russian publications were translated into
English, thus affording information on material in Siberia
com-
parable in age to early hunting cultures in America.
A
find of
human
bones, strongly suggesting man's presence on
Santa Rosa Island 30 mi.
off
the California coast during the last
glacial period, was especially noteworthy. The announced by Phil C. Orr of the Museum of Natural His-
remarkable locality near
Fraser river canyon, British Columbia, about 100 mi.
and pre- Jomon
political unrest in Africa, not
and
Three Saints bay, Kodiak Island. At the former location artifacts and skeletons of an early Paleo-Konyag occupation were found. In 1961 the intensive investigaPacific Coast-Great Basin.
project, the lowest cultural levels
With
party from the
large stratified village sites at Rolling bay, Sitkalidak Island,
tombs of Paekche kingdom times were cleared in Korea, and there were reports of the excavation of new Jomon
able. Several
A
Laughlin excavated on
S.
ft.
who was
and, according to Charles E. Borden,
directing the
have radiocarbon dates of about
and 7,350 years ago, respectively. The finding of
charred wild cherry pits and fossilized salmon bones indicated a repeated seasonal habitancy based on the annual salmon runs.
Among
the
numerous
level cultures at the site,
certain of these
same
were choppers, scrapers,
artifacts
shaped projectile points, knives,
hammer and
anvil stones.
leaf-
Top-
with an antiquity of 2,360 years, retain
artifacts,
but have in addition basketry,
small projectile points of various types, ground slate knives, adze
and
blades, mortars
and various carved ornaments, some
pestles,
of which persisted into late prehistoric times in the area.
An important new cultural tradition, known as Old Cordilleran, was defined in the Pacific northwest through the work of B. Robert Butler and Earl H. Swanson of the Idaho State College museum. It is characterized by projectiles pointed at both ends, a variety of biface knives and choppers but by the absence of any food-grinding tools. It was found in the lowest levels of the Indian Well site near The Dalles. Ore., in the bottom stratum of Cougar Mountain cave in south central Oregon, in the Orcutt site in the foothills of the Cascades and elsewhere. It has suggested linkages with California and even with Mexico and may prove to date between 9,000 and 11,000 years ago. Plains. Excavations were resumed during the 1961 field season on a series of early man sites near Guernsey in the Hell Gap valley of east central Wyoming, by a joint expedition from the University of Wyoming, directed by George A. Agogino, and
—
Harvard Kimball
university, under
number
site a
Henry and Cynthia
Irwin.
At the
of superimposed levels yielded a succes-
or Wisconsin
sion of projectile point types, proving
find,
paleo-Indian cultural groups over a long period. In the lowest
Santa Barbara,
tory,
Calif.,
consisted of two
or thighbones, found protruding from a cut
canyon, Santa Rosa Island, at a depth of 37
ft.
human femurs
bank
in
Experts
found. Radiocarbon dated to nearly 9,000 years ago,
in several
the
midden at the present ground level. Several black humus zones marking old land surfaces, separated by layers of banded silt, lay below this midden, the human bones being found in the lowest humus. It was believed that they represent an acan Indian
cidental
shell
deposition along the edge of an old hillside
marsh.
Organic earth with charcoal taken adjacent to the femurs furnished a radiocarbon date approximating 10,000 years ago. Arctic. into the
Ralph
S.
—Clues
man from Asia summer of 1961 by
to the probable route of early
new world were discovered
in the
form of point with weak stem was
Arlington
reported a stratified condition at the site which began with
fields
level of the site a lanceolate
occupation by various
Solecki and Bert Salwen of Columbia university during
new world's oldest dated point The Missouri Basin project of
it is
the
Smithsonian institution
continued salvage operations in the Oahe and Big Bend reservoir areas.
Near Fort Thompson,
Neuman
excavated
1 1
burial
S.D., a
mounds
crew under Robert of the
period, into which intrusive burials of later historic Sioux
had been made. Also
near Lower Brule, S.D., Warren the Pretty
Head
site, a village
W.
in
the Big
W.
Middle Woodland protohistoric and
Bend
reservoir area,
Caldwell and party excavated
of long rectangular houses of about
moat and
1,200 years ago. It had been protected with a wide
stockade with corner bastions.
Two
sites
near Mobridge. S.D.,
were explored by a group directed by Robert L. Stephenson.
a survey of the unglaciated coastal plain between the Brooks
Pott's Village
range and the Arctic ocean, 300 mi. E. of Point Barrow.
partly fortified, dating from within the 16th century.
The
one of
types.
was
a large
community
of circular earth lodges,
The Blue
principal finds consisted of a cache of 25 stone choppers of a
Blanket Island
distinctively early form.
moat and stockade, was an Arikara winter settlement of the late 18th century, reported as recently abandoned by Lewis and
Intensive researches along the coast of western Alaska were
resumed by
J. L. Giddings of Brown university, Providence, R.I., made important discoveries in the vicinity of Cape Krusenstern. On a settlement of the Old Whaling culture, situated
program
on an ancient elevated beach well inland from the present shore
struction.
who
again
Clark on their
Southwest.
site in the
visit
—The
in this
in
Missouri river, also protected by a
1804.
nationnl park service continued
area where
Basketmaker
many
federal
its
salvage
dams were under
sites of considerable interest
con-
were found
ARCHAEOLOGY
36
—
produced the entire known range of Piedra-phase artifacts in
Middle and South America. A site of unusual interest, regarded as the oldest yet found in Ecuador, was further explored in 1961 by Robert E. Bell of the University of Oklahoma. Known
addition to novel fish-and-duck effigy jars. Also excavated there
as El Inga, the site occupies a hillside flanking
were three caves and three open
6 mi. E. of Quito.
in the section of the
upper Colorado river storage basin to be
inundated by the Navajo dam. One large village of pit houses
Navaho occupation.
period of
sites
spanning possibly the whole
Earlier cave levels produced burial
with mummified bodies and such relatively
cists
Navaho
unknown
perish-
and baskets. An instructive succession of cultural changes from Basketmaker III to contemporary Navaho was revealed in the testing 6f able items of
Navaho Indian
14 sites on the
Museum
Indians, by the direction of
culture as sandals
reservation, at the request of the
of Northern Arizona under the field
Richard Ambler. The University of
J.
New Mexico
a
mound, N.M. The
series
and colourful murals from this of eight ceremonial structures provided much ethnological intricate
data on the prehistoric southwest.
Eastern North America.
Numerous mounds composing the
central Ontario.
nine is
—The
Royal Ontario museum con-
mounds
site
on Rice lake
in
south
North America. The commonest form has a large and closely resembles the
A C 14
museum
field
date from this
party headed by Joseph R.
Caldwell excavated again at the Eveland
site,
an Old Village
Mississippian cultural component adjacent to Dickson State park in Fulton county,
tion.
Another
all
111.
rectangular and of wall trench construc-
L. Wittry, explored a village area near
Monks mound. Cahokia,
remains of 131 houses, about equally divided beoccupation and Mississippian. Of
III, finding
tween an
Mounds
Eight semisubterranean houses
party from the same institution, under Warren
field
earlier Bluff culture
special interest
was
compound
a rectangular
tures, each 10
ft.
in diameter,
intervals of 18
ft.
Doorways faced
of circular struc-
the interior of the
compound
taining to the Bluff, Old Village and Trappist complexes.
An Adena
mound of considerable interest was explored from the Ohio State museum and Ohio State university under the direction of Raymond S. Baby. The structure, 56 ft. in diameter and 5i ft. in height, was situated near Big Walnut creek, 10 mi. E. of Columbus. Fourteen burials, some cremated, were found, with offerings indicating an early stage of the Adena culture. burial
a joint party
In central
York
State
New York
state,
Museum and
near the village of Jordan, a
New
Science service party directed by Wil-
liam A. Ritchie explored a village
site of the early
Owasco
cul-
ture, radiocarbon dated to a.d. 1100. They found, for the first time, large rectanguloid house-floor patterns, two of them up
to 61
ft.
in length
these unique
and 27
communal
Level
I
stem
fishtail
stemmed type from
the Strait of Magellan, radiocarbon dated there to 8900 B.C.
There
is also a wide variety of large scrapers and knives made from lamellar blades.
In a little-explored region of the Peten department of Guate-
mala, Gordon R. Willey and A. L. Smith of Peabody museum,
Harvard
university,
resumed
known
their excavations in a
as Altar de Sacrificios.
major
The
Maya
earliest oc-
cupation there goes back to the beginning of the Late Preclassic period, about 500 B.C., at which time a
pyramid was
faced with river mussels, unique for the
Maya
built of clay
lowlands. Rich
ft.
the clay
blocks,
approximately
in breadth. It
was believed that
structures, with a linear arrangement of
may
a.d.
900 and 1000.
Willey also conducted test excavations and surveys in Pacific Nicaragua, establishing there a ceramic sequence which prob-
from about a.d. 1 to the Spanish conquest. The show resemblances to Middle American Late Pre-
ably dates
earliest phases classic
and Protoclassic cultures; the middle phases show essenpolychrome styles; the late phases exhibit Postclassic
tially local
Meso-American up sequences
The
influences.
The work
is
thus important in setting
the intermediate area between
in
and Peru, which
connected by a wall at average
which had a north-south dimension of 180 ft. About a mile west of Monks mound, a University of Illinois group, supervised by Donald Lathrop and Charles Bareis, uncovered SO ceremonial and domestic structures, 145 refuse pits and several burials per-
by
Fell's cave,
pyramid a later one, faced with dressed red sandstone had been constructed between a.d. 300 and 600, and four steles or stone monuments bearing carved date glyphs had been erected in front of it. Elsewhere on the site structures of dressed limestone and mortar, steles and altars, were set up during the Late Classic period. Apparently the site was abandoned between
effigy.
from an extensive neighbouring refuse midden, thought to remounds, indicated a Point Peninsula cultural affiliation of Middle Woodland times.
had been uncovered,
several
pottery caches of this phase were found inside the pyramid. Over
late to the builders of the
State
Among
burials were found in three of the
structure centres around a.d. 128. Ceramic and other materials
Illinois
which has been considerably
in. thick,
places to expose the material.
group, especially in the largest, which
believed to constitute a serpent
An
mantle, 12 to 16
many
in
ceremonial centre
cluded a five-year investigation, under the direction of Richard B. Johnston, at the Serpent
soil
Cerro Ulalo, about
artifacts are contained in
point forms are fluted points similar in technique to those of
recorded about 200 new mural paintings from the kivas at Pottery
dark
eroded
The abundant stone
it
Meso-America
serves in considerable measure to bridge.
intensive exploration of two cave sites in the
Tehuacan
valley of the state of Puebla, Mex., was reported by Richard S.
MacNeish
were
Museum of Canada. Both sites and produced highly instructive sequences of cul-
of the National
stratified
tural materials.
The cave
called Coxcatlan contained 26 layers
and 19 superimposed habitation floors. The lower levels of both caves were rich in animal bone and a wide variety of relatively early
types of projectile points, scrapers and choppers.
Also
present were knotted nets, coiled basketry, mortars, pestles and
stone bowls, but no pottery,
all
indicative of a habitation of
hunters, fishermen and plant collectors.
Still in a
prepottery stage
of development, the next highest cave levels indicated incipient agriculture, starting with corn
and squash and
later adding beans,
pumpkins, peppers and amaranths. Subsequent layers revealed corn showing hybridization, clay figurines, pottery, woven cotton
and other equipment of a full agricultural were found in the same area, with associated pyramid mounds and house structures. Several notable discoveries were made by archaeologists working on the University of Pennsylvania museum's long-term excloth, mats, baskets
economy. Open
plorations at the
sites of this stage
Maya
city of Tikal in
Guatemala.
Among them
be ancestral to the later Iroquois long house. The same group, working on the Seneca river near Weedsport, NY.,
are a stele having
excavated a stratified village
having four levels of culture,
and depicting a prisoner standing before a seated dignitary. The
from Middle Archaic at the base to Middle Woodland. Of major was the first discovery underground of a little-known complex pertaining to the transitional period from Late Archaic
larger portion of a broken stele, anciently stored in a temple
fireplaces,
site
significance
Woodland, of about 1200 B.C. pots and distinctive broad-bladed
into Early steatite
Its
remains included
projectile points.
more than 200 glyphs and
a
bedrock carving,
situated below one of the causeways, measuring 12
room and
ft.
thus preserved from weathering, was another find of
note, since
it
bears the most legible hieroglyphs ever discovered
in the area including is
by 20
a.d. 445.
many which
are unique. n
The
indicated date
ARCHITECTURE See also Anthropology; National Geographic Society. (W. A. Re.) Encyclopedia Britannica Films. Ancient Baalbek and Palmyra
—
(1953); Ancient Petra (1953); Carbon Fourteen (1953); Pompeii and Vesuvius (1951).
37
June 27-30. The number of archers who participated, 722 in all, was good in spite of the confused situation regarding the status of the newly designated "nonamaat Crystal Springs, Ark.,
teur" class of shooters.
Lon Stanton, Lake Ozark, Mo., regained The winners in each group
his instinctive (without sights) title.
The world target archery championships, held in HlUlluiy. odd-numbered years, took place in Oslo, Nor., Aug. 11-13, 1961. Joe Thornton, a Cherokee Indian from Tulsa, i
sweep of the four gold medals
Okla.. led the United States to a
Thornton
of the competition.
gain the men's world points was
made
tallied a total of 2,310 points to
The previous high
title.
score of 2,247
1959 by U.S. archer James Caspers. Clayton
in
Sherman of Madison, Wis., William Bednar of Hartville, 0., and Thornton took the men's team honours. The women's individual title winner, Nancy Vonderheide of Cincinnati, 0., set a world record of 2,173 points, 53 above the previous record set
by Carole Meinhart of the U.S. in 1959. The victorious U.S. women's team was made up of Miss Vonderheide, Grace Frye (Toledo, 0.) and Victoria Cook of Minneapolis, Minn. (See Table
I.
— World Target Championships, Women's
Men's Individual Winners
Nome
Country
Points
J.
IIS
c Sherman
U.S.
2.310 2,187 2,185 2,178 2,174 2,169
R
Sondelin Boussu
archery tournament
Finla nd
.
Belg urn Belg urn
H Verhoeven H Hand . .
Brita n
Deptovo
B.
.
....
Las Vegas, Nev. Prizes would
at
$10,000, and competition would be open to
amateur bowmen. The amateurs would shoot for trophies retain their amateur status and Olympic eligibility. (G. Y.)
The
J.
Heywood
.
.
.
pt.
Great
pt.
South Africa
of
International
the
Architecture.
Union of Architects (U.I. A.) held in London, July 3-7, 1961, revealed that the long split between free-world and Communist ideas of architectural style and methods was fast disappearing.
Not only showed
the discussions at the congress but
a considerable overlap in basic
Points
during the 1930s but forbidden by Stalin in the Soviet Union
mentation and subordination of art that characterized western
U.S.
2,173 2,166 2,143 2,141 2,134
Britain
2,121
— Women 6,376 6,350 6,256
United States
pt.
congress
sixth
to
Country
Czech. S.Africa
G. Frye
was scheduled for total more than both professional and it
U.S. Britain
Team Winners
6,600 6,423 6,319
Finland
.
.... ....
A. Sclebush
Team Win ners- —Men United States Belgium
Individual Winners
N. Vonderheide L. Fowler
Called the Sahara-
in its history for 1962.
Open Archery tournament,
Colt National
March 16-18
II.
Field Archery association announced the richest
forms and techniques. In general the Communist representatives were struggling with the early modern style developed in the west
1961
Name
Table
class are given in
The National
also the exhibition
I.)
Table
J.
and
Britoin
from 1932. Emphasis lay on the austerity, standardization, architecture 25 years ago
—except
in
where western modernism had never
regi-
Poland and Czechoslovakia really
been dropped. Com-
munist Chinese delegates were especially emphatic that ancient pt. pt.
Chinese architectural graces must yield to the needs of an
in-
pt.
dustrialized society.
Field
Archery Tournament.
—The
16th
annual
national
tournament of the National Field Archery association was held
Table
II.
National Field Tournament, 1961
Nonamateur Women Name
Class
275 225 175 125 75
M. Nottingham L. Abernathy D.
Severing
D.
Savage
City and State
San Francisco, Mesa, Ariz.
Carter
T.
Calif.
Mesquite, Tex.
Mesa, Ariz. Parma, O.
Score
693 569 494 309 354
Nonamateur Men 400 325 250 175 100 Heavy
D. Frantz
Lance
Wichett, Tex. Sandlin Kansas City, Kan. Standish Forest Park, III. A. Van Dolson, Vallejo, Calif. R. Howes, Philmont, Va. L.
R.
J.
tackle
(women| (men)
Nonamateur Free 275 225
Style,
Nonamateur Free 400 325 250 175
R. J.
100
Instinctive,
Gurnee
Instinctive,
R. P.
Norris
J.
'75 100
B.
concrete was gradually developing techniques of weight reduction
those
and improved speed that began to come within ranse of common in Europe. Polish and Czech architects, keeping
much
were more adventuresome and Czech school construction program, whose authors
closer touch with the west,
a correlated
gave credit to British sources for ideas, included
—much
ing so
Urban Architecture. full city scale.
A
—Projects sprang up around
Ghandi Ghar, Gujarat, was under way,
match in scale and Punjab through which Le Corbusier had gained new fame and where his splendid
new
capital
to
of the
jazz-rhythmed assembly building approached completion during the year.
Work began on
392
Joint Center for
364
Cedar
854
yet another
new
city to
Okla. Berkeley, Colif. Minerol Springs, Ark.
768 723 572 548
de Guoyana.
project had been committed in 1960 into the hands of the
Urban Studies
of
Harvard university and
chief planner
was Wilhelm von Moltke, formerly chief de-
signer for the Philadelphia City Planning commission. In the
United Kingdom the most widely hailed of "new towns," though on a slightly smaller scale than the others, was Cumbernauld, near Edinburgh, Scot. In London the uproar over proposed com-
Pekin, III. Rochester, Minn.
Woyzoto, Minn. Davenport,
house 250,000
Tomas
chusetts Institute of Technology for preliminary investigations.
The Mo.
the world at
project for a second provincial capital in India,
boldness Chandigarh, the
Omaha, Neb. City,
say-
sign of the mid-1950s.
The
321
—without
classroom arrangement that resembled U.S. de-
in
710 515
Women
Style,
Sevey
Lattimer N. Tipton
ern standards, although the system of mass production in tilt-up
Paducah, Ky. Amarillo, Tex. Jefferson City, Mo. Castle Rock, Colo.
Borllesville,
H. Sudberry C. Peterson A. Elzea C. Remer
Amateur Free *00 325 250
612
city planning, aided
persons in Venezuela and to be called Santo
Littleton, Colo.
G. Winchester Style,
827
787 509
Men
D. Blonk
Soger Woolery
1,028
Women
P.Bradley K. Smart
Amateur Free '75 125
Hawthorne, Calif. White Pigeon, Mich. Roosevelt, Utah Binghamton, N.Y.
Prestridge
D.
Amateur
275 225
Rochester, Minn.
H. Scott J.
945 552 655 393 364
Men
Curry Slocum
E.
Amafeur
400 325 250 175 100
Style,
Kadlec Coley
D. Scullhies R.
O.
Hesperia, Mich. Dallas, Tex. Binghamton, N.Y. South Bend, Ind.
P.Pendleton M. Slocum M. Tuesday
75
175 125 75
Cincinnati,
Newville
S.
966 788 715 548 463 537 pt. 866 pt.
Women
A. Clark
175 125
275 225
Lake Ozark, Mo. McChord AFB, Wash.
Stanton
L.
Communist
countries did their best work by having complete control over land use. whether in developing new districts for a city like Kiev or putting 35,000 persons "under a single roof" in Tallinn. Their housing was still very dull, crowded and standardized by west-
In general, again,
in
la.
733 553 469 279
Men Mound, Minn.
975
E.
Logan, O.
941
J.
Cook
Porks, Ariz. Austin, Minn.
C. Frechtl
Pueblo, Colo.
745 478 386
mercial exploitation in Piccadilly Circus was stilled by the
county council
in assigning
having trouble
in
London
William Bedford, president of the Royal Institute of British Architects, to do an area plan, which was under d< in the year. The county council was spacing between
satisfying
new
tall
Sir
all
parties with
its
policy of wide
buildings. Fearing a "burnt-out forest"
Unitarian church, Concord, N.H.
Hugh Stubbins and
Associates, arch.
Shrine at
New Harmony,
Ind.,
designed by Philip Johnson
AWARD WINNING BUILDINGS OF 1961 A selection of public and private buildings which received awards of honour or merit by the American Institute of Architects
In
1961
Crown Zellerbach office building, San Francisco, Calif. Hertzka 4 Knowles, and Skidmore, Owings 4 Merrill, arch.
Fernando Rivera elementary school, Daly City, Reiter, assoc. arch.
Willow Creek apartments, Palo Alto, arch.
Calif.
Calif.
Mario
J.
Ciampl, arch.: Paul
John Carl Warnecke and Associates
~aV ^ All photographs courtesy The American Institute o/ Architects; photos by (top left to bottom right) Maris-Ezra Stoller Associates, George Holton, Karl H. Riek, Morley Baer
ARCTIC some urban designers advocated
effect
clumping of
tall
more
policies leading to
39
structures were faced with concrete waffle panels holding chunks of coloured glass; one was the
building groups.
new
sanctuary, the other a bell
distinguished Golden
tower. Sven Markelius' trade union centre at Stockholm, Swed.,
Gate redevelopment competition with another for Diamond
was completed. With an elaborate auditorium and meeting rooms, was a somewhat Americanized shopping centre for the new suburb of Farsta. Sven Backstrom and Leif Reinius were the architects, with Ketchum & Sharp of New York. Stockholm also acquired a new department store, built in an all-glass-and-steel
In the U.S. San Francisco followed
its
Heights. Winning architects for this project were B. Clyde
Cohen
and James K. Levorsen. At Honolulu the redevelopment authority withdrew its first award for the Queen Emma redevelopment, after protests that architectural qualities had not been
and re-awarded the Minoru Yamasaki and associates, after a second judgment approved by the American Institute of Architects. For Tokyo, the world's largest metropolis and generally regarded as the most unmanageably complex, architect Kenzo Tange did a fascinating theoretical weighed by professionally qualified
juries,
contract to a group employing as architects
He
"linear city" plan for further growth.
Tokyo but skipped away from
the Gordian knot of
Tokyo
the water of
made the
neither untied nor cut
bay.
He
it
—across
proposed bridge structures and man-
and composition in impressive architect-designed Utopia of many
islands of delightfully fresh planning really
first
it
greenhouse manner recalling 19th-century cast-iron architecture.
—
United States. U.S. architecture suffered several disappointments and setbacks. The greatest was the sudden death at 51 of Eero Saarinen, one of the world's leading architects. Best known for his General Motors Technical centre outside Detroit and scheme, in
his long-delayed
final
preparation in 1961, for the big
arch of the Jefferson National Expansion memorial in
steel
controversial genius. Just before he died he seemed, with jobs like the
mighty, sweeping Dulles International Airport terminal
for Washington, D.C.
(under construction), to be pulling to-
gether his powers for a further series of triumphs.
years.
Buildings.
new world
—Leading
architects were
of reinforced concrete architecture; Italy
to being the wellspring of design
by the
fascinated
still
and Japan the most
came
closest
prolific pro-
Centenary of Unification exhibition
Italy's
at
Turin gave
rise
performances, although the noted architects
Lodovicio Barbiano
di Belgiojoso,
work
of his office for the year
was
The completed
a fine International Business
Machine's laboratory building at Yorktown, N.Y. Saarinen's associates,
Kevin Roche, John Dinkeloo and Joseph Lacy, took
over the firm, including several campus and church projects
ducer of high standard structures. to three virtuoso
Enrico Peressutti, and Ernesto
Rogers abstained from participation in the exhibition on grounds that it constituted social waste. Engineer Pier Luigi Nervi's
already in work. Another U.S. disappointment was the failure of the winning design in the Franklin D. Roosevelt petition to
command
Memorial com-
public enthusiasm. It was conceived as a
Stonehengelike arrangement of concrete slabs or steles inscribed with Roosevelt quotations, for a
site in
Washington, D.C, on
International Labour Palace was a square assembly of 16
monu-
the spit of land between the Tidal basin and the Potomac.
mental "umbrellas," each 130-ft. square and Egyptian
in no-
winning design team was William F. Pedersen
Each was based on
bility.
a
St.
Louis, Saarinen was a bold, wide-ranging, unpredictable and often
column subtly changing as
it
tapered
ney, architects of
The
& Bradford S. TilBoston and New York; Norman Hoberman,
from which steel brackets radiated to carry a flat The younger engineer Riccardo Morandi made a dra-
Wasserman and David Beer, associates; and Whitney, structural engineers. A third setback was the procedure of plans for the 1964—65 New York World's Fair with
matic, gently arched bridge of his automobile exhibition hall.
virtually no architectural tutelage, following resignation of the
upward, from a cruciform base of
diameter into a
18-ft.
9-ft.
circular top,
roof slab.
It
of
was no 176
as
ft.
props,
tilted
than 500
less
ft.
wide and spanned a clear
The powerful criss-crossed beams and
vaulted across a sunken
it
the deep-curving, slim,
floor area
pit.
the skylights gave this hall a highly dramatic interior. Other significant Italian buildings included at
Renacco's simple pavilions
Turin for the Exhibition of the Regions, Gardella's social
centre for the Olivetti works at Ivrea, the the Leonardo da Vinci airport at
Rome by
Rome
atomic centre,
Luccichenti
& Monaco
and the Naples railroad station by the state railways. Japan favoured the beton brut or rough-cast manner in reinat once modern and ageless and so amenable to a deceptively casual-looking type of craftsmanship. Tange added forced concrete
—
the municipal building at Kurashiki to his achievements;
Maekawa
did the Metropolitan Festival hall in
as a civic centre in
Kyoto composed
Tokyo
Kunio as well
of three theatres, built
of concrete and brick in a softened version of the beton brut
Other notable buildings were the Yokohama municipal
style.
Murani & Mori and the Honda Motor Co. factory
building by
by Yamanaka &
Saito.
Britain excelled
new Park
Hill,
most
clearly in social architecture such as the
Sheffield,
housing project of multistory slabs
by raised pedestrian bridges by city architect J. L. Womersley. In London a tour-de-force, the 26 St. James apartments by Denys Lasdun, facing Green Park, asserted its right to a place among Georgian and later palaces by its vigour and assurance, though it diverged widely from these examples in its joined
polished
West
modern
German architecture had a slim year; among other things, Egon Eiermann's two
Amman &
architectural advisory board in a disagreement with the fair's president, Robert Moses. Subsequently the fair accepted
many
projects whose architecture was hardly above the standard of
roadside stands.
By
contrast the architectural plans for Seattle's
Century 21 Exposition
A
in
1962 were far more sophisticated.
high proportion of the year's significant output came from
the architectural office of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. Theirs was the new 66-story Chase Manhattan Bank building in downtown New York, with its buttresslike outward projecting columns, aluminum-clad against an aluminum-faced wall, and its remark-
ably column-free interiors, an example of the metallic, precision
was the concrete-clad First City National Bank tower in Houston (Wilson, Morris, Crain & Anderson, consulting architects), with its well-proportioned style of architecture. Theirs, too,
frame creating a gallery-cage around
all
windows; and the new
Portland (Ore.) coliseum, again a piece of lean precision, with the grandstand seen through a glass-enclosed box. The firm also
completed a wide-ranging headquarters building for the Upjohn Pharmaceutical Co., built around handsome pooled courts, and with an ingenious "space-framed" roof structure based on pyramor tetrahedron framing that permitted a variety of re-
idal
and sculptured effects in wide overhangs. See also Building and Construction Industry; Housing.
cessed-ceiling tricks
(D. Hl.) Encyclopedia Britannica Films. The Living City (1953); Robert Moses (The Wisdom Series) (1960); \Yall,r Gropius (The Wisdon (1958); Frank Lloyd Wright (The Wisdom Series) (1958).
—
style.
Berlin debated,
hexagonal prisms flanking the famous tower-ruin of the Kaiser
Wilhelm church
sculptor; Joseph
at
the head of
Kurfurstendamm. Both new
AmtlP MIL Uu.
Durin£: Arctic
'
or,i
economic
included
the
activities
start
of
oil
in
the
Canadian
exploration
in
the
Arctic islands. Commercial light aircraft operated from Resolute
ARCTIC
40 about 75° N. through the summer and early
at
while in
fall,
man
to reach the Arctic
ocean overland, was a modern motor
September two Danish ships penetrated west from Resolute to Winter Harbour on Melville Island, where they delivered heavy drilling gear for a Canadian company attempting to drill an oil exploration hole late in the year. A major gas well was
vessel of conventional appearance although
on the Arrowhead river in Yukon Territory, while a government spokesman mentioned possible reserves of a billion barrels of oil along the Mackenzie river. The opening of a new
Tomorrow," held
road into Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, resulted
known
early
brought
in
a busi-
in
boom there. In an effort to improve economic conditions among the Eskimos, Arctic char was exported to the south by air, and the delicacy became widely known across Canada.
ness
Many
wood
for reasons of
had been made of II. The crew was
it
economy during World War
rescued without injury.
A
government-sponsored symposium entitled "Resources for in Montreal during October, tried to assess the
resources and future of Canada, including the Canadian Arctic.
Summary
papers published before the meetings attempted to
many
resources and assess the state of knowledge in
of endeavour, commercial and
scientific.
list
fields
During 1961, many
steps were taken in Alaska toward harbour development, improve-
ments
of roads, railways
and airport
facilities,
advances
in
com-
of the Arctic scientific projects conducted during 1961
munications systems and flood-control programs. In addition,
were continuations of long-term programs, but a few new programs received wide attention. Among these were glacial studies in southeastern Alaska and the Yukon. A high altitude research station was established in the St. Elias mountains, and the Arctic
programs of hydroelectric power were initiated. Work proceeded on Project "Chariot," which might utilize nuclear explosions to
Research laboratory at Point Barrow, Alaska, established second
Arctic
"Arlis II,"
ocean
drifting
was located on an
research
station.
This
its
station,
80-ft.-thick ice island. It replaced
"Arlis I," established on an ice floe during 1960 and evacuated
March
in
1961. "Arlis II" was in 1961 the only
manned
U.S.
research station adrift in the Arctic ocean.
A new
topographic feature discovered as a result of the
surface mountain range which roughly parallels the
and the Alpha
rise,
the two
other
known
is
first
a sub-
Lomonosov
Arctic basin
ranges.
In Aug. 1961, the U.S. weather bureau set up the
powered weather station
in the Arctic to
A
showing that
figures
at
the end of 1960 about 15,863
oil
and
gas leases covering 33,287,120 ac. in Alaska were under the
supervision of
the
U.S. geological survey.
Also,
of major commercial airlines utilizing Arctic
number
the
routes between
North America, Europe and Asia increased from three
to five dur-
ing 1961.
extensive magnetic mapping of the Arctic ocean basin
ridge
form a man-made harbour on the northwest coast of Alaska.
further indication of increased exploitation of the north were
first
nuclear-
transmit automatically
During the year ores from the Canadian interior were exported on Hudson bay for the first time. The Bell Telephone Company of Canada announced that it had set up a radio-telephone system through Quebec and Labrador with an extension into Baffin Island. It was officially announced that to Britain via Churchill
the
Yukon Territory would become The government also announced
ture.
a province in the near fua decision to fund a 438-mi.
information on temperature, humidity, wind speed and baro-
railroad linking the existing railhead at
metric pressure. Installed in less than 40 hours, the station was
south side of Great Slave lake at Pine point near
expected to operate for two years without servicing or refueling.
the Northwest Territories.
Resupply of northern weather stations and defense sites in Canada was carried out as usual by icebreakers and aircraft. A Hudson's Bay company vessel, the "Fort Hearne," was lost dur-
forest-research laboratory at Fairbanks, Alaska. Congress also
summer operations when it was crushed by ice in Coronation gulf. The "Fort Hearne," named in honour of the first white ing
The
Grimshaw,
Alta., to the
May
river in
U.S. congress approved in 1961 the establishment of a
gave considerable attention to the protection of marine mammals, fishery resources and other wildlife management problems
A Canadian Fisheries Research board report on five work announced identification of an indicator species of a minute marine animal. Of two varieties, a larger one previously identified in the Russian Arctic was shown to be circumpolar in distribution and confined to Arctic waters, whereas the smaller one occurs in warmer waters. The presence of the larger variety in
Alaska.
years'
WEATHER POSTS SPANNING THE ARCTIC.
The post on Axel Helberg Island, established in Aug. 1961, was the U.S. weather bureau's first nuclear-powered station. This unmanned station transmitted reports to a manned post on Cornwallis Island
provided a clear indication of the source of the sea water. The
Smithsonian institution announced that the world's sea level is rising because of the melting of glaciers and polar ice. For example,
it
was reported, the sea
level of the U.S. Atlantic
seaboard
rose a total of four inches during the period between 1930 and 1949.
New
research tools were used during the year. U.S.
army
en-
gineers took delivery of a thermoelectric drill which could penetrate as
much
as 12,000
ft.
of ice in the Greenland ice cap. Radio
altimeters also were tried in an attempt to sound glacier depth drilling. A number of U.S. and Canadian universities and colleges added polar research institutes during the year. The Soviet Union continued to emphasize Arctic problems
without
during 1961.
Two
Soviet drifting research stations in the Arctic
ocean were in operation. Because of severe fracturing of the
ice,
During the spring resupply of the two stations, 24 automatic weather stations were set up on the ice of the Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi seas. In October it was reported that the U.S.S.R. would set up one station was evacuated
in the spring.
another drifting station in the near future. In addition, the U.S.S.R. continued studies of sea ice and related problems along
northern sea route, and maintained an apparently well-balanced Arctic research program.
its
ARGE NTINA Some
of the Soviet nuclear explosions starting in Sept. 1961
— President Frondizi's program of economic develop-
have been on or near Novaya Zemlya in the fire in the coal beds of Novaya
ment made appreciable
an area of between 500 and 600 sq.mi. was
ing the early
were believed
to
Soviet Arctic.
An underground
Sibir Island over
41
History.
ported as continuing for a tenth year.
A new
air service
re-
from
to Norilsk within the Arctic circle on the Taymyr peninwas announced. Norilsk, a steel manufacturing town, was claimed to have increased its population from 2,000 to 110,000 since 1948. The Soviet Institute of Arctic Geology announced the beginning of a search for diamonds in Siberia. In September it was announced that four ports on the Baltic, including Leningrad and Riga, would for the first time be kept open throughout the year by icebreakers of the Northern Sea Route administration. Archangel, facing onto the Arctic ocean, would be kept open "two or three months longer than usual." Britain announced submarine trials under the Arctic ice in the spring of 1961, using two conventional submarines with snorkel devices to probe through thin ice and bring in fresh air for the crew and motors. Norway's Arctic economy apparently took a step forward when the former North Norway Development Fund, intended to aid the provinces of Nordland, Finmark, and Troms, was discontinued and the northern areas were allowed access to funds intended to help areas having economic problems. Great Britain, Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Switzerland and Japan continued mapping, oceanographic and glaciological research and upper atmospheric and sea-ice studies during 1961. See also Archaeology; Geography. (J. C. R.)
gains during 1961, partly through the
availability of substantial foreign credits, but political crises dur-
months and a series of strikes and work stoppages, which reached a peak in August, retarded the rate of progress
many weak
Moscow
and
sula
transigent Radical party had not gained any strength since the
—
Encyclopedia Britannica Films. The Arctic (Islands of the Frozen Sea) (1959): The Face of the High Arctic (1959); High Arctic Life on the Land (1959).
—
left
1960 elections was clearly reflected in the Feb. 1961 elections in Buenos Aires and in the province of Mendoza, in both of which the party ran third. In subsequent elections the party won by a large margin but the sharp decline in the number of blank ballots indicated that many voters had been influenced by the fact, generally known by the beginning of March, that the Confederacion General del Trabajo (C.G.T.), taken over by the government in 1955, was about to be returned to the unions.
The prospect
see
Populations and Areas of the Countries of the
World.
^
Arrrontino
nl gClllllld.
e re P UD^ c °f Argentina,
Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil, It is the
occupying the south-
eastern section of South America,
is
bounded by
Uruguay, the Atlantic ocean and Chile.
second largest Latin-American country, after Brazil, with
of the strongly Peronist leadership within the
dominant influence
large industrial unions exercising a
C.G.T. created considerable concern among
and on March 22 Lieut.
ficers,
signed as
army commander
another major leaders
among
retary of war,
crisis
the
in
in the
top
for the regime, but the majority of the
army
officers
supported the view of the sec-
Rosendo Fraga, that army
officers
should not inter-
Fraga appointed Maj. Gen.
Raul Alejandro Poggi as the new commander
The
many
army ofGen. Carlos Toranzo Montero rechief. The resignation threatened
fere in political matters. Secretary
in chief.
return of the C.G.T. to the unions fulfilled an election
promise but did not bring about an immediate change
in la-
bour's attitude toward the government's economic stabilization
—
program. The new C.G.T. leaders a committee composed equally of leaders of the "62" Peronist unions and the "32" democratic unions
Areas:
spots in the economy. That the president's In-
—issued
a proclamation reflecting the bitter
and wide-
spread feeling that the sacrifices enforced under the economic
program were borne largely by the labouring classes. Resentment over austerity measures caused increasingly strong pressures to be directed against the minister of economy, Alvaro
who resigned on April 24. On June 15 his sucRoberto T. Alemann, announced that the government would not authorize any general wage increase and that increases C. Alsogaray,
cessor,
an area of 1,072.067 sq.mi. (excluding 481,777 sq.mi. of Antarctic
recently granted would have no immediate effect on the cost of
and South Atlantic island areas). Cap. Buenos Aires. Argentina
living which,
is
a
member
of the Organization of
American States and the
however, was showing an average monthly increase
higher than in 1960.
The government's plan for drastic reorganimet with powerful resistance from
Latin American Free Trade association. President in 1961, Arturo
zation of the railroad system
Frondizi.
the railroad unions and a general strike took place on July 18. Faced with the prospect of an extended nationwide strike at a time of labour crises on many fronts, the government reached agreement with the labour negotiators whereby the strike was called off on condition that union officials sit in on future discus-
—
Census Data. Preliminary results of a census taken in 1960 showed a population of 20.005,691 (excluding 3,254 in the island areas), an increase of 3,952,926 or 24.6% over the 1947 census. The density of population was 18.7 persons per square mile. Principal cities: Buenos Aires 2,966,816; Rosario 671,852; Cordoba 589,153; Matanza 402,642; Lanus 381,561; Moron 344,041; La Plata 330,310; Avellaneda 329,626; Quilmes 318,144.
sions relating to the reorganization. Political Subdivisions Political Subdivision
Federal capital
of Argentina Pop. 11960 prelim, census)
2,966,816
The substantial rise in industrial production and the achievement of virtual self-sufficiency in petroleum output encouraged the inflow of foreign capital. The government established a list
Provinces
Buenos Aires
Catamarca C6rdoba Corrientes
543,226 535,443 142,195 803,505 178,458 239,783 158,489 128,270 825,535 39', 094
Choco Chubut Entre Rios
Formosa Juiuy
La Pampo La Rioia
Mendoia Misiones
Neuquen Rio Negro
11
Solta
Son Juan San Luis
Soma
Crui Santa Fe Santiago del Estero
Tucuman Territory Tierro del Total
6,734,548 172,407 1,759,997
Fuego
1,008
of concessions, including tax exemption, for companies prepared
A proposal submitted by companies involving an investment of approximately $70,000,000 was approved and marked the to participate in
approved programs.
a consortium of five large U.S.
beginning of a modern petrochemical industry.
The World bank made its initial loan to Argentina in June, $48,500,000 for highway improvement. Using a credit of $100,000,000 approved by the U.S. Export-Import bank
in
1958. in-
192,595 412,652 352,461 174,251 52,853 1,865,537 477,156 780,348
and power programs made substantial gains. Large imports of machinery and equipment contributed to Argentina's
7,064 20,005,691*
the peso remained relatively stable. See also Foreign Invest-
'Excludes Antarctic sector and islands of the South Atlantic (pop., 1960, 3,254).
dustrial
negative trade balance, but in view of the availability of substantial long-term credits
and the consolidation and extension
of the maturity dates of previously accumulated short-term debts,
ments; Latin America.
(A. E. Tr.)
—
i
ARIZONA
42
—
1958 there were 17,920 primary schools with 2,859,827 pupils and 125,794 teachers; in 1957, 560 secondary schools, 125,445 pupils; 1,534 technical schools, 266,330 pupils; 446 normal schools, 121,666 pupils; 134 institutions of higher learning (including 6 national universities), 153,723 students. According to the 1947 census, 13.3% of those 14 years of age and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the peso, valued at an exchange rate during 1961 at about 1.21 cents U.S. currency. The previous official and free markets were replaced on Jan. 12, 1959, by a single market for all transactions with a fluctuating exchange rate. The budget for the fiscal year ending Oct. 31, 1962, estimated revenue at 167,060,000,000 pesos and expenditure at 155,024,000,000 pesos (excluding operations of state enterprises). The internal debt was unofficially reported at 1 16,488,000,000 pesos on Aug. 31, 1958; foreign indebtedness was estimated at $1,479,600,000 on April 30, 1960. Currency in circulation (July 31, 1961) totaled 99,600,000,000 pesos; demand deposits 86,200,000,000 pesos. National income in 1960 was estimated at 626,000,000,000 pesos. The cost-of-living index (Buenos Aires) stood at 673 in June 1961 (1953 = 100). Trade and Communications. Exports in 1960 (provisional figures) were $1,079,000,000; imports $1,249,000,000. Leading exports were cereals and linseed (30%), meat (20%), wool (14%), vegetable oils and oilseeds (12%) and hides (7%); leading imports were machinery and vehicles (43%), iron and steel and manufactures (17%), fuels and lubricants (13%) and chemicals and products (5%). Leading customers were the U.K. (21%), the Netherlands (12%), the U.S. (12%), Italy (8%) and West Germany (8%); leading suppliers were the U.S. (26%), West Germany (12%), the U.K. (9%), Venezuela (7%) and Italy (7%). Railways (1955) totaled 27,273 mi. In 1956 there were 36,640 mi. of national highways (32,000 mi. of improved) and 54,600 mi. of provincial highways. Registered motor vehicles (Jan. 1, 1960) included 387,381 automobiles, 341,040 trucks and 15,107 buses. Telephones (Jan. 1, 1960) numbered 1,244,133. According to Lloyd's Register of Skipping, the merchant marine (June 30, 1960) had 355 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating Education.
In
—
—
1,041,507 gross tons. Agriculture. Production figures for the crop year 1960-61 were officially reported as follows (in metric tons): wheat 4,000,000; corn 4,850,000; barley 779,000; rye 510,000; oats 830,000; rice 149,000; sunflower seed 585,000; cotton (ginned) 116,000; sugar cane 9,800,000; peanuts 266.000; birdseed 2 2,000; tung oil 82,000. Exports of the principal cereal grains (wheat, corn, rye, oats and barley) totaled 5,800.000 tons in 1960. Cattle (June 30, 1960) were estimated at 44,500,000; on June 30, 1957, there were 45,737,860 sheep, 3,487,122 pigs and 5.482,453 horses. Production of meat in 1960 totaled 981,600 metric tons (including 804.000 tons of beef); butter 59,890 tons; cheese 119,190 tons. Wool production in the wool year ending Sept. 30, 1961, was estimated at 195,000 tons. In 1960, 126,349 tons of quebracho extract were exported. Manufactures. According to the 1954 industrial census, there were 181,763 manufacturing and mining establishments with 1,536,530 employees. Production figures for 1960 included Portland cement 2.640,000 metric tons; steel 277,000 tons; cotton yarn (1959) 87,240 tons; wheat flour 2,200,000 tons; manufactured gas 21,600,000 cu.m.; motor vehicles 89,400 (units). The index of industrial production stood at 116 in 1960 (1953 100). Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1958) was 2,892,000 kw.; production (1959, public use only) totaled 7,752,000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production of crude petroleum in 1960 totaled 64,260,000 bbl. Other production figures included coal 283,200 tons; natural gas 1,387,200.000 cu.m.; lead 37,400 tons; zinc 65,100 tons. (J. W. Mw.)
—
—
=
—
Encyclopedia Britannica Films.
— Argentina
(People of the Pampa)
(1957).
employees. This was considered an emergency measure. Also considered an emergency measure was an appropriation of $2,-
182,000 for constructing and equipping a tuberculosis sanatorium. After appearing to be on the decline in Arizona for several years, the
number
medical records, had
by
of tuberculosis patients, as indicated
risen.
Arizona gained one U.S. congressional
seat as a result of the 1960 census
and the
state
was
redistricted
accordingly.
A
special election
district to
was held
May
2 in
the 2nd congressional
the seat vacated by Stewart L. Udall after his
fill
appointment as U.S. secretary of the interior. Udall's brother, Morris K. Udall, narrowly defeated Republican Mac C. Matheson,
whom
ference on
Stewart had also defeated
May
3,
in
1960. At a press con-
Morris blamed the narrowness of
his victory
on a decision by his brother that squatters along the Colorado river in
Yuma
county would have to vacate.
Yuma
county voted
heavily for Matheson.
On Nov. principal
17 a dinner, at which Pres. John F.
speaker, was held in
Hayden who
in
Kennedy was
Phoenix honouring Sen. Carl
1961 observed the 50th anniversary of his elec-
from Arizona. For the sixth time residents of Phoenix in 1961 re-elected the Charter Government ticket with incumbent Sam Mardian, Jr., as mayor. tion as the first U.S. representative
Principal state officers in 1961 were: governor, Paul J. Fannin;
secretary of state, Wesley Bolin; attorney general, Robert Pickrell; treasurer,
W.
H. Y. Sprague; auditor, Jewel W. Jordan.
—
Agriculture. n 1961 Arizona had 1,243,172 ac. under irrigation and a total of 1,263,673 ac. of cropland from which crops were harvested. Cash receipts in 1960 totaled $273,298,000 from crops and $162,256,000 from livestock and livestock products for a total of $435,554,000. This compared with $407,867,000 (including government payments) for 1959.
Table
I.
Principal
Crops of Arizona Average
Indicated
Crop
1961
360,000
Corn, bu
Wheat, bo
1,118,000
Oats, bu Barley, bu
400,000 11,220,000 7,475,000 1,209,000 844,000 2,400,000 1,450,000
Sorghum grain, bu Hay, ton. Cotton, 500-lb. bales Grapefruit, 64-lb. boxes Oranges, 77-lb. boxei
I960
1950-59
346,000 792,000 360,000 10,050,000 6,554,000
8,803,000 4,150,000
1,184,000 879,900 2,260,000 1,160,000
829,800 2,585,000 1,113,000
570,000 1,550,000
437,000 791,000
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
One
of the southwestern mountain states of the
Arizona. United largest state
States, the
and has a
"Grand Canyon"
state
total area of 113,909 sq.mi.,
is
the 6th
334 sq.mi.
of which are inland water. Arizona ranks 35th in population with
1,302,616 (1960 census); the July 000.
The
1,
1961, estimate was 1,391,-
principal cities (1960 census) are: Phoenix, the capital,
439,170, Tucson 212,892,
Mesa
33,772,
Tempe
24,897,
Yuma
23,974, Flagstaff 18,214, Glendale 15,696, Prescott 12,861
and
Douglas 11,925. History. in
—The consensus of most veteran
Arizona concerning activities of the
first
legislative reporters
session of the 25th
was that very little was accomplished in the way of important legislation and that education was the biggest benelegislature
ficiary of the session.
One measure enacted by the legislature involved a reapportionment of state school funds and provided that school-fund monies could be apportioned to the counties without setting aside
money
for the operation of the state board of education
and the state department of education. In dollars and cents Arizona schools would have approximately an additional $2,000,000 a year. A continuing annual appropriation in the amount of $150,000 for
each new qualifying junior college was made, and an additional
$50,000 to each of the two existing junior colleges was appro-
The Communist party was outlawed
legislature
—
—
—
—
priated for the 1961-62 school year. i
On Jan. 1, 1960, livestock in Arizona comprised 1,110,000 cattle and calves of which 55,000 were milch cows, 38,000 swine, 484,000 sheep, 58,000 horses and mules and 783,000 poultry. Banking and Finance. On Sept. 30, 1961, there were 11 banks in Arizona, including 3 national banks and 8 state banks, and 10 savings and loan associations and other types of banking institutions. Total assets of all banks amounted to $1,420,185,954.62; deposits were $1,276,524,728.65. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961, receipts in all state funds totaled $396,170,440 and disbursements $393,792,452. The state had no debt. There was a surplus in the general fund of approximately $18,000,000 as of Dec. 1, 1961. Total state taxes collected in 1961 were $273,469,382; federal taxes collected in the state amounted to $351,493,000. Net assessed valuation of real property in the state was $21,592,241. Communications. All highways and roads in Arizona in 1961 totaled 37,125 mi., including 2,510 mi. of primary and 2,125 mi. of secondary roads. During fiscal 1960-61 the state highway department expended a total of $61,377,975, which included $9,172,688 from the federal government. New highway construction totaled 176 mi. and cost $47,258,871. Vehicle registration for 1960 totaled 488,147 automobiles and 133,296 commercial vehicles, buses and taxis. Railroad mileage in the state included 3,502 mi. of tracks and 2,616 mi. of lines. The Arizona Aviation authority estimated there were more than 1,300 airplanes in the state (Arizona law does not require airplane registration) served by more than 120 airports. In Sept. 1961, 61 radio stations and 10 television stations were in operation. As of Jan. 1, 1961, there were 438,784 telephones in use. There were 53 weekly and 14 daily newspapers. Education. A total of 2 78,186 students were enrolled in elementary and secondary schools in Arizona in the 1960-61 school year. There were 216,854 students and 9.004 teachers in the public elementary schools and 61,332 students and 3,038 teachers in the secondary schools. Approximately 40,000 students were enrolled in institutions of higher education. The total amount spent by the state during 1960-61 on elementary and secondary education amounted to $119,491,166. Manufacturing and Industry. An average of 867 manufacturing establishments covered by the Arizona Employment Security law, employing an
in
Arizona by the 25th
and a loyalty oath was to be required of
all
public
average of 44,925 workers and paying $250,153,000 in salaries and wages, brought an income of $550,000,000 to Arizona in the 1959 calendar year.
ARKANSAS Total civilian employment in the state as of June 1961 was 445,800; there were 28,600 unemployed at that date. Personal income was $2,650,000,000 in the state in 1960, compared with $979,000,000 in 1950. Average per capita income in 1960 was $2,011, compared with an average of
%2,22i for the United States.
Table
Principal Industries of Arizona
II.
Value added by manufacture
Salaries
and wages
All
employees Industry group Total manufacturing
.
.
.
.
.... .
.
.
.
Printing and publishing Stone, ctay and glass products. Lumber and wood products. .
.
.
natorial appointment.
Upon
the death of
Lee Arthur Clayton, was appointed to fill the unexpired term. For the first time since 1957, the Arkansas legislative session was not dominated by the desegregation question. It generally increased appropriations for state agencies and services and provided additional revenues by changing existing laws.
The
general
000s!
assembly, limited by the constitution to three proposed consti-
1958
1957
40,756 10,525 5,249 4,978
$215,922 67,844 24,304
$359,742 116,004 51,445
26,991
2,841
12,847 10,998 11,768
43,351 26,135
$309,542 130,263 39,990 36,196
24,787 16,148 Commerce, 1958 Census of Manufactures, 1960. 2,104 2,798
.
Source: U.S. Department of
lin
1958
1958
Transport equipment Food and kindred products. Primary metal industries
OOOsI
(in
43 widow by guberVance Clayton his son,
died early in 1961 and was succeeded by his
The amount of unemployment benefits paid in Arizona during the 12month period ending Oct. 31, 1961, was $13,258,314, compared with $9,345,738 in 1960. Public Welfare and Related Programs. During the year ending June 30, 1961, the sum of $27,914,609.17 was expended for welfare programs in Arizona, including $17,082,013.29 of federal funds and $10,832,595.88 of state funds. Old-age assistance amounted to $10,318,986.04, blind assistance $743,464, and aid to dependent children $11,560,354.10. Child welfare cost $135,165.74 from federal funds and $791,199.81 from state
—
funds. In 1961 the state maintained one institution for mental patients and one tuberculosis sanatorium at a total cost for the year ending June 30, 1961, of $4,132,595.10. There were one penitentiary and one reformatory maintained by the state. In Oct, 1961 the penitentiary had 1.583 prisoners a-nd the reformatory had 348 inmates and 504 in conditional home placement. (E. H. P.) Mineral Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those
—
minerals produced in Arizona in 1959 and 1960 whose value exceeded $100,000. In 1960 Arizona continued its lead, held from 1910, in copper output (half of the U.S. total). It was first in pumice; second in asbestos, scrap mica and vanadium; third in manganese ore, molybdenum, perlite and silver; fourth in gold, manganiferous ore and zinc; fifth in value of uranium. The copper increase in output resulted from resumption of work at mines idled by strikes and the opening of a new mine. The top 15 copper producers supplied 98.5% of the output. Uranium ore output increased but the grade declined. Arizona ranked 14th among the states in the value of its mineral output in 1960, with 2.32% of the U.S. total.
amendments, adopted the maximum for vote by the peoNov. 1962. One would provide that no child shall be denied a free public education by reason of his refusal to attend an integrated school. Another would provide for raising the salaries of state constitutional officers and of county officers. A third would remove existing taxing and borrowing limits of municipalities and permit levies of additional taxes approved by the majority of the voters. The "segregation amendment" was opposed by 22 votes; all eight members of the Pulaski county (Little Rock) tutional
ple in
delegation voted against
The
it.
legislature refused to pass a soft drink tax to finance con-
struction at state institutions of higher education, the state mental
A $60,000,000 bond issue proposed by Governor Faubus to finance institutional construction was defeated by a referendum in June by a vote of 137,682 to 71,354.
hospital and other agencies.
A
summer passed
session of the legislature in late
first special
appropriations for a limited institutional construction program.
A
total of $6,048,440
was appropriated for new buildings
at the
mental hospital and $3,100,000 for the University of
state
Arkansas.
A
loss of
two congressional seats resulting from the 1960 U.S.
census led to the passage of a redistricting law early in 1961
which divided the state into four congressional
districts.
Dis-
satisfaction over district boundaries resulted in passage of an-
other Table
iln
Total* Clays
Copper
Gem
stones
Gold Lead
(or.)
Quantity
.... 173,000
539,000
.... .... .
143,000 8,000 148,000 1,626 8,677 2,180
.
Manganiferous ore
.
Molybdenum
.
.
.
On
Sond and gravel
.
14,490,000 4,775,000 4^249,000
.
....
Stone
Uranium ore Other minerals
...
120,000 430,000 t
25,000 10,000 123,000 68,000 10,693 1
1,595
164,000 235,000 322,000 07,000 219,000 239,000 173,000
487,000 13,458,000 3,898,000 2,468,000 253,000 37,000
•Total has been adjusted to eliminate duplicat on tWeight not recorded. Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Encyclopedia Britannica Films.
Value
21 1,000
1
284,000 36,000
Zinc
Quantity
120,000 S, 007,000 1, 988,000 2 430,000 40,000 190,000
703,000
Pumice Silver (or.)
Value
$415 776,000 260,000 345 784,000
t
Lime
Mangonese ore
law
Arl/oncoe nlKdllSdS. mate was
in
the value of clays
$326,862,000 179,000 264,202,000 88,000 4,362,000 2,300,000 1,666,000 5,727,000 234,000 4,019,000 1,153,000 1
1,966,000 3,528,000 3,998,000 6,309,000 8,585,000 9,929,000
and stone.
— The Southwestern
sout ^" centra ^ state °f
1,797,000. It
the 3 1st
is
The
tr>e
capital, 107,813.
The July
most populous
1,
1961, esti-
state,
and
in
North
Little
Hot Springs
Rock
58.032, Fort Smith
28,337, El
Dorado 25,292,
Jonesboro 21,418, Blytheville 20,797, Fayetteville 20,274, Texarkana 19,788 and West Memphis 19,374. History.
of
the
Aug. 22, Little Rock voters approved 5,107 to 250, a new manufacturing
major industry attracted
plant, the first
—Gov. Orval E. Faubus in office,
in
unprecedented
to the city since the
school crisis of 1957.
For the second consecutive year Arkansas' desegregated schools opened peacefully. Although no new school districts started desegregation, five of the ten districts already desegregated extheir programs into more grades, schools or classes. In Rock desegregation was extended to four previously all-
panded Little
white junior high schools. Agriculture.
(A. S. Sx.)
— Farmers' cash
receipts from marketings in Arkansas in 1960 totaled $679,012,000, including $241,768,000 from livestock and livestock products. The U.S. department of agriculture placed the value of principal crops in the state for 1960 at $463,181,000, below the 1959 value. Cotton ranked first in value, with lint and seed worth $230,011,000. Soybeans ranked second with a value of $107,755,000 and rice was third with a value of $61,824,000.
U.S. had a popula-
principal cities (1960 census) are: Little
52,991, Pine Bluff 44.037,
two-year term
session
special
States (1954).
area ranks 27th with a total of 53,104 sq.mi., 605 sq.mi. of which
Rock, the
second
9%
tion of 1,786,222 in 1960.
are inland water.
a
$1,400,000 industrial bond issue to build a
Table
^' s
in
legislature in September.
short tons, except as noted)
1959
Mineral
redistricting
Mineral Production of Arizona
III.
Jan. 1961 began a fourth in
Arkansas history. Other
Nov. 1960 included: Nathan Gordon, lieutenant governor; Jimmie Jones, state auditor; Vance Clayton, state treasurer; Frank Holt, attorney general; and Sam
state officers re-elected in
Jones, state land commissioner. C. G. Hall, secretary of state,
I.
— Principal Crops
Crop
Com, bu Wheat, >u Oots, bu Rice, 100-lb. bags
.
.
Sorghum
.
.
grain, bu.
Hoy, tons Cotton, boles
Soybeans,
for
.... beans, bu.
Potatoes, Irish, cwt. Potatoes, sweet, cwt. Pecans, lb
.
.
Apples, commercial, bu. Peaches, bu
Grapes, tons
of Arkansas Averoge
Indicated 1961
1960
1950-59
8,449,000 4,941,000 5,060,000 13,440,000 351,000 968,000 1,455,000 50,934,000 328,000 297,000 4,000,000 1 80,000 1,500,000 4,500
9,608,000 4,256,000 5,376,000 13,536,000 456,000 874,000 1,339,000 50,589,000 358,000 300,000 10,500,000 300,000 1,950.000 7,800
15,833,000 1,793,000 8,651,000 11,365,000 1,286,000 1,031,000 1,314,000 24,003,000 581,000 314,000 5,210,000
272,000 1,428.000 6,980
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
—
Banking and Finance. On Dec. 31, 1960, Arkansas had 182 state banks and trust companies and 11 active state building and loan associations. Asse's of national banks amounted to $715,895,000; state bank370,432; building an 01,330.96. Deposits in national banks totaled $650,961,000; in state banks $64 During the 1959 oO fiscal year state general expenditure amounted to $244,866,578.75 and state tax receipts were $152,754,747.90.
Army
recruit receiving inoculation shot at Ft. Dix, New Jersey. U.S. military forces were Increased In 1961 after the crises in Berlin and southeast Asia
Paratroopers from the U.S. 101st air-borne division, awaiting the dawn while on duty at Ft. Campbell, Kentucky. The 101st was one of three air-borne divisions In the U.S. on
combat-ready status
U.S.
ARMY
RECRUITING
In
1961
AND PREPAREDNESS,
1961
Rangers paddling toward shore in a rubber boat with their faces blackened for night attack as they practised guerrilla warfare maneuvers in 1961
Rangers demonstrating judo techniques as Pres. John F. Kennedy (right, foreground) inspected combat troops at Ft. Bragg, North Carolina, on Oct. 12, 1961
U.S.
soldiers
in
as they staged a
clothes brandishing pasteboard cudgels rebellion near U.S. army barracks in West
civilian
mock
Berlin to test the efficiency of
combat troops
in
dispersing riots
le/.t) Bob Cornel for Life, (top right) United Press International, (centre left) Ralph Morse Life, (bottom London Daily Express from Pictorial Parade, (bottom left)
Photographs, (top
right)
Wide World
mm
—
ARMIES OF THE WORLD —
Communications. All highways and roads in Arkansas in 1961 totaled 78,519 mi., including 11,149 mi. of state highways and 56,018 mi. of county roads. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1961, total expenditures for highways and roads amounted to $59,602,890, including $42,678,000 in state and federal funds spent for construction. Railway mileage in the state (1961) included 3,950 mi. of main track line. There were 158 airports in the state. In 1961, 69 radio stations and 7 television stations were in operation. There were 346,967 telephones in use in 1961 (not including independent companies). There were 30 daily and 135 weekly newspapers. Education. A total of 424,206 students were enrolled in elementary and secondary schools in Arkansas in the 1959-60 school year. There were 253,026 students and 8,007 teachers in the 1,115 elementary schools and 171,180 students and 6,418 teachers in the 589 secondary schools. The total amount spent by the state during 1959-60 on education amounted to $101,877,018, including $77,288,133 in current expenditures. Manufacturing and Industry. The amount of unemployment benefits paid in Arkansas during the year ended June 30, 1961, was $15,822,060. There were 58,681 claimants during that period. For statistics on the principal industries of Arkansas, see Table II.
—
—
Table
Value added by manufacture
Salaries
and wages
All employees 1958
group
Industry
Total manufacturing
....
Food and kindred products lumber and wood products Pulp, paper and products Chemicals and products.
lin
88,266 14,290 21,160 5,190 4,309 2,308 3,419 6,907 2,896
OOOsI
lin
000s]
1958
1958
1957
$289,288
$575,970
$639,785
43,091
89,502 51,630 79,297 26,973 64,846 22,147 56,086 Primary metal industries. 13,636 34,827 Stone, clay and glass products 13,676 31,988 Furniture and fixtures 20,585 29,274 Eleclricol machinery 10,485 27,334 Petroleum and cool products. 1,581 8,888 21,313 Leather and leather goods 3,947 9,156 20,739 Textile mill products 2,215 5,895 10,919 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1958 Census of Manufactures, 1960. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
78,839 55,033 72,915 44,964 19,988 28,995 20,974 17,097 19,985 10,078
Congress voted $47,614,000,000 for the armed forces for
fiscal
1962, of which $11,996,000,000 was for the army. These sums
compared with $41,225,000,000 appropriated for the armed forces and $9,800,000,000 for the army in fiscal 1961. Strength, and Deployment. The army build-up included an
—
from the previously authorized 870.000 men
increase in strength
men
(actually below 860,000
by June
in early 1961). to
1,008,000
men
30, 1962. In addition, congress gave the president au-
many as 250,000 reservists for up to a year's September two national guard divisions, the 49th armoured of Texas and the 32nd infantry of Wisconsin, were called, along with 249 guard and reserve supporting units, a total of 73,000 men. Two additional national guard divisions, plus supporting units, were alerted. service. In
Army
its additional manpower included: (1) West Germany and its support units to strength by the addition of about 45,000 men; (2) shifting 1st and 2nd infantry divisions and the 2nd armoured division,
plans for use of
building the 7th full
the
based
—
Welfare and Related Programs. One penitentiary system with headquarters near Varner and four reformatories, each operating under a separate board, were maintained by the state, at a total cost for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1961, of $1,601,906. The penitentiary had an average of 2,112 prisoners during that period. (C. Co.) Public
subsided.
crisis
thority to call as
Principal Industries of Arkansas
II.
45
and emphasizing weapons modernization. Only after the Berlin situation began to reach critical proportions were major increases in army strength authorized. Even then there were indications from Defense Secretary Robert S. McNamara that a substantial part of the expansion would be cut back if the Berlin airlift
army
in
from
in the U.S.,
a recruit-training role to fully
combat-
ready status; (3) creation of a combat replacement pool which could be used for replacement of battle casualties, organized into another division or
two or abandoned
if
world conditions
Approximate Strength of Armies of the World* Table
Mineral Production of Arkansas
III.
1959
Quantity
Total* Borite Bauxite Clays
$140,594,000 339,000 3,097,000 1,828,000 17,048,000 782,000 2,406,000 441,000 3,482,000
Coal
Gypsum Mongonese
s
ore
18,000
Natural gas (000 cu. ft.) .. Natural gasoline (000 gal.) Petroleum (bbl.) Petroleum gases (000 gal.) Sand and gravel Stone Other minerols .
.
•Total has
t
been adjusted
.40,674,000 .
.
41,000 26,329,000 56,000 11,696,000 8,824,000
1,398,000 3,539,000 2,523,000
72,931,000 3,048,000 11,857,000 10,424,000 10,080,000
Quantity
Value
278,000 2,164,000 815,000 409,000 67,000
$155,039,000 2,578 000 20,469,000 2,456,000 3,116,000 208,000
55,451,000 35,000 28,953,000 73,000 8,192,000 10,939,000 ...
to eliminate duplication in the value of clays
and
6,599,000 2,148,000 80,200,000 3,735,000 10,262,000 13,555,000 10,969,000
elgium
Canada Denmark France
.... .... .
— The
Southeastern States (1956).
Soviet efforts to alter
Germany brought major changes in the and Warsaw pact nations during 1961. Similarly,
Communist aggression in Laos and South Vietnam, resulting in civil war and guerrilla action, influenced the budgets and make-up of the military forces not only of southeast Asian widespread
Republic.
Great Britain Greece .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
45.8
Norway
.
.
Portugal
.
.
56.0 52.8
Turkey . United States
Luxembourg Netherlands
232,000 200,000 105,000
.
50.5
2,000 90,000 20,000 60,000 375,000 1,000,000
27.8 183.0
41,000 20,000 250,000
7.5 5.4 18.5
0.3
11.6 3.1 9.1
8.4
Other European
19,900 34,400 10,000 200,000
Austria Finland Ireland
Spain
.
Czechoslovakia . German Democratic Republic .
Sweden
7.0 4.5 2.8 30.1
25,000 115,000 170,000
7.9 13.7
75,000
17.3
21,000 80,000 25,000 2,600,000 450,000 200,000 70,000 350,000
10.5 20.7
....
Switzerland Yugoslavia .
1.6
Pact 1 00,000 200,000 200,000 2,500,000
Hungary Poland
.
Rumania
.
U.S.S.R.
.
10.0 30.1
18.4
214.4
Far East Australia
Burma
.
.
.
.
Cambodia
.
. .
.
China (Peking) China (Taiwan) Indonesio
.
.
Jopan.
.
.
.
.
1
5.0
669.0 10.9 92.6 93.4 8.3
Korea, South Laos
New
.
.
....
Malaya
Zealand.
Philippines
.
.
Thailand. . Vietnam, North Vietnam, South .
.
. . . .
550,000 30,000 15,000 4,500 25,000 25,000
300,000 1 50,000
25.0 2.3 6.9 2.4
27.5 25.6 15.9 14.5
Middle East and Africa Afghanistan
....
Comeroun Congo, Rep. of the Ethiopia
Ghana Guinea India Iran
Iraq Israel
countries but also of the major powers. Probably the greatest in the
Italy
world tensions stem -
the status of Berlin and
changes occurred
000,000s)
(in
268,000
9.2 18.2 4.6
German Federal
Korea, North
Increasin
^ thp IMC World VlUMU. ming from
NATO
.
94,000 80,000 20,000 800,000
Warsaw
—
armies of
.
Bulgaria
Encyclopedia Britannica Films.
Army
Country
OOO.OOOsI
NATO
Albania
Mineral Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Arkansas in 1959 and 1960 whose value exceeded $100,000. Arkansas was first in barite output and bauxite (97% of the U.S. total); and third in bromine. The 7% decrease in coal output with a 10% decrease in value was the result of lower output from the state's underground mines. For the fourth consecutive year natural-gas production increased; in 1960 it was 47% more than in 1959. Arkansas ranked 26th in the value of its mineral output, with .87% of the U.S. total.
nf Ul
(in
stone.
fValue included with other minerals. Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Armip* nillllCO
Army
Country
1960
Value
Population
Population
(Short tons, except os noted)
Mineral
Jordan
43,000 1,400
37,000 28,000 7,000 2,000 500,000 200,000 70,000 50,000 40,000
U.S. army, where the inauguration of
a Democratic president after eight years of Republican rule brought alterations in defense policy that would have occurred,
even without the Berlin and southeast Asian crises. United States. After eight years of dwindling army budgets and strength, the Democratic administration announced plans to
in part,
—
bolster the nation's conventional forces. Initial steps, however, were largely confined to increasing antiguerrilla forces, improving
13.8 4.1
14.0 22.0 6.7 3.0
436.4 20.7 7.1 2.2 1.7 Latin
Argentina Bolivia Brazil
.
Chile
Colombia Costo Rica
90,000 2,000 85,000 21,000 32,000 1,200* 40,000 12,000 1
.... ....
Cubo Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvodor
o.C'j
20.0 3.5
66.3 7.3
14.4
Lebanon
.
.
.
Liberia
.
.
.
Libya
....
Morocco Nepal. Nigeria Pakistan
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Saudi Arabia
.
Sudan.
.
.
.
Tunisia
.
.
.
1
Arab Republic!
United
9,000 3,000 4,500 25,000 15,000 8,000 120,000 5,000 10,000 15,000 140,000
1.8
1.3 1.2
11.6 9.2
35.9 93.8 6.0
11.9 4.0 30.0
America
Guatemala Haiti
.
.
Honduras Mexico Nicaragua .
1.2
Panama
6.8 3.0 4.4 2.6
Paraguay
8,000 5,400 2,500 51,000 3,200 3,400* 9,100 32,000 3.000
. . . .
.
Peru
Uruguay. Venezuela
•Excluding paramilitary, security and irregular forces. to Syria's withdrawal from the U.A.R. in Sept. 1961.
.
15.000
.
tStolisfics JCivil
Guord.
3.8 3.5 1.9
34.6 1.5 1.1
1.8
10.9 2.9 7.4
are for period prior
ARMIES OF THE WORLD
46
of standardization in setup, facilitating both training and the
improved.
combat-ready status in the continental U.S. in late 1961 were three divisions and supporting units comprising the 101st and 82nd airthe strategic army corps (STRAC) borne and the 4th infantry divisions. The build-up would give Already
in
—
home comprising
the U.S. a fully combat-ready reserve at
and
divisions
supporting forces
full
—
ten
army, two ac-
six regular
tivated national guard and two marine corps divisions
—by early
1962.
In Europe, by late October, were the 3rd, 8th and 24th infanarmoured divisions, four armoured
try divisions, the 3rd and 4th
cavalry regiments and supporting tank, antiaircraft, missile and
The 45,000 reinforcements sent to Europe in the men to mechanize the infantry divisions by giving them M-113 and M-59 armoured personnel carriers. In addition, the army moved thousands of tanks and trucks and more than 100,000 tons of weapons and equipment to West Germany and France, together with maintenance troops. This would other units. fall
included 3,000
enable infantry divisions to be flown to Europe in case of emer-
gency and be ready for combat
in a
matter of days.
Italy.
The
7th infantry division and a missile
The 25th
in
command remained in Korea. Army deployment
infantry division remained in Hawaii.
was substantially unchanged. Kennedy's personal interest in improving the nation's paramilitary forces brought an increase in the army special force from about 2,000 to 5,000 men. A fourth special in other areas
John
Pres.
new
type, mechanized.
base including
Each would have
command and
There
terrains.
— infantry, armour, air-borne and common
a
division
reconnaissance, combat-
control,
and administrative-support
support
Three
elements.
brigade
headquarters would control the tactical operations of attached
maneuver battalions and other units. The various types of divisions would be constructed by combining different mixes of combat-maneuver battalion "building blocks" with the common division base. For example, an armoured division would have approximately equal tank and mechanized infantry battalions, while a mechanized division would have more mechanized infantry battalions. Battalions in a division could vary from 6 to 15, but a typical division was expected to total 15,000 men.
A
reorganization was announced in 1961 of the U.S.
army
engineer districts, which are responsible for military and
civil-
works construction. The number of
was cut from 31 to provide better use of engineering skills and reduce admindistricts
istrative costs.
Weapons and Equipment.
in
an infantry unit), the
1st cavalry division (actually
a
17 to
Three U.S. army battle groups, totaling 6.500 men, were Berlin, and a brigade-sized missile command, SETAF, was
and
tailoring of divisions to suit specific missions
would be four types of division
— Modernization
of the
considerable progress during 1961. Deliveries of the rifle,
army made new M-14
M-60 machine. gun, M-60
carrier
tank, M-113 armoured personnel and other basic weapons equipped large portions of the
deployed forces.
There were notable
F.
and equipment
The
fields.
results in the
—
development of new arms
especially in the missile and antimissile-missile
solid-fueled battlefield-support ballistic missile Per-
forces group, to have a strength of about 850
shing went through a series of successful tests, promising early
expanding the army's capability
operational
in
men, was activated, antiguerrilla and specialized
of
intelligence operations.
Because of the burden placed on available shipping to Europe as a result of the build-up of the 7th
army, the Pentagon ordered
Europe at government expense normal overseas tours of many-
the
use.
Objectives were met
Nike-Zeus antimissile
against Atlas
ICBM's
that the travel of dependents to
destroyed a Corporal
Hawk
army personnel from two
A
in
Earlier,
Europe and some other places were extended
S3%
of the
army
enlisted strength consisted of volunteers, but the trend toward a volunteer
mer and
army was reversed by heavier
fall.
draft calls in the
Enlistments in the women's
army
sum-
corps were at a
—Additional funds were provided
for field
maneuvers
under the Kennedy administration additions to the Eisenhower defense budget.
The increased
field
the
continuing tests to
exercises
featured
airlift
and air-borne war games, including movements of troops
Little
John and Honest John
sistorized
army accepted
for use a tran-
co-ordination system called battery integration and
radar display equipment
(BIRDIE J.
and distributes
It processes
information about aircraft to guided-missile batteries and coordinates Nike-Ajax and Nike-Hercules missile
fire.
to
aircraft in operation, with multiple missions including observation,
transport, target seeking
and casualty evacuation. First
quantity production of the Chinook helicopter, a transport type,
was ordered. Under
a ten-year
modernization program, the army
ports.
army's
—
In the fall it was announced that and most of the air force tactical air command would be merged into a new organization to be called the United States strike command. Headed by Gen. Paul D. Adams of the army, it would mesh at least three army divisions and supporting units with air force tactical fighters and
STRAC
troop-carrier planes
—
a
move
long urged
by army
porary headquarters were established at MacDill
leaders.
Tem-
air force base,
Tampa, Fla. The other major organizational change during 1961 was the announcement of the new ROAD reorganization of army division
—concept, designed
—
to replace the existing
pentomic division.
Actual implementation, while going forward elsewhere, was post-
poned
The
in
Europe because of the Berlin
free-
flight rockets.
expected to reduce the number of aircraft models
Organization and Structure.
Hawk
missile in flight. Previously the
ballistic
had intercepted the
Europe and the Pacific. A major element of the new administration's program was a 75% increase in strategic airlift forces, resulting in stepped-up procurement of long-range military trans-
the army's
be fired
capability of the
In 1961 the army had about 5,600 fixed-wing and helicopter
higher rate than in 1960. Training.
The
early 1962.
In the air defense sector, the
to three years to stabilize units.
mid-year appraisal showed that more than
in
which was
guided missile was displayed when the weapon intercepted and
be stopped on Oct.
9.
in
missile,
crisis.
reorganization was designed to provide a higher degree
while increasing
army
in
service
aircraft to about 8.000.
Development projects announced during the year included the first mobile radar set for ground surveillance in combat; a new antitank rocket grenade fired from its own disposable packing container; a versatile means to permit rapid detection of parasites in the blood or tissues; and an all-purpose survival food packet for use in any part of the world. Army research, development, test and evaluation funds were earmarked for speeding the Advent global space communications project and the Mauler surface-to-air tactical air defense missile system.
Weapons and equipment procurement
appropriations for the
army, which for several years were about $1,500,000,000 or less, were increased to about $2,500,000,000. NATO. The build-up in U.S. forces in Europe was accom-
—
panied by an urgent U.S. proposal asking increase their committed forces to full
action was encouraging but spotty.
Some
NATO
war
members to The redid more than
strength.
nations
expected and a few proportionately met or exceeded the U.S.
ARMIES OF THE WORLD contribution. Others, because of economic, political or other situa-
home, made only minor additions.
tions at
Great
Britain.
— British
defense policy remained essentially
unchanged during 1961. Having abandoned plans an independent nuclear power, the U.K. expected U.S.
replace
to
its
nuclear strike
capability,
to continue as to rely
represented
R.A.F. atomic bombers, with Skybolt air-launched siles.
These were scheduled
ballistic
its
army, under the five-year plan
19S7 whereby conscripts would be replaced by
in
an all-volunteer professional force. The draft ended in 1960
would be released by the end of 1962. However, willingness to resume conscription if the situation warranted was indicated by the government in late 1961. British army strength was estimated at approximately 200,000 men, down about 10% from 1960, and was expected to reach 165,000 in 1962. This resulted in some amalgamation of regiments and elimination of divisions. Many regiments had only one and
all
British
NATO— was
army
of the Rhine
— the
U.K.'s commitment to
officially listed as three divisions,
but actually con-
sisted of seven brigade groups plus supporting units (about 2^
Many
During would be still short of the 55,000-man increased to about 52.000 men commitment. Reinforcements included two antiaircraft battalions, some fighter aircraft and support units. Already in West Germany were five infantry and two armoured brigade groups, plus corps and army supporting troops which included Corporal missile regiments and Honest John and eight-inch howitzer regiments with both atomic and conventional capability. Britain also announced formation of a strategic reserve division at home, from among two brigade groups already there divisions).
the early
fall
units were below peacetime strength.
London announced
that the B.A.O.R.
—
the
back of a Bell Aerosystems' enfllneer and covered distances up to 300 ft. at 20 m.p.h. during tests conducted in 1961. The experimental rocket, which operates on a twin-jet hydrogen peroxide propulsion system, was developed for the U.S. army as a possible device for transporting troops to otherwise inaccessible spots Pictorial Parade
to the
received $1,419,-
year.
in
from 120,000 to 135,000 men. Twothirds of Canada's military forces were in the army. The government also announced that 1,100 troops would be sent to West Germany to bring the 5,500-man Canadian brigade group already its
armed
forces strength
there to full strength.
France.
— The Algerian problem continued
to
dominate French
military planning and politics during 1961, but Pres. Charles
Gaulle was authoritatively stated to have pledged
full
De
French
military participation in case fighting broke out over Berlin. Dur-
De Gaulle withdrew two divisions from Algeria and stationed them in eastern France, earmarked for NATO. In mid-October they were said to be in the process of reorganization from the light, divisional organization needed for the Algerian civil war into heavy division form. Five French divisions remained in Algeria, according to U.S. military sources, and there was another French division at home, a reserve unit called up during the April disorders. There were 1,500 French troops in West Berlin. ing 1961 President
President De Gaulle ordered a major reorganization of the French army during 1961, apparently aimed at eliminating opposition to his Algerian policy and assuring the army's loyalty. While there was some question about the stability of the French army and the government, U.S. officials believed both would
back NATO in any showdown over Berlin. France held an atomic test in the Sahara during 1961 its third in two years and indicated that it would be the last above ground. Over-all French military expenditures continued at about
—
—
$3,500,000,000 annually, and
FREE-FLIGHT ROCKET, strapped who rose to heights of 15—30 ft.
The army
—an increase over previous Canada. —The Ottawa government announced an increase
320,000
conscripts
battalion.
The
defense, a slight increase over 1960.
by
mis-
to be ready in the mid-1960s.
Britain continued to reduce
announced
on the
47
and some forces being brought home from the middle east. A British brigade group in the far east included commonwealth forces. The U.K. budget for 1961 provided $4,635,680,000 for
army
strength remained at about
800,000 men.
West Germany.
—
The West German armed forces continued and provided a major portion of NATO strength in central Europe. Bonn announced in early October that its armed forces would be increased beyond the 350,000-man limit their build-up
as a result of the Berlin crisis.
German
The planned
final strength
of the
had been 350,000, including 220,000 in the army based at 80% of war strength. By retaining 30,000 one-year draftees and 6,000 regulars for about three months, West German armed strength would reach 360,500 men, including 232,300 in the
iorces
army. West Germany had committed eight divisions to
NATO— four
armoured infantry, two armoured, one air-bome and one mountain. Four armoured infantry divisions were being organized and trained for NATO commitment. One was expected to
be ready about the end of Dec. 1961 and the others at three-
or four-month intervals thereafter.
The West German army adopted was becoming
mand
common
to
NATO
the brigade organization that
armies, providing a battle com-
suited for either conventional or atomic warfare.
the shortage of training areas in
pied to capacity by
NATO
To meet
West Germany, already occu-
troops, both France
and Great Britain
German troops to train on their territory. U.S.S.R. The Soviet Union abandoned the announced
permitted
—
cut-
armed forces and instead expanded them during the Berlin crisis. The planned reduction announced in 1960 was estimated to have been about half completed when the move was reversed, and Soviet armed forces probably reached a low of about 3,000,000 men, about 2,200,000 of them in the army. back
in its
Authoritative western sources in October estimated the
•it,
t
army at 2,225,000 men. There were about 20 divisions in East Germany 10 tank Oldse> r r mobile and Pontiac pinned much of their hope for continued >
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